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diff --git a/41538.txt b/41538.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e3c2e44..0000000 --- a/41538.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16104 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Progress of Invention in the Nineteenth -Century., by Edward W. Byrn - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Progress of Invention in the Nineteenth Century. - -Author: Edward W. Byrn - -Release Date: December 2, 2012 [EBook #41538] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROGRESS OF INVENTION *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lame and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - Transcriber's notes: - - Text pinted in italics in the original work has been transcribed as - _text_, bold text as =text=. Text printed in small capitals in the - original work has been transcribed in ALL-CAPITALS. Superscript texts - are transcribed as ^{text}. - - Greek texts have been transcribed as [Greek: text]. Where the original - work uses an oe-ligature, this text uses oe (as in Phoenix). In the - advertisements, [-->] represents a right-pointing hand. - - More Transcriber's notes have been added at the end of the text. - - - - -[Illustration: STEAM AND ELECTRICITY. - -The 70,000 Horse-Power Station of the Metropolitan Street Railway, New -York.] - - - - - THE PROGRESS - OF - INVENTION - IN THE - NINETEENTH CENTURY - - - BY - - EDWARD W. BYRN, A.M. - - - [Greek: "Dhos pou stho, kahi tehn ghen kinheso."] - (Give me where to stand, and I'll move the earth.) - --_Archimedes._ - - - MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS - - SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE - 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK - - 1900 - - - - - COPYRIGHTED, 1900, BY MUNN & CO. - - - ENTERED AT STATIONER'S HALL - LONDON, ENGLAND - - - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED - - - Printed in the United States of America by - The Manufacturers' and Publishers' Printing Company, - New York City. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -For a work of such scope as this, the first word of the author should be -an apology for what is doubtless the too ambitious effort of a single -writer. A quarter of a century in the high tide of the arts and -sciences, an ardent interest in all things that make for scientific -progress, and the aid and encouragement of many friends in and about the -Patent Office, furnish the explanation. The work cannot claim the -authority of a text-book, the fullness of a history, nor the exactness -of a technical treatise. It is simply a cursory view of the century in -the field of invention, intended to present the broader bird's-eye view -of progress achieved. In substantiation of the main facts reliance has -been placed chiefly upon patents, which for historic development are -believed to be the best of all authorities, because they carry the -responsibility of the National Government as to dates, and the attested -signature and oath of the inventor as to subject matter. Many -difficulties and embarrassments have been encountered in the work. The -fear of extending it into a too bulky volume has excluded treatment of -many subjects which the author recognizes as important, and issues in -dispute as to the claims of inventors have also presented themselves in -perplexing conflict. A discussion of the latter has been avoided as far -as possible, the paramount object being to do justice to all the worthy -workers in this field, with favor to none, and only expressing such -conclusions as seem to be justified by authenticated facts and the -impartial verdict of reason in the clearing atmosphere of time. For sins -of omission a lack of space affords a reasonable excuse, and for those -of commission the great scope of the work is pleaded in extenuation. It -is hoped, however, that the volume may find an accepted place in the -literature of the day, as presenting in compact form some comprehensive -and coherent idea of the great things in invention which the Nineteenth -Century has added to the world's wealth of ideas and material resources. - -In acknowledging the many obligations to friends who have aided me in -the work, my thanks are due first to the Editors of the _Scientific -American_ for aid rendered in the preparation of the work; also to -courteous officials in the Government Departments, and to many -progressive manufacturers throughout the country. - - E. W. B. - -_Washington, D. C., October, 1900._ - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE PERSPECTIVE VIEW. - - - CHAPTER II. - - CHRONOLOGY OF LEADING INVENTIONS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. - - The Voltaic Pile. Daniell's Battery. Use of Conducting Wire by Weber. - Steinheil Employs Earth as Return Circuit. Prof. Henry's Electro- - Magnet, and First Telegraphic Experiment. Prof. Morse's Telegraphic - Code and Register. First Line Between Washington and Baltimore. Bain's - Chemical Telegraph. Gintl's Duplex Telegraph. Edison's Quadruplex. - House's Printing Telegraph. Fac Simile Telegraphs. Channing and Farmer - Fire Alarm. Telegraphing by Induction. Wireless Telegraphy by Marconi. - Statistics. - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE ATLANTIC CABLE. - - Difficulties of Laying. Congratulatory Messages Between Queen Victoria - and President Buchanan. The Siphon Recorder. Statistics. - - - CHAPTER V. - - THE DYNAMO AND ITS APPLICATIONS. - - Observations of Faraday and Henry. Magneto-Electric Machines of Pixii, - and of Saxton. Hjorth's Dynamo of 1855. Wilde's Machine of 1866. - Siemens' of 1867. Gramme's of 1870. Tesla's Polyphase Currents. - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE ELECTRIC MOTOR. - - Barlow's Spur Wheel. Dal Negro's Electric Pendulum. Prof. Henry's - Electric Motor. Jacobi's Electric Boat. Davenport's Motor. The Neff - Motor. Dr. Page's Electric Locomotive. Dr. Siemens' First Electric - Railway at Berlin, 1879. First Electric Railway in United States, - between Baltimore and Hampden, 1885. Third Rail System. Statistics. - Electric Railways, and General Electric Company. Distribution - Electric Current in Principal Cities. - - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. - - Voltaic Arc by Sir Humphrey Davy. The Jablochkoff Candle. Patents of - Brush, Weston, and Others. Search Lights. Grove's First Incandescent - Lamp. Starr-King Lamp. Moses Farmer Lights First Dwelling with - Electric Lamps. Sawyer-Man Lamp. Edison's Incandescent Lamp. Edison's - Three-Wire System of Circuits. Statistics. - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE TELEPHONE. - - Preliminary Suggestions and Experiments of Bourseul, Reis, and - Drawbaugh. First Speaking Telephone by Prof. Bell. Differences between - Reis' and Bell's Telephones. The Blake Transmitter. Berliner's - Variation of Resistance and Electric Undulations, by Variation of - Pressure. Edison's Carbon Microphone. The Telephone Exchange. - Statistics. - - - CHAPTER IX. - - ELECTRICITY, MISCELLANEOUS. - - Storage Battery. Batteries of Plante, Faure and Brush. Electric - Welding. Direct Generation of Electricity by Combustion. Electric - Boats. Electro-Plating. Edison's Electric Pen. Electricity in - Medicine. Electric Cautery. Electric Musical Instruments. Electric - Blasting. - - - CHAPTER X. - - THE STEAM ENGINE. - - Hero's Engine, and Other Early Steam Engines. Watt's Steam Engine. The - Cut-Off. Giffard Injector. Bourdon's Steam Gauge. Feed Water Heaters, - Smoke Consumers, etc. Rotary Engines. Steam Hammer. Steam Fire Engine. - Compound Engines. Schlick and Taylor Systems of Balancing Momentum of - Moving Parts. Statistics. - - - CHAPTER XI. - - THE STEAM RAILWAY. - - Trevithick's Steam Carriage. Blenkinsop's Locomotive. Hedley's - "Puffing Billy." Stephenson's Locomotive. The Link Motion. Stockton - and Darlington Railway, 1825. Hackworth's "Royal George." The - "Stourbridge Lion" and "John Bull." Baldwin's Locomotives. - Westinghouse Air Brakes. Janney Car Coupling. The Woodruff Sleeping - Car. Railway Statistics. - - - CHAPTER XII. - - STEAM NAVIGATION. - - Early Experiments. Symington's Boat. Col. John Stevens' Screw - Propeller. Robt. Fulton and the "Clermont." First Trip to Sea by - Stevens' "Phoenix." "Savannah," the First Steam Vessel to Cross the - Ocean. Ericsson's Screw Propeller. The "Great Eastern." The Whale Back - Steamers. Ocean Greyhounds. The "Oceanic," largest Steamship in the - World. The "Turbinia." Fulton's "Demologos," First War Vessel. The - Turret Monitor. Modern Battleships and Torpedo Boats. Holland - Submarine Boat. - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - PRINTING. - - Early Printing Press. Nicholson's Rotary Press. The Columbian and - Washington Presses. Koenig's Rotary Steam Press. The Hoe Type Revolving - Machine. Color Printing. Stereotyping. Paper Making. Wood Pulp. The - Linotype. Plate Printing. Lithography. - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - THE TYPEWRITER. - - Old English Typewriter of 1714. The Burt Typewriter of 1829. Progin's - French Machine of 1833. Thurber's Printing Machine of 1843. The Beach - Typewriter. The Sholes Typewriter, the First of the Modern Form, - Commercially Developed into the Remington. The Caligraph, Smith- - Premier, and Others. - - - CHAPTER XV. - - THE SEWING MACHINE. - - Embroidery Machine the Forerunner of the Sewing Machine. Sewing - Machine of Thomas Saint. The Thimonnier Wooden Machine. Greenough's - Double-Pointed Needle. Bean's Stationary Needle. The Howe Sewing - Machine. Bachelder's Continuous Feed. Improvements of Singer. Wilson's - Rotary Hook, and Four-Motion Feed. The McKay Shoe Sewing Machine. - Button Hole Machines. Carpet Sewing Machine. Statistics. - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - THE REAPER. - - Early English Machines. Machine of Patrick Bell. The Hussey Reaper. - McCormick's Reaper and Its Great Success. Rivalry Between the Two - American Reapers. Self Rakers. Automatic Binders. Combined Steam - Reaper and Threshing Machine. Great Wheat Fields of the West. - Statistics. - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - VULCANIZED RUBBER. - - Early Use of Caoutchouc by the Indians. Collection of the Gum. Early - Experiments Failures. Goodyear's Persistent Experiments. Nathaniel - Hayward's Application of Sulphur to the Gum. Goodyear's Process of - Vulcanization. Introduction of his Process into Europe. Trials and - Imprisonment for Debt. Rubber Shoe Industry. Great Extent and Variety - of Applications. Statistics. - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - CHEMISTRY. - - Its Evolution as a Science. The Coal Tar Products. Fermenting and - Brewing. Glucose, Gun Cotton, and Nitro-Glycerine. Electro-Chemistry. - Fertilizers and Commercial Products. New Elements of the Nineteenth - Century. - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - FOOD AND DRINK. - - The Nature of Food. The Roller Mill. The Middlings Purifier. Culinary - Utensils. Bread Machinery. Dairy Appliances. Centrifugal Milk Skimmer. - The Canning Industry. Sterilization. Butchering and Dressing Meats. - Oleomargarine. Manufacture of Sugar. The Vacuum Pan. Centrifugal - Filter. Modern Dietetics and Patented Foods. - - - CHAPTER XX. - - MEDICINE, SURGERY AND SANITATION. - - Discovery of Circulation of the Blood by Harvey. Vaccination by - Jenner. Use of Anaesthetics the Great Step of Medical Progress of the - Century. Materia Medica. Instruments. Schools of Medicine. Dentistry. - Artificial Limbs. Digestion. Bacteriology, and Disease Germs. - Antiseptic Surgery. House Sanitation. - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - THE BICYCLE AND AUTOMOBILE. - - The Draisine, 1816. Michaux's Bicycle, 1855. United States Patent to - Lallement and Carrol, 1866. Transition from "Vertical Fork" and "Star" - to Modern "Safety." Pneumatic Tire. Automobile the Prototype of the - Locomotive. Trevithick's Steam Road Carriage, 1801. The Locomobile of - To-day. Gas Engine Automobiles of Pinkus, 1839; Selden, 1879; Duryea, - Winton, and Others. Electric Automobiles a Development of Electric - Locomotives as Early as 1836. Grounelle's Electric Automobile of 1852. - The Columbia, Woods, and Riker Electric Carriages. Statistics. - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - THE PHONOGRAPH. - - Invention of Phonograph by Edison. Scott's Phonautograph. Improvements - of Bell and Tainter. The Graphophone. Library of Wax Cylinders. - Berliner's Gramophone. - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - OPTICS. - - Early Telescopes. The Lick Telescope. The Grande Lunette. The Stereo- - Binocular Field Glass. The Microscope. The Spectroscope. Polarization - of Light. Kaleidoscope. Stereoscope. Range Finder. Kinetoscope, and - Moving Pictures. - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - PHOTOGRAPHY. - - Experiments of Wedgewood and Davy. Niepce's Heliography. Daguerre and - the Daguerreotype. Fox Talbot Makes First Proofs from Negatives. Sir - John Herschel Introduces Glass Plates. The Collodion Process. Silver and - Carbon Prints. Ambrotypes. Emulsions. Dry Plates. The Kodak Camera. The - Platinotype. Photography in Colors. Panorama Cameras. Photo-engraving - and Photo-lithography. Half Tone Printing. - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - THE ROENTGEN OR X-RAYS. - - Geissler Tubes. Vacuum Tubes of Crookes, Hittorf, and Lenard. The - Cathode Ray. Roentgen's Great Discovery in 1895. X-Ray Apparatus. - Salvioni's Cryptoscope. Edison's Fluoroscope. The Fluorometer. Sun- - burn from X-Rays. Uses of X-Rays. - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - GAS LIGHTING. - - Early Use of Natural Gas. Coal Gas Introduced by Murdoch. Winsor - Organizes First Gas Company in 1804. Melville in United States Lights - Beaver-Tail Lighthouse with Gas in 1817. Lowe's Process of Making - Water Gas. Acetylene Gas. Carburetted Air. Pintsch Gas. Gas Meter. - Otto Gas Engine. The Welsbach Burner. - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - CIVIL ENGINEERING. - - Great Bridges, Pneumatic Caissons, Tunnels. The Beach Tunnel Shield. - Suez Canal. Dredges. The Lidgerwood Cable Ways. Canal Locks. Artesian - Wells. Compressed-Air Rock Drills. Blasting. Mississippi Jetties. Iron - and Steel Buildings. Eiffel Tower. Washington's Monument. The United - States Capitol. - - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - - WOODWORKING. - - Early Machines of Sir Samuel Bentham. Evolution of the Saw. Circular - Saw. Hammering to Tension. Steam Feed for Saw Mill Carriage. Quarter - Sawing. The Band Saw. Planing Machines. The Woodworth Planer. The - Woodbury Yielding Pressure Bar. The Universal Woodworker. The - Blanchard Lathe. Mortising Machines. Special Woodworking Machines. - - - CHAPTER XXIX. - - METAL WORKING. - - Early Iron Furnace. Operations of Lord Dudley, Abraham Darby, and - Henry Cort. Neilson's Hot Blast. Great Blast Furnaces of Modern Times. - The Puddling Furnace. Bessemer Steel and the Converter. Open Hearth - Steel. Regenerative Furnace. Siemens-Martin Process. Forging Armor - Plate. Making Horse Shoes. Screws and Special Machines. Electric - Welding, Annealing and Tempering. Coating with Metal. Metal Founding. - Barbed Wire Machines. Making Nails, Pins, etc. Making Shot. Alloys. - Making Aluminum, and Metallurgy of Rarer Metals. The Cyanide Process. - Electric Concentrator. - - - CHAPTER XXX. - - FIRE ARMS AND EXPLOSIVES. - - The Cannon, the Most Ancient of Fire Arms. Muzzle and Breech Loaders - of the Sixteenth Century. The Armstrong Gun. The Rodman, Dahlgren, and - Parrott Guns. Breech-Loading Ordnance. Rapid Fire Breech-Loading - Rifles. Disappearing Gun. Gatling Gun. Dynamite Gun. The Colt, and - Smith & Wesson Revolvers. German Automatic Pistol. Breech-Loading - Small Arms. Magazine Guns. The Lee, Krag-Jorgensen, and Mauser Rifles. - Hammerless Guns. Rebounding Locks. Gun Cotton. Nitro Glycerine, and - Smokeless Powder. Mines and Torpedoes. - - - CHAPTER XXXI. - - TEXTILES. - - Spinning and Weaving an Ancient Art. Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny. - Arkwright's Roll-Drawing Spinning Machine. Crompton's Mule Spinner. - The Cotton Gin. Ring Spinning. The Rabbeth Spindle. John Kay's Flying - Shuttle and Robt. Kay's Drop Box. Cartwright's Power Loom. The - Jacquard Loom. Crompton's Fancy Loom. Bigelow's Carpet Looms. Lyall - Positive Motion Loom. Knitting Machines. Cloth Pressing Machinery. - Artificial Silk. Mercerized Cloth. - - - CHAPTER XXXII. - - ICE MACHINES. - - General Principles. Freezing Mixtures. Perkins' Ice Machine, 1834. - Pictet's Apparatus. Carre's Ammonia Absorption Process. Direct - Compression, and Can System. The Holden Ice Machine. Skating Rinks. - Windhausen's Apparatus for Cooling and Ventilating Ships. - - - CHAPTER XXXIII. - - LIQUID AIR. - - Liquefaction of Gases by Northmore--1805, Faraday--1823, Bussy--1824, - Thilorier--1834, and others. Liquefaction of Oxygen, Nitrogen and Air, - by Pictet and Cailletet in 1877. Self-Intensification of Cold by - Siemens in 1857, and Windhausen in 1870. Operations of Dewar, - Wroblewski, and Olszewski. Self-Intensifying Processes of Solvay, - Tripler, Linde, Hampson, and Ostergren and Berger. Liquid Air - Experiments and Uses. - - - CHAPTER XXXIV. - - MINOR INVENTIONS, - - AND - - Patents of Principal Countries of the World. - - - CHAPTER XXXV. - - EPILOGUE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE PERSPECTIVE VIEW. - - -Standing on the threshold of the Twentieth Century, and looking back a -hundred years, the Nineteenth Century presents in the field of invention -a magnificent museum of thoughts crystallized and made immortal, not as -passive gems of nature, but as potent, active, useful agencies of man. -The philosophical mind is ever accustomed to regard all stages of growth -as proceeding by slow and uniform processes of evolution, but in the -field of invention the Nineteenth Century has been unique. It has been -something more than a merely normal growth or natural development. It -has been a gigantic tidal wave of human ingenuity and resource, so -stupendous in its magnitude, so complex in its diversity, so profound in -its thought, so fruitful in its wealth, so beneficent in its results, -that the mind is strained and embarrassed in its effort to expand to a -full appreciation of it. Indeed, the period seems a grand climax of -discovery, rather than an increment of growth. It has been a splendid, -brilliant campaign of brains and energy, rising to the highest -achievement amid the most fertile resources, and conducted by the -strongest and best equipment of modern thought and modern strength. - -The great works of the ancients are in the main mere monuments of the -patient manual labor of myriads of workers, and can only rank with the -buildings of the diatom and coral insect. Not so with modern -achievement. The last century has been peculiarly an age of ideas and -conservation of energy, materialized in practical embodiment as -labor-saving inventions, often the product of a single mind, and -partaking of the sacred quality of creation. - -The old word of creation is, that God breathed into the clay the breath -of life. In the new world of invention mind has breathed into matter, -and a new and expanding creation unfolds itself. The speculative -philosophy of the past is but a too empty consolation for short-lived, -busy man, and, seeing with the eye of science the possibilities of -matter, he has touched it with the divine breath of thought and made a -new world. - -When the Nineteenth Century registered its advent in history, the world -of invention was a babe still in its swaddling clothes, but, with a -consciousness of coming power, was beginning to stretch its strong -young arms into the tremendous energy of its life. James Watt had -invented the steam engine. Eli Whitney had given us the cotton gin. John -Gutenberg had made his printing type. Franklin had set up his press. The -telescope had suggested the possibilities of ethereal space, the compass -was already the mariner's best friend, and gunpowder had given proof of -its deadly agency, but inventive genius was still groping by the light -of a tallow candle. Even up to the beginning of this century so strong a -hold had superstition on the human mind, that inventions were almost -synonymous with the black arts, and the struggling genius had not only -to contend with the natural laws and the thousand and one expected -difficulties that hedge the path of the inventor, but had also to -overcome the far greater obstacles of ignorant fear and bigoted -prejudice. A labor-saving machine was looked upon askance as the enemy -of the working man, and many an earnest inventor, after years of arduous -thought and painstaking labor, saw his cherished model broken up and his -hopes forever blasted by the animosity of his fellow men. But with the -Nineteenth Century a new era has dawned. The legitimate results of -inventions have been realized in larger incomes, shorter hours of labor, -and lives so much richer in health, comfort, happiness, and usefulness, -that to-day the inventor is a benefactor whom the world delights to -honor. So crowded is the busy life of modern civilization with the -evidences of his work, that it is impossible to open one's eyes without -seeing it on every hand, woven into the very fabric of daily existence. -It is easy to lose sight of the wonderful when once familiar with it, -and we usually fail to give the full measure of positive appreciation to -the great things of this great age. They burst upon our vision at first -like flashing meteors; we marvel at them for a little while, and then we -accept them as facts, which soon become so commonplace and so fused into -the common life as to be only noticed by their omission. - -To appreciate them let us briefly contrast the conditions of to-day with -those of a hundred years ago. This is no easy task, for the comparison -not only involves the experiences of two generations, but it is like the -juxtaposition of a star with the noonday sun, whose superior brilliancy -obliterates the lesser light. But reverse the wheels of progress, and -let us make a quick run of one hundred years into the past, and what are -our experiences? Before we get to our destination we find the wheels -themselves beginning to thump and jolt, and the passage becomes more -difficult, more uncomfortable, and so much slower. We are no longer -gliding along in a luxurious palace car behind a magnificent locomotive, -traveling on steel rails, at sixty miles an hour, but we find ourselves -nearing the beginning of the Nineteenth Century in a rickety, rumbling, -dusty stage-coach. Pause! and consider the change for a moment in some -of its broader aspects. First, let us examine the present more closely, -for the average busy man, never looking behind him for comparisons, does -not fully appreciate or estimate at its real value the age in which he -lives. There are to-day (statistics of 1898), 445,064 miles of railway -tracks in the world. This would build seventeen different railway -tracks, of two rails each, around the entire world, or would girdle -mother earth with thirty-four belts of steel. If extended in straight -lines, it would build a track of two rails to the moon, and more than a -hundred thousand miles beyond it. The United States has nearly half of -the entire mileage of the world, and gets along with 36,746 locomotives, -nearly as many passenger coaches, and more than a million and a quarter -of freight cars, which latter, if coupled together, would make nearly -three continuous trains reaching across the American continent from the -Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The movement of passenger trains is -equivalent to dispatching thirty-seven trains per day around the world, -and the freight train movement is in like manner equal to dispatching -fifty-three trains a day around the world. Add to this the railway -business controlled by other countries, and one gets some idea of how -far the stage-coach has been left behind. To-day we eat supper in one -city, and breakfast in another so many hundreds of miles east or west as -to be compelled to set our watches to the new meridian of longitude in -order to keep our engagement. But railroads and steam-cars constitute -only one of the stirring elements of modern civilization. As we make the -backward run of one hundred years we have passed by many milestones of -progress. Let us see if we can count some of them as they disappear -behind us. We quickly lose the telephone, phonograph and graphophone. We -no longer see the cable-cars or electric railways. The electric lights -have gone out. The telegraph disappears. The sewing machine, reaper, and -thresher have passed away, and so also have all india-rubber goods. We -no longer see any photographs, photo-engravings, photolithographs, or -snap-shot cameras. The wonderful octuple web perfecting printing press; -printing, pasting, cutting, folding, and counting newspapers at the rate -of 96,000 per hour, or 1,600 per minute, shrinks at the beginning of the -century into an insignificant prototype. We lose all planing and -wood-working machinery, and with it the endless variety of sashes, -doors, blinds, and furniture in unlimited variety. There are no -gas-engines, no passenger elevators, no asphalt pavement, no steam fire -engine, no triple-expansion steam engine, no Giffard injector, no -celluloid articles, no barbed wire fences, no time-locks for safes, no -self-binding harvesters, no oil nor gas wells, no ice machines nor cold -storage. We lose air engines, stem-winding watches, cash-registers and -cash-carriers, the great suspension bridges, and tunnels, the Suez -Canal, iron frame buildings, monitors and heavy ironclads, revolvers, -torpedoes, magazine guns and Gatling guns, linotype machines, all -practical typewriters, all pasteurizing, knowledge of microbes or -disease germs, and sanitary plumbing, water-gas, soda water fountains, -air brakes, coal-tar dyes and medicines, nitro-glycerine, dynamite and -guncotton, dynamo electric machines, aluminum ware, electric -locomotives, Bessemer steel with its wonderful developments, ocean -cables, enameled iron ware, Welsbach gas burners, electric storage -batteries, the cigarette machine, hydraulic dredges, the roller mills, -middlings purifiers and patent-process flour, tin can machines, car -couplings, compressed air drills, sleeping cars, the dynamite gun, the -McKay shoe machine, the circular knitting machine, the Jacquard loom, -wood pulp for paper, fire alarms, the use of anaesthetics in surgery, -oleomargarine, street sweepers, Artesian wells, friction matches, steam -hammers, electro-plating, nail machines, false teeth, artificial limbs -and eyes, the spectroscope, the Kinetoscope or moving pictures, -acetylene gas, X-ray apparatus, horseless carriages, and--but, enough! -the reader exclaims, and indeed it is not pleasant to contemplate the -loss. The negative conditions of that period extend into such an -appalling void that we stop short, shrinking from the thought of what it -would mean to modern civilization to eliminate from its life these -potent factors of its existence. - -Returning to the richness and fullness of the present life, we shall -first note chronologically the milestones and finger boards which mark -this great tramway of progress, and afterward consider separately the -more important factors of progress. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -CHRONOLOGY OF LEADING INVENTIONS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. - - -1800--Volta's Chemical Battery for producing Electricity. Louis Robert's -Machine for Making Continuous Webs of Paper. - -1801--Trevithick's Steam Coach (first automobile). Brunel's Mortising -Machine. Jacquard's Pattern Loom. First Fire Proof Safe by Richard -Scott. Columbium discovered by Hatchett. - -1802--Trevithick and Vivian's British patent for Running Coaches by -Steam. Charlotte Dundas (Steamboat) towed canal Boats on the Clyde. -Tantalum discovered by Ekeberg. First Photographic Experiments by -Wedgewood and Davy. Bramah's Planing Machine. - -1803--Carpue's Experiments on Therapeutic Application of Electricity. -Iridium and Osmium discovered by Tenant, and Cerium by Berzelius. Wm. -Horrocks applies Steam to the Loom. - -1804--Rhodium and Palladium discovered by Wollaston. First Steam Railway -and Locomotive by Richard Trevithick. Capt. John Stevens applies twin -Screw Propellers in Steam Navigation. Winsor takes British patent for -Illuminating Gas, lights Lyceum Theatre, and organizes First Gas -Company. Lucas' process making Malleable Iron Castings. - -1805--Life Preserver invented by John Edwards of London. Electro-plating -invented by Brugnatelli. - -1806--Jeandeau's Knitting Machine. - -1807--First practical Steamboat between New York and Albany (Fulton's -Clermont). Discovery of Potassium, Sodium and Boron by Davy. Forsyth's -Percussion Lock for Guns. - -1808--Barium, Strontium, and Calcium discovered by Davy. Polarization of -Light from Reflection by Malus. Voltaic arc discovered by Davy. - -1809--Sommering's Multi-wire Telegraphy. - -1810--System of Homoeopathy organized by Hahnemann. - -1811--Discovery of Metal Iodine by M. Courtois. Blenkinsop's Locomotive. -Colored Polarization of Light by Arago. Thornton and Hall's Breech -Loading Musket. - -1812--London the First City lighted by Gas. Ritter's Storage Battery. -Schilling proposes use of Electricity to blow up mines. Zamboni's Dry -Pile (prototype of dry battery). - -1813--Howard's British patent for Vacuum Pan for refining sugar. -Hedley's Locomotive "Puffing Billy." Introduction of Stereotyping in the -United States by David Bruce. - -1814--London Times printed by Koenig's rotary steam press. Stephenson's -First Locomotive. Demologos built by Fulton (the first steam war -vessel). Heliography by Niepce. Discovery of Cyanogen by Gay Lussac. The -Kaleidoscope invented by Sir David Brewster. - -1815--Safety Lamp by Sir Humphrey Davy. Seidlitz Powders invented. Gas -Meter by Clegg. - -1816--The "Draisine" Bicycle. Circular Knitting Machine by Brunel. - -1817--Discovery of Selenium by Berzelius, Cadmium by Stromeyer, and -Lithium by Arfvedson. Hunt's Pin Machine. - -1818--Brunel's patent Subterranean and Submarine tunnels. -Electro-Magnetism discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen. - -1819--American Steamer Savannah from New York first to cross Atlantic. -Laennec discovers Auscultation and invents Stethoscope. Blanchard's -Lathe for turning Irregular Forms. - -1820--Electro-Magnetic Multiplier by Schweigger. Discoveries in -Electro-magnetism by Ampere and Arago. Bohnenberg's Electroscope. -Discovery of Quinine by Pelletier and Caventou. Malam's Gas Meter. - -1821--Faraday converts Electric Current into Mechanical Motion. - -1822--Babbage Calculation Engine. - -1823--Liquefaction and Solidification of Gases by Faraday, and -foundation of ammonia absorption ice machine laid by him. Seebeck -discovers Thermo-electricity. Silicon discovered by Berzelius. - -1824--Discovery of metal Zirconium by Berzelius. Wright's Pin Machine. - -1825--First Passenger Railway in the world opened between Stockton and -Darlington. Sturgeon invents prototype of Electro Magnet. Beaumont's -discoveries in Digestion (Alexis San Martin 1825-32). - -1826--Discovery of Bromine by M. Balard. Barlow's Electrical Spur Wheel. -First Railroad in United States built near Quincy, Mass. - -1827--Aluminum reduced by Wohler. Ohm's Law of Electrical Resistance. -Hackworth's Improvements in Locomotive. Friction Matches by John -Walker. - -1828--Neilson's Hot Blast for Smelting Iron. Professor Henry invents the -Spool Electro Magnet. Tubular Locomotive Boiler by Seguin. First -Artificial production of organic compounds (urea) by Wohler. Thorium -discovered by Berzelius. Yttrium and Glucinum discovered by Wohler. -Nicol's prism for Polarized Light. Woodworth's wood planer. Spinning -Ring invented by John Thorp. - -1829--Becquerel's Double Fluid Galvanic Battery. George Stephenson's -Locomotive, "Rocket," takes prizes of Liverpool and Manchester Railway. -Importation of "Stourbridge Lion," the first locomotive to run in the -United States. Daguerreotype invented. Discovery of Magnesium by Bussey. - -1830--Vanadium discovered by Sefstroem. Abbe Dal Negro's Electrically -operated pendulum. Ericsson's Steam Fire Engine. - -1831--Faraday discovers Magnetic Induction. Professor Henry telegraphs -signals. Professor Henry invents his Electric Motor. Locomotive "John -Bull" put in service on Camden and Amboy R. R. Chloroform discovered by -Guthrie. McCormick first experiments with Reaper. - -1832--Professor Morse conceives the idea of Electric Telegraph. First -Magneto-Electric Machines by Saxton in United States and Pixii in -France. Sturgeon's Rotary Electric Motor. Baldwin's first locomotive, -"Old Ironsides," built. Link Motion for Locomotive Engine invented by -James. Chloral-hydrate discovered by Liebig. - -1833--Steam Whistle adopted by Stephenson. Hussey's Reaper patented. - -1834--Jacobi's Rotary Electric Motor. Henry Bessemer electro-plates lead -castings with copper. Faraday demonstrates relation of chemical and -electrical force. McCormick Reaper patented. Carbolic Acid discovered by -Runge. Perkins' Ice Machine. - -1835--Forbes proves the absence of heat in Moonlight. Burden's horse -shoe Machine. - -1836--The Daniell Constant Battery invented. Acetylene Gas produced by -Edmond Davy. Colt's Revolver. - -1837--Cooke and Wheatstone's British patent for Electric telegraph. -Steinheil discovered feasibility of using the earth for return section -of electric circuit. Davenport's Electric Motor. Spencer's experiments -in electrotyping. Galvanized Iron invented by Craufurd. - -1838--Professor Morse's French patent for Telegraph. Jacobi's -Galvano-plastic process for making Electrotype Printing Plates. -Reflecting Stereoscope by Wheatstone. Dry Gas Meter by Defries. - -1839--Wreck of Royal George blown up by Electro Blasting. Jacobi builds -first Electrically propelled Boat. Fox Talbot makes Photo Prints from -Negatives. Professors Draper and Morse make first Photographic -Portraits. Mungo Ponton applies Bichromate of Potash in Photography. -Goodyear discovers process of Vulcanizing Rubber. Lanthanum and Didymium -discovered by Mosander. Babbit Metal invented. - -1840--Professor Morse's United States patent for Electric Telegraph. -Professor Grove makes first Incandescent Electric Lamp. Celestial -Photography by Professor Draper. - -1841--Artesian well bored at Grenelle, Paris. Sickel's Steam Cut-off. -Talbotype Photos. M. Triger invents Pneumatic Caissons. - -1842--First production of Illuminating Gas from water (water gas) by M. -Selligue. Robt. Davidson builds Electric Locomotive. Nasmyth patents -Steam Hammer. - -1843--Joule's demonstration as to the Nature of Force. Erbium and -Terbium discovered by Mosander. The Thames Tunnel Opened. - -1844--First Telegraphic Message sent by Morse from Washington to -Baltimore. Application Nitrous Oxide Gas as an Anaesthetic by Dr. Wells. - -1845--Ruthenium discovered by Klaws. The Starr-King Incandescent -Electric Lamp. The Hoe Type Revolving Machine. - -1846--House's Printing Telegraph. Howe's Sewing Machine. Suez Canal -Started (fourteen years building). Crusell of St. Petersburgh invents -Electric Cautery. Use of Ether as Anaesthetic by Dr. Morton. Artificial -Legs. Discovery of Planet Neptune. Sloan patents Gimlet Pointed Screw. -Gun Cotton discovered by Schoenbein. - -1847--Chloroform introduced by Dr. Simpson. Nitro-Glycerine discovered -by Sobrero. Time-Locks invented by Savage. - -1848--Discovery of Satellites of Saturn by Lassell. Bain's Chemical -Telegraph. Bakewell's Fac-Simile Telegraph. - -1849--Bourdon's Pressure Gauge. Lenticular Stereoscope by Brewster. -Hibbert's Latch Needle for Knitting Machine. Corliss Engine. - -1850--First Submarine Cable--Dover to Calais. Collodion Process in -Photography. Mercerizing Cloth. American Machine-made Watches. - -1851--Dr. Page's Electric Locomotive. The Ruhmkorff Coil. Scott Archer's -Collodion Process in Photography. Seymour's Self-Raker for Harvesters. -Helmholtz invents Opthalmoscope. Maynard Breech Loading Rifle. - -1852--Channing and Farmer Fire Alarm Telegraph. Fox Talbot first uses -reticulated screen for Half Tone Printing. - -1853--Gintl's Duplex Telegraph invented. Electric Lamps devised by -Foucault and Duboscq. Watt and Burgess Soda Process for Making Wood -Pulp. - -1854--Wilson's Four Motion Feed for Sewing Machines. Melhuish invents -the Photographic Roll Films. Hermann's Diamond Drill. Smith and Wesson -Magazine Firearm (Foundation of the Winchester). - -1855--Bessemer Process of Making Steel. Hjorth invents Dynamo Electric -Machine. Ericsson's Air Engine. Niagara Suspension Bridge. Dr. J. M. -Taupenot invents Dry Plate Photography. The Michaux Bicycle. - -1856--Hughes Printing Telegraph. Alliance Magneto Electric Machine. -Woodruff Sleeping Car. First commercial Aniline Dyes by Perkins. Siemens -Regenerative Furnace. - -1857--Rogues' Gallery established in New York. Introduction of Iron -Floor Beams in building Cooper Institute. Siemens describes principle of -Self Intensification of Cold (now used in ice and liquid air machines). - -1858--Phelps Printing Telegraph invented. First Atlantic Cable Laid. -Paper pulp from Wood by Voelter. First use of Electric Light in Light -House at South Foreland. Giffard Steam Injector. Gardner patents first -Underground Cable Car System. - -1859--Discovery Coal Oil in United States. Moses G. Farmer subdivides -Electric Current through a number of Electric Lamps, and lights first -dwelling by Electricity. Great Eastern launched. Osborne perfects modern -process of Photolithography. Professors Kirchhoff and Bunsen map Solar -Spectrum, and establish Spectrum Analysis. - -1860--Rubidium and Caesium discovered by Bunsen. Gaston Plante's Storage -Battery. Reis' Crude Telephone. Thallium discovered by Crookes, and -Indium by Reich and Richter. Spencer and Henry Magazine Rifles. Carre's -Ammonia Absorption Ice Machine. - -1861--McKay Shoe Sewing Machine. Calcium Carbide produced by Wohler. -Col. Green invents Drive Well. Otis Passenger Elevator. First Barbed -Wire Fence. - -1862--Ericsson's Iron Clad Turret Monitor. Emulsions and improvements in -Dry Plate Photography by Russell and Sayce. The Gatling Gun. Timby's -Revolving Turret. - -1863--Schultz white gunpowder. - -1864--Nobel's Explosive Gelatine. Rubber Dental Plates. Cabin John -(Washington Aqueduct) Bridge finished (longest masonry span in the -world). - -1865--Louis Pasteur's work in Bacteriology begun. Martin's Process of -making Steel. - -1866--Wilde's Dynamo Electric Machine. Burleigh's Compressed Air Rock -Drill. Whitehead Torpedo. - -1867--Siemens' Dynamo Electric Machine. Dynamite Invented. Tilghman's -Sulphite Process for making Wood Pulp. - -1868--Brickill's Water Heater for Steam Fire Engines. Moncrieff's -Disappearing Gun Carriage. Oleomargarine invented by Mege. Sholes -Typewriter. - -1869--Suez Canal Opened. Pacific Railway Completed. First Westinghouse -Air-Brakes. - -1870--The Gramme Dynamo Electric Machine. Windhausen Refrigerating -Machines. Beleaguered Paris communicates with outer world through -Micro-Photographs. Hailer's Rebounding Gun Lock. Dittmar's Gunpowder. - -1871--Hoe's Web Perfecting Press set up in Office New York Tribune. The -Locke Grain Binder. Bridge Work in Dentistry. Mount Cenis Tunnel opened -for traffic. Phosphorus Bronze. Ingersoll Compressed Air Rock Drill. - -1872--Stearns perfects Duplex Telegraph. Westinghouse Improved automatic -Air Brake. Lyall Positive Motion Loom. - -1873--Janney Automatic Car Coupler. Oleomargarine patented in United -States by Mege. - -1874--Edison's Quadruplex Telegraph. Gorham's Twine Binder for -Harvesters. Barbed Wire Machines. St. Louis Bridge finished. - -1875--Lowe's patent for Water Gas (illuminating gas made from water). -Roller Mills and Middlings Purifier for making flour. Gallium discovered -by Boisbaudran. Pictet Ice Machine. Gamgee's Skating Rinks. First Cash -Carrier for Stores. - -1876--Alexander Graham Bell's Speaking Telephone. Hydraulic Dredges. -Cigarette Machinery. Photographing by Electric Light by Vander Weyde. -Edison's Electric Pen. Steam Feed for Saw Mill Carriages. Introduction -of Cable Cars by Hallidie. - -1877--Phonograph invented by Edison. Otto Gas Engine. Jablochkoff -Electric Candle. Sawyer-Man Electric Lamp. Berliner's Telephone -Transmitter of variable resistance (pat. Nov. 17, '91). Edison's Carbon -Microphone (pat. May 3, '92). Discovery of Satellites of Mars by -Professor Asaph Hall, and its so-called Canals by Schiaparelli. -Liquefaction of Oxygen, Nitrogen and Air by Pictet and Cailletet. - -1878--Development of Remington Typewriter. Edison invents Carbon -Filament for Incandescent Electric Lamp. Gelatino-Bromide Emulsions in -Photography. Ytterbium discovered by Marignac. Birkenhead Yielding -Spinning Spindle Bearing. Gessner Cloth Press. - -1879--Dr. Siemens' Electric Railway at Berlin. Mississippi Jetties -completed by Capt. Eads. Samarium discovered by Boisbaudran, Scandium by -Nilson, and Thulium by Cleve. The Lee Magazine Rifle. - -1880--Faure's Storage Battery. Eberth and Koch discover Bacillus of -Typhoid Fever, and Sternberg the Bacillus of Pneumonia. Edison's -Magnetic Ore Concentrator. Greener's Hammerless Gun. Rabbeth Spinning -Spindle patented. - -1881--Telegraphing by Induction by Wm. W. Smith. Blake Telephone -Transmitter. Reece Button Hole Machine. Rack-a-rock (explosive) -patented. - -1882--Bacillus of Tuberculosis identified by Koch, and Bacillus of -Hydrophobia by Pasteur. St. Gothard Tunnel opened for traffic. - -1883--Brooklyn Suspension Bridge Completed. - -1884--Antipyrene. Mergenthaler's first Linotype Printing Machine -invented. Bacillus of Cholera identified by Koch, Bacillus of Diphtheria -by Loeffler, and Bacillus of Lockjaw by Nicolaier. - -1885--Cowles' Process of Manufacturing Aluminum. First Electric Railway -in America installed between Baltimore and Hampden. Neodymium and -Praseodymium discovered by Welsbach. Welsbach Gas Burner invented. -Blowing up of Flood Rock, New York Harbor. "Bellite" produced by Lamm, -and "Melinite" by Turpin. - -1886--Graphophone invented. Electric Welding by Elihu Thomson. Gadolinum -discovered by Marignac, and Germanium by Winkler. - -1887--McArthur and Forrest's Cyanide Process of Obtaining Gold. Tesla's -System of Polyphase Currents. - -1888--Electrocution of Criminals adopted in New York State. Harvey's -Process of Annealing Armor Plate. De Laval's Rotary Steam Turbine. -"Kodak" Snap-Shot Camera. Lick Telescope. De Chardonnet's Process of -Making Artificial Silk. - -1889--Nickel Steel. Hall's Process of Making Aluminum. Dudley Dynamite -Gun. "Cordite" (Smokeless Powder) produced by Abel and Dewar. - -1890--Mergenthaler's Improved Linotype Machine. Photography in Colors. -The Great Forth Bridge finished. Krag-Jorgensen Magazine Rifle. - -1891--Parsons' Rotary Steam Turbine. The Northrup Loom. - -1892--The explosive "Indurite" invented by Professor Munroe. - -1893--Acheson's process for making Carborundum. The Yerkes Telescope. -Edison's Kinetoscope. Production of Calcium Carbide in Electric Furnace -by Willson. - -1894--Discovery of element Argon by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsey. -Thorite produced by Bawden. - -1895--X-Rays discovered and applied by Roentgen. Acetylene Gas from -Calcium Carbide by Willson. Krupp Armor Plate. Linde's Liquid air -apparatus. - -1896--Marconi's System of Wireless Telegraphy. Buffington-Crozier -Disappearing Gun. - -1897--Schlick's System of Balancing Marine Engines. Discovery of Krypton -by Ramsey and Travers. - -1898--Horry and Bradley's process of making Calcium Carbide. Discovery -of Neon and Metargon by Ramsey and Travers; Coronium by Nasini; Xenon by -Ramsey; Monium by Crookes, and Etherion by Brush. Mercerizing Cloth -under tension to render it Silky. - -1899--Marconi Telegraphs without wire across the English Channel. -Oceanic launched, the largest steamer ever built. - -1900--The Grande Lunette Telescope of Paris Exposition. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. - - THE VOLTAIC PILE--DANIELL'S BATTERY--USE OF CONDUCTING WIRE BY - WEBER--STEINHEIL EMPLOYS EARTH AS RETURN CIRCUIT--PROF. HENRY'S - ELECTRO MAGNET, AND FIRST TELEGRAPHIC EXPERIMENT--PROF. MORSE'S - TELEGRAPHIC CODE AND REGISTER--FIRST LINE BETWEEN WASHINGTON - AND BALTIMORE--BAIN'S CHEMICAL TELEGRAPH--GINTL'S DUPLEX - TELEGRAPH--EDISON'S QUADRUPLEX--HOUSE'S PRINTING TELEGRAPH--FAC - SIMILE TELEGRAPHS--CHANNING AND FARMER FIRE ALARM--TELEGRAPHING BY - INDUCTION--WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY BY MARCONI--STATISTICS. - - -In the effort to lengthen out the limited span of life into a greater -record of results, time becomes an object of economy. To save time is to -live long, and this in a pre-eminent degree is accomplished by the -telegraph. Of all the inventions which man has called into existence to -aid him in the fulfillment of his destiny, none so closely resembles man -himself in his dual quality of body and soul as the telegraph. It too -has a body and soul. We see the wire and the electro-magnet, but not the -vital principle which animates it. Without its subtile, pulsating, -intangible spirit, it is but dead matter. But vitalized with its -immortal soul it assumes the quality of animated existence, and through -its agency thought is extended beyond the limitations of time and space, -and flashes through air and sea around the world. Its moving principle -flows more silently than a summer's zephyr, and yet it rises at times to -an angry and deadly crash in the lightning stroke. At once powerful and -elusive, it remained for Professor Morse to capture this wild steed, -and, taming it, place it in the permanent service of man. On May 24, -1844, there went over the wires between Washington and Baltimore the -first message--"What hath God wrought?" This was both prayer and praise, -and no more lofty recognition of the divine power and beneficence could -have been made. It was indeed the work of God made manifest in the hands -of His children. - -Popular estimation has always credited Prof. Morse with the invention of -the telegraph, but to ascribe to him all the praise would do great -injustice to many other worthy workers in this field, some of whom are -regarded by the best judges to be entitled to equal praise. - -The practical telegraph as originally used is resolvable into four -essential elements, viz., the battery, the conducting wire, the -electro-magnet, and the receiving and transmitting instruments. - -The development of the battery began with Galvani in 1790, and Volta in -1800. Galvani discovered that a frog's legs would exhibit violent -muscular contraction when its exposed nerves were touched with one metal -and its muscles were touched with another metal, the two metals being -connected. The effect was due to an electric current generated and -acting with contractile effect on the muscles of the frog's legs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -From this phenomenon, the chemical action of acids upon metals and the -production of an electric current were observed, and the voltaic pile -was invented. This consisted of alternate discs of copper and zinc, -separated by layers of cloth steeped in an acidulated solution. This was -the invention of Volta. From this grew the Daniell battery, invented in -1836 by Prof. Daniell of London, quickly followed by those of Grove, -Smee, and others. These batteries were more constant or uniform in the -production of electricity, were free from odors, and did not require -frequent cleaning, as did the plates of the voltaic pile, which were -important results for telegraphic purposes. The Daniell battery in its -original form employed an acidulated solution of sulphate of copper in a -copper cell containing a porous cup, and a cylinder of amalgamated zinc -in the porous cup and surrounded by a weak acid solution. In the -illustration, which shows a slightly modified form, a cruciform rod of -zinc within a porous cup is surrounded by a copper cell, the whole being -enclosed within a glass jar. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--DANIELL'S BATTERY.] - -The second element of the telegraph--the conducting wire--was scarcely -an invention in itself, and the fact that electricity would act at a -distance through a metal conductor had been observed many years before -the Morse telegraph was invented. In 1823, however, Weber discovered -that a copper wire which he had carried over the houses and church -steeples of Goettingen from the observatory to the cabinet of Natural -Philosophy, required no special insulation. This was an important -observation in the practical construction of telegraph lines. One of -even greater importance, however, was that of Prof. Steinheil, of -Munich, who, in 1837, made the discovery of the practicability of using -the earth as one-half, or the return section, of the electric conductor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--PROF. HENRY'S INTENSITY MAGNET.] - -The third element of the telegraph is the electro-magnet. This, and its -arrangement as a relay in a local circuit, was a most important -invention, and contributed quite as much to the success of the telegraph -as did the inventions of Prof. Morse. It may be well to say that an -electro-magnet is a magnet which attracts an iron armature when an -electric current is sent through its coil of wire, and loses its -attractive force when the circuit is cut off, thereby rendering it -possible to produce mechanical effects at a distance through the agency -of electrical impulses only. For the electro-magnet the world is chiefly -indebted to Prof. Joseph Henry, formerly of Princeton, N. J., but later -of the Smithsonian Institution. In 1828 he invented the energetic modern -form of electro-magnet with silk covered wire wound in a series of -crossed layers to form a helix of multiple layers around a central soft -iron core, and in 1831 succeeded in making practical the production of -mechanical effects at a distance, by the tapping of a bell by a rod -deflected by one of his electro-magnets. This experiment may be -considered the pioneer step of the telegraph. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4. - -HENRY. - -STURGEON. -] - -Great as was the work of Prof. Henry, he must share the honors with a -number of prior inventors who made the electro-magnet possible. -Electro-magnetism, the underlying principle of the electro-magnet, was -first discovered in 1819 by Prof. Oersted, of Copenhagen. In 1820 -Schweigger added the multiplier. Arago in the same year discovered that -a steel rod was magnetized when placed across a wire carrying an -electric current, and that iron filings adhered to a wire carrying a -voltaic current and dropped off when the current was broken. M. Ampere -substituted a helix for the straight wire, and Sturgeon, of England, in -1825 made the real prototype of the electro-magnet by winding a piece of -bare copper wire in a single coil around a varnished and insulated iron -core of a horse shoe form, but the powerful and effective electro-magnet -of Prof. Henry is to-day an essential part of the telegraph, is in -universal use, and is the foundation of the entire electrical art. It is -unfortunate that Prof. Henry did not perpetuate the records of his -inventions in patents, to which he was opposed, for there is good reason -to believe that he was also the original inventor of the important -arrangement of the electro-magnet as a relay in local circuit, and other -features, which have been claimed by other parties upon more enduring -evidence, but perhaps with less right of priority. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--MORSE'S FIRST MODEL PENDULUM INSTRUMENT.] - -The fourth and great final addition to the telegraph which crowned it -with success was the Morse register and alphabetical code, the invention -of Prof. Samuel F. B. Morse, of Massachusetts. Prof. Morse's invention -was made in 1832, while on board ship returning from Europe. He set up -an experimental line in 1835, and got his French patent October 30, -1838, and his first United States patent June 20, 1840, No. 1647. In -1844 the United States Congress appropriated $30,000 to build a line -from Baltimore to Washington, and on May 24, 1844, the notable message, -"What Hath God wrought?" went over the wires. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--THE MORSE CODE.] - -Morse's first model, his pendulum instrument of 1837, is illustrated in -Fig. 5. A pendulum carrying a pencil was in constant contact with a -strip of paper drawn beneath the pencil. As long as inactive the pencil -made a straight line. The pendulum carried also an armature, and an -electro-magnet was placed near the armature. A current passed through -the magnet would draw the pendulum to one side. On being released the -pendulum would return, and in this way zigzag markings, as shown at 4 -and 5, would be produced on the strip of paper, which formed the -alphabet. A different alphabet, known as the Morse Code, was -subsequently adopted by Morse, and in 1844 the receiving register shown -at Fig. 7 was adopted, which finally assumed the form shown at Fig. 8. - -The alphabet consisted simply of an arrangement of dots and dashes in -varying sequence. The register is an apparatus operated by the combined -effects of a clock mechanism and electro-magnet. Under a roll, see Fig. -8, a ribbon of paper is drawn by the clockwork. A lever having an -armature on one end arranged over the poles of an electro-magnet, -carries on the other end a point or stylus. When an electric impulse is -sent over the line the electro-magnet attracts the armature, and the -stylus on the other end of the lever is brought into contact with the -paper strip, and makes an indented impression. A short impulse gives a -dot, and a long impulse holds the stylus against the paper long enough -to allow the clock mechanism to pull the paper under the stylus and make -a dash. By the manipulation of a key for closing the electric circuit -the short or long impulse may be sent, at the pleasure of the operator. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--MORSE RECEIVER.] - -This constituted the completed invention of the telegraph, and on -comparing the work of Profs. Henry and Morse, it is only fair to say -that Prof. Henry's contribution to the telegraph is still in active use, -while the Morse register has been practically abandoned, as no expert -telegrapher requires the visible evidence of the code, but all rely now -entirely upon the sound click of the electro-magnet placed in the local -circuit and known as a sounder, the varying time lengths of gaps between -the clicks serving every purpose of rapid and intelligent communication. -The invention of the telegraph has been claimed for Steinheil, of -Munich, and also for Cooke and Wheatstone, in England, but few will -deny that it is to Prof. Morse's indefatigable energy and inventive -skill, with the preliminary work of Prof. Henry, that the world to-day -owes its great gift of the electric telegraph, and with this gift the -world's great nervous forces have been brought into an intimate and -sensitive sympathy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--PERFECTED MORSE REGISTER.] - -Whenever an invention receives the advertisement of public approval and -commercial exploitation, the development of that invention along various -lines follows rapidly, and so when practical telegraphic communication -was solved by Henry, Morse, and others, further advances in various -directions were made. Efforts to increase the rapidity in sending -messages soon grew into practical success, and in 1848 _Bain's Chemical -Telegraph_ was brought out. (U. S. Pats. No. 5,957, Dec. 5, 1848, and -No. 6,328, April 17, 1849.) This employed perforated strips of paper to -effect automatic transmission by contact made through the perforations -in place of the key, while a chemically prepared paper at the opposite -end of the line was discolored by the electric impulses to form the -record. This was the pioneer of the automatic system which by later -improvements is able to send over a thousand words a minute. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--HOUSE PRINTING TELEGRAPH.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--STOCK BROKER'S "TICKER," WITH GLASS COVER -REMOVED.] - -In line with other efforts to increase the capacity of the wires, the -_duplex telegraph_ was invented by Dr. William Gintl, of Austria, in -1853, and was afterwards improved by Carl Frischen, of Hanover, and by -Joseph B. Stearns, of Boston, Mass, who in 1872 perfected the duplex (U. -S. Pats. No. 126,847, May 14, 1872, and No. 132,933, Nov. 12, 1872). -This system doubles the capacity of the telegraphic wire, and its -principle of action permits messages sent from the home station to the -distant station to have no effect on the home station, but full effect -on the distant station, so that the operators at the opposite ends of -the line may both telegraph over the same wire, at the same time, in -opposite directions. This system has been further enlarged by the -quadruplex system of Edison, which was brought out in 1874 (and -subsequently developed in U. S. Pat. No. 209,241, Oct. 22, 1878). This -enabled four messages to be sent over the same wire at the same time, -and is said to have increased the value of the Western Union wires -$15,000,000. - -In 1846 Royal C. House invented the _printing telegraph_, which printed -the message automatically on a strip of paper, something after the -manner of the typewriter (U. S. Pat. No. 4,464, April 18, 1846). The -ingenious mechanism involved in this was somewhat complicated, but its -results in printing the message plainly were very satisfactory. This was -the prototype of the familiar "_ticker_" of the stock broker's office, -seen in Figs. 10 and 11. In 1856 the Hughes printing telegraph was -brought out (U. S. Pat. No. 14,917, May 20, 1856), and in 1858 G. M. -Phelps combined the valuable features of the Hughes and House systems -(U. S. Pat. No. 26,003, Nov. 1, 1859). - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--RECEIVING MESSAGE ON STOCK BROKER'S "TICKER."] - -_Fac Simile_ telegraphs constitute another, although less important -branch of the art. These accomplished the striking result of reproducing -the message at the end of the line in the exact handwriting of the -sender, and not only writing, but exact reproductions of all outlines, -such as maps, pictures, and so forth, may be sent. The fac simile -telegraph originated with F. C. Bakewell, of England, in 1848 (Br. Pat. -No. 12,352, of 1848). - -The Dial Telegraph is still another modification of the telegraph. In -this the letters are arranged in a circular series, and a light needle -or pointer, concentrically pivoted, is carried back and forth over the -letters, and is made to successively point to the desired letters. - -Among other useful applications of the telegraph is the _fire alarm -system_. In 1852 Channing and Farmer, of Boston, Mass., devised a -system of telegraphic fire alarms, which was adopted in the city of -Boston (U. S. Pat. No. 17,355, May 19, 1857), and which in varying -modifications has spread through all the cities of the world, -introducing that most important element of time economy in the -extinguishment of fires. Hundreds of cities and millions of dollars have -been thus saved from destruction. - -Similar applications of local alarms in great numbers have been extended -into various departments of life, such as _District Messenger Service_, -_Burglar Alarms_, _Railroad-Signal Systems_, _Hotel-Annunciators_, and -so on. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--TELEGRAPHING BY INDUCTION.] - -For furnishing current for telegraphic purposes the dynamo, and -especially the storage battery, have in late years found useful -application. In fact, in the leading telegraph offices the storage -battery has practically superseded the old voltaic cells. - -_Telegraphing by induction_, _i. e._, without the mechanical connection -of a conducting wire, is another of the developments of telegraphy in -recent years, and finds application to telegraphing to moving railway -trains. When an electric current flows over a telegraph line, objects -along its length are charged at the beginning and end of the current -impulse with a secondary charge, which flows to the earth if connection -is afforded. It is the discharge of this secondary current from the -metal car roof to the ground which, on the moving train, is made the -means of telegraphing without any mechanical connection with the -telegraph lines along the track. As, however, this secondary circuit -occurs only at the making and breaking of the telegraphic impulse, the -length of the impulse affords no means of differentiation into an -alphabet, and so a rapid series of impulses, caused by the vibrator of -an induction coil, is made to produce buzzing tones of various duration -representing the alphabet, and these tones are received upon a telephone -instead of a Morse register. The diagram, Fig. 12,[1] illustrates the -operation. - - [1] From "Electricity in Daily Life," by courtesy of Charles - Scribner's Sons. - -To receive messages on a car, electric impulses on the telegraph wire W, -sent from the vibrator of an induction coil, cause induced currents as -follows: Car roof R, wire _a_, key K, telephone _b c_, car wheel and -earth. In sending messages closure of key K works induction coil I C, -and vibrator V, through battery B, and primary circuit _d_, _c_, _f_, -_g_, and the secondary circuit _a_, _h_, _i_, charges the car roof and -influences by induction the telegraph wire W and the telephone at the -receiving station. - -In 1881 William W. Smith proposed the plan of communicating between -moving cars and a stationary wire by induction (U. S. Pat. No. 247,127, -Sept. 13, 1881). Thomas A. Edison, L. J. Phelps, and others have further -improved the means for carrying it out. In 1888 the principle was -successfully employed on 200 miles of the Lehigh Valley Railroad. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY, INTERNATIONAL YACHT RACES, -OCTOBER, 1899.] - -_Wireless Telegraphy_, or telegraphing without any wires at all, from -one point to another point through space, is the most modern and -startling development in telegraphy. To the average mind this is highly -suggestive of scientific imposition, so intangible and unknown are the -physical forces by which it is rendered possible, and yet this is one of -the late achievements of the Nineteenth Century. Many scientists have -contributed data on this subject, but the principles and theories have -only begun to crystallize into an art during the first part of the last -decade of the Nineteenth Century. Heinrich Hertz, the German scientist, -was perhaps the real pioneer in this line in his studies and -observations of the nature of the electric undulations which have taken -his name, and are known as "Hertzian" waves, rays, or oscillations. -Tesla in the United States, Branly and Ducretet in France, Righi in -Italy, the Russian savant, Popoff, and Professor Lodge, of England, have -all made contributions to this art. It will aid the understanding to -say, in a preliminary way, that electric undulations are generated and -emitted from a plate or conductor a hundred feet or more high in the -air, are thence transmitted through space to a remote point, which may -be many miles away, and there influencing a similar plate high in the -air give, through a special form of receiving device known as a -"coherer," a telegraphic record. The "coherer," invented by Branly in -1891, is a glass tube containing metal filings between two circuit -terminals. The electric waves cause these filings to cohere, and so vary -the resistance to the passage of the current as to give a basis for -transformation into a record. - -In March, 1899, Signor Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian student, then -residing in England, successfully communicated between South Foreland, -County of Kent, and Boulogne-sur-mer, in France, a distance of -thirty-two miles across the English Channel. Signor Marconi used the -vertical conductors and the Hertz-oscillation principle, and his system -is described in his United States patent. No. 586,193, July 13, 1897. - -His patent comprehends many claims, a leading feature of which is the -means for automatically shaking the "coherer" to break up the cohesion -of the metal filings as embodied in his first claim, as follows: - - "In a receiver for electrical oscillations, the combination of an - imperfect electrical contact, a circuit through the contact, and - means actuated by the circuit for shaking the contact." - -The Marconi system of wireless telegraphy was practically employed with -useful effect April 28, 1899, on the "Goodwin Sands" light-ship to -telegraph for assistance when in collision twelve miles from land and in -danger of sinking. It was also used in October, 1899, on board the -"Grande Duchesse" to report the international yacht race between the -"Columbia" and the "Shamrock" at Sandy Hook, as seen in Fig. 13. Lord -Roberts also made good use of it in his South African campaign against -the Boers. According to Signor Marconi its present range is limited to -eighty-six miles, but it is expected that this will be soon extended to -150 miles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13A.--THE COHERER.] - -Marconi's receiving apparatus is shown in Fig. 13A, and consists of a -small glass tube called the coherer, about 11/2 inches in length, into the -ends of which are inserted two silver pole pieces, which fit the tube, -but whose ends are 1/50 inch apart. The space between the ends is filled -with a mixture composed of fine nickel and silver filings and a mere -trace of mercury, and the other ends of the pole pieces are attached to -the wires of a local circuit. In the normal condition the metallic -filings have an enormous resistance, and constitute a practical -insulator, preventing the flow of the local current; but if they are -influenced by electric waves, coherence takes place and the resistance -falls, allowing the local current to pass. The coherence will continue -until the filings are mechanically shaken, when they will at once fall -apart, as it were, insulation will be established, and the current will -be broken. If, then, a coherer be brought within the influence of the -electric waves thrown out from a transmitter, coherence will occur -whenever the key of the transmitter at the distant station is depressed. -Mr. Marconi has devised an ingenious arrangement, which is the subject -of his patent referred to, in which a small hammer is made to rap -continuously upon the coherer by the action of the local circuit, which -is closed when the Hertzian waves pass through the metal filings. As -soon as the waves cease, the hammer gives its last rap, and the tube is -left in the decohered condition ready for the next transmission of -waves. It is evident that by making the local circuit operate a relay, -in the circuit of which is a standard recording instrument, the messages -may be recorded on a tape in the usual way. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13B.--DIAGRAM OF THE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER.] - -In Fig. 13B is shown the diagram of circuits. The letters _d d_ indicate -the spheres of the transmitter, which are connected, one to the vertical -wire w, the other to earth, and both by wires _c' c'_, to the terminals -of the secondary winding of induction coil, c. In the primary circuit is -the key _b_. The coherer _j_ has two metal pole pieces, _j¹ j squared_, -separated by silver and nickel filings. One end of the tube is connected -to earth, the other to the vertical wire _w_, and the coherer itself -forms part of a circuit containing the local cell _g_, and a sensitive -telegraph relay actuating another circuit, which circuit works a -trembler _p_, of which _o_ is the decohering tapper, or hammer. When the -electric waves pass from _w_ to _j¹ j squared_ the resistance falls, and the -current from _g_ actuates the relay _n_, the choking coils _k k'_, lying -between the coherer and the relay, compelling the electric waves to -traverse the coherer instead of flowing through the relay. The relay _n_ -in its turn causes the more powerful battery _r_ to pass a current -through the tapper, and also through the electro-magnet of the -recording instrument _h_. - -The alternate cohering by the waves and decohering by the tapper -continue uninterruptedly as long as the transmitting key at the distant -station is depressed. The armature of the recording instrument, however, -because of its inertia, cannot rise and fall in unison with the rapid -coherence and decoherence of the receiver, and hence it remains down and -makes a stroke upon the tape as long as the sending key is depressed. - -The principal applications of wireless telegraphy so far have been at -sea, where the absence of intervening obstacles gives a free path to the -electrical oscillations. The system is also applicable on land, however, -and no one can doubt that if the Ministers of the Legations shut up in -Pekin had been supplied with a wireless telegraphy outfit, neither the -walls of Pekin nor the strongest cordon of its Chinese hordes could have -prevented the long sought communication. The full story of mystery and -massacre would have been promptly made known, and the civilized world -have been spared its anxiety, and earlier and effective measures of -relief supplied. - -As the art of telegraphy grows apace toward the end of the Nineteenth -Century, individuality of invention becomes lost in the great maze of -modifications, ramifications, and combinations. Inventions become merged -into systems, and systems become swallowed up by companies. In the -promises of living inventors the wish is too often father to the -thought, and the conservative man sees the child of promise rise in -great expectation, flourish for a few years, and then subside to quiet -rest in the dusty archives of the Patent Office. They all contribute -their quota of value, but it is so difficult to single out as -pre-eminent any one of those which as yet are on probation, that we must -leave to the coming generation the task of making meritorious selection. - -To-day the telegraph is the great nerve system of the nation's body, and -it ramifies and vitalizes every part with sensitive force. In 1899 the -Western Union Telegraph Company alone had 22,285 offices, 904,633 miles -of wire, sent 61,398,157 messages, received in money $23,954,312, and -enjoyed a profit of $5,868,733. Add to this the business of the Postal -Telegraph Company and other companies, and it becomes well nigh -impossible to grasp the magnitude of this tremendous factor of -Nineteenth Century progress. Figures fail to become impressive after -they reach the higher denominations, and it may not add much to either -the reader's conception or his knowledge to say that the statistics for -the _whole world_ for the year 1898 show: 103,832 telegraph offices, -2,989,803 miles of wire, and 365,453,526 messages sent during that year. -This wire would extend around the earth about 120 times, and the -messages amounted to one million a day for every day in that year. This -is for land telegraphs only, and does not include cable messages. - -What saving has accrued to the world in the matter of time, and what -development in values in the various departments of life, and what -contributions to human comfort and happiness the telegraph has brought -about, is beyond human estimate, and is too impressive a thought for -speculation. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE ATLANTIC CABLE. - - DIFFICULTIES OF LAYING--CONGRATULATORY MESSAGES BETWEEN QUEEN - VICTORIA AND PRESIDENT BUCHANAN--THE SIPHON RECORDER--STATISTICS. - - -Among the applications of the telegraph which deserve special mention -for magnitude and importance is the Atlantic Cable. For boldness of -conception, tireless persistence in execution, and value of results, -this engineering feat, though nearly a half century old, still -challenges the admiration of the world, and marks the beginning of one -of the great epochs of the Nineteenth Century. It was not so brilliant -in substantive invention, as it added but little to the telegraph as -already known, beyond the means for insulating the wires within a gutta -percha cable, but it was one of the greatest of all engineering works. -It was chiefly the result of the energy and public spirit of Mr. Cyrus -W. Field, an eminent American citizen. Three times was its laying -attempted before success crowned the work. The first expedition sailed -August 7, 1857, and consisted of a fleet of eight vessels, four American -and four English, starting from Valentia on the Irish coast. On August -11 the cable parted, and 344 miles of the cable were lost in water two -miles deep. In 1858 a renewal of the effort to lay the cable was made. -Improvements were added in the paying out machinery, and a different -manner of coiling the enormous load of cable on the vessels was resorted -to, and provisions also were made to protect the propeller from contact -with the cable. On June 10 the telegraphic fleet steamed out of Plymouth -harbor. It consisted of the U. S. frigate "Niagara," with the -paddle-wheel steamer "Valorous" as a tender, and the British frigate -"Agamemnon," with the paddle-wheel steamer "Gorgon" as a tender. After -three days at sea, terrible gales were encountered and much damage -resulted. The vessels were to proceed to midocean, and the portions of -the cable carried by the "Niagara" and "Agamemnon" were to be spliced, -and the two vessels were then to sail in opposite directions to their -respective coasts. The first splice was made on the 26th of June. After -paying out two and a half miles each, the cable parted. Again meeting -and splicing, forty miles each were paid out, and the cable again -parted. On the 28th another splicing was effected, and 150 miles each -were paid out, and again the cable parted, and the expedition had to be -abandoned. After much financial embarrassment and adverse criticism, the -courageous and public-spirited directors who had control of the -enterprise dispatched another expedition, which sailed July 17, 1858. -The two vessels, "Niagara" and "Agamemnon," with their tenders, -proceeded to midocean, and following the same method of connecting the -ends of their respective cable sections, they sailed in opposite -directions. On August 5, 1858, Mr. Cyrus Field announced by telegram -from Trinity Bay, on the coast of Newfoundland, that Trinity Bay in -America, and Valentia in Ireland, 2,134 miles apart, had been connected, -and the great Atlantic cable was an established fact. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--ORIGINAL ATLANTIC CABLE, FULL SIZE. - -Consists of seven copper wires (4) to form the conductor, a wrapping (3) -of thread, soaked in tallow and pitch, several layers (2) of gutta -percha, all surrounded by a protecting coat of mail (1) of twisted -wires.] - -On August 16, 1858, the first message came over from Queen Victoria to -President Buchanan of the United States, as follows: - - "_To the President of the United States, Washington:_ - - "The Queen desires to congratulate the President upon the - successful completion of this great international work, in which - the Queen has taken the deepest interest. - - "The Queen is convinced that the President will join with her in - fervently hoping that the Electric Cable which now connects Great - Britain with the United States will prove an additional link - between the nations whose friendship is founded upon their common - interest and reciprocal esteem. - - "The Queen has much pleasure in thus communicating with the - President, and renewing to him her wishes for the prosperity of the - United States." - -to which the President replied as follows: - - "WASHINGTON CITY, Aug. 16, 1858. - - "_To Her Majesty Victoria, Queen of Great Britain:_ - - "The President cordially reciprocates the congratulations of Her - Majesty, the Queen, on the success of the great international - enterprise accomplished by the science, skill, and indomitable - energy of the two countries. It is a triumph more glorious, - because far more useful to mankind, than was ever won by conqueror - on the field of battle. - - "May the Atlantic Telegraph, under the blessing of Heaven, prove to - be a bond of perpetual peace and friendship between the kindred - nations, and an instrument destined by Divine Providence to diffuse - religion, civilization, liberty and law throughout the world. In - this view will not all nations of Christendom spontaneously unite - in the declaration that it shall be forever neutral, and that its - communications shall be held sacred in passing to their places of - destination, even in the midst of hostilities? - -(Signed) - -"JAMES BUCHANAN." - -Great rejoicing on both sides of the ocean followed, and the public -print was filled with accounts of the enterprise. The following -selection from the _Atlantic Monthly_ of October, 1858, is an apostrophe -in lofty sentiments of verse, which to-day stirs the Twentieth Century -heart as a joyous prophecy fulfilled: - - Thou lonely Bay of Trinity, - Ye bosky shores untrod, - Lean, breathless, to the white-lipped sea - And hear the voice of God! - - From world to world His couriers fly, - Thought-winged and shod with fire; - The angel of His stormy sky - Rides down the sunken wire. - - What saith the herald of the Lord? - "The world's long strife is done! - Close wedded by that mystic cord, - Her continents are one. - - "And one in heart, as one in blood, - Shall all her peoples be; - The hands of human brotherhood - Shall clasp beneath the sea. - - "Through Orient seas, o'er Afric's plain, - And Asian mountains borne, - The vigor of the Northern brain - Shall nerve the world outworn. - - "From clime to clime, from shore to shore, - Shall thrill the magic thread; - The new Prometheus steals once more - The fire that wakes the dead. - - "Earth, gray with age, shall hear the strain - Which o'er her childhood rolled; - For her the morning stars again - Shall sing their song of old. - - "For, lo! the fall of Ocean's wall, - Space mocked and Time outrun! - And round the world the thought of all - Is as the thought of one!" - - O, reverently and thankfully - The mighty wonder own! - The deaf can hear, the blind may see, - The work is God's alone. - - Throb on, strong pulse of thunder! beat - From answering beach to beach! - Fuse nations in thy kindly heat, - And melt the chains of each! - - Wild terror of the sky above, - Glide tamed and dumb below! - Bear gently, Ocean's carrier dove, - Thy errands to and fro! - - Weave on, swift shuttle of the Lord, - Beneath the deep so far, - The bridal robe of Earth's accord, - The funeral shroud of war! - - The poles unite, the zones agree, - The tongues of striving cease; - As on the Sea of Galilee, - The Christ is whispering, "Peace!" - -After a few months of working, the cable became inoperative, but its -success was a demonstrated fact, and in 1866 a new cable was laid by the -aid of that monster steamer "The Great Eastern," since which time the -cable has become one of the great factors of modern civilization. - -Probably the most important of the inventions relating to submarine -telegraphs is the siphon recorder, invented by Sir William Thompson, now -Lord Kelvin (U. S. Pat. No. 156,897, Nov. 17, 1874). It is called a -siphon recorder because the record is made by a little glass siphon down -which a flow of ink is maintained like a fountain pen. This siphon is -vibrated by the electric impulses to produce on the paper strip a zigzag -line, whose varying contour is made to represent letters. In the -illustration, Fig. 15, _m_ is an ink well, _o_ a strip of paper, and _n_ -the ink siphon, one end of which is bent and dips down into the ink -well, and the other end of which traces the record on the moving paper -strip _o_. The siphon is sustained on a vertical axis _l_, and its -lateral vibration is effected as follows: A light rectangular coil _b -b_, of exceedingly fine insulated wire, is suspended between the poles N -S of a powerful electro-magnet energized by a local battery. In the -coil _b b_ is a stationary soft iron core _a_, magnetized by the poles N -S. The coil _b b_ is suspended upon a vertical axis consisting of a fine -wire _f f_, and the delicate electrical impulses over the submarine -cable enter the coil _b b_ through the axial wire _f f_ as a conductor, -and cause a greater or less oscillation of the coil _b b_ between the -poles N S of the electro-magnet. The coil _b b_ is connected by a thread -_k_ to the siphon, and pulls the siphon in one direction, while the -siphon is pulled in the opposite direction by a helical spring attached -to an arm on the siphon axis _l_. The jagged lines seen in Fig. 16 spell -the words "siphon recorder." - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--SIPHON RECORDER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--SIPHON RECORDER MESSAGE.] - -To-day there lie in submerged silence, but pulsating with the life of -the world, no less than 1,500 submarine telegraphs. Their aggregate -length is 170,000 miles; their total estimated cost is $250,000,000, and -the number of messages annually transmitted over them is 6,000,000. -Thirteen cables work daily across the Atlantic, and an additional one is -being laid from Germany. Messages now go across the Atlantic and are -received on the siphon recorder at the rate of fifty words a minute, -and at a cost of twenty-five cents a word. Our guns may thunder in the -Philippines, and the news by cable, traveling faster than the earth on -its axis, may reach the Western Hemisphere under the paradoxical -condition of several hours earlier than it occurred. Cablegrams to -Manila cost $2.38 a word, and the cable tolls for our War Department -alone are costing at the rate of $325,000 a year. The logical outcome is -a Pacific cable, a bill for which, connecting San Francisco and -Honolulu, has already passed the United States Senate. - -Messages from the Executive Mansion at Washington to the battlefield at -Santiago were sent and responses received within twelve minutes, while a -message dispatched from the House of Representatives in Washington to -the House of Parliament in London, in the chess match of 1898, was -transmitted and a reply received in thirteen and one-half seconds. - -To-day the cable with the still small voice, more divine than human, -speaks with one accent to all the nations of the earth. Differing though -they may in tongue and skin, in thought and religion, in physical -development and clime, the telegraph speaks to them all alike, and by -all is understood. Truly it fulfils the prophecy so gracefully expressed -in the verses quoted, and has become the common bond of union among the -nations of the earth. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE DYNAMO AND ITS APPLICATIONS. - - OBSERVATIONS OF FARADAY AND HENRY--MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINES OF - PIXII AND OF SAXTON--HJORTH'S DYNAMO OF 1855--WILDE'S MACHINE OF - 1866--SIEMENS' OF 1867--GRAMME'S OF 1870--TESLA'S POLYPHASE - CURRENTS. - - -In the last thirty-five years of the Nineteenth Century there has grown -up into the full stature of mechanical majority this stalwart son of -electrical lineage. As the means for furnishing electrical power it -stands to-day the great fountain head of electrical generation, and in -its peculiar field ranks as of equal importance with the steam engine. -Until about 1865 the voltaic battery, which generated electricity by -chemical decomposition, was practically the only means for producing -electricity for industrial and commercial purposes. It was through its -agency that the telegraph, the electric light, and many other -discoveries in electricity were made and rendered possible. Its cost and -limited amount of current, however, restricted the limits of its -practical application, and although its current could furnish beautiful -laboratory experiments, its mechanical work was more in the nature of -illustration than utilization. But with the advent of the dynamo -electricity has taken a new and very much larger place in the commercial -activities of the world. It runs and warms our cars, it furnishes our -light, it plates our metals, it runs our elevators, it electrocutes our -criminals; and a thousand other things it performs for us with secrecy -and dispatch in its silent and forceful way. But what is a dynamo? To -the average mind the most satisfactory answer would be--that it is -simply a machine which converts mechanical power into electricity. -Attach a dynamo to a steam engine, and the power of the steam engine -will, through the dynamo, become transformed or converted into a -powerful electric current. Any other source of mechanical power, such as -a water wheel, gas engine, wind wheel, or even a horse or man, will -serve to operate the dynamo; its primary and sole function being to take -power and convert it into electricity. - -The stepping stone to the dynamo in its development was the -_magneto-electrical machine_. This is a machine founded upon the general -principle observed by Faraday in 1831 and 1832, and also by Prof. Henry -about the same time, that when a magnet is made to approach a helix of -insulated wire it causes a current of electricity to flow in the helix -as long as the magnet advances. If the magnet is passed through the -helix, the current is reversed as soon as the magnet passes the middle -point. The principle is the same if the magnet be made to approach and -recede from the poles of an electro-magnet having a helix wound around a -soft iron core. Likewise the same result occurs if the electro-magnet -with its helix is made to approach and recede from a permanent magnet, -the current in the helix flowing in one direction when it approaches the -permanent magnet, and in the opposite direction when leaving the said -magnet. The movement of the two elements in relation to each other -requires some force to overcome the repellent and attractive actions, -and this force is converted into electrical energy. This is the -principle of the magneto-electric machine. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--PIXII MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINE, 1832.] - -Saxton in the United States and Pixii in France were the first to -produce organized devices of this class for generating electricity from -magnetism. Pixii's machine (1832) consisted of a permanent horse-shoe -magnet which was caused to revolve in proximity to an armature upon -which was wound a coil of insulated wire. On March 30, 1852, Sonnenberg -and Rechten obtained a United States patent, No. 8,843, for an -electrical machine for killing whales, and on August 19, 1856, Shepard -obtained U. S. Pat. No. 15,596 for the machine which came to be known as -the "Alliance" machine. Both of these machines had permanent field -magnets, and were early types of magneto-electric machines. The -efficiency of these magneto-electric machines was necessarily limited to -the strength of the inducing field magnets, which, being permanent -magnets, were a positive and fixed factor. It was an easy step to -substitute electro-magnets for permanent magnets, as the field or -inducing magnets, and also to excite the (electro) field magnet by -voltaic batteries, but the important step which resulted in the machine -which is called the "dynamo" (from the Greek "[Greek: Dynamis]"--power) -was yet to come. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--HJORTH'S DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--HJORTH'S DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINE, PLAN VIEW.] - -This step consisted in taking the current induced in the revolving helix -or armature (by the field magnets) and sending it back through the coils -of the field magnets which produced it, thereby increasing the energy of -the field magnet coils, and they in turn with an increased efficiency -and reciprocal action induce still stronger currents in the armature -coils, and so a building up process, or principle of mutual and -reciprocal excitation, is carried on until the maximum efficiency is -reached. This principle was the discovery of Soren Hjorth, of -Copenhagen, and is fully described in his British patent, No. 806 of -1855, for "An Improved Magneto-Electric Battery." As the prototype of -the dynamo, it is worthy of illustration. In the illustration, Figs. 18 -and 19, _a_ is a revolving wheel bearing the armature coils, _C_ -permanent magnets, _d_ electro-magnets (field magnets), and _g_ the -commutator. Quoting from his specifications, he says: "The permanent -magnets acting on the armatures brought in succession between their -poles, induce a current in the coils of the armatures, which current, -after having been caused by the commutator to flow in one direction, -passes round the electro-magnets (field magnets), charging the same and -acting on the armatures. By the mutual action between the -electro-magnets and the armatures an accelerating force is obtained, -which in result produces electricity greater in quantity and intensity -than has heretofore been obtained by similar means." - -Although the principle of the dynamo was clearly embodied in the Hjorth -patent, its value was not appreciated until some time later. Eleven -years later Wilde (U. S. Pat. No. 59,738, Nov. 13, 1866), employed a -small machine with permanent magnets to excite the coil-wound field -magnets of a larger machine. But Siemens (British Pat. No. 261 of 1867), -taking up the principle employed by Hjorth, dispensed with his -superfluous permanent magnets, having found that the residual magnetism, -which always remained in iron which has once been magnetized, was -sufficient as a basis to start the building up process. Farmer, -Wheatstone and Varley also recognized this fact about the same time. -Siemens' patent also was the first embodiment of what is known as the -bobbin armature. Gramme and D'Ivernois (British Pat. 1,668 of 1870, and -U. S. Pat. No. 120,057, of Oct. 17, 1871), were the first to bring out -the continuously wound ring armature. - -Active development now began in various types and by various inventors, -including Weston, Brush, Edison, Thomson and Houston, Westinghouse, and -others, who have brought the dynamo to its present high efficiency. - -The revolving coils of the dynamo are called the armature, and the fixed -electro-magnets are called the field magnets, and these latter may be -two or more in number. When two are used they are arranged on opposite -sides of the armature, and form what is known as the bipolar machine. A -larger number constitutes the multipolar machine. The field magnets in -the multipolar machine usually are arranged in radial position around -the entire circumference of the revolving armature, and are held in a -fixed circular frame. To give a clear idea of the principles of the -dynamo, the bipolar machine is best suited for illustration, and is here -given in Figs. 20 and 21, in which Fig. 20 represents the dynamo -complete, and Fig. 21 a detail of the end of the armature and -commutator. This armature consists of coils or bobbins of insulated -wire, each section having its terminals connected with separate -insulated plates on the hub, which plates are known as the commutator. -When any section of the armature approaches the pole of a field magnet, -the current induced in that section of the armature coils by the field -magnet, is taken off from a corresponding plate of the commutator by -flat springs, seen in Fig. 20, and known as brushes. The field magnets A -and B, Fig. 20, are shown with only a few turns of wire about them for -clearer illustrations of the connections, which are made as follows: The -wire _a_ is extended in coils around the field magnet B, and thence -around field magnet A, and thence to the upper brush on the commutator, -thence through the wire coils or bobbins of the rotary armature C, and -thence by the lower brush to the wire _b_. The terminals of the wires -_a_ and _b_ extend to the point of utilization of the current, whether -this be electric lights, motors, or other applications. In this -illustration, the circuit, it will be seen, passes through both the -coils of the field magnets and the coils of the armature, involving the -principle of mutual excitation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--BIPOLAR DYNAMO.] - -There are two principal kinds of dynamos--those producing the -alternating currents, and those producing the continuous current. In the -first the current alternates in direction, or is composed of an infinite -number of impulses of opposite polarity: one polarity when a section of -the armature coil is approaching a north field magnet pole or receding -from a south pole, and the other polarity when receding from a north -field magnet pole and approaching a south pole. In the continuous -current machine, the commutator and brushes are so arranged as to take -up all the impulses of the same polarity and conduct them away by one -brush, and gathering all the impulses of the opposite polarity and -conducting them away by another brush. Thus the current of each brush, -in the continuous current machine, is always of the same polarity, and -the polarity of one being always positive, and that of the other -negative, the current flows continuously in the same direction. A third -species of dynamo is the pulsatory, in which the current flow is -invariable in direction, but proceeds in waves. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--ARMATURE OF BIPOLAR DYNAMO.] - -A change in the character of the current generated by the dynamo is made -by what is known as the "transformer," in which the principle of the -induction coil is made available. In this way, for instance, the high -potential currents generated by the powerful water wheels at Niagara -Falls are taken twenty miles to Buffalo, and are there transformed into -other currents of lower potential, suited to incandescent lighting and -other various uses. A similar scheme is in process of fulfillment in the -establishment of a water power electric plant near Conowingo, Maryland, -on the Susquehanna River, to furnish electrical power to Baltimore, -Wilmington and Philadelphia. - -An important development in electrical generation and transmission is to -be found in what is known as the _polyphase_, _multiphase_, or -_rotating_ current, pioneer patents for which were granted to Tesla May -1, 1888, Nos. 381,968, 381,969, 382,279, 382,280, 382,281 and 382,282. - -Realizing the possibilities of the dynamo, the Legislature of New York -in 1888 passed a law, which went into effect in 1889, in that State, -substituting death by electricity for the hangman's noose. The criminal -is strapped in the chair, seen in Fig. 22, one terminal of the wire from -the dynamo is strapped upon his forehead, and the other to anklets on -his legs, and like a flash of lightning the deadly energy of the dynamo -performs its work. - -Not the least of the applications of the dynamo is its use in -electro-metallurgy for plating metals, and also for promoting chemical -reactions. The electric furnace, stimulated into higher heat by the -dynamo than can be otherwise obtained, has brought about many valuable -discoveries, and made great advances in various arts. The metal -aluminum, and the hard abrasive or polishing and grinding material known -as "carborundum" are the products of the electric furnace, and so is the -product known as "calcium carbide," which, when immersed in water, gives -off acetylene gas and is a product now universally used for that -purpose, and rapidly increasing in commercial importance. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--ELECTROCUTION CHAIR.] - -In Fig. 23 is seen the Acheson electric furnace for producing -carborundum. The electric current traverses the furnace through a series -of horizontal electrodes at each end, and highly heats a central core of -carbon, which is disposed in a mass of silicious and carbonaceous -material, and which latter is converted by the heat into silicide of -carbon, or carborundum. In Fig. 24 is shown a continuous electric -furnace constructed as a revolving wheel, under the Bradley patents. Rim -sections 5 are placed on the wheel on one side and filled with a mixture -of carbon and lime, through which the electric current is passed from -the dynamo _g_. The heat of the current fuses the mass and converts it -into calcium carbide, and as the wheel slowly revolves the rim sections -5 are removed from the opposite side, and the mass of calcium carbide, -seen at _x_, is broken off. The electrolytic production of copper -through the agency of the dynamo amounts to 150,000 tons annually, and -the commercial reduction of aluminum by the electric furnace has grown -from eighty-three pounds in 1883 to 5,200,000 pounds in 1898, and its -cost has been reduced to about 33 cents per pound. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--PART SECTIONAL VIEW OF CARBORUNDUM FURNACE.] - -The storage battery, holding in reserve its stored up electric energy, -also owes its practical value entirely to the dynamo which charges it, -and thus makes available a portable source of supply. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--BRADLEY ELECTRIC FURNACE FOR PRODUCING CALCIUM -CARBIDE.] - -To contemplate the dynamo with its clumsy, enormous spools, it suggests -to the imagination of the average observer the gigantic toy of some -Brobdingnagian boy--but the dynamo is no toy. It is the most compact, -business-like, and dangerous of all utilitarian devices. To touch its -brushes may be instant death, for the dynamo is the prison house of the -lightning, and resents intrusion. Hidden away from public gaze in some -sequestered power house, and working night and day like some tireless, -dumb, and mighty genii, it sends its magnetic thrills of force silently -through the many miles of wire extending like radii from some great -nerve center through the conduits in our streets, and stretching from -pole to pole like giant cobwebs through the air. Responding to its -force, thousands of little incandescent threads leap into radiant -brightness and shed their mellow and genial light in our offices, our -stores, hotels, and homes. Brilliant arc lamps, rivaling the sun in -power, make night into day, and produce along our streets coruscations, -silhouettes, and dancing shadows in spectacular and unceasing pageants. -From the towering lighthouses of our coasts its beams are thrown -seaward, and a beacon for the mariner shines beyond all other lights. -The great search light of our ships is in itself but a hollow mockery -until the dynamo whispers in its ear the word "light!" and then its -beam, reaching for miles along the horizon, discovers a stealthy enemy, -or signals the safe return to port. The mighty force of the dynamo -entering the electric motors on the street cars turns the wheels and -transports its load with scarcely a passenger inside realizing how it is -all done. The same energy turns the electric fan, and with kindly -service soothes the weary sufferer, and at another place remorselessly -takes the life of the condemned criminal. The dynamo is one of the great -factors of modern civilization, and its potential name, like that of -"dynamite," rightly defines its character. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--MODERN MULTIPOLAR DYNAMO.] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE ELECTRIC MOTOR. - - BARLOW'S SPUR WHEEL--DAL NEGRO'S ELECTRIC PENDULUM--PROF. HENRY'S - ELECTRIC MOTOR--JACOBI'S ELECTRIC BOAT--DAVENPORT'S MOTOR--THE NEFF - MOTOR--DR. PAGE'S ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE--DR. SIEMENS' FIRST ELECTRIC - RAILWAY AT BERLIN, 1879--FIRST ELECTRIC RAILWAY IN UNITED STATES, - BETWEEN BALTIMORE AND HAMPDEN, 1885--THIRD RAIL SYSTEM--STATISTICS - ELECTRIC RAILWAYS AND GENERAL ELECTRIC CO.--DISTRIBUTION ELECTRIC - CURRENT IN PRINCIPAL CITIES. - - -Although the electric motor of to-day depends for practical value -entirely upon the dynamo which supplies it with electric power, -nevertheless the motor considerably antedated the dynamo. The genesis of -the electric motor began in 1821 with Faraday's observation of the -phenomenon of the conversion of an electric current into mechanical -motion. In his experiment a copper wire was supported in a vertical -position so as to dip into a cup of mercury, while a small bar magnet -was anchored at one end by a thread to the bottom of the cup and floated -in the mercury in upright position. The mass of mercury being connected -to one pole of a battery, and the vertical wire to the other, it was -found that when the circuit was completed by clipping the wire into the -mercury, the floating bar magnet would revolve around the wire as a -center. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--BARLOW'S WHEEL.] - -In 1826 Barlow, of Woolwich, made his electrical spur wheel, Fig. 26, -and in 1830 the Abbe Dal Negro, in Padua, is said to have constructed a -sort of vibrating electrical pendulum, both of which devices were crude -forms of magnetic engines. Dal Negro's machine, see Fig. 27, consisted -of a magnet A, movable about an axis situated about one-third of its -length, and the upper extremity of which was capable of oscillating -between the two branches of an electro-magnet E. A current being sent -into the electro-magnet, passed through an eight-cupped mercurial -commutator C, which the oscillating magnet controlled by means of a rod -_t_ and a fork F. When the magnet had been attracted toward one of the -poles of the electro-magnet this very motion of attraction acting upon -the commutator changed the direction of the current, and the magnet was -repelled toward the other branch of the electro-magnet, and so on. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--DAL NEGRO'S ELECTRIC MOTOR.] - -In 1828 Prof. Joseph Henry produced his energetic electro-magnets -sustaining weights of some thousands of pounds, and gave prophetic -suggestion of the possibilities of electricity as a motive power. In -1831 he devised the electric motor shown in Fig. 28, which is described -in Prof. Henry's own words as follows: - -"A B is the horizontal magnet, about seven inches long, and movable on -an axis at the center; its two extremities when placed in a horizontal -line are about one inch from the north poles of the upright magnets C -and D. G and F are two large tumblers containing diluted acid, in each -of which is immersed a plate of zinc surrounded with copper; _l m s t_ -are four brass thimbles soldered to the zinc and copper of the batteries -and filled with mercury. - -"The galvanic magnet A B is wound with three strands of copper bell -wire, each about twenty-five feet long; the similar ends of these are -twisted together so as to form two stiff wires _q r_, which project -beyond the extremity B, and dip into the thimbles _s t_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--PROF. HENRY'S ELECTRIC MOTOR.] - -"To the wires _q r_ two other wires are soldered so as to project in an -opposite direction, and dip into the thimbles _l m_. The wires of the -galvanic magnet have thus, as it were, four projecting ends; and by -inspecting the figure it will be seen that the extremity _p_, which dips -into the cup _m_, attached to the copper of the battery in G, -corresponds to the extremity _r_ which dips into the cup _t_, -connecting, with the zinc in battery F. When the batteries are in -action, if the end B is depressed until _q r_ dips into the cups _s t_, -A B instantly becomes a powerful magnet, having its north pole at B; -this, of course, is repelled by the north pole D, while at the same time -it is attracted by C; the position is consequently changed, and _o p_ -comes in contact with the mercury in _l m_; as soon as the communication -is formed, the poles are reversed, and the position again changed. If -the tumblers be filled with strong diluted acid, the motion is at first -very rapid and powerful, but it soon almost entirely ceases. By -partially filling the tumblers with weak acid, and occasionally adding a -small quantity of fresh acid, a uniform motion, at the rate of -seventy-five vibrations in a minute, has been kept up for more than an -hour; with a large battery and very weak acid the motion might be -continued for an indefinite length of time." - -Following Prof. Henry came Sturgeon's rotary motor of 1832, Jacobi's -rotary motor of 1834, Fig. 29, which had electro-magnets both in the -field and armature; Davenport's motor of 1834, Zabriskie's motor of -1837, in which a vibrating magnet converted reciprocating into rotary -motion; Davenport's motor of 1837 (U. S. Pat. No. 132, Feb. 25, 1837), -Fig. 30; Page's rotary motor of 1838, Walkley's motor of 1838 (U. S. -Pat. No. 809, June 27, 1838); Stimson's motor of 1838 (U. S. Pat. No. -910, Sept. 12, 1838); Page's motor of 1839, Cook's of 1840 (U. S. Pat. -No. 1,735, Aug. 25, 1840); Elias' motor of 1842, invented in Holland; -Lillie's motor of 1850 (U S. Pat. No. 7,287, April 16, 1850); the Neff -motor of 1851 (U. S. Pat. No. 7,889, Jan. 7, 1851), of which -illustration is given in Fig. 31, and Page's motor of 1854 (U. S. Pat. -No. 10,480, Jan. 31, 1854). In 1835 Davenport constructed a small -circular railway at Springfield, Mass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--JACOBI'S ROTARY ELECTRIC MOTOR.] - -In 1839 Prof. Jacobi, with the aid of Emperor Nicholas, applied his -electric motor to a boat 28 feet long, carrying fourteen passengers, and -propelled the same at a speed of three miles an hour. About the same -time Robert Davidson, a Scotchman, experimented with an electric railway -car sixteen feet long, weighing six tons, and attaining a speed of four -miles an hour. In 1840 Davenport, by means of his electric motor, -printed a news sheet called the _Electro Magnet and Mechanics' -Intelligencer_. In 1851 an electric locomotive made by Dr. Page in -accordance with his subsequent patent of 1854, drew a train of cars from -Washington to Bladensburg at a rate of nineteen miles an hour. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--DAVENPORT MOTOR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--NEFF MOTOR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC MOTOR.] - -All these motors were operated by voltaic batteries, and on account of -the cost of the latter but little practical use of the electric motor -was made until the dynamo was invented. In 1873 an accidental -discovery led to the rapid practical development of the electric motor. -It is said that at the industrial exhibition at Vienna in that year, a -number of Gramme dynamos were being placed in position, and a workman -in making the electrical connections for one of these machines, -inadvertently connected it to another dynamo in active operation, and -was surprised to find that the dynamo he was connecting began to revolve -in the opposite direction. This was the clue that led to the important -recognition of the structural identity of the dynamo and the modern -type of electric motor. The dynamo and the electric motor then grew into -development together, and the same inventors who brought the dynamo to -its present high efficiency, produced electric motors of corresponding -principles and value. In the illustration, Fig. 32, is shown a modern -electric motor. It is a Westinghouse two-phase machine, of 300 horse -power, of the self starting induction type, designed to operate at a -speed of 500 revolutions per minute when supplied with two-phase -currents of 3,000 alternations per minute and 2,000 volts pressure. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--SIEMENS' FIRST ELECTRIC RAILWAY.] - -The most important application of the electric motor is for street car -operation. The first electric railway was that of Dr. Werner Siemens, at -Berlin, in 1879, an illustration of which is given in Fig. 33. The first -electric railway in America was installed at Baltimore in 1885, and ran -to Hampden, a distance of two miles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--OVERHEAD TROLLEY CAR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--UNDERGROUND ELECTRIC TROLLEY SYSTEM.] - -The familiar overhead trolley cars, and the far superior conduit trolley -system, represent perhaps the largest use made of electric motors. The -motors are arranged under the cars in varying forms adapted to the -structure of the car. In the overhead trolley, shown in Fig. 34, the -current is taken from the overhead wire by a flexible trolley pole, and -in the conduit system a trolley known as a plow extends from the bottom -of the car through a narrow slot in the top of the conduit and makes a -traveling contact with the conductor rails within the conduit, which -carry the electric current. Fig. 35 is an end view of a street car of -the latter type, with the conduit and conductor rails in cross section. -The current goes from one rail to one bearing surface of the plow, -thence to the motor on the car and back to the other bearing surface of -the plow and the other conductor rail in the conduit. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--THIRD RAIL SYSTEM ON THE N. Y., N. H. & H. -RAILROAD--FRONT END OF MOTOR CAR.] - -A third system, which has supplanted to some extent the use of steam on -short line railways, is the so-called third rail system, of which an -example is seen in Fig. 36. A third conductor rail is placed between the -usual track rails, and from this conductor the current is taken by a -sliding shoe on the car, and carried to the motor and thence through the -car wheels to the track rails. To reduce danger from the live rail, the -third rail in some systems is made in sections, and, by an automatic -switching process as the car moves along, only the sections of the rail -beneath the car are brought into circuit, all other portions being cut -out. - -The use of electric motors has greatly extended, cheapened, and -expedited the street car service. All the principal thoroughfares of -cities and even towns are now so equipped, and radiating suburban lines -extend for miles from the city, affording for five cents a pleasant and -cheap excursion for the poor to the green fields and fresh air of the -country. