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diff --git a/41519-0.txt b/41519-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1f77e00 --- /dev/null +++ b/41519-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3639 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41519 *** + +THE + +New Psychology Series + +_By_ WILLIAM WALKER ATKINSON + + +In the past few years a widespread mental and spiritual awakening has +taken place among the people of this country. And this new awakening has +been very aptly called THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY MOVEMENT, because it has to do +with the development and expression of the mind, or soul, of both the +individual and the nation. + + The New Psychology + The Will + Memory + Suggestion and Auto-Suggestion + The Subconscious and Superconscious Planes of Mind + The Psychology of Success + The Art of Logical Thinking + Thought-Culture + The Psychology of Salesmanship + The Art of Expression + Mind and Body + Human Nature + +Although each book stands alone as an authority on the subject treated, +yet one theme runs through the series, binding them together to make a +complete whole. + +The uniform postpaid price of each volume is $1.00 + +We are making a special price of $10.00 for the entire set + + +THE PROGRESS COMPANY :: CHICAGO + + + + + THOUGHT-CULTURE + OR + PRACTICAL MENTAL TRAINING + + By WILLIAM WALKER ATKINSON + + + L.N. FOWLER & COMPANY + 7, Imperial Arcade, Ludgate Circus + London, E.C., England + + + 1909 + THE PROGRESS COMPANY + + CHICAGO, ILL. + + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1910 + BY + THE PROGRESS COMPANY + + + P.F. PETTIBONE & CO + Printers and Binders + Chicago + + + + +CONTENTS + + + I. The Power of Thought 9 + + II. The Nature of Thought 19 + + III. Phases of Thought 27 + + IV. Thought Culture 37 + + V. Attention 47 + + VI. Perception 57 + + VII. Representation 76 + + VIII. Abstraction 85 + + IX. Association of Ideas 95 + + X. Generalization 106 + + XI. Judgment 130 + + XII. Derived Judgments 138 + + XIII. Reasoning 152 + + XIV. Constructive Imagination 175 + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE POWER OF THOUGHT + + +In other volumes of this series we have considered the operations of the +human mind known as Will, Memory, etc. We now approach the consideration +of those mental activities which are concerned with the phenomena of +_thought_--those activities which we generally speak of as the operation +of the intellect or reason. + +What is thought? The answer is not an easy one, although we use the term +familiarly almost every hour of our waking existence. The dictionaries +define the term "Thought" as follows: "The act of thinking; the exercise +of the mind in any way except sense and perception; serious +consideration; deliberation; reflection; the power or faculty of +thinking; the mental faculty of the mind; etc." This drives us back upon +the term, "to think" which is defined as follows: "To occupy the mind on +some subject; to have ideas; to revolve ideas in the mind; to cogitate; +to reason; to exercise the power of thought; to have a succession of +ideas or mental states; to perform any mental operation, whether of +apprehension, judgment, or illation; to judge; to form a conclusion, to +determine; etc." + +Thought is an operation of the intellect. The intellect is: "that +faculty of the human soul or mind by which it receives or comprehends +the ideas communicated to it by the senses or by perception, or other +means, as distinguished from the power to feel and to will; the power or +faculty to perceive objects in their relations; the power to judge and +comprehend; also the capacity for higher forms of knowledge as +distinguished from the power to perceive and imagine." + +When we say what we "think," we mean that we exercise the faculties +whereby we compare and contrast certain things with other things, +observing and noting their points of difference and agreement, then +classifying them in accordance with these observed agreements and +differences. In _thinking_ we tend to classify the multitude of +impressions received from the outside world, arranging thousands of +objects into one general class, and other thousands into other general +classes, and then sub-dividing these classes, until finally we have +found mental pigeon-holes for every conceivable idea or impression. We +then begin to make inferences and deductions regarding these ideas or +impressions, working from the known to the unknown, from particulars to +generalities, or from generalities to particulars, as the case may be. + +It is this faculty or power of thought--this use of the intellect, that +has brought man to his present high position in the world of living +things. In his early days, man was a much weaker animal than those with +whom he was brought into contact. The tigers, lions, bears, mammoths, +and other ferocious beasts were much stronger, fiercer, and fleeter than +man, and he was placed in a position so lacking of apparent equal chance +of survival, that an observer would have unhesitatingly advanced the +opinion that this weak, feeble, slow animal must soon surely perish in +the struggle for existence, and that the "survival of the fittest" would +soon cause him to vanish from the scene of the world's activities. And, +so it would have been had he possessed no equipment other than those of +the other animals; viz., strength, natural weapons and speed. And yet +man not only survived in spite of these disadvantages, but he has +actually conquered, mastered and enslaved these other animals which +seemed likely to work his destruction. Why? How? + +This feeble animal called _man_ had within him the elements of a new +power--a power manifested in but a slight degree in the other animals. +He possessed an intellect by which he was able to deduce, compare, +infer--reason. + +His lack of natural weapons he overcame by borrowing the idea of the +tooth and claw of the other animals, imitating them in flint and shaping +them into spears; borrowing the trunk of the elephant and the paw of the +tiger, and reproducing their blow-striking qualities in his wooden club. +Not only this but he took lessons from the supple limbs and branches of +the trees, and copied the principle in his bow, in order to project its +minature spear, his arrow. He sheltered himself, his mate and his +young, from the fury of the storm, first by caves and afterwards by rude +houses, built in inaccessible places, reached only by means of crude +ladders, bridges, or climbing poles. He built doors for his habitations, +to protect himself from the attacks of these wild enemies--he heaped +stones at the mouth of his caves to keep them out. He placed great +boulders on cliffs that he might topple them down on the approaching +foe. He learned to hurl rocks with sure aim with his strong arm. He +copied the floating log, and built his first rude rafts, and then +evolved the hollowed canoe. He used the skins of animals to keep him +warm--their tendons for his bowstrings. He learned the advantages of +cooperation and combined effort, and thus formed the first rudiments of +society and social life. And finally--man's first great discovery--he +found the art of fire making. + +As a writer has said: "For some hundreds of years, upon the general +plane of self-consciousness, an ascent, to the human eye gradual but +from the point of view of cosmic evolution rapid, has been made. In a +race large-brained, walking-erect, gregarious, brutal, but king of all +other brutes, man in appearance but not in fact, was from the highest +simple-consciousness born the basic human faculty, self-consciousness +and its twin, language. From these and what went with these, through +suffering, toil and war; through bestiality, savagery, barbarism; +through slavery, greed, effort, through conquests infinite, through +defeats overwhelming, through struggle unending; through ages of aimless +semi-brutal existence, through subsistence on berries and roots; through +the use of the casually found stone or stick; through life in deep +forests, with nuts and seeds, and on the shores of waters with mollusks, +crustaceans and fish for food; through that greatest, perhaps, of human +victories, the domestication and subjugation of fire; through the +invention and art of bow and arrow; through the training of animals and +the breaking of them to labor; through the long learning which led to +the cultivation of the soil; through the adobe brick and the building of +houses therefrom; through the smelting of metals and the slow birth of +the arts which rest upon these; through the slow making of alphabets +and the evolution of the written work; in short, through thousands of +centuries of human life, of human aspiration, of human growth, sprang +the world of men and women as it stands before us and within us today +with all its achievements and possessions." + +The great difference between thought as we find it in man, and its forms +among the lower animals lies in what psychologists have called +"progressive thought." The animals advance but little in their thinking +processes but rest content with those of their ancestors--their thought +seems to have become set or crystallized during the process of their +evolution. The birds, mammals and the insects vary but little in their +mental processes from their ancestors of many thousand years ago. They +build their nests, or dens, in almost precisely the same manner as did +their progenitors in the stone-age. But man has slowly but steadily +progressed, in spite of temporary set-backs and failures. He has +endeavored to progress and improve. Those tribes which fell back in +regard to mental progress and advancement, have been left behind in the +race, and in many cases have become extinct. The great natural law of +the "survival of the fittest" has steadily operated in the life of the +race. The "fittest" were those best adapted to grapple with and overcome +the obstacles of their environment, and these obstacles were best +overcome by the use of the intellect. Those tribes and those individuals +whose intellect was active, tended to survive where others perished, and +consequently they were able to transmit their intellectual quality to +their descendants. + +Halleck says: "Nature is constantly using her power to kill off the +thoughtless, or to cripple them in life's race. She is determined that +only the fittest and the descendants of the fittest shall survive. By +the 'fittest' she means those who have thought and whose ancestors have +thought and profited thereby. Geologists tell us that ages ago there +lived in England bears, tigers, elephants, lions and many other powerful +and fierce animals. There was living contemporaneous with them a much +weaker animal, that had neither the claws, the strength, nor the speed +of the tiger. In fact this human being was almost defenceless. Had a +being from another planet been asked to prophesy, he would undoubtedly +have said that this helpless animal would be the first to be +exterminated. And yet every one of those fierce creatures succumbed +either to the change of climate, or to man's inferior strength. The +reason was that man had one resource denied to the animals--the power of +progressive thought. The land sank, the sea cut off England from the +mainland, the climate changed, and even the strongest animals were +helpless. But man changed his clothing with the changing climate. He +made fires; he built a retreat to keep off death by cold. He thought out +means to kill or to subdue the strongest animals. Had the lions, tigers +or bears the power of progressive thought, they could have combined, and +it would have been possible for them to exterminate man before he +reached the civilized stage.... Man no longer sleeps in caves. The smoke +no longer fills his home or finds its way out through the chinks in the +walls or a hole in the roof. In traveling, he is no longer restricted to +his feet or even to horses. For all this improvement man is indebted to +_thought_. That has harnessed the very vibrations of the ether to do his +bidding." + +And thus we see that man owes his present place on earth to his +Thought-Culture. And, it certainly behooves us to closely consider and +study the methods and processes whereby each and every man may cultivate +and develop the wondrous faculties of the mind which are employed in the +processes of Thought. The faculties of the Mind, like the muscles of the +body, may be developed, trained and cultivated. The process of such +mental development is called "THOUGHT-CULTURE," and forms the subject of +this book. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE NATURE OF THOUGHT + + +It was formerly considered necessary for all books on the subject of +thought to begin by a recital of the metaphysical conceptions regarding +the nature and "thingness" of Mind. The student was led through many +pages and endless speculation regarding the metaphysical theories +regarding the origin and inner nature of Mind which, so far from +establishing a fixed and definite explanation in his mind, rather tended +toward confusing him and giving him the idea that psychology was of +necessity a speculative science lacking the firm practical basis +possessed by other branches of science. In the end, in the words of old +Omar, he "came out the door through which he went." + +But this tendency has been overcome of late years, and writers on the +subject pass by all metaphysical conceptions regarding the nature of +Mind, and usually begin by plunging at once into the real business of +psychology--the business of the practical study of the mechanism and +activities of the mind itself. As some writer has said, psychology has +no more concern with the solution of the eternal riddle of "What is +Mind?" than physics with the twin-riddle of "What is Matter?" Both +riddles, and their answers, belong to entirely different branches and +fields of thought than those concerned with their laws of operation and +principles of activity. As Halleck says: "Psychology studies the +phenomena of mind, just as physics investigates those of matter." And, +likewise, just as the science of physics holds true in spite of the +varying and changing conceptions regarding the nature of matter, so does +the science of psychology hold true in spite of the varying and changing +conceptions regarding the nature of Mind. + +Halleck has well said: "If a materialist should hold that the mind was +nothing but the brain, and that the brain was a vast aggregation of +molecular sheep herding together in various ways, his hypothesis would +not change the fact that sensation must precede perception, memory and +thought; nor would the laws of the association of ideas be changed, nor +would the fact that interest and repetition aid memory cease to hold +good. The man who thought his mind was a collection of little cells +would dream, imagine, think and feel; so also would he who believed his +mind to be immaterial. It is very fortunate that the same mental +phenomena occur, no matter what theory is adopted. Those who like to +study the puzzles as to what mind and matter really are must go to +metaphysics. Should we ever find that salt, arsenic and all things else +are the same substance with a different molecular arrangement, we should +still not use them interchangeably." + +For the