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR, CLOSED.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR, OPENED.] - -Figs. 37 and 38 show an electric motor used on street cars, as made by -the General Electric Company. Externally it presents the appearance of -some curious, uncouth, cast iron box, which, to the uninitiated, piques -the curiosity, and when opened adds no explanation of its real -character. In it, however, the electrician finds a most interesting -combination of metal and magnetism. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE OF B. & O. TUNNEL IN -BALTIMORE.] - -In Fig. 39 is shown one of the most powerful electric locomotives ever -constructed. It was built in 1895 by the General Electric Company for -the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, to draw trains through the long tunnel -from the Camden Street Station in Baltimore, for the purpose of avoiding -smoke and gas in the tunnel, which is 7,339 feet long. The locomotive -weighs ninety-six tons, or twenty-five tons above the average steam -locomotive. It was designed to draw 100 trains daily each way, moving -passenger trains of a maximum weight of 500 tons at thirty-five miles an -hour, and freight trains of 1,200 tons at fifteen miles an hour. It has -two trucks, and eight drive wheels of sixty-two inches diameter. There -are four motors, two to each truck, each rated at 360 horse power. - -Other important applications of the electric motor are, the propelling -of automobile carriages, small boats, and fish torpedoes, operating -steering gear for ships, passenger elevators, rock drills in mines, -running printing presses, fans, sewing machines, graphophones, and in -all applications where space is limited and cleanliness a desideratum. - -According to Mulhall there were in 1890 in the United States and Canada -about 645 miles of street railway operated by electricity. This about -concluded the first decade of the life of the electric railway. Some -idea of the rapid increase in this field may be had by the statement of -the same authority that there were in 1890, at the end of this first -decade, forty-five additional electric railroads in course of -construction, aggregating 512 miles of way, which nearly doubled the -previous existing mileage. - -In 1898 it was estimated that there were in the United States 14,000 -miles of electric railroads, with a nominal capital of $1,000,000,000, -and employing 170,000 men. In the same year a single electrical contract -was entered into between the Third Avenue Railroad and the Union Railway -Company of New York, acting as one, and the Westinghouse Electrical and -Manufacturing Company, amounting to $5,000,000. This was for the -electrical equipment of their respective railway lines, and is the -largest electrical contract ever made. The change in equipment from -other motive power to the electric is rapidly going on in all -directions, and the rapid succession of trains will doubtless cause it, -for passenger traffic on short lines, to eventually supersede steam. - -The eighth annual report of the General Electric Company shows for the -year 1899 orders received for railway and other electrical equipment -amounting to $26,323,626; goods shipped, $22,379,463.75; profit on same, -$3,805,860.18. The growth of its business from 1893 to 1899 shows the -following per cent. of increase: In 1893, 36 per cent. above 1892; in -1894, 126 per cent. above 1893; in 1895, 10 per cent. above 1894; in -1896, 60 per cent. above 1895; in 1897, 60 per cent. above 1896; in -1898, 21 per cent. above 1897; in 1899, 51 per cent. above 1898. - -The capitalization in electrical appliances in the United States in 1898 -is estimated at $1,900,000,000, most of which is devoted to industries -in which the electric motor is used. The export of electrical apparatus -from this country amounts to more than three million dollars annually, -and it is said that there are eight times as many electric railways in -the United States as in all the rest of the world combined. - -The use of electrical current in twelve principal cities in the United -States was distributed in 1898 as follows: - -Lamps, arcs, and motors in sixteen candle power equivalents. - - Boston 616,000 - New York 1,718,000 - Chicago 1,278,000 - Brooklyn 322,000 - Baltimore 224,000 - Philadelphia 488,000 - St. Louis 303,000 - San Francisco 231,000 - Buffalo 125,000 - Rochester 184,000 - Cincinnati 201,000 - New Orleans 81,000 - -Boston makes the largest use of electrical current in proportion to its -population of any city in the world. Rochester is next. Both of these -cities employ in electrical units of 16 c. p. equivalents, more than one -electric lamp for every man, woman and child in their respective -populations. - -The dynamo and the electric motor have together wrought this great -development. The dynamo takes mechanical power and converts it into -electrical energy, and the electric motor takes the electrical energy -and converts it back into mechanical power. Standing behind them both, -however, is the steam engine, and these three afford a beautiful -illustration of the law of correlation of forces. The force starts with -the combustion of coal under the boiler of the steam engine. When carbon -unites chemically with oxygen, it is an exothermic reaction that gives -off heat as correlated energy. The influence of heat on the molecules of -water in the boiler causes them, by repellent action, to assume the -qualities of an elastic gas, and this expanding as steam drives the -piston of the steam engine. The steam engine overcomes by force the -resistance existing between the dynamo's field magnets and armature -coil, and sets up in the latter the correlated force of an electric -current, and the electric current, traveling to its remote destination -by suitable conductors, enters the coils of the electric motor in -reverse relation to that of the dynamo, and in producing the reverse -effect between the armature and field magnets, electrical energy is -converted back into mechanical power. It is not possible to obtain in -the electric motor the full equivalent of the dynamo's current, nor in -the dynamo the full equivalent of the steam engine's power, nor in the -steam engine the full equivalent of the chemical energy in the -combustion of coal. Loss by radiation, by conduction, by friction, and -by electrical resistance precludes this, but while there is loss in a -utilitarian sense there is no real loss, for force like matter, is -indestructible, and the proof of this universal law by Joule, in 1843, -constitutes one of the highest triumphs of philosophy and one of the -most important discoveries of the Nineteenth Century. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. - - VOLTAIC ARC BY SIR HUMPHREY DAVY--THE JABLOCHKOFF CANDLE--PATENTS OF - BRUSH, WESTON AND OTHERS--SEARCH LIGHTS--GROVE'S FIRST INCANDESCENT - LAMP--STARR-KING LAMP--MOSES FARMER LIGHTS FIRST DWELLING WITH - ELECTRIC LAMPS--SAWYER-MAN LAMP--EDISON'S INCANDESCENT LAMP-- - EDISON'S THREE-WIRE SYSTEM OF CIRCUITS--STATISTICS. - - -The popular idea of the electric light is, that it is a very recent -invention, since even the younger generation remembers when there was no -such thing in general use. It will surprise many readers, then, to know -that the electric light had its birth in the first decade of the -Nineteenth Century. In 1809 Sir Humphrey Davy discovered that when two -pieces of charcoal, which formed the terminals of a powerful voltaic -battery, were separated after having been brought into contact with each -other, at the moment of separation a brilliant arc of flame passed from -one piece of charcoal to the other, producing a temperature of 4,800 deg. -F., and that the intensity of the light exceeded all other known forms -of light. Various improvements in the organization of devices were made -for holding the two pieces of carbon, which in time assumed the form of -two pencils in alignment, as in Fig. 40, and devices were provided for -feeding one carbon toward the other as they burned away. Clock mechanism -for thus regulating the feed was first employed, which served to -automatically keep the carbons a definite distance apart, this being a -necessary condition of the arc. For many years, however, the use of such -a light was confined to laboratory illustration, for the reason that it -could only be produced at great expense by a large number of voltaic -batteries. Nevertheless very efficient electric lamps working by voltaic -batteries were devised by Foucault, Duboscq, Deleuil and others as early -as 1853. With the advent of the dynamo, however, the electric light grew -rapidly and developed into conspicuous use. Even before the true dynamo -was invented the magneto-electric machine was employed for producing an -electric current to supply electric light. The so-called "Alliance" -generator was, in 1858, used in the South Foreland lighthouse in England -to supply the arc lamps, and the beams of the electric light then, for -the first time, were turned seaward as a beacon for the mariner. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--SIMPLE ELECTRIC ARC LAMP.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--JABLOCHKOFF CANDLE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--WESTON ARC LAMP.] - -Among the early developments of the electric light was the Jablochkoff -candle, see Fig. 41, brought out in 1877. In this device two parallel -sticks of carbon G G were separated by a non-conducting layer of kaolin -I, and were held in an asbestos ferrule A. Metal tubes T T connected the -conducting wires F F to the carbons. The arc of flame passed from the -top of one carbon to the other, fusing the separating layer of kaolin, -and the whole burned down together as a candle. This form of electric -light was extensively used in Paris in 1877, and also in London, and -attracted considerable attention. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--ARC LAMP FEED MECHANISM.] - -From the Jablochkoff candle the arc light has resumed the form of two -vertically aligned carbons, and after passing through various forms and -patterns, of which the Weston lamp, Fig. 42, is a modern type, has come -into such universal and conspicuous use for lighting the streets of our -cities, and is so well known to-day, that but little need be said of its -development, since its real character has undergone no change in -principle, the improvements relating chiefly to means for regulating the -feed of the carbons and maintaining them at a uniform distance apart, so -as to avoid flickering. This result is obtained by automatic mechanism -operated by the electric current acting upon electro-magnets, as shown -in Fig. 43, in which the electro-magnets raise the upper carbon when it -is too close to the lower carbon, and lower the upper carbon when the -space becomes too great from burning away. Among those who have -contributed to the development of the arc light the names of Brush, -Weston, and Thomson and Houston are most conspicuous, and the patents of -Brush, No. 203,411, May 7, 1878, and No. 212,183, Feb. 11, 1879, and -Weston, No. 285,451, Sept. 25, 1883, are the most representative -developments. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--NINE THOUSAND CANDLE POWER ARC LAMP.] - -The applications of the arc light have been brilliant beyond the dreams -of the most sanguine inventor. In the illustrations number 44, 45 and -46, is shown a gigantic electric light beacon manufactured by Henry -Lepaute, of Paris, and first exhibited in this country at the Chicago -World's Fair, in 1893. It consists of two great lenses, each nine feet -in diameter, between which, in their focus, is placed a 9,000 candle -power arc light. The great lantern, Fig. 45, is carried by a vertical -shaft, which terminates at its lower end in a hollow drum, which latter -floats in a bath of mercury. Although the weight is estimated at several -tons, so sensitive is its poise on the mercury that the enormous lantern -may be easily rotated by the pressure of one's finger. Each lens -consists of concentric segments, see Fig. 46, 190 in number, surrounding -a central disk, which together cause the rays to issue in parallel -lines. The nine-foot beam of light thus projected is of 90,000,000 -candle power, and if placed at a sufficient altitude to avoid the -curvature of the earth's surface, its light would be visible at the -range of 146.9 nautical miles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--NINETY MILLION CANDLE POWER BIVALVE LENS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--FRONT VIEW OF LENS.] - -Better known to the patrons of our excursion boats and the visitors to -our splendid battleships, are the electric search lights. The greatest -example of all search lights, however, is not to be found on the sea, -but in the picturesque altitudes of the Sierra Madres in Southern -California. At the summit of Mount Lowe, in the neighborhood of -Pasadena, is the largest search light in the world, shown in -illustration, Fig. 48. It is of 3,000,000 candle power, stands eleven -feet high, and its total weight is 6,000 pounds. Its light may be seen -for 150 miles out on the ocean, and as its powerful beam is thrown from -mountain top to mountain top hundreds of miles apart, it adds the -illumination of art to the sublimity of nature, and seems a fitting -jewel to this lofty crown of Mother Earth. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--SEARCH LIGHT WITH MACHINE GUN REPELLING NIGHT -ATTACK OF TORPEDO BOAT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--SEARCH LIGHT ON MOUNT LOWE, CALIFORNIA.] - -Brilliant as is the arc lamp, far more in evidence is the incandescent -lamp. The little glass bulb with its tiny thread of light we find -everywhere. Popular opinion and the decision of the courts accord this -invention to Thomas A. Edison. The evolution of the incandescent lamp -is, however, interesting, and may be briefly sketched as follows: - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--FIRST INCANDESCENT LAMP, BY PROFESSOR GROVE, -1840.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--STARR-KING LAMP.] - -In 1845 there appeared in the _Philosophical Magazine_ a description of -what was probably the first incandescent electric light. It was devised -in 1840 by William Robert Grove, the inventor of the Grove battery, and -is illustrated in Fig. 49. It is stated that he experimented and read by -it for hours. It was described as follows: - -"A coil of platinum wire is attached to two copper wires, the lower -parts of which, or those most distant from the platinum, are well -varnished; these are fixed erect in a glass of distilled water, and -another cylindrical glass, closed at the upper end, is inverted over -them, so that its open mouth rests on the bottom of the former glass; -the projecting ends of the copper wires are connected with a voltaic -battery (two or three pairs of the nitric acid combination), and the -ignited wire now gives a steady light. Instead of making the wires pass -through the water, they may be fixed to metallic caps well luted to the -necks of a glass globe." - -In 1845 August King patented, in England, an incandescent lamp, having -an unsealed platinum burner, and also a carbon in a vacuum. Mr. King -acted as agent for an American inventor, Mr. Starr, and the lamp came -to be known as the Starr-King lamp, shown in Fig. 50. The burner was a -thin plate or pencil of carbon B, enclosed in a Torricellian vacuum at -the end of an inverted barometer tube, and held between the terminals of -the connecting wires leading to a battery. In 1859 Moses G. Farmer -lighted his house at Salem, Mass., by a series of subdivided electric -lights, which was the first private dwelling lighted by electricity, and -probably the first illustration of the feasibility of subdividing the -electric current through a number of electric lamps. - -In 1877 William E. Sawyer applied for a United States patent for an -electric engineering and lighting system, and in January, 1878, entered -into a partnership with Albon Man, and the "Sawyer-Man" lamp, see Fig. -51, was produced. In this an incandescent rod of carbon was inclosed in -an atmosphere of nitrogen. This marked the beginning of a period of -great activity in this field, which finally resulted in the well known -form of electric lamp shown in Fig. 52, which was patented by Edison, -No. 223,898, January 27, 1880. The distinctive features of this lamp -consisted in a bowed filament of carbon of very thin, thread-like -character, which was made of paper or carbonized cellulose. This, when -sealed in a vacuum, would not burn away, but would give the proper -incandescence, and by its small transverse dimension and high -resistance to the current, permitted a proper distribution of the -electric current to a number of lamps, without a special regulator for -each lamp; and which could also be made so cheaply that the lamp could -be thrown away when the burner was finally broken. Edison's claim on -this feature of the electric lamp was sharply contested in an -interference in the Patent Office by Sawyer and Man, with the decisions -alternating first in favor of one and then of the other, but which -finally resulted in the grant of a patent to Sawyer and Man, on May 12, -1885. A struggle then began in the courts, which on October 4, 1892, -terminated in a decision by the United States Court of Appeals (Edison -Electric Light Company vs. United States Lighting Company), awarding the -incandescent lamp to Edison. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--SAWYER-MAN LAMP.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--EDISON'S ELECTRIC LAMP. - -_A_--Exhausted globe. _B_--Carbon filament. _CC_--Wires sealed in glass. -_D_--Line of fusion of two parts of globe. _EF_--Insulating material. -_G_--Screw-threads. _HI_--Metal socket. _J_--Fixture arm _K_--Circuit -controlling key.] - -In the early demonstration given by Edison great disturbance was caused -in the stock exchanges among the holders of gas shares, as the -sensational reportings in the press seemed to indicate that gas was to -be superseded entirely. This uneasiness on the London Stock Exchange -amounted on October 11, 1878, to a veritable panic, but while the -electric light has more than fulfilled the prophecy made for it in many -directions, gas shares still continue to be good stocks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--ELECTRIC LIGHT CIRCUIT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--EDISON'S THREE WIRE SYSTEM OF ELECTRIC LIGHT -CIRCUITS.] - -Closely allied to the practical use of the incandescent lamp is the -method of supplying and regulating the current from the dynamo. Although -the alternating current is used for arc light, only the continuous -current can be used for the incandescent lights, and the relation of -the dynamo and the incandescent lamps is shown in Fig. 53, in which L -represents the lamps between the main conducting wires leading from the -dynamo, which latter has the coils of the field magnets arranged in a -shunt or branch circuit, in which is interposed a regulator R in the -form of a resistance coil with movable switch lever, by which more or -less of the current is allowed to flow through the field magnet coils to -suit the work being done. In late years automatic regulators have been -provided for accomplishing this result. In Fig. 54 is shown what is -known as the Edison "three wire system," patented March 20, 1883, No. -274,290. In this two dynamos are used as at D¹ D squared, and the three wires -emerge from the dynamos, one from the negative pole of one dynamo, -another from the positive pole of the other dynamo, and the third or -middle one is connected to both the other poles (positive and negative), -of the two dynamos. For purposes of illustration, this may be compared -to a three-storied arrangement of current, the upper wire representing -the third story, the middle wire the second story, and the bottom one -the first story. The fall from either story to the next represents the -working energy, but from the top wire to the bottom would be equal to a -fall from the third story to the first. The purpose of this arrangement -is to save expense in copper wire, for while three main wires are used -instead of two, the aggregate weight of the wires (when the lamps are -arranged as shown), may be made so much less than two heavy wires as to -make a very great saving in copper. - -The uses of the incandescent light are legion. Besides those which are -of common observation it is used for lighting the interior of mines, -caves, and the dark apartments of ships, and does not foul the air. It -is also used by divers in submarine operations; in the formation of -advertising signs, and in pyrotechnics, but perhaps one of the most -extraordinary uses to which it has been put is in exploring the interior -of the human stomach and other cavities of the body, a patent for which -was granted to M. C. F. Nitze, No. 218,055, July 29, 1879. - -When an electric lamp is arranged with the opposite ends of the carbon -burner connected, one to the outgoing, the other to the incoming wires -from a dynamo, so as to be bridged across, this arrangement is said to -be "in multiple" or "in parallel," and the lamps bear the analogy of -horses drawing abreast, and when the opposite ends of the carbon burner -are placed in a gap or break in either the outgoing or the incoming -wire, the arrangement is said to be "in series," and the lamps bear the -analogy of horses in tandem. - -Explanation of electric nomenclature can best be given by the analogy in -hydrostatics of a stream of water passing in the hose pipe from a -fire-engine. The "watt" indicates the sum total unit of electrical power -for a definite period of time, and in the hose pipe would be -represented by the effective force of a definite volume of water, -passing at a definite pressure, during a definite period of time. "Volt" -is a pressure unit of electro-motive force, and would be represented by -the power of the engine. "Ampere" would be the quantity, or volume unit, -or cross section of the hose pipe, and the "ohm" would be the unit of -frictional resistance. The "watt" then would be the "volt" multiplied by -the "ampere"; thus 500 watts would be 10 amperes at 50 volts, or 50 -amperes at 10 volts. Low tension circuits, such as are used for -incandescent lights, range from 100 to 240 volts and are harmless. -Trolley circuits are usually 500 volts, and will kill an animal, but are -not necessarily fatal to man. High tension currents from 2,000 to 5,000 -volts, such as are used for arc lights, are fatal. - -Of all modern inventions, not one has advertised itself in such a -spectacular way as the electric light. Those who have seen the -magnificent electrical displays at the Chicago Fair, the electrical -celebrations in New York, and the Omaha Exhibition, need no introduction -to its marvelous splendors and beauties. In the annual report for 1898 -of the Edison Electric Illuminating Company of New York, its statement -shows that for that city alone the gross earnings were $2,898,021. There -were 9,990 users of the electric light, 443,074 incandescent lamps, and -7,353 arc lights. It is estimated that the electric light stations and -plants in the United States alone amount to $600,000,000. In the year -1899 a single manufacturing concern (The General Electric Company) -received orders for 10,000,000 incandescent lamps, which is about -one-half of the present annual production. Sixteen years ago the lamps -were $1 each; to-day they can be bought for 18 cents. - -What the future has in store for the further development of the electric -light no one may dare predict. Already a different form or manifestation -of electric light has been demonstrated, in which neither the electric -arc nor the incandescent filament is used, but a peculiar glow is seen -disassociated from a direct material habitation, and produced by -currents of enormous frequency and high potential, in accordance with -the patent to Tesla, No. 454,622, June 23, 1891. Other worthy inventors -in this field are at work, and its development will be one of the -interesting problems of the Twentieth Century. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE TELEPHONE. - - PRELIMINARY SUGGESTIONS AND EXPERIMENTS OF BOURSEUL, REIS AND - DRAWBAUGH--FIRST SPEAKING TELEPHONE BY PROF. BELL--DIFFERENCES - BETWEEN REIS' AND BELL'S TELEPHONES--THE BLAKE TRANSMITTER-- - BERLINER'S VARIATION OF RESISTANCE, AND ELECTRIC UNDULATIONS BY - VARIATION OF PRESSURE--EDISON'S CARBON MICROPHONE--THE TELEPHONE - EXCHANGE--STATISTICS. - - -[Greek: Tele] (far), and [Greek: phone] (sound), are the Greek roots -from which the word telephone is derived. It has the significance of -transmitting sound to distant points, and is a word antedating the -present speaking telephone, although this fact is generally lost sight -of in the dazzling brilliancy of this latter invention. In the effort to -hear better, the American Indian was accustomed to place his ear to the -ground. Children of former generations also made use of a toy known as -the "lovers' telegraph"--a piece of string held under tension between -the flexible bottoms of two tin boxes--which latter when spoken into -transmitted through the string the vibrations from one box to the other, -and made audible words spoken at a distance. These expedients simply -made available the superior conductivity of the solid body over the air -to transmit sound waves. The electro-magnetic telephone operates on an -entirely different principle. It is a marvelous creation of genius, and -stands alone as the unique, superb, and unapproachable triumph of the -Nineteenth Century. For subtilty of principle, impressiveness of action, -and breadth of results, there is nothing comparable with it among -mechanical agencies. In its wonderful function of placing one -intelligent being in direct vocal and sympathetic communication with -another a thousand miles away, its intangible and mysterious mode of -action suggests to the imagination that unseen medium of prayer rising -from the conscious human heart to its omniscient and responsive God. The -telegraph and railroad had already brought all the peoples of the earth -into intimate communication and made them close kin, but the telephone -transformed them into the closer relationship of families, and the tiny -wire, sentient and responsive with its unlimited burden of human -thoughts and human feelings, forms one of the great vital cords in the -solidarity of the human family. - -It is a curious fact that many, and perhaps most, great inventions have -been in the nature of accidental discoveries, the by-products of thought -directed in another channel, and seeking other results, but the -telephone does not belong to this class. It is the logical and -magnificent outcome of persistent thought and experiment in the -direction of the electrical transmittal of speech. Prof. Bell had his -objective point, and keeping this steadily in view, worked faithfully -for the accomplishment of his object in producing a speaking telephone, -until success crowned his work. He probably did not realize at first the -full magnitude of the achievement, but looking at it from the end of the -Nineteenth Century, he might well exclaim in the language of Horace: -"_Exegi monumentum acre perennius_." - -Prof. Bell's conception of the telephone dates back as far as 1874. His -first United States patent, No. 174,465, was granted March 7, 1876, and -his second January 30, 1877, No. 186,787. It is generally the fate of -most inventions, even of a meritorious order, to languish for many -years, and frequently through the whole term of the patent, before -receiving full recognition and adoption by the public, but the meteoric -brilliancy of this invention at its first public announcement astonished -the masses, and inspired the admiration of the savants of the world. -When exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, in 1876, it -was spoken of by Sir William Thomson, and Prof. Henry, as the "greatest -by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph." - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--PHILIP REIS' TELEPHONE.] - -It is always the fate of the author of any great invention to be -compelled to defend himself against the claims of others. It is one of -the failings of human nature to lay claim to that which somebody else -has obtained, and is an old story which finds its first illustration in -the squabbles of childhood. When a troop of prattling boys hunt -butterflies among the daisies, and some sharp-eyed youngster has -captured a prize, there are always others of his mates to cry, "I saw it -first," and men are but grown-up boys. So in the history of the -telephone, Prof. Bell has found competitors for this honor, and it is -astonishing to know how close some of these prior experimenters came to -success without reaching it. In 1854 Bourseul, of Paris _suggested_ an -electric telephone, and in 1861 Philip Reis _devised_ an electric -telephone which would transmit musical tones. Daniel Drawbaugh, of -Pennsylvania, is alleged to have made an electric telephone in -1867-1868, and his claims against the Bell interests were fought -vigorously in the Patent Office, and in the courts, but without success. -Elisha Gray's claims perhaps came nearer to establishing for him a share -in the honor of inventing the speaking telephone than any other, for he -filed a caveat in the United States Patent Office upon the same day -(February 14, 1876), upon which Prof. Bell's application for a patent -was made. But in the contest in the Patent Office with Gray, Edison, -Berliner, Richmond, Holcombe, Farmer, Dolbear, Volker, and others, it -was decided that Prof. Bell was the first to make a practically -effective speaking telephone, and this conclusion has been sustained by -the courts. Reis was a poor German school teacher at Friedrichsdorf, and -in 1860 he took a coil of wire, a knitting needle, the skin of a German -sausage, the bung of a beer barrel, and a strip of platinum, and -constructed the first electric telephone. A typical form of his -transmitter, see Fig. 55, was a box covered with a vibrating membrane E, -and provided with a mouth-piece at one side. A platinum strip F was -attached to the membrane or vibrating diaphragm E, and a platinum -pointed hammer G rested lightly on the platinum strip F. The hammer G -and platinum strip F were connected to the opposite ends of a wire, -which had in its circuit a battery and a receiver. Air vibrations in the -nature of sound waves in the box caused the diaphragm E to vibrate, and -a separating make-and-break contact between the platinum strip F and the -platinum point of hammer G caused a series of separate and distinct -broken impulses to traverse the battery circuit and be received upon the -receiver, which latter consisted of an iron rod with a coil of wire -around it. That Reis' transmitter did alternately make and break the -circuit, seems clear from his own memoir. A translation from this -memoir, taken from the annual report (Jahresberichte) of the Physical -Society of Frankfurt am Main for 1860-1861, reads as follows: - -"At the first condensation (of air vibrations) the hammer-shaped little -wire _d_ (G in our illustration), will be pushed back. At the succeeding -rarefaction it cannot follow the return vibration of the membrane, and -the current going through the little strip (of platinum) remains -interrupted so long as until the membrane driven by a new condensation -presses the little strip against _d_ (the hammer G) once more. In this -way each sound wave effects an opening and closing of the current." - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--PROF. BELL'S TELEPHONE, MARCH 7, 1876.] - -Reis evidently did not know how to make the vibrations of his diaphragm -translate themselves into exactly commensurate and correlated electric -impulses of equal rapidity, range, and quality. If he had done this, he -would have had a speaking telephone, but a make-and-break contact could -never do it, and hence he in his later instruments attached to them a -telegraphic key in order that the sending operator might communicate -with the receiving operator. If Reis' telephone had been a speaking -telephone, this would have been unnecessary. Furthermore, it is -inconceivable how the intelligent, progressive, and scientific Germans -could have failed to have given to a speaking telephone in 1860 the -immediate honor and attention that it deserved. In America, the Bell -speaking telephone, invented in 1876, was known all over the civilized -world the same year. Reis' broken contact circuit would transmit musical -tones, because musical tones vary chiefly in rapidity of vibration, -rather than in range, or quality, and the chattering contacts of Reis' -telephone would transmit musical tones because said contracts could be -adjusted to the practically uniform range of vibration. Prof. Bell, -however, had made a special study of articulate speech, and knew that -speech was not essentially musical, but was composed of an irregular and -discordant medley of vowel and consonant sounds, whose vibrations varied -not only in pitch or rapidity like musical tones, but also in the -quality or kind of vibrations as to range and loudness. In his -invention, therefore, he did not make and break the circuit as did Reis, -through the contact points, but he used the more sensitive plan of a -constantly closed circuit, and merely caused the current to undulate in -it by a principle of magnetic induction. This principle was first -discovered by Oersted, and developed into the well known fact that when -a piece of iron is moved back and forth from the poles of an -electro-magnet an induced current is made to oscillate in the helix of -the electro-magnet. The difference between Reis' separating -make-and-break circuit, and the Bell continuous but undulating current, -might be illustrated by the difference between the impulses delivered by -the beating of the drum sticks on the head of a drum, on the one hand, -and the alternate pulling and slackening of a kite cord, on the other. -In the successive impacts on the head of a drum there could not be so -sensitive a transfer of motion to the lower head of the drum as there -would be transferred to the kite by the movement of the hand holding the -kite cord. Reis' plan resembled the broken drum beats, and Bell's the -kite cord, which always preserved a certain amount of tension. Bell -accomplished his object by the means shown in Figs. 56 and 57, in which -Fig. 56 represents his first patent of March 7, 1876, and Fig. 57 his -second patent of January 30, 1877. In both cases the current was a -continuously closed one, and was not alternately made and broken as by -the separating contacts of Reis. Prof. Bell caused the vocal air -vibrations to undulate or oscillate the continuously closed circuit by -the principle of magnetic induction as follows (see Fig. 56): He caused -diaphragm _a_, when spoken against, to vibrate the armature _c_ in front -of the electro-magnet _b_, but without touching it, and as the armature -approached and receded from the electro-magnet it induced an undulating -but never broken current in the helix of this electro-magnet and along -the line to and through the helix of the electro-magnet _f_ at the -distant receiver, and this undulating current, influencing the armature -_h_, which touched the diaphragm _i_ but not the electro-magnet, -produced in the attractive influence of the magnet on this armature and -diaphragm, vibrations of the same rapidity, range, and quality as those -vocal vibrations that acted upon the first diaphragm _a_. In other -words, the sequence of transference was air vibrations in A, mechanical -vibrations of diaphragm _a_, electrical undulations traversing the line, -induced vibrations in armature _h_ and diaphragm _i_, and air vibrations -again resolved back into sounds of articulate speech, the same as those -spoken into A. It will be perceived that in the Bell telephone both -transmitter and receiver were of identical construction. This is better -shown in Fig. 57 of his later patent, in which the horizontal line below -the electro-magnet on one side represents a metal transmitting -diaphragm, and the horizontal line under the electro-magnet at the other -side was the receiving diaphragm. Not only were the sounds thus -reproduced, but as the circuit was continuous and never broken by any -separating contacts, the extreme sensitiveness of the electric -vibrations set up by magnetic induction was such that the discordant and -irregular quality of the vibrations of articulate speech were -transferred and reproduced with exact fidelity, as well as the musical -tones, and this rendered the speaking telephone a success. In later -telephones the current is actually transmitted through the contacting -points, but this only became practicable after the carbon microphone -transmitter was invented, in which the essential undulations of the -electric current were produced in another way, _i. e._, by the -application of the important discovery that the varying of the pressure -on carbon, by vibration, varied its conductivity, and in this way -produced the same result of undulating a current without breaking it. -This in no wise detracts from the value of the principle of the -continuous undulating current discovered and employed by Prof. Bell, -between which and the breaks of the hard platinum points of Reis there -is a difference as wide as the difference between success and failure. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--PROF. BELL'S TELEPHONE, JANUARY 30, 1877.] - -The form in which Prof. Bell's telephone was placed before the public -was not that shown in the patents, but it quickly assumed the well-known -shape of an elongated cylinder forming a handle, with a flaring -mouth-piece at one end. This development in form is credited to Dr. -Channing in 1877, and it is the familiar form to-day, whose internal -construction is shown in Fig. 58. The handle is made of hard rubber, and -the cap or mouth-piece, which is screwed thereon, is also of hard -rubber. The diaphragm A, of thin ferrotype plate, is clamped at its -edges between the cap, or mouth-piece, and the handle. The compound -magnet B is composed of four thin flat bar magnets, arranged in pairs on -opposite sides of the flat end of the soft iron pole piece _c_ at one -end, and the soft iron spacing piece _d_ at the other end, the magnets -being clamped to these pieces with like poles all in one direction. The -end of the pole piece _c_ extends to within 1/100 to 2/100 of an inch of -the diaphragm, or as near as possible so that the diaphragm does not -touch it when it vibrates. On the pole piece _c_ is placed a wooden -spool on which is wound silk-covered wire (No. 34, Am. W. G.). This wire -fills the spool, and its ends are soldered to two insulated wires which -pass through a flexible rubber disc _f_ below the spool and extend -respectively to the two binding posts at the opposite end of the handle. -The current passes from one binding post and its connecting wire, -through the wire on the spool, and thence to the other connecting wire -and binding post. When used as a transmitter, vocal vibrations acting -mechanically on the diaphragm A produce undulatory vibrations by -magnetic induction in the spool of wire, which are transmitted to the -other end of the line; and when used as a receiver, the undulatory -vibrations from the remote end of the line produce mechanical vibrations -in the diaphragm, which set up air vibrations that are reproductions of -articulate sounds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF BELL TELEPHONE.] - -Although the Bell telephone is both a transmitter and receiver, in -practice a more sensitive and better form of transmitter has taken its -place. That most generally used and best known is the "Blake -transmitter," which was brought out about 1880. This employs two -important elements. The first is the carbon microphone, which is a means -for producing the undulations in the current by the variations in -pressure on carbon contacts, and the second is an induction coil -operated by a local battery, whose primary circuit passes through the -contacts of the carbon microphone, and whose secondary circuit passes -over the line. These fundamental elements of the Blake transmitter were -the inventions of Berliner and Edison, and were made in 1877. The broad -idea of producing electric undulations by varying the pressure between -electrodes by vocal vibrations, was a large bone of contention in the -Patent Office between various inventors. An application for a patent for -the same was filed in the Patent Office by Emile Berliner, June 4, 1877, -which was contested in an interference by Gray, Edison, Richmond, -Dolbear, Holcombe, Prof. Bell, and others. After fourteen years of -litigation the patent was finally awarded to Berliner. The patent -granted to him November 17, 1891, No. 463,569, is a valuable one, and -has become the property of the American Bell Telephone Company. The -application of a low resistance conductor (carbon) in a microphone was -invented by Edison as early as 1877, but his patent, No. 474,230, did -not issue until May 3, 1892, on account of the interference with -Berliner on the broader principle. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--BLAKE TRANSMITTER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--DIAGRAM OF CIRCUITS IN BLAKE TRANSMITTER.] - -The Blake transmitter takes its name from the inventor of its mechanical -features, who has assembled in it the fundamental principles of Berliner -and Edison in a sensitive and practical mechanical construction, covered -by minor patents, dated November 29, 1881. It is the little box in the -middle of the familiar telephone outfit into which the talking is done. -Its internal construction is shown in Fig. 59. To the rear of the door -is secured the cast iron circular ring A, inside of which lies the -Russia iron diaphragm B, cushioned at its edges with a rubber band. A -circular seat a little larger than the diaphragm is formed in the iron -ring, and on this seat the diaphragm rests. A short, thin metal plate -attached to the ring A on the right hand side clamps the diaphragm in -position by resting squarely on the rubber edge of the diaphragm. Its -function is like that of a hinge, which allows the diaphragm to freely -swing inward. A steel damping spring is secured to the ring at the -opposite edge of the diaphragm, and has its free end provided with a -rubber glove on which is cemented a thin piece of fluffy woolen -material. The padded end of the damping spring rests against the -diaphragm and prevents excessive vibration. The iron ring A has at its -bottom a projection holding an adjusting screw, and to a similar top -projection is attached by screws a brass spring, from which depends -another casting C, supporting the microphone apparatus, which is best -shown in the diagram, Fig. 60. In this diagram A is one terminal of the -battery connected by wire S to the hinge H of the box. From the other -leaf of the hinge the wire M passes to K, where it is soldered to the -upper end of a German silver spring I. At K this spring is clamped and -insulated from the iron work by two pieces of hard rubber. On the lower -end of the spring I is soldered a short piece of thick platinum wire, -whose ends are rounded into heads, one of which bears against the -diaphragm N, and the other against the carbon button J. This button is -attached to a small brass weight, and is supported by a spring R, -clamped at its upper end to the metal support T. This spring is -surrounded its entire length by rubber tubing to deaden vibration. The -transmitter is adjusted by screw O, which, acting upon casting T, brings -the carbon button, the platinum heads, and also the diaphragm N, against -each other with a regulated pressure. The current passes from the part K -to the spring I, the platinum head, carbon button J, and its supporting -spring R, to metal casting T, and ring V, thence by wire L to the lower -hinge G, by wire P to the primary of the induction coil, and thence by -wire Y to binding post B, the two binding posts A B being the two -battery terminals. The secondary wire E of the induction coil has its -ends connected by wires X and W with the two binding posts C B, which -are the line terminals, or one the line terminal and the other the -ground connection. It will thus be seen that the primary current passes -through the transmitter, and the secondary traverses the line. The most -familiar forms of the telephone are those seen in Figs. 61 and 62, but -the ideal form is rigged in a cabinet or little room, which excludes all -extraneous interfering sounds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--WALL TELEPHONE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--DESK TELEPHONE.] - -With the Bell receiver and the Blake transmitter a good practical -telephone system may be constructed, but the improvements which have -been made in the short life of the telephone are beyond adequate -description, or even mention. They relate to the call bell, the battery, -the switchboard, meters for registering calls, conductors, conduits, -connections, lightning arresters, switches, anti-induction devices, -repeaters, and systems. Among those most prominently identified with its -development are Bell, Edison, Berliner, Hughes, Gray, Dolbear and -Phelps. The activity in this field is best illustrated by the fact that -the art of telephony, begun practically in 1876, has at the end of the -Nineteenth Century grown into some 3,000 United States patents on the -subject. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--TELEPHONE EXCHANGE.] - -That which has given the telephone its greatest commercial value is the -"exchange" system, by which at a central office any member of a -telephonic community may be instantly put into communication with any -other member of that community. For this purpose, see Fig. 63, a -continuous switchboard is arranged along the side of a large room and -occupies most of that side of the wall. It comprises a great array of -annunciator drops, spring jacks with plug seats, and connecting cords -with metal plugs at their opposite ends. Each subscriber is connected to -his own spring jack and annunciator drop, and his call to central -office (from his magneto-bell) throws down the annunciator drop which -bears the number of his telephone, and announces to the attendant his -desire to communicate with another. To insure the attention of the -attendant, a tiny electric lamp is by the same action lighted directly -in front of her, which acts as a pilot signal to call her attention to -the drop. The attendant now puts a plug in that spring jack, which -automatically restores the drop, and she then asks the number which the -subscriber wants, and, upon ascertaining this, puts the plug at the -other end of the connecting cord into the spring jack of the subscriber -wanted, and by this action disconnects her own telephone. As every -telephone subscriber has in the central office an apparatus exclusively -his own, it will be seen that a telephone community of several thousands -of subscribers involves an imposing array of multiple connections, and a -great expense in construction. Girls are chosen as exchange attendants -because their voices are clearer. Every telephone jack, however, does -not have its Jill, for each girl has charge of a hundred or more jacks, -and wears constantly on her head a telephone of special shape, embracing -her head like a child's hoop comb, but terminating with an ear-piece at -one end that covers one ear. She is too busy to waste time in adjusting -an ordinary telephone to her ear, and so wears one of special design all -the time. - -In the twentieth annual report of the American Bell Telephone Company, -for the year 1899, the number of telephones in use January 1, 1900, by -that company alone, in the United States, was 1,580,101; the miles of -wire were 1,016,777, and the daily connections for persons using the -telephone were 5,173,803. The gross earnings of the company were -$5,760,106.45, and it paid in dividends $3,882,945. The total number of -exchange stations of the Bell Company in the principal countries of the -world are: United States, 632,946; Germany, 212,121; Great Britain, -112,840; Sweden, 63,685; France, 44,865; Switzerland, 35,536; Russia, -26,865; Austria, 26,664; Norway, 25,376. The United States has nearly -85,000 more than all the others put together. - -Since the expiration of the Bell patents many smaller companies have -sprung up, and the number of telephones in use has more than doubled in -the last five years. Long distance telephony is now carried on up to -nearly 2,000 miles, and one may to-day lie in bed in New York and listen -to a concert in Chicago, and the vocal exchange of business and social -intercourse between cities has become so large a feature of modern life -as to justify the organization of a great company for this service -alone. - -In the Old Testament, Book of Job, xxxviii. chapter, 35th verse, it is -written: "Canst thou send lightnings that they may go and say unto -thee--'Here we are?'" For thousands of years this challenge to Job has -been looked upon as a feat whose execution was only within the power of -the Almighty; but to-day the inventor--that patient modern Job--has -accomplished this seemingly impossible task, for at the end of this -Nineteenth Century of the Christian Era, the telephone makes the -lightning man's vocal messenger, tireless, faithful, and true, knowing -no prevarication, and swifter than the winged messenger of the gods. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -ELECTRICITY--MISCELLANEOUS. - - STORAGE BATTERY--BATTERIES OF PLANTE, FAURE AND BRUSH--ELECTRIC - WELDING--DIRECT GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY BY COMBUSTION--ELECTRIC - BOATS--ELECTRO-PLATING--EDISON'S ELECTRIC PEN--ELECTRICITY IN - MEDICINE--ELECTRIC CAUTERY--ELECTRICAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS--ELECTRIC - BLASTING. - - -A prominent factor in the electrical art is the _Storage Battery_, -Secondary Battery, or Accumulator, as it is variously called. A storage -battery acts upon the same general principle as the ordinary galvanic or -voltaic battery in giving forth electrical current as the correlated -equivalent of the chemical force, but differs from it in this respect, -that when the elements of a primary battery are used up, the battery is -exhausted beyond repair. With the storage battery, it may be regenerated -at will by simply subjecting it to an electric current from a dynamo. -The dynamo stores up in this battery its electric force by converting it -into chemical force, which is imprisoned in chemical compounds that are -formed while the power of the dynamo is being applied. These chemical -compounds are, however, in a condition of unstable chemical equilibrium, -which is undisturbed so long as the poles of the storage battery are not -connected, but when connected through a circuit, the instability of the -chemical compounds asserts itself, and in passing back to a condition of -normal equilibrium the disruption gives off the correlative equivalent -of electric current stored up in it by the dynamo. - -Probably the earliest suggestion of a storage battery is by Ritter in -1812, in his "secondary pile." This device consisted of alternate discs -of copper and moistened card, and was capable of receiving a charge from -a voltaic pile and of then producing the physical, chemical, and -physiological effects obtained from the ordinary pile. The first storage -battery of importance, however, was made by Gaston Plante in 1860, which -consisted of leaden plates immersed in a 10 per cent. solution of -sulphuric acid in water. In Fig. 64 is shown a modification of the -Plante type of storage battery, composed of a series of plates shown on -the left. Each of these plates is built up, as shown in detail in Fig. -65, of lead strips corrugated and arranged in layers alternately with -flat strips, within perforated leaden cases. The corrugation of the -leaden laminae gives greater superficial area, and the alternation of -flat and corrugated strips keeps them properly spaced, so the sulphuric -acid solution may penetrate and act upon the same. Each plate section -has a rod to connect it with its proper terminal. When the charging -current is applied, the positive lead plate becomes covered with lead -peroxide (PbO_{2}) and finely divided metallic lead is deposited on the -negative plate. When the battery is being discharged the peroxide of -lead gives up one of its atoms of oxygen to the spongy metallic lead -deposited on the other plate, and both plates remain coated with lead -monoxide (PbO). - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--PLANTE STORAGE BATTERY.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--ENLARGED DETAIL OF PLANTE PLATE.] - -The most important development of the storage battery was made by -Camille A. Faure, in 1880 (U. S. Pat. No. 252,002, Jan 3, 1882). In the -early part of 1881 there was sent from Paris to Glasgow a so-called "box -of electric energy" for inspection and test by Sir William Thomson, the -eminent electrician. It was one of the first storage batteries of M. -Faure. The illustration, Fig. 66, shows a battery of this type in which -the lead plates covered with red lead (Pb_{3}O_{4}) replace the plain -lead plates in the Plante cell. The action of the battery is that when a -current of electricity is passed into the same, the red lead on one -plate (the negative) is reduced to metallic lead, and that on the other -is oxidized to a state of peroxide (PbO_{2)}. These actions are reversed -when the charged cell is discharging itself. The elements of this -battery consist of alternate layers of sheet lead, and a paste of red -oxide of lead. These are immersed in a 10 per cent. solution of -sulphuric acid in water. Many minor improvements have been made in the -storage battery, covered by 716 United States patents, most of which -relate to cellular construction for holding the mass of red lead in -place. The most notable are those of Brush, to whom many patents were -granted in 1882 and 1883. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--STORAGE BATTERY--FAURE TYPE.] - -The storage battery finds many important applications. For furnishing -current for the propulsion of electric street cars it has proved a -disappointment, on account of the vibrations to which it is subjected, -and the great weight of the lead, which in batteries of suitable -capacity runs up into many thousands of pounds. The storage battery -finds a useful place, however, for equalizing the load in lighting and -power stations, and is there brought into action to supplement the -engine and dynamo during those hours of the day when the tax or load is -greatest. It is also used to keep up electrical pressure at the ends of -long transmission lines; for telegraphing purposes; for isolated -electric lighting; for boat propulsion; the propulsion of automobile -carriages; and in all cases where a portable source of electric current -would find application. The great growth of automobile carriages in the -past year has greatly stimulated the output of storage batteries. One -large company (The Electric Storage Battery Company), manufactured and -sold storage batteries for the year ending June 1, 1899, to the amount -of $2,387,049.91, and there are many other manufacturers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--ELECTRIC WELDING.] - -_Electric Welding_ was invented by Prof. Elihu Thomson, of Lynn, Mass., -and patented by him August 10, 1886, No. 347,140-42, and July 18, 1893, -No. 501,546. It is useful for the making of chains, tools, carriage -axles, joining shafting, wires, and pipes, mending bands, tires, hoops, -and lengthening and shortening bolts, bars, etc. For electric welding a -current of great volume or quantity, and very low electro-motive force, -is required. Thus a current of from one to two volts, and one to several -thousand amperes, is best suited. Referring to Fig. 67, the current from -the dynamo is conducted to one binding post of the commutator 3, which -is arranged to send the current through one-sixth, one-third or one-half -of the primary wire P of a transformer or induction coil. The other -binding post of the commutator 3 extends to one terminal of an isolated -primary coil 4, and the other terminal of this coil connects with the -dynamo. The coil 4 is provided with a switch to regulate the amount of -current. The rods to be welded are placed in clamps C C', C being -connected with one terminal of the secondary conductor S, and the -movable clamp C' with the other. When the current is turned on C' is -moved so as to project one of the surfaces to be welded against the -other, and as they come in contact they heat and fuse together, as shown -at W. Larger apparatus has been devised to weld railroad joints on the -roadbed, and for other applications. - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.--GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY BY COMBUSTION.] - -_The generation of electricity_ for commercial purposes is almost -entirely dependent upon the dynamo, as this is cheaper than the voltaic -battery. The dynamo, however, must be energized by a steam engine. The -direct production of electric energy by the combustion of coal would be -the ideal method. A process invented by Edison (Pat. No. 490,953, Jan. -31, 1893), is interesting as an effort in this direction, and is -presented in Fig. 68. A carbon cylinder D is suspended in an air-tight -vessel B, and is surrounded by oxide of iron F, the whole being placed -above a furnace. The temperature being raised to a point where the -carbon will be attacked by the oxygen, carbonic oxide and carbonic acid -will be formed, which are exhausted by the suction fan E. A constant -current of electricity is given off from the two electrodes through the -wires, the metallic oxide being reduced and the carbon consumed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--RUDDER AND MOTOR OF TROUVE'S ELECTRIC BOAT, -1881.] - -_Electrical Navigation_ began with Jacobi, who made the first attempt on -the Neva in 1839. He used voltaic apparatus consisting of two Grove -batteries, each containing sixty-four pairs of cells, but little -progress was made in this field until the secondary battery was -perfected. In 1881 Mr. G. Trouve made an application of the storage -battery and electric motor to a small boat on the Seine. The electric -motor, which was located on top of the rudder, as seen in Fig. 69, was -furnished with a Siemens armature connected by an endless belt with a -screw propeller having three paddles arranged in the middle of an iron -rudder. In the middle of the boat were two storage batteries connected -with the motor by two cords that both served to cover the conducting -wires and work the rudder. Electric launches have in later years rapidly -gained in popularity. Visitors to the Chicago fair will remember the -fleet of electric launches, which afforded both pleasure and -transportation on the water, at that great exposition, and to-day every -safe harbor has its quota of these silently gliding and fascinating -pleasure crafts. Fig. 70 is a longitudinal section and a general view of -one of these launches. - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--MODERN ELECTRIC LAUNCH.] - -_Electro-plating_ is one of the great industrial applications of -electricity which had its origin in, and has grown into extensive use -in, the Nineteenth Century. It originated with Volta, Cruikshank, and -Wollaston in the very first year of the century. In 1805 Brugnatelli, a -pupil of Volta, gilded two large silver medals by bringing them into -communication by means of a steel wire with the negative pole of a -voltaic pile and keeping them one after the other immersed in a solution -of gold. In 1834 Henry Bessemer electro-plated lead castings with copper -in the production of antique relief heads. In 1838 Prof. Jacobi -announced his galvano-plastic process for the production of electrotype -plates for printing. In the same year he superintended the gilding, by -electro-plate, of the iron dome of the Cathedral of St. Isaac at St. -Petersburgh, using 274 pounds of ducat gold. In 1839 Spencer described -an electrotype process and carried the date of his operations back to -September, 1837. In 1839 Jordan also describes an electro-plating -process. In 1840 Murray used plumbago to make non-conducting surfaces -conductive for electro-plating. In 1840 De Le Rive made known his -process of electro-gilding, employed by him in 1828, and in the same -year (1840) De Ruolz took out a French patent for electro-gilding, and -in the following year formed electro deposits of brass from cyanides of -zinc and copper. In 1841 Smee employed his battery for electro-plating -with various metals. In 1844 there were published the electro-plating -experiments of Dancer, made in 1838. In 1847 Prof. Silliman imitated -mother-of-pearl by electro-plating process. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--ELECTRO-PLATING ESTABLISHMENT.] - -In the last half of the century the production of electrotype plates for -printing in books, and for the production of rollers for printing -fabrics, and the extensive art of electro-plating with gold, silver, -nickel and copper, has grown to enormous proportions, but the -fundamental principles have not materially changed. The dynamo, however, -has generally supplanted the voltaic battery in this art. The deposition -of silver and gold on baser metals not only increases the ornamental -effect, but prevents oxidation. Silver plated goods for the table and -articles of vertu are to be found everywhere. Nickel is employed for -cheaper ornamental effect, and copper finds a large application for -electrotypes for printing and for coating iron castings as a protection -against rust. In Fig. 71, which shows the interior of an electro-plating -establishment, the dynamo is shown on the right connected by wires with -two horizontal rods running along the wall and across the various tanks -containing the plating solution. On the tanks are rods supporting the -articles to be plated, which are suspended in the solution. Similar rods -support the opposite electrodes of the tank. Wires connect these rods to -the rods on the side of the wall, and to the opposite poles of the -dynamo. - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--EDISON'S ELECTRIC PEN.] - -_The electric pen of Edison_, brought out in 1876 (U. S. Pat. No. -196,747, Nov. 6, 1877), is one of the simple applications of -electricity, which for a number of years was in quite general use for -making manifold copies of manuscript. In the illustration, Fig. 72, this -is shown. It comprises a stylus _b_ reciprocated in a tube _a_ by the -vibratory action of an armature _k_ over the poles of an electro-magnet, -supplied with a suitable current and vibrating contacts _l h_. The -stylus was rapidly reciprocated, and as the operator traced the letters -on the paper, the stylus produced a continuous trail of punctures which -permitted the paper to be used as a stencil to make any number of -copies. It has, however, been rotated out of existence by manifolding -carbon paper, and the almost universal use of the typewriter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--ELECTRIC CAUTERY.] - -_Electricity in Medicine._--The superstitious mind is prone to resort to -mysterious agencies for the cure of diseases, and for many years men of -no scientific knowledge whatever have been employing this seductive -instrumentality for all the ills that flesh is heir to. That it has -valuable therapeutic qualities when rightly applied no intelligent -person will doubt, and it is unfortunate that for the most part it has -been in the hands of charlatans who sell their wares, and rely upon a -faith-cure principle for the result. Still there have been intelligent -experimenters in this field, and it is one of much promise for further -research. - -In the first century of the Christian Era (A. D. 50) Scribonius Largus -relates that Athero, a freedman of Tiberius, was cured of the gout by -the shocks of the torpedo or electric eel. In 1803 M. Carpue published -experiments on the therapeutic action of electricity. The discovery of -induction currents by Faraday in 1831 brought a new era in the medical -application of electricity, in the use of what is known as the Faradaic -current. The first apparatus for medical use, which operated on this -principle, was made by M. Pixii in France, and the first physician who -employed such currents was Dr. Neef, of Frankfort. The medical battery -is a well-known and useful adjunct to the physician's outfit. Electric -baths are also common and effective modes of applying the electric -current. An early example of such a device is shown in the U. S. patent -to Young, No. 32,332, May 14, 1861. The electric cautery and probe are -also scientific and useful instruments. The cautery consists of a loop -of platinum wire carried by a suitable non-conducting handle, with means -for constricting the white hot loop of wire about the tumor or object to -be excised. It was invented in 1846 by Crusell, of St. Petersburgh. A -form of the electric cautery is shown in Fig. 73, in which _a_ is the -platinum wire loop whose branches slide through guide tubes, the ends -being attached to a sliding ring B. The current enters through the wire -at the binding posts at the end of non-conducting handle A, and heats -the platinum loop, _a_, red hot. The loop, _a_, being around the object -to be excised, is constricted by drawing down the handle ring B. - -Of the various applications of electricity in body wear and appliances -there is scarcely any end. There are patents for belts without number, -for electric gloves, rings, bracelets, necklaces, trusses, corsets, -shoes, hats, combs, brushes, chairs, couches, and blankets. Patents have -also been granted for electric smelling bottles, an adhesive plaster, -for electric spectacles, scissors, a foot warmer, hair singer, syringes, -a drinking cup, a hair cutter, a torch, a catheter, a pessary, gas -lighters, exercising devices, a door mat, and even for an electric hair -pin and a pair of electric garters. - -_Electrical Musical Instruments_ include pianos, banjos, and violins, -all of which are to be played automatically by the aid of electrical -appliances. In the illustration, Fig. 74, is shown a modern electrical -piano. A small electrical motor 1, run by a storage battery or electric -light wires, turns a belt 3, and rotates pulley 4 and a long horizontal -cylinder 5 running beneath the keyboard. Above this cylinder is the -mechanism that acts upon the keys. It consists of a series of brake -shoes which, when brought into frictional contact with the cylinder 5, -are made to act on small vertical rods which bring down the keys just as -the fingers do in playing. The selection of the proper keys is made by a -traveling strip of paper perforated with dots and dashes representing -the notes, which strip of paper passes between two metal contact faces, -which are terminals of an electric battery. When the contacts are -separated by the non-conducting paper the current does not flow, but -when the contacts come together through the perforations the current is -completed through an electro-magnet, and this is made to bring the -proper brake shoe into position to be lifted by the cylinder 5, which -rotates constantly. - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--ELECTRIC PIANO.] - -_Electro-blasting._--In 1812 Schilling proposed to blow up mines by the -galvanic current. In 1839 Colonel Pasley blew up the wreck of the "Royal -George" by electro-blasting. On Jan. 26, 1843, Mr. Cubitt used -electro-blasting to destroy Round Down Cliff, and in our own time the -extensive excavations in deepening the channel and removing the rocks at -Hell Gate, from the mouth of New York harbor, was a notable operation in -electro-blasting, and doubtless owes its success largely to the electric -current employed. - -Only the briefest mention can be made of the induction coil and the -electrical transformer, of electric bells and hotel annunciators, of -electric railway signalling, and electric brakes, of electric clocks and -instruments of precision, of heating by electricity, of electrical -horticulture, and of the beautiful electric fountains. These, however, -all belong to the Nineteenth Century, and include interesting -developments. - -_Electro-chemistry_ and the _electrolytic refining of metals_ represent -also, in the applications of electricity, a large and important field, -more fully treated under the chapters devoted to chemistry and metal -working. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE STEAM ENGINE. - - HERO'S ENGINE, AND OTHER EARLY STEAM ENGINES--WATT'S STEAM - ENGINE--THE CUT-OFF--GIFFARD INJECTOR--BOURDON'S STEAM GAUGE--FEED- - WATER HEATERS, SMOKE CONSUMERS, ETC.--ROTARY ENGINES--STEAM HAMMER-- - STEAM FIRE ENGINE--COMPOUND ENGINES--SCHLICK AND TAYLOR SYSTEMS OF - BALANCING MOMENTUM OF MOVING PARTS--STATISTICS. - - -When the primeval man first turned upon himself the critical light of -introspection, and observed his own deficiencies, there were born within -him both the desire and the determination to supplement his weakness, -and become the ruling factor in the world's destiny. The strength of his -arm unaided could not cope with that of the wild beast, he could not -travel so fast as the animal, nor soar so high as the bird, nor traverse -the waters of the sea like the fish. The magnificent power of the -elements first inspired him with awe, then was worshiped as a god, and -he trembled in his weakness. Then he began to invent, and seeing in -physical laws an escape from his fears, and a solution for his -ambitions, he trained these forces and made them subservient to his -will, and established his right to rule. Out of the maze of the -centuries a steam engine is born--not all at once, for that would be -inconsistent with the law of evolution--but gradually growing first into -practicability, then into efficiency, and finally into perfection, it -stands to-day a beautiful monument of man's ingenuity, throbbing with -life and energy, and moving the world. What has not the steam engine -done for the Nineteenth Century? It speeds the locomotive across the -continent faster and farther than the birds can fly; no fish can equal -the mighty steamship on the sea; it grinds our grain; it weaves our -cloth; it prints our books; it forges our steel, and in every department -of life it is the ubiquitous, tireless, potent agency of civilization. -Does the ambitious young philosopher predict that electricity will -supersede steam? It is not yet a rational prophecy, for the direct -production of electricity from the combustion of coal is still an -unsolved problem, and behind the electric generator can always be found -the steam engine, modestly and quietly giving its full life's work to -the dynamo, which it actuates, and caring nothing for the credit, -unmindful of the beautiful and striking manifestations of electricity -which astonish the world, but humbly doing its duty with a silent faith -that the law of correlation of force will always lead the way back to -the steam engine, and place it where it belongs, at the head of all -useful agencies of man. - -The Nineteenth Century did not include in its discoveries the invention -of the steam engine. The great gift of James Watt was one of the -legacies which it received from the past, but the economical, efficient, -graceful, and mathematically perfect engine of to-day is the product of -this age. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--HERO'S ENGINE, 150 B. C.] - -The genesis of the steam engine belongs to ancient history, for in the -year 150 B. C. Hero made and exhibited in the Serapeum of Alexandria the -first steam engine. It was of the rotary type and was known as the -"aeolipile." During the middle ages the spirit of invention seems to -have slept, for nearly eighteen centuries passed from the time of Hero's -engine before any active revival of interest was manifested in this -field of invention. Giovanni Branca in 1629, the Marquis of Worcester in -1633, Dr. Papin in 1695, Savary in 1698, and Newcomen in 1705, were the -pioneers of Watt, and gave to him a good working basis. Strange as it -may appear, there was in 1894 and probably still is in existence in -England an old Newcomen steam engine (see Fig. 76), which for at least a -hundred years has stood exposed to the weather, slowly rusting and -crumbling away. It is to be found in Fairbottom Valley, half way between -Ashton-under-Lyne and Oldham, and is the property of the trustees of the -late Earl of Stamford and Warrington. It is erected on a solid masonry -pillar 14 by 7 feet at the base, which carries on its top, on trunnions, -an oak beam 20 feet long and 12 by 14 inches thick. This beam is braced -with iron, and has segmental ends with a piston at one end, and a -balance weight at the other. The piston and pump rods are attached by -chains. The cylinder is of cast iron, 27 inches in diameter, and about -six foot stroke, the steam entering at the bottom only. It was formerly -used for pumping a mine. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--OLD NEWCOMEN ENGINE.] - -The distinct and valuable legacy, however, which the Nineteenth Century -received from the past, was the double acting steam engine of James -Watt, disclosed in his British Pat. No. 1,321, of 1782. Prior to this -date steam engines had been almost exclusively confined to raising -water, but with the invention of Watt it extended into all fields of -industrial use. Watt's double acting engine is shown in Fig. 77. It -comprised a cylinder A, with double acting piston and valve gear E F G -H; the parallel motion R for translating the reciprocating motion of the -piston into the curved oscillatory path of the walking beam; a condenser -chamber K, with spray I, for condensing the exhaust steam; a pump L J to -remove the water from the condenser, and also the air, which is drawn -out of the water by the vacuum; a water supply pump N; the automatic -ball governor D, and throttle valve B. Two pins on the pump rod L strike -the lever H and work the valve gear, and a collecting rod P and crank Q -convert the oscillations of the walking beam into the continuous -rotation of the fly wheel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--WATT'S DOUBLE ACTING STEAM ENGINE.] - -Watt's automatic ball governor is shown in Fig. 78 and its function is -as follows: When the working strain on an engine is relieved by the -throwing out of action of a part of the work being performed, the engine -would run too fast, or if more than a normal tax were placed on the -engine, it would "slow up." To secure a regular and uniform motion in -the performance of his engine Watt invented the automatic or -self-regulating ball governor and throttle valve. A vertical shaft D is -rotated constantly by a band on pulley _d_. Any tendency in the engine -to run too fast throws the balls up by centrifugal action, and this -through toggle links _f h_, pulls down on a lever F G H, and partially -closes the throttle valve Z, reducing the flow of steam to the engine. -When the engine has a tendency to run too slow the balls drop down, and, -deflecting the lever in the opposite direction, open the throttle valve, -and increase the flow of steam to the engine. This double acting engine -of Watt marks the beginning of the great epoch of steam engineering, and -his patent expired just in time to give to the Nineteenth Century the -greatest of all natal gifts. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--WATT'S AUTOMATIC GOVERNOR AND THROTTLE VALVE.] - -Steam engines are divided into two principal classes, the low pressure -engine, using steam usually under 40 pounds to the square inch, and the -high pressure engine, using steam from 50 to 200 pounds. In the low -pressure engine there is the expansive pressure of the steam on one side -of the piston, aided by the suction of a vacuum on the opposite side of -the piston, which vacuum is created by the condensation of the -discharging, or exhaust steam, by cold water. As there are two factors -at work impelling the piston, only a relatively low pressure in the -boiler is required. In the high pressure engines there is no -condensation of the exhaust steam, but it is discharged directly into -the air, and this type was originally called "puffers." Familiar -examples of the low pressure type are to be found in our side wheel -passenger steamers, and of the high pressure type in the steam -locomotive. - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--PRINCIPLE OF CUT-OFF.] - -One of the most important steps in the development of the steam engine -was the addition of the cut-off. Prior to its adoption steam was -admitted to the cylinder during the whole time the piston was making -its stroke from one end of the cylinder to the other. In the cut-off -(see Fig. 79), when steam is being admitted through the port _p_, and -the piston is being driven in the direction of the arrow, it was found -that if the steam were cut off when the piston arrived at the position -1, the expansive action of the steam behind it in chamber _a_ would -continue to carry the piston with an effective force to the end of its -stroke, or to position 2. This of course effected a great saving in -steam. Various cut-offs have been devised. Perhaps that most easily -recognized by most persons is the one seen in the engine room of our -side wheel steamers, of which illustration is given in Fig. 80. This was -invented in 1841 by F. E. Sickels, and was the first successful drop -cut-off. It was covered by his patents, May 20, 1842, July 20, 1843, -October 19, 1844, No. 3,802, and September 19, 1845, No. 4,201. A rock -shaft _s_ is worked by an eccentric rod _e_ from the paddle wheel shaft. -The rock shaft has lifting arms _a_ that act upon and alternately raise -the feet _c_ on rods _b b_. One of these rods _b_ works the valves that -admit steam, and the other the valves that discharge steam. The valve -rod that admits steam has a quick drop, or fall, to cut off the live -steam before the piston reaches the end of its stroke. In Fig. 81 is -shown the celebrated Corliss cut-off and valve gear, in which a central -wrist plate and four radiating rods work the valves. This valve gear was -covered in Corliss patents, No. 6,162, March 10, 1849, and No. 8.253, -July 29, 1851. - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--SICKELS' DROP CUT-OFF VALVE GEAR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--CORLISS CUT-OFF AND VALVE GEAR.] - -Among other important improvements in the steam engine are those for -replenishing the water in the boiler, and the Giffard Injector is the -simplest and most ingenious of all boiler feeds. It was invented in 1858 -and covered by French patent No. 21,457, May 8, 1858, and U. S. patent -No. 27,979, April 24, 1860. Prior to the Giffard Injector, steam boilers -were supplied with water usually by steam pumps, which forced the water -into the boiler against the pressure of the steam. The Giffard Injector -takes a jet of steam from the boiler, and causes it to lift the water in -an external pipe, and blow it directly into the boiler against its own -pressure. So paradoxical and inoperative did this seem at first that it -was met with incredulity, and not until repeated demonstrations -established the fact was it accepted as an operative device. Its -construction is shown in Fig. 82. A is a steam pipe communicating with -the boiler, B another pipe receiving steam from A through small holes -and terminating in a cone. C is a screw rod, cone-shaped at its -extremity, turned by the crank M, and serving to regulate and even -intercept the passage of steam. D is a water suction pipe. The water -that is drawn up introduces itself around the steam pipe and tends to -make its exit through the annular space at the conical extremity of the -latter steam pipe. This annular space is increased at will by means of -the lever L, which acts upon a screw whose office is to cause the pipe B -and its attached parts to move backward or forward. E is a diverging -tube which receives the water injected by the jet of steam that -condenses at I, and imparts to the water a portion of its speed in -proportion to the pressure of the boiler. F is a box carrying a check -valve to keep the water from issuing from the boiler when the apparatus -is not at work. G is a pipe that leads the injected water to the boiler. -H is a purge or overflow pipe, K a sight hole which permits the -operation of the apparatus to be watched, the stream of water being -distinctly seen in the free interval. Fig. 83 shows the application of -the injector to locomotives, which are now almost universally supplied -with this device. - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--GIFFARD INJECTOR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.--INJECTOR ON LOCOMOTIVE.] - -To keep the pressure in the boiler within the limit of safety, and -adjusted to the work being performed, is an important part of the -engineer's duty, and this he could not do without the steam gauge. One -of the best known is the Bourdon gauge, shown in Fig. 84, constructed on -the principle of the barometer invented by Bourdon of Paris in 1849 and -patented in France June, 1849, and in the United States August 3, 1852, -No. 9,163. A screw threaded thimble B, with stop cock A, is screwed in -the shell of the boiler, and a coiled pipe C communicates at one end -with the thimble and is closed at the other end E and connected by a -link F, with an arm on an axle, carrying an index hand that moves over a -graduated scale. The coiled pipe C is in the nature of a flattened -tube, as shown in the enlarged cross section, and is enclosed in a case. -When the steam pressure varies in this flat tube its coil expands or -contracts, and in moving the index hand over the scale indicates the -degree of pressure. - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--BOURDON'S PRESSURE GAUGE.] - -In line with the development of the steam engine must be considered the -efforts to economize fuel. These may be divided into the following -classes: Increased steam generating surface in boiler construction; -surface condensers for exhaust steam; devices for promoting the -combustion of fuel and burning the smoke, and feed water heaters. Even -before the Nineteenth Century Smeaton devised the cylindrical boiler -traversed by a flue, but the multitubular steam boiler of to-day -represents a very important Nineteenth Century adjunct to the steam -engine. Our locomotives, fire engines, and torpedo boat engines would be -of no value without it. Sectional steam boilers made in detachable -portions fastened together by packed or screw joints also represent an -important development. These permit of the removal and replacement of -any one section that may become defective, and are also capable of being -built up section by section to any size needed. For promoting the -combustion of fuel the draft is energized by blasts of air or steam, or -both, either through hollow grate bars, jet pipes in the fire box, or by -discharging the exhaust steam in the smoke pipe. Surface condensers pass -the exhaust steam over the great surface area of a multitubular -construction having cold water flowing through it. Feed water heaters -utilize the waste heat escaping in the smoke flue to heat the water that -is being fed to the boiler, so that it is warm when it is injected into -the boiler, and the furnace is relieved of that much work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.--BRANCA'S STEAM TURBINE, 1629.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.--SECTION OF PARSONS TURBINE OF 1891.] - -In the reciprocating type of steam engine the inertia of the piston must -be overcome at the beginning of each stroke and its momentum must be -arrested at the end of each stroke, and this involves a great loss of -power. If the power of the steam could be applied so as to continuously -move the piston in the same direction this loss would be avoided. The -effort to do this has engaged the attention of many inventors, and the -devices are called rotary engines. The most successful engines of this -kind are those of the impact type, in which jets of steam impinge upon -buckets after the manner of water on a water wheel, and which are known -to-day as steam turbines. The earliest of these is Branca's steam -turbine of 1629 (see Fig. 85) and the most important of this class in -use to-day are those of Mr. Parsons, of England, and De Laval, of -Sweden. The internal construction of the Parsons turbine is seen in Fig. -86 and is covered by British patent No. 10,940, of 1891, and United -States patent No. 553,658, January 28th, 1896. A series of turbines are -set one after the other on the same axis, so that each takes steam from -the preceding one, and passes it on to the next. Each consists of a ring -of fixed steam guides on the casing, and a ring of moving blades on the -shaft. The steam passes through the first set of guides, then through -the first set of moving blades, then through the second set of guides, -and then through the second set of moving blades, and so on. - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.--PARSONS COMPOUND STEAM TURBINE, ON PLURALITY OF -PROPELLER SHAFTS.] - -In the application of his turbine to marine propulsion Mr. Parsons -employs a plurality of propeller shafts and steam turbines, as seen in -Fig. 87, and covered under United States patent No. 608,969, August 9, -1898. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--DE LAVAL'S STEAM TURBINE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--DE LAVAL TURBINE GEARED TO DYNAMO.] - -The De Laval turbine, as shown in Fig. 88, is of very simple -construction, consisting only of a steel wheel with a series of buckets -at its periphery enclosed by a circular rim, and a series of steam -nozzles on the side with diverging jet orifices directing steam jets -against the buckets. A speed of 30,000 revolutions a minute may be -attained by this construction. In Fig. 89 is shown a 300 horse-power -steam turbine of the De Laval type applied to a dynamo; to which this -type of engine is peculiarly adapted. The dynamo is seen on the extreme -right, the steam turbine on the extreme left, and the drum-shaped -casing between contains cog-gearing by which the high revolution of the -turbine wheel is reduced to a proper working speed for the dynamo. -Within the last few years application of the Parsons steam turbine has -been made to marine propulsion with very remarkable results as to speed. -The small steam craft, "The Turbinia," built in 1897, and supplied with -three of Parsons' compound steam turbines, developed a speed of 323/4 -knots, and more recently the torpedo boat "Viper" has with steam -turbines attained the remarkable speed of 37.1 knots, or over 40 statute -miles an hour. About 2,000 United States patents have been granted on -various forms of rotary engines. - -In the transportation building of the World's Fair at Chicago in 1893 -one of the most conspicuous objects of attention was the model of the -great Bethlehem Iron Co.'s steam hammer, standing with its feet apart -like some great "Colossus of Rhodes" and towering 91 feet high among the -models of the great ocean steamers and battleships which are so largely -dependent upon the work of this Titanic machine. Its hammer head, in the -working-machine, weighs 125 tons, and many of the seventeen inch thick -armor plates for our battleships have been forged by its tremendous -blows. - -In 1838, during the construction of the "Great Britain," the largest -steamship up to that time ever built, it was found that there was not a -forge hammer in England or Scotland powerful enough to forge a paddle -shaft for that vessel. The emergency was met by Mr. Nasmyth, of England, -who invented the steam hammer and covered it in British patent No. -9,382, of 1842 (U. S. Pat. No. 3,042, April 10, 1843). A modern example -of it is seen in Fig. 90. It consists of a steam cylinder at the top -whose piston is attached to a block of iron, forming the hammer head and -sliding vertically in guides between the two legs of the frame. Valve -gear is arranged to control the flow of steam to and from the opposite -sides of the piston, and so nicely adjusted is the valve gear of such a -modern steam hammer that it is said that an expert workman can -manipulate the great mass of metal with such accuracy and delicacy as to -crack an egg in a wineglass without touching the glass. To the steam -hammer we owe the first heavy armor plate for our battle ships and the -propeller shafts of our earlier steamships. In fact it was the steam -hammer which first rendered the large steamship possible. Mr. Nasmyth -not only invented the steam hammer, but the steam pile driver as well. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.--STEAM HAMMER.] - -For quick action, nicely adjusted machinery, and showy finish the steam -fire engine is a familiar and conspicuous application of steam power. A -dude among engines when on dress parade, and a sprinter when on the run, -it gets to work with the vim and efficiency of a thoroughbred, and is a -most business-like and valuable custodian of life and property. The -first portable steam fire engine was built about 1830 by Mr. Brathwaite -and Capt. Ericsson in London. In 1841 Mr. Hodges produced a similar -engine in New York City. Cincinnati was the first city to adopt the -steamer as a part of its fire department apparatus. To-day all the -important cities and towns of the civilized world rely upon the steam -fire engines for their longevity and existence. Time economy in getting -into action is the great objective point of most improvements of the -fire-engine, and one of the most important is the keeping of the water -in the boiler hot when the engine is out of action at the engine house, -so that when the fire is built and the run is made to the scene of -action, the water will be hot to start with. This attachment was the -invention of William A. Brickill, and was patented by him August 18, -1868, No. 81,132. In the illustration, Fig. 91, the two pipes passing -from the engine through the trap door in the floor connect with a water -heater in the basement below, which heater maintains a constant -circulation of hot water in the steam boiler. Couplings in these pipes -serve to quickly disconnect the engine when the run to the fire is to be -made. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--STEAM FIRE ENGINE WITH WATER HEATING -ATTACHMENT.] - -Among other useful applications of the steam engine are the steam plow, -steam drill, steam dredge, steam press, and steam pump, of which latter -the Blake, Knowles, and Worthington are representative types. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--THE SIX-CYLINDER QUADRUPLE EXPANSION ENGINES OF -THE "DEUTSCHLAND," 35,640 HORSE POWER.] - -The highest type of modern steam engines is to be found in the compound -multiple-expansion engine, in which three or more cylinders of different -diameters with corresponding pistons are so arranged that steam is made -to act first upon the piston in the smallest cylinder at high pressure, -and then discharging into the next larger cylinder, called the -intermediate, acts expansively upon its piston, and thence, passing into -the still larger low pressure cylinder, imparts its further expansive -effect upon its piston. The fundamental principle of the compound engine -dates back to the time of Watt, its first embodiment appearing in the -Hornblower compound engine, as described in British patent No. 1,298, of -1781, but modern improvements have differentiated it into almost a new -invention. A fine example is shown in Fig. 92, which represents the -quadruple expansion engines of the "Deutschland," the new steamer of the -Hamburg-American Line. The two high pressure cylinders, however, do not -appear in the illustration, being too high for the shops. They stand -vertically, however, upon the two bed plates which appear at the top of -the two low pressure cylinders. In each set of six cylinders the two low -pressure cylinders are in the middle, the two high pressure cylinders -immediately above them or arranged tandem, while at the forward end is -the first intermediate cylinder, and at the after end is the second -intermediate. The low pressure cylinders are 106 inches in diameter, the -intermediate cylinders are 73.6 inches and 103.9 inches respectively, -and the two high pressure cylinders are 30.6 inches, and the steam -pressure is 225 pounds. Its improvements comprehend the systems of -Schlick, patented in the United States November 23, 1897, No. 594,288 -and 594,289, and Taylor, patented November 22, 1898, No. 614,674, which -embody fine mathematical principles for balancing the momentum of the -great masses of moving parts, so that the engine may run up to high -speed without vibrations and damaging strains upon the hull. - -Mulhall gives the steam horse power of the world in 1895, not including -war vessels, as follows: - - Stationary. Railway. Steamboat. Total. - The World 11,340,000 32,235,000 12,005,000 55,580,000 - United States 3,940,000 10,800,000 2,200,000 16,940,000 - -The increase in steam power in the United States has been from 3,500,000 -horse power in 1860, to 16,940,000 horse power in 1895, or about five -fold within thirty-five years. - -Prof. Thurston says that in 1890 the combined power of all the steam -engines of the world was not far from 100,000,000[2] horse power, of -which the United States had 15,000,000, Great Britain the same, and the -other countries smaller amounts. Taking the horse power as the -equivalent of the work of five men, the work of steam is equivalent to -that of a population of 500,000,000 working men. It is also said that -one man to-day, with the aid of a steam engine, performs the work of 120 -men in the last century. - - [2] Prof. Thurston's estimate doubtless includes war vessels, which - Mulhall's later estimate does not (see Mulhall's "Industries and - Wealth of Nations," 1896, pages 4 and 379). - -The influence of the steam engine upon the history and destiny of the -world is an impressive subject, far beyond any intelligent computation -or estimate. It has been the greatest moving force of the Nineteenth -Century. The labor of 100,000 men for twenty years might build a great -pyramid in Egypt, and it remains as a monument of patience only, but the -genius of the modern inventor has organized a machine with muscles of -steel, far more patient and tireless than those of the Egyptian slave. -He gave it but a drink of water and making coal its black slave, and -himself the master of both, he has in the Nineteenth Century hitched his -chariot to a star and driven to unparalleled achievement. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE STEAM RAILWAY. - - TREVITHICK'S FIRST LOCOMOTIVE--BLENKINSOP'S LOCOMOTIVE--HEDLEY'S - "PUFFING BILLY"--STEPHENSON'S LOCOMOTIVE--THE LINK MOTION--STOCKTON - AND DARLINGTON RAILWAY, 1825--HACKWORTH'S "ROYAL GEORGE"-- - "STOURBRIDGE LION"--"JOHN BULL"--BALDWIN'S LOCOMOTIVES--WESTINGHOUSE - AIR BRAKES--JANNEY CAR COUPLING--THE WOODRUFF SLEEPING CAR--RAILWAY - STATISTICS. - - -The fact that more patents have been granted in the class of carriages -and wagons than in any other field, shows that means of transportation -has engaged the largest share of man's inventive genius, and has been -most closely allied to his necessities. The moving of passengers and -freight seems to be directly related to the progress of civilization, -and the factor whose influence has been most felt in this field is the -steam locomotive. Sir Isaac Newton in 1680 proposed a steam carriage -propelled by the reaction of a jet of steam. Dr. Robinson in 1759 -suggested the steam carriage to Watt. Cugnot in 1769 built a steam -carriage. Symington, in 1770, and Murdock, in 1784, built working -models, and in 1790 Nathan Read also made experiments in steam -transportation, but the Nineteenth Century dawned without any other -results than a few abandoned experiments, and the criticism and -disappointment of the inventors in this field. - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.--TREVITHICK'S LOCOMOTIVE, 1804. THE FIRST TO RUN -ON RAILS.] - -The father of the locomotive and the first inventor of the Nineteenth -Century who directed his energy to its development was Richard -Trevithick, of Camborne, Cornwall. In 1801 he built his first steam -carriage, adapted to carry seven or eight passengers, which was said to -have "gone off like a bird," but broke down, and was taken to the home -of Capt. Vivian, who afterward became a partner of Trevithick. An old -lady, upon seeing this novel and, to her, frightful engine, is said to -have cried out: "Good gracious! Mr. Vivian, what will be done next? I -can't compare it to anything but a walking, puffing devil." On the 24th -of March, 1802, Trevithick and Vivian obtained British patent No. 2,599 -for their steam carriage, and a second one was built in 1803 which was -popularly known as Capt. Trevithick's "Puffing Devil." In 1804, at Pen y -Darran, South Wales, a third engine was built, which was the first -steam locomotive ever to run on rails. It is seen in the illustration, -No. 93. It had a horizontal cylinder inside the boiler, a cross head -sliding on guides in front of the engine, the cross head being connected -to a crank on a rear gear wheel, which in turn meshes with an -intermediate gear wheel above and between two other gear wheels on the -running wheels. A fly wheel was on the crank shaft. The steam was -discharged into the chimney, and the whole engine weighed five tons, and -it ran, when loaded, at five miles an hour. In 1808 Trevithick built a -circular railway at London within an inclosure, and charged a shilling -for admission to his steam circus and a ride behind his locomotive. The -engine here employed was the "Catch Me Who Can," and had a vertical -cylinder and piston, without the toothed gear wheels shown in the -illustration. - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--BLENKINSOP'S LOCOMOTIVE, 1811.] - -In Fig. 94 is shown Blenkinsop's locomotive of 1811. This was employed -at the Middleton Colliery in hauling coal. It had cog wheels engaging -teeth on the side of the rail. The fire was built in a large tube -passing through the boiler and bent up to form a chimney. Two vertical -cylinders were placed inside the boiler, and the pistons were connected -by cross heads, and, by connecting rods, to cranks on the axles of small -cog wheels engaging with the main cog wheels. It drew thirty tons weight -at three and three-quarter miles an hour. - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--HEDLEY'S "PUFFING BILLY," 1813.] - -In 1813 "Puffing Billy" was built by Wm. Hedley. There were (see Fig. -95) four smooth drive wheels running on smooth rails, which wheels were -coupled together by intermediate gear wheels on the axle, and all -propelled by a gear wheel in the middle, driven by a connecting rod from -the walking beam overhead. Hedley's locomotive was used on the Wylam -railway, and was said to have been at work more or less until 1862. - -Most prominent among those who took an active interest in the -development of the locomotive were George Stephenson and his son, -Robert. Stephenson's first locomotive was tried on the Killingworth -Railway on July 27, 1814. In 1815 Dodds and Stephenson patented an -arrangement for attaching the connecting rods to the driving wheels, -which took the place of cog wheels heretofore employed, and in the -following year Stephenson, in connection with Mr. Losh, patented the -application of steam cushion-springs for supporting the weight of the -locomotive in an elastic manner. - -In 1825 the Stockton and Darlington Railway, in England, was opened for -traffic, with George Stephenson's engine, "Locomotion," and was put -permanently into service for the transportation of freight and -passengers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--HACKWORTH'S LOCOMOTIVE, "ROYAL GEORGE," 1827.] - -In 1827 Hackworth produced the "Royal George" (see Fig. 96), whose -cylinders were arranged vertically at the rear end of the boiler, and -whose pistons emerged from the cylinders at the lower ends of the -latter, and imparted their power through connecting rods to cranks on -the opposite ends of the axle of the rear driving wheels in a more -direct manner than heretofore, and doing away with the overhead -mechanism heretofore employed in most engines. Hackworth also improved -the steam blast, put on the bell, and greatly simplified and modernized -the appearance of the locomotive. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--GEORGE STEPHENSON'S "ROCKET," 1829.] - -In 1829 the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was completed, and the -directors offered a prize of L500 for the best locomotive. George -Stephenson's "Rocket," shown in Fig. 97, attained a speed of 24-1/6 -miles an hour, and took the prize. Its success, however, was marred by -the first railroad fatality, for it ran over and killed a man on this -occasion. It embodied, as leading features, the steam blast and the -multitubular boiler, which latter was six feet long and had twenty-five -three-inch tubes. The fire box was surrounded by an exterior casing that -formed a water jacket, which, by means of pipes, was in open -communication with the water space of the boiler. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.--"STOURBRIDGE LION," 1829.] - -The first practical locomotive to run on a railroad in the United States -was the "Stourbridge Lion," seen in Fig. 98. This was imported from -England, and arrived in New York in May, 1829, and was tried in that -year on a section of the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company's railroad. The -boiler was tubular, and the exhaust steam was carried into the chimney -by a pipe in front of the smoke stack as shown. It had vertical -cylinders of thirty-six inch stroke, with overhead grasshopper beams and -connecting rods. - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.--LOCOMOTIVE "JOHN BULL," 1831.] - -In Fig. 99 is shown the "John Bull," now in the National Museum at -Washington, D. C. It was built by Stephenson & Co. for the Camden & -Amboy Railroad, and was brought over from England and put into service -in 1831. During the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893, after a -long rest in the Washington Museum, it made its way under its own steam -to Chicago, drawing a train of two cars a distance of 912 miles without -assistance. It further distinguished itself while there by carrying -50,000 passengers over the exhibition tracks, and although sixty-two -years of age at the time, showed itself quite capable of performing -substantial work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.--BALDWIN'S "OLD IRONSIDES," 1832.] - -Most of the early locomotives used in America were imported from -England, but our inventors soon commenced making them for themselves. -The Baldwin Locomotive Works, of Philadelphia, has had a notable career -in the field of locomotive construction. "Old Ironsides," built in -1832, was the first Baldwin locomotive, and it did duty for over a -score of years. It is shown in Fig. 100. It had four wheels and weighed -a little over five tons. The drive wheels were 54 inches in diameter, -and the cylinder 91/2 inches in diameter, 18 inches stroke. The wheels had -heavy cast iron hubs with wooden spokes and rims and wrought iron tires, -and the frame was of wood placed outside the wheels. The boiler was 30 -inches in diameter and had 72 copper flues 11/2 inches in diameter, 7 feet -long. The price of the locomotive was $4,000, and it attained a speed of -30 miles an hour, with its train. - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.--EIGHT-WHEEL PASSENGER EXPRESS LOCOMOTIVE, -1863.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.--EXPRESS PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE, 1881.] - -In Fig. 101 is shown a standard type of passenger locomotive of the -period of 1863, and in Fig. 102 is illustrated the period of 1881, which -latter represents perhaps the greatest epoch of railroad building in the -history of the world. According to Poor's Manual, $1,000,000 a day was -the estimated cash outlay on this account for the three years up to the -close of 1882, during which period 28,019 miles of railroad were opened -up in the United States, or more than enough to girdle the entire earth. -Some idea of the wonderful growth of the railroad industry during this -period is given by the following tables, which represent the yearly -production of locomotives by the Baldwin Company alone for forty years -prior to this period: - - 1842 14 - 1843 12 - 1844 22 - 1845 27 - 1846 42 - 1847 39 - 1848 20 - 1849 30 - 1850 37 - 1851 50 - 1852 49 - 1853 60 - 1854 62 - 1855 47 - 1856 59 - 1857 66 - 1858 33 - 1859 70 - 1860 83 - 1861 40 - 1862 75 - 1863 96 - 1864 130 - 1865 115 - 1866 118 - 1867 127 - 1868 124 - 1869 235 - 1870 280 - 1871 331 - 1872 442 - 1873 437 - 1874 205 - 1875 130 - 1876 232 - 1877 185 - 1878 292 - 1879 398 - 1880 517 - 1881 555 - 1882 563 - 1883 557 - -The present capacity of the Baldwin works is one thousand locomotives a -year, and they have built up to this date about fifteen thousand -locomotives, or nearly one-half of all the locomotives in use in the -United States. - -The successive steps of the development in detail of the various -features of the locomotive are distributed over a long period, and are -somewhat difficult to trace. The turning of the exhaust steam into the -smoke stack was done by Trevithick as early as 1804, but its effect was -greatly increased by Hackworth about 1827, who augmented its power by -directing it into the chimney through a narrow orifice. This and the -tubular locomotive boiler by Seguin in 1828, the link-motion in 1832, -the steam whistle by Stephenson in 1833, the Giffard injector in 1858, -and the Westinghouse air brake of 1869, are the most prominent features -of the locomotive. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.--STEPHENSON'S LINK MOTION.] - -The link motion has been claimed both for the younger Stephenson and W. -T. James, of New York, the latter being probably its real inventor. Its -purpose is to reverse the engine and also to cut off steam in either -direction, so that it may act expansively. The form of link motion most -generally used is shown in Fig. 103, and is known as Stephenson's. A B -are two eccentrics projecting in opposite directions from the center of -the common drive shaft, their rods being connected at their outer ends -by a curved and slotted link C D. In the slot of this link plays a pin -E, carried by a pendent swinging lever G F, which lever is jointed at -its lower end to the slide valve rod H. A T-shaped lever I L K M has one -arm at I connected by a rod with the slotted link at C. The opposite arm -is provided with a counter weight at K to balance the weight of the link -C D and eccentric rods, and the upright arm is connected at M to a rod -operated by a hand lever P within easy access of the engineer. When the -link C D is lowered the eccentric B imparts its throw to pendent lever G -F and valve rod H, and the eccentric A will only swing the end C of the -link without imparting any effect to the valve. When link C D is drawn -up so that pin E is in the bottom of the slot, the eccentric A is active -and B inactive, and as A has an opposite throw to B, the action of the -valve is reversed. If link C D be drawn half way up, the pin E becomes -the center of the oscillation of the link, and the valve rod is not -moved at all. By adjusting the link nearer to or further from the -central position, the throw of the slide valve may be made shorter or -longer, and the steam cut off at a later or earlier period in the stroke -of the piston. - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.--LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE NO. 999.] - -Fig. 104 is a type of the best modern express locomotive. This is the -famous 999 of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad. Its -cylinders are 19 x 24 inches, driving wheels 861/2 inches in diameter, -weight 62 tons, steam pressure 190 pounds. This engine hauls the Empire -State Express at a speed of 64.22 miles an hour, excluding stops, or -more than a mile a minute. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.--COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE.] - -In securing a higher efficiency and a greater economy in the use of -steam, the most recent developments in the locomotive have been in the -application of the principle of the compound expansion engine, in which -two or more cylinders of different diameters are used, the steam at high -pressure acting in the smaller cylinder, and being then exhausted into -and acting expansively upon the piston of the larger cylinder. A fine -example of the compound locomotive is shown in Fig. 105. The cylinders -are arranged in pairs, the small high pressure cylinder above, and the -larger low pressure cylinder below, both piston rods engaging a common -cross head. The application of this principle of the compound engine is -said to involve a saving in coal of over 25 per cent. - -Prominent among modern improvements in steam railways is the air brake. -This invention is chiefly the result of the ingenuity of Mr. George -Westinghouse, Jr., who, beginning his experiments in 1869, took out his -first patents on the automatic air brake March 5, 1872, Nos. 124,404 and -124,405, which have since been followed up by many others in perfecting -the system. The principle of the air brake is to store up compressed air -in a reservoir on the locomotive by means of a steam pump. This air -passing through a train pipe connected by hose couplings between cars -charges an auxiliary reservoir under each car. This reservoir is -arranged beside a cylinder having a piston and a triple valve. Pressure -in the train pipe is maintained constantly, and the power to work the -piston to apply the brakes comes from the auxiliary reservoir beside it, -which is set into action by a sudden reduction of pressure in the train -pipe by the engineer through a special form of valve on the locomotive. -The air brake is capable of stopping a train at average speed within the -distance of its own length, and so great a safeguard to life and -property is it, that its application to a certain number of cars on -every train is made compulsory by law. - -The automatic car coupling is another important life-saving improvement. -Many thousands of these have been patented, but the "Janney" coupling, -patented April 29, 1873, No. 138,405, is the most representative type. -The year 1900 is to witness the compulsory adoption of automatic car -couplings on all cars. The "block system" of signals, by which no train -is admitted on to a given section of track until the preceding train has -left that section, improved switches, which are not dependent upon the -memory of men, and steel rails, which constitute nine-tenths of all -tracks and serve to increase the stability of the track, are further -modern safeguards against danger. - -Sleeping cars were invented by Woodruff, and patented Dec. 2, 1856, Nos. -16,159 and 16,160. These, with the palace cars of Pullman and Wagner, -the special refrigerator cars for perishable goods, cars for cattle, and -cars for coal, multiply the equipment, swell the traffic, and supply -every want of the great railroad systems of modern times. - -The first railroad in the United States was built near Quincy, Mass., in -1826. The Pacific Railway, the first of our half a dozen -transcontinental railways, was completed in 1869. The great -Trans-Siberian Railway is nearing completion, and in the Twentieth -Century a Trans-Sahara Railway will probably relieve the burdens of the -camel, as it has already done those of the horse. - -At the end of the year 1898 there were in use in the United States -36,746 locomotives, 1,318,700 cars, and the mileage in tracks, including -second track and sidings, was 245,238.87, which, if extended in a -straight line, would build a railway to the moon. The money investment -represented in capital stock and bonds was $11,216,886,452. The gross -earnings for the year 1898 were $1,249,558,724. The net earnings were -$389,666,474. Tons of freight moved were 912,973,853. Receipts from -freight were $868,924,526. Number of passengers carried was 514,982,288. -Receipts from passengers were $272,589,591, and dividends paid were -$94,937,526. Add to the above the elevated railroads and street -railroads, which are not included, and the immensity of the railroad -business in the United States becomes apparent. In 1898 the United -States exported 468 locomotives, worth $3,883,719. Mulhall estimates -that the steam horse power of railroads in the world amounted in 1896 to -40,420,000, of which the United States had more than one-third. He also -states that the railways in the United States carry _every day_, in -merchandise, a weight equal to that of the whole of the seventy millions -of persons constituting its population; that the total railway traffic -of the world in 1894 averaged ten million passengers and six million -tons of merchandise _daily_; and that the total railway capital of the -world reached in that year, 6,745 million sterling, or about -thirty-three billion dollars. - -It is said that the highest railway speed ever attained by steam prior -to 1900 was by locomotive No. 564 of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern -Railroad, made during part of a run from Chicago to Buffalo. In this run -86 miles were made at an average rate of 72.92 miles an hour. The train -load was 304,500 pounds, and the 86 mile run included one mile at 92.3 -miles an hour, eight miles at 85.44 miles an hour, and thirty-three -miles at 80.6 miles an hour. On May 26, 1900, however, an experiment on -the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, made by Mr. F. U. Adams between Baltimore -and Washington, demonstrated that by sheathing the train to prevent -retardation by the air, an average speed of 78.6 miles an hour was -obtained, and for five miles on a down grade a speed of 102.8 miles an -hour was reached. - -The largest and most powerful locomotives in the world are those being -built for the Pittsburg, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad for hauling long -trains of iron and ore, one of which has just been completed. Its -cylinders are 24 x 32 inches; drive wheels, 54 inches diameter; weight, -125 tons; draw bar pull 56,300 pounds, and hauling capacity 7,847 tons. -One of these mammoth engines is capable of drawing a train of box cars, -loaded with wheat, and more than a mile long, at a speed of ten miles an -hour. This load of wheat would represent the yield of 14 square miles of -land. No doubt it would greatly astonish our forefathers to know that at -the end of the century we would have iron horses capable of carting -away, at a single load, the products of 14 square miles of the country -side, and do it at a gait faster than that of their local mail coach. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -STEAM NAVIGATION. - - EARLY EXPERIMENTS--SYMINGTON'S BOAT--COL. JOHN STEVENS' SCREW - PROPELLER--ROBT. FULTON AND THE "CLERMONT"--FIRST TRIP TO SEA BY - STEVENS' "PHOENIX"--"SAVANNAH," THE FIRST STEAM VESSEL TO CROSS THE - OCEAN--ERICSSON'S SCREW PROPELLER--THE "GREAT EASTERN"--THE - WHALEBACK STEAMERS--OCEAN GREYHOUNDS--THE "OCEANIC," LARGEST - STEAMSHIP IN THE WORLD--THE "TURBINIA"--FULTON'S "DEMOLOGOS," FIRST - WAR VESSEL--THE TURRET MONITOR--MODERN BATTLESHIPS AND TORPEDO - BOATS--HOLLAND SUBMARINE BOAT. - - -The application of steam for the propulsion of boats engaged the -attention of inventors along with the very earliest development of the -steam engine itself. Blasco de Garay in 1543, the Marquis of Worcester -in 1655, Savary in 1698, Denys Papin in 1707, Dr. John Allen in 1730, -Jonathan Hulls in 1737, Bernouilli and Genevois in 1757, William Henry -(of Pennsylvania) in 1763, Count D'Auxiron and M. Perier in 1774, the -Marquis de Jouffroy in 1781, James Rumsey (on the Potomac) in 1782, -Benjamin Franklin and Oliver Evans in 1786 and 1789, John Fitch in 1786, -and also again in 1796, and William Symington in 1788-89 were the early -experimenters. Papin's boat was said to have been used on the Fulda at -Cassel, and was reported to have been destroyed by bargemen, who feared -that it would deprive them of a livelihood. Allen, Rumsey, Franklin, and -Evans (1786) proposed to employ a backwardly discharged column of water -issuing from a pump. Jonathan Hulls and Oliver Evans (1789) had stern -wheels. Bernouilli, Genevois, and the Marquis de Jouffroy used paddles -on the duck's foot principle, which closed when dragged forward, and -expanded when pushed to the rear. Fitch's first boat employed a system -of paddles suspended by their handles from cranks, which, in revolving, -gave the paddles a motion simulating that which the Indian imparts to -his paddle. Symington's boat of 1788 (Patrick Miller's pleasure boat) -had side paddle wheels. Symington's next boat, built in 1789, and also -owned by Patrick Miller, was of the catamaran type, _i. e._, it had two -parallel hulls with paddle wheels between them. - -Such was the state of this art when the Nineteenth Century commenced its -wonderful record. No practical steam vessel had been constructed, as -the efforts in this direction were handicapped by the crudeness of all -the arts, and were to be regarded as experiments only, most of which had -to be abandoned. The seed of this invention, however, had been sown in -the fertile soil of genius, conception of its great possibilities had -fired the zeal of the inventors in this field, and the new century was -shortly to number among its great resources a practical and efficient -steamboat. - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.--SYMINGTON'S STEAMBOAT, 1801.] - -The first steamboat of the Nineteenth Century was the "Charlotte -Dundas," built by William Symington in 1801, see Fig. 106, and used on -the Forth and Clyde Canal in 1802. She had a double acting "Watt -engine," which transmitted power by a connecting rod to a crank on the -paddle-wheel shaft. The boat had a single paddle wheel in the middle -near the stern, and was intended only for canal use, in the place of -horses. It was abandoned for fear of washing the banks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.--STEVENS' TWIN SCREW PROPELLER AND ENGINE, -1804.] - -In 1804 Col. John Stevens constructed a boat on the Hudson, driven by a -Watt engine, and having a tubular boiler of his own invention and a twin -screw propeller. The engine, boiler, and twin screws are shown in Fig. -107. The same year Oliver Evans used a stern paddle wheel boat on the -Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. It was driven by a double acting high -pressure engine, and geared so as to rotate wagon wheels by which it was -transported on land, as well as the paddle wheels when on the water. It -was in primitive form both a locomotive and a steamboat. - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.--THE "CLERMONT," 1807.] - -In 1807 Robert Fulton built the "Clermont," and permanently established -steam navigation on the Hudson River between New York and Albany. Fulton -in 1802-1803, while living in Paris with Mr. Joel Barlow, and with the -aid and encouragement of Chancellor Livingston, of New Jersey, had built -an earlier steamboat 86 feet long, and although it broke down owing to -defects in the strength of the hull, he was so encouraged that he -ordered Messrs. Boulton & Watt, of England, to send to America a new -steam engine, and upon his return to America he built the "Clermont." -This vessel, although not the first steamboat, was nevertheless the -first to make a voyage of any considerable length, and to run regularly -and continuously for practical purposes, and Fulton was the first -inventor in this field whose labors were not to be classed as an -abandoned experiment. The "Clermont" as originally built was quite a -different looking boat from that usually given in the histories. A model -of the original construction is to be found in the National Museum at -Washington. In the winter of 1807-8 she was remodeled as shown in Fig. -108. She then appeared as a side wheel steamer, whose wheels were -provided with outer guards and enclosed in side wheel houses, and whose -shaft had outer bearings in the guards, which were not in the original -boat. The hull was 133 feet long, 18 feet beam, and 7 feet depth. The -"Clermont's" engines were coupled to the crank shaft by a bell crank, -and the paddle wheel shaft was separated from the crank shaft, but -connected with it by gearing. The cylinders were 24 inches in diameter, -and 4 foot stroke. The paddle wheels had buckets 4 feet long with a dip -of 2 feet. She made the first trip from New York to Albany of 150 miles -in 32 hours, and returned in 30 hours, which was the first voyage of any -considerable length ever made by steam power. - -The honor of inventing the steamboat has been claimed for many -inventors, and that many worthy experimenters had been working in this -field, and that Fulton had the benefit of their experience is true. The -fact is, however, that the evolution of any great, invention is a slow -and cumulative process, the product of many minds, and while the -proposers, suggesters, and experimenters are entitled to their share of -the credit, it is the man who achieves success and gives to the public -the benefit of his labors whom the world honors, and in this connection -the name of Fulton stands pre-eminent, for although the "Clermont" was -264 years later than the steamboat of Blasco de Garay, the "Clermont" -marks the beginning of practical steam navigation, and whatever the -claims of other inventors may be, it is certain that steam navigation, -established by Fulton in 1807, on the Hudson, preceded the practical use -of the steamboat in any other country by at least five years, for it was -not until 1812 that Henry Bell, of Scotland, built the "Comet," that -plied between Glasgow and Greenock, on the Clyde, and not until 1814 was -a steam packet used for hire on the Thames in England. - -At the same time that Fulton was in Paris making his first experiments -with the steamboat, Col. John Stevens, the most celebrated boat builder -and engineer of his day, was actively experimenting in America in the -same line. Having in 1804 made the first application of steam to the -screw propeller, he in 1807 built the "Phoenix," which was driven by -paddle wheels. The "Phoenix" was constructed shortly after Fulton's -boat, but was barred from use on the Hudson by the exclusive monopoly -obtained by Fulton and Livingston from the State Legislature, and she -was accordingly taken from New York to Philadelphia by sea, which was -the first ocean voyage by a steam vessel. - -The first steamboat on the Mississippi was the "Orleans," of 100 tons, -built at Pittsburg by Fulton and Livingston in 1811. She had a stern -wheel, and went from Pittsburg to New Orleans in 14 days. - -Although the first trip out to sea was made in 1808 by Col. Stevens' son -in taking the "Phoenix" from New York to Philadelphia, no attempt had -been made to cross the ocean until 1819. In this year the "Savannah," an -American steamer of 380 tons, performed this feat, and had the honor of -being the first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic. In 1824 the -"Enterprise," an English steamer, rounded the Cape of Good Hope and went -to India. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.--SCREW PROPELLER OF THE "ROBT. F. STOCKTON," -ERICSSON'S PATENT, 1836.] - -The screw propeller employed by Colonel Stevens in 1804 was not a new -invention with him, as popularly supposed, but had its origin early in -the preceding century, being a mere development of the ancient wind -wheel. In 1836 it was further developed by Francis P. Smith and by Capt. -John Ericsson, then living in England. Ericsson took out British patent -No. 7,149, of 1836, and United States patent No. 588, of Feb. 1, 1838, -and built several screw steamers, and through Capt. Robert F. Stockton, -of the United States Navy, succeeded in having a screw steamer, the -"Robert F. Stockton," built in accordance with the plans of his patent -and sent to the United States. The arrangement of her machinery is seen -in Fig. 109. She had two propellers on the same axis, but revolving in -opposite directions, one being on the central shaft and the other on a -concentric tube. The engines were coupled directly to the propeller -shafts, which feature was one of Ericsson's improvements, and has -continued to be the approved form to this day. - -In the early history of steam navigation the side wheel steamer was the -favorite, and was employed for ocean travel as well as for inland -waters. In 1840 the "Brittania," the first Cunarder, commenced the -career of that celebrated line. This vessel had side wheels, as did also -the "United States," shown in Fig. 110, which was the first American -steamer built expressly for the Atlantic trade. In 1852 the United -States mail steamer "Arctic," of the Collins line, was regarded as the -greyhound of the Atlantic, her time being 9 days, 17 hours and 12 -minutes. She also had side wheels. - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.--STEAMER "UNITED STATES," 1847.] - -Side wheel steamers for inland waters, and screw propellers for sea -service, however, in time established their fitness for their respective -scenes of action. In side wheel steamers the most notable improvements -have been in stiffening the hull by braces, and the adoption of -feathering paddle wheels, whose function is to cause the paddles to -enter and leave the water in vertical position without dragging dead -water. Manley in 1862, and Morgan in 1875, patented practical forms of -the feathering paddle wheel. In screw propellers, Woodcroft in 1832, and -Griffiths at a later period, made valuable improvements. The surface -condenser was used by Hall in 1838 on the steamship "Wilberforce," and -Sickels in 1841 invented the drop cut-off. - -[Illustration: - - {"GREAT EASTERN," SCREW AND PADDLE WHEELS, 1858. LENGTH, - FIG. 111.--{692 FEET, SPEED 12 KNOTS. - {"OCEANIC," TWIN SCREW, 1899. LENGTH, 704 FEET, SPEED, 20 - {KNOTS.] - -In 1854 the "Great Eastern" was begun and was finished in 1858. This was -the largest steam vessel ever built up to this time, and has continued -to hold the record for size up to the year 1899, when her dimensions -were exceeded by the "Oceanic," which ships are put in comparison in -Fig. 111. The length of the "Great Eastern" was 692 feet, beam 83 feet, -depth 571/2 feet, draft 251/2 feet, displacement 27,000 tons, and speed 12 -knots. She was designed by the English engineer Brunel, and was intended -for the Australian trade. She had both a screw propeller and paddle -wheels at the side, with four engines coupled to each. The paddle wheel -engines had steam cylinders 74 inches in diameter, with 14 foot stroke, -and those of the screw engines were 84 inches in diameter and 4 foot -stroke. Collectively they were of 10,000 horse power. The paddle wheels -were 56 feet in diameter, and the screw propeller 24 feet. On her first -voyage to New York, across the Atlantic, in 1860, she carried from 15 to -24 pounds of steam and consumed 2,877 tons of coal. Her cost was -$3,831,520. This mammoth vessel was too large and unwieldy for the uses -for which she was designed, and proved a bad investment. She served, -however, a most useful purpose, by virtue of her great bulk, steadiness, -and carrying capacity, for relaying the Atlantic cable in 1866, and -others in 1873-1874. - -In 1874 the "Castalia" was built. This was a steamer with two parallel -hulls, decked across, and designed for greater steadiness in crossing -the English Channel. The "Bessemer" steamer, designed for the same -purpose, and built about the same time, had four paddle wheels, and the -entire cabin was hung on pivots, so that it could not partake of the sea -motion. - -In later years great improvements have been made in reducing the weight -of the engines, in forced blast, steam steering gear, anchor hoisting -devices, water-tight bulkheads, surface condensers, electric lights, and -signalling devices. By the year 1880 the standard form of marine engine -for large powers had become the compound double cylinder type, expanding -steam from an initial pressure as high as 90 pounds. In 1890 triple -expansion engines had become common, employing three cylinders, and -using steam with an initial pressure as high as 180 pounds. In 1890 -McDougal's whale-back steamers were introduced. See United States -patents No. 429,467 and 429,468, June 3, 1890, and No. 500,411, June 27, -1893. - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.--STEAMBOAT "PRISCILLA."] - -In no country in the world are such fine examples of side wheel steamers -to be found as in the United States, and in no country are there such -splendid reaches of inland waters as theatres for their performances. -The "Priscilla," shown in Fig. 112, of the Fall River Line, plying on -Long Island Sound, and the "Adirondack," on the Hudson, are fine -examples of this type. The "Priscilla," which is said to be the largest -river boat in the world, is 440 feet 6 inches long and 93 feet breadth -over the guards. She is driven by double compound inclined engines, has -feathering paddle wheels 35 feet in diameter and 14 feet face, and her -speed is over 20 miles an hour. The "Adirondack," whose engines and -feathering paddle wheel are shown in Fig. 113, is 412 feet long and 90 -feet breadth over guards. The engines and paddle wheels of the -"Adirondack" are distinctly representative of the modern American side -wheel steamer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.--ENGINES AND PADDLE WHEEL OF STEAMER -"ADIRONDACK" ON THE HUDSON RIVER.] - -The largest and in many respects the highest type of marine architecture -is to be found in the modern ocean greyhound for transatlantic trade. In -recent years the rival companies have vied with each other in the effort -to excel, and steamships of larger size, greater speed, and more perfect -equipment have followed each other, until it would seem that the limit -had been reached. In the accompanying table the largest and most recent -steamers are placed in comparison with the "Great Eastern." - -DIMENSIONS OF THE LARGEST OCEAN STEAMERS. - - ==============+======+=======+======+======+========+=========+======= - NAME OF | DATE.|LENGTH | BEAM.|DEPTH.|DRAUGHT.|DISPLACE-|MAXIMUM - SHIP. | | OVER | | | | MENT. |SPEED. - | | ALL. | | | | | - --------------+------+-------+------+------+--------|---------+------- - | | FEET. | FEET.| FEET.| FEET. | TONS. | KNOTS. - Great Eastern | 1858 | 692 | 83 | 571/2 | 251/2 | 27,000 | 12 - Paris | 1888 | 560 | 63 | 42 | 261/2 | 13,000 | 20 - Teutonic | 1890 | 585 | 571/2 | 42 | 26 | 12,000 | 20 - Campania | 1893 | 625 | 65 | 411/2 | 28 | 19,000 | 22 - St. Paul | 1895 | 554 | 63 | 42 | 27 | 14,000 | 21 - Kaiser Wilhelm| 1897 | 649 | 66 | 43 | 29 | 20,000 | 22.35 - der Grosse | | | | | | | - Oceanic | 1899 | 704 | 68 | 49 | 321/2 | 28,500 | 20 - Deutschland | 1900 | 6861/2 | 67- | 44 | 29 | 22,000 | 231/2 - | | | 1/3 | | | | - ==============+======+=======+======+======+========+=========+======= - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.--"KAISER WILHELM DER GROSSE."] - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.--"OCEANIC" COMPARED WITH BROADWAY BUILDINGS.] - -The "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse," owned by the North German Lloyd -Company, and built in 1897, is shown in Fig. 114, and for three years -held the record as the fastest steamship afloat. The "Kaiser Wilhelm" -was followed by the "Oceanic," in 1899, of the White Star Company, which -is the largest ocean steamer ever built, exceeding the proportions of -the "Great Eastern." Just what the dimensions of the "Oceanic" mean, as -given in the preceding tables, can be best illustrated by the -accompanying Fig. 115, in which she is juxtaposed with several blocks of -large buildings on Broadway, New York, opposite City Hall Park. If the -"Oceanic" were placed on end beside Washington's Monument, at the United -States Capital, she would tower 150 feet above the top of the same. An -ordinary brick house four rooms deep and three stories high could be -built with its length crosswise in her hull. There is accommodation for -410 first-class passengers, 300 second-class passengers, and 1,000 third -class, and as her crew will number 390, the total number of souls on -board, when she carries her full complement, will be 2,100. - -The latest achievement in marine architecture, however, is the -"Deutschland," built for the Hamburg-American Company. The "Deutschland" -is not quite so large as the "Oceanic," but is of higher speed, her -maximum speed of 231/2 knots an hour exceeding that of any other ocean -steamer. The "Savannah," the first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic, -made the trip in 1819 in 26 days. The "Deutschland" in her eastward trip -September 4, 1900, crossed the Atlantic in 5 days 7 hours and 38 -minutes, which is the fastest time on record. The "Deutschland" is of -35,640 horse power, her two bronze propellers are 23 feet diameter, and -weigh 30 tons, and her propeller shafts are 25 inches in diameter. The -cranks of her propeller shafts, like those of the "Kaiser Wilhelm" and -the "Oceanic," are set according to the Schlick system, to reduce -vibration. The "Deutschland's" engines are seen in Fig. 92, and in -general appearance the ship resembles the "Kaiser Wilhelm." Still larger -and possibly swifter steamships are in process of construction, viz.: -the "Kaiser Wilhelm II.," by the North German Lloyd Company, and a -mammoth unnamed ship by the White Star Line, whose length of 750 feet -will exceed all others. - -It may be interesting to note in familiar terms what these enormous -traveling palaces comprehend in equipment. For the safety and comfort of -passengers, the great length reduces the pitching, bilge keels prevent -rolling, and the Schlick system of cranks neutralizes vibration in the -engine. Strong bulkheads, and double bottoms with air-tight -compartments, impart buoyancy in case of collision. Boilers are placed -in separate water-tight compartments, so that damage to one does not -disable the others. Powerful pumps are arranged to discharge inflowing -water, and the best of life boats are provided. Spacious dining rooms, -promenade decks, drawing rooms, pianos, library, smoking room, state -rooms, cabins for children, toilets, baths, medicine stores, a printing -office, and electric lights everywhere, furnish every want and satisfy -every luxurious taste. The cuisine includes a refrigerating plant, the -finest ranges, and provisions galore. It may be interesting to the -housewife to see the market list of a modern transatlantic steamer. A -specimen is partially represented in the following: 25,450 pounds of -fresh meat, 3,250 pounds of fish, 6,370 pounds of game and poultry, -12,715 pounds of bread, 43 barrels of flour, 3,938 pounds of butter, -1,307 pounds of coffee, 2,790 pounds of sugar, 102 pounds of tea, 7,220 -pounds of fresh fruit; 1,230 gallons of milk, 26,106 eggs, 29,180 -oranges and lemons, 7,033 bottles of mineral water, 1,800 bottles of -beer, 2,688 gallons of beer in casks, 1,240 bottles of wine, 630 bottles -of champagne, 1,600 heads of lettuce, 800 jars of preserved fruits, and -other things in proportion. - -In the matter of size the "Oceanic" surpasses all previous efforts in -ship building, but ocean steamers do not reach the highest speed -attainable. The little "Turbinia," a 40 ton craft equipped with a -compound rotary steam turbine of the Parsons type, has attained a speed -of 323/4 knots an hour. An even greater speed has recently been attained -by the larger boat, "Hai Lung," constructed in England for the Chinese -Government, which vessel was equipped with reciprocating engines, and is -credited with having made a run of 181/2 knots at an average speed of 35 -knots an hour. The highest speed ever attained, however, is by the -British torpedo boat "Viper," which is 210 feet long, and, like the -"Turbinia," is equipped with the Parsons steam turbines. In a recent -trial the "Viper" covered a measured mile at the rate of 37.1 knots, or -about 43 miles an hour. - -In many respects the most important branch of steam navigation in recent -years has been its war vessels. The great navies of the world at the end -of 1898[3] ranked as follows: England, 1,557,522 tons; France, 731,629 -tons; Russia, 453,899 tons; United States, 303,070 tons; Germany, -299,637 tons; Italy, 286,175 tons, and they all owe their efficiency -entirely to steam. The first steam war vessel was built in 1814 by -Fulton for the defence of New York Harbor, during the then existing war -times. She was known as the "Demologos" (voice of the people), or -"Fulton the First." As shown in the original designs, Fig. 116, she is a -double ender, whose sides were to be 5 feet thick. In her middle was a -channel way or well containing a protected paddle wheel 16 feet in -diameter, 14 feet wide, and having a dip of 4 feet. A single cylinder -engine turned the paddle wheel on one side, and was balanced by the -boiler on the other side. Although intended to have only twenty guns, -she was equipped, when finished, with thirty long 32-pounder guns and -two Columbiad 100-pounders. It was proposed also to have submarine guns -suspended from each bow. An engine was also to be used to discharge hot -water on the enemy, and a furnace was to be provided for heating the -cannon balls red hot. She was 156 feet long, 20 feet deep, and 56 feet -broad, and was regarded as a very formidable vessel. Her cost was -$278,544. Iron-clad floating batteries were first used in 1855 in the -Crimean war, and shortly afterward the French built the first sea-going -iron-clad, "Gloire," followed in 1859 by the British iron-clad, -"Warrior." - - [3] The figures represent a selective list which excludes about 15 per - cent. of old and inefficient vessels. - -[Illustration: "DEMOLOGOS" - -Figure I^{st} Transverse section A _her Boiler,_ B _the steam Engine,_ C -_the water-wheel,_ - -EE _her wooden walls 5 feet thick, diminishing to below the waterline as -at_ FF. - -_draught of water 9 feet_ DD _her gun deck._ - -Figure II^{d} _This shews her gun deck. 140 feet long, - -24 feet wide; mounting 20 guns_ A _the Water wheel_ - -Figure III^{d} - -_Side View_ - -FIG. 116.] - -The civil war in 1861 brought with it a novel and striking form of war -vessel known as the "Monitor."[4] It was built from plans of Capt. -Ericsson, an engineer of the ripest experience, skill, and attainments, -who had then come to make his home in the United States. He undertook to -construct for the Navy Department of the United States some form of iron -clad steam batteries of light draft, suitable to navigate the rivers and -harbors of the Confederate States. The "Monitor" was the result. The -salient features, shown in vertical cross section in Fig. 117, are a low -deck projecting but a few inches above the water line, so as to present -as little target as possible to the enemy, and a revolving and heavily -armored turret containing the battery of guns. In 1862 the Confederate -forces had reconstructed a steam vessel with a chicken-coop-shaped -covering of armor, that proved a formidable engine of war, which was -practically invulnerable to the attacks of ordinary war vessels, and was -doing great damage to the Union vessels. In the spring of 1862 the -"Monitor" met the "Merrimac" in engagement in Hampton Roads, and -established the great value of the turret monitor. - - [4] The revolving turret was invented and patented by Theodore R. - Timby, No. 35,846, July 8, 1862, and No. 36,593, September 30, - 1862. - -[Illustration: FIG. 117.--CROSS SECTION OF "MONITOR."] - -Vessels of the "Monitor" type still form useful parts of the United -States Navy, in which the "Monterey" and "Monadnock" are its most -representative types. The "Monadnock," which is a double-turret coast -defence monitor, is shown in Fig. 118. Although regarded by some as -unseaworthy on account of the low seaboard and small buoyancy, the -monitor has cleared itself of such suspicion, for in the recent war with -Spain both the "Monadnock" and "Monterey" sailed across the Pacific -Ocean by way of Honolulu to Manila, a distance of 7,000 miles, and -joined the fleet of Admiral Dewey without mishap or delay. - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.--MONITOR "MONADNOCK."] - -No patriotic American citizen would expect to read an account of modern -war vessels without finding special mention of those two splendid -types of their class, the battleship "Oregon" and the armored cruiser -"Brooklyn," whose performances during the late war with Spain -contributed so much to the honor and glory of the United States Navy, -and demonstrated the skill and efficiency of our American shipbuilders. -Before the war began the "Oregon" was stationed on the Pacific Coast, -where she had been built, and it was desired that she should join the -fleet of Admiral Sampson in Cuban waters. Leaving Puget Sound on March -6, 1898, this floating fortress of steel, weighted with her enormous -guns and 18-inch thick armor, made the long journey of over 14,500 miles -around the southern end of the western continent, and up to Jupiter -Inlet on the Florida coast, arriving there on the 24th day of May, and -was not delayed an hour on account of her machinery, the only stops -being made for coal. Immediately after coaling at Key West she took her -place in the blockading line at Santiago, and in the great battle of -July 3 quickly developed a power greater than that attained on her trial -trip and a speed only slightly less, easily distancing all other ships -immediately engaged except the "Brooklyn," and in connection with the -"Brooklyn" forced the fleetest of the Spanish cruisers to surrender. - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.--BATTLESHIP "OREGON."] - -The "Oregon" is shown in Fig. 119. She is an armored battleship of the -first class, built by the Union Iron Works of San Francisco, and -launched Oct. 26, 1893. Her length is 348 feet, beam 691/4 feet, draft 24 -feet, displacement 10,288 tons, maximum speed 16.79 knots, and coal -capacity 1,594 tons. Her side armor is of steel plates 18 inches thick, -and her deck is, 23/4 inches thick. On the turrets the armor is from 6 to -15 inches thick, and on the barbettes it is from 6 to 17 inches thick. -Her engines are of the twin screw, vertical triple expansion direct -acting inverted cylinder type. The stroke is 42 inches, and the -diameters of the cylinders are 341/2, 48, and 75 inches, respectively. The -battery consists of four 13-inch breech loading rifles, eight 8-inch -breech loading rifles, four 6-inch, twenty 6-pounder rapid fire guns, -six 1-pounder rapid fire, two Colts, one 3-inch rapid fire field gun, -and three torpedo tubes. The 13-inch guns weigh 136,000 pounds each, are -39 feet 91/4 inches long, are set 18 feet above the water, can be moved -through an arc of 270 degrees, and throw a projectile of 1,100 pounds a -distance of 12 miles, and with a power which at 1,000 yards would -perforate a mass of steel 21/2 feet in thickness. The cost of the "Oregon" -was $3,180,000. - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.--ARMORED CRUISER "BROOKLYN."] - -The "Brooklyn" is shown in Fig. 120, and enjoys the distinction of -having borne the brunt of the fight of July 3, 1898, having been hit -over forty times in that engagement without being disabled. She was -built by the William Cramp & Sons Ship and Engine Building Company, of -Philadelphia, was launched Oct. 2, 1895, and cost $2,986,000. She is an -armored cruiser, and is one of the latest and most speedy of that type. -She is 400 feet 6 inches long, 64 feet 8 inches breadth, 24 feet draft, -9,215 tons displacement. Her engines are the twin-screw vertical triple -expansion type, imparting a speed of 21.91 knots an hour. Her maximum -indicated horse power is 18,769, and her coal capacity is 1,461 tons. -Her battery consists of eight 8-inch breech loading rifles, twelve -5-inch rapid fire guns, twelve 6-pounder rapid fire, four 1-pounder -rapid fire, four Colts, two 3-inch rapid fire field guns, and four -Whitehead torpedo tubes. Her side armor is 3 inches thick, her turrets -51/2 inches, her barbettes from 4 to 8 inches, and her deck from 3 to 6 -inches. She also has a water line protection of cocoa fibre to -automatically close up an opening made by a shot. - -Although not a steam vessel, it would be regarded as an omission not to -mention among war vessels the "Holland" submarine boat, brought into -notice in 1898 by the Spanish American war, and designed to dive below -the surface and make attack below the water level. Torpedo boats of this -type have been acquired by, and now form a part of, the United States -Navy. - -Among all the types of steam war vessels which have claimed popular -attention the most interesting in proportion to its size is the torpedo -boat, for none represent such concentrated pent-up energy and deadly -effect as this little demon of the sea. A mere shell in construction, -with engine and boiler built for highest speed, and crew suffering -untold discomforts and dangers below, this modern engine of destruction, -with the speed of an express locomotive, and the helplessness and deadly -intent of a scorpion, darts up to the monster battleship under cover of -darkness, and before being discovered discharges a torpedo and delivers -a mortal wound in the side of the big ship which sends her to the -bottom, perishing perhaps itself in the destruction which it works. The -United States has 37 of these torpedo boats. The torpedo boat destroyer -is a larger and swifter boat, whose special duty it is to overtake and -destroy this dangerous little fighter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.--SHIPPING OF ALL NATIONS. RATIO OF STEAM TO -SAILS.] - -The growth of steam navigation during the present generation has been -wonderfully rapid. The accompanying diagram, Fig. 121, from Mulhall's -"Industries and Wealth of Nations," shows in 1860 30 per cent. of steam -to 70 per cent. of sailing vessels, while in 1894 the ratio is 80 per -cent. of steam to 20 of sailing vessels. The same authority estimated -the total horse power of steam vessels in the merchant marine of the -world in 1895 to be 12,005,000. Add to this the growth of the past five -years, and about 4,000,000 horse power for the steam war vessels of the -world's navies, which were not included, and the total horse power of -the steam vessels of the world would not be far from twenty million. - -This cursory review, in a single chapter, cannot adequately treat this -great subject, for a whole library is needed to cover the field. Suffice -it to say, however, that among the great scenes and acts in the theatre -of human action, no figure has occupied so much attention, and none -played so important a part in the drama of life, as the steam vessel. -Its stage setting has been the majestic waters of the earth, and on it -the play of the great warships has vied in power and grandeur with the -flash and vehemence of the lightning, and the whirl and turmoil of the -elements. Tense with a deep meaning which no stage simulation could -approximate, and with the smoke of conflict for a drop curtain, it has -laid tragedies upon the pages of history, and changed the maps of the -world; while behind the scenes the great passenger steamers, with their -uninterrupted traffic of human freight, are more silently, but none the -less surely, stirring the peoples of the earth into the homogeneous -ferment of civilization, and slowly moulding nations into the solidarity -of a common brotherhood. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -PRINTING. - - EARLY PRINTING PRESSES--NICHOLSON'S ROTARY PRESS--THE COLUMBIAN AND - WASHINGTON PRESSES--KOeNIG ROTARY STEAM PRESS--THE HOE TYPE REVOLVING - MACHINE--COLOR PRINTING--STEREOTYPING--PAPER MAKING--WOOD PULP--THE - LINOTYPE--PLATE PRINTING--LITHOGRAPHY. - - -The art preservative of all arts it has been rightfully called. Before -its birth generation after generation of the human family lived and -died, and each was but little wiser, and but little better than its -predecessor. Tradition was the misty, vague, and sometimes wholly false -dependence of the living, and the experiences of mankind were, in the -words of an eminent writer, but like the stern lights of a vessel, which -only illumined the pathway over which each had passed. But printing -gives to the present the cumulative wisdom of the past, and marks a -great era of growth in civilization. It conserves and preserves man's -thoughts and makes them immortal, so that each generation comes into -existence with a richer legacy of ideas, and is guaranteed a higher -plane of existence, and a more exalted destiny. - -Printing from letters engraved on blocks of wood is an ancient art, -having had its origin in China many centuries before the Christian era. -The Chinese method, which is still followed, was to write their -characters with a brush on a sheet of paper, and while still wet, the -piece of paper was laid face downward on a smooth piece of board to -transfer the ink lines, and then all except the ink lines on the board -was cut away. Thus they have one type plate for each book page. Printing -with movable type, _i. e._, with a separate type for each letter, which -may be repeatedly set up into forms of varying composition, is -practically the beginning of the modern art of printing. This invention -is usually ascribed to Johann Gutenberg, of Mentz, about 1436. - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.--BENJAMIN FRANKLIN'S PRESS, 1725.] - -In the earliest printing presses the form was locked up in a tray, and -placed upon a platform, and the platen was then brought down upon it by -turning a screw in a cross bar above. The first printing press of this -type was made by Blaew, of Amsterdam, in 1620, which had a spring to -cause the screw to fly back after the impression was taken. The press -upon which Benjamin Franklin worked in London in 1725 is of this -pattern, and is to be seen in the National Museum at Washington. It is -almost entirely of wood, and is shown in Fig. 122. About the beginning -of the Nineteenth Century Lord Stanhope invented a press entirely of -cast iron, in which the oscillating handle operated a toggle to force -down the platen in taking the impression. The bed traveled on guide -ways, and the tympan and frisket were hinged to fold back and lay in -elevated position. - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.--THE WASHINGTON PRESS.] - -The "Columbian" press was the first important American improvement. It -was invented by George Clymer, of Philadelphia, and is shown in his -British Pat. No. 4,174 of 1817. A compound lever was employed for -applying the power. The "Washington" press was patented in the United -States by Samuel Rust, April 17, 1829. In this press (see Fig. 123) the -platen is forced downwardly by a compound lever applied to a toggle -joint and is raised by springs on each side. The bed is run in and out -by turning a crank on a shaft which has a pulley and belt passing around -it. - -As so far described the presses were worked by hand power. An important -step in the advancement of this art was made by the introduction of -_power presses_ worked by steam. These arranged the type on the surface -of a cylinder. Probably the earliest form of rotary cylinder press is -that invented by Nicholson, British Pat. No. 1,748 of 1790. Its main -features are described as follows: "The types, being rubbed or scraped -narrower toward the foot, were to be fixed radially upon a cylinder. -This cylinder with its type was to revolve in gear with another cylinder -covered with soft leather (the impression cylinder), and the type -received its ink from another cylinder, to which the inking apparatus -was applied. The paper was impressed by passing between the type and the -impression cylinder." - -The first practical success, however, in rotary steam presses was -achieved by Koenig, a German, who in 1814 set up for the _London Times_ -two machines, by which that newspaper was printed at the rate of 1,100 -impressions per hour. He obtained British Pat. No. 3,321 of 1810, No. -3,496 of 1811, No. 3,725 of 1813, and No. 3,868 of 1814. Koenig's machine -was in 1827 succeeded by that of Applegath and Cowper, which was simpler -and more rapid. - -Many improvements upon the methods for handling the paper were -subsequently devised, and double cylinder presses were made which were -able to print 4,000 sheets an hour. In 1845 the firm of R. Hoe & Co., -which had already been for years engaged in the manufacture of printing -presses, brought out the Hoe Type Revolving Machine. The first one of -these was placed in the office of the _Philadelphia Ledger_ in 1846, and -had four impression cylinders, printing 8,000 papers per hour. The -constantly increasing circulation of newspapers, however, continued to -make insatiable demands for more rapid work, and to meet this demand the -Hoe company in 1871 brought out their continuous web press, in which the -paper was furnished to the machine in the form of a roll, and after -being printed was separated into sheets. This principle of action gave -promise of unlimited speed, and required important reorganization in all -parts of the machine. To meet these conditions of increased speed more -rapid drying ink had to be produced to prevent blurring, paper of -uniform quality and strength had to be made, means had to be devised for -printing the opposite side of the web, and severing devices for cutting -the web into sheets were needed, but perhaps the most important feature -was the device called a gathering and delivering cylinder, whereby the -papers could be gathered and disposed of as fast as they could be -printed, and much faster than human hands could work. This was the -invention of Stephen D. Tucker, and it is the mechanism upon which the -speed of the modern press depends, for it would obviously be useless to -print papers faster than they could be taken from the machine in proper -condition. Many patents were taken by Messrs. Hoe & Tucker covering -various improvements, prominent among which were No. 18,640, Nov. 17, -1857; No. 25,199, Aug. 23, 1859 (re-issue No. 4,429); No. 84,627, Dec. -1, 1868 (re-issue No. 4,400); No. 113,769, April 18, 1871; No. 124,460, -March 12, 1872; No. 131,217, Sept. 10, 1872. The first rapid printing -press of the Hoe Company was set up in the office of the _New York -Tribune_ in 1871, and its maximum output was 18,000 an hour. This marked -the great era of rapid newspaper printing, and following it many further -improvements, such as devices for folding and counting the papers -automatically, have been added, until to-day the great Hoe Octuple -Press, shown in Fig. 124, is the wonder of the Nineteenth Century. It -prints 96,000 papers of four, six, or eight pages in an hour, or at the -rate of 1,600 a minute, and these papers are not only printed, but in -the same operation and by the same machine are cut, pasted, folded, and -counted automatically. Fifty miles of paper of the width of an ordinary -newspaper pass through it each hour from its several rolls. The machine -weighs over 60 tons, and is composed of about 16,000 parts, and yet its -touch is so deft, and its members so delicately and accurately adjusted -that it does not tear the tender sheet as it flies through the -machine--so fast that one-fifth of a second only is required to print a -page. - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.--HOE OCTUPLE PRESS. PRINTS, CUTS, PASTES, FOLDS -AND COUNTS NEWSPAPERS AT RATE OF 1,600 A MINUTE.] - -The latest development in the printing press has been in color printing, -which has recently been introduced in the illustration of some of the -largest daily newspapers. Such a press contains from 50,000 to 60,000 -parts, and its cost is from $35,000 to $45,000. - -Collateral with the development of the printing press are three -important branches of the art--stereotyping, paper making, and type -setting. - -_Stereotyping_ was the invention of William Ged, of Edinburgh, in 1731, -and was introduced into the United States by David Bruce, of New York, -in 1813. The stereotype is simply a moulded duplicate of the type face -as set up, the duplicate being cast in the form of a single block of -metal, by first taking an impression in plastic material from the faces -of the type, after being set up, to form the mould, and then casting, in -an easily fusible metal, an exact duplicate of this type face in this -mould. This art prevents the wear on the movable type involved in -printing, and also avoids the locking up into permanent forms of a large -body of valuable type, since a form may be set up, stereotyped, and the -type then distributed and set up into another form. Stereotyping, -although used in book printing, was not thought practical for newspaper -work until about 1861, because of the length of time required for the -formation and drying of the mould and the casting of the plate; but -about this time great expedition in the formation of the plate was -attained by the employment of a steam bed to dry the mould, and a novel -form of papier mache matrix, or mould, which could be conveniently -disposed around the cylinders of type. The dampened and plastic papier -mache sheets are beaten into the face of the type form by means of -brushes, are then removed, dried, and used as moulds to cast the -stereotype plate from. A stereotype plate can now be made in about seven -minutes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125.--PAPER PULP BEATING ENGINE.] - -_Paper Making_ is an important adjunct of the printing art, and its -formation cheaply into long rolls of uniform strength is an essential -condition of success in the rapid web-perfecting printing press. A -Frenchman named Louis Robert about 1799 was the first to make a -continuous web of paper, and in 1800 he received from the French -Government a reward of 8,000 francs for his discovery. His invention was -subsequently taken up and carried to a success by the great English -paper makers, the Fourdrinier Brothers, whose name has been given to the -machine. In the Fourdrinier process rags are ground to a pulp by a -revolving beater (Fig. 125) working in a tank of water. The pulp, duly -beaten, refined, screened, and diluted with water, is then piped into -the "flow-box" of the Fourdrinier machine. The "flow-box," shown on -right of Fig. 126, is a deep rectangular chamber extending across the -full width of the machine, from which the pulp flows out in a thin -stream onto an endless belt of 70-mesh wire cloth which runs over end -rollers. To prevent the stream of pulp from flowing laterally over the -edges of the belt, two endless rubber guides or bands, two inches square -in cross section, travel with the belt over the first twenty feet of its -length, and run over two pulleys above the wire cloth. The upper half of -the wire cloth belt is supported by and runs over a series of closely -juxtaposed rollers. As the pulp passes from the "flow-box" the particles -of fibre float in it just as an innumerable multitude of particles of -cotton fibre would float in a stream of water. To unite and interlace -the fibres the wire cloth belt is given a lateral oscillating or shaking -movement, which serves to interlock the fibres. Meanwhile the water -strains through the wire cloth, leaving a thin layer of moist interlaced -fibre spread in a white sheet over the surface of the belt. The -separation of the water is further assisted by suction boxes which -extend across close beneath the upper run of the belt and are connected -to suction pumps. - -[Illustration: FIG. 126.--FOURDRINIER PAPER MACHINE.] - -The wire cloth with its layer of moist pulp now passes below a roll -which compresses the fibre, and then leaving the machine seen in Fig. -126 it passes below a second and larger roll covered with felt, which -presses out more of the water. The fibre next passes to the "first -press," where it is caught up on an endless belt and passed between two -rollers where more water is pressed out of the sheet. Then it passes -through a "second press," and finally the sheet commences a long journey -up and down over a series of steam-heated drying rolls, by which the -sheet is dried. - -_Wood-Pulp._--When a purchaser of one of the New York dailies reads the -morning's voluminous edition, he little realizes that he holds in his -hands the remains of a billet of wood as large as a good-sized club, yet -such is the case. Originally made from the fibres of the papyrus plant, -and later from rags beaten into a pulp, paper for the printing of books -and newspapers is now made almost entirely of wood. In the formation of -paper pulp from wood two processes are employed, one known as the soda -process, and the other the sulphite process. In both cases the wood is -cut into fine chips, and then digested in great drums with chemicals to -extract the resinous matter and leave the pure fibrous cellulose, which -resembles raw cotton in texture. This industry was developed by Watt and -Burgess in 1853 (U. S. Pat. No. 11,343, July 18, 1854), who invented the -soda process; by Voelter (U. S. Pat. No. 21,161, Aug. 10, 1858), who -devised means for comminuting or shredding the wood; and by Tilghman (U. -S. Pat. No. 70,485, Nov. 5, 1867), who invented the sulphite process. - -The logs, usually of spruce or poplar, are first split, as seen at the -bottom of Fig. 127, then placed in the chipper, where a revolving disc -with knives cuts them into small chips, which are fed to an elevator and -raised to a screening device, seen at the top, to remove saw-dust, dirt -and knots. In the sulphite process the chips are then delivered into the -digesters shown in Fig. 128, which are supplied with sulphurous acid -generated in a plant shown in Fig. 129. In the digesters the gummy and -resinous matters are dissolved by the heat and chemicals, and the woolly -fibre left behind is bleached, washed, and dried, and afterwards made -into paper upon the Fourdrinier machine. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.--CHIPPING LOGS FOR PAPER PULP.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.--DIGESTER FOR WOOD PULP.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 129.--SULPHUROUS ACID PLANT FOR MAKING WOOD PULP.] - -It was stated by the _Paper Trade Journal_ in 1897 that the increase in -paper making in the United States during the 15 years preceding amounted -to 352 per cent., due chiefly to the growth of the wood pulp industry. -The Androscoggin Pulp Mill, established in Maine in 1870, was one of the -pioneers in this field. In that State the industry had grown in 1897 to -over $13,000,000 and gave employment to more than 5,000 men, but the -State of Maine is excelled by both New York and Wisconsin in this -industry, for in the same year New York mills had a daily capacity of -1,800,000 pounds; Wisconsin, 670,000; Maine, 665,000, and other States a -less capacity. There are over 1,000 paper mills in the United States, -and their combined daily capacity amounts to over 13,000 tons. In 1898 -the United States exported over five million dollars' worth of paper, -and over fifty million pounds of wood pulp. Of the total amount of paper -produced in the world Mulhall estimated it in 1890 to be 2,620,000,000 -tons annually. This amount is greatly increased at the present time, and -by far the larger part of it is manufactured from wood. - -In 1891 the _Philadelphia Record_ in an experimental test as to speed, -cut trees from the forest, converted them into paper, and then into -printed newspapers, all within the space of 22 hours. At a later period -in Germany, where the wood pulp art began, even this expeditious work -has been excelled. The trees were felled in the morning at 7:35, -converted into paper, and presented at 10 A. M. in the form of printed -newspapers, with a record of the news of the forenoon. The great naval -edition of the _Scientific American_ of April 30, 1898, consumed a -hundred tons of wood pulp paper, and was therefore built upon a material -foundation of 125 cords of wood, which cleared off over six acres of -well-set spruce timber land. It is mainly wood pulp that has enabled -books and newspapers to be made so cheaply, for they are now furnished -at a less price than the cost of the paper made in the old way from -rags. - -[Illustration: FIG. 130.--LINOTYPE MACHINE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 131.--LINOTYPE MATRIX.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 132.--SPACING OF ASSEMBLED LINE OF MATRICES.] - -_The Linotype._--The most revolutionary and perhaps the most important -development in the printing art of this century has been the linotype -machine. The laborious, painstaking, and expensive feature of printing -has always been the setting and redistribution of the types, since each -little piece had to be separately selected and placed in the composing -stick, and the line afterwards "justified," which means an apportionment -of the space between the words so as to make each line of type about the -same length in the column. The same separate handling of each piece was -again involved in restoring the type to the case. Machines for thus -setting and distributing the type had been devised, but the operation -was so involved, and required so nearly the discretion of the thinking -mind, that all automatic machinery proved too complicated and -impracticable. In 1886, however, a machine was placed in the office of -the _New York Tribune_ whose performances astonished and alarmed the -old-time compositor. It rendered it unnecessary to handle the type, or -even to have any separate type at all. It was the Mergenthaler Linotype -machine, which automatically formed its own type by casting a whole line -of it at a time. The first machine was invented in 1884, and patented in -1885, but it was subsequently reorganized and greatly improved in Pats. -No. 425,140, April 8, 1890; Nos. 436,531 and 436,532, Sept. 16, 1890, -and No. 438,354, Oct. 14, 1890. It is shown in the accompanying -illustration (Fig. 130). By manipulating the keyboard, which resembles -that of a typewriter, each lettered key is made to bring down from an -inclined elevated magazine a little brass plate of the shape shown in -Fig. 131, and which plate is called a matrix, because it bears on its -edge at _x_ a mould of the type letter. There is a matrix plate for -every letter and character used. These little matrices are spaced by -wedges, as seen in Fig. 132, and are assembled, as in Fig. 133, along -the side of a mould wheel having a slot in it which forms a channel -between the aligned type-moulds or matrices on one side and the -discharge mouth of a melting pot, in which molten type metal is -maintained in a fluid state by a subjacent gas-burner. In the melting -pot there is a cylinder and plunger, and when the plunger descends, it -forces the molten metal up through the discharge spout into the slot of -the mould wheel, and against the letter mould _x_ of each one of the -composed or aligned matrices. The wheel is then turned with the -matrices, and the metal in its slot is afterwards discharged in the form -of a linotype slug, seen in Fig. 134, which is a metal plate bearing on -its edge a completely moulded line of type ready for setting up in the -form for printing. The jagged notches in the tops of the matrices (Fig. -131) are for co-operation with a distributer bar (not easily explained) -for restoring the matrices to their appropriate magazines after being -used. There are altogether about 1,500 of the little brass matrices. The -machine is about five feet square, weighs 1,750 pounds, and costs $3,000 -each. Notwithstanding this expense these Linotype machines have to-day -made their way into nearly all the daily newspaper offices of the -civilized world, even to Australia and the Hawaiian Islands. In the -composing rooms of the daily newspapers and the larger book printing -offices we find great rows of these Linotype machines, each doing the -work of from four to five men. There are now in use in America something -over 5,000 Linotype machines; and in other countries about 2,000, making -7,000 in all. Each machine may be adjusted in five minutes to produce -any size or style of type, and it gives new, clean faces for each day's -issue, with none of the ordinary troubles of distributing type. The -cheapness of composition, due to the machine, has led to an enormous -increase in the size of papers, in the frequency of the editions, and -has correspondingly increased the demand for labor in all the attendant -lines, such as paper-making, press-making, the attendants on presses, -stereotyping, etc. In the Boston Library, which keeps its catalogues -printed up to within 24 hours of date, the Linotypes print in 23 -languages. - -[Illustration: FIG. 133.--CASTING THE LINE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 134.--A LINOTYPE.] - -When the Linotype machine was first patented it was not regarded by -printers generally as a practical machine, but only one of the many -complicated, theoretical, but impracticable organizations which the -Patent Office has to deal with. Its history, however, has been unique. -It is practically the product of the brain of a single man, Ottmar -Mergenthaler, a most ingenious and indefatigable inventor living in -Baltimore. It was exploited under the powerful patronage of a syndicate -of newspaper men, and hundreds of thousands of dollars were spent in -perfecting it before any practical results were obtained. To-day it -stands a triumph of human ingenuity, ranking in importance with the -rotary web-perfecting press, and is probably the most ingenious piece of -practical mechanism in existence. - -Of the three forms of printing attention has been given thus far only to -the leading branch of the art, which is _type printing_, or "_letter -press_," as it is called, in which the characters are raised in relief -and receive ink on their raised surfaces only. A second branch of the -art is _plate printing_, in which the lines and characters are engraved -in intaglio in a plate, and which, being covered with ink, and the -surface of the plate wiped clean, leaves the ink in the undercuts, which -is taken up by the paper when pressure is applied through a roller. -Plate printing is a very old art, the plate printing press having been -ascribed to Tomasso Finiguerra, of Florence, in 1460. The reciprocating -table bearing the engraved plate, and the superposed pressure roller -turned by hand through its long radial arms, is an ancient and familiar -form of press which has been in use for many years. This method of -printing finds application in fine line engraving in works of art, card -invitations, and bank note engraving. Very ingenious automatic machines -have been invented and were in use a few years ago by the United States -Government for printing its bank notes, but have since been displaced by -the old hand machines. To the credit of the machine, it should be said, -that it was from no fault in the machine that this retrograde step was -taken, but rather the disfavor of the labor organizations. - -_Lithography_ is another and quite important branch of the printing art, -in which the lines and characters are drawn upon stone with a kind of -oily ink to which printers' ink will adhere, while it is repelled from -the other moistened surfaces of the stone. Lithography was invented in -1798 by Alois Senefelder, of Munich. It finds its greatest application -in artistic and fanciful work in inks of various colors, and its -development into chromo-lithography in the Nineteenth Century has grown -into a fine art. Our beautifully colored chromos, prints, labels, maps, -etc., are made by this process. A more recent and quite important -development of this art is photo-lithography, which will be more fully -considered under photography. - -Many collateral branches of the printing art are interesting in their -development, such as calico printing, the printing of wall papers, of -oil cloth, printing for the blind, book binding, type founding, and -folding and addressing machines, but lack of space forbids more than a -casual mention. - -Printing is perhaps the greatest of all the arts of civilization, and -the libraries and newspapers of the Nineteenth Century attest its value. -If Benjamin Franklin could wake from his long sleep and enter the -composing rooms of our great dailies, and witness the imposing array of -linotype machines, more resembling a machine shop than a printing -office, and then visit the press room and see the avalanche of finished -papers flying at the rate of 1,600 a minute, neatly folded, and counted -for delivery, he would doubtless be overwhelmed with emotions of wonder -and incredulity, for broad-minded man as he was, he could have no -conception of such progress. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THE TYPEWRITER. - - OLD ENGLISH TYPEWRITER OF 1714--THE BURT TYPEWRITER OF 1829-- - PROGIN'S FRENCH MACHINE OF 1833--THURBER'S PRINTING MACHINE OF - 1843--THE BEACH TYPEWRITER--THE SHOLES TYPEWRITER, THE FIRST OF THE - MODERN FORM, COMMERCIALLY DEVELOPED INTO THE REMINGTON--THE - CALIGRAPH--SMITH-PREMIER--THE BOOK TYPEWRITER AND OTHERS. - - -Occupying an intermediate place between the old-fashioned scribe and the -printer, the typewriter has in the latter part of the Nineteenth Century -established a distinct and important avocation, and has become a -necessary factor in modern business life. Chirography, or hand writing, -reflecting, as it did, the idiosyncrasies of each writer, was not only -slow, but when employed was, in most cases, in the haste and press of -active business reduced to an illegible scrawl. For the use of reporters -and others requiring extra speed, stenography, or short hand, was -resorted to, but there was a distinct need for some easy, quick, -legible, and uniform record of the busy man's correspondence and copy -work, and this the modern typewriter has supplied. - -Like most other important inventions, the typewriter did not spring into -existence all at once, for while the practical embodiment in really -useful machines has only taken place since about 1868, there had been -many experiments and some success attained at a much earlier date. The -British patent to Henry Mills. No. 395 of 1714, is the earliest record -of efforts in this direction. At this early date no drawings were -attached to patents, and the specification dwells more on the function -of the machine than the instrumentalities employed. No record of the -construction of this machine remains in existence, and it may fairly be -considered a lost art. In quaint and old-fashioned English, the patent -specification proceeds as follows: - -"_ANNE_, by the grace of God, &c., to all whom these presents shall -come, greeting: _WHEREAS_, our trusty and well-beloved subject, Henry -Mills, hath by his humble peticon represented vnto vs, that he has by -his greate study, paines, and expence, lately invented, and brought to -perfection "_An Artificial Machine_ or _Method_ for the _Impressing_ or -_Transcribing Letters Singly_ or _Progressively_ one after another as in -_Writing_, whereby all _Writing whatever_ may be _Engrossed_ in _Paper_ -or _Parchment_ so _Neat_ and _Exact_ as not to be Distinguished from -_Print_, that the said _Machine_ or Method, may be of greate vse in -_Settlements_ and _Publick Recors_, the Impression being deeper and more -Lasting that any other _Writing_, and not to be erased, or -_Counterfeited_ without _Manifest Discovery_, and having therefore -humbly prayed vs to grant him our Royall Letters Patents, for the sole -vse of his said Invention for the term of fourteen yeares." - -"_Know Yee_, that wee," etc. - -The first American typewriter of which any record remains is that -described in the patent granted to W. A. Burt, July 23, 1829. It was -called a "Typographer." It had a segment bearing the letters of the -alphabet and corresponding notches acting as an index. A superposed -lever, which could be worked up and down, and also moved laterally, was -provided with a series of type, arranged in a segmental curve, so that -any type could be brought into place on the subjacent paper by swinging -the lever over to and down into the proper notch in the index segment -below. A restored model of this is to be found in the U. S. Patent -Office. - -[Illustration: FIG. 135.--FRENCH TYPEWRITER, 1833.] - -The first organized typewriter in which separate key levers were -provided for each type is a French invention. It is to be found in the -French patent to M. Progin (Xavier), of Marseilles, No. 3,748, Sept. 6, -1833 (Brevets d'Invention, Vol. 37, 1st Series, pl. 36). It was called a -Typographic Machine, and is shown in the illustration (Fig. 135). -Upright key levers _s_ are arranged in a circle around a circular plate -_n_. They have hook-shaped handles at the upper end, and terminate -below in forks that are pivoted to the shanks of type hammers, to raise -and lower them. These hammers are inked from a pad, and at a central -point deliver a printing blow on the paper below. The paper is held -stationary, and the whole nest of levers was moved over the paper for -each letter printed. The circular index plate _n_ had marked on it -opposite the respective levers the letters and characters represented by -said levers. Besides printing letters, the device was to be used for -printing music, and for making stereotype plates. - -[Illustration: FIG. 136.--THURBER TYPEWRITER.] - -On Aug. 26, 1843, Charles Thurber, of Worcester, Mass., took out Pat. -No. 3,228 for a Printing Machine. Under the patent he constructed the -machine shown in Fig. 136. This differed somewhat from the form shown in -his patent, in that the machine shows a paper feed roller which does not -appear in the patent. This machine was found among the effects of Mr. -Thurber after having lain neglected and unnoticed for many years, and -its damaged parts were restored by Mr. H. R. Cummings, of Worcester. The -types are carried on the lower ends of a circular series of depressible -bars, which are spring seated in a horizontal rotatable wheel. By -turning the wheel any type can be brought to the front, and a stationary -guide controls its descent as it makes the impression. An inking roller -is seen on the right, which inks the faces of the type. In front of the -type wheel is a horizontal roller to which the sheet of paper is -attached by clips. Finger pawls, working into ratchets at the ends of -the roller, serve to rotate it after each line is printed. By means of a -handle, seen projecting from the right hand side of the frame, the -roller is shifted longitudinally on its axis rod after each letter has -been printed. This appears to be the first embodiment of the feed roller -rotating to bring a new line into range, and having also a longitudinal -feed, but as these movements were required to be separately executed by -the operator, the work of the machine was necessarily very slow. Just at -what time this old Thurber machine was constructed it is impossible to -state in the light of present information, but as the feed roller did -not appear in Thurber's patent of 1843, it is possible that the claim to -authorship of the feed roller having both a rotary and a longitudinal -movement may be maintained in behalf of J. Jones, whose Pat. No. 8,980 -of June 1, 1852, appears to be the first dated record of such a feed -roller. Jones was also the first to provide a spring to automatically -retract the paper carriage to the position for beginning a new line, the -spring being put under tension by the movement of the paper carriage in -printing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 137.--BEACH TYPEWRITER.] - -Prominent among those whose genius has served to perfect the typewriter -occurs the name of A. E. Beach, for many years of the firm of Munn & -Co., and well known to the readers of the _Scientific American_. Mr. -Beach's first model of a typewriter was made in 1847. It printed upon a -sheet of paper supported on a roller, carried in a sliding frame worked -by a ratchet and pawl. It had a weight for running the frame, letter and -line spacing keys, paper feeding devices, line signal bell, and carbon -tissue. It had a series of finger keys connected with printing levers -which were arranged in a circle, and struck at a common center. This -machine was said to have worked well, but was laid aside for further -improvement. In the meantime he constructed a typewriter to print in -raised letters, without ink. This machine, which was intended primarily -for the use of the blind, is illustrated in Figs. 137 and 138. It was -first publicly exhibited in operation at the Crystal Palace Exhibition -of the American Institute in the fall of 1856, where it attracted great -attention and took the gold medal. The embossed letters were printed on -a ribbon of paper which ran centrally through the machine. The printing -levers were arranged in a circle in pairs, one riding on the top of the -other. When the operator pressed a key, the two printing levers of each -pair answering to the letter key were brought together, the paper being -between them. The printing type were at the extremities of the levers, -one lever having a raised letter, and its mate a sunken or intaglio -letter, which, seizing the paper strip between them, like the jaws of a -pair of pincers, impressed therein an embossed letter. The patent for -this machine was granted June 24, 1856, No. 15,164, but the machine -showed a much higher degree of development than appeared in the patent. -This machine was the earliest representative of the circular basket of -radially swinging type levers, combined with finger keys assembled in a -keyboard at one side, which is now an almost universal feature, and the -suggestion which it handed down to subsequent inventors has doubtless -done much to make the typewriter the practical machine that it is -to-day. - -[Illustration: FIG. 138.--CENTRAL SECTION OF BEACH TYPEWRITER.] - -Up to the year 1868, however, typewriting machines were mere -illustrations of sporadic genius occuring here and there as the pet -hobby of some humanitarian seeking to help the blind, or supplement the -deficiencies of the tremulous fingers of the paralytic. It had not yet -come to be regarded as of any special use, nor had even the demand for -such a device been forcibly felt, until the last quarter of the -Nineteenth Century began to accumulate its wonderful momentum of -progress and prosperity. The man whose genius finally brought forth a -practical typewriter, and made a permanent place for it in the daily -business of the world, was C. Latham Sholes. As joint inventor with C. -Glidden and S. W. Soule, all of Milwaukee, he took out patents No. -79,265, of June 23, 1868, and No. 79,868, of July 14, 1868. These, -together with Sholes' Pat. No. 118,491, of Aug. 29, 1871, formed the -working basis of the first typewriters that went into office use. These -typewriters were first introduced to the general public under the -management of the original inventors (Sholes, Soule and Glidden) about -1873, and at first used only capital letters. On Aug. 27, 1878, a -further patent. No. 207,559, was granted to Sholes, and about this time, -after five years of uncertain and precarious business existence, the -machine was taken for manufacture to E. Remington & Sons, at Ilion, N. -Y. Since this time the well-known "Remington" has built up for itself a -reputation and a commercial importance that has given it first place -among typewriters. In the nine years from 1873 to 1882, it is said that -less than 8,000 machines had been manufactured. In the year 1882 -Wyckoff, Seamans & Benedict obtained control of the machine, and during -the fourteen years following it is said that nearly 200,000 "Remingtons" -were made and sold. It is said that 1,000 men are now employed in -making this machine, and that the present output is about 800 machines a -week, despite the fact that it has a half dozen worthy competitors for -public favor. The modern Remington, seen in Fig. 139, is too well known -to require special description. Besides the Sholes patents, it embodies -the improvements covered by patents to Clough & Jenne, No. 199,263, Jan. -15, 1878; Jenne, No. 478,964, July 12, 1892, and No. 548,553, Oct. 22, -1895, and also a patent to Brooks, No. 202,923, April 30, 1878, a -characteristic feature of which latter is the location of both a capital -and small letter on the same striking lever, and the shifting of the -paper roller by a key to bring either the large or small letter into -printing range. - -[Illustration: FIG. 139.--REMINGTON TYPEWRITER.] - -The earliest rival of the Remington was the Caligraph, made by the -American Writing Machine Co. This well-known machine, introduced in the -decade of the eighties, was made under the patents of G. Y. N. Yost, -March 18, 1884, No. 295,469; March 17, 1885, No. 313,973; and July 30, -1889, No. 408,061. The most modern form of the Caligraph is known as the -"New Century," which is shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig. -140. The Caligraph uses a separate type lever and key for each letter, -and by a system of compound key levers the touch is rendered easy, even, -and elastic, and perfect alignment and freedom from noise are among the -objects sought in its mechanical construction. - -[Illustration: FIG. 140.--NEW CENTURY CALIGRAPH.] - -Next among the earlier typewriters is to be mentioned the "Hammond," -made under the patents to J. B. Hammond, No. 224,088, Feb. 8, 1880, and -290,419, Dec. 18, 1883. A distinguishing feature of the machine is that -the printed work is in full view, so that the operator can see what he -is doing. The impression is made by an oscillating type wheel, to which -a variable throw is imparted by the key letters to bring any desired -letter into printing position. When the letter is brought into printing -position a hammer, arranged in the rear of the sheet of paper, is made -to force the latter against the type to produce the impression by the -same movement of the key that brought the type wheel into printing -position. - -[Illustration: FIG. 141.--SMITH-PREMIER TYPE BAR RING.] - -Of later machines, none has met with more popular favor than the -Smith-Premier, manufactured under the patent to A. T. Brown, No. -465,451, Dec. 22, 1891, and others. A leading feature of this is the -type-bar ring of its printing mechanism. In all typewriters accurate -location of the impression is essential to proper alignment of the -letters, and proper alignment is the _sine qua non_ of typewriting. The -old pivoted type bars were liable to wear at the joint, and the -slightest looseness at this point would so multiply the lateral play at -the end carrying the type that the letters would soon become irregularly -placed and out of alignment. In the Smith-Premier this is reduced to a -minimum by making a short type bar, and arranging each upon an -oscillating rock shaft, the bearings at whose ends are so widely -separated as to permit little or no lateral play in the type bar. A view -of this type bar ring with tangentially arranged rock shafts disposed in -circular series is seen in Fig. 141, while the full machine is given in -Fig. 142. In this latter view there is also shown the cleaning brush for -quickly cleaning at one operation all of the types of the outer ring. It -is simply a circular brush mounted upon the end of a tool resembling a -carpenter's brace, and is a useful and convenient adjunct to the -machine. - -[Illustration: FIG. 142.--SMITH-PREMIER AND CLEANING BRUSH.] - -In 1891 the "Densmore" typewriter first made its appearance before the -public. It was named after James and Amos Densmore, who had been -connected with typewriting interests from the time of Sholes' first -practical machine. The Densmore is made under patents to A. Densmore, -No. 507,726 and 507,727, of Oct. 31, 1893. It has ball-bearing type bar -joints, giving accurate alignment and light key action, the platen rolls -to show the work, and the carriage locks at the end of the line, -protecting the writing. - -Noted for its clear, sharp print, the "Yost" typewriter comes in for its -share of praise. It is made under the patent to Felbel and Steiger, -March 26, 1889, No. 400,200. It does not employ an inked ribbon -interposed between the type and the paper, as do most typewriters, but -its type-bearing levers, when at rest, occupy a position in which the -type are all arranged within and bear against a circular inking ring or -pad, and when a key is struck, its lever, by a peculiar and ingenious -movement, leaves the inking pad, moves inward and backward toward the -center, and then rises and strikes an upwardly directed blow in the -center, and prints the letter on the paper. As the printing is done -directly from the type, the letters are formed with sharp and clear -outlines that give beauty and neatness to the print. Alignment is -insured by a center guide hole through which the type end of the lever -passes in striking the paper. - -Among machines of simple organization may be mentioned the -Blickensderfer, which is a wonderfully simple and effective little -machine, first made under the patent to Blickensderfer, No. 472,692, -April 12, 1892. Like the Hammond, it belongs to the class of typewriters -which employ a rotary type wheel, which is given a variable throw, from -the depression of the keys, to bring the proper letter into printing -position; but unlike the Hammond, its type wheel advances to contact -with the paper, a little felt ink-roller being brought into contact with -the type wheel to ink it as the latter moves. The printed work is in -full view, the line spacing may be varied to any fractional adjustment, -and the action is quite free from noise. With its mechanism reduced to -the fewest and simplest parts, the whole machine weighs only six pounds, -and it differs in many respects from the ordinary typewriter. Since its -introduction a few years ago, its growth in popularity has been very -rapid. - -Another recently appearing machine is the "Oliver." This has type bars -which are normally above the work. Each bar is loop shaped, hinged at -its lower ends, and bearing the type letter on the bend at the upper -end. They are arranged in two series, one on each side of the center, -and in printing each loop swings down like the wing of a bird. As the -printing is from the top, and the ribbon is moved away from in front of -the line immediately after the printing blow, the writing is always -visible to the operator. This machine is manufactured under various -patents to Thomas Oliver, the first of which was No. 450,107, granted -April 7, 1891. Further improvements are covered by subsequent patents, -Nos. 528,484, 542,275, 562,337, and 599,863. The Oliver has made many -friends for itself by its fine alignment and visible writing, and shares -with the other standard machines a considerable patronage. - -It is not practicable to give a full illustration of the state of the -art in typewriters, as it has grown to an industry of large proportions. -Nearly 1,700 patents have been granted for such machines, and more than -100 useful and meritorious machines have been devised and put upon the -market. Among these may be mentioned the Hall, Underwood, Manhattan, -Williams, Jewett, and many others. - -[Illustration: FIG. 143.--ELLIOTT & HATCH BOOK TYPEWRITER.] - -Besides the regular typewriters, various modifications have been made to -suit special kinds of work. The "Comptometer" used in banks is a species -of typewriter, as is also the Dudley adding and subtracting machine, -known as the "Numerograph," and covered by patents Nos. 554,993, -555,038, 555,039, 579,047 and 579,048. Typewriters for short hand -characters, and for foreign languages, and for printing on record and -blank books, are also among the modern developments of this art. In the -latter the whole carriage and system of type levers move over the book. -The Elliott & Hatch book typewriter, Fig. 143, is a well-known example. -In attachments, holders for the copy have received considerable -attention, and simple and practical billing and tabulating attachments -have been devised which expedite and facilitate the statements of -accounts and other work requiring numeration in columns. The Gorin -Tabulator is one of those in practical use. - -In point of speed the typewriter depends entirely upon the aptness of -the operator. For ordinary copying work, where much time is occupied in -deciphering the illegible scrawl, probably forty words a minute is the -average work. When taken from dictation, seventy-five words a minute may -be written, and in special cases, when copying from memory, a speed of -150 words a minute has been maintained for a limited time. It was -estimated that there were in use in the United States in 1896 150,000 -typewriters, and that up to that time 450,000 had been made altogether. -In the last four years this number has been greatly increased, and a -fair estimate of the present output in the United States is between -75,000 and 100,000 yearly. In 1898 there were exported from the United -States typewriting machines to the value of $1,902,153. - -The typewriter has not only revolutionized modern business methods, by -furnishing a quick and legible copy that may be rapidly taken from -dictation, and also at the same time a duplicate carbon copy for the use -of the writer, but it has established a distinct avocation especially -adapted to the deftness and skill of women, who as bread winners at the -end of the Nineteenth Century are working out a destiny and place in the -business activities of life unthought of a hundred years ago. The -typewriter saves time, labor, postage and paper; it reduces the -liability to mistakes, brings system into official correspondence, and -delights the heart of the printer. It furnishes profitable amusement to -the young, and satisfactory aid to the nervous and paralytic. All over -the world it has already traveled--from the counting house of the -merchant to the Imperial Courts of Europe, from the home of the new -woman in the Western Hemisphere to the harem of the East--everywhere its -familiar click is to be heard, faithfully translating thought into all -languages, and for all peoples. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE SEWING MACHINE. - - EMBROIDERING MACHINE, THE FORERUNNER OF THE SEWING MACHINE--SEWING - MACHINE OF THOMAS SAINT--THE THIMONNIER WOODEN MACHINE--GREENOUGH'S - DOUBLE POINTED NEEDLE--BEAN'S STATIONARY NEEDLE--THE HOWE SEWING - MACHINE--BACHELDER'S CONTINUOUS FEED--IMPROVEMENTS OF SINGER-- - WILSON'S ROTARY HOOK AND FOUR-MOTION FEED--THE MCKAY SHOE SEWING - MACHINE--BUTTONHOLE MACHINES--CARPET SEWING MACHINE--STATISTICS. - - "With fingers weary and worn, - With eyelids heavy and red, - A woman sat in unwomanly rags, - Plying her needle and thread-- - Stitch! Stitch! Stitch! - In poverty, hunger and dirt, - And still with a voice of dolorous pitch, - She sang the 'Song of the Shirt.'" - - -In 1844 Thomas Hood wrote and published his famous "Song of the Shirt," -in which the drudgery of the needle is portrayed with pathetic fidelity. -It is not to be supposed that any relation of cause and effect exists -between the events, but it is nevertheless a singular fact that about -this time Howe commenced work on his great invention, which was patented -in 1846, and was the prototype of the modern sewing machine. If the -sewing machine had appeared a few years earlier, the "Song of the Shirt" -would doubtless never have been written. - -From the time of Mother Eve, who crudely stitched together her fig -leaves, sewing seems to have been set apart as an occupation peculiarly -belonging to women, and it may be that this was the reason why in the -history of mechanical progress the sewing machine was so late appearing, -for women are not, as a rule, inventors, and none of the sewing machines -were invented by women. - -In all the preceding centuries of civilization hand sewing was -exclusively employed, and it was reserved for the Nineteenth Century to -relieve women from the drudgery which for so many centuries had enslaved -them. - -Embroidery machines had been patented in England by Weisenthal in 1755, -and Alsop in 1770, and on July 17, 1790, an English patent, No. 1,764, -was granted to Thomas Saint for a crude form of sewing machine, having a -horizontal arm and vertical needle. In 1826 a patent was granted in the -United States to one Lye for a sewing machine, but no records of the -same remain, as all were burned in the fire of 1836. In 1830 B. -Thimonnier patented a sewing machine in France, 80 of which, made of -wood, were in use in 1841 for sewing army clothing, but they were -destroyed by a mob, as many other labor-saving inventions had been -before. Between 1832 and 1835 Walter Hunt, of New York, made a -lock-stitch sewing machine, but abandoned it. On Feb. 21, 1842, U. S. -Pat. No. 2,466 was granted to J. J. Greenough for a sewing machine -having a double pointed needle with an eye in the middle, which needle -was drawn through the work by pairs of traveling pincers. It was -designed for sewing leather, and an awl pierced the hole in advance of -the needle. On March 4, 1843, U. S. Pat. No. 2,982 was granted to B. W. -Bean for a sewing machine in which the needle was stationary, and the -cloth was gathered in crimps or folds and forced over the stationary -needle. In 1844, British Pat. No. 10,424 was granted to Fisher and -Gibbons for working ornamental designs by machinery, in which two -threads were looped together, one passing through the fabric, and the -other looping with it on the surface without passing through. - -The great epoch of the sewing machine, however, begins with Elias Howe -and the sewing machine patented by him Sept. 10, 1846, No. 4,750. Almost -everyone is familiar with the modern Howe sewing machine, and it will be -therefore more interesting to present the form in which it originally -appeared. This is shown in Fig. 144. A curved eye-pointed needle was -carried at the end of a pendent vibrating lever, which had a motion -simulating that of a pick-ax in the hands of a workman. The needle took -its thread from a spool situated above the lever, and the tension on the -thread was produced by a spring brake whose semicircular end bore upon -the spool, the pressure being regulated by a vertical thumb screw. The -work was held in a vertical plane by means of a horizontal row of pins -projecting from the edge of a thin metal "baster plate," to which an -intermittent motion was given by the teeth of a pinion. Above, and to -one side of the "baster plate" was the shuttle race, through which the -shuttle carrying the second thread was driven by two strikers, which -were operated by two arms and cams located on the horizontal main shaft. -As will be seen, this machine bears but little resemblance to any of the -modern machines, but it embodied the three essential features which -characterize most all practical machines, viz.: a grooved needle with -the eye at the point, a shuttle operating on the opposite side of the -cloth from the needle to form a lock stitch, and an automatic feed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 144.--HOWE'S SEWING MACHINE, 1846.] - -Howe first commenced his work on the sewing machine in 1844, and -although he had made a rough model of that date, he was too poor to -follow it up with more practical results until a former schoolmate, -George Fisher, provided $500 to build a machine and support his family -while it was being constructed, in consideration of which Mr. Fisher was -to receive a half interest in the invention. In April, 1845, the machine -was completed, and in July he sewed two suits of clothes on it, one for -Mr. Fisher and the other for himself. Notwithstanding the success of -his machine, which on public exhibition beat five of the swiftest hand -sewers, he met only discouragement and disappointment. He, however, -built a second machine, which was the basis of his patent, and is the -one shown in the illustration. After obtaining his United States patent -Howe went to England with the hope of introducing his machine there, -but, failing, he returned to America, some years later, only to find -that his invention had been taken up by infringers, and that sewing -machines embodying his invention were being built and sold. These -infringers sought to break his patent by endeavoring to prove, but -without success, that Howe's invention was anticipated by the abandoned -experiments of Walter Hunt in 1834. Howe won his suit, and the -infringers were obliged to pay him royalties, which, for a time, -amounted to $25 on each machine. Howe then bought the outstanding -interest in his patent, established a factory in New York, and from the -profits of his manufacture, and the royalties, he soon reaped a princely -fortune of several million dollars. In six years his royalties had grown -from $300 to $200,000 a year, and in 1863 his royalties were estimated -at $4,000 a day. - -A patent that occupied an important place in sewing machine feeds was -that granted to Bachelder May 8, 1849, No. 6,439, in which a spiked and -endless belt passed horizontally around two pulleys. This patent -contained the first continuous feed, and it was re-issued and extended, -and ran with dominating claims on the continuous feed, until 1877. - -[Illustration: FIG. 145.--WILSON SEWING MACHINE, 1852.] - -In connection with the development of the sewing machine the name of A. -B. Wilson stands next in rank to that of Howe. Wilson invented the -rotary hook carrying a bobbin, which took the place of the reciprocating -shuttle. This was patented by him June 15, 1852, No. 9,041, and is shown -in Fig. 145. He also invented the far more important improvement of the -four-motion feed, which is a characteristic feature of nearly all -practical family sewing machines. This four-motion feed was pooled in -the early sewing machine combination with the Bachelder and other -patents, and earned for its promotors a far greater pecuniary return -than the original Howe sewing machine itself. Estimates place this -profit high in the millions. The four-motion feed was patented December -19, 1854, No. 12,116, and it is a comparatively simple affair. Divested -of its operating mechanism, it consists simply of a little metal bar -serrated with forwardly projecting saw teeth on its upper surface, to -which bar, by means of an operating cam, a motion in four directions in -the path of a rectangle is given. The serrated bar first rises through a -slot in the table, then moves horizontally to advance the cloth, then -drops below the table, and finally moves back again horizontally below -the table to its starting point. - -Upon these two important features--the rotating hook patented by Wilson -in 1852, and the four-motion feed, patented in 1854--a large and -important business was built. In this business Mr. Nathaniel Wheeler was -associated with Mr. Wilson, and the well-known Wheeler & Wilson machines -are the result of their enterprise and ingenuity. - -[Illustration: FIG. 146.--ORIGINAL SINGER SEWING MACHINE.] - -Contemporaneous with the Wheeler & Wilson machine were other excellent -machines, among which may be mentioned the Singer machine, patented Aug. -12, 1851, No. 8,294, by Isaac M. Singer, the original model of which is -shown in Fig. 146. The Singer machine met the demands of the tailoring -and leather industries for a heavier and more powerful machine. A -characteristic feature was the vertical standard with horizontal arm -above the work table, which was afterwards adopted in many other -machines. Singer was the first to apply the treadle to the sewing -machine for actuating it by foot power in the place of the hand-driven -crank wheel. In 1851 W. O. Grover and W. E. Baker patented a machine -which made the double chain stitch, characteristic of the Grover & Baker -machine. James E. A. Gibbs invented and covered in several patents from -1856 to 1860 the single-thread rotating hook, which was embodied in the -Wilcox & Gibbs machine. In addition to these, the "Weed" machine, made -under Fairfield's patents; the "Domestic" machine, made under Mack's -patents; and the "Florence" machine, made under Langdon's patents, were -other representative machines, which, in a few years after Howe's -patent, helped to revolutionize the art of tailoring, introduced the -great era of ready-made clothing and ready-made shoes, emancipated women -from the drudgery of the needle, and increased the efficiency of one -pair of hands fully ten fold. - -In 1856 the owners of the original sewing machine patents formed the -famous "sewing machine combination," for the establishment of a common -license fee, and for the protection of their mutual interests. The -combination included Elias Howe, the Wheeler & Wilson Manufacturing -Company, the Grover & Baker Sewing Machine Company, and I. M. Singer & -Co. The following summary of machines made by the leading companies from -1853 to 1876 illustrates the early growth of this industry: - - Manufacturer. 1853. 1859. 1867. 1871. 1873. 1876. - - Wheeler & Wilson - Manufacturing Co. 799 21,306 38,055 128,526 119,190 108,997 - - The Singer - Manufacturing Company 810 10,953 43,053 181,260 232,444 262,316 - - Grover & Baker Sewing - Machine Co. 657 10,280 32,999 50,838 36,179 .... - - Howe Sewing Machine - Company .... .... 11,053 134,010 90,000 109,294 - - Wilcox & Gibbs - Sewing Machine Co. .... .... 14,152 30,127 15,881 12,758 - - Domestic Sewing - Machine Company .... .... .... 10,397 40,114 23,587 - -From the foregoing table it will be seen that as far back as a quarter -of a century ago the output of machines was over a half a million a -year. By 1877 all of the fundamental patents on the sewing machine had -expired, but the continued activity of inventors in this field is -attested by the fact that to-day there are many thousands of patents -relating to the sewing machine and its parts. Besides those relating to -the organization of the machine itself there is an endless variety of -attachments, such as hemmers, tuckers, fellers, quilters, binders, -gatherers and rufflers, embroiderers, corders and button hole -attachments. Every part of the machine has also received separate -attention and separate patents, all tending to the perfection of the -machine, until to-day, with all fundamental principles public property, -and endless improvements in details, it is difficult to discriminate as -to comparative excellence. - -There is to-day a great variety of sewing machines on the market, -standard machines for ordinary work, and special machines for numerous -special applications. It is said that one concern alone manufactures -over four hundred different varieties of sewing machines. - -One of the most important and revolutionary of the applications of the -sewing machine is for making shoes. Prior to 1861 shoemaking was -confined to the slow, laborious hand methods of the shoemaker. Cheap -shoes could only be made by roughly fastening the soles to the uppers by -wooden pegs, whose row of projecting points within has made many a man -and boy do unnecessary penance. Hand sewed shoes cost from $8 to $12 a -pair, and were too expensive a luxury for any but the rich. With the -McKay shoe sewing machine in 1861, however, comfortable shoes were made, -with the soles strongly and substantially sewed to the uppers, at a less -price even than the coarse and clumsy pegged variety. The McKay machine -was the result of more than three years patient study and work. It was -covered by United States patents No. 35,105, April 29, 1862; No. 35,165, -May 6, 1862; No. 36,163, Aug. 12, 1862; and No. 45,422, Dec. 13, 1864, -and its development cost $130,000 before practical results were -obtained. A modern form of it is shown in Fig. 147. In preparing a shoe -for the machine, an inner sole is placed on the last, the upper is then -lasted and its edges secured to the inner sole. An outer sole, channeled -to receive the stitches, is then tacked on so that the edges of the -upper are caught and retained between the two soles. The shoe is then -placed on the end of a rotary support called a horn, which holds it up -to the needle. A spool containing thread coated with shoemakers' wax is -carried by the horn, and the thread, with its wax kept soft by a lamp, -runs up the inside of the horn to the whirl. The latter is a small ring -placed at the upper end of the horn, and through which there is an -opening for the passage of the needle. The needle has a barb, or hook, -and as it descends through the sole the whirl lays the thread in this -hook, and as the needle rises it draws the thread through the soles and -forms a chain stitch in the external channel of the outer sole. As the -sewing proceeds, the horn is rotated so as to bring every part of the -margin of the sole under the needle. With this machine a single operator -has been able to sew nine hundred pairs of shoes in a day of ten hours, -and five hundred to six hundred pairs is only an average workman's -output. It is said that up to 1877 there were 350,000,000 pairs of shoes -made on this machine in the United States, and probably an equal or -greater number in Europe. Shoes made on this machine were strongly made -and comfortable, but they could not be resoled by a shoemaker, except by -pegging or nailing, and the soles were furthermore somewhat stiff and -lacking in flexibility. To meet these difficulties, a new machine known -as the "Goodyear Welt Machine," was patented in 1871 and 1875, and -brought out a little later. This sewed a welt to an upper, which welt in -a subsequent operation was sewed by an external row of stitches to the -sole. This gave much greater flexibility, and the further advantage of -enabling a shoemaker to half sole the shoe by the old method of hand -sewing. This advanced the art of shoemaking in the finer varieties of -shoes, and to-day nearly all men's fine shoes are made in this way. The -introduction of the sewing machine into the shoe industry made a new era -in foot wear, and it is said that no nation on earth is so well and -cheaply shod as the people of the United States. - -[Illustration: FIG. 147.--MCKAY SHOE SEWING MACHINE.] - -A buttonhole does not strike the average person as a thing of any -importance whatever. The needlewoman, however, who has to patiently -stitch around and form the buttonholes, knows differently, and when this -needlewoman, working in the great shirt factories and shoe factories, is -confronted with the many millions of buttonholes in collars, cuffs, -shirts and shoes, the great amount of this painstaking and nerve -destroying labor becomes appalling. For cheapening the cost of -buttonholes, and reducing the hand labor, various buttonhole machines -and attachments to sewing machines have been devised. Patents Nos. -36,616 and 36,617, to Humphrey, Oct. 7, 1862, covered one of the -earliest forms, but the Reece buttonhole machine, which is specially -devised for the work, is one of the most modern and successful. It was -patented April 26, 1881, Sept. 21, 1886, and Aug. 20, 1895. These -machines mark an important departure, which consists in working the -buttonhole by moving the stitch forming mechanism about the buttonhole, -instead of moving the fabric. An illustration of the machine is given in -Fig. 148. Upon this machine 10,010 button holes have been made in nine -hours and fifty minutes. The machine first cuts the buttonhole, then -transfers it to the stitching devices, which stitch and bar the -buttonhole, finishing it entirely in an automatic manner. The saving -involved to the manufacturer by this machine over the hand method is -several hundred per cent., but the relief to the needlewoman is of far -greater consequence. - -[Illustration: FIG. 148.--REECE BUTTONHOLE MACHINE.] - -Many striking applications of the sewing machine to various kinds of -work have been made. A recent one is the automatic power carpet sewing -machine, made and sold by the Singer Manufacturing Company. It was -patented by E. B. Allen in 1894. This machine in general appearance -resembles a miniature elevated railroad. It consists of an elevated -track about thirty-six feet long, sustained every three or four feet -upon standards, and having clamping jaws, which hold together the upper -edges of the two lengths of carpet to be sewed together. A compact -little stitching apparatus, not larger than a tea-pot, is actuated by an -endless belt from an electric motor at one end. The little machine runs -along and stitches together the upper edges of the suspended carpet -lengths, and as it crawls along at its work, it strikingly reminds one -of the movements of a squirrel along the top of a rail fence. This -machine will sew five yards of seam every minute, fastening together -evenly and strongly ten yards of carpet, and entirely dispensing with -all hand labor in this roughest and most trying of all fabrics. - -Probably no organized piece of machinery has ever been so systematically -exploited, so thoroughly advertised, so persistently canvassed, and so -extensively sold as the sewing machine. With their main central offices, -their branch offices, sub-agencies and traveling canvassers in wagons, -every city, village, hamlet, and farmhouse has been actively besieged, -and with the enticing system of payment by instalments there is scarcely -a home too humble to be without its sewing machine. The retail price of -sewing machines bears no proper relation to their cost, but this price -to the consumer results from the liberal commissions to agents, and the -expensive methods of canvassing. In the early days of the sewing machine -its sales were chiefly for family use, but this is now no longer the -case. While almost every family owns a sewing machine, it is only -brought into requisition for finer and special varieties of work, since -nearly all the clothing of men, women and children can now be purchased -ready made, at a price much less than the cost of the material and the -labor of making it up. A man to-day buys a ready-made shirt for fifty -cents, which fifty years ago would have cost him $2. This has largely -transferred the sphere of action of the sewing machine from the family -to the factory. Great factories now make ready-made clothing for men, -women and children, shirts, collars and cuffs, shoes, hats, caps, -awnings, tents, sails, bags, flags, banners, corsets, gloves, -pocketbooks, harness, saddlery, rubber goods, etc., and all these -industries are founded upon the sewing machine, which may be seen in -long rows beside the factory walls, busily supplying the demand of the -world. With this transition in the sewing machine foot treadles are no -longer relied on, but the machines are run by power from countershafts. -This, in turn, has opened up possibilities of much higher speed and -greater efficiency in the machine. Inventors have found, however, that -high speed is handicapped with certain limitations. Beyond a certain -speed the needle gets hot from friction, which burns off the thread and -draws the temper. Cams and springs, moreover, are not positive enough in -action, as the resilience of the spring does not act quickly enough, and -so more positive gearings, such as eccentrics and cranks, must be -employed. Despite these difficulties, however, the modern factory -machine has raised the speed of the old-time sewing machine from a few -hundred stitches a minute to three and four thousand stitches a minute. - -The United States is the home of the sewing machine, and New York City -is the center of the industry, probably 90 per cent. of the sewing -machine trade being managed and handled there. German manufacturers are -making great efforts to compete in this field, but American machines are -generally regarded as the best in the world. - -Among those prominently interested in the machine in its early days were -Orlando B. Potter and the law firm of Jordan & Clarke. The latter were -attorneys representing some of the prominent inventors in litigation, -and in this way Mr. Edward Clarke became interested in the business, and -it was he who in 1856 instituted the system of selling on the instalment -plan. For some years before his death Mr. Clarke was the president of -the Singer Company. - -Recent statistics in relation to the sewing machine industry are -difficult to obtain, partly by reason of the great extent and -ramifications of the business, and partly by reason of the unwillingness -of the larger companies to give out data for publication. At the Patent -Centennial in Washington, in 1891, Ex-Commissioner of Patents -Butterworth made the statement that "Caesar conquered Gaul with a force -numerically less than was employed in inventing and perfecting the parts -of the sewing machine." The great Singer Company, with headquarters at -New York, operates not only a factory at Elizabethport, N. J., employing -5,000 men, but also other factories in Europe and Canada, the one at -Kilbowie, Scotland, employing 6,000 men. Of the total of 13,500,000 -machines made by this company from 1853 to the end of 1896, nearly -6,000,000 have been made in factories located abroad, but directly -controlled and managed by the New York office. It is stated that the -present output of the American factory of the Singer Company amounts to -over 11,000 weekly, or more than half a million annually. Although so -many sewing machines are made abroad, the exports from the United States -for 1899 amounted to $3,264,344. - -In the early days of the Howe sewing machine it was denounced as a -menace to the occupations of the thousands of men and women who worked -in the clothing shops, and the struggles of the inventor against this -opposition and discouragement form an interesting page of history. But -it had come to stay and to grow. Some 7,000 United States patents attest -the interest and ingenuity in this field, in the neighborhood of 100,000 -persons make a living from the manufacture and sale of the machine, -millions find profitable employment in its use, and from 700,000 to -800,000 machines are annually manufactured in the United States. The -output of all countries is estimated to be from 1,200,000 to 1,300,000 -annually. - -The sewing machine has for its objective result only the simple and -insignificant function of fastening one piece of fabric to another, but -its influence upon civilization in ministering to the wants of the race -has been so great as to cause it to be numbered with the epoch-making -inventions of the age. It has created new industries. It has given -useful employment to capital, has extended the lists of the wage earner, -and increased his daily pay. It has clothed the naked, fed the hungry, -and warded off the ravages of cold and death; but, best of all its -tuneful accompaniment has lightened the heart and smoothed the pathway -of life for Hood's weary working woman, to whose tired fingers and -aching eyes it has brought the balm of much-needed rest. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THE REAPER. - - EARLY ENGLISH MACHINES--MACHINE OF PATRICK BELL--THE HUSSEY - REAPER--MCCORMICK'S REAPER AND ITS GREAT SUCCESS--RIVALRY BETWEEN - THE TWO AMERICAN REAPERS--SELF RAKERS--AUTOMATIC BINDERS--COMBINED - STEAM REAPER AND THRESHING MACHINE--GREAT WHEAT FIELDS OF THE - WEST--STATISTICS. - - -In the harvest scenes upon the tombs of ancient Thebes the thirsty -reaper is depicted, with curved sickle in hand, alternately bending his -back to the grain and refreshing himself at the skin bottle. For more -than thirty centuries did man thus continue to earn his bread by the -sweat of his brow. Even to the present time the scythe, with its cradle -of wooden fingers, is occasionally met with, and it is to the older -generation a familiar suggestion of the sweat, toil, bustle and -excitement of the old harvest time. But all this has been changed by the -advent of the reaper, and ere long the grain cradle will hang on the -walls of the museum as an ethnological specimen only. - -The first reaper of which we find historical evidence is that described -by Pliny in the first century of the Christian Era (A. D. 70). He says: -"The mode of getting in the harvest varies considerably. In the vast -domains of the province of Gaul a large hollow frame, armed with -comb-like teeth, and supported on two wheels, is driven through the -standing grain, the beasts being yoked behind it (in contrarium juncto), -the result being that the ears are torn off and fall within the frame." - -This crude machine has in late years been many times re-invented, and it -finds a special application to-day for the gathering of clover seeds, -and is called a "header." - -The first attempt of modern times to devise a reaper was the English -machine of Pitt, in 1786, which followed the principle of the old Gallic -implement, in that it stripped the heads from the standing grain. The -Pitt machine, however, had a revolving cylinder on which were rows of -comb teeth, which tore off the heads of grain and discharged them into a -receptacle. In 1799 Boyce, of England, invented the vertical shaft, with -horizontally rotating cutters. In 1800 Mears devised a machine -employing shears. In 1806 Gladstone devised a front-draft, side-cut -machine, in which a curved segment-bar with fingers gathered the grain -and held it while a horizontally revolving knife cut the same. In 1811 -Cumming introduced the reel, and in 1814 Dobbs described a wheelbarrow -arrangement of reaper in which he used the divider. In 1822 the -important improvement of the reciprocating knife bar was made by Ogle, -which became a characteristic feature of all subsequent successful -reapers. It was drawn by horses in front. The cutter bar projected at -the side. It had a reel to gather the grain to the cutter, and the grain -platform was tilted to drop the gavel. In 1826 Rev. Patrick Bell, of -Scotland, devised a reaper that had a movable vibrating cutter working -like a series of shears, a reel, and a traveling apron, which carried -off the grain to one side. This machine was pushed from behind, and, -with a swath of five feet, cut an acre in an hour. It was, however, for -some reason laid aside till 1851, when it was reorganized and put in -service at the World's Fair in London in competition with the American -machines. All the earlier experiments in the development of the reaper -were made in England. Grain raising was in its infancy in the United -States, and near the end of the Eighteenth Century the Royal -Agricultural Society of England had stimulated its own inventors by -offering a prize for the production of a successful reaper, and -continued thus to offer it for many years. There is no evidence, -however, that the preceding machines attained any practical results, -and it remained for the fertility of American genius to invent a -practical reaper which satisfactorily performed its work, and continued -to do so. Quite a number of patents for reapers were granted to American -inventors in the early part of the century, among which may be mentioned -that to Manning, of Plainfield, N. J., May 3, 1831, which embodied -finger bars to hold the grain and a reciprocating cutter bar with -spear-shaped blades. - -[Illustration: FIG. 149.--PATENT OFFICE DRAWING, HUSSEY'S REAPER, -DECEMBER 31, 1833.] - -Cyrus H. McCormick, of Virginia, and Obed Hussey, of Maryland, were the -men who brought the reaper to a condition of practical utility. -The commercial development of their machines was practically -contemporaneous, and their respective claims for superiority had about -an equal number of supporters among the farmers of that day. Hussey, -originally of Cincinnati, but afterwards of Maryland, was the first to -obtain a patent, which was granted December 31, 1833. An illustration of -the patent drawing is given in Fig. 149. It embodied a reciprocating saw -tooth cutter _f_ sliding within double guard fingers _e_. It had a front -draft, side-cut, and a platform. The cutter was driven by a pitman from -a crank shaft operated through gear wheels from the main drive wheels. -His specification provided for the locking or unlocking of the drive -wheels; also for the hinging of the platform, and states that the -operator who takes off the grain may ride on the machine. - -[Illustration: FIG. 150.--PATENT OFFICE DRAWING, McCORMICK'S REAPER, -JUNE 21, 1834.] - -On June 21, 1834, Cyrus H. McCormick, of Virginia, obtained a patent on -his reaper. In Fig. 150 appears an illustration of his patent drawing. -This had two features which were not found in the Hussey patent, viz., a -reel on a horizontal axis above the cutter, and a divider L, at the -outer end of the cutter, which divider projected in front of the cutter, -and separated in advance the grain which was to be cut from that which -was to be left standing. McCormick's machine had two cutters or knives, -reciprocated by cranks in opposite directions to each other. This -feature he afterward abandoned, adopting the single knife, described by -him as an alternative. This machine was to be pushed ahead of the team, -which was hitched to the bar C of the tongue B in the rear, but -provision was made for a front draft by a pair of shafts in front, shown -in dotted lines. The curved dotted line beside the shafts indicated a -bowed guard to press the standing grain away from the horse. The divider -L had a cloth screen extending to the rear of the platform. - -Neither Hussey nor McCormick appears at that time to have been cognizant -of the prior state of the art, and as the patent law of 1836 had not yet -been enacted, there was little or no examination as to novelty, and no -interference proceedings as to priority of invention, and consequently -their respective claims were drawn to much that was old, and probably -much that would have been in conflict with each other under the present -practice of the Patent Office. In the _Scientific American_, of December -16 and 23, 1854, in a most interesting series of articles on the reaper, -the Hussey machine is fully described. The first public trial was on -July 2, 1833, before the Hamilton County Agricultural Society, near -Carthage, O., and its success was attested by nine witnesses. Great -stress was laid by Mr. Hussey on the double finger bar, _i. e._, a -finger bar having one member above and the other below the knife. The -_Scientific American_ said the machine was a success from the first; -that "in 1834 the machine was introduced into Illinois and New York, and -in 1837 into Pennsylvania, and in 1838 Mr. Hussey moved from Ohio to -Baltimore, Md., and continued to manufacture his reapers there up to the -present time." - -In 1836 Hussey was invited by the Maryland Agricultural Society for the -Eastern Shore to exhibit his machine before them. On July 1 he did so, -and made practical demonstration of its working to the society at -Oxford, Talbot County, and again on July 12 at Easton. On the following -Saturday it was shown at Trappe, and it was afterwards used on the farm -of Mr. Tench Tilghman, where 180 acres of wheat, oats and barley were -cut with it. The report of the Board of Trustees of the society was an -unqualified commendation of the practicability, efficiency and value of -the machine, and a handsome pair of silver cups was awarded to the -inventor. The report was signed by the following well-known residents of -the Eastern Shore: Robert H. Goldsborough, Samuel Stevens, Samuel T. -Kennard, Robert Banning, Samuel Hambleton, Sr., Nichol Goldsborough, Ed. -N. Hambleton, James L. Chamberlain, Martin Goldsborough, Horatio L. -Edmonson, and Tench Tilghman. - -Hussey made and sold his machine for years. In the _American Farmer_, of -October, 1847, an agricultural journal printed at Baltimore, the -advertisement of his machine appears with full price lists of the -different sizes of machines, and also of an improvement in the manner of -disposing of the grain, which was the invention of Mr. Tench Tilghman, -and was adopted by Hussey on his reaper. - -[Illustration: FIG. 151.--THE McCORMICK REAPER OF 1847.] - -While Hussey was at work at his reaper, McCormick also was busily -engaged with his, and he took his second patent January 31, 1845, No. -3,895. This related to the cutter bar, the divider, and reel post. -McCormick's next patent was dated October 23, 1847, No. 5,335, and in -this the raker's seat was to be mounted on the platform as shown in Fig. -151. McCormick's last named patent also covered the arrangement of the -gearing and crank in front of the drive wheel, so as to balance the -weight of the raker. In the same year Hussey took out his patent of -August 7, 1847, No. 5,227, for the open top and slotted finger guard, -which is an important part of all successful cutter bars. - -[Illustration: FIG. 152.--THE MANN HARVESTER OF 1849.] - -The rivalry between the McCormick and Hussey machines continued for many -years, and they were frequently in competition both in America and -England. The stimulus of this rivalry doubtless had much to do with the -development and success of the reaper. Both Hussey and McCormick asked -for extensions of their patents, but they failed to get them. In 1848, -pending McCormick's extension proceedings, facts were introduced by him -to show that his invention of the reaper antedated Hussey's, and that he -had made his machine as early as 1831, and had used it then on the farm -of Mr. John Steele, in Virginia. This claim to priority was supported by -the publication of a description of the machine, and certificate of its -use, in the _Union_, a newspaper published at Lexington, Va., September -28, 1833, and although no adjudication was ever made on this issue, this -fact, together with Mr. McCormick's success in the contest in England in -1851, and his subsequent persistence and activity in improving, -developing and introducing the reaper, has so distinguished him in this -connection, that to-day his name is as commonly associated with the -reaper as is Fulton's with the steamboat, or that of Morse with the -telegraph. To Mr. McCormick more than to anybody else the perfection of -the reaper is due. In the spring of 1851 McCormick placed his reaper on -exhibition at the World's Fair in London. Hussey also had his machine -there, and they were the only ones represented. The machines were tested -in the field, and astonished all who saw them operate. The Grand Council -medal, which was one of four special medals awarded for marked epochs in -progress, was given to McCormick, and the judges referred to the -McCormick machine as being worth to the people of England "the whole -cost of the exposition." It is only fair to state that Hussey was not -present to direct the trial of his machine, and that in a subsequent -trial another jury decided in his favor, and His Royal Highness, Prince -Albert, ordered two of Hussey's machines in 1851--one for Windsor and -the other for the Isle of Wight. The Duke of Marlborough also gave his -personal testimonial to Mr. Hussey as to the excellence of his machine. -In 1855, at a competitive trial of reapers near Paris, three machines -were entered. The American machine cut an acre of oats in twenty-two -minutes, the English machine in sixty-six minutes, and the Algerian in -seventy-two. In 1863, at the great International Exposition at Hamburg, -the McCormick reaper again took the grand prize. While in Paris in 1878 -Mr. McCormick was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences as -"having done more for the cause of agriculture than any living man." Mr. -McCormick continued to the end of his days, in 1884, to devote his -entire energies to the development of the reaper, and well deserved the -princely fortune that resulted from his indefatigable labors, a good -portion of which fortune he spent during his life in the cause of -education and acts of philanthropy. The inventory of his estate, filed -in the Probate Court of Cook County, Ill., showed $10,000,000 as the -reward of his genius and industry, and is an object lesson of the reward -of merit for the ambitious youth of the Twentieth Century. - -[Illustration: FIG. 153.--THE MARSH HARVESTER OF 1858.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 154.--THE CHAMPION REAPER.] - -In the development of the reaper one of the first deficiencies to be -supplied was automatic mechanism for taking the grain from the -platform. In November, 1848, F. S. Pease took out patent No. 5,925 for -a rake whose teeth projected up through slots in the platform, and moved -back and forth to deposit the grain upon the ground. On June 19, 1849, -J. J. & H. F. Mann took out patent No. 6,540 on a machine employing the -principle of an endless band for carrying the cut grain to the side of -the machine, where it passed up an inclined plane and accumulated in a -receptacle to form a gavel, which was clumped upon the ground. This -machine is shown in Fig. 152. On July 8, 1851, W. H. Seymour took out -patent No. 8,212 for a self-raker, and this machine marks the beginning -of the era of self-raking reapers, which for a quarter of a century in -various modifications continued to be used, until displaced by -subsequent improvements in binding devices. In 1853 the Sylla and Adams -machine was brought out, the patents for which were bought by the -Aultmans, and the Aultman and Miller, or "Buckeye" harvester, was -manufactured thereunder. The general form of the modern harvester has -followed along the lines of the Mann machine of 1849. The development -began by replacing the gavel receptacle on the right of that machine -(Fig. 152) with a platform on which stood men who rode on the machine as -they bound the grain. An early and important example of a harvester of -this class is given in the Marsh machine, patented August 15, 1858, No. -21,207, and shown in Fig. 153. To this type of machine the self-binding -devices were subsequently applied, but before they materialized many -other improvements in self-rakers were made and applied, among which may -be mentioned the combined rake and reel of Owen Dorsey, of Maryland -(1856), sweeping horizontally across the quadrantal platform; the -McClintock Young revolving reel, carrying a rake; the Henderson rake -(1860) used on the Wood machine; the Seiberling dropper (1861), which -consisted of a slotted platform which moved to discharge the gavel; and -the various improvements covered by Whiteley's patents, which were -embodied in the Champion reaper, of Springfield, O., and which is shown -in Fig. 154. This machine had a combined rake and reel of the Dorsey -type, whose arms moved over a circular inclined and stationary cam, and -whose rakes had a horizontal sweep over the platform, and a vertical -return over the wheels. - -[Illustration: FIG. 155.--THE LOCKE WIRE BINDER OF 1873.] - -The next step, and, perhaps the most important one, in the development -of the reaper, was in providing automatic devices for binding the gavels -of grain into sheaves. John E. Heath, of Ohio, in patent No. 7,520, of -July 22, 1850, was the pioneer, and he used cord. Watson, Renwick & -Watson, in patent No. 8,083, of May 13, 1851, and C. A. McPhitridge, in -patent No. 16,097, of November 18, 1856, quickly followed in the attempt -to provide such a device, the former using cord and the latter wire. But -the problem was not an easy one to solve. On November 16, 1858, W. Grey -took out patent No. 22,074, for starting the binding mechanism by the -weight of the bundle. Probably the first to complete a binding -attachment that was partly automatic, and to attach it to a reaping -machine, were H. M. & W. W. Burson, of Illinois. On June 26, 1860, and -October 4, 1864, W. W. Burson patented a cord binder, and in 1863 one -thousand machines were built. These machines, however, used wire, and -being assisted in their operations by hand labor, were not truly -automatic. On February 16, 1864, Jacob Behel, of Illinois, obtained a -patent, No. 41,661, for a very important invention in binders. He showed -and claimed for the first time the knotting bill, which loops and forms -the knot, and the turning cord holder for retaining the end of the cord. -On May 31, 1870, George H. Spaulding took out patent No. 103,673 for a -binder which automatically regulated the bundles to a uniform size. -Sylvanus D. Locke, of Wisconsin, was the next inventor who undertook to -solve the problem. He took out patents No. 121,290, November 28, 1871, -and No. 149,233, March 31, 1874, and many others. In 1873 he associated -himself with Walter A. Wood, and they built and sold probably the first -automatic self-binding harvester that was ever put upon the market. The -Locke wire binder of 1873 is shown in Fig. 155. The use of wire, -however, for binding grain, involved certain objections in that it -required a special cutting tool for cutting the sheaves at the thresher, -and it was not easy to remove the wire, and parts of it were likely to -go through the thresher. Inventors accordingly concentrated their -attention on the use of twine or cord. Marquis L. Gorham, of Illinois, -built a successful twine binder, and had it at work in the harvest field -in 1874. This machine, covered by patent No. 159,506, February 9, 1875, -not only bound by cord, but produced bundles of the same size. The grain -in this machine is delivered by the elevator of the harvester upon a -platform, where it is seized by packers and carried forward into a -second chamber, where it is compacted by the packers against a yielding -trip, so that when sufficient grain is accumulated, the trip will yield -and start the binding mechanism into operation. The ball of cord carried -on the machine has one end threaded through the needle and fastened in a -holder. The grain is forced against the cord by the packers, and when -the binder starts the needle encircles the gavel, carrying the cord to a -knotting bill, and the end is again seized by the rotating holder, the -loop formed, the ends of the band severed, and the bound bundle is -discharged from the machine. A gate, which has in the meantime shut off -the flow of grain, is now drawn back, and the operation is repeated. On -February 18, 1879, John F. Appleby took out a patent, No. 212,420, for -an improvement on the Gorham binder. In Fig. 156 is shown a modern -automatic self-binding reaper which embodies the fundamental principles -of McCormick and Hussey, the inclined elevator and platform shown by -Marsh, and the automatic binding devices of Behel, Gorham and Appleby. - -[Illustration: FIG. 156.--MODERN AUTOMATIC SELF-BINDING REAPER.] - -This machine, under favorable conditions, with one driver, cuts twenty -acres of wheat in a day, binds it, and carries the bound bundles into -windrows, and with one shocker, performs the work of twenty men, and -does it better, the saving in the waste of grain over hand labor being -sufficient to pay for the twine used in binding. It is said that the -self-binding reaper has reduced the cost of harvesting grain to less -than half a cent a bushel. - -It is estimated that more than 180,000 machines of the self-binding type -are now produced yearly, the manufacturers in Chicago alone turning out -more than three-fourths of this number. It is not possible to do justice -to all the worthy workers in this great industry. Nearly 10,000 patents -have been granted on reaping and mowing machines, and the conspicuous -names of Whiteley, Wood, Atkins, Manny, Yost, and Ketchum, in addition -to those already mentioned, are only a small part of the great army of -inventors who have contributed to the development and perfection of the -reaper. - -In 1840 it is said there were but three reapers made. To-day the total -number of self-binding harvesters, reapers and mowers in use is -estimated to be two millions. The growth of this industry in the four -earlier decades is as follows (the relatively small increase between -1860 and 1870 being accounted for by the Civil War): - - 1840. 1850. 1860. 1870. 1880. - - Machines made 3 3,000 20,000 30,000 60,000 - -Immediately succeeding this period the automatic cord binder was put -into use, and within five years the increase in output of reapers and -mowers was very great. In 1885 more than 100,000 self-binding harvesters -and 150,000 reapers and mowers were built and sold. In 1890 two -manufacturing establishments in Chicago made more than 200,000 machines, -half of which were self-binders and the other half reapers and mowers, -and these two institutions alone employed in their various branches of -manufacturing and selling 10,000 employees. In 1895 the output of the -largest of these manufacturing establishments was 60,000 self-binding -harvesters, fitted with bundle carriers and trucks, 61,000 mowers, -10,000 corn harvesters, and 5,000 reapers, making 136,000 machines in -all. In 1898 the output of this one factory for the year was 74,000 -self-binding harvesters, 107,000 mowers, 9,000 corn harvesters, and -10,000 reapers, amounting to 200,000 machines. This output, together -with 75,000 horse rakes, also made, averaged a complete machine for -every forty seconds in the year, working ten hours a day. The estimated -annual production of all factories in this class of agricultural -implements is 180,000 self-binding harvesters, 250,000 mowing machines, -18,000 corn harvesters, and 25,000 reapers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 157.--STEAM HARVESTER AND THRESHER. - -The wheat is headed, threshed, cleaned and sacked by this machine in one -continuous operation.--Cutter, 26 feet wide; Capacity, 75 acres per -day.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 158.--FIFTY HORSE POWER STEAM PLANTING COMBINATION. - -Traction engine pulling sixteen 10-inch plows, four 6-foot harrows, and -a drill.] - -There were exported in the year 1880 about 800 self-binding harvesters, -2,000 reapers, and 1,000 mowers. In 1890 this was increased to 3,000 -self-binding harvesters, 4,000 reapers, and 2,000 mowers. The total -value of mowers and reapers exported in 1890 was $2,092,638. The growth -subsequent to 1890 is well attested by the exports for 1899, which for -mowers and reapers was $9,053,830, or more than four times what it was -in 1890. These exported machines harvest the crops of the Argentine -Republic, Paraguay, and Uruguay, of South America; carry their -labor-saving values to Australia and New Zealand; traverse the wheat -fields along the banks of the Red Sea and the Volga, and are used -throughout all the continent of Europe. - -[Illustration: FIG. 159.--A WESTERN HARVEST SCENE (LEFT SECTION OF -VIEW).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 159.--A WESTERN HARVEST SCENE (RIGHT SECTION OF -VIEW).] - -With the self-binding harvester performing the work of twenty men, -cutting and binding the grain, and arranging the bundles in windrows, it -would seem that perfection in this art had been reached, but the -tendency of the age is to do things on a constantly increasing scale, -and so the latest developments in harvesters comprise a mammoth machine -(Fig. 157) propelled across the grain fields by steam, and which by the -same power cuts a swath from 26 to 28 feet wide, threshes it at once as -it moves along, blows out the chaff, and puts the grain in bags at the -rate of three bags per minute, each bag containing one hundred and -fifteen pounds, and requiring two expert bag sewers to take the grain -away from the spout, sew the bags, and dump them on the ground. -Seventy-five acres a day is its task. A companion piece to this machine -is illustrated in Fig. 158, which shows the same power utilized for -planting. A powerful steam traction engine of fifty horse power hauls -across the field a planting combination of sixteen ten-inch plows, four -six-foot harrows and a seeding drill in the rear. Such great reaping -machines only find useful application in the enormous wheat fields of -California and the Pacific Coast States, where the dry climate permits -the grain to ripen and dry sufficiently while standing in the field. -Moreover, only the heads of the grain are cut, the straw being left -standing. Some conception of the enormous scale upon which grain is -raised in the Western States may be gotten from the dimensions of the -farms. It is said that Dr. Glenn's wheat farm comprises 45,000 acres; -the Dalrymples', in North Dakota, 70,000; and Mr. Mitchell, in the San -Joaquin Valley, in California, has 90,000 acres. The Dalrymple farms in -1893 had 54,000 acres in wheat, and employed 283 self-binding reapers to -harvest the crop. There is a single unbroken wheat field on the banks of -the San Joaquin River, near the town of Clovis, in Madera County, -California, which comprises 25,000 acres, or nearly forty square miles -of wheat--a veritable sea of waving grain. The field is nearly square; -each side is a little over six miles long. If its shape were changed to -the width of one mile, the field would then be forty miles long. It has -been said of the grain fields of the West, that the men and teams eat -breakfast at one end of a furrow, take dinner in the middle of the -row, and at night camp and sup at the end of the same row. With a field -of such proportions it is not difficult to see how this may be true. The -cultivation and garnering of crops from such vast areas can only be -appreciated by comparisons. If it were one man's work to plow such a -field, even with a double gang plow, cutting a furrow twenty-four inches -wide, he would travel 105,600 miles, which would be equivalent to going -around the world four times. If he plowed twenty miles a day, it would -take 5,280 days. To harrow would require as long, and to plant would -take about the same time, or about forty-three years altogether. A full -lifetime would be required to plant the crop, and a second generation -would be required to reap it. But great results require great agencies, -and so great labor-saving machines, operated by armies of men, are -brought into requisition, and with these the crop is both planted and -reaped. A long procession of self-binding harvesters, following close -one behind the other, makes quick work of it, and before the weather -changes this great field is mowed, its crop garnered, and bread supplied -for the hungry of all lands. - -The exports of wheat to foreign lands in 1898 were 148,231,261 bushels, -worth $145,684,659, and the exports of wheat flour for the same year -were 15,349,943 barrels, worth $69,263,718. The total yield of wheat in -the United States for 1898 was 675,148,705 bushels. - -With the fertile earth, and its prolific inventors, the United States -has become the richest country in the world. What its future is to be no -man may say, but its destiny is not yet fulfilled, and it is pregnant -with potential possibilities. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -VULCANIZED RUBBER. - - EARLY USE OF CAOUTCHOUC BY THE INDIANS--COLLECTION OF THE GUM--EARLY - EXPERIMENTS FAILURES--GOODYEAR'S PERSISTENT EXPERIMENTS--NATHANIEL - HAYWARD'S APPLICATION OF SULPHUR TO THE GUM--GOODYEAR'S PROCESS OF - VULCANIZATION--INTRODUCTION OF HIS PROCESS INTO EUROPE--TRIALS AND - IMPRISONMENT FOR DEBT--RUBBER SHOE INDUSTRY--GREAT EXTENT AND - VARIETY OF APPLICATIONS--STATISTICS. - - -Most all important inventions have grown into existence by slow stages -of development, and by successive contributions from many minds, not a -few having descended by gradual processes of evolution from preceding -centuries. Vulcanized rubber, however, is not of this class. It belongs -exclusively to the Nineteenth Century, and owes its existence to the -tireless energy of one man. The value of the crude gum had been -previously speculated upon, and for years attempts had been made to -utilize it, but not until Goodyear invented his process of vulcanizing -it did it have any real value. This process was an important, distinct -and unique step, entirely the work of Mr. Goodyear, and it has never -been superseded nor improved upon to any extent. Charles Goodyear was -born in New Haven, December 29, 1800, and his life, beginning two days -in advance of the Nineteenth Century, furnishes an extraordinary -illustration of the struggles and trials of the inventor against adverse -fortune, and is a pathetic example of self denial, indefatigable labor, -and unrequited toil. Of feeble health, small stature, poor, and -frequently in prison for debt, he made the development of this art the -paramount object of his life, and with a pious faith and unfaltering -courage for thirty years he devoted himself to this work. Money he cared -nothing for, except in so far as it was necessary to carry on his work, -and he died July 1, 1860, poor in this world's goods, but rich in the -consciousness of the great benefit conferred by his invention upon the -human race. - -[Illustration: FIG. 160.--COLLECTING THE GUM.] - -India rubber, or caoutchouc, as it is more properly called, is a -concentrated gum derived from the evaporation of the milky juice of -certain trees found in South America, Mexico, Central America and the -East Indies. The South American variety is called _Jatropha elastica_, -and the East Indian variety the _Ficus elastica_. The South American -Indians called it _cahuchu_. The province of Para, south of the equator, -in Brazil, furnishes the largest part and best quality of gum. The tree -from which the gum exudes grows to the height of eighty, and sometimes -to one hundred feet. It runs up straight for forty or fifty feet without -a branch. Its top is spreading, and is ornamented with a thick and -glossy foliage. The gum is collected by chopping through the bark with a -hatchet and placing under each series of cuts a little clay cup formed -by the hands of the workman. About a gill of the sap accumulates in each -cup in the course of a day, and it is then transferred to receiving -vessels and taken to camp. The first use of the gum was made by the -South American Indians, who made shoes, bottles, playing balls and -various other articles from it. Their method for making a shoe was to -take a crude wooden last, which they covered with clay to prevent the -adhesion of the gum. It was then dipped in the sap, or the latter was -poured over it, which gave it a thin coating. It was then held over a -smoky fire, which gave it a dark color and dried the gum. When one -coating became sufficiently hard another was added, and smoked in turn, -and so successive coatings were applied until a sufficient thickness was -obtained. When the work was completed it was exposed for some days in -the sun, and while still soft the shoes were decorated as the fancy or -taste of the maker suggested. The clay forms were then broken out, and -the shoe stuffed with grass to keep it in shape for use or sale. In 1820 -a pair of these clumsy shoes was brought to Boston and exhibited as a -curiosity. They were covered with gilding, and resembled the shoe of a -Chinaman. Subsequently considerable numbers of these shoes were brought -from South America, and being sold at a large price, they served to -stimulate Yankee ingenuity into devising methods of making them from the -raw material, which being brought as ballast in the ships from Brazil, -could be had cheaply. In France some attention had been given to the -material, and the rubber bottles of the Indians had been cut into narrow -threads which were woven into strips of cloth to form suspenders and -garters. In England an application of it in thin solution had been made -by a Mr. Macintosh, who spread it between two thicknesses of thin cloth -to form Macintosh water-proof coats. The first practical use of the gum -on a large scale was instituted by Mr. Chaffee in Roxbury, Mass., about -1830. He dissolved the gum in spirits of turpentine and invented -steam-heated rolls for spreading it upon cloth. Companies were formed to -exploit the products, and in the fall and winter of 1833 and 1834 many -thousands of dollars' worth of goods were made by the Roxbury Company, -but the business proved a total failure, for in the summer the goods -melted, decomposed and became so offensive as to be worse than useless, -while the cold of winter rendered them stiff and liable to crack. With a -knowledge of these facts and conditions Charles Goodyear commenced his -experiments, believing that there was a great future for this material -if it could only be prevented from melting in summer and stiffening in -winter. He tried mixing it with many materials, first using magnesia, -which, however, proved ineffective. On June 17, 1837, he took out patent -No. 240, in which he proposed to destroy the adhesive properties of -caoutchouc by superficial application of an acid solution of the metals, -nitric acid with copper or bismuth being specially recommended. He also -claimed the incorporation of lime with the gum to bleach it. Under this -process Mr. Goodyear made various articles in the form of fabrics, toys -and ornamental articles, using the fabric to make clothing for himself, -which he wore to demonstrate its value and wearing qualities. A striking -word picture of Mr. Goodyear at this time is given by the reply of a -gentleman who, being asked by a man looking for Mr. Goodyear as to how -he might recognize him, replied, "If you meet a man who has on an India -rubber cap, stock, coat, vest, and shoes, and an India rubber money -purse in his pocket, without a cent of money in it, that is he." - -Many useful and artistic articles were made under this first patented -process, including maps, surgical bandages, etc., and were brought by -Mr. Goodyear to the notice of President Jackson, Henry Clay and John C. -Calhoun, from whom he received very encouraging letters. His efforts, -however, to introduce his process commercially were not attended with -success. Capitalists and manufacturers had been rendered so conservative -by the large loss of money in the Roxbury Company, that they were -disinclined to have anything further to do with it. Practically alone he -was obliged to continue his work. By the kindness of Mr. Chaffee and Mr. -Haskins he was allowed the use of the valuable machinery standing idle -in their factory at Roxbury, and he made shoes, piano covers, table -cloths and carriage covers of superior quality, and from the sale of -these, and of licenses to manufacture, he for the first time was able to -support his family in comfort. Mr. Goodyear had not yet discovered, -however, the process of vulcanization, upon which the rubber industry is -founded. In 1838 Mr. Nathaniel Hayward, of Woburn, Mass., who had been -employed in the bankrupt rubber company, discovered that the stickiness -of the rubber could be prevented by spreading a small quantity of -sulphur on it. The same result had also been noticed by a German -chemist. On Feb. 24, 1839, Mr. Hayward procured the patent, No. 1,090, -on his process, and assigned it to Mr. Goodyear. The patent covered a -process of dissolving sulphur in oil of turpentine and mixing it with -the gum, and also included the incorporation of the dry flowers of -sulphur with the gum, the product afterwards being treated by Mr. -Goodyear's metallic salt process. This was the starting point of -vulcanization, for vulcanization consists simply in admixing sulphur -with the rubber, and then subjecting it for six to eight hours to a -temperature of about 300 deg.. Its effect is to so change the nature of the -gum to prevent it from melting or becoming sticky under the influence of -heat, or of hardening and becoming stiff under the influence of cold, -the vulcanized gum remaining elastic, impervious, and unchangeable under -all ordinary conditions. This great discovery of the influence of heat -on the sulphur treated gum was quite accidental and wholly unexpected. -Heat above all things was the agency which in all previous observations -was most to be feared, for it was this more than anything else that -melted down, decomposed and destroyed all of his manufactured articles. -While sitting near a hot stove engaged in an animated discussion -concerning his experiments, a piece of the gum treated with sulphur, -which he held in his hand, was, by a rapid gesture, thrown upon the -stove. To his astonishment, he found that this relatively high heat did -not melt it, as heretofore, and while it charred slightly, it was not -made at all sticky. He nailed the piece of gum outside the kitchen door -in the intense cold, and upon examining it the next morning found it as -perfectly flexible as when he put it out. Goodyear had discovered the -process which afterwards came to be known as "vulcanization." The -discovery was made in 1839, but was not accepted by those to whom it was -submitted as possessing any importance. Prof. Silliman, of Yale College, -however, in the fall of 1839 testified to the results claimed for it by -Mr. Goodyear--that it did not melt with heat, nor stiffen with the cold. -On June 15, 1844, Mr. Goodyear took out his celebrated patent, No. -3,633, covering this process, in which he not only used sulphur, but -added a proportion of white lead. The proportions named were 25 parts of -rubber, 5 parts of sulphur, and 7 parts of white lead, the ingredients -either to be ground in spirits of turpentine, or to be incorporated dry -between rolls. The odor imparted by the sulphur was to be destroyed by -washing with potash or vinegar. This patent was reissued in two -divisions Dec. 25, 1849, and again on Nov. 20, 1860, and was extended -for seven years from June 15, 1858, which was the end of the first term. -Under this patent two kinds of rubber were made and sold--"soft rubber," -containing only a small proportion of sulphur, while the other, known as -the "vulcanite," "ebonite," or "hard rubber," had from 25 to 35 per -cent. of sulphur and was subjected to a longer heat. - -The history of this patent is a remarkable one. Immensely valuable as it -was, Goodyear reaped but a small share of the profit, for in the midst -of his poverty and necessities he was obliged to sell licenses and -establish royalties at a figure far below the real value of the rights -conveyed. Some idea of the great value of the business which Mr. -Goodyear had developed may be had from the fact that the companies who -held rights under the patent for the manufacture of shoes paid at one -time to Daniel Webster the enormous fee of $25,000 for defending their -patent interests. - -With the idea of extending his invention Mr. Goodyear visited England in -1851, where he found that Thomas Hancock, of the house of Macintosh & -Co., had forestalled him, although not the inventor. A peculiar -provision of the English patent law, which gives the patent to the first -introducer, permitted this. Nothing daunted, however, he organized a -magnificent exhibit for the Great International Exhibition held in -Crystal Palace at Hyde Park, London, in 1851. This exhibit cost him -$30,000, and he called it the Goodyear Vulcanite Court. It comprehended -an elegantly constructed suite of open rooms made of hard rubber -ornamented with handsome carvings, and furnished with rubber furniture, -musical instruments, and globes made of rubber, and it was also carpeted -with the same material. For his exhibit he received the "Grand Council -Medal," which was one of the highest testimonials of the exposition. -This exhibit was afterwards moved from London to Sydenham, where it was -exposed and used as an agency for some years for the sale of rubber -goods. - -[Illustration: FIG. 161.--MACHINE FOR GRINDING AND WASHING CRUDE -RUBBER.] - -Mr. Goodyear had obtained a French patent for his invention, and at the -Exposition Universelle in Paris, in 1855, he fitted up at an expense of -$50,000 two elegant courts with India rubber furniture, caskets and rich -jewelry, and for this exhibit he had conferred upon him by the Emperor -Napoleon the "Grand Medal of Honor" and the "Cross of the Legion of -Honor." It was a singular instance of the irony of fate that the -decoration of the "Cross of the Legion of Honor" should have been -conveyed to him while imprisoned for debt in "Clichy," the debtors' -prison in Paris. The lofty courage of the man was well illustrated at -this time in his reply to his wife's solicitous inquiries as to how he -had spent the night while in prison. He said, "I have been through -nearly every form of trial that human flesh is heir to, and I find that -_there is nothing in life to fear but sin_." The declining years of his -life were full of sorrow, pain and affliction, and at his death in 1860 -his estate was $200,000 in debt. He lived long enough, however, to see -his material applied to nearly five hundred uses, giving employment in -England, France and Germany to 60,000 persons, and producing in this -country alone goods worth $8,000,000 a year. - -[Illustration: FIG. 162.--MAKING RUBBER CLOTH.] - -The greatest of all applications of rubber are to be found in the -manufacture of boots and shoes. The number of attacks of cold, -rheumatism, and death-dealing diseases from wet feet, that have been -averted by the use of rubber shoes, can never be estimated, but perhaps -it is safe to say that the rubber shoe has done more to conserve the -health of the human family than any other single article of apparel. - -In the manufacture of shoes the finest quality of rubber is received in -wooden boxes 4 x 2 x 11/2 feet, containing about 350 pounds in lumps of 1 -to 75 pounds. These lumps are cut to suitable size, and are then ground -and washed in the machine shown in Fig. 161, water and steam being -sprayed on the rubber during the operation. It is then worked into -sheets or mats between rolls. From the grinding room the sheets are -taken to the mixing room, where lampblack, sulphur and other ingredients -are added, and worked into it by being passed many times between heated -rolls, the sheets being finally reduced to a thickness of less than 1/32 -of an inch. The rubber sheets are then applied to a cloth backing by -cloth calendering rolls, shown in Fig. 162, which are steam heated and -by great pressure serve to incorporate the sheets of rubber and cloth -into intimate and inseparable union. Out of this rubber fabric, which is -made of different thicknesses for the upper, sole and heel, the patterns -for the shoe are cut, and the parts are deftly fitted around the forms -by girls, and secured by rubber cement, as shown in Fig. 163. The shoes -are then covered with a coat of rubber varnish, and are put into cars -and run into the vulcanizing ovens, where they remain from six to seven -hours at a temperature of about 275 deg.. The goods are then taken out, and -after being inspected are boxed for the market. The vulcanizing is a -very important part of the manufacture of a rubber shoe, for it is -absolutely necessary in order to give them stability and wearing -qualities. A shoe that had not been vulcanized would mash down, spread, -become sticky and go to pieces after a few hours' wear. - -The rubber shoe industry of the United States is carried on by about -fifteen large companies, representing an investment of many millions of -dollars, most of which companies are located in Massachusetts, Rhode -Island and Connecticut. - -Some idea of the immensity of this industry may be obtained from the -import statistics. In 1899 the United States alone imported crude rubber -to the extent of 51,063,066 pounds, as much as 1,000,000 pounds a month -coming from the single port of Para. The export of manufactured rubber -goods for the same year amounted to $1,765,385. The statistics for Great -Britain for 1896 showed the imports of rubber to that country to be -one-third more than the imports of the United States. Germany also is a -large consumer. The great Harburg-Vienna factories cover sixty-seven -acres, are capitalized at 9,000,000 marks, and employ 3,500 hands. Much -fine technical apparatus, toys, and balls are made here, the daily -output of balls reaching 8,000. These, with the Noah's arks of India -rubber animals, are the delight of the little ones all over the world. - -Although so much in evidence about us, India rubber is not by any means -a cheap material. Costing only five cents a pound when Goodyear -commenced his experiments, it is now worth a dollar a pound, and is -therefore much more expensive than any of the ordinary metals, woods, or -building materials. Many substitutes in the form of compositions of -various ingredients have been devised and patented, but no real -substitute for nature's product has yet been found. For many years old -and worn out rubber goods were thrown away as worthless. Now all such -rubber is reclaimed, and used in many grades of goods which do not -require a pure gum. Insatiable as the demands of the trade may appear, -there is no need to fear a rubber famine, for the forests of trees in -South America and the East Indies are practically inexhaustible, and in -the rich alluvial soil of their habitat nature's processes of growth -rapidly restore the decimation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 163.--MAKING RUBBER SHOES.] - -Since the time of Goodyear, the amplification of this art and the -multiplication of uses for rubber, and its increased commercial -importance, have gone on at such a rate of increase that to-day we may -be said to be living in the rubber age. Its uses and applications are -legion, and they extend literally from the cradle to the grave. When the -baby comes into the world its introduction to India rubber begins at -once with the nursing bottle and the gum cloth, and when the aged -invalid takes leave of the world his last moments are soothed with the -water bag and the rubber bed, and between these extremes we find it in -evidence everywhere about us. In wearing apparel it extends from the -crown of the head to the sole of the foot--rubber cap, coat, gloves, and -shoes. The man has it in his suspenders and his pipe stem, the woman in -her garters and dress shields, and the baby in its teething ring and -rattle. The soldier stands on picket duty in the rain, and the rubber -blanket protects him from rheumatism. If wounded, the surgeon dresses -his mangled limb with rubber bandages, and when he gets well he has a -rubber cushion on the end of his crutch, or on the foot of his -artificial leg. If wounded in the mouth perhaps the government gives him -a set of artificial teeth on a rubber plate. The rubber mat greets you -at the front door, a little pad cushions the door stops and the backs of -chairs, and a ring seals the mouth of the fruit jar. The whole array of -toilet articles, including combs, brushes, mirrors, shoe horns, etc., -are made from it. In the parlor it is found in picture frames and the -piano cover; in the bath room the wash rag, water bag, rubber cup, and -hose pipe of the shower bath are all made of it; in the play room are -found rubber balls and toys of all kinds; in the kitchen the clothes -wringer and the table cloth; in the dining room the handles of knives, -and the tea tray, and what is more useful and more ubiquitous in the -office than the rubber band, the rubber ruler, the pencil eraser, or the -fountain pen? But these are only a few of the personal and indoor uses -and applications. Rubber belting for machinery, fire engine and garden -hose, steam engine packing, car springs, covers for carriages and the -big guns of the navy, life preservers, billiard table cushions, and -chemical and surgical apparatus in endless variety. The electrical world -is almost entirely dependent upon it for the insulation of our ocean -cables and electric light wires, for battery cups, and the insulating -mountings of all electrical apparatus. The pneumatic bicycle tire could -not exist without rubber, and the modern application of it to this use -alone amounts to nearly four million pounds annually. Every automobile -carriage takes twenty-five pounds of rubber for each tire, or 100 pounds -altogether. This great and growing industry, together with the now -common use of rubber tires on horse-drawn vehicles, raises the sum total -of rubber employed in the arts to an enormous figure. - -That the sap of an uncultivated tree in a swampy, tropical, and malarial -forest, thousands of miles from civilization, should cut so great a -figure in the necessities of modern life, seems strange and -unaccountable on any basis of probabilities. It is only another -illustration of the possibilities of the patient and persistent work of -the inventor. Charles Goodyear took this nearly worthless material, and -made of it, as Parton said in 1865--"not a new material merely, but a -new class of materials, applicable to a thousand divers uses. It was -still India rubber, but its surface would not adhere, nor would it -harden at any degree of cold, nor soften at any degree of heat. It was a -cloth impervious to water; it was a paper that would not tear; it was a -parchment that would not crease; it was leather which neither rain nor -sun would injure; it was ebony that could be run into a mould; it was -ivory that could be worked like wax; it was wood that never cracked, -shrunk nor decayed. It was metal, 'elastic metal,' as Daniel Webster -termed it, that could be wound round the finger, or tied into a knot, -and which preserved its elasticity like steel. Trifling variations in -the ingredients, in the proportion and in the heating, made it either -pliable as kid, tougher than ox hide, as elastic as whalebone, or as -rigid as flint." - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -CHEMISTRY. - - ITS EVOLUTION AS A SCIENCE--THE COAL TAR PRODUCTS--FERMENTING AND - BREWING--GLUCOSE, GUN COTTON AND NITRO-GLYCERINE--ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY - --FERTILIZERS AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS--NEW ELEMENTS OF THE - NINETEENTH CENTURY. - - -The foundation stones of empirical discovery, upon which this science is -based, had been crudely shaped by the workmen of preceding centuries, -but the classification and laying of them into the structure of an exact -science is the work of the Nineteenth Century. The glass of the -Phoenicians, and the dyes and metallurgical operations of the Egyptians, -involved some chemical knowledge; much more did the operations of the -alchemists, who vainly sought to convert the baser metals into gold, but -these were only the crude building stones, out of which the great -complex modern structure has been raised. In the Sixteenth Century the -study of chemistry, apart from alchemy, began, and some attention was -given to its application to the uses of medicine. Aristotle's four -elements--fire, air, earth and water--were no longer accepted as -representing a correct theory, and new ones were proposed only to be -found as erroneous, and to be superseded in time by others. - -Briefly traversing the more important of the earlier steps, there may be -mentioned the phlogiston theory of Stahl in the earlier part of the -Eighteenth Century; the discovery of the composition of water by -Cavendish in 1766; of oxygen by Priestly and Scheele in 1774; the -electro-chemical dualistic theory of Lavoisier in the latter part of the -Eighteenth Century, followed by a rational nomenclature established by -Guyton de Morveau, Berthollet and Fourcroy; the doctrine of chemical -equivalents by Wenzel in 1777 and Richter in 1792; Dalton's atomic -theory; Wollaston's scale of chemical equivalents; Gay Lussac's law of -combining volumes; Berzelius' system of chemical symbols and theory of -compound radicals; contributions of Sir Humphrey Davy and Faraday in -electro-chemistry, and Thenard's grouping of the metals. These -interesting phases of development of the old chemistry have been -followed by the new theory of substitution, by Dumas and others. This -change, beginning about 1860 and running through a period of nearly -twenty years, has gradually supplanted the old electro-chemical -dualistic theory and established the present system. - -Among the important and interesting achievements of chemistry in the -Nineteenth Century is the _artificial production of organic compounds_. -All such compounds had heretofore been either directly or indirectly -derived from plants or animals. In 1828 Wohler produced urea from -inorganic substances, which was the first example of the synthetic -production of organic compounds, and it was for many years the only -product so formed. Berthelot, of Paris, by heating carbonic oxide with -hydrate of potash produced formiate of potash, from which formic acid is -obtained; by agitating olefiant gas with oil of vitriol a compound is -produced from which, upon the addition of water and distillation, -alcohol is formed; he also re-combined the fatty acids with glycerine to -form the original fats. - -In the classification of this science, it has been divided into -inorganic chemistry, relating to metals, minerals and bodies not -associated with organic life, and organic chemistry, which was formerly -limited to matter associated with or the result of growth or life -processes, but which is now extended to the broader field of all carbon -compounds. In later years the most remarkable advances have been made in -the field of organic chemistry. The four elements carbon, hydrogen, -oxygen and nitrogen have been juggled into innumerable associations, and -in various proportions, and endless permutations, have been combined to -produce an unlimited series of useful compounds, such as dyes, -explosives, medicines, perfumes, flavoring extracts, disinfectants, etc. - -The most interesting of these compounds are the _coal tar products_. -Coal tar, for many years, was the waste product of gas making. Forty -years ago about the only use made of it was by the farmer, who painted -the ends of his fence posts with it to prevent decay, or by the -fisherman, who applied it to the bottoms of his boats and his fishing -nets. To-day the black, offensive and unpromising substance, with -magical metamorphosis, has been transformed by the chemist into the most -beautiful dyes, excelling the hues and shades of the rainbow, the most -delightful perfumes and flavoring extracts, the most useful medicines, -the most powerful antiseptics, and a product which is the very sweetest -substance known. The aniline dyes represent one of the great -developments in this field. In 1826 Unverdorben obtained from indigo a -substance which he called "Crystalline." In 1834 Runge obtained from -coal tar "Kyanol." In 1840 Fritzsch obtained from indigo a product which -he called "Aniline," from "Anil," the Portuguese for indigo. Zinin soon -after obtained "Benzidam." All these substances were afterward proved to -be the same as aniline. Perkins' British patent, No. 1,984, of 1856, is -the first patented disclosure of the aniline dyes, and represents the -beginning of their commercial production. This combines sulphate of -aniline and bichromate of potash to produce an exquisite lilac, or -purple color. The first United States patent was in 1861, and now there -are about 1,400 patents on carbon dyes and compounds, the most of which -belong to the coal tar group. In dyes artificial alizarine, by Graebe -and Lieberman (Pat. No. 95,465, Oct. 5, 1869); aniline black, by -Lightfoot (Pat. No. 38,589, May 19, 1863); naphthazarin black, by Bohn -(Pat. No. 379,150, March 6, 1888); artificial indigo, by Baeyer (Pat. -No. 259,629, June 13, 1882); the azo-colors, by Roussin (Pat. No. -210,054, Nov. 19, 1878); and the processes for making colors on fibre, -by Holliday (Pat. No. 241,661, May 17, 1881), are the most important. -The artificial production of salicylic acid, by Kolbe (Pat. No. 150,867, -May 12, 1874), marks an important step in antiseptics. Artificial -vanilla, by Fritz Ach (Pat. No. 487,204, Nov. 29, 1892), represents -flavoring extracts; and artificial musk, by Baur (Pat. No. 536,324, -March 26, 1895), is an example of perfumes. In medicines a great array -of compounds has been produced, such as antipyrin, the fever remedy, by -Knorr (Pat. No. 307,399, Oct. 28, 1884); phenacetin, by Hinsberg (Pat. -No. 400,086, March 26, 1889); salol, by Von Nencki (Pat. No. 350,012, -Sept. 28, 1886), and sulfonal by Bauman (Pat. No. 396,526, Jan. 22, -1889). To these may be added antikamnia (acetanilide), the headache -remedy, and saccharin, by Fahlberg (Pat. No. 319,082, June 2, 1885), -which latter is a substitute for sugar, and thirteen times sweeter than -sugar. Among the more familiar products of coal tar or petroleum are -moth balls, carbolic acid, benzine, vaseline, and paraffine. - -In the commercial application of chemistry the work of Louis Pasteur in -_fermenting_ and _brewing_ deserves special notice as making a great -advance in this art. His United States patent, No. 141,072, July 22, -1873, deals with the manufacture of yeast for brewing. - -The manufacture of _sugar_ and _glucose_ from starch is an industry of -great magnitude, which has grown up in the last twenty-five years. -Water, acidulated with 1/100th part of sulphuric acid, is heated to -boiling, and a hot mixture of starch and water is allowed to flow into -it gradually. After boiling a half hour chalk is added to neutralize the -sulphuric acid, and when the sulphate of lime settles the clear syrup is -drawn off, and either sold as syrup, or is evaporated to produce -crystallized grape sugar, which latter is only about half as sweet as -cane sugar. Glucose syrup, however, has largely superseded all other -table syrups, and is extensively used in brewing, for cheap candies, and -for bee food. Our exports of glucose and grape sugar for 1899 amounted -to 229,003,571 pounds, worth $3,624,890. - -An important discovery, made in 1846, was that carbohydrates, such as -starch, sugar, or cellulose, and glycerine, when acted upon by the -strongest nitric acid, produced compounds remarkable for their explosive -character. _Gun cotton and nitro-glycerine_ are the most conspicuous -examples. Gun cotton is made by treating raw cotton with nitric acid, to -which a proportion of sulphuric acid is added to maintain the strength -of the nitric acid and effect a more perfect conversion. Besides its use -as an explosive, gun cotton when dissolved in ether has found an -important application as collodion in the art of photography. -Nitro-glycerine only differs in its manufacture from gun cotton in that -glycerine is acted upon by the acids, instead of cotton. Pyroxiline, -xyloidine, and celluloid are allied products, which have found endless -applications in toilet articles and for other uses, as a substitute for -hard rubber. - -The applications of chemistry in the commercial world have been in -recent years so numerous and varied that it is not possible to do more -than to refer to its uses in the manufacture of soda and potash, of -alcohol, ether, chloroform, and ammonia, in soap making, washing -compounds and tanning, the production of gelatine, the refining of -cotton seed and other oils, the art of oxidizing oils for the -manufacture of linoleum and oil cloth, the manufacture of fertilizers, -white lead and other paints, the preparation of proprietary medicines, -of soda water and photographic chemicals, the manufacture of salt and -preserving compounds, in the fermentation of liquors and brewing of -beer, the preparation of cements and street pavements, the manufacture -of gas, and the embalming of the dead. - -The most interesting and, in many respects, the most important, -development of the last twenty-five years has been in -_electro-chemistry_. Electro-chemical methods are now employed for the -production of a large number of elements, such as the alkali and -alkaline earth metals, copper, zinc, aluminum, chromium, manganese, the -halogens, phosphorus, hydrogen, oxygen, and ozone; various chemicals, -including the mineral acids, hydrates, chlorates, hypochlorites, -chromates, permanganates, disinfectants, alkaloids, coal tar dyes, and -various carbon compounds; white lead and other pigments; varnish; in -bleaching, dyeing, tanning; in extracting grease from wool; in -purifying water, sewerage, sugar solutions, and alcoholic beverages. The -present low price of _aluminum_, reduced from $12 per pound in 1878 to -33 cents now, is due to its production by electrical methods. Among the -earliest successful processes is that described in patents to Cowles and -Cowles, No. 319,795, June 9, 1885, and No. 324,658, August 18, 1885, in -which a mixture of alumina, carbon and copper is heated to incandescence -by the passage of a current, the reduced aluminum alloying with the -copper. This has now been superseded by the Hall process (Pat. No. -400,766, April 2, 1889), in which alumina, dissolved in fused cryolite, -is electrolytically decomposed. Practically all the copper now produced, -except that from Lake Superior, is refined electrolytically by -substantially the method of Farmer's patent (Pat. No. 322,170, July 14, -1885). All metallic sodium and potassium are now obtained by -electrolysis of fused hydroxides or chlorides (Pats. No. 452,030, May -12, 1891, to Castner, and No. 541,465, June 25, 1895, to Vautin). The -production of caustic soda, sodium carbonate, and chlorine by the -electrolysis of brine, is carried on upon a large scale, and will -probably supersede all other methods. Nolf's process (Pat. No. 271,906, -Feb. 6, 1883), and Caster's (No. 528,322, Oct. 30, 1894), employ a -receiving body or cathode of mercury, alternately brought in contact -with the brine undergoing decomposition, and with water to oxidize the -contained sodium. _Carborundum_, or silicide of carbon, is largely -superseding emery and diamond dust as an abradant. It is produced by -Acheson (Pat. No. 492,767, Feb. 28, 1893), by passing a current of -electricity through a mixture of silica and carbon. _Calcium carbide_, a -rare compound a few years ago, is now cheaply produced by the action of -an electric arc on a mixture of lime and carbon, as described by Willson -(Pats. Nos. 541,137, 541,138, June 18, 1895). Calcium carbide resembles -coke in general appearance, and it is used for the manufacture of -acetylene gas, for which purpose it is only necessary to immerse the -calcium carbide in water, and the gas is at once given off by the mutual -decomposition of the water and the carbide. - -_Agricultural chemistry_ is another one of the practical developments of -the Nineteenth Century. A hundred years ago the farmer planted his -crops, prayed for rain, and trusted to Providence for the increase; he -was not infrequently disappointed, but was wholly unable to account for -the failure. To-day the intelligent farmer understands the value of -nitrogen, has ascertained how it may be fed to his crops through the -agency of nitrifying organisms, or he has his soil analyzed at the -Agricultural Department, finds out what element it lacks for the crop -desired, and in chemically prepared fertilizers supplies that -deficiency. The chemical analysis of drinking water has also -contributed much to the knowledge of right living and to the avoidance -of disease and death, which our forefathers were accustomed to regard as -dispensations of Providence. - -America has furnished some eminent chemists in the Nineteenth Century, -who have made valuable contributions to the science, notably in the -field of metallurgy. It is a fact, however, which must be admitted with -regret, that America has not in the field of chemical research occupied -the leading place she has in mechanical progress. The European -laboratory is the birthplace of most modern inventions in the chemical -field, and this is so simply by reason of the fact that these more -patient investigators have set themselves studiously, systematically and -persistently to the work of chemical invention. It is said that some of -the large commercial works in Germany have over 100 Ph. D.'s in a single -manufacturing establishment, whose work is not directed to the -management of the manufacture, but solely to original research, and the -making of inventions. The laboratories in such works differ from those -in the universities only in being more perfectly equipped, and more -sumptuously appointed. The result of this is seen in the fact that in -1899 the United States imported coal tar dyes alone to the extent of -$3,799,353, and 5,227,098 pounds of alizarine, most of which came from -Germany, and for which we paid a good price, since the German -manufacturers control the United States patents. The alizarine dyes are -for the most part the artificial kind made by German chemists. Prior to -1869 the red alizarine dye was of plant origin, being obtained from -madder root, and it cost $2 a pound. The German chemist produced an -artificially made product, which took the place of the madder dye, and -was sold at $1.20 a pound. At the end of the patent term (seventeen -years) the price fell to 15c. a pound, showing that the product was -produced at a profit of more than $1.05 a pound, and as millions of -pounds were imported annually, it is estimated that $35,000,000 was the -price paid the German chemists for their foresight in combining science -with business. Many United States patents granted to foreign chemists -are still in force, and the rich reward of their skill is reaped at our -expense. - -_Discovery of elements._--In the early days of chemical knowledge, fire, -air, earth and water constituted the insignificant category of the -elements, which was as faulty in classification as it was small in size. -Gradual splitting up of compounds, and an increase in the number of -elements, has gone on progressively for some hundreds of years, until -to-day the list extends well on to one hundred elementary bodies. Those -which belong to the credit of the Nineteenth Century are given in the -table following, with the name of the discoverer, and the date of its -discovery. - -ELEMENTS DISCOVERED IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. - - ELEMENTS. DISCOVERER. YEAR. - - Columbium Hatchett 1801 - Tantalum Ekeberg 1802 - Iridium Tenant 1803 - Osmium Tenant 1803 - Cerium Berzelius 1803 - Palladium Wollaston 1804 - Rhodium Wollaston 1804 - Potassium Davy 1807 - Sodium Davy 1807 - Barium Davy 1808 - Strontium Davy 1808 - Calcium Davy 1808 - Boron Davy 1808 - Iodine Courtois 1811 - Cyanogen Gay Lussac 1814 - (Comp. rad.) - Selenium Berzelius 1817 - Cadmium Stromeyer 1817 - Lithium Arfvedson 1817 - Silicon Berzelius 1823 - Zirconium Berzelius 1824 - Bromine Balard 1826 - Thorium Berzelius 1828 - Yttrium Wohler 1828 - Glucinum Wohler 1828 - Aluminum Wohler 1828 - Magnesium Bussey 1829 - Vanadium Sefstroem 1830 - Lanthanum Mosander 1839 - Didymium Mosander 1839 - Erbium Mosander 1843 - Terbium Mosander 1843 - Ruthenium Claus 1845 - Rubidium Bunsen 1860 - Caesium Bunsen 1860 - Thallium Crookes 1862 - Indium {Reich } 1863 - {Richter} - Gallium Boisbaudran 1875 - Ytterbium Marignac 1878 - Samarium Boisbaudran 1879 - Scandium Nilson 1879 - Thulium Cleve 1879 - Neodymium Welsbach 1885 - Praseodymium Welsbach 1885 - Gadolinium Marignac 1886 - Germanium Winkler 1886 - Argon {Raleigh} 1894 - {Ramsey } - Krypton { Ramsey } 1897 - { Travers } - Neon {Ramsey } 1898 - {Travers} - Metargon { Ramsey } 1898 - { Travers } - Coronium Nasini 1898 - Xenon Ramsey 1898 - Monium Crookes 1898 - Etherion (?) Brush 1898 - -Whether or not these so-called elements are really true elementary forms -of matter, which are absolutely indivisible, is a problem for the -chemists of the coming centuries to solve. The classification has the -approval of the present age. What new elements may be found no one may -predict. Mendelejeff's _periodic law_, however, suggests great -possibilities in this field. Allotropism, in which the same element will -present entirely different physical aspects, is also a significant and -suggestive phenomenon, for in it we see carbon appearing at one time as -a crude, black and ungainly mass of coal, and at another it appears as -the limpid and flashing diamond. In more than one mind there is a -lurking suspicion that there may, after all, be only one form of -primordial matter, from which all others are derived by some wondrous -play of the atoms, and if so the old idea of the alchemist as to the -transmutation of metals may not be entirely wrong. The Twentieth Century -may give us more light. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -FOOD AND DRINK. - - THE NATURE OF FOOD--THE ROLLER MILL--THE MIDDLINGS PURIFIER-- - CULINARY UTENSILS--BREAD MACHINERY--DAIRY APPLIANCES--CENTRIFUGAL - MILK SKIMMER--THE CANNING INDUSTRY--STERILIZATION--BUTCHERING AND - DRESSING MEATS--OLEOMARGARINE--MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR--THE VACUUM - PAN--CENTRIFUGAL FILTER--MODERN DIETETICS AND PATENTED FOODS. - - -If called upon to name the most important of all factors of human -existence, that which underlies and sustains all others, even to life -itself, everyone must agree that it is _food_. A remarkable fact in this -connection is that all animal life lives and thrives by eating some -other thing that is or has been alive, or is the product of organic -growth. The vegetarian may pride himself upon his higher ideals of -living, but after all his fruit, vegetables, and cereals belong to the -great category of living organisms, and are to a certain extent sentient -and conscious, for even the plant will turn to the sun. The beasts of -the field and fowls of the air live by preying upon other weaker animals -and birds, these upon plants and grasses, and the plants and grasses -upon the decaying mosses and organic mould of the soil, and the mosses -upon still lower organisms. The big fish of the sea eat the little fish, -the little fish the small fry, and these in turn live upon worms and -animalcula, and so on all the way down to protoplasm. Omniverous man, in -spite of his boasted civilization and enlightment, not only eats them -all, flesh, fowl, fish, grain and plants, but lives exclusively upon -them. But he can _only_ live on that which has been produced by the -mysterious agency of life, and this furnishes a significant suggestion -for the philosopher, for it may be that life itself is only an -accumulated active power or unitary force regenerated in some -metamorphic way from vital force stored up in the bacteria of organic -food, and necessarily connected therewith in an endless chain of -reproductions, and if this be true, the hope of the scientist as to the -synthesis of food from its elements must ever remain a philosophic -dream, because the scientist cannot create a bacterium. - -It has been said that when a man eats meat he thinks meat, and when he -eats bread he thinks bread, and when he eats fruit he thinks fruit. It -is not clear that the quality or character of man's food is so closely -correlated to his thought, but that it has its influence cannot be -doubted. It would be safer to say, however, that when a man eats meat he -acts meat, and when he eats bread he acts bread, for the muscular energy -and aggressive potentiality appear to be much more closely related to -the quality of his food than are his thoughts. May it not be that the -powerful achievement of the British Empire was directly related to its -roast beef? Is not the listless apathy of the Chinese due to a diet of -rice? Is not the dominant and masterful power of the lion or the eagle -related to a carniverous diet, and the mild and placid temper of the ox -the reflex expression of his vegetable food? It is quite true that our -potentialities are largely represented by what we eat, and our food -therefore becomes a most interesting topic, not only by virtue of its -indispensable quality, but by reason also of the possibilities of -development in the betterment and elevation of the human race. - -From the earliest times even down to the present day man's food has been -the same--flesh, fish, cereals, fruits and vegetables. The development -of the present century has not extended this category, but it has been -directed to an increase in the supply, an improvement in quality, the -preservation against decay and waste, and its intelligent selection and -adaptation to the special needs of the body. Progress manifests itself -in the great field of agriculture, in improved processes and machines -for milling; in butchering, packing and handling meats; in preserving -and drying fruits; in the preparation of canned goods, in dairy -appliances, in cake and cracker machines; in the manufacture of sugar; -in the great advance in cookery; in the science of dietetics, and in -thousands of minor industries. - -In agriculture the raising of grain has extended in the Nineteenth -Century to enormous proportions. More than ten thousand patents for -plows, as many for reapers, and a proportionate number of planters, -cultivators, threshers, and other implements and tools represent the -extent to which inventive genius has been directed to the increase of -the yield in the harvest field. - -This yield in the United States for the year 1898 was: - - Corn 1,924,184,660 bushels - Wheat 675,148,705 bushels - Oats 730,906,643 bushels - Rye 25,657,522 bushels - Barley 55,792,257 bushels - Buckwheat 11,721,927 bushels - Potatoes 192,306,338 bushels - -[Illustration: FIG. 164.--ROLLER PROCESS OF MAKING FLOUR, WEGMANN'S -PATENT.] - -For converting the grain into flour, the inventors of the Nineteenth -Century have made revolutionary changes. Milling processes within the -last twenty-five years have been completely transformed by the -introduction of the roller mill and middlings purifier. Formerly two -horizontal disk-shaped stones or burrs were employed, the lower one -stationary and the upper one revolving in a horizontal plane and crudely -crushing the grain between them. In all modern mills these have been -entirely displaced by porcelain rolls revolving on horizontal axes and -crushing the grain between them. The first of these roller mills is -shown in pat. No. 182,250, to Wegmann, Sept. 12, 1876. (See Fig. 164). -The outer rolls _d e_ are pressed against the inner ones _a c_ by a -system of weighted levers, and scrapers below remove the crushed grain -from the periphery of the rolls. Many subsequent improvements have been -made, one type of which employs a succession of rolls which act in pairs -on the grain one after the other and reduce it by successive gradations. - -[Illustration: FIG. 165.--MIDDLINGS PURIFIER.] - -The _middlings purifier_, see Fig. 165, comprehends a flat bolt or -shaker screen _b_, of bolting cloth, arranged as a horizontal partition -in an enclosing case through which passes an upward draft of air -produced by suction fan D at the top. This air passing up through the -bolting screen lifts the bran specks and fuzz from the shaken material -as it passes downward through the screen, brushes K being arranged below -to keep the screen constantly clean. A representative and pioneer type -of this machine is seen in Pat. No. 164,050 to George T. Smith, June 1, -1875, from which the view is taken. The useful effect of the roller mill -and middlings purifier is to save the most nutritious and valuable part -of the grain, which lies between the outer cuticle and the white starch -within, and which breaks up in fine grains and is of a golden hue. This -portion of the grain was formerly unseparated, and was mixed with the -middlings and bran as an inferior product. Modern analysis has disclosed -its superior food value, and the roller mill and middlings purifier have -provided means by which it can be separated from the bran and -incorporated with the flour, thereby greatly adding to its wholesome -character and nutritive value, and imparting to the flour the rich -creamy tint which characterizes all higher grades. - -Minneapolis, Minn., is the great center of the milling interests of the -United States. The Pillsbury Mills are located there, and the "Pillsbury -A." which is said to be the largest in the world, has a capacity of -7,000 barrels per day. - -In 1877-78 disastrous flour dust explosions at Minneapolis brought -about the development of the dust collector, for withdrawing from the -air of the mills the suspended particles of flour dust, which not only -invited explosion, but rendered the air unfit to breathe. Washburn's -Pat. No. 213,151, March 11, 1879, is an early example. - -The use of crushing rolls has also developed a great variety of new -foods, such as cracked wheat, oatmeal grits, etc. These crushing rolls -have sometimes been made hollow, and are steam heated, and as they crush -the grain they simultaneously effect the cooking or partial conversion -of the starch, and the product is known as hominy flake, ceraline, -coralline, etc., which furnish popular breakfast foods when served with -cream. - -[Illustration: FIG. 166.--DOUGH MIXER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 167.--BRAKE, OR KNEADING MACHINE.] - -In the field of cookery such activity has been displayed that the -average kitchen to-day is a veritable museum of modern inventions. Egg -beaters, waffle irons, toasters, broilers, baking pans, apple parers, -cherry stoners, cheese cutters, butter workers, coffee mills, corn -poppers, cream freezers, dish washers, egg boilers, flour sifters, flat -irons, knife sharpeners, can openers, lemon squeezers, potato mashers, -meat boilers, nutmeg graters, sausage grinders, and frying pans in -endless array; all patented and clustered around the modern cooking -range as a central figure, and all presenting points of excellence in -the matter of economy and convenience, or the betterment of result. The -most extensive application of inventive genius is to be found in the -large manufacturing bakeries, which make and sell the millions of pounds -of crackers and cakes that fill the bins and shelves of the grocery -store. In these manufactories the dough is prepared by a mixer, see Fig. -166, which consists of a spiral working blade revolving in a trough, and -capable of handling half a dozen barrels of flour at a time. It is then -put through a kneading machine, called a "brake," shown in Fig. 167, and -is then ready to be converted into crackers or cakes on a great machine -25 feet long, which finishes the crackers and puts them in the pan ready -for the oven. This machine, see Fig. 168, receives the dough at A, where -it is coated with flour and flattened into a sheet between rolls. It is -then received on a traveling apron B, has the flour brushed off by a -rotary brush C, and is then cut into crackers or cakes by vertically -reciprocating dies D. At E a series of fingers press the cakes down -through the sheet of dough, while the surrounding scraps are raised on a -belt F and delivered into a suitable receptacle. The separated cakes at -B' are then delivered into pans at G, the pans being fed on the -subjacent belt at G'. Such machines, costing nearly a thousand dollars, -produce from forty to sixty barrels of crackers a day, enabling them to -be sold at about 5 cents a pound at retail. - -[Illustration: FIG. 168.--CRACKER AND CAKE MACHINE.] - -_Dairy Appliances_ have come in for a large share of attention at the -hands of the Nineteenth Century inventor. There are about sixteen -million milch cows in the United States, and their contribution to the -food stuffs of the day in milk, butter, and cheese is no insignificant -factor. There have been over 2,700 patents granted for churns alone, and -besides these there are milk coolers, cheese presses, milk skimmers, and -even cow milkers. The centrifugal milk skimmer is an interesting type of -this class of machine. In the old way the milk was set for the cream to -rise, which it did slowly from its lighter specific gravity. In the -centrifugal skimmer the milk is continuously poured in through a funnel, -and the cream runs out continuously through one spout, and the skimmed -milk at the other. An illustrative type of this machine is shown in -Fig. 169. A steam turbine wheel near the base turns a vertical shaft -bearing at its upper end a pan which rotates within the outer case. The -milk enters through the faucet at the top, and as the pan within -rotates, the heavier milk, by its greater specific gravity, is thrown to -the outer part of the pan and passes out through the larger of the two -spouts, while the lighter cream is crowded to the center and passes out -of the upper spout, which opens into the center of the pan. Patents to -Lefeldt & Lentsch, No. 195,515, Sept. 25, 1877, and Houston and Thomson, -No. 239,659, April 5, 1881, represent pioneer milk skimmers of this -type. - -[Illustration: FIG. 169.--CENTRIFUGAL MILK SKIMMER.] - -Closely allied to the dairy appliances are the incubator and the bee -hive, both of which have claimed a large share of attention, and for -which many patents have been granted. - -One important and characteristic feature of the present age is the -conservation of waste in perishable foodstuffs. Fruits, vegetables, fish -and oysters were suitable food to our forefathers only when freshly -taken, and any superabundance in supply was either wasted by natural -processes of decay, or was fed to the hogs. To-day thousands of patented -fruit dryers, cider mills, and preserving processes save this waste and -carry over for valuable use through the unproductive winter months these -wholesome and valuable articles of diet. Even more important is the -_canning industry_, by which not only fruits are maintained in a -practically fresh condition for an indefinite time, but oysters, meats, -fish, soups, and vegetables are also put up in enormous quantities. -To-day the grocer's shelves present an endless array of canned tomatoes, -peaches, corn, peas, beans, fish, oysters, condensed milk, and potted -meats, which constitute probably three-fourths of his staple goods. The -tin can is in itself a very insignificant thing, not entitled to rank -with any of the great inventions, but in the every-day campaign of life -it is playing its part, and working its influence to an extent that is -little dreamed of by the casual observer. It renders possible our -military and exploring expeditions; it holds famine and starvation in -abeyance; it gives wholesome variety to the diet of both rich and poor; -and it transfers the glut of the full season to the want of future days. -Perhaps no single factor of modern life has so great an economic value. -Simple as is the tin can, quite complex machines are required to make -it. Originally such machines were operated by hand or foot power, but -within the last 25 years power machines have been devised which -automatically convert a simple blank or plate of sheet metal into a -finished can. Of the many patents granted for such machines the most -representative ones are 243,287, 250,096, 267,014, 384,825, 450,624, -465,018, 480,256, 495,426, 489,484. - -In the process of putting up canned goods the products are filled into -the cans, and the caps, or heads, are soldered on. These caps have a -minute hole in the center for the escape of air and steam in the process -of cooking and sterilizing, which is conducted as follows: A large -number of cans are placed on a tray swung from a crane and the cans -lowered into one of a series of great cooking boilers. The cover of the -boiler is then closed and fastened by lugs, and steam turned on until -the goods in the can are thoroughly heated through. During this process -the air and steam escape through the little vent hole from the interior -of each can. The cans are then removed, the vent hole closed by a drop -of solder, and the goods thus hermetically sealed in a cooked or -sterilized condition will keep for a long period of time. - -_Sterilizing._--During the last quarter of the century, which has -witnessed the growth of the wonderful science of bacteriology, a class -of devices known as sterilizers has come into existence, whose primary -function is to kill the germs of decay by heat. This has had in the -canning industry an important commercial application. An example is -found in the patent to Shriver, No. 149,256, March 31, 1874. In some of -these devices the receptacles containing the food stuffs are in large -numbers placed within the heating chamber, and by devices operated from -the outside the cans or bottles are opened and shut while within the -steam filled chamber. A late illustration is found in patent to Popp _et -al._, 524,649, August 14, 1894. - -_Butchering and Dressing Meats._--Chicago is the leading city of the -world in this industry, and Armour & Co. the largest packers. In the -year ending April 1, 1891, they killed and dressed 1,714,000 hogs, -712,000 cattle, and 413,000 sheep. They had 7,900 employees, and 2,250 -refrigerating cars were employed for the transportation of their -products. The ground area covered by their buildings was fifty acres, -giving a floor area of 140 acres, a chill room and cold storage area of -forty acres, and a storage capacity of 130,000 tons. In addition to its -meat packing business the firm has separate glue works, with buildings -covering fifteen acres, where 600 hands are employed, their production -in 1890 being 7,000,000 pounds of glue, and 9,500 tons of fertilizer. -Since 1891 this great business has increased until to-day it is said -that the army of workmen employed is greater than that of Xenophon, that -the firm pays out in wages alone, half a million dollars every month, -that four thousand cars are required to carry the products of their -factory, and whose business amounts to the enormous sum of one hundred -million dollars annually. - -[Illustration: FIG. 170.--KILLING AND DRESSING PORK.] - -There are from forty to fifty million cattle raised in the United -States, and an equal amount of sheep. The number of hogs raised has -diminished somewhat in the past few years, but from 1889 to 1892 more -than fifty million were maintained. The process of slaughtering and -dressing pork, as practiced to-day, is a continuous one, and is well -illustrated in Fig. 170, in 13 operations. The animals are driven into a -catching pen at 1, where they are strung up by one leg, and secured to a -traveling pulley on an overhead rail. At 2 the animal is instantly -killed by a knife thrust that reaches the heart; at 3 he is dumped into -a vat of scalding water, kept hot by steam pipes, where the hair is -loosened (see detail view Fig. 171). A series of oscillating curved -arms, shaped like a horse hay-rake, dips the carcass out of the scalding -vat and deposits it upon the table 4 (Fig. 170), where it is attached to -an endless cable that drags it through a scraping machine at 5. This -takes off the hair, as shown in detail view Fig. 172. At 6 (Fig. 170) -the remnants of hair are removed by hand, and at 7 the skin is washed -clean. At 8 the carcass is inspected, and the throat cut across; at 9 -the entrails are removed; at 10 the leaf lard is taken out; at 11 the -heads are severed and tongues removed; at 12 the carcass is split into -halves, and at 13 the sections are ready to be run into the cooling -room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 171.--SCALDING TO LOOSEN THE HAIR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 172.--SCRAPING OFF THE HAIR BY MACHINERY.] - -From 10 to 15 minutes only are required to convert the living animal -into dressed pork. Every part of the animal is utilized. The lungs, -heart, liver and trimmings go to the sausage department. The feet are -pickled or converted into glue. The intestines are stripped and -cleaned for sausage casings. The soft parts of the head are made into -so-called cheese, and the fat is rendered into lard. The finer quality -of bristles goes to the brushmakers, and the balance is used by -upholsterers for mixing with horse hair. The blood is largely used for -making albumen for photographic uses, as well as in sugar refining, for -meat extracts, and for fertilizers. The bones are ground for fertilizer, -and even the tank waters are concentrated and used for the same purpose. - -_Oleomargarine._--About 1868 M. Mege, a French chemist, commissioned by -his government to investigate certain questions of domestic economy, was -led into the study of beef fat, and to make comparisons of the same with -butter. He found that when cows were deprived of food containing fat -they still continued to give milk yielding cream or fatty products. He -therefore concluded that the stored-up fat in the animal was then -converted into cream, and that it was practicable, therefore, to convert -beef fat into butter fat. Physiology taught that in the living animal -the change was wrought through the withdrawal of the larger part of the -stearine by respiratory combustion, while the oleomargarine was secreted -by the milk glands, and its conversion into butyric oleomargarine -effected in the udder under the influence of the mammary pepsin. In the -process of making butter by the ordinary method of churning the cream, -the finely divided butter fat globules are united into masses, -containing by mechanical admixture from 12 to 14 per cent. of water or -buttermilk carrying a fractional per cent. of cheese. This buttermilk -contributes somewhat to the flavor, but at the same time furnishes a -ferment which ultimately spoils the butter by making it rancid. It is a -purely accidental ingredient, and one not at all desirable. To some -extent the same may be said of the soluble fats which give to the butter -its variable though characteristic flavor. They are unstable compounds, -decomposing readily, and furnish the acrid products which make "strong" -butter. M. Mege sought to imitate the natural process of butter-making, -which was first to separate from the oily fat of suet the cellular -tissue and excess of stearine or hard fat; second, to add to the oil a -sufficient proportion of butyric compounds to give the necessary flavor, -and third, to consolidate the butter fat without grain, and to add at -the same time the requisite proportion of water, salt, and coloring -matter, to make a compound substantially the same in composition, -flavor, and appearance, as butter churned from the cream, and all this -without adding to the original fat anything dietetically objectionable, -and without submitting it to any process capable of impairing its -wholesome quality. These objects were fairly obtained in the product -known as oleomargarine, the United States patent for which was granted -to Mege Dec. 30, 1873, No. 146,012. - -The process in brief is to take fresh beef fat, which is first chopped -up and thoroughly washed. It is then placed in melting tanks at a -temperature of 122 deg. to 124 deg. F, and the clear yellow oil is drawn off and -allowed to stand until it granulates. The fat is then packed in cloths -set in moulds and a slowly increasing pressure squeezes out the pure -amber colored oil, leaving the stearine behind. This sweet and pure -yellow oil is then churned with milk for 20 minutes until the oil is -completely broken up, and a small quantity of annato, a vegetable -coloring matter, is added to give a yellow color. The product is then -cooled in ice, and after a second churning with milk it is salted and -finished like butter. Chemical analysis shows oleomargarine to have -substantially the same constituents and in almost the identical -proportions of pure butter. It is equally wholesome, and while it does -not have the same rich flavor, it has the advantage that it keeps -better, and is not so liable to become rancid or strong. The -oleomargarine industry is closely related to the beef packing industries -of the United States, and its growth has been enormous. Notwithstanding -the stringent laws on the subject, much of the oleomargarine made is -sold for, and by the average purchaser is not distinguishable from, pure -butter. In 1899 there were 80,495,628 pounds of oleomargarine made in -the United States, or more than a pound for every man, woman, and child -in the country. The internal revenue tax paid on it was $1,609,912.56. -The exports for the year 1899 were 5,549,322 pounds of the artificial -butter, and 142,390,492 pounds of the oleo oil prepared for conversion -into the complete product by simply churning with milk. - -_Sugar._--Sugar-cane, beets, and the sap of the maple constitute the -sources from which sugar is extracted, but the cane furnishes by far the -largest supply. When crushed between rolls it yields 65 per cent. of its -weight as juice, and 18 per cent. of this juice is sugar. It is -concentrated by evaporation at a low temperature, the crystallized -portion being known as "raw" or brown sugar, which is subsequently -refined, while the uncrystallized portion forms molasses. - -[Illustration: FIG. 173.--VACUUM PAN FOR EVAPORATING THE SYRUP TO -PRODUCE SUGAR.] - -In the process of refining, 2 or 3 parts of raw sugar, with one of water -containing a little lime, ground bone black, and the serum of bullocks' -blood, is heated by the passage of steam through it. The albumen of the -serum coagulates and rises to the surface in a scum which entangles the -impurities and bone black, leaving the syrup light in color. The latter -is then filtered through bone black until it is colorless and is then -evaporated in the vacuum pan, which is the important invention of the -century in sugar making. Heat has the effect of converting the -crystallized sugar into the uncrystallized variety, and hence the -evaporation must, to prevent this, be conducted at a low temperature. -Contact with the air is also objectionable. These conditions are -provided for by conducting the evaporation in a vacuum, which lowers the -evaporating temperature and avoids contact with the air. The vacuum pan -was the invention of Howard, an Englishman. (British Pat. No. 3,754, of -1813). As constructed to-day it is an enormous vessel (see Fig. 173), -capable of holding 7,000 or more gallons, and yielding 250 barrels of -sugar at a strike. In this a vacuum is maintained by a condenser, the -vapors passing from the pan to the condenser through the great curved -pipe rising from the top, which pipe is five feet in diameter. A gentle -heat is applied through internal steam-heated coils which connect with -an external series of steam inlet pipes on one side, and a corresponding -series of steam outlet pipes on the other. A large discharge valve for -the concentrated syrup closes the bottom of the pan. After concentration -the crystallized sugar is separated from the syrup by a centrifugal -filter, in which the liquid is thrown from the crystallized sugar by -centrifugal action. The first centrifugal filter is shown in British -patent to Joshua Bates, No. 6,068, of 1831. This, however, revolved -about a horizontal axis. The present form of centrifugal filter is a -cylinder revolving about a vertical axis, the sides of the cylinder -being formed of filtering medium, through which the liquid is thrown by -centrifugal action, while the sugar is retained within. This was the -invention of Joseph Hurd, of Mass., U. S. Pat. No. 3,772, Oct. 3, 1844; -re-issue No. 607, Sept. 29, 1858, which patent was extended for seven -years, from Oct. 3, 1858. The diffusion process, which extracts the -juice by cutting the cane in slices and soaking in water; the bagasse -furnace, which dries and burns the expressed cane stalks as fuel, and -the manufacture of glucose and grape sugar by the reaction of sulphuric -acid on starch, are interesting allied features of this industry which -can only be briefly mentioned. Most of the sugar consumed in the United -States is imported, much raw sugar being imported and refined here. The -imports for the year 1899 were 3,980,250,569 pounds, and the per capita -consumption in 1898 was 61.1 pounds a year. - -_Aids to Digestion._--It is only during the last part of the Nineteenth -Century that the world has learned how to live. "What is one man's food -is another man's poison" has been a trite old saying for many years, but -the reason why has only in late years been fully understood. The -physiology of digestion, the relative digestibility of different -articles of food, and their nutritive values, have received of late -years the earnest attention of physicians and students of dietetics and -have contributed much to the quality and kind of food, and a knowledge -of when and how to eat it. We know that the starchy foods are digested -by the saliva, which is an alkaline digestion; that meat, fish, eggs, -cheese and the albumenoids are digested in the stomach by the gastric -juices (pepsin and hydrochloric acid) which is an acid digestion, and -that the remaining portions of starch, the sugars, and fats are digested -in the intestines, and that this is also an alkaline digestion, and this -has helped to solve the problem for us. We also know that starch is an -excellent food, provided the vital powers are sufficiently stimulated by -fresh air, sunlight, and exercise to digest it, as do the horse and the -ox when they eat corn, but we know furthermore that the sedentary -occupations of modern life leave many stomachs in a condition unable to -assimilate starch, and so bread, oatmeal, potatoes and such simple -staples, instead of nourishing the body, ferment in the enfeebled -stomach, produce acids and gas, and lay the foundation for serious -chronic diseases. The student of chemistry and dietetics knows to-day -that one part of diastase will effect the conversion of 2,000 parts of -starch into grape sugar, as a preliminary step to its digestion, and so -by treating starchy matter with substances containing diastase (derived -from malt) a partial transformation is effected which will materially -shorten and assist its digestion. This fact has been largely made use of -in the preparation of easily soluble or pre-digested foods, examples of -which are found in patent to Horlick (malted milk), No. 278,967, June 5, -1883; to Carnrick (milk-wheat food), Dec. 27, 1887, No. 375,601; and -Boynton and Van Patten (cereals and diastase), 344,717, June 29, 1886. - -_Beverages._--Pure water, nature's own gift, has ever supplied every -legitimate need of the human race, but civilized life has greatly -extended its list of drinks, much to its own detriment. Soda water, -whiskey, beer, ginger ale, tea, coffee, and chocolate represent enormous -industries, and probably all do more harm than they do good. Much -inventive genius in the Nineteenth Century has been bestowed upon the -soda water fountain, on stills, and processes for aging liquors and -processes for brewing beer, on cider and wine presses, on bottling -machines and bottle stoppers, on devices for carbonating waters, and in -coffee and teapots. The trend of the times is shown in the following -figures, which represent the per capita consumption of beverages in the -United States for 1898: tea, .91 of a pound; coffee, 11.45 pounds; -wines, .28 of a gallon; distilled spirits, 1.10 gallons; and malt -liquors 15.64 gallons. The largest per capita increase since 1870 has -been in malt liquors, and the next in coffee. In tea and distilled -spirits there has been a decrease, while the consumption of wines is the -smallest of all and has varied but little. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -MEDICINE, SURGERY, SANITATION. - - DISCOVERY OF CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD BY HARVEY--VACCINATION BY - JENNER--USE OF ANAESTHETICS THE GREAT STEP OF MEDICAL PROGRESS OF THE - CENTURY--MATERIA MEDICA--INSTRUMENTS--SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE--DENTISTRY - --ARTIFICIAL LIMBS--DIGESTION--BACTERIOLOGY, AND DISEASE GERMS-- - ANTISEPTIC SURGERY--HOUSE SANITATION. - - -In the early gropings through the uncertain light of first progress, man -was accustomed to ascribe the ills of his flesh to the anger of the -gods, and in his craven and abject superstition made peace offerings. -Later he learned to locate the cause within himself, and constructed the -theory that the fluids of the body had become disordered. The -characteristic feature of progress in the Nineteenth Century, in this -field, has been in the accurate tracing of the relation of cause and -effect, and with the discovery of true causes has grown efficient means -of treatment. The old expedients of charms, incantations, conjuration -and exorcism gave place first to intelligent medication, and this in -turn is rapidly giving way to the prevention of disease by improved -conditions of sanitation and right living. The ounce of prevention has -been found to be worth more than the pound of cure. With the improved -knowledge of physiology, anatomy, chemistry and biology, which the -century has brought, the intelligent physician was able to make a -logical and for the most part a correct diagnosis, but supplemented with -the microscope, that great revealer of the unseen world of small things, -corporeal existence itself becomes an open book, and from the principles -of organic evolution to the germ theory of disease the mystery of life -and death is being slowly revealed. - -When the Eighteenth Century gave birth to the Nineteenth, its great -natal gift in medicine was vaccination. Jenner in 1798 for the first -time announced his discovery of this great boon to the human race. In -1799 Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse, in Boston, obtained virus from Jenner and -vaccinated four of his children, and in 1801 Dr. Valentine Seaman -obtained virus from Dr. Waterhouse and performed the first vaccination -in New York. During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries the annual -death rate from smallpox in London ranged from 2 to 4 per 1,000 of -population. In 1892 it was only 0.073 per 1,000. - -It is also stated on good authority that the mortality from smallpox in -England alone, was 20,000 a year less after the introduction of -vaccination than it was in the preceding century, and that its benefits -to the world at large have been so great that the lancet of Jenner has -saved more lives than were sacrificed by the sword of Napoleon. - -Each century in modern history has been marked by some important -discovery in the field of medicine. The Seventeenth Century was notable -for the discovery of the circulation of the blood by Harvey; the -Eighteenth Century brought with it vaccination by Jenner. The Nineteenth -Century's greatest gift in this field has been anaesthesia, or -insensibility to pain. Nature has wisely endowed man with nerves of -sensation as danger signals for the conservation of life. Accident and -disease, however, are the inseparable concomitants of human existence, -and suffering and pain the ineffaceable legacies of mortality. Sometimes -these nerves of sensation are no longer useful as monitors, and in the -unavoidable emergency of accident, surgical operations, child birth, and -certain diseases, suffering can do no good, and then pain--that Prince -of Terrors--thrusting his presence upon the hapless victim, racks body -and limb, calling forth groans, and shrieks and writhings, till the poor -sufferer, possessed with a dominating agony which displaces all thought -of life, memory of friends, and love of God, breaks down in unutterable -distress, and prays for death and oblivion. To this poor sufferer -insensibility is next to heaven. For the past half century all the -formidable operations of the surgeon have been performed with the aid of -anaesthetics and without suffering to the patient, producing happy -recoveries, and greatly contributing to the success of the result by -relieving the surgeon of the distraction of the patient's pain, and the -interference of his involuntary movements. Quite a number of anaesthetics -are known and used to-day. Those more generally employed are--naming -them in the order of their first application--nitrous oxide gas, ether, -and chloroform. Nitrous oxide gas is chiefly used for the extraction of -teeth. Sir Humphrey Davy, in 1800, was the first to observe the peculiar -quality of nitrous oxide gas, which gave it the name of "laughing gas," -from the fact that it caused those inhaling it to act in a manner -exhibiting an abnormal exhilaration. Dr. Horace Wells, a dentist of -Hartford, Conn., in 1844, had the gas administered, experimentally, to -himself during the operation of extracting a tooth, and was the -discoverer of its useful application as an anaesthetic. - -The greatest discovery, however, in anaesthetics is the application of -ether for this purpose. Ether as a chemical product has been known for -several centuries, and as early as 1818 Faraday pointed out the -similarity between the effects of ether and nitrous oxide gas. Dr. -Morton, a dentist, of Boston, first applied it as an anaesthetic Oct. 16, -1846, being guided largely in its selection and use by Dr. Jackson, an -eminent chemist of the same city. On Nov. 12, 1846, U. S. Pat. No. 4,848 -was issued to them for this invention. In the latter part of December of -the same year Dr. Liston, an eminent English surgeon, performed the -operation of amputating the thigh while the patient was under the -influence of ether. - -Chloroform, discovered by Guthrie in 1831, was first applied as an -anaesthetic by Sir James Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, in 1847. Of the two -leading anaesthetics, ether is more generally used in the United Sates -and chloroform in Europe. Ether is less dangerous, but its -administration is more difficult and disagreeable. It is said on the -highest authority that in the Crimean War chloroform was administered -25,000 times without a single death, and ether is even safer than -chloroform. In the hands of a skillful physician practically no danger -is to be apprehended from the use of either of the two agents. A little -over fifty years ago any severe or prolonged surgical operation involved -such irresistible pain that the patient's writhings were required to be -restrained by powerful muscular assistants, and by straps which bound -the patient to the table, and when it is remembered that a false cut of -a hundredth part of an inch might be fatal, the haste, the disquieting -influence upon the surgeon, and the interference with the accuracy of -his hand, added greatly to the percentage of unsuccessful operations, as -well as to the prolonged agony of the patient. Contrast this with the -present methods of using anaesthetics, and we find the patient dropping -into a quiet and peaceful sleep before the operation, and awakening -thereafter to find, to his astonishment, that it is all over, and that -recovery is only a question of careful nursing. - -_Materia Medica._--Many important contributions have been made to the -pharmacopoeia in the century. In 1807 the remedy known as ergot was -brought to the notice of the profession by Dr. Stearns, and named by him -pulvis parturiens. Iodine was first used as a medicine in 1819 by Dr. -Coindet, Sr., of Geneva. Quinine was discovered by Pelletier and -Caventou in 1820, although Peruvian bark had long been used for the same -purpose. Chloral hydrate, discovered by Liebig in 1832, was applied in -medicine in 1869 by Dr. Liebreich, of Berlin. Carbolic acid was -discovered in 1834 by Runge. Artificial seidlitz powders were first put -up under Savory's British Pat. No. 3,954, of 1815. Veratrum viride, -lobelia, worm seed, and chloroform were all introduced in the first part -of the century. The sulphates of morphia, strychnia, atropia and other -alkaloids are of comparatively recent addition to the pharmacopoeia, and -the iodide of potash, tincture of iron, digitalis, bichloride of -mercury, sub-nitrate of bismuth, boracic acid and gallic acid, chlorate -of potash and Dover's powders have become standard remedies within a -hundred years. In the latter part of the century the new remedies -derived from coal tar have occupied an important place. Of these may be -mentioned antipyrine, by Knorr (pat. Oct. 28, 1884), phenacetin, by -Hinsberg (pat. March 26, 1889), salol, by Von Nencki (pat. Sept. 28, -1886), sulfonal, by Bauman (patented Jan. 22, 1889), antikamnia -(acetanilide), and many others, besides new and valuable antiseptic -compounds, such as salicylic acid and formalin. A characteristic feature -of the modern practice of medicine is in improved forms of its -administration. Sugar-coated pills, gelatine capsules and cod liver oil -emulsions make the remedy much less disagreeable to take, and very -ingenious and effective machines have been devised for putting up -remedies in such forms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 174.--THE OPHTHALMOMETER.] - -_Instruments._--Laennec's discovery in 1819 of auscultation, and the -stethoscope, for determining internal conditions by sound, was a great -step in diagnosing diseases. The binaural stethoscope was invented by -Cammann in 1854, and a later improvement is the phonendoscope, by -Bianchi. The opthalmoscope is an instrument for inspecting the interior -of the eye, which was invented by Prof. Helmholtz, and described by him -in 1851. The laryngoscope, for obtaining a view of the larynx, was said -to have been constructed by Mr. John Avery, of London, as early as 1846. -The opthalmometer, Fig. 174, is a comparatively recent invention. It is -designed to ascertain variations in corneal curvature for the correction -of corneal astigmatism. Electric lights with reflectors are arranged on -each side of the patient's head, while the operator looks into the eye -with a telescope. The sphygmograph, a little instrument to be strapped -on to the wrist to record the action of the pulse, was first reduced to -a practically useful form by Marey in 1860. A later development of these -devices, by Verdin, known as the sphygmometrograph, is shown in Fig. -175. The endoscope, for looking into the urethra, and the cystoscope, -for looking into the bladder, are other useful instruments of the modern -practitioner. Greater than them all, however, is the modern X-ray -apparatus, for locating foreign substances in the body and making -visible the bones through the flesh, for which see special chapter. The -use of the thermometer in recording the progress of fevers is also a -valuable modern application, and the list of instruments and small tools -is beyond enumeration. There are series of obstetrical appliances, -instruments relating to bone surgery, to the taking up of arteries, -cupping instruments, trepanning instruments, speculums, hypodermic -syringes, electric cauteries, fracture appliances, instruments for -lithotrity, bandages for varicose veins, atomizers, breast pumps, -inhalers, nasal douches, trusses, pessaries, catheters, abdominal -supporters, and an endless variety of proprietary articles, such as -electric baths and belts, plasters, chest protectors, liver pads, and so -forth, all of which are practically the products of the Nineteenth -Century. The surgeon of to-day can straighten the eyes of a cross-eyed -man, or take the bow out of his bandy legs, can make him a new nose of -his own flesh, patch his skull with a silver plate, remove the stone -from his bladder, supply him with a wind-pipe, wash out his stomach, and -perform many other operations even more difficult. Among such more -important operations may be mentioned ovariotomy, which was first -performed by Dr. Ephraim McDowell, of Danville, Kentucky, in 1809, and -the tying of the great arteries. The operation of lithotrity, for -removing stone from the bladder by crushing the stone, was introduced by -Civiale, 1817-1824, who devised successful instruments and modes of -using them. In 1836 to 1840 Richard Bright, an English physician, made -important researches and discoveries in relation to the functions and -diseases of the kidneys, and established the nature of the so-called -"Bright's disease." - -[Illustration: FIG. 175.