purposes of the study of practical psychology, we may as well +lay aside, if even for the moment, our pet metaphysical conceptions and +act as if we knew nothing of the essential nature of Mind (and indeed +Science in truth does _not_ know), and confine ourselves to the +phenomena and manifestations of Mind which, after all, is the only way +in which and by which we can know anything at all about it. As Brooks +says: "The mind can be defined only by its activities and +manifestations. In order to obtain a definition of the mind, therefore, +we must observe and determine its various forms of activity. These +activities, classified under a few general heads and predicated of the +unseen something which manifests them, will give us a definition of +mind." + +The act of consciousness determines the existence of Mind in the person +experiencing it. No one can be conscious of thought and, at the same +time, deny the existence of mind within himself. For the very act of +denial, in itself, is a manifestation of thought and consequently an +assertion of the existence of mind. One may assert the axiom: "I think, +therefore, I have a mind;" but he is denied the privilege of arguing: "I +think, therefore, I have no mind." The mind has an ultimate and final +knowledge of its own existence. + +The older view of Mind is that it is a something higher than matter +which it uses for its manifestation. It was held to be unknowable in +itself and to be studied only through its manifestations. It was +supposed to involve itself, to become involved, in some way in matter +and to there manifest itself in an infinitude of forms, degrees, and +variations. The materialistic view, which arose into prominence in the +middle of the Nineteenth Century, held, on the contrary, that Mind was +merely an activity or property of Matter--a function of matter akin to +extension and motion. Huxley, voicing this conception said: "We have no +knowledge of any thinking substance apart from an extended substance.... +We shall, sooner or later, arrive at a mechanical equivalent of +consciousness, just as we have arrived at a mechanical equivalent of +heat." But, Huxley, himself, was afterwards constrained to acknowledge +that: "How it is that anything so remarkable as a state of consciousness +comes about by the result of irritating nervous tissue, is just as +unaccountable as the appearance of the _jinnee_ when Aladdin rubbed his +lamp." + +The most advanced authorities of the day, are inclined to the opinion +that both Matter and Mind are both differing aspects of some one +fundamental Something; or, as some of the closest thinkers state it, +both are probably two apparently differing manifestations or emanations +of an Underlying Something which, as Spencer says: "transcends not only +our reason but also our imagination." The study of philosophy and +metaphysics serves an important purpose in showing us _how much we do +not know_, and why we do not know--also in showing us the fallacy of +many things we had thought we did know--but when it comes to telling us +the real "why," actual cause, or essential nature of _anything_, it is +largely a disappointment to those who seek fundamental truths and +ultimate reasons. It is much more comfortable to "abjure the 'Why' and +seek the 'How'"--if we can. + +Many psychologists classify the activities of the mind into three +general divisions; _viz._, (1) Thinking; (2) Willing; (3) Feeling. These +divisions, which result from what is known as "the tri-logical +classification," were first distinctly enunciated by Upham although Kant +had intimated it very plainly. For many years before the favored +division was but two-fold the line of division being between the +_cognitive_, or knowing, activities, and the _conative_, or acting, +activities, generally known as the Understanding and the Will, +respectively. It took a long time before the authorities would formally +recognize the great field of the Feelings as forming a class by +themselves and ranking with the Understanding and the Will. There are +certain sub-divisions and shadings, which we shall notice as we proceed, +some of which are more or less complex, and which seem to shade into +others. The student is cautioned against conceiving of the mind as a +thing having several compartments or distinct divisions. The +classification does not indicate this and is only intended as a +convenience in analyzing and studying the mental activities and +operations. The "I" which feels, thinks and acts is the same--one +entity. + +As Brooks well says: "The mind is a self-conscious activity and not a +mere passivity; it is a centre of spiritual forces, all resting in the +background of the ego. As a centre of forces, it stands related to the +forces of the material and spiritual universe and is acted upon through +its susceptibilities by those forces. As a spiritual activity, it takes +the impressions derived from those forces, works them up into the +organic growth of itself, converts them into conscious knowledge and +uses these products as means to set other forces into activity and +produce new results. Standing above nature and superior to its +surroundings, it nevertheless feeds upon nature, as we may say, and +transforms material influences into spiritual facts akin to its own +nature. Related to the natural world and apparently originating from it, +it yet rises above this natural world and, with the crown of freedom +upon its brow, rules the natural obedient to its will." + +In this book, while we shall fully and unquestionably recognize the +"tri-logical classification" of the activities of the Mind into the +divisions of Thinking, Willing and Feeling, respectively, nevertheless, +we shall, for convenience, use the term "Thought" in its broadest, +widest and most general sense, as: "The power or faculty of thinking; +the mental faculty; the mind," rather than in its narrower and +particular sense of: "the understanding or cognitive faculty of the +mind." Accordingly, we shall include the cultivation of the mental +activities known as Attention, Perception, Imagination, etc., together +with the strictly cognitive faculties, under the general term of +Thought-Culture. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +PHASES OF THOUGHT + + +We have seen that the Mind is that something within us which Thinks, +Feels and Wills. There are various phases of these three forms of +activity. These phases have often been called "the faculties of the +mind," although many authorities decry the use of this term, holding +that it gives an impression of _several parts or divisions_ of the mind, +separate and distinct from each other, whereas these phases are merely +the several _powers or forms of activity_ of the Mind. Every +manifestation of mental activity falls under one of the three +before-mentioned general forms, i.e., Thinking, Feeling and Willing, +respectively. Every manifestation of mental activity is either that of +the Intellect, the Feelings, or the Will. Let us consider the first of +these three general forms of mental activity--the Intellect. + +The _Intellect_ is defined as: "That faculty or phase of the human mind +by which it receives or comprehends the ideas communicated to it by the +senses or by perception, or other means, as distinguished from the power +to feel and to will; the power or faculty to perceive objects in their +relations; the power to judge and comprehend; also the capacity for +higher forms of knowledge as distinguished from the power to perceive +and imagine." The term itself is derived from the Latin term +_intellectus_, the primary meaning of which is "to choose between," +which primary meaning will give the true essential meaning of the term +in its present usage; namely, the faculty or phase of the mind by which +we "choose between" things or by which we _decide_. + +The phase or faculty of Intellect concerns itself with Thinking, in the +particular and narrower sense of that term. Its products are _thoughts_, +_mental images_ and _ideas_. An _idea_ or _mental image_ is a mental +conception of anything, as for instance our conception which we express +by the terms, _man_, _animal_, _house_, _etc._ Sometimes the word _idea_ +is used to express merely the abstract or generalized conception of the +thing, as, for instance, _Man_ in the sense of "all men;" while _mental +image_ is used in the sense of the mental conception of some one +particular thing, as a "_a man_;" it being held that no mental image can +be had of a generalization. A _thought_ is held to be a mental product +arising from a combination of two or more ideas or mental images, as for +instance: "A horse is an animal;" "a man is a biped;" etc. + +The Intellect is held to embrace and include a number of minor phases or +faculties, such as Perception, Understanding, Imagination, Memory, +Reason and Intuition, which are explained as follows: + +_Perception_ is that faculty of the Mind which interprets the material +presented to it by the senses. It is the power whereby we gain our +knowledge of the external world, as reported to us by the channels of +sense. Through Perception we are able to form ideas and mental images, +which in turn lead to thoughts. The objects of which we become conscious +through Perception are called _percepts_, which form the bases of what +we call _concepts_, or ideas. + +_Understanding_ is that faculty of the Mind by the means of which we are +able intelligently to compare the objects presented to it by Perception, +and by which we separate them into parts by analysis, or to combine +them into greater classes, or wholes, by synthesis. It produces ideas, +both abstract and general; also concepts of truths, laws, principles, +causes, etc. There are several sub-phases of Understanding, which are +known as: Abstraction, Conception or Generalization, or Judgment and +Reasoning, respectively, which are explained as follows: + +_Abstraction_ is that faculty of the Mind which enables it to abstract, +or draw off, and consider apart from an object, a particular _quality_ +or _property_ of an object, thus making of the quality or property a +distinct object of thought apart from the original object. Thus are the +_abstract ideas_ of _sweetness_, _color_, _hardness_, _courage_, +_beauty_, etc., which we have abstracted or _drawn off_ from their +original associations, either for the purpose of putting them out of +sight and consideration, or else to view and consider them by +themselves. No one ever tasted "sweetness" although one may have tasted +_sweet things_; no one ever saw "red," although one may have seen _red +things_; no one ever saw, heard, tasted or felt "courage" in another, +although one may have seen _courageous people_. Abstract ideas are +merely the mental conception of _qualities_ or _properties_ divorced +from their associated objects by Abstraction. + +_Conception_ or Generalization is that faculty of the Mind by which it +forms and groups together several particular ideas in the form of _a +general idea_. By the processes of Conception we form _classes_ or +_generalizations_ from particular ideas arising from our _percepts_. +First, we _perceive_ things; then we _compare_ them with each other; +then we abstract their particular qualities, which are not common to the +several objects; then we _generalize_ them according to their +resemblances; then we _name_ the generalized concept. From these +combined processes we form a Concept, or _general idea_ of the class of +things to which the particular things belong. Thus from subjecting a +number of cows to this process, we arrive at the general Concept of +"Cow." This general Concept includes all the qualities and properties +_common to all cows_, while omitting those which are not common to the +class. Or, we may form a concept of Napoleon Bonaparte, by combining his +several qualities and properties and thus form a _general idea_ of the +man. + +_Judgment_ is that faculty of the Mind whereby we determine the +agreement or disagreement between two concepts, ideas, or objects of +thought, by comparing them with each other. From this comparison arises +the judgment, which is expressed in the shape of a logical +_proposition_: "The horse is an animal;" or "the horse is not a cow." +Judgment is also used in forming a concept, in the first place, for we +must _compare qualities_ before we can form a _general idea_. + +_Reasoning_ is that faculty of the Mind whereby we compare two +Judgments, one with the other, and from the comparison deduce a third +Judgment. This is a form of indirect or mediate comparison, whereas the +Judgment is a form of immediate or direct comparison. From this process +of Reasoning arises a result which is expressed in what is called a +Syllogism, as for instance: "All dogs are animals; Carlo is a dog; +therefore, Carlo is an animal." Or expressed in symbols: "A equals C; +and B equals C;" therefore, "A equals B." Reasoning is of two kinds or +classes; _viz._, Inductive and Deductive, respectively. We have +explained these forms of Reasoning in detail in another volume of this +series. + +_The Feelings_ are the mental faculties whereby we experience emotions +or feelings. Feelings are the experiencing of the agreeable or +disagreeable nature of our mental states. They can be defined only in +their own terms. If we have never experienced a feeling, we cannot +understand the words expressing it. Feelings result in what are called +emotion, affection and desire. An emotion is the simple feeling, such as +joy, sorrow, etc. An affection is an emotion reaching out toward another +and outside object, such as envy, jealousy, love, etc. A desire is an +emotion arising from the _want_ of some lacking quality or thing, and +the inclination to possess it. + +_Memory_ is the faculty of the Mind whereby we retain and reproduce, or +consciously revive any kind of past mental experience. It has two +sub-phases; _viz._, Retention and Recollection, respectively. It +manifests in the storing away of mental images and ideas, and in the +reproduction of them at a later period of time, and also of the +recognition of them as objects of past experience. + +_Imagination_ is the faculty of the Mind whereby we represent +(_re-pre-sent_) as a mental image some previously experienced idea, +concept or image. Its activities are closely allied and blended with +those of the Memory. It has the power not only of reproducing objects +already perceived but also another power of _ideal creation_ whereby it +_creates_ new combinations from the materials of past experience. It is +a faculty, the importance of which is but little understood by the +majority of men. Inasmuch as the mental image must always precede the +material manifestation, the cultivation of the Imagination becomes a +matter of great importance and worthy of the closest study. + +_Intuition_ is the faculty of the Mind whereby it evolves what have been +called Primary Truths or Primary Ideas. By Primary Ideas are meant the +ideas of Space, Time, Cause, Identity, etc. By Primary Truths are meant +the so-called "Self-Evident Truths" of geometry, mathematics and logic. +Under the head of Intuition are also sometimes included the activities +of the Subconscious or Superconscious regions of the mind, of which we +have spoken in detail in a volume under that name of this series. Some +authorities hold to the older idea of "Innate Ideas" by which is meant +that every human being is born with the knowledge of certain fundamental +truths, unconnected with any experience. Others hold that these ideas +are simply the result of the experience of the race, transmitted to us +as "germ ideas" which must grow by experience and exercise. + + * * * * * + +That each and every faculty of the Mind may be strengthened and +developed by Culture and Exercise is now held to be a fact by nearly +every authority worthy of that name. Just as the physical muscle may be +cultivated by the proper methods, so may the mental faculties be +strengthened and cultivated by the appropriate methods and means. +Inasmuch as the majority of the race are deficient in the development of +one or more of the leading mental faculties, it becomes a matter of +great interest and importance that all should acquaint themselves with +the means whereby their deficiencies may be corrected and remedied. We +shall now proceed to the consideration of Thought-Culture in general, +and then to the consideration of the culture of each particular general +faculty, in detail. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THOUGHT-CULTURE + + +Thought-Culture is based upon two general scientific facts which may be +stated as follows: + +I. The brain centres of thought may be developed by exercise. While we +do not assert that the brain and the mind are identical, it is +nevertheless a scientific truth that "the brain is the organ of the +mind" and that one of the first requisites for a good mind is a good +brain. It has been proven by experiment that the brain-cells concerned +in special mental activities multiply in proportion to the active use of +the special faculties employed in the mental operation. It has also been +ascertained that disuse of special faculties of the mind tends to cause +a process akin to atrophy in the brain-cells concerned in the particular +activity, so that it becomes difficult to think clearly along those +particular lines after a long period of disuse. Moreover, it is known +that the education and mental culture of a child is accompanied by an +increase and development of the brain-cells connected with the +particular fields of thought in which the child is exercised. + +There is a close analogy between the exercise of the brain-cells and the +exercise of the muscles of the body. Both respond to reasonable +exercise; both are injured by overwork; both degenerate by disuse. As +Brooks says: "The mind grows by its own inherent energies. Mental +exercise is thus the law of mental development. As a muscle grows strong +by use, so any faculty of the mind is developed by its proper use and +exercise. An inactive mind, like an unused muscle, becomes weak and +unskilful. Hang the arm in a sling and the muscle becomes flabby and +loses its vigor and skill; let the mind remain inactive and it acquires +a mental flabbiness that unfits it for any severe or prolonged activity. +An idle mind loses its tone and strength like an unused muscle; the +mental powers go to rust through idleness and inaction. To develop the +faculties of the mind and secure their highest activity and efficiency, +there must be a constant and judicious exercise of these faculties. The +object of culture is to stimulate and direct the activity of the mind." + +Experiments conducted by scientists upon dogs have shown that in the +case of dogs specially trained to unusual mental activity, there has +been a corresponding increase of the number of active brain-cells in the +particular parts of the brain concerned with those mental activities. +Microscopic examination of the brain tissues showed the greatest +difference between the brain structure of the trained dogs and untrained +ones of the same brood. So carefully were the experiments conducted that +it was possible to distinguish between the dogs trained in one set of +activities from those trained in another. Biologists have demonstrated +the correctness of the brain-cell development theory beyond reasonable +doubt, and ordinary human experience also adds its testimony in its +favor. + +In view of the above, it will be seen that by intelligent exercise and +use any and all faculties of the mind may be developed and cultivated, +just as may any special muscle of the body. And this exercise can come +only from actual use of the faculties themselves. Development must come +from within and not from without. No system of outward stimulation will +develop the faculties of the mind--they may be cultivated only by an +exercise in their own particular field of work. The only way to exercise +any particular faculty of thought is to _think_ through that faculty. + +II. Not only are the brain-cells developed by exercise, but it also +appears to be a fact that the mind appears actually to be _nourished_ by +knowledge of the outside world of things. The raw material of thought is +taken into the mind and there is digested by the thought-processes, and +is afterward actually _assimilated_ by the mind in a manner strikingly +similar to the processes of the physical organs of nutrition. A mind to +be at its best must be supplied with a normal amount of mental +nourishment. Lacking this, it tends to become weak and inefficient. And, +likewise, if its owner is a mental glutton and furnishes too much +nourishment, particularly of a rich kind, there is a tendency toward +"mental dyspepsia" and indigestion--the mind, unable to assimilate the +mental food furnished it, is inclined to rebel. Moreover, if the mind be +supplied with mental food of only one kind--if the mind is confined to +one narrow field of thought--it weakens and the mental processes become +impaired. In many ways is this curious analogy apparent. + +Not only does the mind need development, but it also needs intelligent +cultivation. For it may be _developed_ by improper objects of thought +just as well as by the proper ones. A rich field will grow tares and +weeds as well as good grain or fruit. Thought-culture should not be +confined to the _development of a strong and active mind_, but should be +also extended to the _cultivation of a wise and intelligent mind_. +Strength and Wisdom should be combined. Moreover there should be sought +a harmonious and normal development. A one-sided, mental development is +apt to produce a "crank," while a development in unhealthy mental fields +will produce an abnormal thinker tending dangerously near to the line of +insanity. Some "one-idea" men have great mental power and development, +but are nevertheless unbalanced and impractical. And insane persons +often have strongly developed minds--developed abnormally. + +Some authorities, holding special theories regarding the nature of mind, +hold that Thought-Culture is merely a _training_ of the faculties +rather than a _creation_ of new mental power, inasmuch as the mind +cannot be built up from the outside. This is a curious combination of +truth and error. It is true that the mind cannot be built up from +outside material, in the sense of creating _new mind_, but it is also +true that in every mind there is the potentiality of growth and +development. Just as the future oak is said to be in the acorn, so are +the potentialities of mind-growth in every mind waiting for nourishment +from outside and the proper cultivation. Brooks has well stated this, as +follows: "The culture of the mind is not creative in its character; its +object is to develop existing possibilities into realities. The mind +possesses innate powers which may be awakened into a natural activity. +The design of culture is to aid nature in improving the powers she has +given. No new power can be created by culture; we can increase the +activity of these powers, but cannot develop any new activities. Through +these activities new ideas and thoughts may be developed, and the sum of +human knowledge increased; but this is accomplished by a high activity +of the natural powers with which the mind is endowed, and not by the +culture of new powers. The profound philosopher uses the same faculties +that the little child is developing in the games of the nursery. The +object of culture is to arouse the powers which nature has given us into +a normal activity and to stimulate and guide them in their unfolding." + +In connection with the objection above mentioned, it may be said that +while the development of the mind must come from within itself, rather +than from without, nevertheless, in order to develop, it must have the +nourishing material from the outside world in order to grow. Just as the +body can grow from within only by the aid of nourishment from outside, +so the mind, while growing from within, needs the material for thought +which can come only from without itself. Thought requires "things" upon +which to exercise itself--and upon which it is nourished. Without these +outside objects, it can have no exercise and can receive no nourishment. +Thought consists in the perception, examination and comparison of +_things_, and the consequent building up new combinations, arrangements +and syntheses. Therefore, the perceptive faculties are most necessary to +Thought, and their culture is most necessary in the general work of +Thought-Culture. + +It must not be lost sight of that in Thought-Culture there is necessary +a variety of exercises and forms of nourishment. What will develop one +faculty will exert but a faint effect upon others. Each needs its own +particular kind of exercise--each its particular kind of mental +nourishment. While it is true that there is a certain benefit gained by +the entire mind from an exercise of any of its parts, this effect is but +secondary in importance. A man well developed mentally has been +developed in each faculty, each in its own way. The faculty of +perception requires objects of perception; the faculty of imagination +requires objects of imagination; the faculty of reasoning requires +objects of reasoning; and so on, each requiring objects of exercise and +nourishment of its own kind--in its own class. In some persons some of +the faculties are well developed while others are deficient. It follows +that in such a case the weak faculties should be developed first, that +they be brought up to the general standard. Then a further general +development may be undertaken if desired. Moreover, in general +development, it will be found that certain faculties will respond more +readily to the cultivation given, while others will be slow to respond. +In such cases wisdom dictates that a greater degree of exercise and +nourishment be given to the slower and less responsible faculties, while +the more responsive be given but a lighter development. In +Thought-Culture as in physical culture, the less developed and slower +responding parts should be given special attention. + + * * * * * + +In the following chapters we shall point out the methods and exercises +calculated to develop the several faculties of the mind to the best +advantage, in each case giving general advice along the lines of the +cultivation of the particular faculty which will serve as general +instruction regarding its culture. The student should carefully study +the entire work before he attempts to specialize in the development of +any particular faculty. The particular work may be aided by an +acquaintance with the entire field of Thought-Culture for many of the +faculties shade into each other in their activities and are always more +or less interdependent. For, be it remembered, the mind is a _whole_, +and not a mere aggregation of many parts. To understand the parts, one +must study the whole--to understand the whole, one must study the +parts. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +ATTENTION + + +Attention is not a faculty of the mind in the same sense as perception, +abstraction, judgment, etc., but is rather in the nature of an act of +will concerned in the focusing of the consciousness upon some object of +thought presented or represented to the mind. In some respects it bears +a resemblance to Abstraction, inasmuch as it sets aside some particular +object for the consideration of the consciousness, to the exclusion of +other objects. Wayland explains attention as a condition of mind in +which the consciousness is excited and directed by an act of the will. +Hamilton says: "Consciousness may be compared to a telescope; Attention +is the pulling out and pressing in of the tubes in accommodating the +focus of the eye;" and also that: "An act of attention, that is an act +of concentration, seems thus necessary to every exertion of +consciousness, as a certain contraction of the pupil is requisite to +every exertion of vision.... Attention then is to consciousness what +the contraction of the pupil is to sight, or to the eye of the mind what +the microscope or telescope is to the bodily eye.... It constitutes the +better half of all intellectual power." + +Brodie says that: "It is Attention, much more than any difference in the +abstract power of reasoning, which constitutes the vast difference which +exists between minds of different individuals." Butler says: "The most +important intellectual habit that I know of is the habit of attending +exclusively to the matter in hand.... It is commonly said that genius +cannot be infused by education, yet this power of concentrated +attention, which belongs as a part of his gift to every great +discoverer, is unquestionably capable of almost indefinite augmentation +by resolute practice." And Beattie says: "The force wherewith anything +strikes the mind is generally in proportion to the degree of attention +bestowed upon it." + +Realizing the importance of attention, the student will naturally wish +to cultivate the power of bestowing it when necessary. The first role in +the cultivation of the attention is that the student shall carefully +acquire _the habit of thinking of or doing but one thing at a time_. +This first rule may seem easy, but in practice it will be found very +difficult of observance, so careless are the majority of us in our +actions and thinking. Not only will the trouble and care bestowed upon +the acquiring of this habit of thought and action be well repaid by the +development of the attention, but the student will also acquire a +facility for accomplishing his tasks quickly and thoroughly. As Kay +says: "There is nothing that contributes more to success in any pursuit +than that of having the attention concentrated on the matter in hand; +and, on the contrary, nothing is more detrimental than when doing one +thing to have the mind taken up with something else." And as Granville +says: "A frequent cause of failure in the faculty of attention is +striving to think of more than one thing at a time." Kay also well says: +"If we would possess the power of attention in a high degree, we must +cultivate the habit of attending to what is directly before the mind, to +the exclusion of all else. All distracting thoughts and feelings that +tend to withdraw the mind from what is immediately before it are +therefore to be carefully avoided. This is a matter of great importance, +and of no little difficulty. Frequently the mind, in place of being +concentrated on what is immediately before it, is thinking of something +else--something, it may be, that went before or that may come after, or +something quite alien to the subject." + +The following principles of the application of the attention have been +stated by the authorities: + +I. The attention attaches more readily to interesting than to +uninteresting things. + +II. The attention will decline in strength unless there is a variation +in the stimulus, either by a change of object or the developing of some +new attribute in the object. + +III. The attention, when tired by continuous direction toward some +unvarying object, may be revived by directing it toward some new object +or in allowing it to be attracted and held by some passing object. + +IV. The attention manifests in a two-fold activity; _viz._ (1) the +concentration upon some one object of thought; and (2) the shutting out +of outside objects. Thus, it has its positive and negative sides. Thus, +when a man wishes to give his undivided attention to one speaker in a +crowd of speaking individuals, he acts positively in focusing his +consciousness upon the selected individual, and negatively by refusing +to listen to the others. + +V. The attention is not a faculty, but a means of using any faculty with +an increased degree of efficiency. + +VI. The degree of attention possessed by an individual is an indication +of his power of using his intellect. Many authorities have held that, in +cases of genius, the power of concentrated attention is usually greatly +developed. Brooks says: "Attention is one of the principal elements of +genius." Hamilton says: "Genius is a higher capacity of attention." +Helvetius says: "Genius is nothing but protracted attention." +Chesterfield says: "The power of applying our attention, steady and +undissipated, to a single object is a sure mark of superior genius." + +The attention may be cultivated, just as may be the various faculties of +the mind, by the two-fold method of Exercise and Nourishment; that is, +by using and employing it actively and by furnishing it with the proper +materials with which to feed its strength. The way to exercise the +attention is _to use it frequently_ in every-day life. If you are +listening to a man speaking, endeavor to give to him your undivided +attention, and, at the same time, to shut out from your consciousness +every other object. In working, we should endeavor to use the attention +by concentrating our interest upon the particular task before us to the +exclusion of all else. In reading, we should endeavor to hold our minds +closely to the text instead of hastily glancing over the page as so many +do. + +Those who wish to cultivate their attention should take up some line of +study in which it is necessary to fasten the attention firmly for a +time. A half-hour's study in this way is worth more than hours of +careless reading so far as the cultivation of the attention is +concerned. Mathematics is most valuable in the direction of developing +the power of attention. Gibbon says: "After a rapid glance on the +subject and distribution of a new book, I suspend the reading of it +which I only resume after having myself examined the subject in all its +relations." + +Some writers have held that the attention may be developed by the +practice of selecting the voice of one person speaking among a crowd of +speakers, and deliberately shutting out the other sounds, giving the +whole attention to the particular speaker; or, in the same manner, +selecting one singer in a church choir or band of singers; or one +musical instrument in an orchestra; or one piece of machinery making +sounds in a room filled with various machines, etc. The practice of so +doing is held to strengthen one's powers of concentration and attention. + +Draper says: "Although many images may be simultaneously existing upon +the retina, the mind possesses the power of singling out any one of them +and fastening attention upon it, just as among a number of musical +instruments simultaneously played, one, and that perhaps the feeblest, +may be selected and its notes exclusively followed." And as Taylor says: +"In a concert of several voices, the voices being of nearly equal +intensity, regarded merely as organic impressions on the auditory +nerve, we select one, and at will we lift out and disjoin it from the +general volume of sound; we shut off the other voices--five, ten and +more--and follow this one alone. When we have done so for a time, we +freely cast it off and take up another." Carpenter says: "The more +completely the mental energy can be brought into one focus and all +distracting objects excluded, the more powerful will be the volitional +effort." + +Many authorities hold that the attention may be best applied and +exercised by analyzing an object mentally, and then considering its +parts one by one by a process of abstraction. Thus, as Kays says: "An +apple presents to us form, color, taste, smell, etc., and if we would +obtain a clear idea of any one of these, we must contemplate it by +itself and compare it with other impressions of the same kind we have +previously experienced. So in viewing a landscape, it is not enough to +regard it merely as a whole, but we must regard each of its different +parts individually by itself if we would obtain a clear idea of it. We +can only obtain a full and complete knowledge of an object _by analyzing +it and concentrating the attention upon its different parts, one by +one_." Reid says: "It is not by the senses immediately, but rather by +the power of _analyzing and abstraction_, that we get the most simple +and the most distinct notions of objects of sense." And, as Brown says: +"It is scarcely possible to advance even a single step in intellectual +physics without the necessity of performing _some sort of analysis_." In +all processes requiring analysis and examination of parts, properties or +qualities, the attention is actively employed. Accordingly, it follows +that such exercises are best adapted to the work of developing and +cultivating the attention itself. Therefore, as a parting word we may +say: _To develop and cultivate the power of attention and concentration, +(1) Analyze; (2) Analyze; and (3) Analyze. Analyze everything and +everybody with which or whom you come in contact._ There is no better or +shorter rule. + +The student will also find that the various directions and the advice +which we shall give in the succeeding chapters, regarding the +cultivation of the various faculties, are also adapted to the +development of the attention, for the latter is brought into active +play in them. And, likewise, by developing the attention, one may +practice the future exercises with greater effect. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +PERCEPTION + + +In preceding chapters we have seen that in the phase of mental activity +in which the Intellect is concerned, the processes of which are known as +"Thought" in the narrower sense of the term, there are several stages or +steps involving the use of several faculties of the mind. The first of +these steps or stages is called _Perception_. + +Many persons confuse the idea of Sensation and Perception, but there is +a clear distinction between them. Sensations arise from nerve +action--from the stimulation of nerve substance--which gives rise to a +peculiar effect upon the brain, which results in an elementary form of +consciousness. An authority says: "Sensation is the peculiar property of +the nervous system in a state of activity, by which impressions are +conveyed to the brain or sensorium. When an impression is made upon any +portion of the bodily surface by contact, heat, electricity, light, or +any other agent, the mind is rendered conscious of this by sensation. +In the process there are three stages--reception of the impression at +the end of the sensory nerve, the conduction of it along the nerve trunk +to the sensorium, and _the change it excites in the sensorium itself, +through which is produced sensation_." + +Just why and how this nerve action is translated into consciousness of +an elementary kind, science is unable to explain. Our knowledge is based +in a great part, or entirely, upon impressions which have been received +over the channel of the senses--sensations of sight, hearing, tasting, +smelling and touch. Many authorities hold that all of the five senses +are modifications of the sense of touch, or feeling; as for instance, +the impression upon the organs of sight is really in the nature of a +delicate touch or feeling of the light-waves as they come in contact +with the nerves of vision, etc. But, although sensations give us the raw +materials of thought, so to speak, they are not _knowledge_ in +themselves. Knowledge arises from the operation of Perception upon this +raw material of Sensation. + +But yet, Sensation plays a most active part in the presentation of the +raw material for the Perceptive faculties, and must not be regarded as +merely a physiological process. It may be said to be the connecting link +between the physical and the mental activities. As Ziehen says: "It +follows that the constitution of the nervous system is an essential +factor in determining the quality of sensation. This fact reveals the +obvious error of former centuries, first refuted by Locke, though still +shared by naive thought today, that the objects about us themselves are +colored, warm, cold, etc. As external to our consciousness, we can only +assume matter, vibrating with molecular motion and permeated by +vibrating particles of ether. The nervous apparatus selects only certain +motions of matter or of ether, which they transform into that form of +nerve excitation with which they are familiar. It is only this nerve +excitation that we perceive as red, warm or hard." + +Passing from Sensation to Perception, we see that the latter interprets +the reports of the former. Perception translates into consciousness the +impressions of Sensation. Perception, acting through one or more of the +mental faculties, gives us _our first bit of real knowledge_. Sensation +may give us the impression of a small moving thing--Perception +translates this into the thought of _a cat_. Sensation is a mere +_feeling_--Perception is the _thought_ arising from that feeling. A +Percept is the product of Perception, or in other words, our _idea_ +gained through Perception. The majority of our percepts are complex, +being built up from a number of minor percepts; as for instance, our +percept of _a peach_ is built up from our minor percepts of the form, +shape, color, weight, degree of hardness, smell, taste, etc., of the +peach, each sense employed giving minor percepts, the whole being +combined in the conscious as the whole percept of that particular peach. + +Brooks says: "All knowledge does not come directly from perception +through the senses, however. We have a knowledge of external objects, +and we have a knowledge that transcends this knowledge of external +objects. Perception is the _immediate_ source of the first kind of +knowledge, and the _indirect_ source of the second kind of knowledge. +This distinction is often expressed by the terms _cause_ and +_occasion_. Thus perception is said to be the _cause_ of our knowledge +of objects, since it is the immediate source of such knowledge. +Perception is also said to be the _occasion_ of the ideas and truths of +intuition; for, though in a sense necessary to these ideas, it is not +the source of them. Perception also furnishes the understanding with +materials out of which it derives ideas and truths beyond the field of +sense. As thus attaining a knowledge of external objects, affording +material for the operations of the understanding, and furnishing the +occasion for the activity of the intuitive power, _perception may be +said to lie at the basis of all knowledge_." + +Perception is of course manifest in all persons. But it varies greatly +in degree and power. Moreover, it may be developed and cultivated to a +great degree. As Perception is an interpretation of the impression of +the senses, we often confuse the cultivation of Perception with the +development of the senses themselves. Two persons of equally perfect +sense of sight may vary greatly in their degree of Perception of sight +impressions. One may be a most careless observer, while the other may +be a very close observer and able to distinguish many points of interest +and importance in the object viewed which are not apparent to the first +observer. Cultivation of Perception is cultivation of the _mental +background of the senses_, rather than of the sense organs themselves. +The Perception accompanying each sense may be developed and cultivated +separately from that accompanying the others. + +The majority of persons are very careless observers. They will _see_ +things without _perceiving_ the qualities, properties, characteristics, +or parts which together make up those things. Two persons, possessed of +equal degrees of eyesight, will walk through a forest. Both of them will +_see_ trees. To one of them there will be but trees perceived; while to +the other there will be a perception of the different species of trees, +with their varying bark, leaves, shape, etc. One perceives simply a +"pile of stone," which to the perception of another will be recognized +as granite, marble, etc. Brooks says: "Very few persons can tell the +difference between the number of legs of a fly and of a spider; and I +have known farmers' boys and girls who could not tell whether the ears +of a cow are in front of her horns, above her horns, below her horns, or +behind her horns." Halleck says of a test in a schoolroom: "Fifteen +pupils were sure that they had seen cats climb trees and descend them. +There was a unanimity of opinion that the cats went up head first. When +asked whether the cats came down head or tail first, the majority were +sure that the cats descended as they were never known to do. Anyone who +had ever noticed the shape of the claws of any beast of prey could have +answered that question without seeing an actual descent. Farmers' boys, +who have often seen cows and horses lie down and rise, are seldom sure +whether the animals rise with their fore or hind feet first, or whether +the habit of the horse agrees with that of the cow in this respect." + +Brooks well says: "Modern education tends to the neglect of the culture +of the perceptive powers. In ancient times people studied nature much +more than at present. Being without books, they were compelled to depend +upon their eyes and ears for knowledge; and this made their senses +active, searching and exact. At the present day, we study books for a +knowledge of external things; and we study them too much or too +exclusively, and thus neglect the cultivation of the senses. We get our +knowledge of the material world second-hand, instead of fresh from the +open pages of the book of nature. Is it not a great mistake to spend so +much time in school and yet not know the difference between the leaf of +a beech and of an oak; or not be able to distinguish between specimens +of marble, quartz, and granite? The neglect of the culture of the +perceptive powers is shown by the scholars of the present time. Very few +educated men are good observers; indeed, the most of them are sadly +deficient in this respect.... They were taught to think and remember; +but were not taught to use their eyes and ears. In modern education, +books are used too much like spectacles, and the result is the blunting +of the natural powers of perception." + +The first principle in