--VERDIN'S SPHYGMOMETROGRAPH, FOR RECORDING THE -ACTION OF THE PULSE.] - -_Schools of Medicine._--While the regular school of medicine (called by -some "Allopathy") has held the leading place in medicine, various other -schools have sprung up in the Nineteenth Century, all of which represent -advances in a knowledge of the laws of health, and the modes of -preventing and curing diseases. Hahnemann, in his "_Organon der -Rationellen Heilkunde_," in 1810, gave homoeopathy its name, and reduced -it to a system. The doctrine of _similia similibus curantur_ (like cures -like), has gained great popularity in the latter part of the century. -Hydropathy, as a school, also made its appearance in the early part of -the Nineteenth Century. Priessnitz was its first disciple, and the -_Grafenberg cure_, established in 1826, was a noted institution for many -years. The useful application of water in the form of baths and cold -packs, has been known for centuries, and will always be used as a -valuable agency in sickness and in health. The "Thompsonian" system of -treating diseases was covered by patents in 1813, 1823 and 1836, and -attained considerable notoriety in the early half of the century. -Sweating by hot bricks and hot tea made of "Composition Powders," -vomiting with lobelia to produce relaxation, and a fiery liquid for -cramps, called "No. 6," were the chief remedies, and very few boys who -had once taken the treatment were ever willing afterwards to admit that -they were sick. In the latter part of the Nineteenth Century -_electro-therapeutics_ has received a large share of attention, many -forms of medical batteries have been devised, and probably no more -promising field of study and research exists in the whole domain of -medicine. - -_Dentistry._--George Washington had false teeth, and it is said that the -teeth of some of the mummies of Egypt had gold fillings, but it -remained for the Nineteenth Century to establish dentistry as an art, -and its influence in securing better mastication and digestion of food, -more sanitary mouths and shapely faces, cannot be estimated. Few people -can be found to-day who have not either filled teeth, bridge work, gold -caps, or artificial sets of teeth. The most important advance in the art -was in the invention of the rubber plate for holding the porcelain -teeth. This was the invention of J. A. Cummings, and was covered by him -in his patent No. 43,009, June 7, 1864. In more recent years -"bridge-work" represents the most important advance. In this practice -one or more artificial teeth are firmly held in the place of missing -teeth by a strong bridge-piece of metal, which at its ends is anchored -to the adjacent natural teeth. This was first done by Bing (British Pat. -No. 167, of 1871), and was afterwards patented in somewhat different -form in the United States by J. E. Lowe, No. 238,940, March 15, 1881, -No. 313,434, March 3, 1885, and Richmond, May 22, 1883, No. 277,933. -Porcelain and gold crowns and dental pluggers run by electricity -represent other important advances in this art. It is said that there -are 20,425 dentists in the United States, and that in 1899 they employed -in their practice 20,499,000 false teeth. - -_Artificial Limbs._--With the successful work of the surgeon came the -effort to repair, as far as possible, the loss of the limb. Until about -the middle of the Nineteenth Century the survivor of an operation was an -unsymmetrical, unique, and pitiful object. The peg-leg of Peter -Stuyvesant lives in history, and the arm-hook of Capt. Cuttle is -familiar to every reader. The first United States patent for an -artificial leg was granted to B. F. Palmer, Nov. 4, 1846, No. 4,834. -Wooden legs with a restricted back and forward ankle motion and a -spring, were constructed by A. A. Marks from 1853 to 1863. On Dec. 1, -1863, a patent, No. 40,763, was granted to Mr. Marks for the use of -sponge rubber for constructing artificial feet and hands that dispensed -with the articulated joints, and made a great improvement. In patent No. -366,494, July 12, 1887, to G. E. Marks, the foot and leg portion of a -wooden leg are made from wood which grows with a crook, as at the root -of a tree, where the strength and lightness of a continuous natural -grain is obtained at the instep. About 300 patents have been granted for -artificial legs and arms. Modern improvements have extended to every -detail of construction, and so perfect to-day is the average wooden leg -that it is hardly to be detected. Men with wooden legs ride horseback, -are expert users of the bicycle, and have even performed feats on the -tight rope. The inventor's genius has not stopped at repairing limbs, -however, for artificial eyes, artificial ear drums, the audiphone, foot -extensions for short legs, crutches, braces, abdominal supporters, and -various other applications to supplement the defects of the body have -been devised. - -_Digestion._--The physiology of digestion had, perhaps, the first real -light shed upon it by Beaumont's observations from 1825 to 1832. A -Canadian boatman, Alexis San Martin, was wounded in the abdomen from a -charge of buckshot, and the wound healed, leaving a permanent opening in -the stomach, through which the operation of digestion could be observed. -This furnished visible evidence of the relative digestibility of -different kinds of foods, and the general functions of the stomach. The -peculiar and different conditions governing the digestion of the starch -foods, the albumenoids (such as meat and fish), and the sugars and fats, -have been clearly ascertained, and "what is one man's food is another -man's poison" is now susceptible of intelligent diagnosis and effective -adjustment. Of late years the stomach has been greatly aided in its -functions by prepared or predigested foods. The action of diastase, in -converting starch into grape sugar, has been taken advantage of, and -cereals treated with diatase, malted milk, lactated and peptonized -foods, have proven a boon to the enfeebled digestion, while the -intelligent study of dietetics has done much to relieve the physician -and promote the health of the individual by right living. - -_Bacteriology._--Although Leeuwenhoeck discovered the bacterium in -1668-1675, up to 100 years ago disease and death were largely regarded -as dispensations of Providence, and with fatuous resignation were -accepted as inevitable. The microscope and the study of bacteriology, -however, have revealed to us the presence of minute living organisms or -germs, which are everywhere around us, infesting the air, the earth, the -water, our food, our bodies, and all organic matter in countless -millions. These infinitely small beings multiply with a rapidity and -fecundity that bewilders the imagination. Their method of multiplication -is by fissiparism--that is to say, each splits into two independent -beings that separate and afterwards lead independent lives. It is said -that there is one species in which not more than six or seven minutes -are required for the division to take place. A single individual might -consequently produce more than a thousand offspring in an hour, more -than a million in two hours, and in three hours more than the number of -inhabitants on the globe. They are known as micro-organisms, of which -the bacteria are the most important. The bacteria are further divided -into species, and names are given them to distinguish the different -forms. The little rod-shaped ones are called _bacilli_: the spheroidal -ones _micrococci_ or _cocci_. If they cling together in chains they are -called _streptococci_; if of a spiral or corkscrew form they are called -_spirallae_. The curved bacilli are called "_comma_" _bacilli_, from -their resemblance to the punctuation mark of that name. The presence of -peculiar forms of these bacteria in diseases has so suggested the -relation of cause and effect as to have given rise to the so-called -"germ theory" of disease. Now we know with reasonable certainty that -cholera, diphtheria, typhoid fever, whooping cough, mumps, -cerebro-spinal meningitis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, hydrophobia, and -many other diseases have each its specific cause in the form of a -microbe. - -[Illustration: FIG. 176. - -BACILLUS OF TUBERCULOSIS IN SPUTUM. BACILLUS OF DIPHTHERIA -(KLEBS-LOEFFLER). - -BACILLUS OF TYPHOID FEVER. - -(Photo-Micrographs, 1,000 diam., by William M. Gray, M. D.)] - -[Illustration: TERTIAN FORM. AESTIVO-AUTUMNAL FORM. - -FIG. 177.--BLOOD OF MAN. SHOWING PARASITE OF MALARIA (LAVERAN). - -(Photo-Micrographs, 1,000 diam., by William M. Gray, M. D.)] - -Henle, a German physiologist, as early as 1840, maintained the doctrine -of _contagium vivum_, or contagion by the transmission of living germs. -Certain classes of diseases have also long been known as zymotic, or -ferment diseases. Louis Pasteur's work, however, marks the first -definite and important results in the study of bacteriology, and he is -the father of the "germ theory" of disease. He exploded the previously -held theories of scientists concerning the spontaneous generation of -living things, and clearly established and promulgated the knowledge of -disease germs. Commencing his great work about 1865 with the -investigation of the silk worm plague in France, he discovered it to be -due to parasites, and checked it. He also gave great attention to the -subject of fermentation, proving it to be caused by micro-organisms. -Taking up the diseases of men and animals, he gave practical value to -the truths of his theory in the treatment of hydrophobia, diphtheria, -and other diseases, using the principle of vaccination to destroy or -render innocuous the toxins or disease-producing poisons derived from -living germs. Working along the same lines must be mentioned Dr. Koch, -whose success in detecting the microbes which cause consumption and -cholera has made him famous the world over. Of the great variety of -these little microbes which have been separately identified, many are -innocuous, and, in fact, subserve many important and useful purposes in -nature, while others are to be as much dreaded as the deadly cobra or -the rattlesnake. A few typical examples of the latter are given in Figs. -176 and 177, multiplied 1,000 diameters. The illustrations represented -in Fig. 177 show the parasites that cause malaria, or fever and ague. -The dark bean-shaped cells are the normal blood corpuscles, and the few -speckled cells are those infested with the malarial parasites. It is now -believed that the mosquito is the active factor in the dissemination of -malaria, and it is, therefore, to be remembered that this pestiferous -little insect not only inflicts a painful and disagreeable sensation -with his puncture, but innoculates the system with poisonous malarial -germs at the same time. - -[Illustration: FIG. 178. - -TUBE CONTAINING CULTURE OF BACILLI OF TUBERCULOSIS. - -TUBE CONTAINING CULTURE OF COMMA BACILLI OF CHOLERA.] - -For the study of bacteria they are propagated artificially in a test -tube--_i. e._, a substance called a "culture" is prepared from some -organic material which, like the substances of the human body, is -favorable to their propagation. Such culture media are found in beef -blood, gelatine, beef extracts, meat broth, milk, etc. An ordinary -test-tube is supplied with some of the culture medium, and is then -sterilized over the fire to destroy all interfering germs. Material -infected with the microbe is then placed in the test-tube by a -sterilized platinum wire and the tube closed by raw cotton. It is then -placed in an incubator oven and is subjected to a gentle heat. In a -little while the microbes begin to develop and increase, forming -colonies, in which they swarm by the million, and present the clotted -appearance seen in Fig. 178. The separation of different bacteria -existing in the same material, so as to isolate each species and get -what is called a "pure culture," has been greatly promoted by Prof. -Koch's method of _plate culture_. In this the propagation of bacteria is -effected upon a sterilized glass plate under a bell jar in such a thin -layer as to facilitate the segregation of species, enabling them to be -counted under the microscope and picked out and sown in another culture -to get an unmixed crop of a definite species. Such a culture so -multiplies the same microbe, to the exclusion of others, as to permit it -to be easily identified and studied. - -According to the practice in modern municipal health regulations, the -test as to when a child recovering from diphtheria is incapable of -disseminating the disease is by test culture. A swab of cotton is rubbed -against the interior walls of the child's throat to secure the germs (if -present), and the swab is then placed in a "culture" in a test-tube and -the tube put in an incubator. If, after the period of incubation, no -colonies of the germs develop, it is accepted as evidence that the -diphtheria germs are no longer present in the throat, and the child is -released from quarantine. - -It is the presence of these specific microbes in the fluids or solids of -the system which constitutes the disease, and for the cure of the same -the intelligent physician of to-day looks less to medication, and more -for some agent that will destroy the germ, neutralize its effect, or -render the body tolerant thereto. Out of the knowledge of disease germs -has grown the great era of antiseptic surgery, inaugurated by Sir Joseph -Lister, about 1865. Carbolic acid, the bichloride of mercury, and -formalin are the most efficient weapons against the dreaded microbe. -To-day every surgeon in the civilized world sterilizes his knife, and -conducts the treatment of wounds and all operations by antiseptic -methods, in accordance with a knowledge of the deadly influence of the -ubiquitous microbe, and the result has been to so reduce the risk to -life that even capital operations are no longer coupled with the -apprehensions of death. Every hospital, board of health, and organized -medical and sanitary body predicates its laws and modes of treatment -upon the principles of bacteriology. - -_House Sanitation._--The permanent home of the microbe is the sewer, and -sanitary plumbing, designed to exclude from the house the germ-laden and -disease-breeding gases from the sewer, constitutes one of the great -advances of the century. About 3,500 patents have been granted for water -closets and bath appliances, and about 900 patents on sewerage alone, -the most of which are directed to improved conditions of sanitation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 179A.--STREET CONNECTIONS, MODERN SANITARY HOUSE -PLUMBING.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 179.--MODERN SANITARY HOUSE PLUMBING.] - -An illustration of the plumbing and sewer connections of a modern house -is given in Figs. 179 and 179A. The sewer pipes are shown in solid -black, the unshaded pipes (in outline only) are air ventilation pipes, -the single black lines are cold water pipes, and the dotted lines hot -water pipes. The important sanitary feature in modern plumbing is to -keep all sewer gas and disease germs out of the house. For this purpose -traps have long been used under the wash basins, closet hoppers, and -sinks; but the back pressure of sewer gas would sometimes bubble through -the trap into the house, and besides the water in passing out from a -basin would sometimes, by a siphon effect, pass entirely out of the -trap, leaving it unsealed. Both these results are prevented by the air -ventilation pipes which connect with the discharge side of every trap in -the house and lead to a stack extending out through the roof. This -prevents pressure of sewer gas on the water seal of the trap, destroys -the siphon action of the trap and allows a circulation of air to be -taken in from the sidewalk on the house side of the running trap and -through the sewer pipe of the house, and thence through the air vent -pipes to the roof. - -The great science of bacteriology, dealing with these smallest of living -things, only came into existence with the microscope, and it was a field -which was not only wholly unknown and unexplored a few years ago, but -there was no suggestion visible to the eye to direct attention to it, -until the lens began to reveal the secrets of microcosm. What -development the future may bring no one can predict, but to the -biologist and the physician no more promising field exists. Certain it -is that the knowledge already gained is of incalculable benefit, and -constitutes one of the greatest eras of progress the world has known, -for with the noble army of patient, devoted, and self-sacrificing -physicians, the discoveries of the scientist, our boards of health, our -hospitals and asylums for the insane, our quarantine laws, our modern -plumbing and improved sanitation in the home and public departments, -there is no reason why the life of man should not be extended far beyond -the three-score and ten years, and the 50 per cent. of population dying -in childhood saved for useful lives and citizenship. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -THE BICYCLE AND AUTOMOBILE. - - THE DRAISINE, 1816--MICHAUX'S BICYCLE, 1855--UNITED STATES PATENT TO - LALLEMENT AND CARROL, 1866--TRANSITION FROM "VERTICAL FORK" AND - "STAR" TO MODERN "SAFETY"--PNEUMATIC TIRE--AUTOMOBILE, THE PROTOTYPE - OF THE LOCOMOTIVE--TREVITHICK'S STEAM ROAD CARRIAGE, 1801--THE - LOCOMOBILE OF TO-DAY--GAS ENGINE AUTOMOBILES OF PINKUS, 1839; - SELDEN, 1879; DURYEA, WINTON AND OTHERS--ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES A - DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES AS EARLY AS 1836--GROUNELLE'S - ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE OF 1852--THE COLUMBIA, AND OTHER ELECTRIC - CARRIAGES--STATISTICS. - - -However superior to other animals man may be in point of intellect, it -must be admitted that he is vastly inferior in his natural equipment for -locomotion. Quadrupeds have twice as many legs, run faster, and stand -more firmly. Birds have their two legs supplemented with wings that give -a wonderfully increased speed in flight, and fish, with no legs at all, -run races with the fastest steamers; but man has awkwardly toddled on -two stilted supports since prehistoric time, and for the first year of -his life is unable to walk at all. That he has felt his inferiority is -clear, for his imagination has given wings to the angels, and has -depicted Mercury, the messenger of the gods, with a similar equipment on -his heels. We see the ambition for speed exemplified even in the baby, -who crows in exhilaration at rapid movement, and in the boy when the -ride on the flying horses, the glide on the ice, or the swift descent on -the toboggan slide, brings a flash to his eye and a glow to his cheeks. - -A characteristic trend of the present age is toward increased speed in -everything, and the most conspicuous example of accelerated speed in -late years is the bicycle. It has, with its fascination of silent motion -and the exhilaration of flight, driven the younger generation wild with -enthusiasm, has limbered up the muscles of old age, has revolutionized -the attire of men and women, and well-nigh supplanted the old-fashioned -use of legs. It is the most unique and ubiquitous piece of organized -machinery ever made. The thoroughfares and highways of civilization -fairly swarm with thousands of glistening and silently gliding wheels. -It is to be found everywhere, even to the steppes of Asia, the plains -of Australia, and the ice fields of the Arctic. - -The true definition of the bicycle is a two-wheeled vehicle, with one -wheel in front and the other in the rear, and both in the same vertical -plane. Its life principle is the physical law that a rotating body tends -to preserve its plane of rotation, and so it stands up, when it moves, -on the same principle that a top does when it spins or a child's hoop -remains erect when it rolls. - -[Illustration: FIG. 180.--THE DRAISINE, 1816.] - -A form of carriage adapted to be propelled by the muscular effort of the -rider was constructed and exhibited in Paris by Blanchard and Magurier, -and was described in the _Journal de Paris_ as early as July 27, 1779, -but the true bicycle was the product of the Nineteenth Century. It was -invented by Baron von Drais, of Manheim-on-the Rhine. See Fig. 180. It -consisted of two wheels, one before the other, in the same plane, and -connected together by a bar bearing a saddle, the front wheel being -arranged to turn about a vertical axis and provided with a handle for -guiding. The rider supported his elbows on an arm rest and propelled the -device by striking his toes upon the ground, and in this way thrusted -himself along, while guiding his course by the handle bar and swivelling -front wheel. This machine was called the "Draisine." It was patented in -France for the Baron by Louis Joseph Dineur, and was exhibited in Paris -in 1816. In 1818 Denis Johnson secured an English patent for an improved -form of this device, but the principle of propulsion remained the same. -This device, variously known as the "Draisine," "velocipede," -"celerifere," "pedestrian curricle," "dandy horse," and "hobby-horse," -was introduced in New York in 1819, and was greeted for a time with -great enthusiasm in that and other cities. - -[Illustration: FIG. 181.--VELOCIPEDE OF 1868.] - -On June 26, 1819, William K. Clarkson was granted a United States patent -for a velocipede, but the records were destroyed in the fire of 1836. In -1821 Louis Gompertz devised an improved form of "hobby-horse," in which -a vibrating handle, with segmental rack engaging with a pinion on the -front wheel axle, enabled the hands to be employed as well as the feet -in propelling the machine. Such devices all relied, however, upon the -striking of the ground with the toes. Their fame was evanescent, -however, and for forty years thereafter little or no attention was paid -to this means of locomotion, except in the construction of children's -carriages and velocipedes having three or more wheels. - -In 1855 Ernst Michaux, a French locksmith, applied, for the first time, -the foot cranks and pedals to the axle of the drive wheel. A United -States patent, No. 59,915, taken Nov. 20, 1866, in the joint names of -Lallement and Carrol, represented, however, the revival of development -in this field. Lallement was a Frenchman, and built a machine having the -pedals on the axle of the drive wheel, and it was at one time believed -that it was he who deserved the credit for this feature, but it is -claimed for Michaux, and the monument erected by the French in 1894 to -Ernest and Pierre Michaux at Bar le Duc gives strength to the claim. The -bicycle, as represented at this stage of development, is shown in Fig. -181. In 1868-'69 machines of this type went extensively into use. -Bicycle schools and riding academies appeared all through the East, and -notwithstanding the excessive muscular effort required to propel the -heavy and clumsy wooden wheels, the old "bone-shaker" was received with -a furor of enthusiasm. - -[Illustration: FIG. 182.--VERTICAL FORK OF 1879.] - -In 1869 Magee, in Paris, made the entire bicycle of iron and steel, -solid rubber tires and brakes followed, and the front wheel began to -grow to larger size, until in 1879 the bicycle presented the form shown -in Fig. 182. This placed the weight of the rider more directly over the -drive wheel, and was known as the "vertical fork." It gave good results -but for the accidents from "headers," to which it was especially -liable. Means to overcome the danger were resorted to, and the "Star" -bicycle represented such a construction. In this the high wheel was -behind and the small one in front, and straps and ratchet wheels -connected the pedals to the axle. In 1877 Rousseau, of Marseilles, -removed the pedals from the wheel axle and applied the power to the axle -by a chain extending from a sprocket wheel on the pedal shaft to a -sprocket wheel on the wheel axle. By gradual steps, initiated in -Starley's "Rover" in 1880, (see Fig. 183), the high front wheel was -reduced in size, until the proportions of the modern "Safety" (Fig. 184) -have been obtained. Strange to say, these proportions have, through -nearly a century of evolution, gone back to those employed in the old -"Draisine," where the two wheels were of the same size. The modern -"Safety," however, is quite a different machine. Its diamond frame of -light but strong tubular steel, its ball bearings, its suspension wheels -and pneumatic tires impart to the modern bicycle strength with -lightness, and beauty with efficiency, to a degree scarcely attained by -any other piece of organized machinery designed for such trying work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 183.--"ROVER," 1880.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 184.--MODERN "SAFETY."] - -The most important of all modern improvements on the bicycle was perhaps -the pneumatic tire. This was not originally designed for the bicycle, -but was patented in England by R. W. Thompson in 1845 and in the United -States May 8, 1847, No. 5,104. Its application to the bicycle was made -in 1889 by Dunlop, United States patent No. 435,995, Sept. 9, 1890, and -453,550, June 2, 1891. It furnishes not only an elastic bearing which -cushions the jar, but also makes a broader tread that renders cycling on -the soft roads of the country at once practical and delightful. The -chainless wheel, which connects the axle of the pedal crank with the -axle of the rear wheel by a shaft with bevel gears, is the most recent -form exploited by the manufacturers, but it is doubtful whether it -presents any points of superiority over the chain type. All of the parts -of the bicycle have come in for a share of attention at the hands of -inventors, differential speed gears and brakes having received especial -attention. The Morrow hub brake, which applies friction to the rear -wheel hub by back pressure on the pedal, is a popular modern form. The -first back-pedal brake is shown in United States Pat. No. 418,142, to -Stover & Hance, Dec. 24, 1889. - -Among the many modifications of the bicycle as used to-day may be -mentioned the drop frame, which has made cycling possible for ladies, -the tandem, for two riders, the sextet or octet, carrying six or eight -riders and resembling a centipede in movement and an express train in -speed: the ice velocipede, in which two runners are combined with a -spiked driving wheel, and the hydrocycle, or water velocipede, in which -the drive wheel, formed with paddles, is used to propel a buoyant hull -through the water. - -In point of speed there seems to be no limit to the bicycle. In a test -made on the Long Island Railroad in the summer of 1899 between a wheel -and an express train, the bicyclist, riding on a plank road between the -rails and protected behind the train by a wind break, covered a mile in -57-4/5 seconds, and while going at top speed of more than a mile a -minute, overtook the train, was caught by his friends on a rear platform -and pulled on board, bicycle and all. This is the first instance on -record of overtaking and boarding an express train going at the rate of -sixty-four miles an hour, and yet it is said that the rider (Murphy) was -not doing his best. - -Nearly 5,000 patents have been granted on velocipedes and bicycles. Most -of them were for bicycles which, as improved to-day, are not only as -fleet as the birds, but almost as countless in numbers. It is estimated -that in 1889 the total product of bicycles in this country reached -200,000 machines annually. In 1892, after the general adoption of the -pneumatic tire, a great increase followed, which has grown from year to -year until in the year 1899 a conservative estimate for the output in -the United States is 1,000,000 wheels annually, worth from thirty to -fifty million dollars. Each bicycle tire takes about two pounds of pure -rubber, or four pounds to the wheel. The annual output in wheels -consequently consumes about 4,000,000 pounds, or 2,000 tons of rubber. -Ten years ago there were not more than twenty-five legitimate -manufacturers of bicycles in the United States. In 1897 there were over -200 concerns in the business. It is estimated that there are to-day -between 150 and 155 regular manufacturers, exclusive of the mere -assemblers of parts. The Pope Manufacturing Company, which occupies the -leading place, employed in 1888 about 500 hands. To-day their shops give -employment to 3,800 workmen, which furnishes a significant object lesson -as to the importance and growth of the industry. - -_The Automobile._--Gliding silently along our city streets without the -customary accompaniment of the clatter of the horse's hoofs, the -automobile suggests to the average observer a very recent invention. -This is, however, not the case. The automobile is older even than the -locomotive, and is, in fact, the early model from which the rail -locomotive was evolved. As early as 1680 Sir Isaac Newton proposed a -steam carriage in which the propelling power was the reactionary -discharge of a rearwardly directed jet of steam. Cugnot, in 1769, built -a steam carriage, which is still preserved in the museum of the -Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers in Paris. Hornblower also in the same -year devised a steam carriage. Watt's patents of 1769 and 1784 -contemplated the application of his steam engines to carriages running -on land. Symington in 1770, and Murdoch in 1784, built experimental -models. In 1787 Oliver Evans obtained a patent in Maryland for the -exclusive right to make steam road wagons. Nathan Read in 1790 also -patented and built a steam carriage. - -Of these, Cugnot represents the pioneer in the heavier forms of -self-propelled vehicles, but the steam carriage which best deserves to -be regarded as the prototype of the modern passenger automobile is that -of Trevithick, in England, who may also be considered as the father of -the locomotive. On Christmas eve, 1801, this steam carriage made its -experimental trip along the high road carrying seven or eight -passengers. The next day the party, with Trevithick in charge of the -engine, visited Tehidy House, the home of Lord Dunstanville. They met -with an accident, however, and the carriage turned over. It was placed -under shelter, and while the party were at the hotel regaling themselves -with roast goose and popular drinks, the water in the engine boiled -away, the iron became red hot, and nothing combustible was left either -of the carriage or the building in which it was sheltered. On March 24, -1802, Trevithick and Vivian obtained a British patent, No. 2,599, on -this device, and another carriage was built, and in the spring of 1803 -started a run from Camborne to Redruth, but it stuck in the mud. It was -popularly known as Capt. Trevithick's "Puffing Devil." It was -subsequently reconstructed in London and run upon the streets of that -city. Fig. 185 presents an illustration of the first steam automobile. -The cylinders and pistons were enclosed within the fire box in the rear. -Clutches (called striking boxes) on the axle of the front gear wheel -allowed either running wheel to move independently of the other in -turning. A pair of small front steering wheels was arranged to turn -about a vertical axis and was manipulated by a handle bar. A brake was -provided for in the specification, as were also variable gears for -changing speed, and an automatic blower for the fire. The carriage had -an elevated coach body mounted on springs, and the running wheels were -of large size, adapted to the higher speed and lighter uses of passenger -traffic. - -[Illustration: FIG. 185.--TREVITHICK'S STEAM CARRIAGE, 1801.] - -It is not possible to trace the succeeding steps in steam carriage -development by James and Anderson, by Gurney, in 1822, by Marcerone and -Squire in 1833, by Russel in 1846, and many others; it is sufficient to -know that bad roads and the success attending the steam locomotive on -rails diverted attention from the steam road carriage, and not until the -latter part of the Nineteenth Century was there any marked revival of -interest in this field. Then came first the ponderous road engine, known -as a traction engine, and used for heavy hauling; and this in the last -decade has been followed by the modern steam motor carriage, an example -of which is seen in Figs. 186 and 186A, which represent the "Locomobile" -and its actuating mechanism. The fuel used is gasoline, stored in a -three-gallon tank under the footboard. The boiler, which is arranged -under the seat, is a vertical cylinder wrapped with piano wire for -greater tensile strength, and contains 298 copper tubes. The engine, -which is seen in Fig. 186A, is arranged in upright position under the -seat, in front of the boiler, has two cylinders, 21/2-inch diameter and -4-inch stroke, a Stephenson link-motion and an ordinary D-valve. -Sprocket wheels and a chain connect the engine shaft to the rear axle. -The engine runs from 300 to 400 revolutions per minute and develops -from four to five horse power. It has a muffle for the steam exhaust -and the whole weight is 550 pounds. It is one of the lightest and -cheapest of automobiles, runs easily at ten to twelve miles an hour, and -is an efficient hill-climber. Although naming the steam automobile first -because of its earlier genesis, it is not to be understood as -representing at present the most popular type of motor carriage, -although it bids fair to become so. - -[Illustration: FIG. 186.--"LOCOMOBILE" STEAM CARRIAGE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 186A.--THE FOUR HORSE POWER ENGINES OF -"LOCOMOBILE."] - -In France and the continent of Europe the type employing an explosive -mixture of gasoline and air is most frequently found, and in England and -the United States the electric motor with the storage battery is chiefly -used. - -In automobiles of the explosive gas type probably the earliest example -is found in the British patent to Pinkus, No. 8,207, of 1839. In France -Lenoir, in 1860, is credited with being the pioneer. Among modern -applications the patent to George B. Selden, No. 549,160, occupies a -prominent place. This was only granted Nov. 5, 1895, but the application -for the patent was filed in the Patent Office May 8, 1879 so that the -invention described has quite an early date, and some broad claims have -been allowed to the inventor. In the last decade many applications of -the explosive gas engine to road carriages and tricycles have been made, -especially in France. Representative motor carriages of this type are to -be found in the United States in the Duryea and the Winton. An -illustration of the latter is given in Fig. 187. The form shown -represents a phaeton weighing 1,400 pounds; the motor is of the single -hydrocarbon type, and is simple, powerful and compact. It is also free -from noise and vibration, and is under control at all times. The maximum -speed is eighteen miles an hour. - -[Illustration: FIG. 187.--WINTON AUTOMOBILE. HYDROCARBON TYPE.] - -Probably the most popular type of the automobile in the United States is -the "electric." The application of the electric motor to the propulsion -of vehicles dates back to quite an early period. It is said that as far -back as 1835 Stratingh and Becker, of Groeningen, and in 1836 Botto, of -Turin, constructed crude electric carriages. Davenport, in 1835, -Davidson, in 1838, and Dr. Page, in 1851, built electric locomotives -which ran on rails. The prototype of the electric automobile, however, -is best represented in the French patent to M. Grounelle, No. 7,728, -Feb. 7, 1852 (2 Ser., Vol. 25, p. 220, pl. 46.) This shows a perfectly -equipped electric automobile. It did not have a practical electric -generator, however, for the storage battery was not then known. A large -sulphate of copper battery was employed, which could through the agency -of a train of gears give only a very slow speed. This road carriage, -however, only needed a storage battery to make it a well organized and -efficient electric automobile. It is believed by many that electricity -fulfills more of the necessary conditions of a successful motive power -for motor carriages than any other power. It is clean, compact, -noiseless, free from vibration, heat, dirt and gases, and is under -perfect control. Its chief objection is that it is only possible to -recharge it where electric power is available, and in this respect it is -inferior to the gasoline motor, whose supply may be conveniently -obtained at every city, village, and country store. The Columbia -two-seated Dos-a-Dos (Fig. 188), Woods' Victoria Hansom Cab, and the -Riker Electric Delivery Wagon are representative types of the modern -electric automobile. - -[Illustration: FIG. 188.--THE COLUMBIA "DOS-A-DOS."] - -All of the motor carriages illustrated are of American make, and for -lightness, grace, and efficiency they have no superiors. A peculiar and -recent type which attracted much attention and took the gold medal at -the Motor Carriage Exposition at Berlin, held in September, 1899, is the -Pieper double motor carriage. It has both a benzine motor and an -electric motor, which can be worked separately or together, and yet is -said to be lighter than most electric carriages. On a long journey, -remote from electrical supply, the benzine motor is used not only to -propel the carriage, but by running the electric motor as a dynamo or -generator, recharges the storage battery. On level, easy roads, where -the power required falls below the maximum power exerted by the benzine -motor, the electric motor changes automatically to a dynamo and the -surplus force of the benzine motor is converted into current and stored. -In running down hill or stopping the carriage, the momentum of the -vehicle is also received by the electric motor acting as a dynamo and -brake, and is stored as electricity in the battery, which is thus in an -ordinary journey kept constantly charged. - -It is not probable that man will ever be able to get along without the -horse, but the release of the noble animal from the bondage of city -traffic, which was begun only a few years ago with mechanical street car -propulsion, promises now to be extensively advanced by the substitution -of the motor carriage and the auto-truck for team-drawn vehicles. The -rapidity with which this industry has grown, and its promise for the -future may be realized when it is remembered that so far as practical -results are concerned it has all grown up in the last decade of the -Nineteenth Century, and yet to-day it is said that there are already in -the United States about 200 incorporated concerns with an aggregate -capitalization of some $500,000,000, organized to build automobiles, to -say nothing of the vast number of individuals who are experimenting in -this field. The greatest activity, however, is to be found in France, -which claims over 600 manufacturers and has in use 6,000 automobiles out -of a total of 11,000 in all of Europe. - -The most significant suggestion for the future of the automobile is that -the cost of maintenance and all things considered, it is in some -applications cheaper than the horse-drawn vehicles of the same -efficiency. In a consular report of Oct. 16, 1899, forwarded to the -State Department by Mr. Marshal Halsted, consul at Birmingham, Mr. E. H. -Bayley, an English authority, is quoted as saying that in operating -heavy motor vehicles for hauling, the cost is three half-pence (three -cents) per net ton per mile, as compared with 18 to 24 cents per net ton -per mile by horse-drawn vehicles. In England much attention is being -given to this subject. - -As before stated, the modern automobile cannot be considered as a new -invention so far as fundamental principles are concerned. Its success, -in late years, is to be credited to the perfection of the arts in -general, and as essential factors contributing to this may be named the -refinement of steel, giving increased strength with lightness, the -increased efficiency of motive power, the vulcanization of rubber, the -mathematical nicety of mechanical adjustment, the reduction of friction -by ball bearings, the wonderful developments in electricity and -improvement in roads. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -THE PHONOGRAPH. - - INVENTION OF PHONOGRAPH BY EDISON--SCOTT'S PHONAUTOGRAPH-- - IMPROVEMENTS OF BELL AND TAINTER--THE GRAPHOPHONE--LIBRARY OF WAX - CYLINDERS--THE GRAMOPHONE. - - -Following closely upon the discovery of the telephone the phonograph -came, literally speaking for itself, and adding another surprise to the -wonderful inventions of that prolific period. It was in the latter part -of 1877 that Thomas A. Edison showed to a few privileged friends a -modest looking little machine. He turned the crank, and to the -astonishment of those present it said. "Good morning! How do you do? How -do you like the phonograph?" Its voice was a little metallic, it is -true, but here was presented an insignificant looking piece of mechanism -which was undeniably a talking machine and one with an unlimited -vocabulary. So-called talking machines had been made before, of which -the Faber machine was a type. These, by an arrangement of bellows to -furnish air, and flexible pipes in imitation of the larynx and vocal -organs, made laborious and wheezy efforts to imitate the mechanical -functions of the throat and tongue in articulate speech, but the method -was fundamentally faulty and no success was attained. Edison followed no -such leading. His phonograph made no attempt at imitating in -construction the complex organization of the human throat, but was as -wonderful in its divergence therefrom and in its simplicity as it was in -the success of its results. The machine was patented by him Feb. 19, -1878, No. 200,521, and its life principle is simply and clearly defined -in the first claim of the patent, as follows: - - "The method herein specified of reproducing the human voice, or - other sounds, by causing the sound vibrations to be recorded - substantially as specified, and obtaining motion from that record as - set forth for the reproduction of sound vibrations." - -The invention was a striking and interesting novelty and at once -attracted the attention of scientific men as well as the general public. -Its first public exhibition was about the latter part of January, 1878, -before the Polytechnic Association of the American Institute, at New -York. It spoke English, French, German, Dutch, Spanish and Hebrew with -equal facility. It imitated the barking of a dog and crowing of a cock, -and then catching cold, coughed and sneezed and wheezed until it is said -a physician in the audience proposed sending a prescription for it. It -was also suggested by an irreverent man that it might take the place of -preachers in the rendition of sermons, while another thought that as it -reproduced music with equal facility it might take the place of preacher -and choir both. In the spring of 1878 it was exhibited at Washington by -Edison and his assistant, Mr. Batchelor. Mr. Edison was the guest of Mr. -U. H. Painter, and in his parlors it was shown to a party of gentlemen. - -From Mr. Painter's house the machine was taken to the office of the -Assistant Secretary of the Interior, thence to the Academy of Sciences, -in session at the Smithsonian Institution, and at night it was taken to -the White House and exhibited to President and Mrs. Hayes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 189.--FIRST PHONOGRAPH.] - -The form of the first phonograph is shown in Fig. 189. It consisted of -three principal parts--the mouthpiece A, into which speech was uttered, -the spirally grooved cylinder B, carrying on its periphery a sheet of -tin foil, and a second mouthpiece D. The cylinder B and its axial shaft -were both provided with spiral grooves or screw threads of exactly the -same pitch, and when the shaft was turned by its crank its screw -threaded bearings caused the cylinder to slowly advance as it rotated. -The mouthpiece A had adjacent to the cylinder a flexible diaphragm -carrying a little point or stylus which bore against the tin foil on the -cylinder. When the mouthpiece A was spoken into and the cylinder B was -turned, the little stylus, vibrating from the voice impulses, traced by -indentations a little jagged path in the tin foil that formed the -record. To reproduce the record in speech again, the mouthpiece A was -adjusted away from the cylinder, the cylinder run back to the starting -point, and mouthpiece D was then brought up to the cylinder. This -mouthpiece had a diaphragm and stylus similar to the other one, only -more delicately constructed. This stylus was adjusted to bear lightly in -the little spiral path in the tin foil traced by the other stylus, and -as the tin foil revolved with the cylinder its jagged irregularities set -up the same vibrations in the diaphragm of mouthpiece D as those caused -by the voice on the other diaphragm, and thus translated the record into -sounds of articulate speech, exactly corresponding to the words first -spoken into the instrument. In Fig. 190 is shown a further development -of the phonograph, in which a single mouthpiece with diaphragm and -stylus serves the purpose both of recorder for making the record and a -speaker for reproducing it, a trumpet or horn being used, as indicated -in dotted lines, to concentrate the vibrations in recording and to -augment the sound in reproducing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 190.--SECOND FORM OF PHONOGRAPH.] - -The phonograph is in reality a development of the phonautograph, which -was an instrument invented by Leon Scott in 1857 to automatically record -sounds by diagrams. There is a model of Scott's phonautograph in the -National Museum at Washington, D. C, and it consists of a chamber to -catch the sound waves and an elastic diaphragm with stylus working on a -revolving cylinder bearing a sheet of paper coated with lampblack. The -phonograph's record-making mouthpiece, with its diaphragm and stylus, is -substantially a phonautograph, but instead of simply causing the stylus -to trace a record on carbon-coated paper and stopping with this result, -Edison traced a record in a substance--tinfoil--which was capable of -mechanically translating that record into sound again by a mere reversal -of the function of the stylus and diaphragm. This was the very essence -of simplicity and logical reasoning. All records had been heretofore -traced for visual inspection only. Edison's record was not for visual -inspection, but was endowed with the mechanical function of reproducing -sound. - -From the first Edison believed that his phonograph was to fill an -important place in the business activities of the world, since here -seemed a silent but faithful stenographer which reproduced the words of -the speaker with absolute fidelity, even to the quality of emphasis and -inflection, and which made no mistakes, was always even with the speaker -in its work, and asked no questions. For a number of years, however, the -invention lay dormant and served no other purpose than that of a -scientific curiosity or an amusing toy. The difficulty of its practical -application largely existed in the perishable form of the record, which, -being in tinfoil, was liable to be mutilated and distorted, and was not -well adapted for storage or transportation. - -A few years after the announcement of Mr. Edison's invention. Dr. -Alexander Graham Bell, the distinguished inventor of the telephone, with -his associates, Messrs. Chichester A. Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter, -directed their attention to the improvement of the phonograph. Dr. Bell -had received from the French government, upon the recommendation of the -French Academy of Sciences, the Volta prize of 50,000 francs as a -recognition of his successful work in acoustics and the invention of the -telephone, and with this sum he built the Volta Institute in Washington -and carried on the work of developing the phonograph. - -On May 4, 1886, Chichester A. Bell and Sumner Tainter obtained patents -Nos. 341,214 and 341,288, which covered a great improvement in the -record of the phonograph. This invention substituted for the tinfoil -sheet a surface of wax, which was finally fashioned into a cylinder, and -instead of merely indenting the record on tinfoil the stylus cut a -distinct groove or kerf in the wax cylinder as it revolved, dislodging -therefrom a minute filament or shaving and forming a record which was -not only far more positive in its translating effect and more easily -transported and stored, but was also less perishable, and besides it -could be easily effaced without loss of the cylinder by simply smoothing -off the surface of the cylinder again when it was desired to make a new -record. This invention quickly grew into practical use, and is known as -the "Graphophone." - -[Illustration: FIG. 191.--THE GRAPHOPHONE, RECORDING AND REPRODUCING -DEVICES.] - -In Fig. 191 is shown on the left a cross section of the diaphragm, -recording stylus, and wax cylinder, of the graphophone, the stylus -plowing a tiny groove in the wax cylinder in the act of recording the -speech, and on the right is shown the reproducing stylus traversing the -record groove in the wax cylinder, and the diaphragm chamber with which -the ear tubes are connected. The grooves in the wax, although giving -forth mechanical movement that is translated into sound, are very -minute, being only 6/10,000 of an inch deep. - -When the possibilities of the graphophone became known, capital was -quickly supplied for its commercial exploitation, and the Columbia -Phonograph Company was organized. At the present time, owing to the -great increase in the business, the control of the graphophone business -is vested in two branches, the Columbia Phonograph Company, which has -charge of the selling, and which has offices throughout all the -principal cities of this country and some of the larger ones of Europe, -and the American Graphophone Company, which attends to the manufacturing -branch, and whose factory is located at Bridgeport, Conn., where, it is -said, that in 1898 the production of the factory reached the point of -one graphophone for every minute of the day, making a total daily output -of 600 machines. Although the Bell and Tainter patents of 1886 represent -the basic principles of the graphophone, its development and perfection -have been contributed to in many subsequent improvements by Messrs. -Bell, Tainter, McDonald, and others. The more important of these are -covered by patents No. 375,579, Dec. 27, 1887; No. 380,535, April 3, -1888; No. 527,755, Oct. 16, 1894, and No. 579,595, March 30, 1897. - -At the beginning of this industry it was thought that the principal use -of the instrument would be found in business applications, to take the -place of the stenographer, but it proved difficult to revolutionize -office methods, especially as the earlier machines were somewhat -intricate, and the business man had no time to divide in engineering a -machine. These difficulties, however, have been so far overcome by -modern improvements and simplification of the machine that its use in -business houses as an amanuensis has become quite common. The greatest -use of the graphophone is, however, for amusement purposes. Its songs, -orchestral and solo renditions, and its humorous monologue reproductions -constitute to-day a great library of wax cylinders, regularly catalogued -and sold by the thousands. It will readily be understood that the -formation of the cylinders must constitute a great business of itself -when it is remembered that many record cylinders accompany each -graphophone, and that the latter are turned out at the rate of one a -minute by a single company. Many thousands of these cylinders are made -daily. Some are sent out simply as plain wax cylinders, onto which the -records are made by the voice of the purchaser, while others have -records made for them of popular music, monologues in dialect, humorous -speeches, etc. The waxy composition, which is in reality a species of -soap, is melted in huge pots, and then passes from one floor to -another, undergoing a refining process in its progress, and finally -reaches the molds. These molds are arranged in rows around a horizontal -wheel about eight feet in diameter. The wheel is kept revolving, and a -man on one side is kept constantly busy in filling the molds with the -molten material as they reach him. A half revolution of the wheel brings -the filled molds to the other side of the room, and by that time the -material has hardened sufficiently to enable another attendant, -stationed there, to remove the cylinders from the molds. Thus the wheel -is kept going, receiving at one side a charge of the melted wax and -discharging at the other molded cylinders, which are afterwards turned -true on the surface. The record-making department is both unique and -interesting. Here the records of music are produced, and they are made -by bands and performers engaged for the purpose, many of which, -operating at the same time, produce such a medley as to be scarcely -distinguishable to the visitor. The records are tested by about half a -hundred women, each of whom has a little compartment or booth framed in -by glass partitions. The duty of the tester is to decide upon the merits -of the record by actually listening to it on the graphophone. - -A very important feature in record-making, from a commercial standpoint, -is in means for cheaply duplicating records. If every record cylinder -had to be made by the separate act of a performer such records would be -very expensive. An original record is first made by some celebrated -musician or speaker, and this record is afterwards multiplied and -reproduced in large numbers. For this purpose an original record by -suitable mechanism is made to take the place of the speaker or singer, -and so multiplies and reproduces the original record. The duplicating of -records was contemplated by Edison from the first, as seen in his -British patent, 1,644 of 1878, and later appliances for accomplishing -such results are covered under Tainter's patent, No. 341,287, Bettini's, -No. 488,381, and McDonald's, No. 559,806. The diaphragms used in the -recorders and reproducers are made of French rolled plate glass, thinner -than a sheet of ordinary writing paper. The recording stylus is shaped -like a little gouge to cut the little grooves in the wax, while the -corresponding stylus of the reproducer has a ball-shaped end to travel -in the groove. Both the recording stylus and reproducing ball are made -of sapphire, chosen on account of its hardness, to resist the great -frictional wear to which they are subjected. When a record is to be -effaced from a cylinder, it is turned off smooth on a sort of lathe, and -the cutting tool or knife for this purpose is also made of sapphire. - -The latest, loudest, and most impressive form of the talking machine is -the "Graphophone Grand." This has a horn attachment exceeding the big -horn of a brass band in size, and the wax cylinder is about four inches -in diameter. Its reproductions in music and speech are so full and -strong as to be clearly heard at the most remote part of a large hall, -and its versatile voice lends effective rendition to all sorts and kinds -of sounds, from the inspiring chords of "A Choir Invisible" to the -grandiloquent and facetious rattle of a noisy and hustling auctioneer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 192.--MODERN PHONOGRAPH.] - -It is not to be understood, however, that the graphophone is the only -speaking machine on the market, for about 250 patents have been granted -on phonographs and graphophones. The National Phonograph Company, under -many later patents granted to Mr. Edison, manufactures and sells the -phonograph shown in Fig. 192, which is a very ingenious and effective -instrument. This modern form of phonograph is actuated either by -electricity or spring power, is regulated by a speed governor, and -bifurcated ear tubes connect with the diaphragm case, which tubes are -placed in the ears when the instrument is operated. - -[Illustration: FIG. 193.--THE GRAMOPHONE RECORDER.] - -The gramophone is also another speaking machine. This is the invention -of Mr. E. Berliner and covered by him in patent No. 372,786, Nov. 8, -1887. An illustration of the gramophone recorder is given in Fig. 193. -Instead of a wax cylinder this machine employs a flat disc on which the -record is formed as a volute spiral groove, gradually drawing toward the -center. It is produced as follows: A zinc disc is covered by a thin film -of acid resisting material, such as wax or grease, and is placed in a -horizontal pan, mounted to revolve as a turn table about a vertical -axis. A stylus and diaphragm, with speaking tube attached, are arranged -above the disc, and when spoken into the vibrations of the diaphragm -cause, through the stylus, a record to be traced through the wax, down -to the zinc. As the waxed disc and pan are revolved, the stylus and -diaphragm are gradually moved by gears toward the center of the disc. -While the record is being traced the waxed disc is kept flooded with -alcohol from a glass jar, seen in the cut, to soften the film and -prevent the clogging of the stylus. The disc, when completed, is then -rinsed off and etched with acid, chromic acid being used, to prevent -liberation of hydrogen bubbles. The etched disc is then electrotyped to -form a matrix, and from this electrotype hard rubber duplicates of the -original record are molded, which are capable of giving 1,000 -reproductions. These rubber discs are placed on the reproducing -instrument, which is arranged to cause the stylus to freely trail along -in the spiral groove, and when the disc is rotated under the said stylus -its record is converted into articulate speech. Such flat disc records -give quite loud reproductions, are not easily destroyed, and may be -compactly stored and transported. In the gramophone the diaphragm stands -at right angles to the record disc and the stylus does not vibrate -endwise to make a path of varying depth, as in the phonograph and -graphophone, but the stylus vibrates laterally and traces a little -zigzag line. - -The cost of a talking machine is from $5 to $150. The wax cylinders cost -from 25 cents to $3.00, and the cylinders will hold a record of from 800 -to 1,200 words, equivalent to about three or four pages of print in an -octavo volume. An important part of such machines is the motor, which -must maintain a uniform rate of speed, and much ingenuity has been -displayed on this part of the machine. Probably the largest use of the -phonograph or graphophone is for home amusement and exhibition purpose. -The coin operated, or "nickel-in-the-slot" machine, finds a popular -demand, while its utilitarian use as an amanuensis, or stenographer, is -as yet a subordinate one. - -Although twenty-one years of age, and of full growth, the phonograph is -ever a wonderfully new and impressive device. When listening to it for -the first time the conflict of emotions which it excites is difficult to -analyze. A voice full of human quality, of clear and familiar -enunciation, and speaking in the most matter of fact way about the most -matter of fact things, proceeds from an insignificant and insensible bit -of metal, presenting the apparently anomalous condition of speech -without a speaker. When convinced that there is no trick, astonishment -struggles with admiration and a desire for a personal introduction. We -speak into it, and have the unique experience of listening to our own -voice emanating from a different part of the room, instead of our own -mouths. It is really difficult to believe one's own senses, and no -wonder that it inspires the superstitious with a feeling of awe. If Mr. -Edison had lived a few centuries earlier, and had produced such an -instrument, his life might have paid the penalty of his ingenuity, for -without doubt he would have been classed as a wizard, and of close kin -to the evil one. - -The phonograph is the truth-telling and incontrovertible witness whose -memory is never at fault, and whose nerves are never discomposed by any -cross-examination. As evidence in court its word cannot be doubted, and -the witness confronted by his own utterances from the phonograph must -yield to its infallible dictum. The dying father, unable to write, may -dictate to it his last will and testament, and leave a message for his -loved ones, and long after the sod is green on his grave, that message -would still be audible, and fresh and true to all the tender inflections -of the heart's emotions. By its aid the Holy Father, at Rome, may give -his personal and audible blessing to his children throughout the world, -though separated by thousands of miles. Who can tell what stories of -interesting and instructive knowledge would be in our possession if the -phonograph had appeared in the ages of the past, and its records had -been preserved? The voices of our dead ancestors, whose portraits hang -on the wall, and the eloquent words of Demosthenes and Cicero would be -preserved to us. In fact, we should be brought into vocal contact with -the world's heroes, martyrs, saints, and sages, and all the great actors -and teachers whose personalities have made history, and whose teachings -have given us our best ideals. But perhaps the most practical and best -characterization of the phonograph is given in Mr. Edison's own terse -words. He says: "In one sense it knows more than we know ourselves, for -it retains the memory of many things which we forget, even though we -have said them. It teaches us to be careful of what we say, and I am -sure makes men more brief, more businesslike, and more -straightforward." - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -OPTICS. - - EARLY TELESCOPES--THE LICK TELESCOPE--THE GRANDE LUNETTE--THE - STEREO-BINOCULAR FIELD GLASS--THE MICROSCOPE--THE SPECTROSCOPE-- - POLARIZATION OF LIGHT--KALEIDOSCOPE--STEREOSCOPE--RANGE FINDER-- - KINETOSCOPE AND MOVING PICTURES. - - -"And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. And God saw the -light that it was good; and God divided the light from the darkness." -Thus early in the account of the creation is evidenced man's -appreciation of the value of vision. Of all the senses which place man -in intelligent relation to his environment none is so important as -sight. More than all the others does it establish our relation to the -material world. When the babe is born, and its little emancipated soul -is brought in contact with the world, its wondering gaze sees the -panorama of visible things touching its eyes, and it stretches forth its -tiny arms in the vain effort to pluck the stars, apparently within its -reach. Distance and time add their values to light and vision, and as -his life expands to greater fullness, the perspective of his existence -creeps into his consciousness, and he finds himself farther away, but -still peering beyond into the infinity of distance, searching for the -visible evidence of knowledge. From the earliest times man learned to -spurn the groveling things of earth, and to delight his soul with the -marvelous infinity of the sky and its heavenly bodies. _Nunc ad astra_ -was his ambitious cry, and in no field has his quest for knowledge been -more skillfully directed, faithfully maintained, or richly rewarded than -in the study of astronomy. Many important discoveries in this field have -been made in the Nineteenth Century, among which may be named the -discovery of the planet Neptune by Adams, Leverrier and Galle in 1846; -the satellites of Neptune in 1846, and those of Saturn in 1848 by Mr. -Lassell; the two satellites of Mars by Prof. Asaph Hall in 1877; and the -discovery of the so-called canals of Mars by Schiaparelli in 1877. But -the purpose of this work is to deal with material inventions rather than -scientific discoveries, and the leading invention in optics is the -telescope. - -Who invented the telescope is a question that cannot now be answered. -For many years Galileo was credited in popular estimation with having -made this invention in 1609. But it is now known that, while he built -telescopes, and discovered the mountains of the moon, the spots on the -sun's disk, the crescent phases of Venus, the four satellites of -Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, and made the first important astronomical -observations, the invention of the telescope, as an instrument, could -not be rightly claimed for him. Borelli credits it to Jansen & -Lippersheim, spectacle makers, of Middelburg, Holland, about 1590; -Descartes credits it to James Metius; Humboldt says Hans Lippershey (or -Laprey), a native of Wesel and a spectacle maker of Middelburg in 1608, -naming also Jacob Adriansz, sometimes called Metius and also Zacharias -Jansen. - -The great impetus given to the study of astronomy by Galileo, in 1609, -was followed up by Huygens in 1655 with his improvement, by Gregory's -reflecting telescope of 1663, and Newton's in 1668. In 1733 Chester More -Hall invented the achromatic object glass of crown and flint glass. In -1758 John Dolland reinvented and introduced the same in the manufacture -of telescopes. In 1779 Herschel built his reflecting telescope, and in -March, 1781, he discovered the planet Uranus. In 1789 he built his great -reflector. It was while the latter telescope was exploring the heavens -that the Nineteenth Century began, and in the early part of this century -Herschel laid before the Royal Society a catalogue of many thousand -nebulae and clusters of stars. Among the great telescopes of the -Nineteenth Century may be mentioned that made in London in 1802 for the -observatory of Madrid, which cost L11,000; the great reflecting -telescope of the Earl of Rosse, erected at Parsonstown, in Ireland, in -1842-45. This was 6 feet diameter, 54 feet focal length, and cost over -L20,000; the magnificent equatorial telescopes set up at the National -Observatories at Greenwich and Paris in 1860; Foucault's reflecting -telescope at Paris, 1862, whose mirror was 311/2 inches diameter, and -focal length 173/4 feet; Mr. R. S. Newall's telescope, set up at Gateshead -by Cookes, of York, in 1870; object glass, 25 inches, tube, 30 feet; Mr. -A. Ainslie Common's reflecting telescope, Ealing, Middlesex, 1879, -mirror, 371/2 inches diameter, tube, 20 feet; the telescope at the United -States Observatory, at Washington, 1873, object glass, 26 inches, tube, -33 feet long; and the large refracting telescope by Howard Grubb, at -Dublin, for Vienna, 1881. - -[Illustration: FIG. 194.--TELESCOPE AT LICK OBSERVATORY.] - -In more recent times the great refracting telescope by Alvan Clark & -Sons, for the Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton, California, in 1888, -attracted attention as superior to anything in existence up to that -time. This is shown in Fig. 194. The supporting column and base are of -iron, weighing twenty-five tons. This rests on a masonry foundation, -which forms the tomb of James Lick, its founder. The tube is 52 feet -long, 4 feet diameter in the middle, tapering to a little over 3 feet at -the ends. The object glass is 36 inches in diameter, and weighs, with -its cell, 530 lbs. The steel dome is 75 feet 4 inches in diameter, and -the weight of its moving parts is 100 tons. This instrument was -perfectly equipped with all gauges, scales, photographic and -spectroscope accessories, and fulfilled the condition imposed in the -trust deed of James Lick, of being "superior to and more powerful than -any telescope made." It is a giant among instruments of precision, and -its ponderous aspect still asserts the dignity of its purpose, and -impresses even the frivolous visitor with a silent and thoughtful -respect. - -It is not to be understood, however, that the great Lick telescope still -maintains its supremacy. The Yerkes telescope, which was exhibited at -the World's Fair Exposition in 1893, at Chicago, had an object glass of -3.28 feet in diameter and a focal distance of 65 feet, and it moved -around a central axis in a vast cupola or dome 78 feet in diameter. The -Grand Equatorial of Gruenewald, at the recent Berlin Exposition, was -even still larger, since its object glass was 3 feet 7 inches, or nearly -2 inches larger than the Yerkes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 195.--GREAT TELESCOPE, PARIS EXPOSITION. 1900.] - -Even these great instruments have now been excelled in the Grande -Lunette, of the Paris Exposition, in 1900. When it is remembered that an -increase in the diameter of any circular body causes, for every -additional inch, a vastly disproportionate increase in the -cross-sectional area and weight, it will readily be seen how handicapped -the instrument maker is in any increase in the power of such a -telescope. An increased diameter of a few inches in the glass lens means -an enormous increase in the cross section, its weight and the -difficulties attending its successful casting free from imperfections, -and the perfect grinding and polishing of the lens. An increased length -of the tubular case of the telescope is liable to involve, from the -great weight, a slight bending or springing out of axial alignment when -supported near the middle for equatorial adjustment, and a few feet -increase in the diameter of the massive and movable steel dome add -greatly to the weight and incidental difficulties of constructing and -delicately adjusting it. The great Lunette, see Fig. 195, changes -entirely the method of manipulating the telescope, and also, in a -measure, its principle of action, so as to avoid some of these -difficulties. Its tube, instead of being pointed upwardly through the -slot of a movable dome, and made adjustable with the dome, is laid down -horizontally on a stationary base of supporting pillars, and an -adjustable reflecting mirror and regulating mechanism, called a -"siderostat," is arranged at one end, to catch the view of the star, or -moon, and reflect it into the great tube, and through its lenses on to -the screen at the other end. The tube is 197 feet long, and the object -glass or lens is a fraction over 4 feet in diameter. There are two of -these, which together cost $120,000. The siderostat is supported on a -large cast iron frame, and is provided with clockwork and devices for -causing the mirror to follow the movement of the celestial object which -is being viewed. The entire weight of the siderostat and base is 99,000 -pounds, the movable part weighs 33,000 pounds, and the mirror and its -cell weigh 14,740. The mirror itself is of glass, weighs 7,920 pounds, -is 6.56 feet in diameter, and 10.63 inches thick. To facilitate the -free and sensitive adjustment of this great mirror its base floats in a -reservoir of mercury. The entire cost of the instrument is said to be -over 2,000,000 francs. With the wonderful strides of improvement in all -fields of invention, it is not unreasonable to suppose that the -revelations in astronomy may keep pace with those of mundane interest, -and that great discoveries may be made in the near future. The average -individual does not bother himself much about the calculation of -eclipses, or the laws which govern the movements of an erratic comet. He -is, however, intensely personal and neighborly, and what he wants to -know is, Is Mars inhabited? and if so, are its denizens men, and may we -communicate with them? The wonderful regularity of the so-called canals, -of apparently intelligent design, already discovered on the surface of -Mars, has stimulated this neighborly curiosity into an expectant -interest, and who knows what marvelous introductions the modern -telescope may bring about? - -[Illustration: FIG. 196.--PROF. ABBE'S STEREO-BINOCULAR.] - -Many minor improvements have been made in recent years in the form of -the telescope known as field and opera glasses. Probably the most -important of these is the Stereo-Binocular, invented by Prof. Abbe, of -Germany, and patented by him in that country in 1893, and also in the -United States, June 22, 1897, No. 584,976. This gives a much increased -field, and also an increased stereoscopic effect, or conception of -relative distance, by having the object glasses wider apart than the -eyes of the observer. The field is also flatter, the instrument rendered -very much smaller and more compact, and no change of focus is required -for changing from near-by to remote objects. The rays of light, see Fig. -196, enter the object glasses, strike a double reflecting prism, and are -first thrown away from the observer, and then striking another double -reflecting prism, arranged after Porro's method, are returned to the -observer in line with the eye-piece. - -[Illustration: FIG. 197.--MODERN MICROSCOPE.] - -_The Microscope._--Just as the telescope reveals the infinity of the -great world above and around us, so does the microscope reveal the -infinity of the little world around, about, and within us. Its origin, -like the telescope, is hidden in the dim distance of the past, but it is -believed to antedate the telescope. Probably the dewdrop on a leaf -constituted the first microscope. The magnifying power of glass balls -was known to the Chinese, Japanese, Assyrians and Egyptians, and a lens -made of rock crystal was found among the ruins of Ninevah. The -microscope is either single or compound. In the single the object is -viewed directly. In the compound two or more lenses are so arranged that -the image formed by one is magnified by the others, and viewed as if it -were the object itself. The single microscope cannot be claimed by any -inventor. The double or compound microscope was invented by Farncelli in -1624, and it was in that century that the first important applications -were made for scientific investigation. Most of the investigations were -made, however, by the single microscope, and the names of Borelli, -Malpighi, Lieberkuhn, Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Swammerden, Lyonnet, Hewson -and Ellis were conspicuous as the fathers of microscopy. For more than -two hundred and fifty years the microscope has lent its magnifying aid -to the eye, and step by step it has been gradually improved. Joseph J. -Lister's aplanatic foci and compound objective, in 1829, was a notable -improvement in the first part of the century, and this has been followed -up by contributions from various inventors, until the modern compound -microscope, Fig. 197, is a triumph of the optician's art, and an -instrument of wonderful accuracy and power. Its greatest work belongs to -the Nineteenth Century. - -Multiplying the dimensions of the smallest cells to more than a thousand -times their size, it has brought into range of vision an unseen world, -developed new sciences, and added immensely to the stores of human -knowledge. To the biologist and botanist it has yielded its revelations -in cell structure and growth; to the physician its diagnosis in urinary -and blood examinations; in histology and morbid secretions it is -invaluable; in geology its contribution to the knowledge of the physical -history of the world is of equal importance; while in the study of -bacteriology and disease germs it has so revolutionized our conception -of the laws of health and sanitation, and the conditions of life and -death, and is so intimately related to our well being, as to mark -probably the greatest era of progress and useful extension of knowledge -the world has ever known. In the useful arts, also, it figures in almost -every department; the jeweler, the engraver, the miner, the -agriculturalist, the chemical manufacturer, and the food inspector, all -make use of its magnifying powers. - -To the microscope the art of photography has lent its valuable aid, so -that all the revelations of the microscope are susceptible of -preservation in permanent records, as photomicrographs. A curious, but -very practical, use of the microscope was made in the establishment of -the pigeon-post during the siege of Paris in 1870-71. Shut in from the -outside world, the resourceful Frenchmen photographed the news of the -day to such microscopic dimensions that a single pigeon could carry -50,000 messages, which weighed less than a gramme. These messages were -placed on delicate films, rolled up, and packed in quills. The pigeons -were sent out in balloons, and flying back to Paris from the outer -world, carried these messages back and forth, and the messages, when -reaching their destination, were enlarged to legible dimensions and -interpreted by the microscope. It is said that two and a half million -messages were in this way transmitted. - -_The Spectroscope._--To the popular comprehension, the best definition -of any scientific instrument is to tell what it does. Few things, -however, so tax the credulity of the uninformed as a description of the -functions and possibilities of the spectroscope. To state that it tells -what kind of materials there are in the sun and stars, millions of miles -away, seems like an unwarranted attack upon one's imagination, and yet -this is one of the things that the spectroscope does. A few commonplace -observations will help to explain its action. Every schoolboy has seen -the play of colors through a triangular prism of glass, as seen in Fig. -198, and the older generation remembers the old-fashioned candelabras, -which, with their brilliant pendants of cut glass cast beautiful colored -patches on the wall, and whose dancing beauties delighted the souls of -many a boy and girl of fifty years ago. This spread of color is called -the _spectrum_, and it is with the spectrum that the spectroscope has to -deal. The white light of the sun is composed of the seven colors: red, -orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. When a sunbeam falls -upon a triangular prism of glass the beam is bent from its course at an -angle, and the different colors of its light are deflected at different -angles or degrees, and consequently, instead of appearing as white -light, the beam is spread out into a divergent wedge shape, that -separates the colors and produces what is called the spectrum. This -discovery was made by Sir Isaac Newton, in 1675. - -[Illustration: FIG. 198.--PRISM AND SPECTRUM.] - -In 1802 Dr. Wollaston, in repeating Newton's experiments, admitted the -beam of light through a very narrow slit, instead of a round hole, and -noticed that the spectrum, as spread out in its colors, was not a -continuous shading from one color into another, but he found black lines -crossing the spectrum. These black lines were, in 1814, carefully mapped -by a German optician, named Fraunhofer, and were found by him to be 576 -in number. The next step toward the spectroscope was made by Simms, an -optician, in 1830, who placed a lens in front of the prism so that the -slit was in the focus of the lens, and the light passing through the -slit first passed through the lens, and then through the prism. This -lens was called the "Collimating" lens. With these preliminary steps of -development, Prof. Kirchhoff began in 1859 his great work of mapping the -solar spectrum, and he, in connection with Prof. Bunsen, found several -thousand of the dark lines in the spectrum, and laid the foundation of -_spectrum-analysis_, or the determination of the nature of substances -from the spectra cast by them when in an incandescent state. - -[Illustration: FIG. 199.--KIRCHHOFF'S FOUR-PRISM SPECTROSCOPE.] - -The form of Kirchhoff's spectroscope is given in Fig. 199. The slit -forming slide is seen on the far end of the tube A, and is shown in -enlarged detached view on the right. The collimating lens is contained -in the tube A. The beam of light entering the slit at the far end of the -tube A, passes through the lens in that tube, and then passes -successively through the four triangular prisms on the table, and is -successively bent by these and thrown in the form of a spectrum into the -telescopic tube B, and is seen by the eye at the remote end of said -tube B. The greater the number of prisms the wider is the dispersion of -the rays and the longer is the spectrum, and the more easily studied are -the peculiar lines which Wollaston and Fraunhofer found crossing it. It -was the presence of these black lines on the spectrum which led to the -development of the spectroscope and established its significance and -value. The work which the spectroscope does is simply to form an -extended spectrum, but this spectrum varies with the different kinds of -light admitted through the slit, the different kinds of light showing -different arrangement of colored bands and dark lines, and such a -definite relation between the light of various incandescing elementary -bodies and their spectra has been found to exist, that the casting of a -definite spectrum from the sun or stars indicates with certainty the -presence in the sun or stars of the incandescing element which produces -that spectrum. This application of the spectroscope is called -_spectrum-analysis_, and by rendering any substance incandescent in the -flame of a Bunsen burner, and directing the light of its incandescence -through the spectroscope, its spectrum gives the basis of intelligent -chemical identification. So delicate is its test that it has been -calculated by Profs. Kirchhoff and Bunsen that the eighteen-millionth -part of a grain of sodium may be detected. - -The useful applications of the spectroscope are found principally in -astronomy and the chemical laboratory, but some industrial applications -have also been made of it in metallurgical operations, as, for instance, -in determining the progress of the Bessemer process of making steel, and -also for testing alloys. Many hitherto unknown metals have also been -discovered through the agency of the spectroscope, among which may be -named caesium, rubidium, thallium, and indium. - -The field of optics is so large that many interesting branches can -receive only a casual mention. The polarization of light, first noticed -by Bartholinus in 1669, and by Huygens in 1678, in experiments in double -refraction with crystals of Iceland spar, were followed in the -Nineteenth Century by the discoveries of Malus, Arago, Fresnel, -Brewster, and Biot. Malus, in 1808, discovered polarization by -reflection from polished surfaces; Arago, in 1811, discovered colored -polarization; Nicol, in 1828, invented the prism named after him. The -Kaleidoscope was invented by Sir David Brewster in 1814, and British -patent No. 4,136 granted him July 10, 1817, for the same. The reflecting -stereoscope was invented by Wheatstone in 1838, and the lenticular form, -as now generally used, was invented by Sir David Brewster in the year -1849. - -Among the more recent inventions of importance in optics may be -mentioned the Fiske range finder (Patent No. 418,510, December 31, -1889), for enabling a gunner to direct his cannon upon the target when -its distance is unknown, or even when obscured by fog or smoke. The -Beehler solarometer (Patent No. 533,340, January 29, 1895), is also an -important scientific invention, which has for its object to determine -the position, or the compass error, of a ship at sea when the horizon is -obscured. There is also in late years a great variety of entertaining -and instructive apparatus in photography, and improvements in the -stereopticon and magic lantern. - -The most interesting of the latter is the Kinetoscope, for producing the -so-called moving pictures, in which the magic lantern and modern results -in the photographic art, have wrought wonders on the screen. The -old-fashioned magic lantern projections were interesting and instructive -object lessons, but modern invention has endowed the pictures with all -the atmosphere and naturalness of real living scenes, in which the -figures move and act, and the scenes change just as they do in real -life. - -The foundation principle upon which these moving pictures exist is that -of persistence of vision. If a succession of views of the same object in -motion is made, with the moving object in each consecutive figure -changed just a little, and progressively so in a constantly advancing -attitude in a definite movement, and those different positions are -rapidly presented in sequence to the eye in detached views, the figures -appear to constantly move through the changing position. The theory of -the duration of visible impressions was taught by Leonardo da Vinci in -the fifteenth century, and practical advantage has been taken of the -same in a variety of old-fashioned toys, known as the phenakistoscope, -thaumatrope, zoetrope, stroboscope, rotascope, etc. - -The phenakistoscope was invented by Dr. Roget, and improved by Plateau -in 1829, and also by Faraday. A circular disk, bearing a circular series -of figures is mounted on a handle to revolve. The figures following each -other show consecutively a gradual progression, or change in position. -The disk has radial slits around its periphery, and is held with its -figured face before a looking glass. When the reflection is viewed in -the looking glass through the slits, the figures rapidly passing in -succession before the slits appear to have the movements of life. The -thaumatrope, which originated with Sir John Herschel, consists of a thin -disc, bearing on opposite sides two associated objects, such as a bird -and a cage, or a horse and a man. This, when rotated about its diameter, -to bring alternately the bird and cage into view, appears to bring the -bird into the cage, or to put the rider on the horse's back, as the case -may be. The zoetrope, described in the _Philosophical Magazine_, -January, 1834, employs the general principle of the phenakistoscope, -except that, instead of a disc before a looking glass, an upright -rotating drum or cylinder is employed, and has its figures on the -inside, and is viewed, when rotating, through a succession of vertical -slits in the drum. - -The earliest patents found in this art are the British patent to Shaw, -No. 1,260, May 22, 1860; United States patents, Sellers, No. 31,357, -February 5, 1861, and Lincoln, No. 64,117, April 23, 1867. In Brown's -patent, No. 93,594, August 10, 1869, the magic lantern was applied to -the moving pictures, and Muybridge's photos of trotting horses in 1872, -followed by instantaneous photography, which enabled a great number of -views to be taken of moving objects in rapid succession, laid the -foundation for the modern art. - -[Illustration: SHOOTING GLASS BALLS. - -FIRING DISAPPEARING GUN. - -FIG. 200.] - -In Fig. 200 is shown a succession of instantaneous photographs of a -sportsman shooting a glass ball, and the firing of a disappearing gun. A -multiplicity of views extending through all the phases of these -movements, when successively presented in order, before a magic lantern -projecting apparatus, gives to the eye the striking semblance of real -movements. In practice these views are taken by special cameras, and are -printed on long transparent ribbons that contain many hundreds, and even -thousands of the views. Edison's Kinetoscope is covered by patent No. -493,426, March 14, 1893, and his instrument known as the Vitascope, is -one of those used for projecting the views upon a screen. In Fig. 201 a -similar instrument, called the Biograph, is shown, in which the seeming -approach of the locomotive makes those who witness it shudder with the -apparent danger. - -[Illustration: FIG. 201.--BIOGRAPH IN THE THEATRE.] - -To secure the best results, the ribbon with its views should remain with -a figure the longest possible time between the light and the lens, and -the shifting to the next view should be as nearly instantaneous as -possible. This problem has been admirably solved by C. F. Jenkins, who, -in 1894, devised means for accomplishing it, and was one of the first, -if not the first, to successfully project the views on a large screen -adapted to public exhibitions. His apparatus is shown in Fig. 202. An -electric motor, seen on the left, drives, through a belt and pulley, a -countershaft, and also through a worm gear turns another shaft parallel -to the countershaft, and bearing a sprocket pulley, whose teeth -penetrate little marginal holes in the ribbon of views, and, drawing it -down from the reel above, deliver it to the receiving reel on the right. -On the end of the countershaft, just in front of the sprocket wheel, is -a revolving crank pin or spool, which intermittently beats down the -ribbon of views, causing the latter to advance through the vertical -guides in front of the lens by a succession of jerks. This holds each -view for a maximum period before the lens, and then suddenly jerks the -ribbon to bring the next view into position. In the Kinetoscope the -animated pictures not only present the movements of life, but, by a -combination with the phonograph, the audible speech, or music fitting -the occasion, is also presented at the same time, making a marvelous -simulation of real life to both the eye and the ear. - -[Illustration: FIG. 202.--JENKINS' PHANTASCOPE.] - -Among the latest promises of the inventor is the "Distance Seer," or -telectroscope, which, it is said, enables one to see at any distance -over electric wires, just as one may telegraph or telephone over them. -The surprises of the Nineteenth Century have been so many and so -astounding, and the principles of this invention are so far correct, -that it would be dogmatic to say that this hope may not be realized. - -To the sum total of human knowledge no department of science has -contributed more than that of optics. With the telescope man has climbed -into the limitless space of the heavens, and ascertained the infinite -vastness of the universe. The flaming sun which warms and vitalizes the -world, is found more than ninety millions of miles away. The nearest -fixed stars visible to the naked eye are more than 200,000 times the -distance of the sun, and their light, traveling at the rate of 190,000 -miles a second, requires more than three years to reach us. Although so -far away, their size, distance, and constitution have been ascertained, -and their movements are scheduled with such accuracy that the going and -coming thereof are brought to the exactness of a railroad time table. -The astronomer predicts an eclipse, and on the minute the spheres swing -into line, verifying, beyond all doubt, the correctness of the laws -predicated for their movements. The wonders of the telescope, the -microscope, and the spectroscope are, however, but suggestions of what -we may still expect, for science abundantly teaches that the eye may yet -see what to the eye is now invisible, and that light exists in what may -now seem darkness. - -No man may say with certainty what thought was uppermost in Goethe's -mind when, grappling in the final struggle with the King of Terrors, he -exclaimed "Mehr licht!" It may be that it was but the wish to dispel the -gathering gloom of his dimming senses, or perchance the unfolding of an -illuminated vision of a brighter threshold, but certain it is that no -words so voice the aspirations of an enlightened humanity as that one -cry of "More light!" - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -PHOTOGRAPHY. - - EXPERIMENTS OF WEDGEWOOD AND DAVY--NIEPCE'S HELIOGRAPHY--DAGUERRE - AND THE DAGUERREOTYPE--FOX TALBOT MAKES FIRST PROOFS FROM - NEGATIVES--SIR JOHN HERSCHEL INTRODUCES GLASS PLATES--THE COLLODION - PROCESS--SILVER AND CARBON PRINTS--AMBROTYPES--EMULSIONS--DRY - PLATES--THE KODAK CAMERA--THE PLATINOTYPE--PHOTOGRAPHY IN COLORS-- - PANORAMA CAMERAS--PHOTO-ENGRAVING AND PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY--HALF TONE - ENGRAVING. - -"Art's proudest triumph is to imitate nature." - - -When nature paints she does so with the brush of beauty, dipped in the -pigment of truth. The tender affection of a ray of light touches the -heart of a rose, brings a blush to its cheek, and life, becoming the -bride of chemical affinity, blooms into surpassing beauty and -loveliness. Photography is closely allied to nature's painting, for just -as light brings into existence nature's living beauties, so does light -fix, preserve, and perpetuate these beauties by the same subtile and -mysterious agency of a quickened chemical affinity. Photography is both -an art and a science, and as such is both beautiful and true. It is an -art intimately associated with the tenderest affections of the human -heart in keeping alive its precious memories. By it the youthful -sweetheart of long ago, the loving face of the departed mother, and the -cherished form of the dead child are brought back to us in familiar -presence, while our great men have become the every-day friends and -ideals of the common people. What an enrichment and satisfaction it -would have added to our lives if the art had been coeval with history, -and all the world's exalted scenes and faces had come to us through the -camera with the knowledge of absolute truth and fidelity. But not only -in portraiture is photography a great art, for it catches the stately -pose of the mountain, the grandeur of the sea, the beauty of the forest, -or the majesty of Niagara Falls, and brings them all home to us, even to -the vision of the bed-ridden invalid. The camera alike records the -secrets of the starry heavens and the bacteria of the microscopic world. -Hanging on the tail of a kite it photographs the face of mother earth, -and, acting quicker than the lightning, it catches and defines the path -of that erratic flash. It plays the part of a private detective, and its -testimony in court is never doubted. The architect, engineer, and -illustrator find it in constant requisition. By the aid of the Roentgen -Rays, it locates a bullet in a wounded soldier, and takes a picture of -one's spinal column. In fact, it sees and records things both visible -and invisible, acts with the rapidity of thought, and is never mistaken. - -The art of photography, named from the two Greek words [Greek: photos -graphe] (the writing of light), is a comparatively new one, and belongs -entirely to the Nineteenth Century. It was known to the ancient -alchemists that "horn silver" (fused chloride of silver) would blacken -on exposure to light, but there was neither any clear understanding of -the nature of this action, nor any application made of it prior to the -year 1800. We now know that the art of photography is dependent upon the -actinic effect of certain of the rays of the spectrum upon certain -chemical salts, notably those of silver and chromic acid, in connection -with organic matter. The rays which have this effect are the blue and -violet rays at one end of the spectrum, and even invisible rays beyond -the violet, the red and yellow rays having little or no such actinic -effect. - -That which made photography possible for the Nineteenth Century was the -philosophical observation of Scheele, in 1777, upon the decomposing -influence of light on the salts of silver, and the superior activity of -the violet rays of the spectrum over the others in producing this -effect. In 1801 Ritter proved the existence of such invisible rays -beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum by the power they -possessed of blackening chloride of silver. - -_Earliest Application of Principles._--The first attempt to render the -blackening of silver salts by light available for artistic purposes, was -made by Wedgewood and Davy in 1802. A sheet of white paper was saturated -with a solution of nitrate of silver, and the shadow of the figure -intended to be copied was projected upon it. Where the shadow fell the -paper remained white, while the surrounding exposed parts darkened under -the sun's rays. There was, however, no means of fixing such a picture, -and in time the white parts would also turn black. - -_Introduction of Camera._--The camera obscura, a very old invention -designed for the use of artists in copying from nature, was at a very -early period brought into this art, but it was found that the chemicals -employed by Wedgewood and Davy were not sufficiently sensitive to be -affected by its subdued light. In 1814, however, Joseph Nicephore -Niepce, of Chalons, invented a process that utilized the camera, and -which was called "Heliography," or sun drawing. In 1827 he discarded -the use of silver salts, and employed a resin known as "Bitumen of -Judea" (asphaltum). A plate was coated with a solution of this resin and -exposed. The light acting upon the plate rendered the resin insoluble -where exposed, and left it soluble under the shadows. Hence, when -treated with an oleaginous solvent the shadows dissolved out, and the -lights, represented by the undissolved resin, formed a picture, which -was in reality a permanent negative. The process, however, was slow, -requiring some hours. - -_The Daguerreotype._--In 1829 Niepce and Daguerre became partners, and -in 1839, after the death of the elder Niepce, the process named after -Daguerre was perfected (British patent No. 8,194, of 1839). He abandoned -the resin as a sensitive material, and went back to the salts of silver. -He employed a polished silver surfaced plate, and exposed it to the -action of the vapors of iodine, so as to form a layer of iodide of -silver upon the surface, which rendered it very sensitive. By a short -exposure in the camera an effect was produced, not visible to the eye, -but appearing when the plate was subjected to the vapor of mercury. This -process reduced the time required from hours to minutes, and as it -involved the production of a latent image, which was subsequently -developed by a chemical agent, it represented practically the beginning -of the photographic art as practiced to-day. Daguerre sought also to -permanently fix his pictures, but this was accomplished only imperfectly -until 1839, when Sir John Herschel made known the properties of the -hyposulphites for dissolving the salts of silver. In 1844 Hunt -introduced the protosulphate of iron as a developer. - -_Production of Positive Proofs from Negatives._--This was first done by -Mr. Fox Talbot, of England, between 1834 and 1839. In his first -communication to the Royal Society, in January, 1839, it was directed -that the paper should be dipped first in a solution of chloride of -sodium, and then in nitrate of silver, which, by reaction, produced, on -the face of the paper, chloride of silver, which was more sensitive to -the light than nitrate of silver. The object to be reproduced was laid -in contact with the prepared paper, and exposed to the light until a -copy was produced which was a negative, having the lights and shadows -reversed. A second sheet was then prepared, and the first or negative -impression was laid upon it, and used as a stencil to produce a second -print which, by a reversal of the lights and shadows, formed an exact -reproduction of the original. In 1841, British patent No. 8,842 was -obtained by Mr. Talbot, for what he called the "Calotype," and which was -afterward known as the "Talbotype." A sheet of paper was first coated -with iodide of silver, by soaking it alternately in iodide of potassium -and nitrate of silver, and was then washed with a solution of gallic -acid containing nitrate of silver, by which the sensitiveness to light -was increased. An exposure of some seconds or minutes, according to the -brightness of the light, produced an impression upon the plate, which, -when treated with a fresh portion of gallic acid and nitrate of silver, -developed into the image. After being fixed it formed a negative from -which any number of prints might be obtained. The Talbot process -represented a great advance in this art. Glass plates to retain the -sensitive film were introduced by Sir John Herschel in 1839, and were a -great improvement over the paper negatives, which latter, from lack of -transparency and uniformity in texture, had prevented fine definition -and sharpness of outline. Blue printing was also invented by Sir John -Herschel in 1842, and he was the first to apply the term "negative" in -photography. In 1848 M. Niepce de St. Victor, a nephew of Daguerre's -former partner, applied to the glass a film of albumen to receive the -sensitive silver coating. - -_Collodion Process._--The most important step in the preparation of the -negative was the application of collodion. This is a solution of -pyroxilin in ether and alcohol, which rapidly evaporates and leaves a -thin film adhering to the glass. M. Le Gray, of Paris, was the first to -suggest collodion for this purpose, but Mr. Scott Archer, of London, in -1851, was the first to carry it out practically. A clean plate of glass -is coated with collodion sensitized with iodides of potassium, etc., and -is then immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver. Metallic silver -takes the place of potassium, forming insoluble iodide of silver on the -film. The plate is then exposed and the latent image developed by an -aqueous solution of pyrogallic acid, or protosulphate of iron. When -sufficiently developed, the plate is washed, and the image fixed by -dissolving the unacted-upon iodide of silver with a solution of cyanide -of potassium or hyposulphite of soda. This completed the negative or -stencil from which the positives are printed by passing rays of light -through it upon sensitive paper. - -_The Ambrotype_ succeeded the Daguerreotype, and was produced by making -a very thin negative by under exposure on glass, using the collodion -process, and, after drying, backing the glass with black asphaltum -varnish or black velvet, causing the dense portions of the negative to -appear white by reflected light, and the transparent portions black. -Such pictures were quickly made, and were much in vogue forty years ago, -but are now obsolete. A modification of the ambrotype, however, still -survives in what is known as the "tin-type" or "ferro-type." In the -tin-type the collodion picture is made directly upon a very thin iron -plate, covered with black enamel, which both protects the plate from -the action of the chemicals in the bath, and forms the equivalent of the -black background of the ambrotype. - -_Silver Printing._--A sheet of paper, previously treated with a solution -of chloride of sodium and dried, is sensitized in an alkaline bath of -nitrate of silver. When the paper is exposed under a negative, the light -through the transparent parts of the negative reduces the silver, -converting the chloride, it is supposed, into a metallic sub-chloride of -silver which becomes dark or black, and constitutes the main portion of -the picture. The image is then fixed by dissolving out the chloride of -silver unaltered by light in a bath of hyposulphite of soda. After -fixation, the image is well washed in several changes of water to -eliminate all traces of the hyposulphite of soda and prevent the -subsequent fading of the darkened portions of the picture and the -yellowing of the whites. If the printed image is immediately fixed, it -will have a red color. To avoid this it is washed first in water and -then immersed in a chloride of gold toning bath and fixed. - -_The Platinotype Process_ is one in which potassium chloroplatinite and -ferric oxalate are converted by light into the ferrous state, and -metallic platinum is reduced when in contact with the ferrous oxalate of -potash solution. The unacted upon portions are dissolved out by dilute -hydrochloric acid, leaving a black permanent image. This process is -characterized by simplicity, sensitiveness in action, permanence of -print, and a peculiarly soft and artistic quality in the picture. -British Patent No. 2,011, of 1873, to Willis, is the first disclosure of -the platinotype. - -_Carbon Printing_ is a process in which lampblack or other -indestructible pigment is mixed with the chemicals to render the -photograph more stable against fading from the gradual decomposition of -its elements. Mungo Ponton, in 1838, discovered the sensitive quality of -potassium bichromate, which led up to carbon printing. Becquerel and -Poitevin, in Paris, in 1855, were the first to experiment in this -direction, and Fargier, Swan, and Johnson were successors who made -valuable contributions. - -_Emulsions._--A photographic emulsion is a viscous liquid, such as -collodion or a solution of gelatine, containing a sensitive silver salt -with which the glass plate is at once coated, instead of coating the -plate with collodion or gelatine, and then immersing it in a sensitizing -bath. The desirability of emulsions was recognized as early as 1850 by -Gustave Le Gray, and in 1853 by Gaudin. Collodion emulsion with bromide -of silver was invented by Sayce and made known in 1864. In 1871 Maddox -published his first notice of gelatine emulsion, and in 1873 the -gelatine emulsions of Burgess were advertised for sale. In 1878 Mr. -Charles Bennett brought out gelatino-bromide emulsion of extreme -sensitiveness, by the application of heat, and from this time gelatine -began to supersede all other organic media. - -_Dry Plates_ were a great improvement over the old wet process, with its -tray for baths, its bottles of chemicals, and other accessories. -Especially was this the case with out of door work, which heretofore had -involved the carrying along of much unwieldy and inconvenient -paraphernalia. With the dry plate process only the camera and the plates -were needed, and this step marks the beginning of the spread of the art -among amateurs, and the great snap-shot era of photography, growing into -a distinct movement about the year 1888, has since spread over the -entire world. The first practical dry plate process (collodion-albumen) -was published in 1855 by Dr. J. M. Taupenot, a French scientist. -Russell, in 1862; Sayce, in 1864; Captain Abney, for photographing the -transit of Venus in 1874; Rev. Canon Beechey, of England, in 1875; Prof. -John W. Draper, of the University of New York, and the Eastman Walker -Company, of Rochester, were the chief promoters of dry plate -photography. The practical introduction began about 1862 with the -application of the alkaline developer. - -The progress of the photographic art may be approximately noted as -follows: - - _Process._ _Time Required._ _Introduced._ - Heliography 6 hours' exposure 1814 - Daguerreotype 30 minutes' exposure 1839 - Calotype or Talbotype 3 minutes' exposure 1841 - Collodion process 10 seconds' exposure 1851 - Collodion emulsion (dry plate) 15 seconds' exposure 1864 - Gelatine emulsion (dry plate) 1 second exposure 1878 - -_Mechanical Development._--The photographic camera is but an adaptation -of the optical principles of the old camera obscura, which has been -credited to various persons, including Roger Bacon in 1297, Baptista -Porta about 1569, and others. The essential elements of the camera -obscura are a dark chamber, having in one end a perforation containing a -lens, and opposite it on the back of the chamber a screen upon which an -image of the object is projected by the lens for the purpose of enabling -it to be directly traced by a pencil. The photographic camera, -introduced by Daguerre in 1839, adds to the camera obscura some means -for adjusting the distance between the lens and the screen on which the -image falls. This was accomplished by making the dark chamber adjustable -in length by forming it in two telescopic sections sliding over each -other, and in later years by the well-known bellows arrangement. A -luminous image of any object placed in front of the lens is thrown in an -inverted position upon the screen, which is of ground glass, to permit -the image to be seen in focusing. When the proper focus on this ground -glass is obtained a sensitive plate is put in the plane of this screen -to receive the image. - -[Illustration: FIG. 203.--KODAK.] - -It is not possible to trace all the steps of development of the camera -which have brought it to its present perfection. Most of the -improvements have had relation to the lens in correcting chromatic and -spherical aberration, and in shutters for regulating exposure, in stops -for shutting out the oblique rays and holders for the sensitive plate. - -The "Iris" shutter, so-called from its resemblance in function to the -iris of the eye, consists of a series of tangentially arranged plates -which open or close a central opening symmetrically from all sides. - -The ordinary camera of the photographic artist is too familiar an object -to require special illustration. It has been looked into by the rich and -the poor, and the high and the low, all over the whole world. Between -the traveling outfit, and the "look pleasant, please!" of the -peripatetic artist, and the handsome studios of the cities, it is hard -to find an individual in the civilized world who has not posed before -its lens. Through its agency the great man of the day has found himself -in evidence everywhere; the country maiden has many times experienced -the delicious thrill of satisfied vanity as she posed before it, and the -superstitious savage is paralyzed with fear lest the mysterious thing -should steal his soul. - -[Illustration: FIG. 204.--FOLDING KODAK.] - -In 1851 the first instantaneous views were made by Mr. Cady and Mr. -Beckers, of New York, and also by Mr. Talbot, who employed as a flash -light a spark from a Leyden jar. In 1864 magnesium light was employed by -Mr. Brothers, of Manchester, for photographic purposes, and about 1876-8 -Van der Weyde made use of the electric light for the same purpose. - -The _roller slide_, or roll film, was invented by A. J. Melhuish, in -England, in 1854 (British patent No. 1,139, of 1854). The films were, -however, of paper. In 1856 Norris produced sensitized dry films of -collodion or gelatine (British patent No. 2,029, of 1856). In later -years apparatus for utilizing the roll film has been greatly improved -and extensively applied by Eastman, Walker & Co., of Rochester, N. Y. - -About 1888 a new thing in the photographic world made its appearance. It -was a little black leather-covered rectangular box, about six inches -long, with a sort of blind eye at one end closed by a cylindrical -shutter, substantially as seen in Fig. 203. This shutter was wound up by -a spring operated by a pull cord. In the back of the box was a film or -ribbon of sensitized paper wound upon one spool, and unwinding therefrom -and winding onto another spool, and being distended as it passed so as -to form a flat surface which was directly in rear of the lens. A thumb -piece or key on the top, and a push button on the side, were the only -suggestions of the operative mechanism within. When the button was -pressed the shutter for an instant passed from in front of the lens, and -as quickly covered it again, but in this brief interval an image had -been flashed upon the sensitive ribbon or film, and a snap-shot picture -was taken. By a simple movement of the thumb piece or key, the receiving -roll was made to take up the exposed section of the sensitive film and -bring another section into the range of the lens, for a repetition of -the operation. This little instrument was slung in a case looking like a -cartridge box, and its sensitive roll was able to receive 100 successive -pictures. When the roll was exhausted, it was removed and developed in a -dark room. The device was placed upon the market by the Eastman Company, -and it was called the "Kodak." The advertisement of the company, that -"You press the button and we do the rest," was soon realized to be -founded in fact, and in a short while the great era of snap-shot -photography had set in. To-day this form of camera is a part of the -luggage of every tourist, traveler, scientist, and dilletante. In fact, -it has become the familiar scientific toy of man, woman, and child, -interesting, instructive, and useful to all. In Fig. 204 is shown a -modern form of Kodak, which is made in various sizes and is foldable for -compact and convenient portability. - -A very convenient and useful development in films is to be found in the -cartridge system, by which the film may be placed in and removed from -the camera in broad daylight. The film has throughout its length a -backing of black paper which extends far enough beyond the ends of the -film to allow it to be unwound, so far, in making connection with the -roll holder, without exposing the film to light, and also to allow it to -be removed without exposure to light, after all the exposures have been -made. - -[Illustration: FIG. 205.--HAND PREMO.] - -Among the many other ingenious and useful hand cameras may be mentioned -the "Premo," made by the Rochester Optical Company, and shown in Fig. -205. The "Premo" is arranged for either snap-shot or time exposure, is -adapted to be either held in the hand or mounted upon a tripod, and is -furnished for use either with glass plates or roll films. In Fig. 206 is -shown the "Premo" for stereoscopic work, in which two pictures are taken -at once, a sufficient distance from each other to produce the effect of -binocular vision and give the appearance of relief when viewed through -the stereoscope. Brett's British patent No. 1,629, of 1853, appears to -be the earliest description of a stereoscopic camera. - -[Illustration: FIG. 206.--STEREOSCOPIC CAMERA.] - -There have been 2,000 United States patents granted in photography, most -of which have been taken in the past thirty years, and great efficiency -and detail in both the chemical and mechanical branches of the art have -been obtained. - -The useful applications of the art have been numerous and varied. -_Portrait making_ is probably the largest field. This was first -successfully accomplished in 1839 by Professor Morse, of telegraph fame, -working with Prof. John W. Draper, of the University of New York. - -_Celestial Photography_ began with Prof. Draper's photograph of the moon -in March, 1840, and Prof. Bond, of Cambridge, Mass., in 1851. In 1872 -Prof. Draper photographed the spectra of the stars, and in 1880-81 the -nebulae of Orion, and in 1887 the Photographic Congress of Astronomers of -the World, organized in Paris, began the work of photographing the -entire heavens. In late years notable work has been done at the Lick -Observatory by Prof. Holden. In 1861 Mr. Thompson, of Weymouth, -photographed the bottom of the sea, and Prof. O. N. Rood, of Troy, N. -Y., the same year described his application of it to the microscope. In -1871 criminals were ordered to be photographed in England, and in -America the Rogues' Gallery became an institution in New York as early -as 1857, ambrotypes being first used. In 1876 the Adams Cabinet for -holding and displaying the photos was invented. To-day the New York -collection amounts to nearly 30,000, while that of the National Bureau -of Identification at Chicago approximates 100,000. It is a striking -illustration of the law of compensation that the counterfeiter who -invokes the aid of photography to copy a bank note is, by the same -agency of his photo in the Rogues' Gallery, identified and convicted. - -_Photography in Colors_ has been the goal of artists and scientists in -this field for many years. Robt. Hunt, in England, in 1843, and Edmond -Becquerel, in France, in 1848, made evanescent photographs in colors, -but little progress was made until about the last decade of the -Nineteenth Century. Franz Veress in 1890, F. E. Ives (United States -patent No. 432,530, July 22, 1890), W. Kurtz (United States patent No. -498,396, May 30, 1893), Gabriel Lippmann in 1892 and 1896, Ives in 1892, -M. Lumiere in 1893, Dr. Joly in 1895, M. Villedien Chassagne, and Dr. -Adrien, M. Dansac and M. Bennetto, all in 1897, represent active workers -in this field. - -[Illustration: FIG. 207.--PANORAM-KODAK.] - -Among recent developments of the camera may be mentioned the wide angle -lens, which permits larger images to be made on the plate from small -near-by objects, and the telephotographic camera, which gives a large -image of remote objects, such as an enemy's fort, and the panorama -camera, which is designed to cover a broad field. For this purpose the -lens is movably mounted for a semi-circular swing, and the image is -flashed across a curved film in the case. The Eastman Panoram-Kodak, -seen in Fig. 207, is an external illustration of this type, and in Fig. -207A is shown a sectional view of another make of panorama camera which -clearly shows the internal construction. - -[Illustration: FIG. 207A.--SECTIONAL PLAN OF PANORAMIC CAMERA.] - -As allied branches of the photographic art, photo-engraving, -photo-lithographing, and half-tone engraving are important developments -of the Nineteenth Century. - -Photo-engraving is a process by means of which photographs may be used -in forming plates from which prints in ink can be taken. The process -depends upon the property possessed by bichromate of potassium, and -other chemicals, of rendering insoluble under the action of light, -gelatine or some similar substance. A picture is thus produced on a -metal plate, and the blank spaces are etched out by acid, leaving the -lines in relief as printing surfaces. When the operation is reversed, -and only the _darks_ are etched in _intaglio_, to be filled with ink, as -in copper-plate engraving, it is called photo-gravure. Mungo Ponton, in -1839, discovered the sensitive quality of a sheet of paper treated with -bichromate of potash. In 1840 Becquerel discovered that the sizing had -an important function, and Fox Talbot, in 1853, discovered and utilized -the insolubility of gelatine exposed to light in presence of bichromate -of potash. In 1854 Paul Pretsch observed that the exposed parts of the -gelatine did not swell in water. One of the first suggestions of -photo-engraving appears in the British patent No. 13,736, of 1851, of -James Palmer. In recent times great perfection in details has been -obtained by Mr. Moss, of the Photo-Engraving Company, and others. The -Albert-type and Woodbury-type are early modifications of this art. - -In _photo-lithography_ the photograph is transferred to the stone, and -the latter then used to print from, as in lithography. The operation -consists: 1, in making the photographic negative; 2, printing with it -upon transfer paper coated with gelatine and bichromate of potash: 3, -the transfer paper is then given a coat of insoluble fatty transfer ink -from an inking stone; 4, all ink on surfaces not reached by the light -being on a soluble surface is washed off, leaving the insoluble lines -acted upon by light forming the picture; 5, the washed transfer sheet is -then applied to the stone, and the remaining inked lines of the design -are transferred to the stone; 6, the stone with transferred lines will -now receive ink from the ink rolls on these lines, and repels ink from -all other surfaces, which latter are made repellent by being kept -constantly wet, as in ordinary lithography. The first attempts in this -art were by Dixon, of Jersey City, and Lewis, of Dublin, in 1841, who -used resins. Joseph Dixon, in 1854, was the first to use organic matter -and bichromate of potash upon stone to produce a photo-lithograph. In -1859 J. W. Osborne patented in Australia, and in 1861 in the United -States, a transfer process which gave such great impetus to the art that -he may be considered its founder and chief promotor. His United States -patents are No. 32,668, June 25, 1861, and No. 33,172, August 27, 1861. - -[Illustration: FIG. 208.--PHOTOGRAPH GALLERY.] - -For photo-lithography only line drawing, type print, or script, without -any smooth shading, can be employed. The most extensive application of -photo-lithography is in the reproduction of the Patent Office drawings, -which amount to about 60,000 sheets weekly. The contracting firm, which -is probably the largest in the world, also prints each week by -photo-lithography 7,000 copies of the _Patent Office Gazette_, of about -165 pages each, including both drawings and claims, and also reproduces -specifications without errors or proof reading, thus saving about 200 -per cent. in cost over type setting. This art is also largely employed -for printing maps, and the reproduction of the pages of books by this -process has flooded the stores and news stands with cheap literature. - -[Illustration: FIG. 209.--DIAGRAM SHOWING PRODUCTION OF DOT.] - -_Half-tone engraving_ enables a photograph to be reproduced on a -printing press, and for faithfulness in reproduction and low cost has -revolutionized the art of illustrating, as nearly all books, magazines, -and newspapers are now illustrated by this process. Before its -introduction it was not possible to reproduce cheaply in printers' ink -shaded pictures like photographs, brush drawings, paintings, etc. -Half-tone engraving renders it possible to thus print on a press, with -printers' ink, reproductions of photographs or any shaded picture, in -which the soft shadows fade away in depth to white by an imperceptible -tenuity. It does so by breaking up the soft shadows into minute stipples -which form inkable printing faces in relief, by the interposition of a -fine reticulated screen between the camera lens and the sensitive plate. -This forms a sort of stencil negative through which the copper plate is -etched, which latter is thus converted into a relief plate whose raised -surfaces left by the etching may receive ink and print like an ordinary -relief plate. By making the screen lines very fine (80 to 250 meshes to -the inch), the visible effect of the shading is so far preserved that -the photograph may be reproduced in printers' ink with but little -depreciation. At first, bolting cloth was used for the screen, but at -present two glass plates, with closely ruled lines, laid crosswise upon -each other, form the screen. A characteristic distinction of half-tone -work is the regularly stippled surface, formed by the stenciling out of -a portion of the picture by the screen, which may be easily seen with -any magnifying glass. It is called half-tone process because half of the -tones or shadows are preserved, the other half being stenciled out. The -use of gauze screens was first described by Fox Talbot in British patent -No. 565, October 29, 1852. - -[Illustration: FIG. 210.--TRIMMING FILM.] - -In the making of a half-tone negative, the photograph, painting, or wash -drawing which is to be reproduced, is set up in front of the camera, -which is arranged on an inclined runway, as seen in Fig. 208, and an -exposure is made on a plate prepared by the wet collodion process (see -page 304). The shadows of the picture are broken up into stipples or -dots by the interposition of a cross-lined screen arranged in the plate -holder between the lens and the sensitive plate, so that the picture -taken is "half-toned" or stippled. Fig. 209 illustrates the relation of -the parts, in which the picture to be copied is seen on the right, the -camera lens in the middle, and the cross-lined screen on the left in -front of the sensitive plate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 211.--STRIPPING FILM.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 212.--PRINTING BY ELECTRIC LIGHT.] - -The image on the plate is then developed and fixed, and in order to -secure a printed image exactly like the copy as to right and left -position it is necessary to reverse the negative. This is done by -cutting the film square, as seen in Fig. 210, and then peeling it off -the glass, as seen at Fig. 211, and transferring it to another glass -plate in reversed relation. The copper printing plate is produced as -follows: The plate is first polished, as seen at the top of Fig. 213, -and is then sensitized with a solution of organic matter and an alkaline -bichromate. The face of the reversed negative is laid flat against and -in direct contact with the face of the sensitized copper plate, and -tightly held thereto by the screw clamps of the half tone printing -frame. The printing on the sensitized copper face through the stippled -or half-tone negative is then effected either by daylight or by the -electric light. The application of the electric light for this purpose -is shown in Fig. 212. The copper plate is then taken out and subjected -to the three lower operations seen in Fig. 213. It is first developed -under a stream of water from a faucet, seen on the left, and is then -taken in a pair of pliers and held over a gas stove, as seen at the -bottom, to "burn-in" the image, and then placed in a tray containing an -etching bath of chloride of iron seen on the right, by which the copper -is eaten away around the little stipples, and the latter, representing -the half tones of the original picture, are left raised, or in relief, -to form the inkable surfaces of the printing plate. So fine are these -stipples, however, that the picture is to the eye perfectly reproduced. -The several views illustrating this process are made in this way, the -lines of the reticulated screen being 175 to the inch. The plate is next -subjected to the mechanical operation of "routing out" or cutting away -the undesirable portions by a routing machine, seen in Fig. 214. It then -receives further mechanical treatment to correct imperfections and -finish its edges, and is finally mounted upon a block ready for the -printer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 213.--TREATMENT OF COPPER PLATE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 214.--ROUTER AT WORK ON HALF-TONE PLATE.] - -The most striking application made of photography in recent years is in -the production of so-called moving pictures, in which a series of -photographic figures thrown upon the screen have all the motion of -animated scenes which have been caught and imprisoned by the swiftly -acting and never failing memory of the camera, to be again turned loose -in active play through the Kinetoscope or Biograph. Perhaps the most -valuable contribution to science at the end of the century made by this -art is in surgery, for photographing through opaque bodies by the aid of -the Roentgen rays, but for the latter subjects treatment in separate -chapters must be reserved. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -THE ROENTGEN OR X-RAYS. - - GEISSLER TUBES--VACUUM TUBES OF CROOKES, HITTORF AND LENARD--THE - CATHODE RAY--ROENTGEN'S GREAT DISCOVERY IN 1895--X-RAY APPARATUS-- - SALVIONI'S CRYPTOSCOPE--EDISON'S FLUOROSCOPE--THE FLUOROMETER--SUN - BURN FROM X-RAYS--USES OF X-RAYS. - - -The majority of people have been accustomed to regard light as something -to be excluded and controlled by opaque screens just as effectively as -rain is excluded by a tin roof, or cold is kept out by a brick wall. The -shady retreat furnished relief from the garish day to the primitive man, -and the opaque shades and Venetian blinds of modern civilization exclude -the excess of light at our windows. Sunshine and shadow have, in fact, -been correlated conditions to the ordinary observation of man since time -began. The last few years of the Nineteenth Century, however, were to -witness the discovery of a new kind of light ray which, in its behavior, -subverted all previous conception of the nature and action of light. It -was a species of electric light, which we are accustomed to regard as -brilliant, but this light ray was invisible to the eye. It could not be -refracted or bent from its course by a prism or lens, and it was so -subtle, penetrating and insidious, that it could not be barred out like -sunlight, but passed readily through many opaque substances, such as -wood, flesh tissue, paper (even a book of 1,000 pages), as well as some -of the metals. The lighter the weight of the substance, or less its -density, the easier these rays passed through it, or the more -transparent such bodies were to the rays. The heavier metals, like -platinum, gold and lead, were practically opaque, or allowed none of the -rays to pass through them, while the very light metal aluminum was about -as transparent to these rays as was glass to ordinary light, and for -that reason this metal could form window panes for such rays, while -excluding other light. Most organic substances are transparent or -semi-transparent to these rays, and hence such rays readily pass through -the body of an individual, being only intercepted in part by the denser -parts of the anatomy, such as the bones, so that a man in such light no -longer casts a well-defined shadow of his outline, but the shadow -disclosed is that of a skeleton, by virtue of the greater density of the -bones. Any object of higher density, such as a ring upon the finger, -clearly establishes its shadow by virtue of its greater density. -Likewise, any foreign object in the body, such as a bullet from a -gun-shot wound, or a foreign body accidentally swallowed, is perfectly -disclosed and located by the shadow which it casts. As these light rays -have been characterized as invisible, it may be difficult to understand -how invisible rays can cast a visible shadow, and it should be here -stated that when these unseen rays fall upon certain chemical substances -the latter are made to glow with a peculiar fluorescence, and a screen -made of such fluorescing materials will light up where the rays fall -upon it, and remain dark at the points where the rays are intercepted by -a substance opaque to such rays, thus outlining a shadow. - -Not only do these light rays in passing through the body tissues -(transparent to them) cast a shadow of the bones or any foreign objects, -but by the application of photography to these shadow pictures a species -of photograph, called a radiograph, or skiagraph, may be taken, and thus -any foreign body, such as a bullet, may be definitely located in the -human body and quickly extracted, without the element of doubt which -beset the old method of diagnosis, which, at best, was only intelligent -guessing. Not only are foreign bodies so located, but the fractures of -the bones may also be accurately observed, studied and adjusted. Stone -in the bladder may be discovered, and the condition and movements of the -heart and lungs ascertained. - -This new kind of light ray was discovered November 8, 1895, by Prof. W. -C. Roentgen, of the Royal University of Wurzburg, and was named by him -the "X-Ray," probably because the letter x in algebraic formula -represents the unknown quantity, and the hitherto unknown and elusive -quality of this light suggested to Prof. Roentgen this appropriate name. - -As before stated, a peculiar quality of the X-Rays is that they are not -visible to the eye. A beam of X-Rays, thrown into a dark chamber through -an aluminum window, would produce no illumination whatever in the room, -but such rays would still penetrate the room, and if a fluorescing -screen were placed in their path it would instantly light up. It is not -surprising, therefore, that these subtle rays should have so long eluded -the observation of the scientist. - -A brief sketch of the conditions leading up to the discovery of the rays -is necessary to a proper understanding of the same. - -[Illustration: FIG. 215.--THE CATHODE RAY.] - -Every student of physics remembers the old-time lecture room -experiments in which the Geissler tubes, with their beautiful play of -colored lights, illustrated the action of the electrical discharge from -the glass plate machine or the Ruhmkorff coil, on rarified gaseous -media. Electrical experiments in high vacua by Sir William Crookes, and -by Hittorf and Lenard, have greatly added to the present knowledge in -this field, and paved the way to the discovery of Prof. Roentgen. It was -known that a vacuum tube, variously called after the names of these -scientists, as a Crookes, Hittorf, or Lenard tube, having platinum -electrodes sealed in its ends, would, under the static discharge of -electricity through it, give peculiar manifestations of light. One of -the conducting terminals of such tubes was called, in electrical -parlance, the "anode," from the Greek [Greek: ana] (up) [Greek: hodos] -(way), meaning the way up or into the tube, and referring to the -entering path of an electric current, or its positive pole; while the -other was called the "cathode," from [Greek: kata] (down), [Greek: -hodos] (way), meaning the way down or out, and referring to the outgoing -path of an electric current, or its negative pole. When such glass tube, -partially exhausted of air, received through its anode and cathode -terminals a discharge of static electricity, a peculiar manifestation of -light is seen between the anode and cathode terminals. At the anode it -appears as a peach blossom glow, and at the cathode it appears as a -bluish green light. If the exhaustion of the air in the tube is carried -very high, approaching a perfect vacuum, or to about one millionth of -the atmospheric pressure, the glow light at the anode disappears, and -that at the cathode increases until it fills the entire tube with its -characteristic light. This is called the "cathode ray," or "cathodic -ray," an illustration of which is given in Fig. 215, where the cathode -ray is seen in a Crookes tube emanating from the negative pole N or -cathode _a_, and casting a shadow of the Maltese cross _b_ into the end -of the tube, as seen at _d_. Many of the characteristics of the cathode -ray had been observed prior to Prof. Roentgen's discovery, which, -briefly stated, grew out of the following observation: He noticed that -when a vacuum tube illumined by the cathode ray was completely masked or -covered up by an external shield of black paper, so that no illumination -of the tube was visible to the eye, there still passed through it -certain subtle rays of light, invisible to the eye, but which would -instantly illuminate a sheet of paper coated on one side with barium -platino-cyanide, even at a distance of two yards or more, and that these -invisible light rays were capable of passing through many substances -opaque to ordinary light. He also discovered that these rays could be -made to take a shadow photograph on a sensitive plate without even -exposing the plate in the usual way, the X-Rays passing freely through -the opaque ebonite or pasteboard screen of the plate holder. It did not -take the scientific world long to realize the immense importance of this -discovery, and to-day X-Ray apparatus constitutes the greatest addition -to the surgeon's resources that has ever been made in the form of -mechanical appliances, since by its aid any foreign body in the human -frame of greater density than the flesh may be at once definitely -located and extracted, or any fracture of the bone disclosed, as the -case may be. In the illustration, Fig. 216, is shown an X-Ray photograph -of the hand of a gentleman whose thumb bone has been destroyed by -disease. - -[Illustration: FIG. 216.--X-RAY PHOTO OF HAND, SHOWING DISEASED THUMB -BONE.] - -Soon after the announcement of Prof. Roentgen's discovery, apparatus was -devised for seeing with the naked eye the image formed by the shadow of -the X-Rays. Prof. Salvioni constructed such a device and described it -before the Rome Medical Society as early as February 8, 1896. He called -it the "cryptoscope." It was quite a simple affair, and consisted of an -observation tube with a lens, having in front of it a screen of -fluorescing material, such as platino-cyanide of barium. When the object -to be examined, the hand, for instance, was held in front of the -fluorescing screen, and the X-Rays from the vacuum tube fell upon the -hand, located between the vacuum tube and the fluorescing screen, a -shadow of the bones was cast on the fluorescing screen by virtue of the -greater density of the bones, which shadow was clearly discernible to -the eye at the end of the observation tube. By this device one was able -to see his own bones through the flesh. A device, invented by Edison and -called the "fluoroscope," was constructed on substantially the same -principle. This used a tapered observation tube like the old-fashioned -stereoscope box, which had at its outer wide end the fluorescing screen, -and its small end fashioned to fit the forehead and strapped thereto so -as to enclose both eyes. This device is shown in Fig. 217, in which an -X-Ray vacuum tube is housed in a wooden box, on which the hand of the -patient, or other part to be viewed, is laid, the X-Rays passing readily -through the top of the box and casting a shadow of the bones of the -hand, or foreign body, on the fluorescing screen of the observation -tube. Edison's experiments also led him in constructing his fluorescing -screen, after testing a great number of substances, to select the -chemical known as calcium tungstate, instead of the barium -platino-cyanide, since the calcium tungstate appeared to give better -results in fluorescing. Many other chemicals can be used, however, for -making the fluorescing screen, such as the sulphides of calcium, barium -and strontium. A recently discovered and powerful fluorescing substance -is the double fluoride of ammonium and uranium, discovered by Dr. -Mecklebeke. Such fluorescing materials are spread in a thin layer on the -side of the screen next to the observer in the viewing apparatus. - -[Illustration: FIG. 217.--EDISON'S SURGEON'S X-RAY APPARATUS.] - -It is not to be understood that such viewing apparatus is necessary in -taking a surgical photograph. In such case only the X-Ray tube, means -for exciting it, the patient's body, and the sensitive photographic -plate, are essential factors, the patient's limb or body being -interposed between the light tube and photographic plate, so as to cause -the X-Rays emanating from the tube to cast the shadow of the patient's -bones, the bullet in his body, or other foreign object, directly upon -the photographic plate, the sensitive and conscious plate obeying the -will of these subtle rays, and receiving the impress of their actinic -effect under conditions which it denies to ordinary light. - -[Illustration: FIG. 218.--COMPLETE X-RAY APPARATUS IN USE.] - -For exciting the vacuum tube any electrical machine capable of throwing -a series of sparks across a gap of about five inches is sufficient. -Various electrical machines may be used for this purpose, the Holtz, or -the Wimshurst glass plate machine, the Ruhmkorff, or induction coil, or -even the high frequency transformer. A good example of a complete X-Ray -apparatus is that in use at the Army Medical Museum at Washington, made -by Otis Clapp & Son, and shown in Fig. 218. The electrical generator is -of the Wimshurst type, and is shown in a large glass-enclosed cabinet on -the right. The glass disks within are rotated either by a small electric -motor shown on the floor, or by a hand crank above. The X-Ray tube, of -globular or bulb shape, is shown just above the patient's hip, and its -opposite poles are connected by wires to the opposite electrodes of the -generator. When the current is switched on by the operator, the bulb is -illuminated with the cathode rays, and the X-Rays, proceeding therefrom -through the clothing and flesh of the patient, cast a shadow of the -patient's hip joint upon the photographic plate placed on the cot -beneath the patient. - -[Illustration: FIG. 219.--X-RAY FOCUS TUBE.] - -In the effort to secure greater sharpness in the image cast by the -X-Rays, various forms of vacuum tubes have been devised. That shown in -Fig. 219 represents one of the most important improvements. K is the -cathode plate, formed of a concave disk of aluminum, which focuses the -rays at a point near the center of the bulb. At this point a plate of -platinum A, which metal allows practically none of the X-Rays to pass -through it, is mounted on the anode in such an angular position that it -gathers the focused rays and reflects them through the side of the tube. -They thus make a sharper shadow than when radiating from the more -extended surface of the glass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 220.--LOCATING A FOREIGN BODY IN THE BRAIN.] - -In Fig. 220 is shown an X-Ray tube, as applied for locating a foreign -body in the brain cavity, in which view the patient's head is interposed -between the X-Ray tube and the fluorescing screen, or photographic -plate, as the case may be; while Fig. 221 shows the application of the -same devices to the body. In both these views the particular form of -X-Ray apparatus is known as the "Fluorometer," made under the Dennis -Patent, No. 581,540, April 27, 1897, and it is devised with reference to -more accurately locating the foreign object by its shadow, for which -purpose adjustable bracket-sights, seen in Fig. 221 on opposite sides of -the body, are provided for bringing the X-Rays into proper alignment for -projecting the shadow of the foreign body in true indicative position on -the fluorescing screen, while a cross hatched grating behind the body, -graduated in aliquot spaces of an inch, furnishes a measured field, and -forms an easy and quick means of platting the position of said object. -In the position of parts in the two figures the horizontal line, on -which the foreign object lies, would be determined, but it would not -indicate how deep in the object was, _i. e._, whether it was in the -middle, or on one side. To determine this the fluorescing screen and -grating are placed under the patient, and the X-Ray tube above, and the -vertical line of the object is thus obtained. Both the vertical line and -horizontal line having been obtained, it will be obvious that the -foreign object will lie at the intersection of these two lines, which -establishes for the surgeon its definite location. - -[Illustration: FIG. 221.--X-RAY APPARATUS APPLIED TO THE BODY.] - -It has been observed by Prof. Elihu Thomson, and also by Dr. Kolle, that -the X-Rays are not absorbed and destroyed by the sensitive chemicals of -a single photographic plate, but so potent and penetrating is their -influence that the rays pass through and produce an image on a number of -plates, placed one behind the other, thus affording means for -multiplying the image at one exposure. - -Among other uses of the X-Ray may be mentioned its capacity to detect -spurious from genuine gems, the diamond giving a distinct color from its -imitations, as do also most other precious stones. - -A peculiar physiological effect of the X-Rays is their capacity to -produce a severe effect on the skin, somewhat resembling sunburn. Such -result, produced by long and continued exposure, has sometimes so -deranged the skin tissues as to make sores that resulted in the entire -loss of and renewal of the skin. - -The discovery of the X-Ray by Prof. Roentgen may be fairly considered -one of the most wonderful scientific achievements of the century, and -his first memoir in 1895 is so full, clear and exact, as to have left -very little more to be said about it. It is to-day, as it was found by -him in 1895, the same mysterious, unseen, but positive force, a species -of electrical energy without a domicile, and needing no conductor, a -form of light passing through closed doors, invisible itself, and yet -lighting up certain substances with a halo of glory, and radically -changing and decomposing others. Rivaling the sun in actinic power, and -writing its autograph with an unseen hand, it is truly called the X-, or -unknown, ray. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -GAS LIGHTING. - - EARLY USE OF NATURAL GAS--COAL GAS INTRODUCED BY MURDOCH--WINSOR - ORGANIZES FIRST GAS COMPANY IN 1804--MELVILLE IN UNITED STATES - LIGHTS BEAVER-TAIL LIGHTHOUSE WITH GAS IN 1817--LOWE'S PROCESS OF - MAKING WATER GAS--ACETYLENE GAS--CARBURETTED AIR--PINTSCH GAS--GAS - METER--OTTO GAS ENGINE--THE WELSBACH BURNER. - - -For many centuries the going down of the sun marked a cessation of man's -labors, and among his first efforts toward increasing his efficiency was -the prolongation of his hours of vision by artificial illumination. -Beginning with a shell for a lamp, a rush for a wick, and the fat of his -game for oil, the first crude lamp was made, and while it shed but a -feeble and flickering light, man ceased to go to sleep with the fowls -and the beasts, and continued his labors and amusements into the night. -For many centuries the lamp held its exclusive sway, and probably will -ever find a useful place; but with the discovery of coal gas and its -practical manufacture the nights of the Nineteenth Century have been -made to represent illuminated illustrations of the world's progress. -Coal gas can hardly be claimed as an invention, however, for natural gas -from the bowels of the earth had been observed and used in China from -time immemorial. The holy fires of Baku on the shores of the Caspian and -elsewhere were also thus supplied. The first steps toward its artificial -production began in the latter part of the Seventeenth Century with Dr. -Clayton. Bishop Watson, in 1750, and Lord Dundonald, in 1786, also -experimented with combustible gas made from coal, but the man who more -than any other contributed to its practical manufacture and introduction -was Mr. Murdoch, of Redruth, Cornwall, England. In 1792 Murdoch erected -a gas distilling apparatus, and lighted his house and offices by gas -distributed through service pipes. In 1798 he so lighted the steam -engine works of Boulton & Watt, at Soho, near Birmingham; and in 1802 -made public illumination of the works by this means on the occasion of a -public celebration. In 1801 Le Bon, of Paris, used a gas made from wood -for lighting his house. In 1803-4 Frederick Albert Winsor lighted the -Lyceum Theatre, took out a British patent No. 2,764, of 1804, for -lighting streets by gas, and established the National Light and Heat -Company, which was the first gas company. In 1804-5 Murdoch lighted the -cotton factory of Phillips & Lee at Manchester, the light being -estimated as equal to 3,000 candles, and this was the largest -undertaking up to that date. In 1807 Winsor lighted one side of Pall -Mall, London, and this was the first street lighting. A disastrous -explosion occurred shortly afterwards, and such eminent men as Sir -Humphrey Davy, Wollaston, and Watt expressed the opinion that it could -not be safely used; but the so-called "coal smoke" had come to stay, and -in 1813 Westminster Bridge and the Houses of Parliament were lighted -with gas. In 1815 there was general adoption of gas in the streets of -London, and shortly afterwards in Paris. In 1805-6 David Melville, of -Newport, R. I., invented a gas apparatus and lighted his house with it. -He took out United States patent March 18, 1813, and in 1817 contracted -with the United States to supply for a year the Beaver Tail Lighthouse. -In 1815 James McMurtrie proposed the lighting of the streets of -Philadelphia; Baltimore commenced the use of gas in 1816, Boston in -1822, and New York in 1825. - -[Illustration: FIG. 222.--A COAL GAS PLANT.] - -In Fig. 222 is shown a diagrammatic illustration of the principal -features of a gas works, as employed throughout the greater part of the -Nineteenth Century. On the left is seen the furnace, in which is -arranged above the fire a series of retorts, which are in the nature of -horizontal closed cast iron boxes. Only one of the series is visible in -the view. Their ends project out beyond the furnace walls, and have -doors for giving access to the interior, and each retort outside the -furnace is connected by an upright pipe to an elevated cylinder called a -_hydraulic main_. When the retort is charged with coal through its end -door, and is heated red hot by the subjacent fire of the furnace, a -heavy gas is driven off from the coal, which passes up the pipe to the -_hydraulic main_, where it partially condenses and leaves its heavier -portions in the form of coal tar and ammoniacal liquor. The gas then -passes through the series of bent pipes, which form a _condenser_, where -other remaining portions of the tar and other impurities are condensed, -and drawn off from time to time in the little well shown on the left of -the coil. From the condenser coils the gas passes into the _purifier_, -shown on the right of the coils as an enclosed case having a series of -shelves on which is spread slaked lime, which takes up from the gas -impurities in the form of sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid. From -this _purifier_ the gas passes downwardly through a pipe into a large -gas holder whose lower end is sealed in a water tank, and which gas -holder is balanced by weights and chains passing over pulleys. With the -gas holder, the distributing mains of the city are made to connect to -receive their supply. When the gas holder is full it is buoyed up by the -lighter gas, and occupies an elevated position, and as its supply is -used up, the gas holder settles down into the water. - -In the operation of gas making many valuable secondary products are -formed. The coal in the retorts is not entirely consumed, but is reduced -to the condition of coke, and in this form is sold for fuel. The -ammoniacal condensations are purified to form ammonia, while the coal -tar, which but a few years ago was little more than a waste material, is -now a valuable commercial product, being extensively used in the -manufacture of the aniline, phenol, and naphthalene dyes, also in -medicines and perfumes, and being used in crude form also as an -important element in street paving compositions. - -_Water Gas._--In 1875 an important era in gas making was inaugurated by -the introduction of what is known as "_water gas_," so called for the -reason that water in the form of steam is decomposed and its hydrogen, -mixed with carbonic oxide gas, is mingled with a heavier carbon gas from -oil, and is converted at a high temperature into a permanent, stable -illuminating gas, at a much lower cost than coal gas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 223.--LOWE'S WATER GAS APPARATUS, PATENTED SEPTEMBER -21, 1875.] - -Fontana was the first to notice the decomposition of steam by -incandescent carbon to form hydrogen and carbonic oxide. Ibbetson's -British patent, No. 4,954, of 1824, represents the first application of -this principle. This was followed by Alexander Selligue, who, in 1834, -obtained a French patent, No. 9,800, and in 1842 produced water gas at -Batignolles, a suburb of Paris. Sanders' United States patent, 21,027, -July 27, 1858, was the basis of an experiment tried at the Girard House -in Philadelphia. These, with Siemens' British patents, Nos. 2,861, of -1856, and 972, of 1863, for methods of constructing furnaces, constitute -the earlier steps in the development of water gas, although many other -patents were granted prior to the latter date for various methods and -forms of apparatus. The practical production and successful commercial -use of water gas, however, began with T. S. C. Lowe, who obtained United -States patent No. 167,847, September 21, 1875, and revolutionized the -gas making industry. In less than a dozen years from the date of his -patent 150 cities and towns in the United States were using water gas, -and in 1886 the Franklin Institute gave to Mr. Lowe a grand medal of -honor for his invention, which of those exhibited that year was believed -to contribute most to the welfare of mankind by cheapening the cost of -light. Fig. 223 represents an illustration of the Lowe apparatus as -shown in his patent, and whose operation is as follows: Valves 9 and 10 -being open, an anthracite coal fire in generator chamber 1 gives off -carbonic oxide gas, which passes down pipe 2 and enters the base of -superheater 3, where mixing with air coming down pipe 4, it burns to -form an intense heat. The chamber, 3, is filled with loose pieces of -fire brick, which are soon heated white hot. Valves 9 and 10 are then -closed and steam is taken from an upright boiler, 6, and carried by a -small pipe, 7, to the incandescent mass in chamber 3, and passing down -through it is superheated. This superheated steam passes from the bottom -of chamber 3 to the bottom of chamber 1, and then up through the mass of -red hot coal. The intensely hot steam is thus decomposed into hydrogen -and oxygen, and the oxygen unites with the carbon of the coal to form -carbonic oxide gas. As hydrogen and carbonic oxide burn with only a -feeble blue flame, these gases are now made richer in light giving -carbon at this point by the addition of oil contained in an elevated -tank, 8. This, dripping on the incandescent coal in chamber 1, is -volatilized, and at the same time enriches and combines with the -hydrogen and carbonic oxide to form a permanent illuminating gas (water -gas) that passes up pipe 5 and through the flues in boiler 6, to outlet -13, and thence on in the usual way to the condenser, scrubber and gas -holder, which are not shown, and merely act to purify the gas. As the -excessively hot water gas passes through the boiler flues it furnishes -the necessary heat to generate the steam. The air used in the process is -forced at 12 into a drum in the smokestack, 11, and is heated by the -escaping products of combustion. In practical operation there are two -(or more) of the steam superheating chambers 3, working alternately, and -one of them is being heated up while the other is superheating the -steam. - -Water gas has neither the illuminating nor the heating qualities of coal -gas, and it is also much more poisonous. According to O. Wyss, one-tenth -of 1 per cent. of uncarburetted water gas renders the air of a room -injurious to health, and 1 per cent. is fatal to all warm-blooded -animals. Notwithstanding these facts, however, its extreme cheapness and -fairly satisfactory light have carried it into such general use that -to-day it is said that two-thirds of all gas made in the United States -is carburetted water gas. - -_Acetylene Gas_ is a combination of two parts carbon and two parts -hydrogen. It was discovered in 1836 by Edmond Davy, who produced -carburet of potassium, and evolved acetylene gas therefrom by -decomposing it with water. It was long known as _klumene_, and when -burned it produced an intense white light. For a long time it was only -produced in a small way in the laboratory. It is now made commercially -by the mutual decomposition of water and calcium carbide, the latter -giving off, when brought in contact with the water, acetylene gas, which -rises in bubbles. In the reaction the carbon of the carbide unites with -a portion of the hydrogen of the water, producing acetylene gas -(C_{2}H_{2}), while the calcium of the carbide unites with the oxygen of -the water and the remaining portion of the hydrogen and forms calcium -hydrate, or slaked lime, which precipitates as a slush. - -The union of carbon with an alkali metal, first accomplished by Davy in -1836, was followed in 1861 by the combination of carbon with calcium by -Wohler. It was not, however, until the electrical furnace became an -agency in chemical reaction that calcium carbide was made on a -commercial scale. The production of acetylene gas for illuminating -purposes began with the operations of Thomas L. Willson in 1893, and his -patents, Nos. 541,137 and 541,138, of June 18, 1895, and 563,527 and -563,528 of July 7, 1896, cover the chemical process, the product, and -the mode of operating. The reaction is a very simple one. A mixture of -lime and carbon is subjected to the heat of an electric arc, and the -carbon combines with the calcium of the lime to form calcium carbide, -which appears on the market as dirty black stone-like lumps. The -simplicity of the method of generating acetylene gas from this substance -by merely bringing it in contact with water has greatly stimulated -invention in this field. The art began practically in 1895, and since -that time more than 500 patents have been granted for acetylene gas -apparatus. - -[Illustration: FIG. 224.--ACETYLENE GAS APPARATUS.] - -A very simple apparatus for the purpose is shown in Fig. 224, in which a -vessel containing water has an inverted bell or cylinder within it, open -at its lower end. A basket or cage is suspended within the inner -cylinder, and contains a few lumps of calcium carbide, which are first -immersed in the water by being forced down by the rod supporting the -same, which passes through a stuffing box. Acetylene gas is immediately -generated and its pressure forces the level of the water down in the -inner cylinder, causing it to rise in the annular space between said -cylinder and the case. As the water level descends in the inner chamber -it passes out of contact with the calcium carbide, and the generation of -gas is discontinued until some of the gas is drawn off or consumed at -the burners, whose pipe is shown connecting with the gas space of the -inner cylinder. When so drawn off, the pressure in the inner cylinder is -relieved, and the water therein rises to contact again with the calcium -carbide and renews the generation of gas. This principle of automatic -action is a very old one, and will be recognized by the student as that -of the Dobereiner lamp of the chemical laboratory, invented by Prof. -Dobereiner, of Jena, in 1824. - -[Illustration: FIG. 225.--MULTI-CHARGE ACETYLENE GAS GENERATOR.] - -In acetylene gas apparatus a great variety of methods are employed for -bringing the water and carbide into contact. Instead of the automatic -pressure level principle described, many devices discharge a regulated -quantity of powdered calcium carbide into the water, while in another -form the water is discharged upon the calcium carbide. An example of the -latter is given in Fig. 225, which represents the Criterion generator. A -number of receptacles containing charges of calcium carbide are made to -successively receive a regulated quantity of water, the gas being -collected in a rising and falling holder. - -Acetylene gas finds its principal uses for isolated plants, and in -country houses. One form of using it is to compress it under high -tension in cylinders, but this method has been attended with some -disastrous explosions, and is discriminated against by the insurance -companies. - -Calcium carbide is now made in a large way by the Willson Aluminum -Company, at Spray, N. C., and also at Niagara Falls and at Sault St. -Marie, Mich., and its cost is between 3 and 4 cents per pound. - -Acetylene gas has an acrid, garlicy odor, and burns with an intensely -white flame, and so superior is it to coal gas in illuminating power -that it only requires a pipe of one-third the diameter of that used for -coal gas to produce the same illuminating effect. - -_Carburetted Air_ is another form of illuminating gas which has found -some useful applications. This consists simply of air forced through -some light hydrocarbon, such as naphtha, benzine or gasoline, and so -saturated with the vapors of these volatile substances as to become an -inflammable mixture. Many patents have been granted for apparatus -operating on this principle, and it has been put to some practical use -in country houses, and seaside resorts. - -_Pintsch Gas_ is another special application. It is a gas made from oil -and compressed in storage cylinders by means of pumps for portable use. -It is stored under a pressure sometimes as high as 150 pounds to the -inch, its pressure being reduced at the burners through the agency of -pressure regulators. It is used for lighting railway cars, buoys, and -lightships. - -Gas making has probably been the most extensive and important of all the -commercial chemical operations of the Nineteenth Century, and with it -has come a great array of minor inventions as accessories. Among these -first came the gas meter and pressure regulator. With the introduction -of gas into houses some means of determining the amount consumed as a -basis of payment was required, and for this purpose the gas meter was -devised. The first gas meters were known as wet meters, and effected a -measurement by passing the gas through a liquid and rotating a wheel -therein. The wet meter was invented by Clegg (British patent No. 3,968, -of 1815), and the dry meter, by Malam (British patent No. 4,458, of -1820), and improved by Defries (British patent. No. 7,705, of 1838). The -gas regulator is simply a little automatic apparatus whereby the -variation of pressure in the gas main is reduced and the flow rendered -perfectly uniform at the burner. It effects a saving of gas by -preventing it from blowing when the pressure is too great, and also -gives a more steady and uniform light. - -Among the great number of mechanical devices which have grown out of the -use of gas may be mentioned the gas range for heat, the gas engine for -power, and the Welsbach burner for light. The gas range has contributed -much to the domestic economy of the city house. It gives an immediate -heat in the kitchen for all culinary and domestic purposes, without the -incidental objections of having to transport fuel and remove ashes. It -is put into or out of action in an instant, saves labor and time, and -avoids the heat and discomfort of a coal stove during the hot months of -summer. It is organized in principle after the Bunsen burner, whereby a -perfect combustion of the carbon is obtained with maximum heating effect -and without smoke or deposits of lampblack. - -[Illustration: FIG. 226.--OTTO GAS ENGINE.] - -The Otto gas engine, seen in Fig. 226, is a pioneer and representative -type of a great number of explosive gas engines, which in recent years -have become active competitors of the steam engine where only small -power is required. The Otto engine is covered by patent No. 194,047, -August 14, 1877. Patents No. 222,467, 297,329, 336,505, 358,796, -320,285, 386,211 and 549,160 represent important developments in this -art. - -[Illustration: FIG. 227.--WELSBACH GAS BURNER.] - -_The Welsbach burner_ for improving the quality of gaslight, and -economizing its consumption, is also well and favorably known. It -utilizes the Bunsen burner principle to make a very perfect combustion -of the gas, with the greatest possible heat and the least smoke, and -then directs its great heat on to a refractory body which will not burn, -but glows with a brilliant white incandescence. The Welsbach burner was -brought out in 1885. The United States patent therefor was granted -October 7, 1890, to Carl Auer Von Welsbach, No. 438,125. The Welsbach -light is a development of the Drummond, or limelight, invented by Lieut. -Drummond, of England, in 1826. This latter exposed a piece of quick lime -to the intensely hot flame of the oxy-hydrogen blow pipe, which was -invented by Dr. Robt. Hare in 1802. The piece of lime glows with an -intense brilliancy approximating that of the electric light. The -Welsbach burner, see Fig. 227, operates on the same general principle, -except that the refractory body, which is heated to incandescence, is a -tubular sleeve of netted fabric first steeped in a solution of the salts -of refractory earths, and then incinerated by heat to burn out the -textile fibre and leave the refractory earthy oxides as a skeleton of -the fabric, and which is called a "mantle." This mantle is suspended -above the flame arising from a proper admixture of air and gas, and is -heated thereby to a brilliant incandescence which furnishes the light. -In the Welsbach burner the light seen does not proceed directly from the -combustion of the gas, but from the white hot mantle. The light is a -very pure white one, does not distort or falsify colors, and effects a -great saving of gas. An important improvement upon the mantle is covered -by Rawson's patent, July 30, 1889, No. 407,963, for coating the mantles -with paraffine or analogous material to toughen them and prevent them -from breaking in packing and transportation. - -_Natural Gas._--No review of gas lighting would be complete without some -reference to the development incident to the use of the natural gas -flowing from the internal reservoirs of the earth. Such gas has been -known and utilized for centuries in China, and was conveyed by the -Chinese in bamboo pipes to points of utilization. The discovery of coal -oil in the United States in 1859, and the great advances made in the -methods and apparatus for sinking oil wells, have resulted in the -discovery of numerous wells of natural gas, whose values were quickly -perceived and utilized by their owners. The village of Fredonia, N. Y., -was probably the first to be lighted by natural gas, and a flow from a -well at West Bloomfield, N. Y., opened in 1865, was carried in a wooden -main more than twenty miles to the city of Rochester. Many wells of -natural gas have since been found at various points, and so extensive -has been its use for cooking, heating, lighting and metallurgical -processes, that thousands of patents have been taken for various forms -of burners, pressure regulators and other appliances for utilizing the -same. The annual production of natural gas in the United States for 1888 -was valued at $22,629,875. There has, however, been a steady decrease in -the past ten years. The amount produced in 1897 was $13,826,422. The -insatiable demands of modern civilization must some day exhaust the -supply, and what will take place when the subterranean chambers are -relieved of their burden is a question for the geologists to answer. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII. - -CIVIL ENGINEERING. - - GREAT BRIDGES--PNEUMATIC CAISSONS--TUNNELS--THE BEACH TUNNEL SHIELD - --SUEZ CANAL--DREDGES--THE LIDGERWOOD CABLEWAY--CANAL LOCKS-- - ARTESIAN WELLS--COMPRESSED AIR ROCK DRILLS--BLASTING--MISSISSIPPI - JETTIES--IRON AND STEEL BUILDINGS--EIFFEL TOWER--WASHINGTON'S - MONUMENT--THE UNITED STATES CAPITOL. - - -Almost entirely of an outdoor character, and necessarily on public -exhibition, the engineering achievements of the Nineteenth Century have -always been conspicuously in evidence, challenging the admiration of the -public eye. They represent man's attack upon the obstacles presented by -nature to his irrepressible spirit of progress. Difficulties apparently -insuperable have confronted him, only to melt away under his persistent -genius until nothing seems impossible. He has connected continents with -the telegraph, has crosshatched the land with railroads, penetrated the -bowels of the earth with artesian wells, opened communication between -oceans with the Suez Canal, reclaimed territory from the sea in Holland, -pierced mountain ranges with tunnels, drained marshes, irrigated -deserts, reared lofty structures of masonry and steel, spanned waters -with magnificent bridges, opened channel-ways to the sea, built beacons -for the mariner, and breakwaters for the storm beaten ship. - -Probably the most important branch of engineering work is railroad -construction, already considered under steam railways. Closely related -to the railroad, however, is bridge building, and many of these noble -structures hang between heaven and earth, conspicuous monuments of the -engineer's skill. - -[Illustration: FIG. 228.--THE FORTH BRIDGE. LARGEST VIADUCT IN THE -WORLD. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH WHEN IN PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION. LENGTH, 8,290 -FEET; HEIGHT ABOVE WATER, 361 FEET; MAIN SPANS, 1,710 FEET LONG, 150 -FEET HIGH.] - -_The Forth Bridge._--This massive structure, of the cantilever type, is -shown in Fig. 228. It was begun in 1882 and finished in 1890, and is the -largest and most costly viaduct in the world. It is built across the -Firth of Forth, and is the most important link in the direct railway -communication of the North British Railway, and associated roads, -between Edinburgh on the one side, and Perth and Dundee on the other. -The total length of the viaduct is 8,296 feet, or nearly 1-5/8 miles. -The extreme height of the structure is 361 feet above the water level, -and the foundations extend 91 feet below the water level. The two main -spans are 1,710 feet, and these both give a clear headway for navigation -of 150 feet height. There are over 50,000 tons of steel in the -superstructure, and about 140,000 cubic yards of masonry and concrete in -the foundation piers. The three main piers consist each of a group of -four masonry columns faced with granite, 49 feet in diameter at the top, -and 36 feet high, which rest on solid rock, or on concrete carried down -in most cases by means of caissons of a maximum diameter of 70 feet to -rock or boulder clay. - -No intelligent conception of the enormous size of this great structure -can be obtained except by comparison. Estimating from the bottom of the -masonry piers to the towering heights of the cantilevers, it reaches -above the dome of St. Peter's at Rome, and is only a little short of the -height of the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt. The cost of the bridge -is given as L3,250,000 or nearly $16,000,000. - -_The Brooklyn Bridge._--Having for its successful construction and -maintenance the same foundation principle upon which the spider builds -its web, this magnificent bridge of steel wires spans the East River -between New York and Brooklyn, with a total length of 5,989 feet, and in -length of span and cost is second only to the great Forth Bridge. It is -shown in Fig. 229, and among suspension bridges it ranks first. It has a -central span of 1,5951/2 feet between the two towers, over which the -suspension cables are hung, and has a clear headway beneath of 135 feet. -It has two side spans of 930 feet each between the towers and the shore. - -[Illustration: FIG. 229.--THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE. LONGEST SUSPENSION BRIDGE -IN THE WORLD. TOTAL LENGTH, 5,989 FEET; SPAN BETWEEN TOWERS, 1,595 FEET -6 INCHES.] - -The suspension towers stand on two piers founded in the river on solid -rock at depths of 78 and 45 feet below high water, and they rise 277 -feet above the same level. There are four suspension cables 151/2 inches -in diameter, each composed of 5,282 galvanized steel wires, placed side -by side, without any twist, and arranged in groups of 19 strands bound -up with wire. These cables have a dip in the center of the large span of -128 feet, rest on movable saddles on the top of the towers to allow for -slight movement of the cables due to expansion and contraction, and are -held down at the shore ends by massive anchorages of masonry. The bridge -has a width of 85 feet, and has two roadways, two lines of railway, and -a foot way. It was begun in 1876 and opened for traffic in 1883, and its -cost was about $15,000,000. It fulfills a great function for the busy -metropolis, and it hangs in the air a monument in steel wire to the -genius of the Roeblings. - -_Masonry Bridges._--The largest and finest single span of masonry in -America, and believed to be the largest in the world, is to be found -about 9 miles northwest of the city of Washington. It is known as the -Washington Aqueduct or Cabin John Bridge, and is seen in Fig. 230. It -extends across the small stream known as Cabin John Creek, and carries -an aqueduct 9 feet in diameter, that supplies the National Capital with -water, its upper surface above the water conduit being formed into a -fine roadway. It is 450 feet long. Its span is 220 feet, the height of -the roadway above the bed of the stream is 100 feet, and the width of -the structure is 20 feet 4 inches. Gen. Montgomery C. Meigs was the -engineer in charge of its construction. It was begun in 1857 and -finished in 1864, with the exception of the parapet walls of the -roadway, which were added in 1872-3. Its cost was $254,000. Only one -other masonry arch has ever been built which equalled this in size. The -Trezzo Bridge, built in the fourteenth century, over the Adda in North -Italy, and subsequently destroyed, is said to have had a span of 251 -feet, but the Washington Aqueduct Bridge at Cabin John is a noble work -in masonry, and when standing beneath its majestic sweep, and viewing -the regular courses of masonry hanging nearly a hundred feet high in the -air, and springing more than a hundred feet from the embankment upon -either side, one loses sight of the principles of the arch, and the -fear that the mass may fall upon him gives way to the impression that -nature has bowed to the genius of man, and suspended the law of gravity. - -[Illustration: FIG. 230.--CABIN JOHN BRIDGE, NEAR WASHINGTON, D. C. -LARGEST MASONRY ARCH IN THE WORLD. LENGTH, 450 FEET; SPAN OF ARCH, 220 -FEET; HEIGHT, 100 FEET.] - -Among the patents granted for bridges the most important are those -relating to the cantilever type, among which may be mentioned those to -Bender, Latrobe, and Smith, No. 141,310, July 29, 1873; Eads, No. -142,378 to 142,382, September 2, 1873, and Clarke, No. 504,559, -September 5, 1893. - -_Caissons._--For submarine explorations the ancient diving bell, which -was said to have been used more than 2,000 years ago, has given place to -diving armor, while for more extensive local work the pneumatic caisson -is employed. The latter was invented by M. Triger, a French engineer, in -1841. An early example of it is also given in Cochrane's British patent -No. 3,226, of 1861. It consists of a vertical cylinder divided into -compartments, its lower open end resting on the river bottom. Compressed -air forced into the lower compartment forces the water back, while the -men are at work, the intermediate chamber forming an air lock, by which -entrance to, or egress from, the lower working chamber is obtained. The -pneumatic caissons of Eads (patents Nos. 123,002, January 23, 1872, and -123,685, February 13, 1872) and Flad (patent No. 303,830, August 19, -1884) are modern applications of the same principle. The sinking of -shafts through quicksand, by artificially freezing the same and then -treating it as solid material, is an ingenious modern method shown in -patents to Poetsch, No. 300,891, June 24, 1884; and Smith, No. 371,389, -October 11, 1887. - -_Tunnels._--Less conspicuous than bridges, by virtue of their -underground character, but none the less important, are these mole-like -means of communication. Especially difficult of construction for the -reason that the nature of the soil or rock is largely unknown, and for -the reason also that the work may have to encounter faults in rocks, and -springs or quicksands in the earth; nevertheless the demands of the -railroads for shortening the distance of travel and economizing time -have stimulated the engineer to expend millions of dollars in piercing -the earth with these great underground passageways. - -_The Mont Cenis Tunnel_ was constructed to establish railway -communication between France and Italy through the Alps. It was begun in -1857, and after having been in progress of construction for thirteen -years, was opened for traffic in 1871. This tunnel was commenced by hand -borings, being for the most part through solid rock, and its progress up -to 1862 was so slow that it was estimated that thirty years would be -required for its construction. Its earlier completion was due to the -introduction of rock drills operated by compressed air, which trebled -the rate of advance, and which device made a new epoch in all -rock-boring and mining operations. This tunnel was cut from both ends at -the same time, and so accurate were the surveys in establishing the -alignment of the two headings through the mountain mass, that, although -the tunnel was more than 71/2 miles long, when the two headings came -together in the middle, only a difference of one foot in level existed -between them. When it is remembered that most of the 71/2 miles of tunnel -was cut through solid rock, by boring and blasting, the immensity of the -undertaking can be appreciated. As completed the tunnel is 8 miles long, -and wide enough for a double track railway. - -_The St. Gothard Tunnel_ is another tunnel through the Alps, which -involved even a longer and deeper cut through the mountains than the -Mont Cenis Tunnel. This is 91/4 miles long, and it was begun in 1872, the -headings joined in 1880, and the tunnel opened for traffic in 1882. -Although by far the largest undertaking yet made, the improvement in -rock-boring machinery enabled it to be constructed much more rapidly and -at less expense. - -The Arlberg is still another Alpine tunnel. It is 61/2 miles long, was -commenced in 1880, and opened for traffic in 1884. - -Tunneling under rivers presents many more difficulties than driving -through the hardest rock. This is so by reason of the inflow of water. -Among successful tunnels of this kind may be named the Mersey and Severn -tunnels in England, opened in 1886, and the St. Clair tunnel between the -United States and Canada. The histories of the abandoned Detroit and -Hudson river tunnels are object lessons of the difficulties encountered -in this class of work. - -An important engineering invention for tunneling through silt or soft -soil is the so-called "shield." This was first employed by the engineer -Brunel in the construction of the Thames tunnel, which was begun in 1825 -and opened as a thoroughfare in 1843. The shield, as now used, is a sort -of a cylinder or sleeve as large as the tunnel, which sleeve, as the -excavation proceeds in front of it, is forced ahead to act both as a -ring-shaped cutter and a protection to the workmen, its advance being -effected by powerful hydraulic jacks or screws which find a back bearing -against the completed wall of the tunnel. As the digging proceeds the -shield is advanced, and a section of tunnel is built behind it which, in -turn, furnishes a bearing for the jacks in the further advance of the -shield. - -This latter improvement was the invention of the late Alfred E. Beach, -of the _Scientific American_, and was covered by him in patent No. -91,071, June 8, 1869, and was used in driving the experimental pneumatic -subway constructed by him under Broadway, New York, in 1868-9, and also -in the St. Clair River tunnel and the unfinished Hudson River tunnel and -other works. - -Subsequent improvements made upon the shield by J. H. Greathead of -England and covered by him in United States patents Nos. 360,959, April -12, 1887; and 432,871, July 22, 1890, have greatly added to the value -and efficiency of this device, and made it one of the leading -instrumentalities in tunnel construction. - -_Suez Canal._--It is said that the undertaking of connecting the -Mediterranean and Red Seas was considered as long ago as the time of -Herodotus, and a small channel appears to have been opened twenty-five -centuries ago, but was subsequently abandoned. In 1847 the subject was -again taken up for serious consideration, the work begun in 1860, and -finished in 1869, at a cost of L20,500,000, or more than a hundred -million dollars. The canal starts at Port Said, on the Mediterranean, a -view of which with its ships of all nations and the canal reaching far -away in the distance is seen in Fig. 231. The canal extends nearly due -south to Suez on the Red Sea, a distance of about 100 miles, through -barren wastes of sand and an occasional lake. It was originally formed -with a bottom width of 72 feet, spreading out to 196 to 328 feet at the -top, and of a depth of 26 feet, but has since been increased in -transverse dimension to accommodate the great increase in travel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 231.--PORT SAID ENTRANCE TO SUEZ CANAL, SHOWING -HARBOR WITH SHIPS OF ALL NATIONS, AND THE CANAL REACHING AWAY IN THE -DISTANCE.] - -Sixty great dredges were employed on the work, and the dredged material -was discharged in chutes on to the bank. The canal was the work of M. De -Lesseps, the eminent French engineer, and has proved a great success -from both an engineering and financial standpoint. The stock is mainly -held in England, having been bought from the Khedive of Egypt. In 1898 -the ships passing through the canal during the year reached the -remarkable number of 3,503. The rate of tolls is 10 francs (about $2) -per net ton. The gross tonnage of ships passing through in 1898 was -12,962,632, the net tonnage 9,238,603. The total receipts for the year -were 87,906,255 francs (about $17,500,000), and the net profit -63,441,987 francs (about $12,500,000). An average size ocean liner pays -about $5,000 for the privilege of sailing through this great ditch. -Admiral Dewey's ship, the "Olympia," returning from the Philippines, -paid for her toll $3,516.04, and the "Chicago," $3,165.95. Going the -other way, our supply ship "Alexander" paid $4,107.99, while the -"Glacier" paid $5,052.38. Ships making the passage through the canal -move slowly on account of the washing of the banks, about 22 hours -being required, but the shortening of the travel of ships going east and -west, and the saving of life, property, and time, involved in avoiding -the circuitous and stormy passage around the Cape of Good Hope, has been -of incalculable benefit to the world. - -[Illustration: FIG. 232.--HERCULES DREDGER.] - -With the construction of canals and harbors, great improvements have -been made in dredges. Some of these are of the clam-shell type, some -employ the scoop and lever, others an endless series of buckets. An -example of the latter, used on the Panama Canal, is seen in Fig. 232. -Still another form, and the most recent if not the most important is the -hydraulic dredger, which, by rotating cutters, stirs and cuts the mud -and silt, and by powerful suction pumps and immense tubes draws up the -semi-fluid mass and sends it to suitable points of discharge. The best -known of the latter type is the Bowers hydraulic dredge, covered by many -patents, of which Nos. 318,859 and 318,860, May 26, 1885; 388,253, -August 21, 1888; and 484,763, October 18, 1892, are the most important. - -For surface excavations in solid earth the Lidgerwood Cableway is an -important and labor saving device. A track cable is stretched from two -distant towers, and a bucket holding well on to a ton of earth is made -to travel on a trolley running on said cable track, rising at one end -out of the excavation, and dumping at the other end to fill in the -excavation as the cutting progresses, all in a continuous and -economical manner. This device is made under the patent to M. W. Locke, -No. 295,776, March 25, 1884, and comprehends many subsequent -improvements patented by Miller, Delaney, North and others. The Chicago -Drainage Canal is a work just completed, which largely employed these -devices. This canal was designed to connect the Chicago River with the -Mississippi River, so as to send the sewage of Chicago down the -Mississippi instead of into Lake Michigan. Although it cost $33,000,000 -and required seven years for completion, the labor-saving cableways -greatly cheapened its cost and shortened the time of its construction. - -Among the leading inventions relating to canal construction may be -mentioned the bear-trap canal-lock gate (patents Nos. 229,682, 236,488 -and 552,063), and the Dutton pneumatic lift locks. The latter provide -ease and rapidity of action by a principle of balancing locks in pairs, -and are covered by his patent No. 457,528, August 11, 1891, and others -of subsequent date. - -_Artesian Wells_ represent an important branch of engineering work, and -they are so called from the province of Artois, in France, where they -have for a long time been in use. Extending several thousand feet into -the subterranean chambers of the earth, they have brought abundant water -supply to the surface all over the world, from the desert sands of -Sahara to the hotels of the modern city; they have contributed oil and -gas in incredible quantities to supply light and heat, and have made -valuable additions to the salt supply of the world. - -They are driven by reciprocating a ponderous chisel-shaped drill within -an iron tube, six inches more or less in diameter, which is built up in -sections, and moved down as the cutting descends. The drill is -reciprocated by a suspending rope from machinery in a derrick, and in -order to give a hammer-like blow to the chisel a pair of ponderous iron -links coupled together like those of a chain, and called a "_drill jar_" -connect the drill to the rope. As the sections of the link slide over -each other they come together with a hammer blow at the moment of -lifting that dislodges the drill from the rock, and on the descending -movement they come together with a hammering blow immediately after the -drill touches the rock to drive it into the same. The first United -States patent for a drill jar is that to Morris, No. 2,243, September 4, -1841. When an oil well ceases to flow, it is rejuvenated by being -"shot," which is quite contrary to the ordinary conception of prolonging -life. For this purpose a dynamite cartridge is exploded at the lower end -of the well, which shatters the rock, and, in opening up new channels -of flow for the oil, renews the yield. Many patented inventions have -been made in the field of well boring, and the discovery of coal oil in -the United States in 1859 has developed a great industry and built up -enormous fortunes. The amount of petroleum produced in the United States -in 1896 was 60,960,361 barrels, the largest yield on record. In 1897 the -amount was 60,568,081 barrels. - -Of less consequence than the artesian well, but finding many useful -applications, is the drive well. A metal tube with a perforated lower -end is driven down by hammers into the ground, and furnishes a quick and -cheap source of water supply. This was invented by Col. Green in 1861, -in meeting the necessities of his military camp during the civil war, -and was patented by him January 14, 1868, No. 73,425. - -_Rock Drills._--In mining and tunneling through rock, the rock drill has -been the implement of paramount importance and utility. For boring by -rotary action the diamond drill is most effective. This uses bits set -with diamonds which, by their extreme hardness, cut through the most -refractory rock with great rapidity. It was invented by Hermann and -patented by him in France, June 3, 1854. - -More important, however, is the compressed air rock drill, in which a -piston has the drill bit directly on its piston rod and cuts by a -reciprocating action. The piston is actuated by compressed air admitted -alternately to its opposite sides in an automatic manner by valves. The -compressed air conveyed to the drill in the tunnel or mine not only -operates the drill, but helps to ventilate the tunnel. As early as 1849 -Clarke and Motley, in England, invented a machine drill, and in 1851 -Fowle devised a similar machine, having the drill attached directly to -the piston cross head. The Hoosac and Mont Cenis tunnels greatly -stimulated invention in this field, and among the notable drills of this -class may be named the Burleigh, Ingersoll, and Sergeant. The Burleigh -drill was brought out in 1866, and was covered by patents Nos. 52,960, -52,961 and 59,960 of that year, and 113,850 of 1871, and the Ingersoll -drill, by patents No. 112,254, and No. 120,279, of 1871. - -[Illustration: FIG. 233.--BLOWING UP FLOOD ROCK.] - -_Blasting._--The discovery of nitro-glycerine in 1846, followed by its -convenient commercial preparation in the form of dynamite, gave a great -impetus to blasting. Notable as the largest operation of the kind in the -century is the blowing up of Flood Rock, in the path of commerce between -New York City and Long Island Sound. The dangerous character of this and -other rocks in this vicinity gave long ago to this channel the -significant name of Hell Gate. The undermining of the rocks by shafts -and galleries is seen in Fig. 233, and the final blowing up of the same -in a single blast was the culmination of a series of similar operations -at this point tending to safer navigation. On October 10, 1885, 40,000 -cartridges, containing 75,000 pounds of dynamite and 240,000 pounds of -_rack-a-rock_, were, by the touching of a button and the closing of an -electric circuit, simultaneously exploded. In the twinkling of an eye -nine acres of solid rock were shattered into fragments by the prodigious -force, and a vast upheaval of water 1,400 feet long, 800 feet wide, and -200 feet high, sprang into the air in tangled and gigantic fountains. As -the termination of the most stupendous piece of engineering of the kind -the world has ever seen, and with spectacular features fitting the -enormous expense of $1,000,000, which the work cost, this final scene -put an end to the menaces of Flood Rock, and wiped out of existence the -worst dangers of Hell Gate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 234.--CROSS SECTION MISSISSIPPI JETTIES.] - -_Mississippi Jetties._--The broad bar and shallow waters at the mouth of -the Mississippi involved such an obstruction to commerce that in 1872 it -received the attention of Congress, resulting in the building, by Capt. -Eads, of the celebrated jetties. They were begun in 1875 and finished in -1879, and cost $5,250,000. The channel obtained was 30 feet deep and 200 -feet wide. Its construction involved the building across the bar and out -into the Gulf of Mexico two long reaches of parallel embankments, called -jetties. This was effected by sinking mattresses of willow branches -bound together and weighted with stone. These were laid in four layers, -and when submerged, and resting upon the bottom, were covered with a -layer of loose stone, and this in turn was surmounted with a capping of -concrete blocks, as seen in cross section in Fig. 234. These jetties so -concentrated the flow of waters into a narrow channel as to cause its -increased velocity to wash out the mud and silt and deepen the channel. -The immensity of the work may be measured by the quantity of material -used in its construction, which included 6,000,000 cubic yards of willow -mattresses, 1,000,000 cubic yards of stone, 13,000,000 feet (board -measure) of lumber, and 8,000,000 cubic yards of concrete. The -mattresses were laid 35 to 50 feet wide at the bottom, which width was -considerably increased by the superimposed layer of stone, and the -jetties extended 21/4 miles into the sea. Their influence upon commerce is -indicated by the fact that before their construction the annual grain -export from New Orleans was less than half a million bushels, and in -1880, the year following their completion, it was increased to -14,000,000 bushels. - -[Illustration: FIG. 235.--INTERIOR CONSTRUCTION MODERN STEEL BUILDING.] - -_High Buildings._--A distinct feature of modern architecture is the -enormously tall steel frame building known as the "sky scraper." The -increasing value of city lots first brought about the vertical extension -of buildings to a greater number of stories, and the necessity for -making them fireproof, coupled with the desire to avoid loss of interior -space, due to thick walls at the base, made a demand for a different -style of architecture. To meet this a skeleton frame of steel is bolted -together in unitary structure, the floors being all carried on the steel -frame, and the outer masonry walls being relatively thin, and carrying -only their own weight. In Fig. 235 is shown an example of the interior -structure of such a building. The vertical columns are erected upon a -very firm foundation, and to them are bolted, on the floor levels, -horizontal I-beams and girders, stayed by tie rods, which I-beams -receive between them hollow fireproof tile to form the floor. The outer -masonry walls are built around the skeleton frame, as seen in Fig. 236, -and the details of connections for the floor members appear in Fig. 237. - -[Illustration: FIG. 236.--ENCLOSURE OF STEEL FRAME BY MASONRY.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 237.--DETAILS OF INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION.] - -The construction of iron buildings began about the middle of the -century. In 1845 Peter Cooper erected the largest rolling mill at that -time in the United States for making railroad iron, and at this mill -wrought iron beams for fireproof buildings were first rolled. In the -building of the Cooper Institute in New York City in 1857 he was the -first to employ such beams with brick arches to support the floors. The -unifying of the iron work into an integral skeleton frame, for relieving -the side walls of the weight of the floors is, however, a comparatively -recent development, and this has so raised the height of the modern -office building as to cause it to impress the observer as an obelisk -rather than a place of habitation. An earthquake-proof steel palace for -the Crown Prince of Japan is one of the modern applications of steel in -architecture. It is being built by American engineers, and is to cost -$3,000,000. - -[Illustration: FIG. 238.--THE EIFFEL TOWER. HEIGHT, 984 FEET. TALLEST -STRUCTURE IN THE WORLD.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 239.--WASHINGTON'S MONUMENT. HEIGHT 555 FEET, 51/2 -INCHES. HIGHEST MASONRY STRUCTURE IN THE WORLD.] - -_Eiffel Tower._--Loftiest among the high structures of the world, and -significant as indicating the possibilities of iron construction, the -Eiffel Tower of the Paris Exposition of 1889 was a distinct achievement -in the engineering world. It is seen in Fig. 238. It is 984 feet high, -and 410 feet across its foundation, and has a supporting base of four -independent lattice work piers. In the top was constructed a scientific -laboratory surmounted by a lantern containing a powerful electric light. -The total weight of iron in the structure is about 7,000 tons, the -weight of the rivets alone being 450 tons, and the total number of them -2,500,000. The level of the first story is marked by a bold frieze, on -the panels of which, around all four faces, were inscribed in gigantic -letters of gold the names of the famous Frenchmen of the century. The -summit of the tower was reached by staircases containing 1,793 steps, -and by hydraulic elevators running in four stages. The cost of this -structure was nearly $1,000,000. - -_Washington's Monument._--Next in height to the Eiffel Tower, and being, -in fact, the tallest masonry structure in the world, this noble obelisk, -by its simplicity, boldness and solidity, challenges the admiration of -every visitor, and gratifies the pride of every patriot. It is seen in -Fig. 239, and is 555 feet 51/2 inches high, 55 feet square at the base, -and 34 feet square at the top. The walls are 15 feet thick at the base, -and 18 inches at the top, and its summit is reached by an internal -winding staircase and a central elevator. At the height of 504 feet the -walls are pierced with port holes, from which a magnificent view is had -of the capital city and surrounding country. The summit is crowned with -a cap of aluminum, inscribed _Laus Deo_. The foundation of rock and -cement is 36 feet deep and 126 feet square, and the total cost of the -monument was $1,300,000. The corner stone was laid in 1848. In 1855 the -work was discontinued at the height of 152 feet, from lack of funds. In -1878 it was resumed by appropriation from Congress, and completed and -dedicated in 1885, under the direction of Col. Thomas L. Casey, of the -United States Corps of Engineers. - -_The Capitol Building._--Representing the heart of the great American -Republic, and overlooking its Capital City, this grand building, shown -in Fig. 240, is a poem in architecture. Massive, symmetrical and -harmonious, its highest point reaches 3071/2 feet above the plaza on the -east. It is 751 feet 4 inches long, 350 feet wide, and the walls of the -building proper cover 31/2 acres. Crowning the center of the building is -the imposing dome of iron, surmounted by a lantern, and above this is -the bronze statue of Freedom, 19 feet 6 inches high, and weighing -14,985 pounds, the latter being set in place December 2, 1863. The dome -is 135 feet 5 inches in diameter at the base, and the open space of the -rotunda within is 96 feet in diameter and 180 feet high. - -The corner stone of the original building was laid in 1793 by -Washington. The first session of Congress held there was in 1800, while -the building was still incomplete. The original building was finished -in 1811. In 1814 it was partly burned by the British. In 1815 -reconstruction was begun, and completed in 1827. In 1850 Congress passed -an act authorizing the extension of the Capitol, which resulted in the -building of the north and south wings, containing the present Senate -Chamber and Hall of the House of Representatives. The corner stones of -the extension were laid by President Fillmore in 1851, Daniel Webster -being the orator of the occasion, and the wings were finished in 1867. -Since this time handsome additions in the shape of marble terraces on -the west front have added greatly to the beauty and apparent size of the -building. - -[Illustration: FIG. 240.--THE UNITED STATES CAPITOL. LENGTH, 751-1/3 -FEET; WIDTH, 350 FEET; HEIGHT, 3071/2 FEET; BUILDING COVERS 31/2 ACRES.] - -It is not possible to give anything like an adequate review of the -engineering inventions and achievements of the Nineteenth Century in a -single chapter, and only the most noteworthy have been mentioned. The -modern life of the world, however, has been replete with the resourceful -expedients of the engineer, and the ingenious instrumentalities invented -by him to carry out his plans. There have been about 1,000 patents -granted for bridges, about 2,500 for excavating apparatus, and about -1,500 for hydraulic engineering. In mining the safety-lamp of Sir -Humphrey Davy, in 1815, has been followed by stamp mills, rock-drills, -derricks, and hoisting and lowering apparatus, and lately by hydraulic -mining apparatus, by which a stream of water under high pressure is made -to wash away a mountain side. Apparatus for loading and unloading, -pneumatic conveyors, great systems of irrigation, lighthouses, -breakwaters, pile drivers, dry-docks, ship railways, road-making -apparatus, fire escapes, fireproof buildings, water towers, and -filtration plants have been devised, constructed and utilized. Many -gigantic schemes, already begun, still await successful completion, -among which may be named the draining of the Zuyder Zee, the Siberian -railway, the Panama and Nicaraguan Canals, the Simplon tunnel, the new -East River Bridge, and the Rapid Transit Tunnel under New York City; -while a bridge or tunnel across the English Channel, a ship canal for -France, connecting the Bay of Biscay with the Mediterranean, a tunnel -under the Straits of Gibraltar, and a ship canal connecting the great -lakes with the Gulf of Mexico, are among the possible achievements which -challenge the engineer of the Twentieth Century. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII. - -WOODWORKING. - - EARLY MACHINES OF SIR SAMUEL BENTHAM--EVOLUTION OF THE SAW--CIRCULAR - SAW--HAMMERING TO TENSION--STEAM FEED FOR SAW MILL CARRIAGE--QUARTER - SAWING--THE BAND SAW--PLANING MACHINES--THE WOODWORTH PLANER--THE - WOODBURY YIELDING PRESSURE BAR--THE UNIVERSAL WOODWORKER--THE - BLANCHARD LATHE--MORTISING MACHINES--SPECIAL WOODWORKING MACHINES. - - -Surrounded as we are in the modern home with beautiful and artistic -furniture, and installed in comfortable and inexpensive houses, one does -not appreciate the contrast which the life of the average citizen of -to-day presents to that of his great-grandfather in the matter of his -dwelling house appointments. A hundred years ago most of the dwellings -of the middle and poorer classes were crudely made, with clap-boards and -joists laboriously hewn with the broad ax, and the roof was covered with -split shingles. Uncouth and clumsy doors, windows and blinds, were -framed on the simplest utilitarian basis, and a scanty supply of rude -hand-made furniture imperfectly filled the simple wants of the home. -To-day nearly every cottage has beautifully moulded trimmings, paneled -doors, handsomely carved mantels and turned balusters, all furnished at -an insignificant price, and art has so added its aesthetic values to the -furniture and other useful things in wood, that beautiful, artistic and -tasteful homes are no longer confined to the rich, but may be enjoyed by -all. This great change has been brought about by the sawmill, the -planing machine, mortising and boring machines, and the turning lathe. - -Pre-eminent in the field of woodworking machinery, and worthy to be -called the father of the art, is to be mentioned the name of Gen. Sir -Samuel Bentham, of England, whose inventions in the last decade of the -Eighteenth Century formed the nucleus of the modern art of woodworking. - -_The Saw_ was the great pioneer in woodworking machinery, and the -circular saw has, in the Nineteenth Century, been the representative -type. Pushing its way along the outskirts of civilization, its -glistening and apparently motionless disk, filled with a hidden, but -terrific energy, and singing a merry tune in the clearings, has -transformed trees into tenements, forests into firesides, and altered -the face of the earth, the record of its work being only measured by the -immensity of the forests which it has depleted. It is not possible to -fix the date of the first circular saw, for rotary cutting action dates -from the ancient turning lathes. The earliest description of a circular -saw is to be found in the British patent to Miller, No. 1,152, of 1777. -It was not until the Nineteenth Century, however, that it was generally -applied, and its great work belongs to this period. The preceding saws -were of the straight, reciprocating kind. The old pit-saw is the -earliest form, and in course of time the men were replaced by machinery -to form the "muley" saw, the man in the pit being replaced by a -mechanical "pitman," which accounts for the etymology of the word. With -the "muley" saw the log was held at each end, and each end shifted -alternately to set for a new cut. The first development was along the -lines of this form of saw, and to increase its efficiency the saws were -arranged in gangs, so as to make a number of cuts at one pass of the -log. This type was especially used in Europe, but on the up stroke there -was no work being done, and hence half of the time was lost. This and -other difficulties led finally to the adoption of the circular type, -whose continuous cut and high speed saved much time and presented many -other advantages. A representative example of the circular saw is given -in Fig. 241. - -[Illustration: FIG. 241.--PORTABLE CIRCULAR SAW.] - -With the increased diameter and peripheral speed of the circular saw, -however, a grave difficulty presented itself. The saw would heat at its -periphery, and its rim portion expanding without commensurate expansion -of the central portion, would cause the saw to crack and fly to pieces -under the tremendous centrifugal force. This difficulty is provided for -by what is known as "_hammering to tension_," _i. e._, the saw is -hammered to a gradually increasing state of compression from the rim to -the center, thus causing an initial expansion or spread of the molecules -of metal of the central parts of the saw, which is stored up as an -elastic expansive force that accommodates itself to the tension caused -by the expansion of the rim, and prevents the unequal and destructive -strain, due to the expansion of the rim from the great heat of friction -in passing through the log. - -Mounted upon a portable frame, this machine was put to its great work -upon the logs in the forests of America, and for many years this type of -sawmill held its sway, and an enormous amount of work was done through -its agency. Among its useful accessories were the set-works for -adjusting the log holding knees to the position for a new cut, log -turners for rotating the log to change the plane of the cut, and the -rack and pinion feed, by which the saw carriage was run back and forth. -Following the rack and pinion feed came the rope feed, in which a rope -wrapped around a drum was carried at its opposite ends over pulleys and -back to the opposite ends of the carriage, which was thereby carried -back and forth by the forward or backward movement of the drum. - -[Illustration: FIG. 242.--DIRECT-ACTING STEAM FEED SAWMILL CARRIAGE.] - -The greatest advance in sawmills in recent years, however, has been the -steam feed, in which a very long steam cylinder was provided with a -piston, whose long rod was directly attached to the saw carriage, and -the latter moved back and forth by the admission of steam alternately -to opposite sides of the piston. This type of feed, also known as the -_shot gun_ feed, from the resemblance of the long cylinder to a gun -barrel, was invented about twenty-five years ago, by De Witt C. -Prescott, and is covered by his patent, No. 174,004, February 22, 1876, -later improvements being shown in his patent, No. 360,972, April 12, -1887. The value of the steam feed was to increase the speed and -efficiency of the saw, by expediting the movement of its carriage, as -many as six boards per minute being cut by its aid from a log of average -length. An example of a modern steam feed for sawmill carriages is seen -in Fig. 242. With the modern development of the art the ease and -rapidity of steam action have recommended it for use in most all of the -work of the sawmill, and the direct application of steam pistons -working in cylinders has been utilized for canting, kicking, flipping -and rolling the logs, lifting the stock, taking away the boards, etc. - -[Illustration: FIG. 243.--METHOD OF SHAPING AND HOLDING LOG FOR QUARTER -SAWING.] - -Beautifully finished furniture in quartered oak has always excited the -pleasure, and piqued the curiosity of the uninformed as to how this -result is obtained. Fig. 243 illustrates the method of sawing to produce -this effect. The log is simply divided longitudinally into four -quarters, and the quarter sections are then cut by the vertical plane of -the saw at an oblique angle to the sawed sides, which brings to the -surface of the boards the peculiar flecks or patches of the wood's grain -so much admired when finished and polished. - -[Illustration: FIG. 244.--AUTOMATIC BAND RIP SAW.] - -The _Band Saw_ is an endless belt of steel having teeth formed along one -edge and traveling continuously around an upper and lower pulley, with -its toothed edge presented to the timber to be cut, as seen in Fig. 244, -which represents a form of band saw made by the J. A. Fay & Egan -Company, of Cincinnati. A form of band saw is found as early as 1808, in -British patent No. 3,105, to Newberry. On March 25, 1834, a French -patent was granted for a band saw to Etiennot, No. 3,397. The first -United States patent for a band saw was granted to B. Barker, January 6, -1836, but it remained for the last quarter of the Nineteenth Century to -give the band saw its prominence in woodworking machines. That it did -not find general application at an earlier period was due to the -difficulty experienced in securely and evenly joining the ends of the -band. For many years the only moderately successful band saws were made -in France, but expert mechanical skill has so mastered the problem that -in recent years the band saw has gone to the very front in wood-sawing -machinery. To-day it is in service in sizes from a delicate filament, -used for scroll sawing and not larger than a baby's ribbon, to an -enormous steel belt 50 feet in peripheral measurement, and 12 inches -wide, traveling over pulleys 8 feet in diameter, making 500 revolutions -per minute, and tearing its way through logs much too large for any -circular saw, at the rate of nearly two miles a minute. A modern form of -such a saw is seen in Fig. 245. Prescott's patents, Nos. 368,731 and -369,881, of 1887; 416,012, of 1889, and 472,586 and 478,817, of 1892, -represent some of the important developments in the band saw. - -[Illustration: FIG. 245.--MODERN BAND SAW FOR LARGE TIMBER.] - -When the band saw is applied to cutting logs the backward movement of -the carriage would, if there were any slivers on the cut face of the -log, be liable to force those slivers against the smooth edge of the -band saw, and distort and possibly break it. To obviate this the saw -carriage is provided with a lateral adjustment on the back movement -called an "off-set," so that the log returns for a new cut out of -contact with the saw. Examples of such off-setting are found in patents -to Gowen, No. 383,460, May 29, 1888, and No. 401,945, April 23, 1889, -and Hinkley, No. 368,669, August 23, 1887. A modern form of the band -saw, however, has teeth on both its edges, which requires no off-setting -mechanism, but cuts in both directions. An example of this, known as -the telescopic band mill, is made by the Edward P. Allis Company, of -Milwaukee. - -A saw which planes, as well as severs, is shown in patents to Douglass, -Nos. 431,510, July 1, 1890, and 542,630, July 16, 1895. Steam power -mechanism for operating the knees is shown in patent to Wilkin, No. -317,256, May 5, 1885. Means for quarter sawing in both directions of log -travel are shown in patent to Gray, No. 550,825, December 3, 1895. Means -for operating log turners and log loaders appear in patents to Hill, No. -496,938, May 9, 1893; No. 466,682, January 5, 1892; No. 526,624, -September 25, 1894, and Kelly, No. 497,098, May 9, 1893. A self cooling -circular saw is found in patent to Jenks, No. 193,004, July 10, 1877; -shingle sawing machines in patents to O'Connor, No. 358,474, March 1, -1887, and No. 292,347, January 22, 1884, and Perkins, No. 380,346, April -3, 1888; and means for severing veneer spirally and dividing it into -completed staves, are shown in patent to Hayne, No. 509,534, November -28, 1893. - -_Planing Machines._--While the saw plays the initial part of shaping the -rough logs into lumber, it is to the planing machine that the -refinements of woodworking are due. Its rapidly revolving cutter head -reduces the uneven thickness of the lumber to an exact gauge, and -simultaneously imparts the fine smooth surface. The planing machine is -organized in various shapes for different uses. When the cutters are -straight and arranged horizontally, it is a simple _planer_. When the -cutters are short and arranged to work on the edge of the board they are -known as _edgers_; when the edges are cut into tongues and grooves it is -called a _matching machine_; and when the cutters have a curved -ornamental contour it is known as a _molding machine_, and is used for -cutting the ornamental contour for house trimmings and various -ornamental uses. - -The planing machine was one of the many woodworking devices invented by -General Bentham. His first machine, British patent No. 1,838, of 1791, -was a reciprocating machine, but in his British patent No. 1,951, of -1793, he described the rotary form along with a great variety of other -woodworking machinery. - -Bramah's planer, British patent No. 2,652, of 1802, was about the first -planing machine of the Nineteenth Century. It is known as a transverse -planer, the cutters being on the lower surface of a horizontal disc, -which is fixed to a vertical revolving shaft, and overhangs the board -passing beneath it, the cutters revolving in a plane parallel with the -upper surface of the board. The planing machine of Muir, of Glasgow, -British patent No. 5,502, of 1827, was designed for making boards for -flooring, and represented a considerable advance in the art. - -With the greater wooded areas of America, the rapid growth of the young -republic, and the resourceful spirit of its new civilization, the -leading activities in woodworking machinery were in the second quarter -of the Nineteenth Century transferred to the United States, and a -phenomenal growth in this art ensued. Conspicuous among the early -planing machine patents in the United States was that granted to William -Woodworth, December 27, 1828. This covered broadly the combination of -the cutting cylinders, and rolls for holding the boards against the -cutting cylinders, and also means for tongueing and grooving at one -operation. The revolving cutting cylinder had been used by Bentham -thirty-five years before, and rollers for feeding lumber to circular -saws were described in Hammond's British patent No. 3,459, of 1811, but -Woodworth did not employ his rolls for feeding, as a rack and pinion -were provided for that, but his rolls had a co-active relation with a -planer cylinder, or cutter head, in holding the board against the -tendency of the cutter head to pull the board toward it. A patent was -granted to Woodworth for these two features in combination, which patent -was reissued July 8, 1845, twice extended, and for a period of -twenty-eight years from its first grant, exerted an oppressive monopoly -in this art, since it covered the combination of the two necessary -elements of every practical planer. - -Following the Woodworth patent came a host of minor improvements, among -which were the Woodbury patents, extending through the period of the -third quarter of the Nineteenth Century, and prominent among which is -the patent to J. P. Woodbury, No. 138,462, April 20, 1873, covering -broadly a rotary cutter head combined with a yielding pressure bar to -hold the board against the lifting action of the cutter head. - -In modern planing machinery the climax of utility is reached in the -so-called _universal woodworker_. This is the versatile Jack-of-all-work -in the planing mill. It planes flat, moulded, rabbeted, or beaded -surfaces; it saws with both the rip and crosscut action; it cuts tongues -and grooves; makes miters, chamfers, wedges, mortises and tenons, and is -the general utility machine of the shop. - -In Fig. 246 is shown a well known form of planing machine. Its work is -to plane the surfaces of boards, and to cut the edges into tongues and -groves, such as are required for flooring. This machine planes boards up -to 24 inches wide and 6 inches thick, and will tongue and grove 14 -inches wide. - -[Illustration: FIG. 246.--24-INCH SINGLE SURFACER AND MATCHER.] - -_Wood Turning._--To this ancient art Blanchard added, in 1819, his very -ingenious and important improvement for turning irregular forms. A few -efforts at irregular turning had been made before, but in the arts -generally only circular forms had been turned. With Blanchard's -improvement, patented January 20, 1820, any irregular form, such as a -shoe-last, gun-stock, ax-handle, wheel-spokes, etc., could be smoothly -and expeditiously turned and finished in any required shape. In the -ordinary lathe the work is revolved rapidly, and the cutting tool is -held stationary, or only slowly shifted in the hand. In the Blanchard -lathe the work is hung in a swinging frame, and turned very slowly to -bring its different sides to the cutting action, and the cutting tool is -constructed as a rapidly revolving disk, against which the work is -projected bodily by the oscillation of the swinging frame, to -accommodate the irregularities of the form. In order to do this -automatically, a pattern or model of the article to be turned was also -hung in the swinging frame, and made to slowly revolve and bear against -a pattern wheel, which, acting upon the swinging frame carrying the -work, caused it to advance to or recede from the cutting disc exactly in -proportion to the contour of the model, and thus cause the revolving -cutters to cut the block as it turns synchronously with the model, to a -shape exactly corresponding to said model. - -[Illustration: FIG. 247.--BLANCHARD LATHE.] - -In Fig. 247 is shown a perspective view of Blanchard's lathe, as -patented January 20, 1820. H is a swinging frame, carrying the model T -of a shoe last, and a roughed-out block U, partly converted into a shoe -last. A sliding frame, fed horizontally by a screw, carries a pattern -wheel K, that bears against the pattern T, and a rotary cutter E, acting -against the roughed-out block U. The revolving disk-shaped cutter E is -rotated by a pulley and belt from a drum, which latter is made long -enough to accommodate the travel of the frame. The pattern T and block U -are advanced to contact respectively, with pattern wheel K and cutter E -by the swinging action of frame H, and as the pattern T and block U are -slowly revolved, the travel of T against K is made to react on frame H -and regulate the advance of U against E, with the result that the rough -block U is cut to the identical shape of the pattern T. - -Among modern developments in this art may be mentioned the patents to -Kimball, No. 471,006, March 15, 1892, and No. 498,170, May 23, 1893, the -latter showing ingenious means whereby shoe lasts of the same length, -but varying widths, may be turned. A polygonal-form lathe is shown in -patent to Merritt, No. 504,812, September 12, 1893; a multiple lathe in -patents to Albee, No. 429,297, June 3, 1890, and Aram, No. 550,401, -November 26, 1895; a tubular lathe in patent to Lenhart, No. 355,540, -January 4, 1887; and a spiral cutting lathe in patent to Mackintosh, No. -396,283, January 15, 1889. - -[Illustration: FIG. 248.--MORTISING MACHINE.] - -_Mortising Machines_ have exercised an important influence in mill work -in the joining of the stiles in doors, sashes and blinds, and in the -making of furniture. The Fay & Egan machine is seen in Fig. 248. The -self acting mortising machine was among the numerous early contributions -of Gen. Bentham in woodworking machinery, and was described in his -British patent No. 1,951, of 1793, a number of them having been made by -him for the British Admiralty. Brunel's mortising machine for making -ships' blocks is another early form described in British patent No. -2,478, of 1801. As representing novel departures in this art, the -endless chain mortising machine shown in Douglas patent, No. 379,566, -March 20, 1888, may be mentioned, and reissue patent, No. 10,655, -October 27, 1885, to Oppenheimer, and No. 461,666, October 20, 1891, to -Charlton, are examples of mortising augers. - -_Special Woodworking Machines._--Of these there have been great numbers -and variety. No sooner does an article become extensively used than a -machine is made for turning it out automatically. Indeed, machines for -cheaply turning out articles have, in many cases, led the way to popular -use of the article by the extreme cheapness of its production. - -Among various automatic machines for making special articles may be -mentioned those for making clothes pins, scooping out wood trays, -pointing skewers, dovetailing box blanks, cutting sash stile pockets, -cutting and packing toothpicks, making matches, boxing matches, -duplicating carvings, cutting bungs, cutting corks, making umbrella -sticks, making brush blocks, boring chair legs, screw-driving machines, -box nailing machines, making cigar boxes, nailing baskets, wiring box -blanks, applying slats, gluing boxes, gluing slate frames, making -veneers, bushing mortises, covering piano hammers, making staves and -barrels, making fruit baskets, etc. - -It is impossible to give in any brief review a proper conception of the -immensity of the woodworking industry in the United States. It is -estimated in the Patent Office that about 8,000 patents have been -granted for woodworking machines. Besides this there are about 5,000 -patents in the separate class of wood sawing, about an equal number for -woodworking tools, and these, with other patented inventions in wood -turning, coopering, or the making of barrels, wheelwrighting, and other -minor classes, give some idea of the activity in this great field of -industry. - -The exports of wood and wooden manufactures from the United States in -1899 amounted to $41,489,526, of which $15,031,176 were for finished -boards, $4,107,350 for barrels, staves and heads, and $3,571,375 for -household furniture, but this is only an insignificant portion, for with -a prosperous country, an abundance of wood, and a thrifty and ambitious -nation of home builders, the home consumption has been incalculable. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX. - -METAL WORKING. - - EARLY IRON FURNACE--OPERATIONS OF LORD DUDLEY, ABRAHAM DARBY AND - HENRY CORT--NEILSON'S HOT BLAST--GREAT BLAST FURNACES OF MODERN - TIMES--THE PUDDLING FURNACE--BESSEMER STEEL AND THE CONVERTER--OPEN - HEARTH STEEL--SIEMENS' REGENERATIVE FURNACE--SIEMENS-MARTIN PROCESS - --ARMOR PLATE--MAKING HORSE SHOES--SCREWS AND SPECIAL MACHINES-- - ELECTRIC WELDING, ANNEALING AND TEMPERING--COATING WITH METAL--METAL - FOUNDING--BARBED WIRE MACHINES--MAKING NAILS, PINS, ETC.--MAKING - SHOT--ALLOYS--MAKING ALUMINUM, AND METALLURGY OF RARER METALS--THE - CYANIDE PROCESS--ELECTRIC CONCENTRATOR. - - -Take away iron and steel from the resources of modern life, and the -whole fabric of civilization disintegrates. The railroad, steam engine -and steamship, the dynamo and electric motor, the telegraph and -telephone, agricultural implements of all sorts, grinding mills, -spinning machines and looms, battleships and firearms, stoves and -furnaces, the printing press, and tools of all sorts--each and every one -would be robbed of its essential basic material, without which it cannot -exist. Steam and electricity may be the heart and soul of the world's -life, but iron is its great body. King among metals, it gives its name -to the present cycle, as the "Iron Age," and the Nineteenth Century has -crowned it with such refinements of shape, and endowed it with such -attributes of utility, and such grandeur of estate, that its powers in -organized machinery have, for effective service, risen to all the -functions and dignity of human capacity--except that of thought. - -A crude gift of nature, in the mountain side, it remained, however, a -sodden mass until extracted, refined, and wrought into shape by the -genius of man. Yielding to the magical touch of invention, it has been -cast in moulds into cannon, mills, plowshares, and ten thousand -articles; it has been drawn into wire of any fineness and length to form -cables for great suspension bridges; it has been rolled into rails that -grill the continents; into sheets that cover our roofs; and into nails -that hold our houses together. It has been wrought into a softness that -lends its susceptible nature to the influence of magnetism, and has been -hardened into steel to form the sword and cutting tool. From the -delicate hair spring of a watch to the massive armor plate of a -battleship, it finds endless applications, and is nature's most enduring -gift to man--abundant, cheap, and lasting. - -Metallurgy is an ancient art, and the working of gold, silver and copper -dates back to the beginning of history. Being found in a condition of -comparative purity, and needing but little refinement, they were, for -that reason, the first metals fashioned to meet the wants of man. Iron, -somewhat more refractory, appeared later, but it also has an early -history, and is mentioned in the Old Testament of the Bible (Genesis -iv., 22), in which reference is made to Tubal Cain as an artificer in -brass and iron. The iron bedstead of Og, King of Bashan, is another -reference. That it was known to the Egyptians and the Greeks at least -1000 B. C., seems reasonably certain. The Assyrians were also acquainted -with iron, as is clearly established by the explorations of Mr. Layard, -whose contributions to the British Museum of iron articles from the -ruins of Ninevah include saws, picks, hammers, and knives of iron, which -are believed to be of a date not later than 880 B. C. - -Iron ore is usually found in the form of an oxide (hematite), and its -reduction to the metallic form consists in displacing the oxygen, which -is effected by mixing carbon in some form with the ore, and subjecting -the mixture to a high heat by means of a blast. The carbon unites with -the oxygen and forms carbonic acid gas, which escapes, while the -metallic iron fuses and runs out at the bottom of the furnace, and when -collected in trough-shaped moulds, is known as pig iron. - -[Illustration: FIG. 249.--PRIMITIVE IRON FURNACE OF HINDOSTAN.] - -The first iron furnaces were known as _air bloomeries_, and had no -forced draft. The first step of importance in iron making was the forced -blast. An early form of blast furnace is shown in Fig. 249, which -represents an iron furnace of the Kols, a tribe of iron smelters in -Lower Bengal and Orissa. An inclined tray terminates at its lower end in -a furnace inclosure. Charcoal in the furnace being well ignited, ore and -charcoal resting on the tray are alternately raked into the furnace. The -blowers are two boxes, connected to the furnace by bamboo pipes, and -provided with skin covers, which are alternately depressed by the feet -and raised by cords from the spring poles. Each skin cover has a hole in -the middle, which is stopped by the heel of the workman as the weight of -the person is thrown upon it, and is left open by the withdrawal of the -foot as the cover is raised. The heels of the workman, alternately -raised, form alternately acting valves, and the skin cover, when -depressed, acts as a bellows. The fused metal sinks to a basin in the -bottom of the furnace, and the slag or impurities run off above the -level of the basin at the side of the furnace. - -The great modern art of iron working dates from Lord Dudley's British -patent, No. 18, of 1621, which related to "The mistery, arte, way and -meanes of melting iron owre, and of makeing the same into cast workes or -barrs with seacoales or pittcoales in furnaces with bellowes of as good -condicon as hath bene heretofore made of charcoale." - -The next step of importance after the blast furnace was the substitution -of coke for coal for the reduction of the ore, which was introduced by -Abraham Darby, about 1750. - -Next came the conversion of cast iron into wrought iron. This was mainly -the work of Mr. Henry Cort, of Gosport, England, who, in 1783-84, -introduced the processes of puddling and rolling, which were two of the -most important inventions connected with the production of iron since -the employment of the blast furnace. Mr. Cort obtained British patents -No. 1,351, of 1783, and No. 1,420, of 1784, for his invention. His first -patent related to the hammering, welding, and rolling of the iron, while -in his second patent he introduced what is known as the reverberatory -furnace, having a concave bottom, into which the fluid metal is run from -the smelting furnace, and which is converted from brittle cast iron, -containing a certain per cent. of carbon, into wrought iron, which has -the carbon eliminated, and is malleable and tough. This process is -called _puddling_, and consists in exposing the molten metal to an -oxidizing current of flame and air. The metal boils as the carbon is -burned out, and as it becomes more plastic and stiff it is collected -into what are called blooms, and these are hammered to get rid of the -slag, and are reduced to marketable shape as wrought iron by the -process described in his previous patent. Mr. Cort expended a fortune in -developing the iron trade, and was one of the greatest pioneers in this -art. - -The first notable development of the Nineteenth Century was the -introduction of the hot air blast in forges and furnaces where bellows -or blowing apparatus was required. This was the invention of J. Beaumont -Neilson, of Glasgow, and was covered by him in British patent No. 5,701 -of 1828. This consisted in heating the air blast before admitting it to -the furnace, and it so increased the reduction of refractory ores in the -blast furnace as to permit three or four times the quantity of iron to -be produced with an expenditure of little more than one-third of the -fuel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 250.--MODERN HOT BLAST FURNACE.] - -An illustration of a modern blast furnace plant is given in Fig. 250. A -is the furnace, in which the iron ore and fuel are arranged in alternate -layers. The hot air blast comes in through pipes _t_ at the bottom, -called tuyeres. As gas escapes through the opening _b_ at the top, it is -first cleared of dust in the settler and washer B, and then passes -through the pipe C to the regenerators D D D, where it is made to heat -the incoming air. The gas mixed with some air burns in the -regenerators, and, after heating a mass of brick within the regenerators -red hot, escapes by the underground passageway to the chimney on the -right. When the bricks are sufficiently hot in one of the regenerators, -gas is turned off therefrom, and into another regenerator, and fresh air -from pipe H is passed through the bricks of the heated regenerator, and -being heated passes out pipe F at the top and thence to the pipe G and -tuyeres _t_, to promote the chemical reactions in the blast furnace. - -In the earlier blast furnaces a vast amount of heat was allowed to -escape and was wasted. The utilization of this heat engaged the -attention of Aubertot in France, 1810-14; Teague in England (British -patent No. 6,211, of 1832); Budd (British patent No. 10,475, of 1845), -and others. To enable the escaping hot gases to be employed for heating -the hot blast regenerators a charging device is now used, as seen at a -in Fig. 250, in which the admission of ore and fuel is regulated by a -large conical valve, and the gases are compelled to pass out at _b_ and -be utilized. - -Among the world's largest blast furnaces may be mentioned the Austrian -Alpine Montan Gesellschaft, which concern owns thirty-two furnaces. This -is said to be the largest number owned by any one concern in the world, -but most of them are of small size and run on charcoal iron. The -furnaces of the United States are, however, of the largest yield, and -the leading ones of these are: - - No. Annual capacity - Furnaces. in tons. - Carnegie Steel Co. 17 2,200,000 - Federal Steel Co. 19 1,900,000 - Tennessee Coal and Iron Co. 20 1,307,000 - National Steel Co. 12 1,205,000 - -The present annual output of pig iron in the United States is about ten -million tons, of which these four companies make about one-half. - -[Illustration: FIG. 251.--PUDDLING FURNACE.] - -When the iron runs from the bottom of the blast furnace it is allowed to -flow into trough-like moulds in the sand of the floor, and forms pig -iron. Pig iron can be remelted and cast into various articles in moulds, -but it cannot be wrought with the hammer, nor rolled into rails or -plates, nor welded on the anvil, because it is still a compound of iron -and carbon with other impurities, and is crystalline in character. To -bring it into wrought iron, which is malleable and ductile, it is -puddled and refined, which involves chiefly the burning out of the -carbon and silicon. The pig iron is remelted (see Fig. 251) in the -tray-shaped hearth _b_ from the heat of the fire in the reverberatory -furnace _a_, the reverberatory furnace being one in which the materials -treated are exposed to the heat of the flame, but not to contact with -the fuel. The hot flame mixed with air beating down upon the melted iron -on hearth _b_ for two hours or so, burns out the silicon and carbon, the -process being facilitated by stirring and working the mass with tools. -During the operation the oxygen of the air combines with the carbon and -forms carbonic acid gas, which, in escaping from the metal, appears to -make it boil. When the iron parts with its carbon it loses its fluidity -and becomes plastic and coherent, and is formed into balls called -_blooms_. These blooms consist of particles of nearly pure iron -cohering, but retaining still a quantity of slag or vitreous material, -and other impurities, which slag, etc., is worked out while still, hot -by a squeezing, kneading, and hammering process to form wrought iron -that may be worked into any shape between rolls or under the hammer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 252.--BESSEMER CONVERTER DURING THE "BLOW."] - -_Bessemer Steel._--Steel is a compound of iron and carbon, standing -between wrought iron and cast iron. Wrought iron has, when pure, -practically no carbon in it, while cast iron has a considerable -proportion in excess of steel. Steel making consists mainly in so -treating cast iron as to get rid of a part of the carbon and other -impurities. Of all methods of steel making, and in fact of all the steps -of progress in the art of metal working, none has been so important and -so far reaching in effect as the Bessemer process: It was invented by -Henry Bessemer, of England, in 1855. About fifty British patents were -taken by Mr. Bessemer relating to various improvements in the iron -industry, but those representing the pioneer steps of the so-called -Bessemer process are No. 2,321, of 1855; No. 2,768, of 1855, and No. -356, of 1856. The process is illustrated in Figs. 252, 253 and 254. The -converter in which the process is carried out is a great bottle-shaped -vessel 15 feet high and 9 feet wide, consisting of an iron shell with a -heavy lining of refractory material, capable of holding eight or more -tons of melted iron, and with an open neck at the top turned to one -side. It is mounted on trunnions, and is provided with gear wheels by -which it may be turned on its trunnions, so that it may be maintained -erect, as in Fig. 252, or be turned down to pour out the contents into -the casting ladle, as in Figs. 253 and 254. At the bottom of the -converter there is an air chamber supplied by a pipe leading from one of -the trunnions, which is hollow, and a number of upwardly discharging air -openings or nozzles send streams of air into the molten mass of red hot -cast iron. The red hot cast iron contains more or less carbon and -silicon, and the air uniting with the carbon and silicon burns it out, -and in doing so furnishes the heat for the continuance of the operation. -When the pressure of air is turned into the mass of molten iron a tongue -of flame increasing in brilliancy to an intense white, comes roaring out -of the mouth of the converter, and a violent ebullition takes place -within, and throws sparks and spatters of metal high in the air around, -producing the impression and scenic effect of a volcano in eruption. In -fifteen minutes the volume and brilliancy of the flame diminish, and -this indicates the critical moment of conversion into tough steel, which -must be adjusted to the greatest nicety. When the carbon is sufficiently -burned out the blast is stopped and the converter turned down to receive -a quantity of ferro-manganese or spiegeleisen (a compound of iron -containing manganese), which unites with and removes the sulphur and -oxide of iron, and then the lurid monster, with its breath of fire -abated, and its energy exhausted, bows its head and vomits forth its -charge of boiling steel, to be wrought or cast into ten thousand useful -articles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 253.--POURING THE MOLTEN METAL.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 254.--SIDE VIEW, SHOWING TURNING GEARS.] - -Like most all valuable inventions, Mr. Bessemer's claim to priority for -the invention was contested. An American inventor, William Kelly, in an -interference with Mr. Bessemer's United States patent, successfully -established a claim to the broad idea of forcing air into the red hot -cast iron, and United States patent No. 17,628, June 23, 1857, was -granted to Mr. Kelly. The honor of inventing and introducing a -successful process and apparatus for making steel by this method, -however, fairly belongs to Mr. Bessemer, to whose work was to be added -the valuable contribution of Robert F. Mushet (British patent No. 2,219, -of 1856) of adding spiegeleisen, a triple compound of iron, carbon and -manganese, to the charge in the converter. This step served to regulate -the supply of carbon and eliminate the oxygen, and completed the process -of making steel. The Holly converter, covered by United States patents -No. 86,303, and No. 86,304, January 26, 1869, represented one of the -most important American developments of the Bessemer converter. - -The importance of Bessemer steel in its influence upon modern -civilization is everywhere admitted. It has so cheapened steel that it -now competes with iron in price. Practically all railroad rails, iron -girders and beams for buildings, nails, etc., are made from it at a cost -of between one and two cents per pound. - -In recognition of the great benefits conferred upon humanity by this -process, Queen Victoria conferred the degree of knighthood upon the -inventor, and his fortune resulting from his invention is estimated to -have grown for some time at the rate of $500,000 a year. In a historical -sketch of the development of his process, delivered by Sir Henry -Bessemer in December, 1896, before the American Society of Mechanical -Engineers at New York, Mr. Bessemer was reported as saying that the -annual production of Bessemer steel in Europe and America amounted to -10,000,000 tons. The production of Bessemer steel in the United States -for 1897 was for ingots and castings 5,475,315 tons, and for railroad -rails 1,644,520 tons. The extent to which steel has displaced iron is -shown by the fact that in the same year iron rails to the extent of -2,872 tons only were made, as compared with more than a million and a -half tons of Bessemer steel. - -In the popular vote taken by the _Scientific American_, July 25, 1896, -as to what invention introduced in the past fifty years had conferred -the greatest benefit upon mankind, Bessemer steel was given the place of -honor. - -A recent improvement in the handling of iron from the blast furnace is -shown in Fig. 255. Heretofore, the iron was run in open sand moulds on -the floor and allowed to cool in bars called "pigs," which were united -in a series to a main body of the flow, called a "sow." To break the -"pigs" from the "sow," and handle the iron in transportation, was a very -laborious and expensive work. The illustration shows two series of -parallel trough moulds, each forming an endless belt, running on wheels. -The molten cast iron is poured direct into these moulds, and as they -travel along they pass beneath a body of water, which cools and -solidifies the iron into pigs, and then carries them up an incline and -dumps them directly into the cars. - -[Illustration: FIG. 255.--CASTING AND LOADING PIG IRON.] - -_Open Hearth Steel_ is not so cheap as Bessemer steel, but it is of a -finer and more uniform quality. Bessemer steel is made in a few minutes -by the most energetic, rapid and critical of processes, while the open -hearth steel requires several hours, and its development being thus -prolonged it may be watched and regulated to a greater nicety of result. -For railroad rails and architectural construction Bessemer steel still -finds a great field of usefulness, but for the finest quality of steel, -such as is employed in making steam boilers, tools, armor plate for war -vessels, etc., steel made by the open hearth process is preferred. It -consists in the decarburization of cast iron by fusion with wrought -iron, iron sponge, steel scrap, or iron oxide, in the hearth of a -reverberatory furnace heated with gases, the flame of which assists the -reaction, and the subsequent recarburization or deoxidation of the bath -by the addition, at the close of the process, of spiegeleisen or -ferro-manganese. The period of fusion lasts from four to eight hours. -The advantages over the Bessemer process are, a less expensive plant and -the greater duration of the operation, permitting, by means of -sampling, more complete control of the quality of the product and -greater uniformity of result. - -The British patents of Siemens, No. 2,861, of 1856; No. 167, of 1861, -and No. 972, of 1863, for regenerative furnaces, and the British patents -of Emile and Pierre Martin, No. 2,031, of 1864; No. 2,137, of 1865, and -No. 859, of 1866, represent the so-called _Siemens-Martin_ process, -which is the best known and generally used open hearth process. - -[Illustration: FIG. 256.--SIEMENS REGENERATIVE FURNACE.] - -_The Siemens Regenerative Furnace_, in which this process is carried -out, is seen in Fig. 256. Four chambers, C, E, E', C', are filled with -fire brick loosely stacked with spaces between, in checker-work style. -Gas is forced in the bottom of chamber C, and air in bottom of chamber -E, and they pass up separate flues, G, on the left, and being ignited in -chamber D above, impinge in a flame on the metal in hearth H, the hot -gases passing out flues F on the right, and percolating through and -highly heating the checker-work bricks in chambers E' and C'. As soon as -these are hot, gas and air are shut off by valves from chambers C and E, -and gas and air admitted to the bottoms of the now hot chambers C' and -E'. The gas and air now passing up through these chambers C', E', become -highly heated, and when burned above the melted iron on hearth H produce -an intense heat. The waste gases now pass down flues G, and impart -their heat to the checker-work bricks in chambers C and E. When the -bricks in E' C' become cooled by the passage of gas and air, the valves -are again adjusted to reverse the currents of gas and air, sending them -now through chambers C and E again. In this way the heat escaping to -the smoke stack is stored up in the bricks and utilized to heat the -incoming fuel gases before burning them, thus greatly increasing the -effective energy of the furnace, saving fuel, and keeping the smoke -stack relatively cool. - -_Armor Plate._--In these late days of struggle for supremacy between the -power of the projectile and the resistance of the battleship, the -production of armor plate has become an interesting and important -industry. - -Three methods are employed. One is to roll the massive ingots directly -into plates between tremendous rolls, a single pair of which, such as -used in the Krupp works, are said to weigh in the rough as much as -100,000 pounds. Usually there are three great rollers arranged one above -the other, and automatic tables are provided for raising and lowering -the plates in their passage from one set of rolls to the other. The man -in charge uses a whistle in giving the signals which direct these -movements, and without the help of tongs and levers the glowing blocks -move easily back and forth between the rollers. The men standing on both -sides of the rollers have only to wipe off the plates with brooms and -occasionally turn the plates. - -[Illustration: FIG. 257.--14,000-TON HYDRAULIC PRESS FORGING AN ARMOR -PLATE.] - -The second method utilizes great steam hammers weighing 125 tons, and -striking Titanic blows upon the yielding metal. The most modern method, -however, is by the hydraulic press forge, now used in the shops of the -Bethlehem steel works in the production of Harveyized armor plate. In -Fig. 257 is seen the great 14,000-ton hydraulic press-forge squeezing -into shape a port armor plate for the battleship "Alabama." After -leaving the forge, the plate is trimmed to shape by the savage bite of a -rotary saw and planer, seen in Figs. 258 and 259, whose insatiable -appetites tear off the steel like famished fiends. The plate is then -taken to be Harveyized by cementation, hardening, and tempering, as seen -in Figs. 260, 261, and 262. The 125-ton mass of metal representing the -plate in the rough, and weighing more than a locomotive, is thus handled -and brought to shape with an ease and dispatch that inspires the -observer with mixed emotions of admiration and awe. - -_Making Horse Shoes._--Anthony's patent, April 8, 1831; Tolles', of -October 24, 1834, and H. Burden's, of November 23, 1835, were pioneers -in horse-shoe machines. Mr. Burden took many subsequent patents, and to -him more than any other inventor belongs the credit of introducing -machine-made horse shoes, which greatly cheapened the cost of this -homely, but useful article. Nearly 400 United States patents have been -granted for horse-shoe machines. - -[Illustration: FIG. 258.--ROTARY SAW, CUTTING HEAVY ARMOR PLATE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 259.--ROTARY PLANER, TRIMMING HEAVY ARMOR PLATE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 260.--THE CEMENTATION FURNACE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 261.--HARDENING THE PLATE BY JETS OF WATER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 262.--OIL TEMPERING.] - -_Making Screws, Bolts, Nuts, Etc._--Screw-making according to modern -methods began between 1800-1810 with the operations of Maudsley. Sloan, -in 1851, and Harvey, in 1864, made many improvements in machines, -operating upon screw blanks. The gimlet-pointed screw, which allows the -screw to be turned into wood without having a hole bored for it, was an -important advance in the art. It was the invention of Thomas J. Sloan, -patented August 20, 1846, No. 4,704, and was twice re-issued and -extended. In later years the rolling of screws, instead of cutting the -threads by a chasing tool, has attained considerable importance, and -provides a simpler and cheaper method of manufacture. Knowles' United -States patent of April 1, 1831, re-issued March 1, 1833, described such -a process, while Rogers, in patents No. 370,354, September 20, 1887; No. -408,529, August 6, 1889; No. 430,237, June 17, 1890, and No. 434,809, -August 19, 1890, added such improvement in the process as to make it -practical. - -In the great art of metal working the names of Bramah, Whitworth, -Clements and Sellers appear conspicuously in the early part of the -century as inventors of planing, boring and turning machinery for -metals. Our present splendid machine shops, gun shops, locomotive works, -typewriter and bicycle factories, are examples of the wonderful -extensions of this art. In later years the field has been filled so full -of improvements and special machines for special work, that only a brief -citation of a few representative types is possible, and even then -selection becomes a very difficult task. Many special tools, -particularly those designed for _bicycle work_, have been devised, as -exhibited by patent to Hillman, August 11, 1891, No. 457,718. In -_turning car wheels_, an improvement consists in bringing the wheel to -be dressed into close proximity to the edge of a rapidly revolving -smooth metal disk, whereby the surface of the wheel is melted away -without there being any actual contact between the wheel surface and the -disk. This is shown in patent to Miltimore, August 24, 1886, No. -347,951. In _metal tube manufacture_ three processes are worthy of -mention: (1) Passing a heated solid rod endwise between the working -faces of two rapidly rotating tapered rolls, set with their axes at an -angle to each other, as shown in Mannesmann's patent, April 26, 1887, -No. 361,954 and 361,955. (2) Forcing a tube into a rapidly rotating die, -whereby the friction softens the tube, and the pressure and rotation of -the die spin it into a tube of reduced diameter, shown in patent to -Bevington, January 13, 1891, No. 444,721. (3) Placing a hot ingot in a -die and forcing a mandrel through the ingot, thereby causing it to -assume the shape of the interior of the die, and greatly condensing the -metal, shown in patents to Robertson, November 26, 1889, No. 416,014, -and Ehrhardt, April 11, 1893, No. 495,245. - -In _welding_, the employment of electricity constitutes the most -important departure. This was introduced by Elihu Thomson, and is -covered in his patents Nos. 347,140 to 347,142, August 10, 1886, and No. -501,546, July 18, 1893. In _annealing_ and _tempering_, electricity has -also been employed as a means of heating (see patent to Shaw, No. -211,938, February 4, 1879). It supplies an even heat and uniform -temperature, and is much used in producing clock and watch springs. The -making of iron castings malleable by a prolonged baking in a furnace in -a bed of metallic oxide was an important, but early, step. It was the -invention of Samuel Lucas, and is disclosed in his British patent No. -2,767, of 1804. - -The _Harvey process_ of making armor plate is an important recent -development in _cementation_ and _case hardening_, and is covered by his -United States patents No. 376,194, January 10, 1888, and No. 460,262, -September 29, 1891. It consists, see Fig. 260, in embedding the face of -the plate in carbon, protecting the back and sides with sand, heating to -about the melting point of cast iron, and subsequently hardening the -face. The Krupp armor plate, now rated as the best, is made under the -patent to Schmitz and Ehrenzberger, No. 534,178, February 12, 1895. - -In _coating with metals_, the so-called "galvanizing" of iron is an -important art. This was introduced by Craufurd (British patent No. -7,355, of April 29, 1837), and consisted in plunging the iron into a -bath of melted zinc covered with sal ammoniac. In more recent years the -tinning of iron has become an important industry, and machines have been -made for automatically coating the plates and dispensing with hand -labor, examples of which are found in patents No. 220,768, October 21, -1879, Morewood; No. 329,240, October 27, 1885, Taylor, _et al._, and No. -426,962, April 29, 1890, Rogers and Player. - -In _metal founding_ the employment of chill moulds is an important step. -Where any portion of a casting is subjected to unusual wear, the mould -is formed, opposite that part of the casting, out of metal, instead of -sand, and this metal surface, by rapidly extracting the heat at that -point by virtue of its own conductivity, hardens the metal of the -casting at such point. The casting of car wheels by chill moulds, by -which the tread portion of the wheel was hardened and increased in -wearing qualities, is a good illustration. Important types are found in -patents to Wilmington, No. 85,046, December 15, 1868; Barr, No. 207,794, -September 10, 1878, and Whitney, re-issue patent, No. 10,804, February -1, 1887. - -In _wire-working_ great advances have been made in machines for making -_barbed wire fences_. The French patent to Grassin & Baledans, in 1861, -is the first disclosure of a barbed wire fence. This art began -practically, however, with the United States patent to Glidden and -Vaughan for a barbed wire machine, No. 157,508, December 8, 1874, -re-issued March 20, 1877, No. 7,566, and has assumed great proportions. -A machine for making wire net is shown in patent to Scarles, No. -380,664, April 3, 1888, and wire picket fence machines are shown in -patents to Fultz, No. 298,368, May 13, 1884, and Kitselman, No. 356,322, -January 18, 1887. Machines for making wire nails were invented at an -early period, but the product found but little favor until about 1880, -when they began to be extensively used, and have almost entirely -supplanted cut nails for certain classes of work, since their round -cross section and lack of taper give great holding power and avoid -cutting the grain of the wood. In 1897 the wire nails produced in the -United States amounted to 8,997,245 kegs of 100 pounds each, which -nearly doubled the output of 1896. The output of cut nails for the same -year was 2,106,799 kegs. - -The bending of wire to form chains without welding the links has long -been done for watch chains, etc., but in late years the method has -extended to many varieties of heavy chains. The patents to Breul, No. -359,054, March 8, 1887, and No. 467,331, January 19, 1892, are good -examples. - -An interesting class of machines, but one impossible of illustration on -account of their complication, are machines for making pins. In earlier -times pins had their heads applied in a separate operation. Making pins -from wire and forming the heads out of the cut sections began in the -Nineteenth Century with Hunt's British patent No. 4,129, of 1817. This -art received its greatest impetus, however, under Wright's British -patent No. 4,955, of 1824. A paper of pins containing a pin for every -day in the year, and costing but a few cents, gives no idea to the -purchaser of the time, thought and capital expended in machines for -making them, and yet were it not for such machines, rapidly cutting -coils of wire into lengths, pointing and heading the pins, and sticking -them into papers, the world would be deprived of one of its most -ubiquitous and useful articles. Many tons of pins are made in the United -States weekly, and it is said that 20,000,000 pins a day are required to -meet the demand. - -In the metal working art the making of firearms and projectiles has -grown to wonderful proportions. Cutlery and builders' hardware is an -enormous branch; wire-drawing, sheet metal-making, forging, and the -making of tools, springs, tin cans, needles, hooks and eyes, nails and -tacks, and a thousand minor articles, have grown to such proportions -that only a bird's-eye view of the art is possible. - -In the _making_ of _shot_, the old method was to pour the melted metal -through a sieve, and allow it to drop from a tower 180 feet or more in -height. David Smith's patent, No. 6,460, May 22, 1849, provided an -ascending current of air through which the metal dropped, and which, by -cooling the shot by retarding its fall and bringing a greater number of -air particles in contact with them, avoided the necessity of such high -towers. In 1868, Glasgow and Wood patented a process of dropping the -shot through a column of glycerine or oil. Still another method is to -allow the melted metal to fall on a revolving disk, which divides it -into drops by centrifugal action. - -_Alloys._--Over 300 United States patents have been granted for various -alloys of metals. The so-called _babbit metal_ was patented in the -United States by Isaac Babbit, July 17, 1839, and in England, May 15, -1843, No. 9,724. This consists of an antifriction compound of tin, 10 -parts, copper, 1 part, and antimony, 1 part, and is specially adapted -for the lubricated bearings of machinery. _Phosphor bronze_, introduced -in 1871, combines 80 to 92 parts copper, 7 of tin, and 1 of phosphorus -(see United States patents to Lavroff, No. 118,372, August 22, 1871, and -Levi and Kunzel, No. 115,220, May 23, 1871). The addition of phosphorus -promotes the fluidity of the metal and makes very clean, fine and strong -castings. In alloys of iron, _chromium steel_ is covered by patents to -Baur, No. 49,495, August 22, 1865; No. 99,624, February 8, 1870, and -No. 123,443, February 6, 1872; _manganese steel_, by Hadfield's patent, -No. 303,150, August 5, 1884; _aluminum steel_, by Wittenstroem's patent, -No. 333,373, December 29, 1885, and _phosphorus steel_, by Kunkel's -patent, No. 182,371, September 19, 1876. The most recent and perhaps -most important, however, is _nickel steel_, used in making armor for -battleships. This is covered by Schneider's patents, Nos. 415,655, and -415,657, November 19, 1889. - -In 1878 England led the world in the iron industry with a production of -6,381,051 tons of pig iron, as compared with 2,301,215 tons by the -United States. In 1897 the United States leads the world in the -following ratios: - - Tons Pig Iron. Tons Steel. - United States 9,652,680 7,156,957 - Great Britain 8,789,455 4,585,961 - Germany 6,879,541 4,796,226 - France 2,472,143 1,312,000 - -The United States made in that year 29.30 per cent. of the world's -production of pig iron, and 34.58 per cent. of its steel. The total -output of the whole world in that year was 32,937,490 tons pig iron, and -20,696,787 tons of steel. - -_Metallurgy of Rarer Metals._--Although less in evidence than iron, this -has engaged the attention of the scientist from the earliest years of -the century. The full list of metals discovered since 1800 may be found -under "Chemistry." The more important only are here given. Palladium and -rhodium were reduced by Wollaston in 1804. Potassium and sodium were -first separated in metallic form by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1807, through -the agency of the voltaic arc; barium, strontium, calcium and boron by -the same scientist in 1808; iodine by Courtois in 1811; selenium by -Berzelius in 1817; cadmium by Stromeyer in 1817; silicon by Berzelius in -1823, and bromium by Balard in 1826. Magnesium was first prepared by -Bussey in 1829. Aluminum was first separated in 1828 by Wohler, by -decomposing the chloride by means of potassium. Oersted, in 1827, -preceded him with important preliminary steps, and Deville, in 1854, -followed in the first commercial applications. In late years the -metallurgy of aluminum has made great advances. The Cowles process heats -to incandescence by the electric current a mixture of alumina, carbon -and copper, the reduced aluminum alloying with the copper. This process -is covered by United States patents to Cowles and Cowles, No. 319,795, -June 9. 1885, and Nos. 324,658 and 324,659, August 18, 1885. It has, -however, for the most parts been superseded by the process patented by -Hall, April 2, 1889, No. 400,766, in which alumina dissolved in fused -cryolite is electrically decomposed. - -In the metallurgy of the precious metals probably the most important -step has been the _cyanide process_ of obtaining gold and silver. In -1806 it was known that gold was soluble in a solution of cyanide of -potassium. In 1844 L. Elsner published investigations along this line, -and demonstrated that the solution took place only in the presence of -oxygen. McArthur and Forrest perfected the process for commercial -application, and it is now extensively used in the Transvaal and -elsewhere. It is covered by their British patent, No. 14,174, of 1887, -and United States patents No. 403,202, May 14, 1889, and No. 418,137, -December 24, 1889, which describe the application of dilute solutions of -cyanide of potassium, not exceeding 8 parts cyanogen to 1,000 parts of -water: the use of zinc in a fine state of division to precipitate the -gold out of solution, and the preparatory treatment of the partially -oxidized ores with an alkali or salts of an alkali. By this -solution-process gold, in the finest state of subdivision, which could -not be extracted by other processes from the earthy matters, may be -recovered and saved in a simple, practical and cheap way. - -[Illustration: FIG. 263.--EDISON MAGNETIC CONCENTRATING WORKS. THE GIANT -CRUSHING ROLLS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 264.--EDISON MAGNETIC CONCENTRATOR.] - -In the working of ores of gold and silver the old method of comminution -of the rock and the separation of the gold and silver by amalgamation -with mercury has given birth to thousands of inventions in stamp mills, -amalgamators, ore washers, concentrators and separators. In the -treatment of iron ores, and especially those of low grade, the magnetic -concentrator is an interesting and striking departure. This method goes -back to the first half of the Nineteenth Century, an example being found -in the patent to Cook, No. 6,121, February 20, 1849. Edison's patent, -No. 228,329, June 1, 1880, is however, the basis of the first practical -operations in which magnets, operating by attraction upon falling -particles of iron ore, are made to separate the particles rich in iron -from the sand. In Fig. 263 is shown the Edison magnetic concentrating -apparatus. The ore, in masses of all sizes up to boulders of five or six -tons weight, is dumped between the giant rolls, and these enormous -masses are crunched and comminuted more easily than a dog crunches a -bone. These gigantic rolls are six feet in diameter, six feet long, and -their surfaces are covered with crushing knobs. They weigh with the -moving machinery seventy tons, and when revolved at a circumferential -speed of 3,500 feet in a minute, their insatiable and irresistible bite -soon chews the rock into fragments that pass into similar crushing rolls -set closer together until reduced to the desired fineness. The sand is -then raised to the top of the concentrating devices, shown in Fig. 264, -and is allowed to fall in sheets from inclined boards in front of a -series of magnets, of which four sets are shown in the figure. These -magnets deflect the fall of the particles rich in iron (which are -attracted), while the non-magnetic particles of sand drop straight down. -A thin knife-edge partition board, arranged below the falling sheets of -sand, separates the deflected magnetic particles from the -straight-falling sand. These magnetic particles are then collected and -pressed into little bricks, which are now so rich in iron, by virtue of -concentration, as to make the final reduction of the iron in the blast -furnace easy and profitable. More recent developments in this art are -shown in patents to Wetherill, No. 555,792, March 3, 1896, and Payne, -No. 641,148, January 9, 1900. - -In the production of copper the well-known Bessemer process for refining -iron is now largely used, as shown in patent to Manhes, No. 456,516, -July 21, 1891, in which blasts of air are forced through the melted -copper to remove sulphur and other impurities. Electrolytic processes of -refining copper are also largely used, as described in Farmer's patent, -No. 322,170, July 14, 1885. - -The production of metals, other than iron, in the United States for the -year 1897, was as follows: - - Gold, 2,774,935 ounces; worth $57,363,000. - Silver, 53,860,000 ounces; worth $32,316,000. - Copper, 220,571 long tons. - Lead, 212,000 short tons. - Zinc, 99,980 short tons. - Aluminum, 4,000,000 lbs.; worth (371/2 cents lb.) $1,500,000. - (This was three times the product of 1896.) - Mercury, 26,691 flasks; worth $993,445. - Nickel, 23,707 pounds; worth (33 cents pound) $7,823. - - - - -CHAPTER XXX. - -FIREARMS AND EXPLOSIVES. - - THE CANNON THE MOST ANCIENT OF FIREARMS--MUZZLE AND BREECH LOADERS - OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY--THE ARMSTRONG GUN--THE RODMAN, DAHLGREN - AND PARROTT GUNS--BREECH LOADING ORDNANCE--RAPID FIRE BREECH LOADING - RIFLES--DISAPPEARING GUN--GATLING GUN--DYNAMITE GUN--THE COLT AND - SMITH & WESSON REVOLVERS--GERMAN AUTOMATIC PISTOL--BREECH LOADING - SMALL ARMS--MAGAZINE GUNS--THE LEE, KRAG-JORGENSEN, AND MAUSER - RIFLES--HAMMERLESS GUNS--REBOUNDING LOCKS--GUN COTTON--NITRO- - GLYCERINE AND SMOKELESS POWDER--MINES AND TORPEDOES. - - -Strange as it may appear, the evolution of an enlightened civilization -and the deadly use of firearms have developed in parallel lines. What -relation there may be between the adoption of the teachings of Christ to -men to love one another, and the invention of increased facilities among -men for killing one another, is a problem for the philosopher. Is it -because killing at long range is less brutal, or does the deterrent -influence of this increased facility operate as a check appealing to the -fear of the individual, or is the cannon one of God's missionaries in -working out the great law of the survival of the fittest? Whatever it -may be, there does seem to be some relation of cause and effect between -the two factors, and doubtless all three of the causes have exercised a -contributory influence. In the olden days the wage of battle was almost -universally decided by the strength of brawn, and the higher qualities -of mind were subservient. The advent of firearms has changed all this. -It has made the weakest arm equal to the strongest when supported by the -same or a superior mental equipment, and this has made a great step -toward the supremacy of the intellectual against the attack of the -physically strong. In the fifth century the great civilization of Rome -fell under the ruthless attack of the northern barbarian. Could such a -thing have been possible with the gates defended by Gatling guns, -magazine rifles, and dynamite shells? On the contrary, we find to-day a -handful of trained soldiers equipped with modern firearms putting to -flight a horde of ignorant savages. The history of modern wars is filled -with illustrations of the shifting of the contest among men from an -issue of brute force to a contest of brains, and of the support rendered -the latter by firearms. But is war really necessary, and may we not -hope that it shall cease? We can only say that the ideal sentiment of -beating the sword into the plowshare is as yet the dream of the -optimist, for man has gone right along in perfecting the arts of war and -raising the execution of firearms to such a deadly efficacy, that the -Nineteenth Century in a paramount degree has been conspicuously notable -for its advances in this art. Invention after invention has followed in -such rapid succession, even to the last years of the Nineteenth Century, -until war now assumes the conditions of suicide and annihilation. - -No coherent history of firearms and explosives is possible in any short -review. The cannon, bombard or mortar, musket, pistol and petard, all -belong to former centuries, and in one form or another extend back to -the most ancient times, but they have grown in the Nineteenth Century -into such accuracy and distance of range, into such rapidity of action, -into such multiplied efficiency in repeating systems, into such energy -of explosives, and such convenient embodiment and penetration of -projectile, that these subjects must needs be considered in separate -divisions. - -[Illustration: FIG. 265.--MUZZLE LOADING CANNON OF THE SIXTEENTH -CENTURY.] - -_The Cannon_ is the most ancient of all firearms, and, like gunpowder, -is believed to have had its origin with the Chinese. In the Eleventh -Century the vessels of the King of Tunis, in the attack on Seville, are -said to have had on board iron pipes from which a thundering fire was -discharged. Conde, in his history of the Moors in Spain, speaks of them -as used in that country as early as 1118. Ferdinand, in 1309, took -Gibraltar from the Moors by cannon, and in 1346 the English used them at -the battle of Crecy, and from that time on they became a common weapon -of warfare. In the first cannon used the balls were of stone, and some -of them were of enormous size. The bronze cannon of Mohammed II., A. -D., 1464, had a bore of 25 inches, and threw a stone ball of 800 pounds. -The _Tsar-Pooschka_, the great bronze gun of Moscow, cast in 1586, was -even larger, and had a bore 36 inches in diameter. Early in the history -of the cannon the breech-loading feature was introduced. In Figs. 265 -and 266 are shown illustrations from the Sixteenth Century, Fig. 265 -representing a muzzle loader, and Fig. 266 a breech-loader. - -[Illustration: FIG. 266.--BREECH LOADING CANNON OF THE SIXTEENTH -CENTURY.] - -Passing through various stages of development, the cannon came down to -the Nineteenth Century, and was known generally as ordnance or -artillery, and specifically as cannon or heavy guns, mortars for -throwing shell at a great elevation, and howitzers for field, mountain, -or siege, and which latter are lighter and shorter than cannon, and -designed to throw hollow projectiles with comparatively small charges. -The feature of importance in the cannon which contributed most to its -efficiency was the rifling of the bore with spiral grooves. This, by -giving a rotating effect to the projectile, caused it to maintain a -truer flight by taking advantage of the law of physics that a rotating -body tends to preserve its plane of rotation. The rifling of the barrels -of firearms is, however, of very ancient origin. The British patent to -Rotsipen, No. 71, of 1635, is an early disclosure of this art. The -patent was granted him for - - "Fourteen yeares if he live soe long." * * * "To draw or to shave - barrells for pieces of all sortes straight even and smooth, and to - make anie crooked barrell perfectly straight with greate ease, and - to _rifle cutt out_ or screwe barrells as wyde or as close or as - deepe or as shallowe as shalbe required, with greate ease." - -The rifle grooves, however, were first made spiral or "screwed" by -Koster, of Birmingham, about 1620, while straight grooves are said to -have been in use as far back as 1498. In Berlin there is a rifled cannon -of 1664 with thirteen grooves. Rifled cannon were first employed in -actual service in Louis Napoleon's Italian campaign of 1859, and were -first introduced in the United States service by General James in 1861. - -About the middle of the Nineteenth Century a great impetus was given to -the development of artillery by the Crimean War, followed by the Civil -War of the United States. - -In England the Armstrong gun was introduced about 1855, and was covered -by British patents No. 401, of 1857; No. 2,564, of 1858; No. 611, of -1859, and No. 743, of 1861. This originally consisted of an internal -tube of wrought iron or gun metal, with cylindrical casings of wrought -iron shrunk on. It was afterwards improved in what was known as the -Fraser gun. In Germany the operations of Krupp as a gun maker began to -be notable about this period. In the United States, Colonel Rodman -devised a means of casting guns of large calibre, by having a hollow -core through which water was circulated to rapidly cool and harden the -metal in the vicinity of the bore, and to relieve the unequal strain in -cooling. He obtained patent No. 5,236, August 14, 1847, for the same. -The Dahlgren gun was patented August 6, 1861, Nos. 32,983, 32,984, and -32,985, by Admiral Dahlgren, U. S. N. The improvement covered the -adjustment of the thickness of the metal at the breech of the gun to the -varying pressure strains along the bore. These guns were distinguishable -by the smooth bulbous breech of great thickness and curvilinear contour. -The Parrott gun, patented October 1, 1861, No. 33,401, and May 6, 1862, -No. 35,171, comprehended a form of hooped ordnance in which the breech -was re-enforced by an encompassing hoop or sleeve, which was shrunk on. - -[Illustration: FIG. 267.--THE KRUPP BREECH MECHANISM.] - -_Breech-Loading Ordnance._--While the breech-loading cannon is several -centuries old, and was, in fact, one of the first forms of that firearm, -it is to this principle of action that the rapid fire and great -execution of the modern weapon are chiefly due. The earliest of existing -forms of breech mechanism is that which comprehends the channeling of -the breech transversely to receive a tapered plug, which permits the -charge to be placed in the open rear end of the gun in front of the -channel, and the transverse plug then closed behind the charge. This is -described in Hadley's British patent No. 577, of 1741; was first -patented in the United States in a modified form by Wright and Gould, -No. 22,325, December 14, 1858, and afterwards came to be known as the -Broadwell system, being developed by him and covered in patents No. -33,876, of December 10, 1861; No. 43,553, July 12, 1864, and No. 55,762, -June 19, 1866. This general principle is still employed by Krupp in -some of his guns, and as used by him is shown in Fig. 267. The -transverse channel through the breech is tapered, and the sliding breech -block X is slightly wedge-shaped to fit tightly therein. When the breech -block is withdrawn for loading, as shown, a sleeve S, shown in dotted -lines, is temporarily arranged in alignment with the bore and gives -smooth passage way to the charge to a position in front of the breech -block. This sleeve is then withdrawn, the breech block forced in, and is -there locked by a turn of the threads of a locking screw _b_ into the -corresponding recesses _a_ in the breech. A detachable wrench _e_ may be -applied either to the screw _d b_ to turn it to lock or unlock, or to -the traversing screw _c_, which, by engaging with a nut (not shown), -runs the breech block in and out. - -[Illustration: FIG. 268.--INTERRUPTED THREAD BREECH MECHANISM.] - -By far the most popular principle of the breech block, however, is that -of the interrupted thread, shown in Fig. 268, in which the plug, when -closed, has its axis in alignment with the axial bore of the gun. Its -threads are interrupted by longitudinally arranged channels, and the -breech of the gun has corresponding threads and channels. When the plug -is pushed into the gun, the screw threads of the plug enter the channels -of the breech, and a rotary turn of the screw plug then locks its -threads into those of the breech. The screw plug is supported by a -carrier hinged at one side to the gun, and arranged to swing the plug -into axial alignment with the bore, or be thrown to one side to admit -the charge. The patents to Chambers, No. 6,612, July 31, 1849 (re-issue -No. 237, April 19, 1853), and to Cochran, No. 26,256, November 29, 1859, -are the earliest American examples of this principle of action, and are -believed to be the original inventions of the same. - -In one form or another this construction enters into most all modern -breech mechanisms. Among the forms used by the United States are the -Driggs-Seabury, the Dashiell, and the Vickers-Maxim. To prevent the -expanding gases from driving through the crevices of the breech block, -expanding or swelling rings, known as gas checks, are arranged on the -front of the breech block. De Bange's patent, No. 301,220, July 1, 1884, -covers the most popular form. - -[Illustration: FIG. 269.--SIGHTING A SIX-INCH RAPID FIRE GUN.] - -The elements of efficiency of the modern rapid-fire breech-loading rifle -are to be found in the following features: First, in the increased -length of the gun, which, for a 6-inch gun is now as much as 25 feet, -the increased length lending a longer period of expansion for the -explosion of the powder charge, and imparting a correspondingly higher -momentum; secondly, in the fixed ammunition, which means a cartridge -case in which a metallic shell encloses the powder charge, and is -connected with the projectile, and third, in the great improvement and -rapidity of action of the breech mechanism, which permits as many as -eight rounds per minute to be fired. In Fig. 269 is shown a 6-inch -rapid-fire gun of the United States Navy, loaded, and being sighted for -fire. Rapid-fire guns of this class represent the most effective form of -modern ordnance. It was largely such rapid fire batteries of Admiral -Dewey's squadron that swept the Spanish fleet out of existence at -Manila, and that demolished the fleet of Cervera at Santiago by the -awful hail of shells poured into his ships. These relatively small guns -throw a shell six miles, and the striking energy of their projectiles at -the muzzle is equal to the penetration of iron plate 21 inches thick, or -16 inches of steel. When the gun is loaded, it is held in the forward -position by coil springs, inclosed in cylinders and holding a recoil -seat for the trunnions, and also has two pistons traveling in cylinders -filled with glycerine. When the gun is fired, the recoil causes it to -slide back, carrying the pistons, and the recoil is checked by the -resistance of the glycerine traveling through an opening past the -pistons. After full recoil, the gun is automatically returned to its -forward position by the action of the coil springs, which are compressed -during the recoil. The gun crew is protected by Harveyized steel plate 4 -inches thick, and the gun is so delicately mounted on ball bearings that -its great weight of 71/2 tons responds readily to the slight pressure in -training the same. - -[Illustration: FIG. 270.--RANGE OF SIXTEEN-INCH GUN.] - -Powerful as these guns appear to be, their big brothers in the revolving -turrets are far more so. While not so nimble in action, the great power -of these guns of the main battery, and the elaboration and completeness -of mechanism for operating them, for supplying them with ammunition, and -for rotating the turrets, constitute a complete world in ordnance in -itself. As the gun increases in size, its cost both in construction and -service increases in a greatly disproportionate ratio. A 6-inch -breech-loading rifle costs $64.40 for each discharge, while a 12-inch -gun costs $458 for each discharge. The largest guns of our battleships -are of 13 inch calibre, and about 40 feet long, but larger ones are -employed for sea coast defenses. The great 16-inch 126-ton gun, now -building for the United States at the Watervliet arsenal, is 491/4 feet -long, over 6 feet in diameter at the breech, and it will have an extreme -range of over twenty miles. Its projectile will weigh 2,370 pounds, and -it will cost $865 to fire the gun once. The accompanying view, Fig. 270, -will give graphic illustration of the range of this gun. If fired at its -maximum elevation from the battery at the south end of New York in a -northerly direction, its projectile would pass over the city of New -York, over Grant's Tomb, Spuyten Duyvil, Riverdale, Mount St. Vincent, -Ludlow, Yonkers, and would land near Hastings-on-the-Hudson, nearly -twenty miles away, as shown in our map, Fig. 271. The extreme height of -its trajectory would be 30,516 feet, or nearly six miles. This means -that if Pike's Peak, of the Western Hemisphere, had piled on top of it -Mont Blanc, of the Eastern Hemisphere, this gun would hurl its enormous -projectile so high above them both as to still leave space below its -curve to build Washington's Monument on top of Mont Blanc, as shown in -Fig. 270. - -[Illustration: FIG. 271.--RADIUS OF ACTION OF SIXTEEN-INCH GUN.] - -_The Disappearing Gun._--The importance of secreting the location of the -battery in coast defences, and the better protection of the gunners, -have suggested a species of gun carriage which would permit the gun to -be normally hidden behind and under the protection of the parapet, and -be only temporarily elevated to a position above the parapet while -firing. Various forms of this have been devised. General R. E. De Russy, -Corps Engineers, U. S. A., devised such a carriage in 1835. Moncrieff, -of England, was one of the first to put in practice such a form of -carriage. United States patents covering this invention were granted him -as follows: No. 83,873, November 10, 1868; No. 115,502, May 30, 1871, -and No. 144,120, October 28, 1873. Its principle of operation was to -utilize the force of the recoil as a power to raise the gun into firing -position. The gun is fulcrumed in a lever frame provided with a -counterpoise which more than balances the gun. When the gun is fired the -recoil raises the counterweight, and the gun descends and is locked in -its lower position. When loaded and released the counterpoise raises the -gun again to firing position. - -Among later gun carriages of this type of American construction may be -mentioned those devised by Spiller, Gordon, Howell, and others, but the -one most generally known is the Buffington-Crozier, covered by patents -No. 555,426, February 25, 1896, and No. 613,252, November 1, 1898. This -carriage, sustaining the 8 and 10 inch breech-loading rifles at Fort -Wadsworth for the defence of New York harbor, is shown in Figs. 272 -and 273, Fig. 272 representing it in its lowered position, and Fig. 273 -in its elevated position for firing. The trunnions of the gun rest in -bearings at the upper ends of the pair of levers, which latter are -fulcrumed near the middle to horizontally sliding carriages connected to -hydraulic cylinders that move backward as the gun recoils. These -cylinders move over stationary pistons which have orifices that allow -the liquid to pass from one side of the piston to the other. As the gun -recoils and the levers turn to the horizontal position, the forward ends -of the levers are made to raise vertically an immense leaden -counterweight, weighing 32,000 pounds, which ordinarily over-balances -the weight of the gun on the levers. This cylindrical counterweight is -seen raised on the left of Fig. 272. In firing, the energy of the recoil -is absorbed partly by raising the counterweight, and partly by the -resistance of the hydraulic cylinders, and when the gun reaches its -lowest position it is caught and retained by pawls. After loading the -pawls are tripped, and the greater gravity of the counterweight raises -the gun to firing position again. Ten shots from an 8-inch gun on this -carriage have been fired in 12 minutes 21 seconds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 272.--BUFFINGTON-CROZIER DISAPPEARING GUN, LOWERED.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 273.--BUFFINGTON-CROZIER DISAPPEARING GUN, ELEVATED -FOR FIRING.] - -_The Machine Gun._--During the Civil War a gun made its appearance -which, although of small calibre, rivaled in its deadly effectiveness -the wholesale slaughter of the cannon. It was a new type, and was known -as the machine gun, or battery gun, in which balls of comparatively -small size were discharged uninterruptedly and in incredible succession. -It was the invention of Dr. R. J. Gatling, and was covered by him in -patents No. 36,836, November 4, 1862, and No. 47,631, May 9, 1865, and -in many subsequent patents for minor improvements, and is now -universally known as the Gatling gun. It consisted of a circular series -of barrels mounted on a central shaft, and revolved by suitable gears -and a hand crank. The cartridges were automatically and successively fed -into the chambers of the barrel, and its several hammers were so -arranged in connection with the barrels that the whole operation of -loading, closing the breech, discharging and expelling the empty -cartridge cases was conducted while the barrels were kept in a -continuous revolving movement by turning the hand crank. In Fig. 274 is -shown a modern example of the Gatling gun equipped with the Accles feed. -Ordinarily the gun has ten barrels, with ten corresponding locks, which -revolve together during the working of the gun. When the gun is in -action there are always five cartridges going through the process of -loading, and five empty shells in different stages of being extracted, -and many hundred shots a minute can be fired. Many modifications of this -gun have been made by Hotchkiss and others. Maxim, Nordenfelt, and -Benet have each made valuable inventions in machine guns of a somewhat -different type, some of which utilize the force of the exploding charges -to react on the feed and firing mechanism, and thus furnish the power to -continue the consecutive operation of the gun, so that no hand crank is -required, but the gun works itself with an incessant hail of balls until -its supply of cartridges is exhausted. - -[Illustration: FIG. 274.--GATLING GUN ON UNITED STATES ARMY MODEL -CARRIAGE.] - -_The Dynamite Gun._--Most impressive to the layman, and most -demoralizing to the enemy, is this latter day form of ordnance. The -first efforts to hurl dynamite shells from a gun were made with -compressed air for fear of prematurely exploding the sensitive dynamite -in the gun, which would be more disastrous to the gunners themselves -than to the enemy. The Zalinski dynamite gun was of this class, and the -first which attained any notoriety. Foolhardy as it might appear, Yankee -genius was led to believe that dynamite shells could be fired with -powder charges, and this is now done in a practical and safe way in the -Sims-Dudley Dynamite Gun. This is manufactured under the fundamental -patents of Dudley, Nos. 407,474, 407,475, 407,476, of July 23, 1889, -which cover a method of exploding a charge of powder in one gun barrel, -and causing it to compress the air in front of it, and force it into -another barrel behind the dynamite shell, so that this relatively cool -body of air is interposed between the hot powder gases and the -dynamite. Fig. 275 represents Dudley's patent drawing. C is the powder -charge in barrel A, and H is the dynamite shell in barrel G. The front -of barrel A is connected to the rear of barrel G behind the dynamite -shell by the tube F. When the powder C explodes, all the air in barrel A -and tube F is driven out and acts on the dynamite shell H to discharge -it without allowing it to come in contact with the hot powder gases. A -frangible plate D closes the end of barrel A, but blows out above a -certain pressure to avoid bursting strain in the gun. The Sims patent, -No. 619,025, February 7, 1899, covers a more simple and practical form -of constructing a gun on this principle, and the gun as used in the -United States is constructed in accordance with this latter improvement. - -[Illustration: FIG. 275.--DYNAMITE GUN, DUDLEY'S PATENT, JULY 23, 1889.] - -_Small Arms._--Pistols and guns are the two classes into which the -layman divides small arms, although in latter years this classification -has been much disturbed by the western frontiersman, who calls his -pistol a gun, and by the artillerist, who also calls his cannon a gun. - -_The pistol_ may be defined as a small arm held in one hand to be fired. -It is an ancient weapon, but had attained no special importance or -popularity prior to the Nineteenth Century. The duelling pistol, with -its long barrel, its hair trigger and inlaid stock, and the derringer, -with its short barrel of large bore, were the popular forms. Not until -the revolver made its appearance did the pistol attain any importance. -Colt is popularly credited with having invented this, but it is really a -very old principle. In the Alte Deutscher Drehling Der Ruckladungs -Gewehre, by Edward Zernin, 1872, Darmstadt and Leipzig, is shown an -ancient form of match lock revolver, said to belong to the period -1480-1500. It is probably the same as the match-lock revolver in the -museum of the Tower of London, which is also credited to the Fifteenth -Century. In the British patent to Puckle, No. 418, of 1718, is shown and -described a well-constructed revolver carried on a tripod, and of the -dimensions of the modern machine gun. The inventor naively states that -it has round chambers for round balls, designed for Christians, and -square chambers, with square balls, for the Turks. The first revolving -firearm in the United States was made by John Gill, of Newberne, N. C., -in 1829. It had fourteen chambers, and was a percussion gun, but was -never patented. The first revolver patented in the United States was -that to D. G. Colburn, June 29, 1833. The revolver of Col. Samuel Colt -was patented February 25, 1836, (re-issue No. 124, October 24, 1848), -and again August 29, 1839, No. 1,304; September 3, 1850, No. 7,613, and -September 10, 1850, No. 7,629. It was the first practical invention of -this kind, and it embodied as a leading feature the automatic rotation -of the cylinder in cocking by a pawl on the hammer engaging a ratchet on -the end of the cylinder. - -[Illustration: FIG. 276.--SMITH & WESSON REVOLVER DISCHARGING SHELLS.] - -Various types followed, such as the old pepper box, patented by Darling -April 13, 1836; the self-cocking pepper box, patented by Allen, No. -3,998, April 16, 1845; the four sliding barrels of Sharp, No. 6,960, -December 18, 1849, and many others. The most popular and successful, -however, of the succeeding types is that of Smith & Wesson, shown in -Fig. 276, and covered by many patents. One of its most important -features is the simultaneous extraction of the shells by an ejector, -having a stem sliding through the cylinder. This was the invention of W. -C. Dodge, patented January 17, 1865, No. 45,912, re-issue No. 4,483, -July 25, 1871. In Fig. 277 is shown Smith & Wesson's latest pattern of -Hammerless Safety Revolver, with automatic shell extractor and -rebounding lock. - -[Illustration: FIG. 277.--SMITH & WESSON SELF ACTING HAMMERLESS -REVOLVER.] - -The latest development in this class of arms is the _automatic magazine -pistol_, designed for the use of the officers of the German army, and -adapted to fire ten shots in as many seconds. Only a slight pressure on -the trigger is necessary, as it is not required to perform the work of -turning any other part by the trigger, as is the case in the -self-cocking revolver. The pressure of gas at each explosion does all -the work of pushing back the closing piece of the breech through the -recoil of the shell, extracts and ejects the shell, cocks the hammer, -and also compresses recuperative springs, which effect the reloading and -closing of the weapon, all of these functions being performed in proper -sequence at each explosion in a fraction of a second. The act of firing -thus prepares the pistol for the next shot automatically. In Fig. 278 -are shown two makes of pistol of this type. No. 1 is known as the Mauser -(United States patent No. 584,479, June 15, 1897); No. 2 shows it with -an extemporized stock, to be used as a carbine in firing from the -shoulder. This stock is hollow and forms the holster or case for the -pistol. At No. 3 is shown the Mannlicher pistol (United States patent -No. 581,296, April 27, 1897), which is another form of the same type. In -the Mauser the breech moves to the rear during recoil. In the Mannlicher -the barrel moves to the front, leaving space for a fresh cartridge to -come up from the magazine below. The calibre of this pistol is 0.3 -inch, and the initial velocity 1,395 feet. At 33 feet the ball passes -through 103/4 inches of spruce, at 490 through 5 inches, and its extreme -range is 3,000 feet, or more than half a mile. When empty it is quickly -re-charged with cartridges, which are made up in sets of ten in a case -and inserted in one movement. - -[Illustration: FIG. 278.--AUTOMATIC PISTOLS.] - -_Breech-Loading Guns._--Although the breech-loading principle was well -known prior to the Nineteenth Century, it remained for this period to -give it effective development. The first United States patent for a -breech-loading gun was to Thornton and Hall, May 21, 1811. It was a -flint lock, and many of these arms were made at Harper's Ferry Armory in -1814, and issued to the troops, one being given by order of Congress to -each member of Congress to take home with him to show to his -constituents. The present style of break-down gun was invented by Pauly, -in France, and is to be found in his British patent No. 3,833, of 1814. -Lefaucheux, of Paris, however, made this form of gun practical. -Minesinger, in United States patent No. 6,139, February 27, 1849, -supplied the important improvement of making the front edge of the -metallic cartridge shell thinner than elsewhere, so as to expand by the -pressure of the exploding charge, and swell to a tight fit of the -barrel. The Maynard rifle, first patented May 27, 1851, No. 8,126, was -one of the earliest practical forms of breech-loaders. - -_Magazine Guns._--Walter Hunt's United States patent No. 6,663, August -21, 1849, was the first on a magazine firearm of modern type. It had a -sliding breech block carrying the main spring and firing pin. The -Spencer rifle was one of the early ones that came into use. This had a -row of cartridges in the stock, and was first patented March 6, 1860, -No. 27,393. It was this weapon which in the Civil War gave proof of the -deadly efficacy of the breech-loading magazine gun, and its superiority -to the old style military arm. Another type of magazine firearm which in -the last half century has gained great prominence and popularity is the -so-called "Winchester." This has its cartridges arranged in a tube below -and parallel with the barrel, and they are fed in a column to the rear -by a helical spring as fast as they are used up at the breech. The -pioneer of this type is the arm patented by Smith & Wesson February 14, -1854, No. 10,535, re-issued December 30, 1873, No. 5,710. This was -subsequently improved as to the extractor by B. F. Henry in patent No. -30,446, October 16, 1860, re-issued December 7, 1868, No. 3,227, and was -manufactured and favorably known for many years as the _Henry rifle_. -This rifle was also used in the Civil War. O. F. Winchester subsequently -re-organized it in patent No. 57,808, September 4, 1866, and the arm in -late years has taken his name. - -_The Needle Gun_, of Prussia, represents an early form of breech loader, -and may be considered the prototype of the modern bolt gun. The needle -gun has in the place of the swinging hammer a rectilinearly sliding -bolt, carrying in front a needle which pierces the charge and ignites -the fulminate by its friction. Its construction permits the fulminate -to be placed in advance of the powder, which thus burns from the front, -and is entirely consumed in the gun, instead of being partially blown -out of the gun, as may occur when ignited in the rear. The needle gun -was invented by Dreyse in 1838, was first introduced about 1846, and -gave effective service in the Prusso-Austrian war of 1866. The -_Chassepot_, brought out in 1867, United States patent No. 60,832, was a -French development of the Prussian needle gun. - -About 1879 two forms of magazine guns appeared which have become types -for most all subsequent guns of this class. Both of them employed the -bolt system as previously embodied in the needle gun, but added to it -the magazine principle and changed the method of supplying and feeding -the cartridges. One was the invention of James Lee, and the other was -the joint invention of Colonel Livermore, of the Corps of Engineers, and -Major Russell, of the Ordnance Department, U. S. A. In the Lee, whose -name has been much in evidence in late years, there was a relatively -small detachable box (see Fig. 279) capable of holding five cartridges -and designed to be filled and then placed in a slot opening centrally -under the gun, below the receiver, and directly in front of the trigger -guard. A spring within the magazine fed the cartridges up into alignment -with the barrel. Lee's first patent was No. 221,328, November 4, 1879. - -[Illustration: FIG. 279.--LEE'S MAGAZINE RIFLE, PATENTED NOVEMBER 4, -1879.] - -The Livermore-Russell gun, patented October 28, 1879, No. 221,079, had a -magazine opening transversely in the upper edge of the stock behind the -bolt, and the cartridges were fed to the barrel beneath the bolt. The -important feature of the gun, however, was a cartridge case slotted on -its side and detachable from the gun, and each bearing a group of five -cartridges, which were to be thus made up in small packets and carried -in the belt or cartridge box of the soldier. This idea was subsequently -developed by Livermore and Russell in patent No. 230,823, August 3, -1880, and this feature, viewed in the light of the importance -subsequently attained by the "clip" in the Mauser and Mannlicher guns, -may be fairly considered the pioneer of this idea of grouping cartridges -in made-up packets for bolt guns. Its great advantage is the large -number of shots that may be fired in a short space of time without an -excessive weight in the gun itself. - -Subsequent patents for improvements were taken by Lee as follows: No. -513,647, January 30, 1894, and No. 547,583, October 8, 1895, and the gun -used by the United States Navy is modeled along the lines of Lee's -invention. - -[Illustration: FIG. 280.--KRAG-JORGENSEN MAGAZINE RIFLE.] - -_The Krag-Jorgensen Magazine Rifle_ was patented June 10, 1890, No. -429,811, and February 21, 1893, No. 492,212. It is the arm adopted by -the United States infantry service, and is seen in Fig. 280. The fixed -magazine chamber, shown in the cross section, passes through the breech -laterally below the barrel, and is filled with cartridges on one side of -the gun, which cartridges pass through the breech laterally, and, -turning a curve, enter the barrel from the opposite side. When the bolt -is drawn back by the knob handle a cartridge is fed up into position to -enter the barrel, and when pushed forward the cartridge is forced into -the bore of the gun, and at the same time a spiral spring is put under -tension to set the hammer of the gun, which carries a firing pin at its -front end. When the trigger is pulled the hammer and firing pin plunge -forward to explode the cap in the cartridge, and when the handle of the -bolt is drawn back again to extract the empty shell, a fresh cartridge -rises to take its place. - -_The Mauser Rifle_ is shown in Fig. 281. This is the arm of which so -much was heard during the recent war with Spain, and against which our -soldiers had to contend. Five cartridges are carried in a magazine -immediately in front of the trigger, and are fed up by a subjacent -spring, one at a time, centrally through the breech into line with the -barrel, as the bolt with the knobbed handle is worked back and forth. -The cartridges are carried by the soldier in groups of five in a "clip," -which is a simple strip of metal with inturned parallel edges, which -enclose the flanged heads of the cartridges as they project at right -angles to the clip. To transfer the cartridges to the magazine, the -clip with its cartridges is placed above the barrel, and the cartridges -forced down out of the clip into the magazine. In the Mannlicher gun, -adopted by the German army, the clip which holds the cartridges is -itself inserted into the magazine, along with the cartridges. - -[Illustration: FIG. 281.--THE MAUSER RIFLE AND CLIP.] - -The modern trend of development in firearms has been toward the -reduction of calibre, the standard for small arms being 30/100. The lead -bullets are covered with a seamless jacket of harder metal (Geiger's -patents, No. 306,738 and 306,739, October 21, 1884), which prevents the -"leading" and fouling of the gun, and the distortion of the bullet. -Modern magazine guns permit twenty-five to thirty shots a minute as -single loaders, and besides they hold in reserve five cartridges. They -have a killing range of a mile, and the cost of the cartridge is 3.2 -cents. At a trial at the Washington Navy Yard a few years past a steel -projectile 1.07 inches long and 32/100 calibre penetrated solid iron -1.15 inch thick, fired at an angle of 80 deg.. It also penetrated 50 inches -of pine boards, and its range was estimated at three miles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 282.--THE GREENER HAMMERLESS GUN.] - -_Hammerless Guns._--Among improvements in shot guns the so-called -"hammerless" feature is a noteworthy departure. This hides the hammers -in the breech and cocks them by the act of breaking down the gun. In -Fig. 282 is given a section and plan view of the Greener mechanism, -which was patented July 6, 1880, No. 229,604, and was one of the first -guns of this kind put on the market. The hammers A are constructed as -elbow levers. Their upper ends have each a round point adapted to strike -through a small hole in the breech onto the cap of the cartridge. The -lower front portions of the hammers are extended forward and curved -inwardly toward each other, so that their inner ends nearly meet. C is a -pendent hook jointed to the barrel, and when the latter is tilted, as -shown in dotted lines, the hook acting upon the forwardly projecting -arms of the hammers turns them backward to the cocked position, in which -they are retained by the dogs B engaging with their notches. As the -hammers move back the mainspring is compressed, and when the dog B is -removed from the notch by pulling on the trigger, the hammers are -released and the gun fired. - -_The rebounding lock_, now universally applied to shot guns, is another -comparatively recent improvement. This promotes safety by causing the -hammers to be normally and automatically held away from the firing pins. -The first practical form of this lock was patented by Hailer, July 26, -1870, No. 105,799, in which a single spring serves to deliver the blow -of the hammer and also withdraws the hammer from the firing pin. A -marked tendency in shot guns in late years is toward a reduction in -bore, many sportsmen now using a 28 gauge in preference to the old -regulation 12. - -Nearly 5,000 patents have been granted in the United States for -firearms, and about 2,400 for projectiles. The most important of the -latter is the torpedo, of which the Whitehead, or fish torpedo, which -supplies its own means of propulsion, is the best known and most used. -It was first brought out in 1866 by Whitehead, at Fiume, a port of -Hungary. The Gathmann aerial torpedo, weighing 1,800 pounds and carrying -625 pounds of wet gun cotton, is designed to be fired from a gun 44 feet -long and 18 inch bore, and is supposed to have a range of ten miles. -Tests are about to be made under special appropriation of Congress, and -if its claim can be substantiated, it may become the most destructive -engine of warfare known. - -_Explosives._--The invention of gunpowder is ascribed to the Chinese, -and at a period so far back that its origin is buried in antiquity. It -is believed to have been known since the time of Moses, something very -like it being mentioned in the ancient Gentoo laws of India 1,500 to -2,000 B. C. For many years it was thought that Roger Bacon invented it -in 1249, but it is now known that he was only a factor in its -development. Most likely the saltpetre of the plains of China came first -in accidental contact with the charred embers of a prehistoric fire, and -to the observant man the oxygen-giving saltpetre furnished the charcoal -with its means of energetic combustion for the first time. - -Gunpowder consists of about 75 parts of saltpetre (nitrate of potash), -15 of charcoal, and 10 of sulphur, the proportions varying somewhat with -the use to which it is to be applied. In ordinary combustion the air -supplies the necessary oxygen. In gunpowder the presence of the air is -not necessary, as the saltpetre has imprisoned in its composition a -large quantity of oxygen which furnishes to the carbon and sulphur the -means for its combustion, gasification and enormous expansion. -Originally, gunpowder was pulverulent, like that used in fire works, and -had but little propelling force. The making of it in grains ("corned") -is ascribed to Berthold Schwarz, a German monk, about 1320, and this, by -promoting the rapidity of its burning, added greatly to its effective -force, and gave a new impetus to firearms. - -In the early part of the Nineteenth Century there were but few -improvements in either the composition or manufacture of gunpowder. The -introduction of the percussion cap, which exploded the charge by a blow, -in the place of the old flint lock, was, however, a notable advance. -Alexander John Forsyth, a Scotch clergyman, was the first to apply a -percussion or detonating compound, as set forth in his British patent -No. 3,032, of 1807. The embodiment of such compounds in the little -copper caps was made about 1818, and has been claimed by various -parties. Manton's British patent No. 4,285, of 1818, describes a thin -copper tube filled with fulminate and struck sidewise by the hammer to -explode it. Joshua Shaw took a United States patent on a percussion gun, -June 19, 1822, and the copper percussion cap was said to have been -introduced in the United States by him in 1842. The embodiment of the -charge of powder and ball in brass and copper shells was done in France -by Galay Cazalat as early as 1826. Drawn metallic shells were made by -Flobert and Lefaucheux, in 1853, and Palmer, in 1854. Drawn copper -cartridges with center fire were introduced in the United States, and -patented by Smith & Wesson August 8, 1854, No. 11,496, and solid headed -shells by Hotchkiss, August 31, 1869, No. 94,210. - -[Illustration: FIG. 283.--SUBMARINE MINE. CHARGE, 250 POUNDS DYNAMITE.] - -In 1846 a new and distinct development in explosives was made in the -discovery of gun cotton by Schoenbein, and of nitro-glycerine in 1847 by -Sobrero. The former is made by the reaction of nitric acid, aided by -sulphuric acid, on ordinary raw cotton, which, while changing the -physical aspects of the cotton but little, gives to it a terrific -explosive energy. Nitro-glycerine is made in a somewhat similar way by -treating glycerine with nitric and sulphuric acids. At first it found no -practical applications, except as a homoeopathic medicine for headache, -but about 1864 Nobel commenced its manufacture for explosive uses, and -since that time nearly all the great blasting operations have been -performed through its agency. Its most familiar form is _dynamite_, or -giant powder, Nobel's patent, No. 78,317, May 26, 1868, which is simply -nitro-glycerine held in absorption by some inert granular solid, such as -infusorial earth, and is thus rendered safer to handle and more -convenient to use. A suggestive application of the terrible power of -these explosives is in submarine mines. The instantaneous and dastardly -destruction of our battleship, "The Maine," with 250 of her crew, in -Havana harbor, February 15, 1898, by one of these agencies, is a -harrowing illustration. Fig. 283 represents one of these submarine mines -carrying 250 pounds of dynamite, and Fig. 284 is an instantaneous -photograph at the moment of explosion. - -[Illustration: FIG. 284.--EXPLOSION OF A MINE. BASE OF WATER COLUMN, 100 -FEET WIDE, HEIGHT, 246 FEET.] - -_White gunpowder_, or wood powder, was invented by Captain Schultz, of -the Prussian army. It is made by treating granulated wood with a mixture -of nitric and sulphuric acids, which, acting upon the cellulose of the -wood, convert it into an explosive something of the nature of gun -cotton. The grains are afterward saturated with saltpetre. This was -patented in the United States June 2, 1863, No. 38,789, and in Great -Britain, No. 900, of 1864. Dittmar's powder is another of the same -general nature, covered by United States patents No. 98,854, January -18, 1870; No. 99,069, January 25, 1870, and No. 145,403, December 9, -1873. - -Among the high explosives of more recent date may be mentioned: - - _Tonite_ (gun cotton and barium nitrate), British patents No. 3,612, - of 1874, and No. 2,742, of 1876. - - _Rack-a-rock_ (potassium chlorate and nitro-benzene), United States - patent No. 243,432, June 28, 1881; British patent No. 5,584, of - 1881. - - _Bellite_ (ammonium nitrate and nitro-benzene), United States - patent No. 455,217, June 30, 1891; British patent No. 13,690, of - 1885. - - _Melinite_ (picric acid and gun cotton), British patent No. 15,089, - of 1885. - - _Lyddite_, not patented, but believed to be substantially same as - melinite, and containing for its active ingredient picric acid, - which is a compound formed by the reaction of nitric acid on - carbolic acid. - - _Cordite_ (nitro-glycerine, gun cotton, and mineral jelly or oil), - British patent No. 5,614, of 1889; United States patent No. - 409,549, August 20, 1889. - - _Indurite_ (gun cotton and nitro-benzene, indurated), United States - patent, No. 489,684, January 10, 1893; British patent, No. 580, of - 1893. - -In recent years smokeless powders have largely superseded all others. -These contain usually nitro-cellulose (gun cotton), or nitro-glycerine, -or both, made up into a plastic, coherent, and homogeneous compound of a -gluey nature, and fashioned into horn-like sticks or rods by being -forced under pressure through a die plate having small holes, through -which the plastic material is strained into strings like macaroni, or -else is molded into tablets, pellets, or grains of cubical shape. -Prominent among those who have contributed to this art are the names of -Turpin, Abel and Dewar, Nobel, Maxim, Munroe, Du Pont, Bernadou and -others. - -In the recent years of the Nineteenth Century great activity has been -manifest in this field of invention. In the United States more than 600 -different patents have been granted for explosives, the larger portion -of them being for nitro-compounds, which partake in a greater or less -degree of the qualities of gun cotton or nitro-glycerine. The influence -exerted by them has been incalculable. Subtile as is the force -imprisoned in inter-atomic relation, it has been the power behind the -boom of the cannon; it has lent itself to the driving of great tunnels -through the solid rock; it has lifted the coal and ore from the solid -embrace of the mountain, and the building stone from its sleep in the -quarry; it has opened up channels to the sea, canals on land, and in -both war and peace has been one of the great agencies of civilization. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI. - -TEXTILES. - - SPINNING AND WEAVING AN ANCIENT ART--HARGREAVES' SPINNING JENNY-- - ARKWRIGHT'S ROLL-DRAWING SPINNING MACHINE--CROMPTON'S MULE - SPINNER--THE COTTON GIN--RING SPINNING--THE RABBETH SPINDLE--JOHN - KAY'S FLYING SHUTTLE AND ROBERT KAY'S DROP BOX--CARTWRIGHT'S POWER - LOOM--THE JACQUARD LOOM--CROMPTON'S FANCY LOOM--BIGELOW'S CARPET - LOOMS--LYALL POSITIVE MOTION LOOM--KNITTING MACHINES--CLOTH PRESSING - MACHINERY--ARTIFICIAL SILK--MERCERIZED CLOTH. - - -Far back in the obscuring gloom of a prehistoric antiquity, man wore -probably only the hirsute covering which nature gave him. As he emerged -from barbarism, sentiments of modesty marked the evolution of his mind, -and this, together with the need for a more sufficient protection -against cold and heat, suggested an artificial covering for his body. At -first he robbed the brute of his fleecy skin and wore it bodily. Later -he learned to spin and weave; next to food and drink, clothing became a -fundamental necessity, for without it his life could not extend outside -of the limited zone of the tropics. Food and drink were to be found as -nature's free gifts, but clothing had to be made, and its manufacture -constituted probably the oldest of all the living arts. The making of -cloth may be said to be coeval with history. The Old Testament of the -Bible is replete with references to spinning and weaving, and the cloths -wrapped about the mummies of ancient Egypt, although thousands of years -old, were of exceeding regularity and fineness. - -So old an art, and so great and continuous a need for its products -necessarily must have resulted in much development and progress. When -the Nineteenth Century began, the world already enjoyed the results of -Hargreaves' spinning-jenny, Arkwright's roll-drawing spinning machine, -the mule spinner, the cotton gin, and the power loom, all of which were -most radical inventions, equaling in importance, perhaps, any that have -followed. - -Prior to the invention of the _spinning-jenny_, the loose fibre was spun -into yarns and thread by hand on the old-fashioned spinning wheel, each -thread requiring the attention of one person. In 1763 Hargreaves -invented the spinning-jenny (see Fig. 285), in which a multiplicity of -spindles was employed, whereby one person could attend to the making of -many threads simultaneously. For this purpose the spindles were set -upright at the end of the frame, and the rovings or strips of untwisted -fibre were carried on bobbins on the inclined frame. The rovings -extended from these bobbins to a reciprocating "clasp" held in the left -hand of the workman, and thence extended to the spindles at the end of -the frame. The workman drew out the rovings by moving the clasp back and -forth, and at the same time turned the crank with his right hand to -rotate the spindles. Hargreaves' machine is shown and described in his -British patent, No. 962 of 1770. - -[Illustration: FIG. 285.--HARGREAVES' SPINNING JENNY.] - -The next important step in spinning was the introduction of drawing -rolls, which were a series of rolls running at different speeds for -drawing out or elongating the roving as it was spun into a thread. This -was mainly due to Arkwright, a contemporary of Hargreaves. The principle -of the drawing rolls had been foreshadowed in the British patents of -Louis Paul, No. 562, of 1738, and No. 724, of 1758, but Arkwright made -the first embodiment of it in practically useful machines, which were -covered by him in British patents No. 931, of 1769, and No. 1,111, of -1775. Arkwright's spinning machine is shown in Fig. 286, the drawing -rolls being shown at the top of the figure. - -[Illustration: FIG. 286.--ARKWRIGHT'S ROLL-DRAWING SPINNING MACHINE.] - -Following these important inventions came the mule spinner. This was -invented by Crompton between 1774 and 1779, but was never patented. It -combined the leading features of Hargreaves and Arkwright. The spindles -were mounted on a wheeled carriage that traveled back and forth a -considerable distance from the drawing rolls, which were mounted in -bearings in a stationary frame. The long travel of the carriage back and -forth, and the simultaneous twisting and drawing of the yarns, produced -threads of great fineness and regularity. The value of the long travel -of the carriage may be briefly noted as follows: When the threads or -slivers emerge from the drawing rolls they are not absolutely of uniform -size, and the thick portions do not twist as tightly as the thinner -portions. The stretching and drawing of these thicker parts down to a -uniform size by the receding of the carriage is the distinctive feature -of its action. As the thread has greater tensile strength at the thinner -hard-twisted parts than it has at the thicker untwisted parts, it will -be seen that the stretching action is localized on the thicker untwisted -parts of the thread, which are thus brought down to uniform size by -elongation. The drawing and twisting of the thread is effected as the -carriage runs out, and when the carriage runs in these twisted lengths -are wound around the spindles. The rendering of the action of the mule -automatic or self-acting in its travel back and forth was the invention -of Richard Roberts, of England, and was covered by him in British -patents No. 5,138 of 1825, and No. 5,649 of 1830. The mule spinner shown -in Fig. 287 is a good modern example of this machine. - -[Illustration: FIG. 287.--MULE SPINNING MACHINE.] - -One of the most important of the early inventions in the textile art was -the _cotton gin_. This was the invention of Eli Whitney, of -Massachusetts, and was patented by him March 14, 1794. Prior to its use -the picking of the cotton fibre from the bean-like seed with which it is -compactly stored in the boll was entirely effected by hand, and it was a -slow and tedious process, and about 4 pounds per day was the average -work of one man. The cotton gin, shown in Fig. 288, is a device for -doing this by machinery in a rapid, thorough, and expeditious manner. -The cotton, mixed with seed, is fed to the roll box J, in which a sort -of reel F continually turns the cotton. The bottom of the roll box is -formed with a grating of parallel ribs E, between which project the -teeth of a gang of circular saws C, which pull the fibre through between -the ribs and deliver it to the revolving brush B, which beats the fibre -off the teeth of the saws and produces a blast that discharges the -fleece through the rear of the gin. The cotton seed, which are too -large to pass between the ribs with the fibre, drop out the bottom of -the roll-box. With the aid of the cotton gin the efficiency of one man -is raised from four pounds per day to several thousand pounds per day, -and the culture and manufacture of cotton fibre was revolutionized and -greatly stimulated by providing a mode of putting it into merchantable -condition at a reasonable price. It is said that the crop of cotton -increased from 189,316 pounds in 1791 to 2,000,000,000 pounds in 1859. -The cotton gin, as invented by Whitney more than a hundred years ago, is -still in use, substantially unchanged in principle, but its efficiency -has been raised from 70 pounds per day to several thousands. The cotton -crop of the United States for 1899, which was handled by the modern gins -at this rate, amounted to 11,274,840 bales, of about 500 pounds each, or -more than five thousand million pounds. But for the cotton gin this -great staple would have only a very limited use, and one of the greatest -of the world's industries would have practically no existence. - -[Illustration: FIG. 288.--COTTON GIN.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 289.--MODERN SPINNING SPINDLE.] - -A modern step of importance in spinning was the _ring frame_. Ring -spinning was invented by John Thorp, of Rhode Island, who took out two -patents for the same November 20, 1828. The leading feature of the ring -frame is the substitution of a light steel hoop or traveler running upon -the upper edge of a ring surrounding the spindle in lieu of the flyer -formerly employed. The thread passes through the hoop as it is wound -upon the spindle. In modern times ring spinning has attained -considerable proportions, especially in cotton manufactures. - -Nearly 3,000 United States patents have been granted in the class of -spinning, and many valuable improvements in the details of construction -in spinning machinery have been made in recent years. The most -important, perhaps, are those relating to spindle structure, whereby the -speed and efficiency of spinning machines have been greatly increased. -Prior to 1878 the speed of the average spindle was limited to 5,000 -revolutions a minute. In 1878 improvements were made which doubled its -working speed and permitted as high as 20,000 revolutions a minute. This -result was accomplished by making a yielding bolster. The bolster is an -upright sleeve bearing, in which the spindle revolves, and against which -is sustained the pull of the band that drives the spindle. By making -this bolster or sleeve bearing to yield laterally by means of an elastic -packing which surrounds it, a much greater freedom and speed of -revolution were obtained. The preliminary step in this direction was -made by Birkenhead in patent No. 205,718, July 9, 1878. In the same year -this idea was perfected by Rabbeth. The bolster was placed loosely in a -bolster case of slightly larger diameter than the bolster, and the -bottom of the spindle had a free lateral movement as well as the top, as -shown in his patent No. 227,129, May 4, 1880. With such perfect freedom -of movement, the spindle at high speed could find its own center of -revolution, and an indefinitely high speed and quadrupled efficiency -were attained. The Draper Spindle is shown in Fig. 289 as one of the -most modern and representative of spinning spindles. Considering the -great speed of the modern spindle and the fact that a single workman -attends a thousand or more of them, the record of progress in this art -becomes impressive. In 1805 there were only 4,500 cotton spindles at -work in the United States. In 1899 there were 18,100,000. - -_Weaving._--A woven fabric consists of threads which run lengthwise, -called the "warp," crossed by threads running transversely, called the -"woof," "weft," or "filling," which latter are imprisoned or locked in -by the warp. In a simple loom the warp threads are divided into two -groups, the threads of one group alternating with those of the other, -and means are provided for separating these groups to form a -wedge-shaped space between them called a "shed." Through this shed the -shuttle which carries the woof or filling thread is sent crosswise the -warp threads. Means are provided for changing the inclination and -position of the two groups of warp threads in relation to each other, so -as to lock in the filling, and put the warp threads in position to -receive the next filling thread. For this purpose the warp threads, -usually horizontal, are each passed through a loop, and every alternate -loop is attached to a frame called a "heddle." The intervening loops and -threads are attached to another frame or "heddle," and the two heddles -by being worked, one up and the other down, separate the warp threads to -form the shed. Formerly the shuttle was thrown by hand through the shed. -In 1733 John Kay, of England, took out British patent No. 542, for the -flying shuttle and picking stick, by which the shuttle was struck a -hammer-like blow and driven like a ball from a bat across the warp, and -was struck by a similar stick on the other side, to be returned in the -same way. This gave a much more rapid action than could be obtained by -hand-throwing, and enabled one weaver to do the work of two or three. In -1760 Robert Kay invented the drop box, by which different shuttles -carrying different colors of thread were employed. - -The _power loom_, however, marked the first great growth in the art of -weaving. The enormously increased quantity of cotton spun by Arkwright's -machinery made a demand for increased facilities for weaving it into -cloth. Dr. Cartwright, of England, foresaw and met this demand in his -_power loom_, in which all of the intricate operations were performed by -power-driven machinery. His invention was not extensively introduced -until about the beginning of the Nineteenth Century. One difficulty -experienced was that the warp threads, from their fuzzy nature, had to -be dressed with size, and this required the loom to be stopped from time -to time, and necessitated the services of a man to dress or size the -warp threads. This difficulty was overcome, however, by Johnson & -Radcliffe, about 1803, by the sizing and dressing of the yarns by -passing them between rollers and coating them with a thin layer of paste -before being put into the loom. Dr. Cartwright was granted British -patents No. 1,470, of 1785; No. 1,565, of 1786; No. 1,616, of 1787, and -No. 1,676, of 1788, but being unable to maintain any monopoly under his -patents he was compensated by Parliament with a grant of L10,000. - -[Illustration: FIG. 290.--MODERN JACQUARD LOOM.] - -_Jacquard Loom._--This most notable step in the art of weaving was made -at the very beginning of the Nineteenth Century. It enabled all kinds of -fabrics, from the finest to the coarsest, to be cheaply woven into -patterns having figured or ornamental designs. Jacquard, a native of -Lyons, conceived the plan of his great invention in the last decade of -the Eighteenth Century, and on December 28, 1801, took out French patent -No. 245, on the same. His invention was not, in fact, a new form of -loom, but rather an attachment to a loom which was universally -applicable to all looms. Before his invention, figured patterns of cloth -could only be made by slow and laborious processes. Jacquard's invention -consisted in individualizing and differentiating the movement of the -warp threads, instead of operating them in constant groups. This -individualizing of the movement of the warp threads allowed any warp -thread to be held up automatically any length of time, or let down, -according as was necessary to form the figure of the pattern. This was -accomplished by making a chain of articulated cards, like a slatted -belt, and perforating these cards with varying arrangements of holes. -The cards were successively and intermittently fed to a set of needles, -which latter, by rising and falling, raise or lower the warp threads -attached to the same. By perforating these cards differently, and -arranging them so that when one card was brought in front of the needles -it would let certain needles through the perforations and hold the -others back, it will be seen that each card controlled the action of a -different set of needles, and the sequence of the series of cards -effected the necessary change in the needles and movement of the warp -threads to form the growth of the figure in the fabric. - -In Fig. 290 is seen a modern form of Jacquard loom, showing at the far -end the chain of perforated cards. Jacquard received a bronze medal at -the French Exposition in 1801, was decorated with the Cross of the -Legion of Honor, and the gratitude of his countrymen was attested by a -pension of 6,000 francs, and a statue erected to his memory at Lyons in -1840. - -Subsequent improvements and developments of the Jacquard loom have -carried its work to great nicety and refinement of action. In the chain -of pattern cards it is said that as many as 25,000 separately punched -cards or plates are sometimes used in weaving a single yard of brocade. -The great variety of elaborate designs of delicate tracery in silk, rich -patterns in brocades, and gorgeous figures in carpets, attest the value -of Jacquard's important step in this art. - -Nearly 5,000 United States patents have been granted in the class of -weaving. In the early part of the century much notable work was done. -Steam was applied to looms by William Horrocks (British patent No. -2,699, 1803). From 1830 to 1842 there were brought out the fancy looms -of Crompton, the application of the Jacquard mechanism to the lace frame -by Draper, and the carpet looms of Bigelow. In 1853 Bonelli sought to -improve on the Jacquard mechanism by employing electro-magnets to effect -the selection of the needles, instead of perforated cards (British -patent No. 1,892, of 1853). - -Among more recent developments is the _Positive Motion_ loom of Lyall, -patented December 10, 1872, No. 133,868, re-issue No. 9,049, January 20, -1880. The distinguishing feature of this is that the shuttle is not -thrown or impelled as a projectile through the wedge-shaped space -(shed), between the two sets of warp threads, but is positively dragged -back and forth through the same by an endless belt attached to the -shuttle carriage and running first in one direction and then in the -other to drag the shuttle through. - -[Illustration: FIG. 291.--CROMPTON FANCY LOOM.] - -It is not to be understood that the positive motion loom has superseded -the flying shuttle. The latter is still the leading type, of which the -Crompton fancy loom, shown in Fig. 291, is a representative -illustration. - -The tendency in late years in the art of weaving has been toward -labor-saving devices, a reduction in the cost to the consumer of all -kinds of textile fabrics, and the extension of the loom to the weaving -of new kinds of materials. Prominent among these are the inventions in -the loom for weaving plain fabrics made between the years 1881 and 1895, -shown in patents to Northrop, No. 454,810, June 23, 1891; No. 529,943, -November 27, 1894, and Draper, No. 536,948, April 2, 1895. This loom, as -usual, employs a single shuttle, but as the weft becomes exhausted -another bobbin is automatically supplied to the shuttle without -stopping the operation of the machine. During the year 1895 the first -loom for weaving an open mesh cane fabric having diagonal strands was -invented. Patents to Morris, No. 549,930, and to Crompton, No. 550,068, -November 19, 1895, were obtained for this. Prior to this time two -distinct machines were necessary to produce this fabric, and the -operation was slow and expensive. Between 1893 and 1895 two machines -were invented, upon either of which the well-known Turkish carpets can -be woven. Patents to Youngjohns, No. 510,755, December 12, 1893, and to -Reinhart von Seydlitz, No. 533,330, January 29, 1895, disclose this. The -drawing of warp threads into the eyes of the heddles and through the -reed of a loom requires great skill, and prior to 1880 was performed by -hand at great expense. In 1882, however, a machine for doing this was -invented, thereby dispensing with the old hand method and cheapening the -operation. Patents to Sherman and Ingersoll, No. 255,038, March 14, -1882, and Ingersoll, No. 461,613, October 20, 1891, were granted for -this machine. - -To-day the shuttle flies at the rate of 180 to 250 strokes a minute, and -yet the complex organization of the machine works with an energy, a -uniformity, an accuracy and a continuity that leaves far behind the -strength of the arm, the memory of mind, and the accuracy of the human -eye, and yet, if the tiny thread breaks, the whole organization -instantly stops and patiently waits the remedial care of its watchful -master. - -_Knitting Machines._--Knitting differs from weaving, braiding, or -plaiting in the following respects: In weaving there are longitudinal -threads called warp threads, which are crossed on a separate weft or -filling thread. In braiding or plaiting all the threads may be -considered warp threads, since they are arranged to run longitudinally, -and instead of locking around a separate transverse thread at right -angles, they extend diagonally and are interwoven with each other. In -netting and knitting, however, there is but a single thread, which, in -netting, is knotted into itself at definite intervals to leave a mesh of -definite size, while in knitting the single thread is merely looped into -itself without any definite mesh. Knitted goods have the peculiarity of -great elasticity in consequence of this formation of the fabric, and for -that reason find a special application in all garments which are -required to snugly conform to irregular outlines, such as stockings for -the feet, gloves for the hands, and underwear for the body. - -Weaving, braiding, and netting are very old arts, but the art of -knitting is comparatively modern. It is believed to have originated -about the year 1500 in Scotland. In 1589 William Lee, of England, is -credited with making the first knitting machine. It is said that the -girl with whom he was in love, and to whom he was paying his attention, -was so busy with her work of hand knitting that she could not give him -the requisite attention, and he invented the knitting machine that they -might have more time to devote to their love affairs. Another version is -that he married the girl and invented the machine to relieve her weary -fingers from the work of the knitting needle, and still another is that -the machine was the leading object of his affections, to the neglect of -his sweetheart, who "gave him the mitten" before he had knitted one on -his machines. - -[Illustration: FIG. 292.