the Cultivation of Perception is the correct use +of the Attention. The intelligent control of voluntary attention is a +prerequisite to clear and distinct perception. We have called your +attention to this matter in the preceding chapter. Halleck says: "A body +may be imaged on the retina without insuring perception. There must be +an effort to concentrate the attention upon the many things which the +world presents to our senses.... Perception, to achieve satisfactory +results, must summon the will to its aid to concentrate the attention. +Only the smallest part of what falls upon our senses at any time is +actually perceived." + +The sense of sight is perhaps the one of the greatest importance to us, +and accordingly the cultivation of Perception with regard to impressions +received through the eye is the most important for the ordinary +individual. As Kay says: "To see clearly is a valuable aid even to +thinking clearly. In all our mental operations we owe much to sight. To +recollect, to think, to imagine, is to see internally,--to call up more +or less visual images of things before the mind. In order to understand +a thing it is generally necessary to see it, and what a man has not seen +he cannot properly realize or image distinctly to his mind.... It is by +the habitual direction of our attention to the effects produced upon +our consciousness by the impressions made upon the eye and transmitted +to the sensorium that our sight, like our other senses, is trained." +Bain says: "Cohering trains and aggregates of the sensations of sight +make more than any other thing, perhaps more than all other things put +together, the material of thought, memory and imagination." Vinet says: +"The child, and perhaps the man as well, only knows well what is shown +him, and the image of things is the true medium between their abstract +idea and his personal experience." This being the case, advice +concerning the Cultivation of Perception must needs be directed mainly +to the cultivation of the perception of sight-impressions. + +Brooks says: "We should acquire the habit of observing with attention. +Many persons look at objects with a careless, inattentive eye. We should +guard against the habit of careless looking. We should fix the mind upon +the object before us; we should concentrate the attention upon that upon +which we are looking. Attention, in respect to Perception, has been +compared to a burning glass; hold the sun-glass between the sun and a +board and the concentrated rays will burn a hole through the latter. So +attention concentrates the rays of perceptive power and enables the mind +to penetrate below the surface of things." + +The best authorities agree in the idea that the Perception may be best +cultivated by acquiring the habit of examining things in detail. And, +that this examination in detail is best manifested by examining the +parts going to make up a complex thing, separately, rather than +examining the thing as a whole. Halleck says regarding this point: "To +look at things intelligently is the most difficult of all arts. The +first rule for the cultivation of accurate perception is: Do not try to +perceive the whole of a complex object at once. Take the human face for +example. A man holding an important position to which he had been +elected offended many people because he could not remember faces, and +hence failed to recognize individuals the second time he met them. His +trouble was in looking at the countenance as a whole. When he changed +his method of observation, and noticed carefully the nose, mouth, eyes, +chin and color of hair, he at once began to find recognition easier. He +was no longer in danger of mistaking A for B, since he remembered that +the shape of B's nose was different, or the color of his hair at least +three shades lighter. This example shows that another rule can be +formulated: Pay careful attention to details.... To see an object merely +as an undiscriminated mass of something in a certain place is to do no +more than a donkey accomplishes as he trots along." + +Brooks says regarding the same point: "To train the powers of +observation we should practice observing minutely. We should analyze the +objects which we look at into their parts, and notice these parts. +Objects present themselves to us as wholes; our definite knowledge of +them is gained by analysis, by separating them into the elements which +compose them. We should therefore give attention to the details of +whatever we are considering; and thus cultivate the habit of observing +with minuteness.... It is related of a teacher that if, when hearing a +class, some one rapped at the door, he would look up as the visitor +entered and from a single glance could tell his appearance and dress, +the kind of hat he wore, kind of necktie, collar, vest, coat, shoes, +etc. The skillful banker, also, in counting money with wondrous +rapidity, will detect and throw from his pile of bills the counterfeits +which, to the ordinary eye, seem to be without spot or blemish." + +One of the best methods of developing and cultivating the faculty of +Perception is to take up some study in which the perceptive faculties +_must be_ employed. Botany, physics, geology, natural history give +splendid exercise in Perception, providing the student engages in actual +experimental work, and actual observation, instead of confining himself +to the textbooks. A careful scientific study and examination of _any +kind of objects_, in a manner calculated to bring out the various points +of resemblance and difference, will do most to develop the Perception. +Training of this kind will develop these powers to a high degree, in the +case of small children. + +Drawing is also a great help to the development of Perception. In order +to draw a thing correctly we must of necessity examine it in detail; +otherwise we will not be able to draw it correctly. In fact, many +authorities use the test of drawing to prove the degree of attention and +Perception that the student has bestowed upon an object which he has +been studying. Others place an object before the pupil for a few +minutes, and then withdraw it, the pupil then being required to draw the +object roughly but with attention to its leading peculiarities and +features. Then the object is again placed before the pupil for study, +and he is then again required to draw from memory the additional details +he has noticed in it. This process is repeated over and over again, +until the pupil has proved that he has _observed_ every possible detail +of interest in the object. This exercise has resulted in the cultivation +of a high degree of perception in many students, and its simplicity +should not detract from its importance. Any person may practice this +exercise by himself; or, better still, two or more students may combine +and endeavor to excel each other in friendly rivalry, each endeavoring +to discover the greatest number of details in the object considered. So +rapidly do students improve under this exercise, that a daily record +will show a steady advance. Simple exercises in drawing are found in +the reproduction, from memory, of geography maps, leaves of trees, etc. + +Similar exercises may be found in the practice of taking a hasty look at +a person, animal or building, and then endeavoring to reproduce in +writing the particular points about the person or thing observed. This +exercise will reveal rapid progress if persisted in. Or, it may be +varied by endeavoring to write out the contents of a room through which +one has walked. + +The majority of our readers remember the familiar story of Houdin, who +so cultivated the faculty of Perception that he was able to pass by a +shop-window and afterward state in detail every object in the window. He +acquired this power by gradual development, beginning with the +observation of a single article in the window, then two, then three and +so on. Others have followed his method with great success. Speaking of +Houdin's wonderful Perception, Halleck says: "A wide-awake eagle would +probably see more of a thing at one glance than would a drowsy lizard in +a quarter of an hour. Extreme rapidity of Perception, due to careful +training, was one of the factors enabling Houdin and his son to astonish +everybody and to amass a fortune. He placed a domino before the boy, and +instead of allowing him to count the spots, required him to give the sum +total at once. This exercise was continued until each could give +instantaneously the sum of the spots on a dozen dominoes. The sum was +given just as accurately as if five minutes had been consumed in +adding." Houdin, in his Memoirs relating the above facts regarding his +own methods, states with due modesty, that many women far excel him in +this respect. He says: "I can safely assert that a lady seeing another +pass at full speed in a carriage will have had time to analyze her +toilette from her bonnet to her shoes, and be able to describe not only +the fashion and quality of the stuffs, but also say if the lace be real +or only machine made." + +There are a number of games played by children which tend to the +cultivation of the Perception, and which might well be adapted for the +use of older people. These games are based on the general principle of +the various participants taking a brief view of a number of objects +displayed in one's hand, on a table, in a box, etc., and then stating +what he or she has seen. There will be noticed a wonderful difference in +the degree of Perception manifested by the various participants. And, +equally interesting will be the degrees of progress noted after playing +this game over several times, allowing time for rest between the series +of games. It is a fact well known in police circles that thieves often +train boys in this way, following this course by another in which the +lads are expected to take in the contents of a room, the windows, locks, +etc., at a glance. They are then graduated into spies looking out the +details of the scenes of future robberies. + +In our volume of this series, devoted to the consideration of the +Memory, we have related a number of exercises and methods, similar to +those given above, by which the Perception may be cultivated. Perception +plays a most important place in memory, for upon the clearness of the +percepts depends to a great degree the clearness of the impressions made +upon the memory. So close is the connection between Memory and +Perception that the cultivation of one tends to develop the other. For +instance, the cultivation of the Memory necessitates the sharpening of +the Perception in the direction of obtaining clear original impressions; +while the cultivation of Perception naturally develops the Memory by +reason of the fact that the latter is used in testing and proving the +clearness and degree of Perception. This being the case, those who find +that the exercises and methods given above are too arduous may +substitute the simple exercise of remembering as many details as +possible of things they see. This effort to impress the memory will +involuntarily bring into action the perceptive faculties in the +acquirement of the original impressions, so that in the end the +Perception will be found to have developed. + +Teachers and those having to do with children should realize the great +value of the cultivation of Perception in the young, and thus +establishing valuable habits of observation among them. The experience +and culture thus acquired will prove of great value in their after life. +As Brooks well says on this subject: "Teachers should appreciate the +value of the culture of the perceptive powers, and endeavor to do +something to afford this culture. Let it be remembered that by training +the powers of observation of pupils, we lead them to acquire definite +ideas of things, enable them to store their minds with fresh and +interesting knowledge, lay the foundation for literary or business +success, and thus do much to enhance their happiness in life and add to +the sum of human knowledge." + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +REPRESENTATION + + +Sensation and Perception, as considered in the preceding chapter, are +what are called by psychologists "Processes of Presentation." By +Presentation is meant the direct offering to the consciousness of mental +images or objects of thought. If there were no faculty of the mind +capable of retaining and _re_-presenting to the consciousness the +impression or record of Perception, we could never progress in +knowledge, for each percept would be new each time it was presented and +there would be no recognition of it as having been previously perceived, +nor would there be any power to voluntarily recall any percept +previously acquired. In short, we would be without that power of the +mind called Memory. + +But, fortunately for us as thinkers, we possess the power of +Representation; that is, of reproducing past perceptions and experiences +in the shape of _mental images_ or pictures, "in the mind's eye," so to +speak, which relieves us of the necessity of directly and immediately +perceiving an object each time we desire or are required to think of it. +The processes whereby this becomes possible are called the processes of +Representation, for the reason that by them past experiences of +Perception are _re_-presented to the consciousness. + +The subject of Representation is closely bound up with that of Memory. +Strictly speaking, Representation may be said to be one phase of Memory; +Association of Ideas another; and the authorities prefer to treat the +whole subject under the general head of Memory. We have written a work +on "Memory" which forms one of the volumes of the present series, and we +have no intention, or desire, to repeat here the information given in +that work. But we must consider the subject of Representation at this +point in order to maintain the logical unity of the present general +subject of Thought-Culture. The student will also notice, of course, the +close relation between the processes of Representation and those of the +Imagination, which we shall consider in other chapters of this work. + +Memory has several phases, the usual classification of which is as +follows: (1) Impression; (2) Retention; (3) Recollection; (4) +Representation, and (5) Recognition. Each phase requires the operation +of special mental processes. _Impression_ is the process whereby the +impressions of Perception are recorded or stamped upon the subconscious +field of mentality, as the impress of the die upon the wax. _Retention_ +is the process whereby the subconsciousness _retains_ or holds the +impressions so received. _Recollection_ is the process by which the mind +_re-collects_ the impressions retained in the subconsciousness, bringing +them again into consciousness as objects of knowledge. _Representation_ +is the process whereby the impressions so re-collected are _pictured or +imaged_ in the mind. _Recognition_ is the process whereby the mind +_recognizes_ the mental image or picture so re-presented to it as +connected with its past experience. + +As we have stated, we have considered the general subject of Memory in +another volume of this series and, therefore, shall not attempt to enter +into a discussion of its general subject at this place. We shall, +accordingly, limit ourselves here to a brief consideration of the