--BRANSON 15/16 AUTOMATIC KNITTER.] - -The earliest circular knitting machine was by Brunel, described in -British patent No. 3,993, of 1816. Power was applied to the knitting -frame by Bailey in 1831, and the latch needle was patented in the United -States by Hibbert, January 9, 1849, No. 6,025. This patent was extended -for seven years from January 9, 1863, and covered a very important and -universally used feature of the knitting machine. Research has shown, -however, that the latch was not broadly new with Hibbert, as it appeared -in the French patent to Jeandeau, No. 1,900, of April 25, 1806. Among -the earlier knitting machines, the straight reciprocating type was most -in evidence, and of which the Lamb machine was a popular form. The -increased speed and capacity of the circular machine have, however, -caused it to largely supersede the others. In the circular machine a -circular series of vertical parallel needles slide in grooves in a -cylinder, and are raised and lowered successively by an external -rotating cylinder which has on the inner side cams that act upon the -needles. The Branson 15/16 Automatic Knitter, shown in Fig. 292, is a -good modern illustration. It performs automatically fifteen-sixteenths -of the various movements which ordinarily would be performed by hand on -a hand machine. Its salient features are covered by patents No. 333,102, -December 29, 1885, and No. 519,170, May 1, 1894. About 2,000 United -States patents have been granted in the class of knitting and netting, -and the value of hosiery and knit goods in the United States in 1890 was -$67,241,013. - -An important branch of the textile art is cloth finishing, whereby the -rough surface of the cloth as it comes from the loom is rendered soft -and smooth. One method is to raise the nap of the cloth by pulling out -the fibre by a multitude of fine points. Originally this was done by -combing it with teasles, a sort of dried burr of vegetable growth, -having a multitude of fine hook-shaped points. Machines with fine metal -card teeth are now largely used for this purpose, and of which the -planetary napping machine of Ott, patent No. 344,981, July 6, 1886, is -an example. Another method of finishing the cloth is to iron or press -it. Plate presses were first used in which smooth plates were folded in -alternate layers with the cloth and pressure then applied, but in later -years continuous rotary presses have been employed, that of Gessner, -patent No. 206,718, August 6, 1878, re-issue No. 9,076, 9,077, February -17, 1880, is one of the earliest examples of a continuous rotary press. -The old Gessner presses of Saxony were the pioneers in this field. A -modern Gessner cloth press is seen in Fig. 293. - -[Illustration: FIG. 293.--MODERN "GESSNER" CLOTH PRESSING MACHINE.] - -In the field of textiles there are many related arts and machines. There -are hat felting and finishing machines, darning machines, quilting -machines, embroidering machines, processes and apparatus for dyeing and -sizing, machines for printing fabrics, machines for making rope and -cord, machines for winding and working silk, and in treating the raw -material there are cotton-pickers, cotton baling presses, cotton openers -and cleaners, flax brakes and hackling machines, feeding devices, wool -carding and cleaning apparatus, all in variety and numbers that defy -both comment and count. - -In fabrics every class of fibre has been called into requisition. Flax, -wool, silk, and cotton have been supplemented with the fibres of metal, -of glass, of cocoanut, pine needles, ramie, wood-pulp, and of many other -plants, leaves and grasses. - -_Artificial silk_ is made out of a chemically prepared composition, and -the fibres are spun by processes simulating not only the act of the -silkworm, but its product in quality. Vandura silk was spun from an -aqueous solution of gelatine by forcing it through a fine capillary -tube, but it attained little or no practical value. A far more important -artificial silk is covered by the patents to De Chardonnet, No. -394,559, December 18, 1888; No. 460,629, October 6, 1891, and No. -531,158, December 18, 1894, and also in subsequent patents to Lehner and -to Turk. These all relate to the manufacture of artificial silk by -spinning threads or filaments from pyroxiline (solution of gun cotton), -collodion, or some such glutinous solution which evaporates rapidly, -leaving a tiny thread, having most of the characteristics of silk and -produced by the same method employed by the silk worm when it expresses -and draws out its viscid liquid. The De Chardonnet artificial silk took -a "Grand Prix" at the Paris Exposition in 1889, and the industry is -growing to considerable proportions. Large works are in operation at -Besancon, in France, producing 7,000 pounds per week, and it is said -that the plant is to be increased to a capacity of 2,000 pounds a day. -Similar works at Avon, near Coventry, England, have an equal capacity, -and other factories are about to be established in Belgium and Germany. - -_Polished_ or _diamond cotton_ is a lustrous looking article of a soft -silky nature, formed by plating the threads with a liquid emulsion of a -waxy and starchy substance, and polishing the threads with rapidly -revolving brushes. - -_Mercerized Cloth._--In late years a distinct novelty has appeared on -the shelves of the dry goods stores. Beautiful, filmy fabrics, and -lustrous embroidery thread, not of silk, but so close to it in -appearance as to be scarcely distinguishable, have gained much -popularity and attained a large sale. They are known as _mercerized_ -goods. About the middle of the century John Mercer, of England, found -that when cotton goods were treated with chemicals (either alkalies or -acids), a change was produced in the fibre which caused it to shrink and -become thicker, and which imparted also an increased affinity for dyes. -He took out British patent No. 13,296, of 1850, for his invention, but -practically nothing further was done with the process. Recently the -important step of Thomas and Prevost of mercerizing under tension gave -some new and wonderful results. United States patents No. 600,826 and -No. 600,827, of May 15, 1898, disclose this process. The cloth or -thread, while being treated chemically, is at the same time subjected to -a powerful tension that causes the fibres (softened and rendered -glutinous by the chemicals) to be elongated or pulled out like fibres of -molten glass, giving it the same striated texture and fine luster that -silk has, and by substantially the same mechanical agency, for it is the -elongation of the plastic glutinous thread from the silk worm that gives -the thread its silky luster, by a process which has a familiar -illustration in the molecular adjustment that imparts luster to spun -glass or drawn taffy. - -Standing in the light of the Twentieth Century, and looking back through -past ages, we find the art of spinning and weaving in an ever present -and unbroken thread of evidence all along the path of history--through -wars and famine, floods and conflagrations; through the progress and -decay of nations, through all phases of change, and the vicissitudes of -centuries, it has never been relegated to the domain of the lost arts, -but has remained a persisting invention. It has been a paramount -necessity to the human race, indissolubly locked up with its continuity -and welfare, and will ever continue to supply its work in maintaining -the greater fabric of human existence. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII. - -ICE MACHINES. - - GENERAL PRINCIPLES--FREEZING MIXTURES--PERKINS' ICE MACHINE, 1834-- - PICTET'S APPARATUS--CARRE'S AMMONIA ABSORPTION PROCESS--DIRECT - COMPRESSION AND CAN SYSTEM--THE HOLDEN ICE MACHINE--SKATING RINKS-- - WINDHAUSEN'S APPARATUS FOR COOLING AND VENTILATING SHIPS. - - -Very few people have any correct conception of the principles of -ice-making. Most persons have heard in a vague sort of way that -chemicals are employed in its manufacture, and many a fastidious -individual has been known to object to artificial ice on the ground that -he could taste the chemicals, and that it could not therefore be -wholesome. Such is the power of imagination, and such the misconception -in the public mind. Nothing could be more erroneous, nor more amusing to -the physicist, since no chemicals ever come in contact with either the -water or the ice. An intelligent understanding of the operations of an -ice machine involves only a correct appreciation of one of the physical -laws governing the relation of heat to matter, and the forms which -matter assumes under different degrees of heat. We see water passing -from solid ice to liquid water and gaseous steam, by a mere rise in -temperature, and conversely, by abstraction of heat, steam passes back -to water, and then to ice. - -When one's hands get wet they get cold. A commonplace, but convenient -proof of this is to wet the finger in the mouth and hold it in the air. -A sensible reduction of temperature is instantly noticeable. A more -pronounced illustration is to wet the hands in a basin of water, and -then plunge them in the blast of hot, dry air coming from a furnace -register. Instead of warming the hands, as many would suppose, this -will, as long as the hands are wet, produce a distinct sensation of -increased cold. It is due to rapid evaporation, which in changing the -water from a liquid to a gaseous form, abstracts heat from the hands. - -Evaporation may be effected in two ways. The common one is by applying -extraneous heat, as under a tea kettle, in which case the evaporated -vapor is hot by virtue of the heat absorbed from the fire. The other way -is to reduce pressure or produce a partial vacuum over the liquid -without any application of heat, in which case the vapor is made cold. -As early as 1755 Dr. Cullen observed this, and discovered that the cold -thus produced was sufficient to make ice. An incident of evaporation is -the passing from the limited volume of a liquid to the greatly increased -volume of a gas. Water, for instance, when it changes to a vapor, -increases in volume about 1,700 times; that is, a cubic inch of water -makes about a cubic foot of steam, and when evaporation takes place from -a reduction of pressure, this involves a dissipation of heat throughout -the increased volume, and the corresponding production of cold. When, -however, matter changes from a liquid to a gas, or from a solid to a -liquid, a peculiar phenomenon manifests itself, in that a great amount -of heat is absorbed and, so far as the evidence of the senses goes, -disappears in the mere change of state. It is called _latent heat_. In -such case the heat becomes hidden from the senses by being converted -into some other form of intermolecular force not appreciable as sensible -heat, and producing no elevation of temperature. In illustration, if a -pound of water at 212 deg. F. be mixed with a pound of water at 34 deg. (both -being matter in the same state), there results two pounds of water at -the mean temperature of 123 deg.. If, however, a pound of water at 212 deg. be -mixed with a pound of _ice_ at 32 deg. (matter in another state), there will -not be two pounds of water at the mean temperature of 122 deg., as might be -expected, but two pounds at 51 deg. only, an amount of heat sufficient to -raise two pounds of water 71 deg. being absorbed in the mere change of ice -to water without any sensible raise in temperature. This absorbed heat -is called latent heat, and it plays an important part in artificial -freezing. A familiar illustration of the absorption of heat in changing -from a solid to a liquid is found in the admixture of salt and ice -around an ice-cream freezer. These two solids, when brought together, -liquefy rapidly with an absorption of heat that produces in a limited -time a far greater degree of cold than that which could be obtained from -the ice by mere conduction, since the reduction of temperature proceeds -faster by liquefaction than can be compensated for by the absorption of -heat from the air. Were this not true, ice cream could not be frozen by -a mixture of salt and ice. Many such freezing mixtures are known, and a -few have been made commercially available, but they cannot be -economically employed in ice-making, and it is therefore only necessary -to consider the development of the more common principle of evaporation -and expansion, in which the change from a liquid to a gas occurs. The -volatile liquid which was first employed was water, but as it did not -vaporize as readily as some other liquids, more volatile substitutes -were soon found, among which may be named ether, ammonia, liquid -carbonic acid, liquid sulphurous acid, bisulphide of carbon and -chymogene, which latter is a petroleum product lighter and more volatile -than benzine or gasoline. As these liquids were expensive, it is obvious -that their vaporization could not be allowed to take place in the open -air, since the reagent would thus be quickly dissipated and lost, and -hence means were devised to condense and save this valuable volatile -liquid to be used over again. The vaporization of the volatile liquid to -produce cold, and its re-condensation to liquid form to be used over -again in an endless cycle of circulation, seems to have been first -effected by Mr. Perkins, of England, whose British patent No. 6,662, of -1834, affords a simple and clear illustration of the fundamental -principles of most modern ice machines. His apparatus is shown in Fig. -294. A tank _a_ is filled with water to be frozen or cooled. A -refrigerating chamber _b_, submerged in the water, is charged internally -with some volatile liquid, such as ether. When the piston of suction -pump _c_ rises a partial vacuum is formed beneath it, and the volatile -liquid in _b_ being relieved of pressure, evaporates and expands into -greater volume, the vapor passing out through pipe _f_ and upwardly -opening valve _e_. This vapor is rendered intensely cold by expansion, -and this cold is imparted to the water in tank _a_ to freeze it. A more -scientific statement, however, is that the cold vapor absorbs the heat -units of the water, and taking them away with it, lowers the temperature -of the water to the freezing point. When the piston of pump _c_ -descends, valve _e_ closes, and the vapor, laden with the heat units -absorbed from the water, is forced through the downwardly opening valve -_e'_, and through pipe _g_ to a cooling coil _d_, around which a body of -cold water is continually flowed. This water, in turn, takes the heat -units from the vapor, and passes off with them in a constant flow, while -the vapor of ether is condensed into a liquid again by the cold water, -and passing through a weighted valve _h_, goes into the evaporating or -refrigerating chamber to be again vaporized in an endless circuit of -flow. It will be seen that the heat units from the water in tank _a_ are -first handed over to the cold ether vapors passing out from chamber _b_, -and by this vapor are then transferred to the flowing body of water -surrounding the coil _d_. The result is that the heat units carried off -by the water flowing around coil _d_ are the same heat units abstracted -from the water in tank _a_, which water is thus reduced to congealation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 294.--PERKINS' ICE MACHINE, 1834.] - -Among later ice machines of this type the Pictet machine was a -conspicuous example. This employed anhydrous sulphurous acid as the -volatile agent, and is described in United States patent No. 187,413, -February 13, 1877; French patent No. 109,003, of 1875. - -[Illustration: FIG. 295.--THE PICTET ICE MACHINE.] - -In Fig. 295 is represented a vertical longitudinal and also a vertical -transverse section of a Pictet ice machine. A is a double acting suction -and compression pump, D and E are two cylinders which are similarly -constructed in the respect that they are both provided with flue pipes -and heads for a double circulation of fluids, one fluid passing through -the pipes while the other passes through the spaces between the pipes, -much like the condenser of a steam engine. The cylinder D is the -refrigerator where the volatile liquid is evaporated to produce cold, -and the cylinder E is the condenser where the gasified vapor is cooled -and condensed again to liquid form to be returned to the refrigerator. -The action is as follows: The pump A by pipe B draws from the chamber in -the refrigerator D containing the volatile liquid, causing it to -evaporate and produce an intense degree of cold which is imparted to the -liquid surrounding it and filling the tank. This liquid is either brine, -or a mixture of glycerine and water, or a solution of chloride of -magnesium, or other liquid which does not freeze at a temperature -considerably below the freezing point of water. Now, this -non-congealable liquid being below the freezing point, it will be seen -that if cans H be filled with pure water, and are immersed in this -intensely cold non-congealable liquid, the water in the cans will -freeze. This is exactly what takes place, and this is how the ice is -formed. As the volatile liquid is drawn out of the refrigerator D -through pipe B by the pump A it is forced by the pump through pipe C and -into the chamber of the condenser E. A current of cold water is kept -flowing around the pipes in E, coming in through a pipe at one end and -passing out through a pipe at the other end. The compressed and -relatively hot gases are by the contact of this cold water along the -sides of the pipes cooled and condensed into a liquid again, which -passes up the small curved pipe F and is returned to the refrigerator D, -to be again evaporated by the suction of the pump to continue the -production of cold. In large plants the non-congealable liquid and cans -of water to be frozen are (in order to get larger capacity) carried to a -large floor tank in a removed situation. - -One of the earliest methods of producing ice in a limited quantity was -by evaporating water by a reduction of pressure and causing the vapor to -be absorbed by sulphuric acid, which has a great affinity for the water -vapor. Mr. Nairne, in 1777, was the first to discover the affinity that -sulphuric acid had for water vapor, and in 1810 Leslie froze water by -this means. In 1824 Vallance obtained British patents No. 4,884 and -5,001, operating on this principle, in which leaden balls were coated -with sulphuric acid to increase the absorbing surfaces, and which -apparatus was effective in freezing considerable quantities of ice. - -The _carafes frappees_ of the Parisian restaurant were decanters in -which water was frozen by being immersed in tanks of sea water whose -temperature was reduced below freezing by the vaporization of ether in a -reservoir immersed in the sea water. Edmond Carre's method of preparing -_carafes frappees_ involved the use of the sulphuric acid principle of -absorption, and to that end the aqueous vapor was directly exhausted -from the decanter by a pump, and the said vapor was absorbed by a large -volume of sulphuric acid so rapidly as to freeze the water remaining in -the decanter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 296.--COMPRESSION PUMPS OF ICE PLANT.] - -Probably the earliest practical ice machine to be organized on a -commercial basis was the _ammonia absorption machine_ of Ferdinand -Carre, which was a continuously working machine. It is disclosed in -French patents Nos. 81 and 404, of 1860, and No. 75,702, of 1867; United -States patent No. 30,201, October 2, 1860. In this case advantage is -taken first of the very volatile character of anhydrous ammonia, in the -expansion part of the process, and, secondly, of the great affinity -which water has for absorbing such gas. Strange as it may appear, the -production of ice in the Carre process begins with the application of -heat. It must be understood, however, that this forms no part of the -refrigerating process proper, but only a means of driving off or -distilling the anhydrous ammonia gas (the refrigerant) from its aqueous -solution. Ammonia dissolved in water, known as aqua ammonia, is placed -in a boiler or still above a furnace. The pure ammonia gas is thus -driven off from the water by heat under pressure, similar to that in a -steam boiler, and passes direct to a condenser, where, by cold water -flowing through pipes, the pure gas is liquefied under pressure. The -liquefied gas is then admitted to the evaporating or refrigerating -chamber, where it expands to produce the cold, and is afterward -re-absorbed by the water from which it was originally driven off in the -still, to be used over again. Machines of this type are known as -absorption machines, for the reason that the volatile gas is after -expansion re-absorbed by the liquid in which it was dissolved, and is -continuously driven off therefrom by the heat of a still. Absorption -machines were the outgrowth of Faraday's observations in 1823. A bent -glass tube was prepared containing at one end a quantity of chloride of -silver, saturated with ammonia and hermetically sealed. When the mixture -was heated, the ammonia was driven over to the other end of the tube, -immersed in a cold bath, and the ammonia gas became liquefied. It was -found by him then that if the end containing the chloride was plunged in -a cold bath and the end containing liquid ammonia was immersed in water, -the heat of the water made the ammonia rapidly evaporate, the chloride -at the other end of the tube absorbed the ammonia vapors, and the water -around the end of the tube containing the liquefied ammonia was -converted into ice, by the loss of its heat imparted to the ammonia to -volatilize it. It only needed the substitution of water for the chloride -of silver, as an absorbing agent for the ammonia, and mechanical means -for economically working the process in a continuous way to produce the -Carre absorption machine. The most common form of ice machine to-day is, -however, what is known as the _compression_ or _direct_ system, in which -the absorption principle is dispensed with, the ammonia being compressed -by powerful steam pumps, then cooled to liquid form by condensers, and -then allowed to expand from its own pressure through pipes immersed in -brine in a large floor tank, in which cans containing pure water are -immersed, and the water frozen. Fig. 296[5] shows the compression pumps, -and Fig. 297 the floor tanks, of such a system. Many hundred cans -filled with pure water are lowered into the cold brine of the tank, and -their upper ends form a complete floor, as seen in Fig. 297. When the -water in the cans is frozen, the cans are raised out of the floor by a -traveling crane and carried to one of the four doors seen at the far end -of the room. The ice in the can is then loosened by warm water, and the -block dumped through the door into a chute, whence it passes into the -storage room below, seen in Fig. 298. In the can system the water is -frozen from all four sides to the center, and imprisons in the center -any air bubbles or impurities that may exist in the water. The plate -system freezes the water on the exterior walls of hollow plates, which -contain within them the freezing medium. In freezing the water -externally on these plates all impurities and air bubbles are repelled -and excluded, and the ice rendered clear and transparent. - - [5] By courtesy of "Ice and Refrigeration." - -[Illustration: FIG. 297.--FLOOR TANK OF CAN SYSTEM.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 298.--STORAGE ROOM OF ICE PLANT.] - -An ice plant, employing what is known as the "can" system and capable of -producing 100 tons of ice in twenty-four hours, requires a building -about 100 feet wide and 150 feet long, on account of the great floor -space needed to accommodate the freezing tank, and the great number of -cans which are immersed in the same. A radical departure from this style -of plant is presented in the Holden ice machine. This does not require a -multitude of cans and a great floor space, but a lot 25 by 50 feet is -sufficient, for the ice is turned out in a continuous process like -bricks from a brick machine. The machine works on the ammonia absorption -principle, but the freezing is done on the outer periphery of a -revolving cylinder, from which the film of ice is scraped off -automatically and the ice slush carried away by a spiral conveyor to one -of two press molds, in which a heavy pressure solidifies the ice into -blocks, which are successively shot down from the presses on a chute to -the storage room, as seen in Fig. 299. - -[Illustration: FIG. 299.--HOLDEN ICE MACHINE.] - -The foregoing examples of ice machines give no idea of the great -activity in this field of refrigeration in the Nineteenth Century. Over -600 United States patents have been granted for ice machines alone, to -say nothing of refrigerating buildings, refrigerator cars, domestic -refrigerators, and ice cream freezers, etc. Among the earlier workers in -ice machines, in addition to those already named, may be mentioned the -names of Gorrie, patent No. 8,080, May 6, 1851, followed by Twining, -1853-1862; Mignon and Rouart, in 1865; Lowe, in 1867; Somes, in -1867-1868; Windhausen, in 1870; Rankin, in 1876-1877, and many others. - -An application of the ice machine which attracted much attention and -attained great popularity for a while was that made in the production of -artificial _skating rinks_, in which a floor of ice was frozen by means -of a system of submerged pipes, through which the cold liquid from the -ice machine was made to circulate. The earliest artificial skating rink -is to be found in the British patent to Newton, No. 236, of 1870, but -it was Gamgee, in 1875 and 1876, who devised practical means for -carrying it out and brought it into public use. His inventions are -described in his British patents No. 4,412, of 1875, and No. 4,176, of -1876, and United States patent. No. 196,653, October 30, 1877, and -others in 1878. - -The Windhausen machine was one of the earliest applications for -_cooling_ and _ventilating_ ships. This machine operated upon the -principle of alternately compressing and expanding air, and is described -in United States patents No. 101,198, March 22, 1870 (re-issue No. -4,603, October 17, 1871), and No. 111,292, January 24, 1871. To-day -every ocean liner is equipped with its own cold storage and ice-making -plant, refrigerator cars transport vast cargoes of meats, fish, etc., -across the continent, and bring the ripe fruits of California to the -Eastern coast; every market house has its cold storage compartments, and -to the brewery the refrigerating plant is one of its fundamental and -important requisites. - -The great value of refrigerating appliances is to be found in the -retardation of chemical decomposition or arrest of decay, and as this -has relation chiefly to preserving the food stuffs of the world, its -value can be easily understood. This branch of industry has grown up -entirely in the Nineteenth Century, and the activity in this field is -attested by the 4,000 United States patents in this class. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIII. - -LIQUID AIR. - - LIQUEFACTION OF GASES BY NORTHMORE, 1805; FARADAY, 1823; BUSSY, - 1824; THILORIER, 1834, AND OTHERS--LIQUEFACTION OF OXYGEN, NITROGEN - AND AIR BY PICTET AND CAILLETET IN 1877--SELF-INTENSIFICATION OF - COLD BY SIEMENS IN 1857, AND WINDHAUSEN IN 1870--OPERATIONS OF - DEWAR, WROBLEWSKI, AND OLSZEWSKI--SELF-INTENSIFYING PROCESSES OF - SOLVAY, TRIPLER, LINDE, HAMPSON, AND OSTERGREN AND BERGER--LIQUID - AIR EXPERIMENTS AND USES. - - -Until quite recently the physicist divided gaseous matter into -condensable vapors and permanent vapors. To-day it is known that there -are no permanent gases, since all the so-called permanent gases, even to -the most tenuous, such as hydrogen, may be made to assume the liquid and -even the solid form. The average individual knows very little about -hydrogen, but he is very well acquainted with air, and when he was told -that the air that he breathes--the gentle zephyr that blows--the wind -that storms from the north, or twists itself into the rage of a cyclone -in Kansas--may be bound down in liquid form, and imprisoned within the -limits of an open tumbler, or be bottled up in a flask or even frozen -solid, he was at first impressed with the suspicion of a fairy story. -Seeing is believing, however, to him, and the striking experiments from -the lecture platform, the approval of the scientists, and the -sensational accounts of it in the press, have not only been convincing, -but have completely turned his head and made him a too willing victim of -the speculator. Liquid air is a real achievement, however, and while it -is astonishing to the layman, the physicist looks upon it in the most -matter-of-fact way, for it is only a fulfilment of the simplest of -nature's laws, and entirely consonant with what he has been led to -expect for many years. - -The liquefaction of gases has engaged the attention of the scientist -almost from the beginning of the century. In 1805-6 Northmore liquefied -chlorine gas. This was done again in 1823 by Faraday. In 1824 Bussy -condensed sulphurous acid vapors to liquid form. In 1834 Thilorier made -extensive experiments and demonstrations in the liquefaction of carbonic -acid gas. In 1843 Aime experimented with the liquefaction of gases by -sinking them in suitable vessels to great depths in the ocean. Natterer, -in 1844, greatly advanced the study of this subject by both novel -methods and apparatus. Liquefaction of air was attempted as early as -1823 by Perkins, and again in 1828 by Colladon, but it was not -accomplished until 1877. In this year the liquefaction of oxygen, by -Pictet, of Geneva, and Cailletet, of Chatillon-sur-Seine, was -independently accomplished. Pictet used a pressure of 320 atmospheres -and a temperature of -140 deg., obtained by the evaporation of liquid -sulphurous acid and liquid carbonic acid. Cailletet used a pressure of -300 atmospheres and a temperature of -29 deg., which latter was obtained by -the evaporation of liquid sulphurous acid. In 1883 Dewar, Wroblewski and -Olszewski commenced operations in this field, and greatly advanced the -study of this subject. In January of 1884, Wroblewski confirmed the -liquefaction of hydrogen, which had been imperfectly accomplished by -Cailletet before. In the liquefaction of oxygen and nitrogen, the -principal component gases of air, the liquefaction of air itself -followed immediately as a matter of course. - -Air has usually been held to consist of four volumes of nitrogen and one -volume of oxygen, with a very small proportion of carbonic acid gas and -ammonia. Recent discoveries have definitely identified new gases in it, -however, chief among which is argon. For all practical purposes, -however, air may be considered simply a mixture of the two gases; -nitrogen, which is inert and neither maintains life nor combustion; and -oxygen, which performs both of these functions in a most energetic way. -Air is more dense at the surface of the earth, and becomes continually -more rarified as the altitude increases, until it becomes an -indefinitely tenuous ether. Light as we are accustomed to regard it, the -weight of a column of air one inch square is 15 pounds, and this tenuous -and unfelt covering presses upon our globe with a total weight of -300,000 million tons. - -Liquid air is simply air which has been compressed and cooled to what is -called its critical temperature and pressure, _i. e._, the temperature -and pressure at which it passes into another state of matter, as from a -gas to a liquid. To liquefy air it is compressed until its volume is -reduced to 1/800, that is to say, 800 cubic feet of air are reduced to -one cubic foot. This requires a pressure of 1,250 to 2,000 pounds to the -square inch. - -The important step in liquefying air cheaply and on a large scale was -accomplished by the discovery of what is known as the -_self-intensifying_ action. This dispenses with auxiliary refrigerants, -and causes the expanding gases to supply the cold required for their own -liquefaction by an entirely mechanical process. It consists in -compressing the air (which produces heat), then cooling it by a flowing -body of water, then passing it through a long coil of pipes and -expanding the cool compressed air by allowing it to escape through a -valve into an expansion chamber, where its pressure falls from 1,250 -pounds to 300 pounds, which produces a great degree of cold; then taking -this very cold current of air back in reverse direction along the walls -of the coil of pipes, and causing said returning cold air to further -cool the air flowing from the compressor to the expansion tank, and -finally delivering the cold return flow to the compressors and -compressing it again from a lower initial point than it started with on -the first round, and so continuing this cycle of circulation through the -alternating compressing and cooling stages until the air condenses in -liquid form in the bottom of the expansion chamber. This successive -reduction of temperature by the air acting upon itself is called -_self-intensification_ of cold, and it has an analogy in the -regenerative furnace, where the augmentation of heat corresponds to the -augmentation of cold in the self-intensifying action. - -[Illustration: FIG. 300.--THE SELF-INTENSIFYING PRINCIPLE OF PRODUCING -COLD, USED TO LIQUEFY AIR.] - -This principle of self-intensification was first announced by Prof. C. -W. Siemens in the provisional specification of his British patent No. -2,064, of 1857, but it does not seem at that time to have been carried -out with any practical result. The first embodiment of the principle in -a refrigerating apparatus is by Windhausen--United States patent No. -101,198, March 22, 1870. Solvay, in British patent No. 13,466, of 1885, -gave further development to the idea, and following him came the -operations of Prof. Tripler, who was the first to liquefy large -quantities of air and to introduce it to the American people. Linde, -Hampson and Ostergren and Berger are more recent operators in this field -of self-intensification, and Linde's British patent, No. 12,528, of -1895, may be regarded as a representative exposition of the principle. A -simplified form of the Linde apparatus is seen in Fig. 300. C is an air -compressing pump, whose plunger descending compresses the air and forces -it out through valve I, pipe 2, and coil 3. The coil 3 is immersed in a -flowing body of water in the condenser W, the water entering at Y and -passing out at Z. The cold compressed air then passes through pipes 4 -and 5, pipe 5 being arranged concentrically within a larger coil 7. The -cold air flowing down pipe 5 escapes through a valve adjusted by handle -6, into the subjacent chamber L, and expanding to a larger volume, -produces a great degree of cold; this cold expanded air then passing up -the larger and outer pipe 7 flows back over the incoming stream of air -in pipe 5, chilling it still lower than the condenser W did, and this -cold return flow then passing from the top of coil 7 descends through -pipe 8 to the compressing pump C, and as its piston rises, it enters the -pump through the inwardly opening valve 9, and here it undergoes another -compression and circuit through the pipes 2, 3, 4, 5, but it is -compressed on its second round of travel at a lower temperature than it -had initially, and so this circulation of air going to the chamber L, -expanding, and returning over the inlet flow pipe 5, successively -cooling the latter and also successively entering the compressor at a -continually lower temperature at each cycle of circulation, finally -issues through the valve at the lower end of pipe 5, and expands to such -a low temperature that it condenses in chamber L in liquid form. Fresh -accessions of air are furnished to the apparatus through valve 10 as -fast as the air is liquefied. The inlet flow to the liquefying chamber -is shown by the full line arrows, and the return flow to the compressor -by the dotted arrows, and the explanation of the term -_self-intensification_ is to be found in the cooling of the incoming air -in pipe 5 by the outflowing air in the surrounding pipe 7, and the -repeated reductions of temperature at which the air is returned to the -compressor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 301.--COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF LIQUID AIR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 302.--VESSEL FOR TRANSPORTING LIQUID AIR.] - -In Fig. 301 is shown the liquefier of a modern liquid air plant, in -which liquid air is being drawn into a pail from the liquefier. Liquid -air evaporates very rapidly, and produces the intense cold of 312 deg. below -zero. There is no known way to preserve it beyond a limited time, for, -if put in strong, tightly closed vessels, it would soon absorb enough -heat to vaporize, and in time would acquire a tension of 12,000 pounds -per square inch, and would burst the vessel with a disastrous explosion. -If left exposed to the air, which is the only safe way to transport it, -it is quickly dissipated. A shipment of eight gallons from New York to -Washington for lecture purposes shrunk to three gallons in two days' -time. It may usually be kept longer than this, however, as the jarring -of a railway train promotes its evaporation and loss. A small quantity, -such as a half pint, will boil away in twenty-five to thirty minutes. -The only way to preserve it for any length of time is to surround it -with a heat-excluding jacket. The simplest and most effective means for -doing this in the laboratory is to surround it with a vacuum. Fig. 302 -shows a specially devised vessel for the commercial transportation of -liquid air. A double walled globular vessel has between its walls air -spaces and non-conducting packing. The liquid air in the interior -chamber vaporizes gradually, and escaping through the outwardly opening -valve at the top, expands around the air space surrounding the inner -vessel. From this space it reaches the outer air by a valve at the -bottom of the outer vessel. The liquid air in evaporating is thus -carried around the body of liquid air in the center, and surrounding it -with an intensely cold envelope, prevents the transmission of heat to -the inner vessel. To withdraw the liquid air, a pipette or so-called -siphon tube, shown in detached view, is substituted for the valve at the -top. - -[Illustration: FIG. 303.--SEPARATION OF LIQUID AIR INTO ITS -CONSTITUENTS. - -Evaporation of Nitrogen. - -Evaporation of Nitrous Oxide. - -Evaporation of Pure Oxygen.] - -As to the uses of liquid air it may be said that up to the present time -it has attained little or no practical application. There are two -principal ways in which it may be utilized; one is to employ its -enormous expansive force to produce mechanical power, and the other is -as a refrigerant. As a means for obtaining motive power it is a fallacy -to suppose that any more power can be obtained from its expansion than -was originally required to make it. It is like a resilient spring in -this respect, that it can give out no more power than was required to -compress it. In some special applications, however, as for propelling -torpedoes, where its cost is entirely subordinate to effective results, -it might prove to be of value. For blasting purposes also it presents -the promise of possible utilization. As a refrigerant for commercial -purposes, and for supplying a dry, cool temperature to the sick room, -and for the preparation of chemicals requiring a low temperature to -manufacture, it might find useful application. Inasmuch as the nitrogen -of liquid air evaporates first, and leaves nearly pure liquid oxygen, it -may also be employed as a means for producing and applying oxygen. Good -illustration of this is given in Fig. 303, in which at 1 is shown a -vessel filled with liquid air. The gas first evaporating is nitrogen, -and a lighted match applied to the surface of the liquid is quickly -extinguished, since nitrogen does not support combustion. As the level -of the liquid falls by evaporation, the remaining portions become richer -in oxygen and poorer in nitrogen, and nitrous oxide gas is then given -off, which supports combustion as seen at 2; and when the last portions -of the liquid are being evaporated, as at 3, it is practically pure -oxygen, which gives a brilliant combustion of a carbon pencil, or even -of a steel spring when the latter is heated red hot. Already Prof. -Pictet has formulated a plan for the commercial production and -separation of the ingredients of liquid air--the nitrogen, carbonic -acid, and oxygen being separated by their different evaporating -temperatures with a view to applying them to various industrial uses. -All of the commercial applications of liquid air, however, depend upon -its cost of production, which seems at present an uncertain factor. -According to the claims of some it may be produced at a cost of a few -cents a gallon. More conservative physicists say that it costs $5 a -gallon. - -[Illustration: FIG. 304.--LIQUID AIR EXPERIMENTS. - -1. Magnetism of oxygen. 2. Steel burning in liquid oxygen. 3. Frozen -sheet iron. 4. Explosion of confined liquid air. 5. Burning paper. 6. -Explosion of sponge. 7. Freezing rubber ball. 8. Double walled vacuum -bulb. 9. Boiling liquid air.] - -However this may be, the phenomena which it presents are both -interesting and instructive. In Figs. 304 and 305 are shown some of the -experiments. At No. 1 a test tube containing liquid air, from which the -nitrogen has escaped, is strongly attracted by an electro-magnet, -showing the magnetic quality of oxygen. At No. 2 is shown the combustion -of a heated piece of steel in liquid air, which has become rich in -oxygen by the evaporation of the nitrogen. At No. 3 a tin dipper, which -has been immersed in liquid air, has become so cold and crystalline that -it breaks like glass when dropped. At No. 4 liquid air imprisoned in a -tube and tightly corked up, blows the stopper out in a few minutes with -explosive effect. At No. 5 a piece of paper saturated with liquid air -burns with great energy, and at No. 6 a piece of sponge or raw cotton -similarly saturated explodes when ignited. At No. 7 a rubber ball -floated on liquid air in a tumbler is frozen so hard that when dropped -it flies into fragments like a glass ball. The white, snow-like vapor -seen falling over the edges of the tumbler is intensely cold and heavier -than ordinary air. At No. 8 is illustrated the preservation of liquid -air by surrounding it with a vacuum in a Dewar bulb. At No. 9 a flask of -liquid air is made to boil by the mere heat of the hand. A more striking -experiment still of the same kind is to place a tea kettle containing -liquid air on a block of ice. The block of ice is relatively so much -hotter than the liquid air that the liquid air in the kettle is made to -boil. At No. 10, Fig. 305, a heavy weight is suspended by a link -composed of a bar of mercury frozen solid in liquid air. So hard is the -mercury frozen that a hammer made of it will drive a tenpenny nail up to -its head in a pine board. In No. 11 a layer of liquid air on water at -first floats because it is lighter than water. As the lighter nitrogen -evaporates, the heavier oxygen sinks in drops through the water. At No. -12 a tumbler of whiskey is frozen solid by immersing a tube containing -liquid air in it. The frozen block of whiskey with the cavity formed by -the tube is shown on the left. It is a whiskey tumbler made out of -whiskey. A more sensational experiment is to substitute a tapering tin -cup for the tube, then fill it with liquid air and immerse it in water. -In a few minutes the tapering tin cup has frozen on its outer walls a -tumbler of ice. This may be carefully removed, and the ice tumbler is -then filled with liquid air rich in oxygen, which, by maintaining the -cold of the ice tumbler, keeps it from melting. A carbon pencil or a -steel spring heated to redness will now, if dipped in the liquid oxygen -in the ice tumbler, burn with vehement brilliancy and beautiful -scintillations, involving the anomalous conditions of a white hot heat -and active combustion in the center of a tumbler of ice, without melting -the tumbler. In experiment 13, Fig. 305, a jet of carbonic acid gas -directed into a dish floating in a glass of liquid air is immediately -frozen into minute flakes, producing a miniature snow storm of carbonic -acid. In experiment 14 an electric light carbon heated to a red heat at -its tip, is plunged vertically into a deep glass of liquid oxygen. A -most singular combustion takes place. The heat of the carbon evaporates -the oxygen in its immediate vicinity, and the carbon burns with great -brilliancy and violence, forming carbonic acid, which is largely frozen -in the liquid before it reaches the surface, and falls back to the -bottom of the dish, so that the combustion is maintained and its -products retained within the dish. A beefsteak may be frozen in liquid -air to such brittleness that it is shattered like a china plate when -struck a slight blow. The intense cold of liquid air does not destroy -the vitality or germinating power of seed, but produces serious -so-called burns on the flesh that destroy the tissues and do not heal -for many months, and yet for a moment the finger may be dipped in liquid -air with impunity because of the gaseous envelope with which the finger -is temporarily surrounded. - -[Illustration: FIG. 305.--LIQUID AIR EXPERIMENTS. - -10. Frozen mercury. 11. Liquid oxygen in water. 12. Frozen whisky. 13. -Carbonic acid snow. 14. Combustion of carbon pencil.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIV. - -MINOR INVENTIONS - -AND - -PATENTS IN PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. - - -If the reader has been patient enough to have reviewed the preceding -pages, the impression may have been formed that the notable inventions -referred to represent all that is worth while to consider in this great -field of human achievement. It would be a fallacy to entertain such a -thought, for the little stars out-number the big ones, and the twigs of -the tree are far more numerous than its branches. The great things in -life are comparatively few and far between, and the bulk of human -existence is made up of an unclassified mass of little things, sown like -sands along the shore of time between the boulders of great events. So -also in invention is its warp and woof made up of a multitude of little -threads behind the gorgeous patterns of meteoric genius. Every hour of -the day of modern life is replete with the achievements of invention. -Look around the room, and there is not a thing in sight that does not -suggest the material advance of the age; the books, the furniture, the -carpets, the curtains, the wall paper, the clock, the mantels, the house -trimmings, the culinary utensils, and the clothing, all represent -creations of this century. So full is the daily life of these things, -and so much of a necessity have they all become, that their commonplace -character dismisses them from conspicuous notice. Take the most -matter-of-fact and prosy half hour of the day, that at the time of -rising, and see what a faithful account of the average man's everyday -life would present. The awakening is definitely determined by an alarm -clock, and the sleepy Nineteenth Century man rolling over under the -seductive comfort of a spring bed, takes another nap, because he knows -that the rapid transit cars will give him time to spare. Rising a little -later his bare feet find a comfortable footing on a machine-made rug, -until thrust into full fashioned hose, and ensconced in a pair of -machine-sewed slippers. Drawing the loom-made lace curtains, he starts -up the window shade on the automatic Hartshorn roller and is enabled to -see how to put in his collar button and adjust his shirt studs. He -awakens the servant below with an electric bell, calls down the -speaking tube to order breakfast, and perhaps lights the gas for her by -the push button. He then proceeds to the bath, where hot and cold water, -the sanitary closet, a gas heater, and a great array of useful modern -articles present themselves, such as vaseline, witch hazel, dentifrices, -cold cream, soaps and antiseptics, which supply every luxurious want and -every modern conception of sanitation. His bath concluded, he proceeds -to dress, and maybe puts in his false teeth, or straps on an artificial -leg. Donning his shirt with patented gussets and bands, he quickly -adjusts his separable cuff buttons, puts on his patented suspenders, -and, winding a stem-winding watch, proceeds down stairs to breakfast. A -revolving fly brush and fly screens contribute to his comfort. A cup of -coffee from a drip coffee-pot, a lump of artificial ice in his tumbler, -sausage ground in a machine, batter cakes made with an egg beater, -waffles from a patented waffle iron, honey in artificial honey comb, -cream raised by a centrifugal skimmer, butter made in a patented churn, -hot biscuits from the cooking range, and a refrigerator with a well -stocked larder, all help to make him comfortable and happy. The picture -is not exceptional in its fullness of invented agencies, and one could -just as well go on with our citizen through the rest of the day's -experience, and start him off after breakfast with a patented match, in -a patented match case, and a patented cigarette, with his patented -overshoes and umbrella, and send him along over the patented pavement to -the patented street car, or automobile, and so on to the end of the day. - -Some of the minor inventions are really of too much importance to be -passed without comment. The _cable car_ is a factor which has cut no -small figure in the activities of city life. The first patent on a -slotted underground conduit between the rails, with traction cable -inside and running on pulleys, was that to E. A. Gardner, No. 19,736, -March 23, 1858. Hallidie, in San Francisco, in 1876, directed his -energies to a development of this system, and brought it to a degree of -perfection and general adoption that made it for many years the leading -system of street car propulsion. To-day, however, it represents but a -decadent type, being largely supplanted by the superior advantages of -electricity. - -_Passenger elevators_ constitute one of the conspicuous features of -modern locomotion. Without them the tall office buildings, hotels, and -department stores would have no existence; the Eiffel Tower would never -have been dreamed of, and the expenditure of vital force in stair -climbing would have been greatly augmented. The passenger elevator has -for its prototype the ancient hoist or lift for mines, but in the latter -half of the Nineteenth Century it has developed into a distinct -institution--a luxurious little room, gliding noiselessly up and down, -actuated by a power that is not seen, and supplied with every appliance -for safety and comfort, such as governors, safety catches, automatic -stops, mirrors and cushioned seats. The principle of the screw, of -balance weights, of the lazy tongs, and other mechanical powers have -each found application in the elevator, but steam, hydraulic power, and -electricity constitute the moving agencies of the modern type. The -patent to E. G. Otis, No. 31,128, January 15, 1861, marks the beginning -of its useful applications. - -Of close kin to the elevator are the _fire escape_, _dumb waiter_ and -_grain elevator_, each of which fills a more or less important function -in the life of to-day. - -What more ubiquitous or ingenious illustration of modern progress than -the _American stem winding watch!_ Up to the middle of the century all -watches were made by hand throughout. Each watch had its own -individuality as a separate creation, and only the privileged few were -able to carry them. In 1848 Aaron L. Dennison, a Boston watch maker, -began making watches by machinery, and the foundation of the system of -interchangeable parts was laid. A small factory at Roxbury, Mass., was -established in 1850, which four years later was moved to Waltham. In -1857 it passed into the hands of Appleton, Tracy & Co., and was -subsequently acquired by the American Watch Co. As presenting some idea -of the great elaboration involved in this art, it was estimated a few -years ago that 3,746 distinct mechanical operations were required to -make an ordinary machine made watch. A single pound of steel wire is -sometimes converted into a couple of hundred thousand tiny screws, and -another pound of fine steel wire furnishes 17,280 hair springs, worth -several thousand dollars. The absolute uniformity and perfect -interchangeability of parts in the American watch have been obtained by -substituting the invariable and mathematical accuracy of the machine for -the nervous fingers and dimming eyes of the old time watchmaker, and the -American machine made watch, discredited as it was at first, stands -to-day the greatest modern advance in horology. - -_Friction Matches._--In 1805 Thenard, of Paris, made the first attempt -to utilize chemical agencies for the ordinary production of fire. In -1827 John Walker, an English druggist, made friction matches called -"congreves." In 1833 phosphorus friction matches were introduced on a -commercial scale by Preschel, of Vienna. In 1845 red phosphorus matches -(parlor matches) were made by Von Schrotter, of Vienna, and in 1855 -safety matches, which ignited only on certain substances, were made by -Lundstroem, of Sweden. Prior to the Nineteenth Century, and in fact -until about 1833, the old flint and steel and tinder box were the -clumsy and uncertain means for producing fire. To-day the friction match -is turned out by automatic machinery by the million, and constitutes -probably the most ubiquitous and useful of all the minor inventions. - -Step into any of the great department stores and the genius of the -inventor confronts you in the _cash carrier_ whisking its little cars -back and forth from the cashier's desk to the most remote corners of the -great building. The first of these mechanical carriers adapted for store -service was patented by D. Brown, July 13, 1875, No. 165,473. Not until -about 1882, however, was there any noticeable adoption of the system, -when practical development was given in Martin's patents, No. 255,525, -March 28, 1882; No. 276,441, April 24, 1883, and No. 284,456, September -4, 1883. Go to the lunch counter, and the _cash register_ reminds you -that the millenium of absolute honesty is not yet realized. The _bell -punch_ on the street car and the burglar proof safe with its -_combination locks_ are other suggestions in the same line. The first -_fire proof safe_ is disclosed in the British patent to Richard Scott, -No. 2,477, of 1801. The _time lock_, which prevents the safe from being -opened by anyone except at a certain period of daylight, was invented by -J. V. Savage, and was covered by him in United States patent No. 5,321, -October 9, 1847. The practical adoption of time locks began about 1875 -with the operations of Sargent, Stockwell and others, and to-day they -constitute one of the most important features of bank safes and vaults, -and represent a marvelously beautiful and accurate example of mechanical -skill. - -The Otto _gas-engine_, and the Ericsson _air-engine_ are important -developments in power producing motors, and the improvements in -_pavements_ and in _street sweepers_ for cleaning them, contribute to -the cleanliness, sanitation, and aesthetic values of city life. The -_cigarette machine_, which continuously curls a ribbon of paper around a -core of tobacco to form a rope, and then cuts it off into cigarettes, is -an important invention in the tobacco industry, however doubtful its -hygienic value to the world may be. The _lightning rod_ has brought -protection to homes and lives, and the _incubator_ has become the hen's -wet nurse. In agriculture, the reaper has been supplemented with -threshing machines, seeders, drills, cultivators, horse rakes and plows. -In the farm yard appear the improved carriage and wagon, the well pump, -the wind wheel, the fruit drier, the bee hive, and the cotton and cider -press. In the kitchen, the washing machine, the churn, the cheese press, -ironing machine, wringer, the rat trap, and fruit jar. In the house, the -folding bed, tilting chair, carpet sweeper, and the piano. In heating -appliances, steam and water heating systems, base burning and Latrobe -stoves, hot air furnaces, gas and oil stoves. In plastics there are -brick machines, pressed glass ware, enameled sheet iron ware, tiles, -paper buckets, celluloid and rubber articles. In hydraulics there are -rams, water closets, pumps, and turbine water wheels. In mining there -are stamp mills, ore crushers, separators, concentrators, and -amalgamators. In the leather and boot and shoe industry there is a great -variety of machines and appliances. The paper industry, with book -binding machines, and paper box machines, is a fertile field of -invention. Steam boilers, metallurgical appliances, soap making, -chemical fire extinguishers, fountain pens, the sand blast, bottle -stoppers, and a thousand other things present themselves in -miscellaneous and endless array. These are, however, only some of the -things which the limitation of space precludes from individual -treatment, but which are none the less important in making up the great -resources of modern life, and, for the most part, represent the -contributions of the Nineteenth Century not heretofore considered. - -The observant and thoughtful reader finds just here occasion to inquire -the meaning of this great rising tide of progress which has so -distinguished the Nineteenth Century. It is largely due to the Patent -Law, which justly regards the inventor as a public benefactor, and seeks -to make for him some protection in the enjoyment of his rights. If a man -be in the possession of a legacy by the accident of birth, the law of -inheritance rules that it is rightfully his. The finding of a thing, -whether by jetsam, flotsam, or the lucky accident of a first discovery, -this also makes good his title, if there be no other owner. There is, -however, a right of property which is higher than all others, and in -which there is coupled with the possession of the thing the sacred -function of its creation. The right of a mother to her child is of this -nature, and like unto it is the right of the inventor to the creation of -his genius. In the last two centuries of the world's history this right -has been recognized by an enlightened civilization, and provision made -for its enjoyment in the grant of patents, and if there be any right -more strongly entrenched than another in the eternal verities of equity -and justice it is this. Our first crude patent law was enacted in 1790, -but not until 1836 was the present system adopted. Our own and -comparatively new country has, therefore, not yet had a hundred years of -existence under our present Patent System, and yet to-day it outstrips -the world both in its material resources and in its wealth of patented -inventions. The accompanying diagram, Fig. 306, illustrates in a graphic -way just what relation the United States bears to the other leading -countries of the world in the matter of patents granted, and when it is -remembered that under our system a patent can only be granted for a new -invention, while in some of the other countries it is not essential to -the grant, the richness in invention of the United States, with its six -hundred and fifty thousand patents, can be better appreciated. This is a -greater number than has been issued by Great Britain and France put -together. Connecticut is the most productive State in invention in -proportion to its people, and Edison is the most prolific inventor. From -1870 to 1900 he has taken 727 United States patents, and there are from -twenty-five to thirty other American inventors each of whom has taken -100 or more patents. - -[Illustration: TOTAL NUMBER PATENTS TO JAN 1^{ST.} 1900 - -(FOREIGN PATENTS FOR 1899, ESTIMATED) - -RATE OF ISSUE OF U.S. PATENTS - -FIG. 306.] - -The year 1790 was notable in two events, the birth of our patent system -and the death of Benjamin Franklin. That grand old philosopher, with a -prescience of future greatness to come from the genius of the inventor, -is said to have expressed the wish before he died that he might be -sealed up in a cask of old Madeira and be brought to life a hundred -years in the future, that he might witness the growth of the world. Who -can tell what his emotions would be if he were with us to-day? It is -said, when he first saw the fibres of the string diverge, and the spark -pass from the cord of his kite, and the lightning was for the first time -obedient to the will of man, that he uttered a deep sigh and wished that -that moment were his last. To this poor knowledge of electricity he -would now have added all the wonders and powers of the telegraph, the -dynamo, the telephone, and the great modern electrical science; to his -primitive hand press he would have contrasted the Octuple perfecting -press, turning out papers at the rate of 1,600 a minute; his modest -type-setting case would be replaced by a great array of linotype -machines, and he would find several acres of woodland sacrificed to -produce the wood-pulp paper of a single edition of a New York daily. -Would he not realize indeed that truth is stranger than fiction, and -fact more wonderful than fancy's dream! - - - - -CHAPTER XXXV. - -EPILOGUE. - - -Whatever the future centuries may bring in new and useful inventions, -certain it is that the Nineteenth Century stands pre-eminent in this -field of human achievement, so far excelling all other like periods as -to establish on the pages of history an epoch as remarkable as it is -unique. Never before has human conception so expressed itself in -materialized embodiment, never has thought been so fruitfully wedded to -the pregnant possibilities of matter, never has the divine function of -creation been so closely approximated, never has such an accretion of -helpful instrumentalities and material resources been added to the -world's wealth--not merely the miserly and inert wealth of gold and -gems, but the wealth of an enlarged human existence. This life itself is -but a limited span; beginning in infancy, expanding to highest -achievement in middle age, and declining at the end, it quickly passes -away, and another generation follows. Growth and decay with all living -things mark the immutable law of nature, and the inevitable fate of -mortality. The rose blossoms into beauty, fades, and decays. The bird in -the air, and the beast in the field, each plays his part and passes to -the great unknown, leaving no record; man himself is mortal, but his -work is immortal. The inspired conception of his best thought, the -materialized embodiment of his work in useful agencies, and the -subjugation of the laws of nature to his service, all endure and live -forever in his inventions. These partake of the breath of life, and in -their immortality are of kin to the soul. Cities may grow up and vanish, -civilizations may decay, and man himself may degenerate, but the -principle of the lever and the screw, once discovered, is for all time -perfect, invariable and immortal. Every invention made is another -permanent gift to posterity. All of enduring wealth that the present -gets from the past are its ideas reduced to a working basis. All else is -but dross, or evanescent dreams which vanish into oblivion in the light -of a larger knowledge. But ideas wrought into practical, substantive -things, tried and proven true, these are inventions--immortal -creations--and of these the Nineteenth Century has borne fruit in -paramount abundance, and this legacy it now bequeaths to the coming -century. - -To follow conventional methods, the final chapter of a book should be an -"In conclusion" with a "finis" and a dismantled torch, but the history -of invention will ever be a continued story. There is no end in this -field. The trusteeship of the Twentieth Century man is great, and great -his responsibilities; but his restless and dominant spirit knows no -decadence, and his mental endowment and material equipment, without -parallel in history, are a guarantee of future achievements. Will not -the chemist learn how to produce electricity direct from the combustion -of coal, or solve the problem of the synthesis of food? Will not the -American continent be parted by an inter-oceanic canal, or the rough -waters of the English Channel be avoided with a submarine tunnel? May -not a ship canal through France to the Mediterranean give to that -country the connected enjoyment of riparian rights, without passing the -frowning battlements of Gibraltar, or might not a tunnel under the -Straits of Gibraltar put Europe and Africa in direct railway -communication? The relation of electricity to life is a field of -pregnant possibilities, and may we not also learn to swap the surplus -heat of summer for the winter's cold, and by an equalization of their -two extremes bring eternal spring and joy to the animated world? Shall -we not yet stand on the North Pole, or looking away into space may we -not extend a neighborly welcome to our brothers in Mars, if any there -be? It is permitted to dream in this field, for it is this reaching out -into the unknown that plats the boundaries of an extended world, and -adds to the possessions of man. - -The old man in his dreams of the past rejoices in his achievements, for -he has stolen the fires of Prometheus and forged anew the thunderbolts -of Jove for the arts of peace. Delving into the secret recesses of the -earth, he has tapped the hidden supplies of nature's fuel, has invaded -her treasure house of gold and silver, robbed Mother Earth of her -hoarded stores, and possessed himself of her family record, finding on -the pages of geology sixty millions of years' existence. Peering into -the invisible little world, the infinite secrets of microcosm have -yielded their fruitful and potent knowledge of bacteria and cell growth. -Pain has been robbed of its terrors by anaesthesia; the heat of the sun -has been brought down in the electric furnace, and the cold of -inter-stellar space in the ice machine and liquid air. With telescope -and spectroscope he has climbed into limitless space above, and defined -the size, distance, and constitution of a star millions of miles away. -The north star has been made his sentinel on the sea. The lightning is -made his swift messenger, and thought flashes in submarine depths -around the world. Dead matter is made to speak in the phonograph, the -invisible has been revealed in the X-Rays, coal has been made his black -slave, steam the breath of the world's life, and all of nature's forces -have been made his constant servants in attendance. - -With such a retrospect, the sage of the Nineteenth Century may lie down -to quiet rest, with an assuring faith that what God hath wrought is -good, and what is not may yet be. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Abbe's Stereo-Binocular, 289 - Absorption Process, Ice Making, 441 - Acetylene Gas, 333 - Adirondack, Steamer, 141 - Agricultural Chemistry, 225 - Aids to Digestion, 243 - Air Blast, 374 - Air Brakes, 129 - Air, Carburetted, 336 - Alloys, 389 - Aluminum, 225-390 - Ambrotype, 304 - Anaesthesia, 246 - Anaesthesia by Chloroform, 247 - Ancient Iron Furnace, 372 - Aniline, 222 - Annealing and Tempering, Electricity in, 387 - Antikamnia (Acetanilide), 248 - Antipyrine, 248 - Antiseptic Surgery, 256 - Antiseptics, Coal Tar, 223 - Archer's Collodion Process Photos, 304 - Arc Lamp Feed, 66 - Arc Lamp, Simple, 64 - Arc Lamp, Weston, 65 - Arc Lamp, Large, 65-69 - Arkwright's Drawing Rolls, 421 - Arlberg Tunnel, 346 - Armored Cruiser, 150 - Armor Plates, Manufacture of, 383 - Artesian Wells, 350 - Artificial Limbs, 251 - Atlantic Cable, 32-37 - Automatic Ball Governor, 104 - Automatic Telegraph, 22 - Automobile, 265-272 - Automobile Statistics, 271 - - Babbitt Metal, 389 - Bachelder Sewing Machine Feed, 186 - Bacteriology, 252 - Bain's Telegraph, 22 - Baldwin's Locomotives, 126 - Band Saws, 364 - Barbed Wire Fences, 388 - Barlow's Electric Wheel, 48 - Battery, Storage, 88 - Battleships, 150 - Beach, Alfred E., Tunneling Shield, 346 - Beach's Typewriter, 174 - Bell & Tainter's Improved Phonograph, 276 - Bell's Telephone, 77 - Bentham, Sir S., Invents Woodworking Machinery, 360 - Berliner's Telephone, 82 - Bessemer Steel, 376 - Beverages, 244 - Blake Telephone Transmitter, 83 - Blanchard's Lathe, 368 - Blast Furnace, 374-375 - Blasting, 351 - Blasting, Electro, 99 - Blenkinsop's Locomotive, 119 - Blickensderfer Typewriter, 180 - Bloomeries, Air, 373 - Body Appliances, Electric, 97 - Book Typewriter, 181 - Bourdon's Steam Gauge, 107 - Bicycle, 259-265 - Bicycle Speed, 264 - Bicycle Statistics, 265 - Binding Devices for Reaper, 203 - Biograph, 298 - Bipolar Dynamo, 42 - Brake, Bicycle, 264 - Bramah's Planer, 366 - Branca's Steam Turbine, 109 - Branson's Automatic Knitter, 431 - Breech Mechanism, Interrupted Thread, 399 - Bridge, Brooklyn, 342 - Bridge, Cabin John, 344 - Bridge, Forth, 340 - Bridges, Masonry, 342 - Bridge, Trezzo, 344 - Bright's Disease, 250 - Brooklyn, Armored Cruiser, 151 - Brooklyn Bridge, 342 - Buildings, High, 353 - Burt's Typewriter, 172 - Butchering and Dressing Meats, 237 - Buttonhole Machine, 191 - - Cabin John Bridge, 344 - Cablegrams, First, 33 - Cable Statistics, 36 - Cable, Submarine, 32 - Cable Tolls, 37 - Cableway, Lidgerwood, 349 - Caissons, 345 - Calcium Carbide, 225 - Calcium Carbide Factories, 336 - Calcium Carbide Furnace, 46 - Caligraph Typewriter, 177 - Calotype, 303 - Camera, 306 - Camera Obscura, 306 - Camera Shutter, 307 - Canal, Chicago Drainage, 350 - Canal, Suez, 347 - Candle, Jablochkoff, 64 - Canning Industry, 235 - Cannon, Breech-Loading, 397 - Cannon Invention, 395 - Caoutchouc, 210 - Capitol Building, 357 - Caps, Percussion, 416 - Carafes, Frozen, 441 - Carbolic Acid, 247 - Carbon Microphone, 82 - Carbon-Printing, Photography, 305 - Carborundum, 225 - Carborundum Furnace, 45 - Carburetted Air, 336 - Car Coupling, 129 - Carpet Sewing Machine, 192 - Carre's Ice Machine, 441 - Cartwright Invents Power Loom, 426 - Car Wheels, Turning, 387 - Cash Carrier, 461 - Casting Pig Iron, 379 - Castalia, Steamer, 140 - Cathode Ray, 321 - Celestial Photography, 310 - Cementation, 385-387 - Centrifugal Filter, 243 - Centrifugal Milk Skimmer, 235 - Chain Bicycle, 263 - Chair, Electrocution, 44 - Champion Reaper, 202 - Charlotte Dundas, Steamboat, 134 - Chemical Telegraph, 22 - Chemistry, 221-227 - Chicago Drainage Canal, 350 - Chill Molds, 388 - Chipping Logs, Wood Pulp, 162 - Chloral Hydrate, 247 - Chronology of Inventions, 7-14 - Circular Saw, Hammering to Tension, 362 - Circulation of Blood, 246 - Civil Engineering, 340-359 - Clermont, Steamboat, 136 - Cloth, Finishing, 432 - Cloth Presser, 432 - Coal Gas Works, 330 - Coal Tar Dyes, Statistics, 226 - Coal Tar Products, 222 - Coating with Metal, 387 - Code, Morse, 20 - Collecting Rubber, 211 - Collodion Process Photography, 304 - Color Photography, 311 - Color Printing Press, 159 - Columbia Electric Automobile, 270 - Columbian Press, 156 - Compound Expansion Engine, 115 - Compound Locomotive, 128-130 - Compound Steam Turbine, 109 - Concentrator, Magnetic, 392 - Continuous Web Press, 157 - Cooper, Peter, Rolls Iron Beams for Buildings, 354 - Cord Binding Reaper, 203 - Corliss Valve Gear, 106 - Cort Makes Wrought Iron, 373 - Cotton, Diamond, 434 - Cotton Gin, 423 - Cracker and Cake Machine, 234 - Crompton Invents Mule Spinner, 422 - Cryptoscope, Salvioni's, 322 - Cuisine, Ocean Steamer, 145 - Culture, Bacteria, 255 - Cut-Off, Sickel's, 105 - Cut-Off, Steam, 104 - Cyanide Process, 391 - - Daguerreotype, 303 - Daguerre's Invention, 303 - Dahlgren Gun, 397 - Dal Negro Electric Motor, 49 - Daniell Battery, 16 - Darby Makes Iron with Coke, 373 - De Laval's Steam Turbine, 111 - De Lesseps Builds Suez Canal, 347 - Demologos, First War Vessel, 146 - Densmore Typewriter, 180 - Dentistry, 250 - Desk Telephone, 86 - Deutschland's Engines, 115 - Digesters, Wood Pulp, 163 - Digestion, 252 - Disease Germs, 253 - Double Hull Steamer, 140 - Dough Mixer, 232 - Draisine Bicycle, 260 - Drawing Rolls, Spinning, 421 - Dredges, 349 - Drill Jar, 350 - Drills, Rock, 351 - Drinks, 244 - Drummond Light, 338 - Dry Plate Photography, 306 - Dudley's Early Ironworking, 373 - Duplex Telegraph, 23 - Duplicating Phonograph Records, 279 - Dust Collector, Flour Mills, 232 - Dyes, Coal Tar, 223 - Dynamite Gun, 405 - Dynamo Armature, 43 - Dynamo, Bipolar, 42 - Dynamo, Description of, 42 - Dynamos, Different Kinds, 42 - Dynamo Electric Machine, 38-47 - Dynamo, Gramme and D'Ivernois, 41 - Dynamo, Hjorth, 40 - Dynamo, Multipolar, 47 - Dynamo, Siemens', 41 - Dynamo, Wilde, 41 - - Eads, Caissons of, 345 - Earthquake-Proof Palace, 355 - Edison's Electric Lamp, 67-73 - Edison's Carbon Microphone, 82 - Edison's Concentrating Works, 392 - Edison's Electric Pen, 96 - Edison's Kinetoscope, 297 - Edison's Three Wire System, 72-74 - Edison's X-Ray Apparatus, 323 - Eiffel Tower, 355 - Electric Automobile, 270 - Electric Body Appliances, 97 - Electric Cautery, 97 - Electric Furnace, 44 - Electric Furnace, Acheson, 45 - Electric Furnace, Bradley, 46 - Electric Lamp, Edison's, 67-73 - Electric Lamp, Sawyer-Man, 67-73 - Electric Lamp, Starr-King, 66 - Electric Launch, 93-94 - Electric Light, 63-75 - Electric Light Beacon, 65-69 - Electric Light Circuit, 74 - Electric Locomotive, 59 - Electric Motor, 48-62 - Electric Motor, Barlow's Wheel, 48 - Electric Motor, Dal Negro, 49 - Electric Motor, Davenport, 51-52 - Electric Motor, Dr. Page, 51 - Electric Motor, Faraday, 48 - Electric Motor, Henry, 50 - Electric Motor, Jacobi, 51 - Electric Motor, Neff, 52 - Electric Motor, Prof. Henry's, 50 - Electric Motor, Railway, 58 - Electric Motor, Westinghouse, 53 - Electric Musical Instruments, 98 - Electric Pen, Edison's, 96 - Electric Piano, 98 - Electric Railway, First, 54 - Electric Railway Statistics, 60 - Electric Telephone, 76 - Electric Welding, 91 - Electrical Generation, Polyphase, 43 - Electrical Navigation, 92 - Electricity Direct from Fuel, 92 - Electricity in Medicine, 96 - Electricity, Miscellaneous, 88-99 - Electro-Blasting, 99 - Electro-Chemistry, 225 - Electrocution, 44 - Electro-Magnet, Henry's, 17-18 - Electro-Magnetism by Oersted, 18 - Electro-Magnet, Sturgeon's, 18-19 - Electro-Plating, 93 - Elements, New, 227 - Elevators, Passenger, 459 - Elliott & Hatch Typewriter, 182 - Emulsions, Photography, 305 - Engine, Gas, 337 - Engine, Rotary, 109 - Epilogue, 465-467 - Ericsson's Monitor, 148 - Ericsson's Screw Propeller, 137 - Etherization, 246 - Excavating Quicksand by Freezing, 345 - Explosives, High, 419 - - Facsimile Telegraph, 24 - False Teeth, 251 - Faraday Converts Electricity Into Power, 48 - Farmer Utilizes Electric Light, 67 - Farms, Large, 207 - Fastest Railway Speed, 131 - Fastest Speed, Steam Vessel, 146 - Faure Storage Battery, 90 - Feathering Paddle Wheel, 138-141 - Feed, Sewing Machine, 186-187 - Fermenting and Brewing, 223 - Field, Cyrus W., 32 - Fields, Large, 207 - Films, Photographic, 308 - Filter, Centrifugal, 243 - Fire Alarm Telegraph, 24 - Firearms and Explosives, 394-419 - Firearms, Early, 395 - Fire Engine, Steam, 114 - First Cable Message, 33 - First Dynamo, 40 - First Electric Light in Dwelling, 67 - First Gas Company, 330 - First Incandescent Lamp, 66-72 - First Locomotive, 119 - First Ocean Voyage, 137-145 - First Phonograph, 274 - First Photographic Portrait, 310 - First Railway in U. S., 131 - First Rubber Shoes, 212 - First Telegraphic Message, 15 - First Telegraphic Signal, 18 - First War Vessel, 146 - Flood Rock, Destruction of, 352 - Flour Mills, 230 - Fluorometer (X-Ray), 326 - Fluoroscope, Edison's, 323 - Focus Tube, X-Ray, 326 - Food and Drink, 228-244 - Food Products, Statistics, 229 - Foods, Patented, 244 - Forging Press, 383 - Forth Bridge, 340 - Fourdrinier Machine, 161 - Franklin's Printing Press, 155 - Fulton, Robert, 134 - Fulton's Demologos, 146 - - Galvani's Experiment, 16 - Galvanizing, 387 - Gas, Acetylene, 333 - Gas Checks, Ordnance, 398 - Gas, Coal, 330 - Gas Engine, 337 - Gases, Liquefaction of, 447 - Gas Lighting, 329-339 - Gas Meter, 337 - Gasoline Automobile, 268 - Gas, Water, 332 - Gatling Gun, 405 - Gauge, Steam, 107 - Gelatine Films, Photography, 308 - Germs, Disease, 253 - Gessner's Cloth Press, 432 - Giffard Injector, 105 - Glucose, 223 - Gold, Cyanide Process, 391 - Goodyear Discovers Vulcanization, 214 - Goodyear Introduces Rubber Into Europe, 214 - Goodyear's Experiments With Rubber, 212 - Gramophone, 280 - Grande Lunette Telescope, 287 - Grape Sugar, 223 - Graphophone, 277 - Great Eastern, 138 - Greathead Improves Tunneling Shield, 347 - Grove, Prof., Electric Lamp, 66-72 - Gun Cotton, Making, 224 - Gun, Magazine, 411 - Gun, Disappearing, 401 - Gunpowder, 416 - Gun, 16-inch, 401 - Gunpowder, White, 417 - Guns, Hammerless, 414 - Gutenberg's Movable Type, 154 - - Hackworth's Locomotive, 121 - Half Tone Engraving, 314 - Hammer, Steam, 112 - Hammond Typewriter, 178 - Hargreaves Invents the Spinning-Jenny, 421 - Harvester, 195 - Harvest Scene, 208 - Harvey Process, 387 - Hayward Adds Sulphur to Rubber, 213 - Heddle, 426 - Hedley's "Puffing Billy", 120 - Heliography, Niepce, 302 - Henry's Electric Motor, 50 - Henry's First Telegraph, 18 - Hero's Engine, 101 - Hjorth Dynamo, 40 - Hoe Printing Press, 157 - Holden Ice Machine, 443 - Holland Submarine Boat, 152 - Homoeopathy, 250 - Horrocks Applies Steam to Looms, 428 - Horseshoes, Manufacture of, 383 - Hot Blast Furnace, 374 - House Printing Telegraph, 24 - House Sanitation, 256 - Howe's Sewing Machine, 184 - Hussey's Reaper, 196 - Hydraulic Dredges, 349 - Hydropathy, 250 - - Ice Machine, Holden, 443 - Ice Machines, 436-446 - Ice Plant, 442 - Ice Skating Rinks, 445 - Incandescent Lamp, 66 - India Rubber Statistics, 217 - Injector, Giffard, 105 - Instantaneous Photos, 308 - Iron and Steel Statistics, 390 - Ironclad Monitors Cross Ocean, 148 - Ironclads, 147 - - Jablochkoff Candle, 64 - Jacobi's Electric Boat, 92 - Jacobi's Electric Motor, 51 - Jacquard Loom, 427 - Janney Car Coupling, 129 - Jenkins' Phantascope, 299 - Jetties, Mississippi, 352 - John Bull, Locomotive, 124 - - Kaiser Wilhelm, Steamer, 142 - Kaleidoscope, 294 - Kelly's Process Making Steel, 377 - Kinetoscope, 297 - Kirchhoff's Spectroscope, 293 - Kneading Machines, 233 - Knitting Machines, 430 - Kodak Camera, 307-309 - Koenig's Rotary Press, 157 - Krag-Jorgensen Magazine Rifle, 413 - Krupp Gun, 398 - - Laryngoscope, 249 - Latch Needle for Knitting Machine, 432 - Lathe, Blanchard's, 368 - Laughing Gas, 246 - Launches, Electric, 94 - Leading Inventions, Nineteenth Century, 7-14 - Lee Invents Knitting Machines, 431 - Lee's Magazine Rifle, 412 - Lick Telescope, 286 - Light, Electric, 63 - Light, Rapidity of Travel, 299 - Lime Light, 338 - Link Motion, 128 - Linotype Printing, 165 - Liquid Air, 447-457 - Lister's Antiseptic Surgery, 256 - Lithography, 170 - Lithotrity, 250 - Locke Wire Binder, 203 - Locks, Pneumatic Lift, 300 - Locomobile, Steam, 267 - Locomotive, Electric, 59 - Locomotive, Largest, 132 - Locomotive, Steam, 118 - Loom, Jacquard, 427 - Loom, Positive Motion, 429 - Loom, Power, 426 - Lovers' Telegraph, 76 - Lowe's Water Gas Apparatus, 332 - Lyall Positive Motion Loom, 429 - - Machine Gun, 405 - Magazine Pistol, 409 - Magnetic Concentrator, 392 - Magneto-Electric Machine, 38-39 - Malarial Parasite, 254 - Mann Harvester, 200 - Mantles for Welsbach Burner, 338 - Marconi's Wireless Telegraphy, 27 - Marsh Harvester, 201 - Matches, Friction, 460 - Matching Machines, 366 - Materia Medica, 247 - Mauser Rifle, 413 - McCormick Reaper, 197-199 - McKay Shoe Sewing Machine, 190 - Meats, Dressing, 238 - Medical Electricity, 96 - Medicines, Coal Tar, 223 - Medicine, Surgery, Sanitation, 245-258 - Mege's Oleomargarine, 239 - Melville Introduces Gas in U. S., 330 - Mercerized Cloth, 434 - Mergenthaler Linotype Machine, 166 - Metal Founding, 388 - Metallurgy, Early History of, 372 - Metal Production in the United States, 393 - Metal Tube Making, 387 - Metal Turning, 387 - Metal Working, 371-393 - Meter, Gas, 337 - Michaux's Bicycle, 261 - Micro-photographs in Beleaguered Paris, 291 - Microscope, 290 - Middlings Purifier, 231 - Milk Skimmer, 235 - Milling, Flour, 230 - Mills' Typewriter, 171 - Mines, Submarine, 417 - Minor Inventions, 458-464 - Molding Machines, 366 - Monitor Monadnock, 149 - Mont Cenis Tunnel, 345 - Monument, Washington, 356 - Morrow Bicycle Brake, 264 - Morse Telegraph, 19 - Mortising Machines, 369 - Morton and Jackson Patent Anaesthesia, 247 - Moving Pictures, 295 - Mule Spinner, 422 - Musical Instruments, Electric, 98 - Muybridge's Photos Trotting Horses, 297 - - Nails, Wire, 388 - Nasmyth's Steam Hammer, 112 - Natural Gas, 329-339 - Navies' Tonnage, 146 - Navigation, Electric, 92 - Navigation, Steam, 133 - Needle Gun, 411 - Newcomen's Engine, 102 - Nicholson's Rotary Press, 156 - Niepce's Heliography, 302 - Nitro-Glycerine, 224 - Nitrous Oxide Gas, 246 - Northrop Loom, 429 - - Oceanic, Largest Steamer, 139-143 - Octuple Printing Press, 158 - Old Ironsides, Locomotive, 125 - Oleomargarine, 239 - Oliver Typewriter, 181 - Open Hearth Steel, 380 - Opthalmometer, 249 - Opthalmoscope, 249 - Optics, 284-300 - Ordnance, Breech-Loading, 397 - Oregon, Battleship, 150 - Ore Separator, Magnetic, 392 - Ostergren and Berger Liquid Air, 450 - Otto Gas Engine, 338 - - Pacific Railway, 131 - Paddle Wheel, Feathering, 138 - Panorama Camera, 311 - Paper Making, 159-165 - Paper Making, Speed in, 165 - Paper Making Statistics, 165 - Paper Pulp Beater, 160 - Parsons Steam Turbine, 109 - Patented Foods, 244 - Patents, 462 - Perfumes, Coal Tar, 223 - Perkins Invents Ice Machines, 438 - Persistence of Vision, 295 - Phantascope, 299 - Phenacetin, 248 - Phenakistoscope, 295 - Phoenix, Steamboat, 136 - Phonautograph, 276 - Phonograph, 273-283 - Phosphor Bronze, 389 - Photo-engraving, 312 - Photographic Experiments, First, 302 - Photographic Positives, 303 - Photographic Roll Film, 308 - Photographs by Artificial Light, 308-316 - Photography, 301-318 - Photography, Celestial, 310 - Photography, Half Tone Engraving, 314 - Photography in Colors, 311 - Photo-lithography, 312 - Photo-micrographs, 253 - Piano, Electric, 98 - Pictet Ice Machine, 439 - Pictet's Researches, 455 - Pieper Automobile, 271 - Pig Iron, 375 - Pigs, Casting, 379 - Pins, The Manufacture of, 389 - Pintsch Gas, 336 - Pistols, 407 - Pixii Electric Machine, 39 - Planing Machines, 366 - Plante Storage Battery, 88-89 - Plate Printing, 169 - Platinotypes, 305 - Pneumatic Caissons, 345 - Pneumatic Tires, 263 - Poetsch Method of Tunneling, 345 - Polarization of Light, 294 - Polyphase Generation, 43 - Ponton, Mungo, Photography, 305 - Precious Metals, Statistics, 393 - Premo Camera, 309 - Preparing Rubber, 215 - Preserving Food, 235 - Printing, 154-170 - Printing Telegraph, 23-24 - Priscilla, Steamer, 142 - Progin's Typewriter, 172 - Progress Photographic Art, 306 - Puddling Furnace, 373 - Pulp, Wood, 161 - Pulse Recorder, 249 - Purifier, Middlings, 231 - - Quadruplex Telegraph, 23 - Quarter Sawing, 363 - Queen Victoria, First Cablegram, 33 - Quinine Discovered, 247 - - Rabbeth Spinning Spindle, 425 - Railway Motor, Electric, 58 - Railway Statistics, 131 - Railway, Steam, 118 - Range Finder, 295 - Rapid Fire Gun, 400 - Rare Metals, Metallurgy, 390 - Reaper, 195-209 - Reaper Statistics, 205-206 - Rebounding Lock, 415 - Recorder, Siphon, 35 - Reece Buttonhole Machine, 191 - Regenerative Furnace, 381 - Register, Morse, 21-22 - Reis' Telephone, 78 - Remington Typewriter, 176 - Return Circuit, Earth, 18 - Review of Century, 3-6 - Revolvers, 408 - Revolving Turret, 147 - Rifling of Firearms, 396 - Ring Frame, Spinning, 425 - Rock Drills, 351 - Rocket, Locomotive, 122 - Rodman's Method of Casting Guns, 397 - Roentgen Rays, 319-328 - Rogues' Gallery, 310 - Roller Mill, Flour, 230 - Roll Film, Photography, 308 - Rotary Engine, 109 - Rotary Hook Sewing Machine, 187 - Rotary Press, 156 - Rover Bicycle, 263 - Rubber Cloth, 216 - Rubber, India, 210-220 - Rubber Shoes, 217-218 - - Safes, Fireproof, 461 - Safety Bicycle, 264 - Safety-Lamp, 359 - Saint's Sewing Machine, 184 - Salol, 248 - Salvioni's X-Ray Tube, 322 - Sanitation, 245 - Sanitation, House, 256 - Savannah, Steamer, 137-145 - Saw, 360 - Saw, Circular, 361 - Sawmill Carriage, 362 - Sawyer-Man Electric Lamp, 67-73 - Saxton Electric Machine, 39 - Schlick System, 116 - Schools of Medicine, 250 - Screw Propeller, 135-137 - Screws, Bolts, etc., 383 - Screws, Gimlet Pointed, 385 - Screws, Rolling, 386 - Screw Steamer, Stevens', 134 - Search Light, 70-71 - Seidlitz Powders, 247 - Self-Binding Reaper, 203 - Self-Raking Reaper, 202 - Sewerage, Sanitary, 256 - Sewing Machine, 183-194 - Sewing Machine Statistics, 188-193 - Sheathing Railway Train, 132 - Shield, Tunneling, 346-347 - Shoe Sewing Machine, 190 - Sholes' Typewriter, 176 - Shot Making, 389 - Shuttle, Flying, 426 - Sickel's Cut-off, 105 - Siemens' Electric Railway, 54 - Siemens-Martin Steel, 381 - Siemens' Regenerative Furnace, 381 - Silk, Artificial, 433 - Silver Printing, 305 - Singer Sewing Machine, 187 - Siphon Recorder, 35 - Skating Rinks, Ice, 445 - Skeleton Construction, 353 - Skimmer, Milk, 235 - Sleeping Car, 131 - Small Arms, 407 - Smith-Premier Typewriter, 178 - Snap-Shot Camera, 309 - Solarometer, 295 - Spectroscope, 292 - Spectrum, 292 - Spectrum Analysis, 293 - Speed Across Atlantic, 145 - Speed, Railway, 131 - Sphygmograph, 249 - Sphygmometrograph, 249 - Spindle, Spinning, 425 - Spinning-Jenny, 420 - Spinning Spindle, 425 - Statistics, Steam Navigation, 152 - Steam Automobile, 266 - Steamboat, 133 - Steamboat, Fulton's, 136 - Steam Cut-off, 104 - Steam Engine, 100-117 - Steam Engine, Hero's, 101 - Steam Engine, Newcomen, 102 - Steam Engine, Watt's, 103 - Steamer, Swinging Cabin, 140 - Steam Feed Saw Carriage, 363 - Steam Fire Engine, 113 - Steam Gauge, 107 - Steam Hammer, 112 - Steam Harvester and Thresher, 206 - Steam Locomotive, 118 - Steam Navigation, 133-153 - Steam Navigation Statistics, 152 - Steam Planting, 206 - Steam Power Statistics, 116 - Steam Railway, 118-132 - Steam Turbine, 109 - Steel Alloys, 389 - Steel, Open Hearth, 380 - Stephenson's Link Motion, 128 - Stephenson's Locomotives, 121-123 - Stereo-Binocular Field Glass, 289 - Stereoscope, 294 - Stereoscopic Camera, 310 - Stereotyping, 159 - Sterilizing Food Stuffs, 236 - Stethoscope, 249 - Stevens' "Phoenix", 136 - Stevens' Screw Steamer, 134-135 - St. Gothard Tunnel, 346 - Stockton & Darlington Railway, 121 - Storage Battery, 88 - Storage Battery, Faure, 90 - Storage Battery, Plante, 88 - Storage Battery, Ritter, 88 - Stourbridge Lion, Locomotive, 123 - Submarine Boat, 152 - Suez Canal, 347 - Sugar Making, 241 - Sulfonal, 248 - Surgery, 245 - Surgical Instruments, 249 - Symington's Steamboat, 134 - Synthesis Organic Compounds, 222 - System, Third Rail, 57 - - Talbot's Photographic Prints, 303 - Talbotype, 303 - Taupenot's Dry Plates, 306 - Telegraph, Edison's Quadruplex, 23 - Telegraph, Electric, 15-31 - Telegraphic Conductor, 17 - Telegraphing by Induction, 25 - Telegraph Statistics, 30 - Telegraph, Wireless, 26 - Telephone, 76-87 - Telephone, Bell, 77 - Telephone, Blake Transmitter, 83 - Telephone, Bourseul, 77 - Telephone, Drawbaugh, 77 - Telephone Exchange, 86-87 - Telephone, Gray, 77 - Telephone, Reis, 78 - Telephone Statistics, 86 - Telephone, Undulatory Current, 79 - Telephone, Variable Resistance, 82 - Telescope, 285 - Telescopic Discoveries, 284 - Textiles, 420-435 - Thaumatrope, 295 - Thimonnier's Sewing Machine, 184 - Third-Rail System, 57 - Thompsonian System Medicine, 250 - Thompson, Sir William, 35 - Thorp Invents Ring Spinning, 425 - Three Wire System, 72-74 - Thurber's Typewriter, 173 - Ticker, Stock Broker's, 23-24 - Timby's Revolving Turret, 147 - Time Locks, 461 - Tolls, Suez Canal, 347 - Tonnage World's Navies, 146 - Tools, Machine, 386 - Traction Engine, 206 - Transformer, 43 - Trevithick's Locomotive, 118 - Trevithick's Steam Carriage, 266 - Tripler, Liquid Air, 450 - Trolley, Overhead, 55 - Trolley, Underground, 56 - Trouve Electric Boat, 92 - Tube Manufacture, 387 - Tunneling Shield, 346 - Tunnels, 345 - Turbine, Steam, 109 - Turbinia, Steamer, 111 - Turret Monitor, 148 - Typewriter, 171-182 - Typewriter, Oldest, 171 - Typewriter for Blind, 174 - Typewriter Statistics, 182 - - Utilizing Heat from Blast Furnace, 375 - - Vaccination, 245 - Vacuum Pan, Sugar, 242 - Vacuum Tubes, 321 - Valve Gear, Corliss, 106 - Velocipede, 261 - Vertical Fork Bicycle, 262 - Viper, Torpedo Boat, 111 - Vitascope, 297 - Voltaic Arc, 63 - Voltaic Pile, 16 - Vulcanized Rubber, 210 - - Wall Telephone, 85 - Washington Monument, 356 - Washington Press, 156 - Watch, Stem-Winding, 460 - Water Closets, 256 - Water Gas, 331 - Watt's Steam Engine, 103 - Wax Cylinder, Phonograph, 277 - Weaving, 425 - Wegmann's Roller Mill, 230 - Welding, Electric, 91 - Wells, Artesian, 350 - Wells, Petroleum, 350 - Wells, Dr., Produces Anaesthesia, 246 - Welsbach Gas Burner, 338 - Westinghouse Air Brake, 129 - Westinghouse Electric Motor, 53 - Wheat Produced, 209 - Whitney Invents Cotton Gin, 423 - Willis Invents Platinotypes, 305 - Wilson's Sewing Machine, 186 - Windhausen Cold Storage Device, 445 - Winsor Introduces Gas in London, 330 - Winton Automobile, 269 - Wire Bending, 388 - Wire Fences, 388 - Wireless Telegraphy, 26 - Wood Pulp, 161 - Woodruff Sleeping Car, 131 - Wood Turning, 368 - Woodworker, Universal, 367 - Woodworking, 360-370 - Woodworth Wood Planer, 367 - World's Blast Furnaces, 375 - - X-Rays, 319 - X-Ray Apparatus, 324 - X-Ray Focus Tube, 326 - X-Ray Photograph, 322 - X-Ray Surgery, 325 - - Yerkes Telescope, 287 - Yost Typewriter, 180 - - Zoetrope, 297 - - - - -ADVICE IN REGARD TO PATENTS. - - -The influence of invention on modern life can be very justly estimated -by a perusal of "The Progress of Invention in the Nineteenth Century." -It is, of course, well known that inventors are necessarily assisted in -the prosecution of their applications for patents in the Patent Office -by patent attorneys. 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In size and general make-up it is uniform therewith, covering -sixteen pages of closely printed matter, handsomely illustrated. It has -no advertising pages, and the entire space is given up to the -scientific, mechanical and engineering news of the day. It differs from -THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN in that it contains many articles that are too -long to be published in the older journal or of a more technical nature. -College professors and students find this edition especially adapted to -their wants. It contains reports of the meetings of the scientific -societies, both in this country and abroad, and abstracts of many papers -read before such societies. It has a page of short notes concerning the -electrical, engineering and general scientific news of the day, together -with a column of selected formulae. Each number contains much foreign -scientific news, and, when taken in connection with THE SCIENTIFIC -AMERICAN, it places before the reader a weekly review of the latest and -most important discoveries and the most advanced technical and -scientific work of the times all over the world. - -PRICE FOR THE SUPPLEMENT, $5 A YEAR, or one copy of THE SCIENTIFIC -AMERICAN and one copy of SUPPLEMENT, both mailed to one address, for one -year, for $7. Address and remit by postal order or check. - -MUNN & CO., Publishers, - - SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE - 361 Broadway, New York - - -THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, - -ARCHITECTS' and BUILDERS' EDITION. - -$2.50 a Year - -Single copies, 25 cts. - -This is a special edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued monthly--on -the first day of the month. Each number contains about forty large -quarto pages, equal to about 200 ordinary book pages, forming, -practically, a large and splendid MAGAZINE OF ARCHITECTURE, richly -adorned with _elegant plates in colors_ and with fine engravings, -illustrating the most interesting examples of modern architectural -construction and allied subjects. A special feature is the presentation -in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private -residences, city and country, including those of very moderate cost, as -well as the more expensive. Drawings in perspective and in color are -given, together with plans, specifications, costs, etc. No other -building paper contains so many plans and specifications, regularly -presented, as the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. Thousands of dwellings have -already been erected on the various plans we have issued, and many -others are in process of construction. - -Architects, builders and house owners will find this work valuable in -furnishing fresh and useful suggestions. All who contemplate building or -improving homes, or erecting structures of any kind, have before them in -this work an almost _endless series of the latest and best examples_ -from which to make selections, thus saving time and money. - -Many other subjects, including sewerage, piping, lighting, warming, -ventilating, decorating, laying out of grounds, etc., are illustrated. -An extensive Compendium of manufacturers' announcements is also given, -in which the most reliable and approved building materials, goods, -machines, tools and appliances are described and illustrated, with -addresses of the makers, etc. - -The fulness, richness, cheapness and convenience of this work have won -for it the _largest circulation_ of any architectural publication in the -world. - - -FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY NUMBER - -OF THE - -SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. - -In commemoration of the fiftieth year of the publication of the weekly -edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, its publishers on July 25th, 1896, -issued a memorial edition which forms a valuable resume of the progress -of science and invention during the past fifty years. Among the subjects -treated are: - - THE EFFECT OF INVENTION ON THE PEOPLE'S LIFE. THE PATENT SYSTEM. THE - TRANSATLANTIC STEAMSHIP. RAILROADS AND BRIDGES. THE TELEGRAPH. - PHYSICS. MEN OF PROGRESS. THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED - STATES SINCE 1846. THE SUBMARINE CABLE. FIFTY YEARS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. - CHEMISTRY. THE PHONOGRAPH. THE PROGRESS MADE IN THE GENERATION OF - ELECTRIC ENERGY AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE OPERATION OF MOTORS - DURING THE PAST FIFTY YEARS. THE AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE. THE BICYCLE. - THE SEWING MACHINE. AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY. NAVAL AND COAST DEFENSE. - FIFTY YEARS IN THE PRINTING BUSINESS. THE PRIZE ESSAY OF THE - SEMI-CENTENNIAL ANNIVERSARY NUMBER--"THE PROGRESS OF INVENTION - DURING THE LAST FIFTY YEARS." STEEL. DISTINGUISHED INVENTORS. - AMERICAN SHIPBUILDING. DEVELOPMENT OF THE ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE IN - FIFTY YEARS. THE TELEPHONE. FIFTY YEARS OF THE "SCIENTIFIC - AMERICAN." - -The number is fully illustrated and contains fifty pages. In it is -printed "The Progress of Invention During the Last Fifty Years," for -which a prize of $250 was offered. It is interesting to note that this -prize was won by Edward W. Byrn, the author of "The Progress of -Invention in the Nineteenth Century." Never before has so much valuable -information of historical interest and importance been published in so -condensed and popular a form. It forms a valuable addition to any -library, and copies of the Anniversary Number can be supplied at 25 -cents per copy. - -MUNN & CO., Publishers, - - SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE, - 361 Broadway, New York City. - - -Experimental Science. - -By GEORGE M. HOPKINS. - -_TWENTIETH EDITION, REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED._ - -914 Pages. 820 Illustrations. Handsomely Bound in Cloth. - -Price by mail, postpaid, $4.00; Half Morocco, $5.00. - -The new matter comprises eighty pages of text in the form of an -appendix, including among other subjects - - A Complete Article on the X-Ray. - Wireless Telegraphy. - Acetylene Gas Apparatus. - Liquefaction of Air. - Artificial Spectrum. - And other articles which bring the work fully up to date. - -This is a book full of interest and value for teachers, students and -others who desire to impart or obtain a practical knowledge of Physics. - -THE MOST POPULAR SCIENTIFIC BOOK OF THE DAY. - -What the press says of "EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE." - -[Illustration] - -"The electrical chapters of the book are notably good, and the practical -instruction given for building simple electrical machinery may be safely -carried out by those--not a few--who like to make their own -apparatus."--_Electrical World._ - -"The author has avoided repeating the hackneyed illustrations which have -been passed from one book to another so long, and, instead, offers a set -of experiments which are largely of a novel character and very -striking."--_Engineering and Mining Journal._ - -"It is a treat to read a book of this kind, that sets forth the -principles of physics so fully, and without the use of -mathematics."-_The Locomotive._ - -"All teachers of science are aware that real knowledge is acquired best -by the student making experiments for himself, and anyone who points out -how those experiments may be easily made is doing excellent -work."--_English Mechanic and World of Science._ - -"The work bears the stamp of a writer who writes nothing but with -certainty of action and result, and of a teacher who imparts scientific -information in an attractive and fascinating manner."--_American -Engineer._ - -=Mr. Thomas A. Edison says:= "The practical character of the physical -apparatus, the clearness of the descriptive matter, and its entire -freedom from mathematics, give the work a value, in my mind, superior to -any other work on elementary physics of which I am aware." - -Send for Illustrated Circular and Complete Table of Contents. - -[-->] Send for our New and Complete Catalogue of Books, sent free to any -address. - - -MUNN & CO., Publishers. - - SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE, - 361 Broadway, New York. - - -THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN - -Cyclopedia of Receipts - -NOTES AND QUERIES - -12,500 RECEIPTS, 708 PAGES - -Edited by ALBERT A. HOPKINS - -This splendid work contains a careful compilation of the most useful -Receipts and Replies given in the Notes and Queries of correspondents as -published in the _Scientific American_ during the past fifty years; -together with many valuable and important additions. - -OVER TWELVE THOUSAND selected receipts are here collected; nearly every -branch of the useful arts being represented. It is by far the most -comprehensive volume of the kind ever placed before the public. - -The work may be regarded as the product of the studies and practical -experience of the ablest chemists and workers in all parts of the world; -the information given being of the highest value, arranged and condensed -in concise form, convenient for ready use. - -Almost every inquiry that can be thought of, relating to formulae used -in the various manufacturing industries, will here be found answered. - -Instructions for working many different processes in the arts are given. - -[Illustration: 12,500 RECEIPTS, 708 PAGES.] - -Many of the principal substances and raw materials used in manufacturing -operations are defined and described. No pains have been spared to -render this collateral information trustworthy. - -Those who are engaged in any branch of industry will probably find in -this book much that is of practical value in their respective callings. - -Those who are in search of independent business or employment, relating -to the home manufacture of salable articles, will find in it hundreds of -most excellent suggestions. - -It is impossible within the limits of a prospectus to give more than an -outline of a few features of so extensive a work. To those interested, a -fully descriptive circular will be sent free upon application. - -_Price, $5.00 in Cloth; $6.00 in Sheep; $6.50 in Half Morocco; -Postpaid._ - - -MUNN & CO., Publishers, - - SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE, - 361 Broadway, New York - - -A Complete Electrical Library. - -By Prof. T. O'CONOR SLOANE, A.M., E.M. Ph.D. - -[Illustration] - -An inexpensive library of the best books on Electricity. Put up in a -neat folding box. For the student, the amateur, the workshop, the -electrical engineer, schools and colleges. Comprising five books, as -follows: - - Arithmetic of Electricity, 138 pages $1.00 - Electric Toy Making, 140 pages 1.00 - How to Become a Successful Electrician, 189 pages 1.00 - Standard Electrical Dictionary, 682 pages 3.00 - Electricity Simplified, 158 pages 1.00 - -Five volumes, 1,300 pages, and over 450 illustrations. A valuable and -indispensable addition to every library. - -=Our Great Special Offer.=--We will send prepaid the above five volumes -handsomely bound in blue cloth, with silver lettering, and inclosed in a -neat folding box, at the =Special Reduced Price of $5.00= for the -complete set. The regular price of the five volumes is $7.00. A special -circular will be sent free to any address on application. - - -MAGIC. Stage Illusions and Scientific Diversions - -INCLUDING TRICK PHOTOGRAPHY. - -COMPILED AND EDITED BY - -ALBERT A. HOPKINS, - -Editor of "Scientific American Cyclopedia of Receipts. Notes and -Queries," etc. - -WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY HENRY RIDGELY EVANS. - -Author of "Hours with the Ghosts; or, XIX. Century Witchcraft," etc. - -568 Pages. 420 Illustrations. Price, $2.50. - -[Illustration] - -This work appeals to old and young alike, and it is one of the most -attractive holiday books of the year. The illusions are illustrated by -the highest class of engravings, and the exposes of the tricks are in -many cases furnished by the prestidigitateurs themselves. Conjuring, -large stage illusions, fire eating, sword-swallowing, ventriloquism, -metal magic, ancient magic, automata, curious toys, stage effects, -photographic tricks, and the projection of moving photographs are all -well described and illustrated, making a handsome volume. It is -tastefully printed and bound. Acknowledged by the profession to be the -=STANDARD WORK ON MAGIC=. Send for large illustrated circular, sent free -to any address. - - -MUNN & CO., Publishers. - - SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE, - 361 Broadway, New York. - - -MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, - -POWERS, DEVICES AND APPLIANCES. - -By GARDNER D. HISCOX, M. E. - -Author of "Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines." - -Large 8vo. 402 Pages. 1649 Illustrations, with Descriptive Text. Price, -$3.00. - -A Dictionary of Mechanical Movements, Powers, Devices and Appliances, -embracing an illustrated description of the greatest variety of -mechanical movements and devices in any language. A new work on -illustrated mechanics, mechanical movements, devices and appliances, -covering nearly the whole range of the practical and inventive field, -for the use of Machinists, Mechanics, Inventors, Engineers, Draughtsmen, -Students and all others interested in any way in the devising and -operation of mechanical works of any kind. - -THE CHAPTERS TREAT OF: - - I. Mechanical Powers. - II. Transmission of Power. - III. Measurement of Power. - IV. Steam Power--Boilers and Adjuncts. - V. Steam Appliances. - VI. Motive Power--Gas and Gasoline Engines. - VII. Hydraulic Power and Devices. - VIII. Air Power Appliances. - IX. Electric Power and Construction. - X. Navigation and Roads. - XI. Gearing. - XII. Motion and Devices Controlling Motion. - XIII. Horological. - XIV. Mining. - XV. Mill and Factory Appliances. - XVI. Construction and Devices. - XVII. Draughting Devices. - XVIII. Miscellaneous Devices. - -_Send for descriptive Circular._ - - -GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, - -A PRACTICAL TREATISE DESCRIBING IN EVERY DETAIL THE ACTUAL BUILDING OF A -GAS ENGINE. - -By HENRY Y. H. PARSELL, Jr., Mem. A. I. Elec. El., and ARTHUR J. WEED, -M. E. - -Large 8vo. Handsomely Illustrated and Bound. 300 Pages. Price, $2.50. - -This book treats of the subject more from the standpoint of practice -than that of theory. The principles of operation of Gas Engines are -clearly and simply described, and then the actual construction of a -half-horse power engine is taken up, step by step, showing in detail the -making of a Gas Engine. First come directions for making the patterns; -this is followed by all the details of the mechanical operations of -finishing up and fitting the castings, and is profusely illustrated with -beautiful engravings of the actual work in progress, showing the modes -of chucking, turning, boring and finishing the parts in the lathe, and -also plainly showing the lining up and erection of the engine. -Dimensioned working drawings give clearly the sizes and forms of the -various details. The entire engine, with the exception of the -fly-wheels, is designed to be made on a simple eight inch lathe, with -slide rest. The book closes with a chapter on American practice in Gas -Engine design, and gives simple rules so that anyone can figure out the -dimensions of similar engines of other powers. Every illustration in -this book is new and original, having been made expressly for this work. - -SEND FOR DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULAR. - -MUNN & CO., Publishers, - - SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE - 361 Broadway, New York - - - - - Transcriber's notes - - This text uses the text from the original work, including - inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation, punctuation, etc., except as - mentioned below. The spelling of English (omniverous, millenium), non- - English words (licht, tuyeres, frappees) and names (Swammerden, Mege) - has not been corrected either, except as listed below. - Depending on the hard- and software and their settings used to read - this text, not all characters and symbols may display properly or - display at all. - - Remarks on the text: - p. vii and 371: the list of contents lists Electric Concentrators, the - text deals with Magnetic Concentrators. - p. 171/172 (text of patent): one closing quote mark is missing. - p. 291, Swammerden: this refers to Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680). - p. 373, condicon: possibly error for condicion or a similar word. - p. 239, M. Mege, a French chemist: this refers to Hippolyte Mege- - Mouries (1817-1880). - p. 408, Alte Deutscher Drehling Der Ruckladungs Gewehre: the reference - is to Alte Rueckladegewehre: Alt-Deutscher Drehling. - p. 428, photograph: the chain of perforated cards is hardly visible in - the original work. - Index: the entries are not fully alphabetically sorted; this has not - been changed. - The order of subjects as given in the table of contents and in the - chapter headings is not always the order in which the text gives them; - the table of contents is sometimes slightly different from the chapter - headings; this has not been changed. The table of contents is not - complete: many subjects are not listed. - In several instances the author uses knots for distance and knots per - hour and feet for speed; this has not been changed. - - Changes made: - Footnotes and illustrations have (where appropriate) been moved in - order not to interrupt the text. - Some obvious punctuation errors have been corrected silently. - If both ligature and single letters occur in the same word in the text - (with the exception of the advertisements), these have been - standardised: ae/ae to ae (anaesthetics); e/e to e (Carre, Linde, - Niepce). - The original work uses fractions of the form 1/2 as well as 15-16. - These have been standardised to x/y. - p. v: Nitroglycerine changed to Nitro-Glycerine as elsewhere - p. vi, Chapter Photography: The Platinotype added as in the chapter - heading - p. 6: Kinetescope changed to Kinetoscope as elsewhere - p. 7: Hahneman changed to Hahnemann - p. 9: Perkin's changed to Perkins' - p. 10: Rhumkorff changed to Ruhmkorff - p. 11: Foucalt changed to Foucault; Herman's changed to Hermann's - p. 15: ecomony changed to economy - p. 29: choking coils _k k_ changed to choking coils _k k'_ as in - illustration - p. 35: Gallilee changed to Galilee - p. 37: Somnenberg changed to Sonnenberg - p. 41: and other changed to and others - p. 47: corruscations changed to coruscations - p. 51: Badensburg changed to Bladensburg - p. 87: Chrstian Era changed to Christian Era - p. 88: Plante changed to Plante - p. 89: PLANTE changed to PLANTE (2x) - p. 92: commerical changed to commercial - p. 93: electrictiy changed to electricity; TROUVE'S changed to - TROUVE'S - p. 95: St. Petersburg changed to St. Petersburgh - p. 97: atached changed to attached - p. 98: whch changed to which - p. 105: colon in list of patents changed to comma (2x) as elsewhere - p. 108: Ninetenth Century changed to Nineteenth Century - p. 129: air-brake changed to air brake as elsewhere - p. 133: Pennsylvaina changed to Pennsylvania - p. 150: greater that changed to greater than - p. 153: for from changed to far from - p. 159: sterereotyping changed to stereotyping; Edinburg changed to - Edinburgh as elsewhere - p. 160: the the wire cloth changed to the wire cloth - p. 182: vearly changed to yearly - p. 188: Manufacturning changed to Manufacturing - p. 235: ilustrative changed to illustrative - p. 237: half a millions changed to half a million - p. 240: carry- a fractional per cent. changed to carrying a fractional - per cent. - p. 247: irresitable changed to irresistible - p. 248: acetanalide changed to acetanilide; OPHTHALMOMETER changed to - OPTHALMOMETER as elsewhere - p. 250: rationallen Heilkunde changed to rationellen Heilkunde - p. 253: bactilli changed to bacilli - p. 260: velocipede changed to velocipede; celerifere changed to - celerifere - p. 261: velocipede changed to velocipede - p. 265: Metiers changed to Metiers - p. 285: Middeburg, Middleburg changed to Middelburg - p. 301: Niepce's changed to Niepce's - p. 309: advertisment changed to advertisement - p. 324: currrent changed to current - p. 389: fire-arms changed to firearms as elsewhere - p. 395: must must changed to must - p. 401: Moncrief changed to Moncrieff - p. 412: Livermore-Russel changed to Livermore-Russell; Russel changed - to Russell - p. 416: pulvurulent changed to pulverulent - p. 425: effciency changed to efficiency - p. 462: latrobe stoves changed to Latrobe stoves - p. 469: Acetanalide changed to Acetanilide - p. 470: Cemementation changed to Cementation. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Progress of Invention in the -Nineteenth Century., by Edward W. 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