phase +of Representation and its cultivation. + +Representation, of course, depends upon the preceding phases of Memory +known as Impression, Retention and Recollection. Unless the Impression +is clear; unless the Retention is normal, there can be no +Representation. And unless one _recollects_ there can be no +Representation. Recollection (which is really a re-collection of +percepts) must precede Representation in the shape of mental images or +pictures. Recollection re-collects the mental materials out of which the +image is to be constructed. But, as Brooks says: "It is not to be +assumed that knowledge is retained as a picture; but that it is +_recreated_ in the form of a picture or some other mental product when +it is recalled." The process is analogous to the transmutation of the +sound-waves entering the receiver of a telephone, into electrical-waves +which are transmitted to the receiver, where they are in turn +re-transmuted to sound-waves which enter the ear of the listener. It +will be seen at once that there is the closest possible relation between +the processes of Representation and those of Memory--in fact, it is +quite difficult to draw a clear line of division between them. Some make +the distinction that Representation furnishes us with an exact +reproduction of _the past_; while Imagination combines our mental images +into _new products_. That is, Representation merely _reproduces_; while +Imagination _creates_ by forming new combinations; or Representation +deals with a reproduction of the Actual; while Imagination deals with +the Ideal. + +Wundt speaking of this difficult distinction says: "Psychologists are +accustomed to define _memory images_ as ideas which _exactly reproduce_ +some previous perception, and _fancy images_ as ideas consisting of a +combination of elements taken from a whole number of perceptions. Now +memory images in the sense of this definition simply do not exist.... +Try, for instance, to draw from memory some landscape picture which you +have only once seen, and then compare your copy with the original. You +will expect to find plenty of mistakes and omissions; but you will also +invariably find that you have put in a great deal which was not in the +original, but which comes from landscape pictures which you have seen +somewhere else." + +While we generally speak of Representation _picturing_ the recollected +percepts, still, we must not make the mistake of supposing that it is +concerned with, or limited to, only mental pictures. We are able to +_represent_ not only visual percepts but also sounds, smells, tastes or +feelings, often so vividly that they appear as almost actually existent. +We may also even _represent_, symbolically the processes of reasoning, +mathematical operations, etc. In short nearly, if not all experiences +which are possible in Presentation are also possible in Representation. + +The phase of Representation, in the processes of Memory, is of course +subject to the general laws of the Cultivation of Memory which we have +stated in detail in our previous volume on that subject. But there are +some special points of development and cultivation which may be +considered briefly in this place. In the first place the importance of +Attention and clear Perception, as necessary precedents for clear +Representation, may be emphasized. In order to form clear mental images +of a thing we must have perceived it clearly in the first place. The +advice regarding the use of the Attention and Perception given in +preceding chapters need not be repeated here, but special attention +should be directed toward them in connection with the processes of +Representation. If we wish to cultivate the Representative faculties, we +must begin by cultivating the Presentative faculties. + +Then again we must remember what we have said elsewhere about the facts +of development through (1) Use; and (2) Nourishment, in all mental +faculties. We must begin to _use_ the faculties of Representation in +order to exercise them. We must give them _nourishment_ in the shape of +objects of mental food. That is to say we must furnish these faculties +with _materials_ with which they may grow and develop, and with exercise +in order to strengthen the mental-muscle and also to give the faculties +the opportunity to "acquire the knack." The exercises and methods +recommended in our chapter on Perception will furnish good _material_ +for the Representative faculties' growing requirements. By _perceiving_ +the details of things, one is able to reproduce clear mental images of +them. In studying an object, always carry in your mind the fact that you +wish to _reproduce_ it in your mind later. In fact, if you have the +opportunity, let your mind "repeat it to itself" as soon as possible +after the actual occurrence and experience. Just as you often murmur to +yourself, or else write down, the name of a person or place which you +have just heard, in order that you may recollect it the better +thereafter, so it will be well for you to "mentally repeat" to yourself +the experiences upon which you wish to exercise your Representative +faculties. + +As to the matter of development and cultivation by Use, we would advise +that you begin gradually to train your mind to _reproduce_ the +experiences of the day or week or month, at intervals, until you feel +that you are developing a new power in that direction. Tonight, if you +try you will find that you can reproduce but a very small part of +today's happenings with any degree of clearness. How clearly can you +image the places you have been, the appearances of the people you have +met, the various details of persons and things which you perceived +during the experiences of the day? Not very clearly, we dare say. Try +again, and you will find that you will be able to add new details. Keep +it up until you feel tired or think that you have exhausted all the +possibilities of the task. Tomorrow, try it again, and you will find +that the second day's experiences are more clearly reproduced in your +mind. Each day should find you a little more advanced, until you get to +a place where the normal degree of power is attained, when the advance +will be slower. + +Then, at the end of the week, review its experiences. Do the same the +following week. At the end of the month, take a hasty mental trip over +the month's experiences. And so on. Exercise, in moderation, along these +lines will work wonders for you. Not only will it develop the +Representation, but your powers of observation and your general memory +will be found to be improved. And, moreover, in "chewing the mental cud" +you will think of many things of interest and importance in connection +with your work, etc., and your general mental efficiency will be +increased for the faculties of the mind are interdependent and share +benefits with each other. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +ABSTRACTION + + +As we have seen, the first stage or step in the process of Thought is +that called Perception, which we have considered in the preceding +chapter. Perception, as we have seen, is the process by which we gain +our first knowledge of the external world as reported to us by the +channels of sense. The Perceptive faculties interpret the material which +is presented to us by the senses. Following upon Perception we find the +processes resulting from the exercise of the group of faculties which +are classified under the general head of Understanding. + +Understanding is the faculty, or faculties, of the mind by means of +which we intelligently examine and compare the various _percepts_, +either separating them by analysis, or else combining them by synthesis, +or both, and thus securing our general ideas, principles, laws, classes, +etc. There are several sub-phases of Understanding which are known to +psychologists and logicians as: (1) Abstraction; (2) Conception or +Generalization; (3) Judgment, and (4) Reasoning, respectively. In this +chapter we shall consider the first of these sub-phases or steps of +Understanding, which is known as "Abstraction." + +Abstraction is that faculty of the mind by which we abstract or "draw +off," and then consider apart, the particular qualities, properties, or +attributes of an object, and thus are able to consider _them_ as +"things" or objects of thought. In order to form _concepts_ or general +ideas, from our _percepts_ or particular ideas, we must consider and +examine two common points or qualities which go to make up _differences +and resemblances_. The special examination or consideration of these +common points or qualities result in the exercise of Abstraction. In the +process of Abstraction we mentally "draw away" a quality of an object +and then consider it as a distinct object of thought. Thus in +considering a flower we may _abstract_ its qualities of fragrance, +color, shape, etc., and think of these as things independent of the +flower itself from which they were derived. We think of _redness_, +_fragrance_, etc., not only in connection with the particular flower +but as _general qualities_. Thus the qualities of redness, sweetness, +hardness, softness, etc., lead us to the abstract terms, _red_, _sweet_, +_hard_, _soft_, _etc._ In the same way courage, cowardice, virtue, vice, +love, hate, etc., are abstract terms. No one ever saw one of these +things--they are known only in connection with objects, or else as +"abstract terms" in the processes of Thought. They may be known as +qualities, and expressed as predicates; or they may be considered as +abstract things and expressed as nouns. + +In the general process of Abstraction we first draw off and set aside +all the qualities which are _not common_ to the general class under +consideration, for the concept or general idea must comprise only the +qualities common to its class. Thus in the case of the general idea of +horse, size and color must be abstracted as non-essentials, for horses +are of various colors and sizes. But on the other hand, there are +certain qualities which _are common to all horses_, and these must be +abstracted and used in making up the concept or general idea. + +So, you see, in general Abstraction we form two classes: (1) the unlike +and not-general qualities; and (2) the like or common qualities. As +Halleck says: "In the process of Abstraction, we draw our attention away +from a mass of confusing details, unimportant at the time, and attend +only to qualities common to the class. Abstraction is little else than +centering the power of attention on some qualities to the exclusion of +others.... While we are forming concepts, we abstract or draw off +certain qualities, either to leave them out of view or to consider them +by themselves. Our dictionaries contain such words as purity, whiteness, +sweetness, industry, courage, etc. No one ever touched, tasted, smelled, +heard, or saw purity or courage. We do not, therefore, gain our +knowledge of these through the senses. We have seen pure persons, pure +snow, pure honey; we have breathed pure air, tasted pure coffee. From +all these different objects we have abstracted the only like quality, +the quality of being pure. We then say we have an idea of _purity_, and +that idea is an abstract one. It exists only in the mind which formed +it. No one ever saw _whiteness_. He may have seen white clouds, snow, +cloth, blossoms, houses, paper, horses, but he never saw _whiteness_ by +itself. He simply abstracted that quality from various white objects." + +In Abstraction we may either (1) abstract a quality and set it aside and +apart from the other qualities under consideration, as being +non-essential and not necessary; or we may (2) abstract a quality and +hold it in the mind as essential and necessary for the concept which we +are forming. Likewise, we may abstract (1) all the qualities of an +object _except one_, and set them aside that we may consider the _one_ +quality by itself; or we may (2) abstract the one particular quality and +consider it to the exclusion of all its associated qualities. In all of +these aspects we have the same underlying process of considering a +quality apart from its object, and apart from its associated qualities. +The mind more commonly operates in the direction of abstracting one +quality and viewing it apart from object and associated qualities. + +The importance of correct powers of Abstraction is seen when we realize +that all concepts or general ideas are but combinations of abstract +qualities or ideas. As Halleck says: "The difference between an +_abstract idea_ and a _concept_ is that a concept may consist of a +bundle of abstract ideas. If the class contains more than one common +quality, so must the concept; it must contain as many of these +abstracted qualities as are common to the class. The concept of the +class _whale_ would embody a large number of such qualities." As Brooks +says: "If we could not abstract, we could not _generalize_, for +abstraction is a condition of generalization." The last-mentioned +authority also cleverly states the idea as follows: "The products of +Abstraction are _abstract ideas_, that is, ideas of qualities in the +abstract. Such ideas are called _Abstracts_. Thus my idea of some +particular color, or hardness, or softness, is an abstract. Abstract +ideas have been wittily called 'the ghosts of departed qualities.' They +may more appropriately be regarded as the spirits of which the objects +from which they are derived are the bodies. In other words, they are, +figuratively speaking, 'the disembodied spirits of material things.'" + +The cultivation of the faculty of Abstraction depends very materially, +in the first place, upon the exercise of Attention and Perception. Mill +holds that Abstraction is primarily a result of Attention. Others hold +that it is merely the mental process by which the attention is directed +exclusively to the consideration of one of several qualities, +properties, attributes, parts, etc. Hamilton says: "Attention and +Abstraction then are only the same process viewed in different +relations. They are, as it were, the positive and negative poles of the +same act." The cultivation of Attention is really a part of the process +of the cultivation of the faculty of Abstraction. Unless the Attention +be directed toward the object and its qualities we will be unable to +perceive, set aside, and separately consider the abstract quality +contained within it. In this process, as indeed in all other mental +processes, Attention is a prerequisite. Therefore, here, as in many +other places, we say to you: "Begin by cultivating Attention." + +Moreover, the cultivation of the faculty of Abstraction depends +materially upon the cultivation of Perception. Not only must we _sense_ +the existence of the various qualities in an object, but we must also +_perceive_ them in consciousness, just as we perceive the object itself. +In fact, the perception of the object is merely a perception of its +various qualities, attributes and properties, for the object itself is +merely a composite of these abstract things, at least so far as its +perception in consciousness is concerned. Try to think of _a horse_, +without considering its qualities, attributes and properties, and the +result is merely _an abstract horse_--something which belongs to the +realm of unreality. Try to think of _a rose_ without considering its +color, odor, shape, size, response to touch, etc., and you have simply +_an ideal rose_ which when analyzed is seen to be a _nothing_. Take away +the qualities, properties and attributes of anything, and you have left +_merely a name_, or else a transcendental, idealistic, something apart +from our world of sense knowledge. Thus it follows that in order to +_know_ the qualities of a thing in order to classify it, or to form a +general idea of it, we _must_ use the Perception in order to interpret +or translate the sense-impressions we have received regarding them. +Consequently the greater our power of Perception the greater must be +the possibility of our power of Abstraction. + +Beyond the cultivation, use and exercise of the Attention and the +Perception, there are but few practical methods for cultivating the +faculty of Abstraction. Of course, _exercise_ of the faculty will +develop it; and _the furnishing of material for its activities_ will +give it the "nourishment" of which we have spoken elsewhere. Practice in +distinguishing the various qualities, attributes and properties of +objects will give a valuable training to the faculty. + +Let the student take any object and endeavor to analyze it into its +abstract qualities, etc. Let him try to discover qualities hidden from +first sight. Let him make a list of these qualities, and write them +down; then try to add to the list. Two or more students engaging in a +friendly rivalry will stimulate the efforts of each other. In children +the exercise may be treated as a game. _Analysis of objects into their +component qualities, attributes and qualities--the effort to extract as +many adjectives applicable to the object_--this is the first step. The +second step consists in _transforming these adjectives into their +corresponding nouns_. As for instance, in a rose we perceive the +_qualities_ which we call "redness," "fragrance," etc. We speak of the +rose as being "red" or "fragrant"--then we think of "redness," or +"fragrance" as abstract qualities, or things, which we express as nouns. +Exercise and practice along these lines will tend to cultivate the +faculty of Abstraction. By knowing qualities, we know the things +possessing them. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS + + +Having formed general ideas, or Concepts, it is important that we +associate them with other general ideas. In order to fully _understand_ +a general idea we must know its associations and relations. The greater +the known associations or relations of an idea, the greater is our +degree of understanding of that idea. If we simply know many thousands +of separated general ideas, without also knowing their associations and +relations, we are in almost as difficult a position as if we merely knew +thousands of individual percepts without being able to classify them in +general concepts. It is necessary to develop the faculty of associating +ideas into groups, according to their relations, just as we group +particular ideas in classes. The difference, however, is that these +group-ideas do not form classes of a genus, but depend solely upon +associations of several kinds, as we shall see in a moment. + +Halleck says: "All ideas have certain definite associations with other +ideas, and they come up in groups. There is always an association +between our ideas, although there are cases when we cannot trace it.... +Even when we find no association between our ideas, we may be sure that +it exists.... An idea, then, never appears in consciousness unless there +is a definite reason why this idea should appear in preference to +others." Brooks says: "One idea or feeling in the mind calls up some +other idea or feeling with which it is in some way related. Our ideas +seem, as it were, to be tied together by the invisible thread of +association, so that as one comes out of unconsciousness, it draws +another with it. Thoughts seem to exist somewhat in clusters like the +grapes of a bunch, so that in bringing out one, we bring the entire +cluster with it. The law of association is thus the tie, the thread, the +golden link by which our thoughts are united in an act of reproduction." + +The majority of writers confine their consideration of Association of +Ideas to its relation to Memory. It is true that the Laws of Association +play an important part in Memory Culture, but Association of Ideas also +form an important part of the general subject of Thought-Culture, and +especially in the phase of the latter devoted to the development of the +Understanding. The best authorities agree upon this idea and state it +positively. Ribot says: "The most fundamental law which regulates +psychological phenomena is the Law of Association. In its comprehensive +character it is comparable to the law of attraction in the physical +world." Mill says: "That which the law of gravitation is to astronomy, +that which the elementary properties of the tissues are to physiology, +the Law of Association of Ideas is to psychology." + +There are two general principles, or laws, operative in the processes of +Association of Ideas, known as (1) Association by Contiguity; and (2) +Association by Similarity, respectively. + +Association by Contiguity manifests particularly in the processes of +memory. In its two phases of (1) Contiguity of Time; and (2) Contiguity +of Space, respectively, it brings together before the field of +consciousness ideas associated with each by reason of their time or +space relations. Thus, if we remember a certain thing, we find it easy +to remember things which occurred immediately before, or immediately +after that particular thing. Verbal memory depends largely upon the +contiguity of time, as for instance, our ability to repeat a poem, or +passage from a book, if we can recall the first words thereof. Children +often possess this form of memory to a surprising degree; and adults +with only a limited degree of understanding may repeat freely long +extracts from speeches they have heard, or even arbitrary jumbles of +words. Visual memory depends largely upon contiguity of space, as for +instance our ability to recall the details of scenes, when starting from +a given point. In both of these forms of association by contiguity the +mental operation is akin to that of unwinding a ball of yarn, the ideas, +thus associated in the sequence of time or place, following each other +into the field of consciousness. Association by Contiguity, while +important in itself, properly belongs to the general subject of Memory, +and as we have considered it in the volume of this series devoted to the +last mentioned subject, we shall not speak of it further here. + +Association by Similarity, however, possesses a special interest to +students of the particular subject of the culture of the Understanding. +If we were compelled to rely upon the association of contiguity for our +understanding of things, we would understand a thing merely in its +relations to that which went before or came after it; or by the things +which were near it in space--we would have to unwind the mental ball of +time and space relations in order to bring into consciousness the +associated relations of anything. The Association of Similarity, +however, remedies this defect, and gives us a higher and broader +association. Speaking of Association of Similarity, Kay says: "It is of +the utmost importance to us in forming a judgment of things, or in +determining upon a particular line of conduct, to be able to bring +together before the mind a number of instances of a _similar_ kind, +recent or long past, which may aid us in coming to a right +determination. Thus, we may judge of the nature or quality of an +article, and obtain light and leading in regard to any subject that may +be before us. In this way we arrange and classify and reason by +induction. _This is known as rational or philosophical association._" + +Halleck says: "An eminent philosopher has said that man is completely at +the mercy of the association of his ideas. Every new object is seen in +the light of its associated ideas.... It is not the business of the +psychologist to state what power the association of ideas _ought_ to +have. It is for him to ascertain what power it _does_ have. When we +think of the bigotry of past ages, of the stake for the martyr and the +stoning of witches, we can realize the force of Prof. Ziehen's +statement: 'We cannot think as we _will_, but we _must_ think as just +those associations which happen to be present prescribe.' While this is +not literally true, it may serve to emphasize a deflecting factor which +is usually underestimated." + +Locke says: "The connection in our minds of ideas, in themselves loose +and independent of one another, has such an influence, and is of so +great force, to set us awry in our actions, as well moral as natural, +passions, reasonings, and notions themselves, that, perhaps, there is +not any one thing that deserves more to be looked after." Stewart says: +"The bulk of mankind, being but little accustomed to reflect and to +generalize, associate their ideas chiefly according to their more +obvious relations, and above all to the casual relations arising from +contiguity in time and place; whereas, in the mind of a philosopher +ideas are commonly associated according to those relations which are +brought to light in consequence of particular efforts of attention, such +as the relations of cause and effect, or of premises and conclusion. +Hence, it must necessarily happen that when he has occasion to apply to +use his acquired knowledge, time and reflection will be requisite to +enable him to recollect it." + +This Association by Similarity, or the "rational and philosophical +association of ideas," may be developed and cultivated by a little care +and work. The first principle is that of _learning the true relations of +an idea_--its various logical associations. Perhaps the easiest and best +method is that adopted and practiced by Socrates, the old Greek +philosopher, often called "the Socratic method"--the Method of +Questioning. By questioning oneself, or others, regarding a thing, the +mind of the person answering tends to unfold its stores of information, +and to make new and true associations. Kays says: "Socrates, Plato, and +others among the ancients and some moderns, have been masters of this +art. The principle of asking questions and obtaining answers to them may +be said to characterize all intellectual effort.... The great thing is +to ask the right questions, and to obtain the right answers." Meiklejohn +says: "This art of questioning possessed by Dr. Hodgson was something +wonderful and unique, and was to the minds of most of his pupils a truly +obstetric art. He told them little or nothing, but showed them how to +find out for themselves. 'The Socratic method,' he said, 'is the true +one, especially with the young.'" + +But this questioning must be done logically, and orderly, and not in a +haphazard way. As Fitch says: "In proposing questions it is very +necessary to keep in view the importance of arranging them in the exact +order in which the subject would naturally develop itself in the mind of +a logical and systematic thinker." A number of systems have been +formulated by different writers on the subject, all of which have much +merit. The following System of Analysis, designed for the use of +students desiring to acquire correct associations, was given in the +volume of this series, entitled "Memory," and is reproduced here because +it is peculiarly adapted to the cultivation and development of the +faculty of discovering and forming correct associations and relations +between ideas: + + +SYSTEM OF ANALYSIS + +When you wish to discover what you really _know_ regarding a thing, ask +yourself the following questions about it, examining each point in +detail, and endeavoring to bring before the mind _your full knowledge_ +regarding that particular point. Fill in the deficiencies by reading +some good work of reference, an encyclopedia for instance; or consulting +a good dictionary, or both: + + I. Where did it come from, or originate? + + II. What caused it? + + III. What history or record has it? + + IV. What are its attributes, qualities or characteristics? + + V. What things can I most readily associate with it? What is it most + like? + + VI. What is it good for--how may it be used--what can I do with it? + + VII. What does it prove--what can be deduced from it? + + VIII. What are its natural results--what happens because of it? + + IX. What is its future; and its natural or probable end or finish? + + X. What do I think of it, on the whole--what are my general + impressions regarding it? + + XI. What do I know about it, in the way of general information? + + XII. What have I heard about it, and from whom, and when? + +The following "Query Table," from the same volume, may be found useful +in the same direction. It is simpler and less complicated than the +system given above. It has well been called a "Magic Key of Knowledge," +and it opens many a mental door: + +QUERY TABLE + +Ask yourself the following questions regarding the thing under +consideration. It will draw out many bits of information and associated +knowledge in your mind: + + I. What? + II. Whence? + III. Where? + IV. When? + V. How? + VI. Why? + VII. Whither? + +Remember, always, that the greater the number of associated and related +ideas that you are able to group around a concept, the richer, fuller +and truer does that concept become to you. The concept is a _general +idea_, and its attributes of "generality" depend upon the associated +facts and ideas related to it. The greater the number of the view points +from which a concept may be examined and considered, the greater is the +degree of knowledge concerning that concept. It is held that everything +in the universe is related to every other thing, so that if we knew +_all_ the associated ideas and facts concerning a thing, we would not +only know that particular thing _absolutely_, but would, besides, know +_everything_ in the universe. The chain of Association is infinite in +extent. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +GENERALIZATION + + +We have seen that Sensation is translated or interpreted into +Perception; and that from the Percepts so created we may "draw off," or +separate, various qualities, attributes and properties by the analytical +process we call Abstraction. Abstraction, we have seen, thus constitutes +the first step in the process of what is called Understanding. The +second step is called Generalization or Conception. + +Generalization, or Conception, is that faculty of the mind by which we +are able to combine and group together several particular ideas into one +general idea. Thus when we find a number of particular objects +possessing the same general qualities, attributes or properties, we +proceed to _classify_ them by the process of Generalization. For +instance, in a number of animals possessing certain general and common +qualities we form a concept of a class comprising those particular +animals. Thus in the concept of cow, we include _all cows_--we know +them to be cows because of their possession of certain general class +qualities which we include in our concept of _cow_. The particular cows +may vary greatly in size, color and general appearance, but they possess +the common general qualities which we group together in our general +concept of _cow_. Likewise by reason of certain common and general +qualities we include in our concept of "Man," _all men_, black, white, +brown, red or yellow, of all races and degrees of physical and mental +development. From this generic concept we may make race concepts, +dividing men into Indians, Caucasians, Malays, Negroes, Mongolians, etc. +These concepts in turn may be divided into sub-races. These +sub-divisions result from an analysis of the great concept. The great +concept is built up by synthesis from the individuals, through the +sub-divisions of minor concepts. Or, again, we may form a concept of +"Napoleon Bonaparte" from the various qualities and characteristics +which went to make up that celebrated man. + +The product of Generalization or Conception is called a _Concept_. A +Concept is expressed in a word, or words, called "A Term." A Concept is +more than a mere _word_--it is _a general idea_. And a Term is more than +a mere word--it is _the expression of a general idea_. + +A _Concept_ is built up from the processes of Perception, Abstraction, +Comparison and Generalization. We must first perceive; then analyze or +abstract qualities; then compare qualities; then synthesize or classify +according to the result of the comparison of qualities. By perceiving +and comparing the qualities of various individual things, we notice +their points of resemblance and difference--the points wherein they +agree or disagree--wherein they are alike or unlike. Eliminating by +abstraction the points in which they differ and are unlike; and, again +by abstraction, retaining in consideration the points in which they +resemble and are alike; we are able to group, arrange or classify these +"_alike things_" into _a class-idea_ large enough to embrace them all. +This class-idea is what is known as a General Idea or a Concept. This +Concept we give a general name, which is called a Term. In grammar our +particular ideas arising from Percepts are usually denoted by proper +nouns--our general ideas arising from Concepts are usually denoted by +common nouns. Thus "John Smith" (particular; proper noun) and "Man" +(general; common noun). Or "horse" (general; common), and "Dobbin" +(particular; proper). + +It will be seen readily that there must be lower and higher concepts. +Every class contains within itself lower classes. And every class is, +itself, but a lower class in a higher one. Thus the high concept of +"animal" may be analyzed into "mammal," which in turn is found to +contain "horse," which in turn may be sub-divided into special kinds of +horses. The concept "plant" may be sub-divided many times before the +concept "rose" is obtained, and the latter is capable of sub-division +into varieties and sub-varieties, until at last a particular flower is +reached. Jevons says: "We classify things together whenever we observe +that they are like each other in any respect and, therefore, think of +them together.... In classifying a collection of objects, we do not +merely put together into groups those which resemble each other, but we +also divide each class into smaller ones in which the resemblance is +more complete. Thus the class of _white substances_ may be divided into +those which are solid and those which are fluid, so that we get the two +minor classes of solid-white, and fluid-white substances. It is +desirable to have names by which to show that one class is contained in +another and, accordingly, we call the class which is divided into two or +more smaller ones, the _Genus_; and the smaller ones into which it is +divided, the _Species_." + +Every Genus is a Species of the class next higher than itself; and every +Species is a Genus of the classes lower than itself. Thus it would seem +that the extension in either direction would be infinite. But, for the +purposes of finite thought, the authorities teach that there must be a +Highest Genus, which cannot be the Species of a higher class, and which +is called the _Summum Genus_. The _Summum Genus_ is expressed by terms +such as the following: "Being;" "Existence;" "The Absolute;" +"Something;" "Thing;" "The Ultimate Reality," or some similar term +denoting the state of being _ultimate_. Likewise, at the lowest end of +the scale we find what are called the Lowest Species, or _Infima +Species_. The Infima Species are always _individuals_. Thus we have the +_individual_ at one end of the scale; and _The Absolute_ at the other. +Beyond these limits the mind of man cannot travel. + +There has been much confusion in making classifications and some +ingenious plans have been evolved for simplifying the process. That of +Jevons is perhaps the simplest, when understood. This authority says: +"All these difficulties are avoided in the _perfect logical method of +dividing each Genus into two Species, and not more than two, so that one +species possesses a particular quality, and the other does not_. Thus if +I divide dwelling-houses into those which are made of brick and those +which are not made of brick, I am perfectly safe and nobody can find +fault with me.... Suppose, for instance, that I divide dwelling-houses +as below: + + Dwelling-House + | + --+------+-------+-------+-------+-- + | | | | | + Brick Stone Earth Iron Wood + +"The evident objection will at once be made, that houses may be built of +other materials than those here specified. In Australia, houses are +sometimes made of the bark of gum-trees; the Esquimaux live in snow +houses; tents may be considered as canvas houses, and it is easy to +conceive of houses made of terra-cotta, paper, straw, etc. All logical +difficulties will, however, be avoided _if I never make more than two +species at each step_, in the following way:-- + + Dwelling-House + | + +----+----+ + | | + Brick Not-Brick + | + +----+----+ + | | + Stone Not-Stone + | + +----+----+ + | | + Wooden Not-Wooden + | + +----+----+ + | | + Iron Not-Iron + +"It is quite certain that I must in this division have left a place for +every possible kind of house; for if a house is not made of brick, nor +stone, nor wood, nor iron, it yet comes under the species at the right +hand, which is not-iron, not-wooden, not-stone, and not-brick.... This +manner of classifying things may seem to be inconvenient, but it is in +reality the only logical way." + +The student will see that the process of Classification is two-fold. The +first is by Analysis, in which the Genus is divided into Species by +reason of _differences_. The second is by Synthesis, in which +individuals are grouped into Species, and Species into the Genus, by +reason of _resemblances_. Moreover, in building up general classes, +which is known as Generalization, we must first _analyze_ the individual +in order to ascertain its _qualities, attributes and properties_, and +then _synthesize_ the individual with other individuals possessing like +qualities, properties or attributes. + +Brooks says of Generalization: "The mind now takes the materials that +have been furnished and fashioned by comparison and analysis and unites +them into one single mental product, giving us the general notion or +concept. The mind, as it were, brings together these several attributes +into a bunch or package and then ties a mental string around it, as we +would bunch a lot of roses or cigars.... Generalization is an +_ascending_ process. The broader concept is regarded as higher than the +narrower concept; a concept is considered as higher than percept; a +general idea stands above a particular idea. We thus go up from +particulars to generals; from percepts to concepts; from lower concepts +to higher concepts. Beginning down with particular objects, we rise from +them to the general idea of their class. Having formed a number of lower +classes, we compare them as we did individuals and generalize them into +higher classes. We perform the same process with these higher classes +and thus proceed until we are at last arrested in the highest class, +that of Being. Having reached the pinnacle of Generalization, we may +descend the ladder by reversing the process through which we ascend." + +A Concept, then, is seen to be a _general idea_. It is a general thought +that embraces _all the individuals_ of its own class and has in it all +that is common to its own class, while it resembles _no_ particular +individual of its class in _all_ respects. Thus, a concept of _animal_ +contains within itself the minor concepts of _all animals_ and the +animal-quality of all animals--yet it differs from the _percept_ of any +one particular animal and the minor concepts of minor classes of +animals. Consequently a concept or general idea cannot be _imaged_ or +mentally pictured. We may picture a percept of any particular thing, but +we cannot picture a general idea or concept because the latter does not +partake of the _particular_ qualities of any of its class, but embraces +all the general qualities of the class. Try to picture the general idea, +or concept, of Man. You will find that any attempt to do so will result +in the production of merely _a man_--some particular man. If you give +the picture dark hair, it will fail to include the light-haired men; if +you give it white skin, it will slight the darker-skinned races. If you +picture a stout man, the thin ones are neglected. And so on in every +feature. It is impossible to form a correct general class picture unless +we include every individual in it. The best we can do is to form a sort +of _composite_ image, which at the best is in the nature of a symbol +representative of the class--an ideal image to make easier the _idea_ of +the general class or term. + +From the above we may see the fundamental differences between a Percept +and a Concept. The Percept is the mental image of a real object--a +particular thing. The Concept is merely a _general idea_, or general +notion, of the common attributes of a class of objects or things. A +Percept arises directly from sense-impressions, while a Concept is, in a +sense, a pure thought--an abstract thing--a mental creation--an ideal. + +A Concrete Concept is a concept embodying the common qualities of a +class of objects, as for instance, the concrete concept of _lion_, in +which the general class qualities of all lions are embodied. An Abstract +Concept is a concept embodying merely some one quality generally +diffused, as for instance, the quality of _fierceness_ in the general +class of lions. _Rose_ is a concrete concept; _red_, or _redness_, is an +abstract concept. It will aid you in remembering this distinction to +memorize Jevons' rule: "_A Concrete Term is the name of a Thing_; _an +Abstract Term is the name of a Quality of a Thing_." + +A Concrete Concept, including all the particular individuals of a class, +must also contain all the common qualities of those individuals. Thus, +such a concept is composed of the ideas of the particular individuals +and of their common qualities, in combination and union. From this +arises the distinctive terms known as the _content_, _extension_ and +_intension_ of concepts, respectively. + +The _content_ of a concept is _all that it includes--its full meaning_. +The _extension_ of a concept depends upon its _quantity_ aspect--it is +its property of including numbers of individual objects within its +content. The _intension_ of a concept depends upon its _quality_ +aspect--it is its property of including class or common qualities, +properties or attributes within its content. + +Thus, the _extension_ of the concept _horse_ covers all individual +horses; while its _intension_ includes all qualities, attributes, and +properties common to all horses--class qualities possessed by all horses +in common, and which qualities, etc., make the particular animals +_horses_, as distinguished from other animals. + +It follows that the larger the number of particular objects in a class, +the smaller must be the number of general class qualities--qualities +common to all in the class. And, that the larger the number of common +class qualities, the smaller must be the number of individuals in the +class. As the logicians express it, "the greater the extension, the less +the intension; the greater the intension, the less the extension." Thus, +_animal_ is narrow in intension, but very broad in extension; for while +there are many animals there are but very few qualities common to _all_ +animals. And, _horse_ is narrower in extension, but broader in +intension; for while there are comparatively few horses, the qualities +common to all horses are greater. + +The cultivation of the faculty of Generalization, or Conception, of +course, depends largely upon _exercise_ and _material_, as does the +cultivation of every mental faculty, as we have seen. But there are +certain rules, methods and ideas which may be used to advantage in +developing this faculty in the direction of clear and capable work. This +faculty is developed by all of the general processes of thought, for it +forms an important part of all thought. But the logical processes known +as Analysis and Synthesis give to this faculty exercise and employment +particularly adapted to its development and cultivation. Let us briefly +consider these processes. + + * * * * * + +_Logical Analysis_ is the process by which we examine and unfold the +meaning of Terms. A Term, you remember, is the verbal expression of a +Concept. In such analysis we endeavor to unfold and discover the +_quality-aspect_ and the _quantity-aspect_ of the content of the +concept. We seek, thereby, to discover the particular general idea +expressed; the number of particular individuals included therein; and +the properties of the class or generalization. Analysis depends upon +division and separation. Development in the process of Logical Analysis +tends toward clearness, distinctness, and exactness in thought and +expression. Logical Analysis has two aspects or phases, as follows: (1) +_Division_, or the separation of a concept according to its _extension_, +as for instance the analysis of a genus into its various species; and +(2) _Partition_, or the separation of a concept into its component +qualities, properties and attributes, as for instance, the analysis of +the concept _iron_ into its several qualities of color, weight, +hardness, malleability, tenacity, utility, etc. + +There are certain rules of Division which should be observed, the +following being a simple statement of the same: + +I. _The division should be governed by a uniform principle._ For +instance it would be illogical to first divide men into Caucasians, +Mongolians, etc., and then further sub-divide them into Christians, +Pagans, etc., for the first division would be according to the principle +of race, and the second according to the principle of religion. +Observing the rule of the "uniform principle" we may divide men into +races, and sub-races, and so on, without regard to religion; and we may +likewise divide men according to their respective religions, and then +into minor denominations and sects, without regard to race or +nationality. The above rule is frequently violated by careless thinkers +and speakers. + +II. _The division should be complete and exhaustive._ For instance, the +analysis of a genus should extend to every known species of it, upon the +principle that _the genus is merely the sum of its several species_. A +textbook illustration of a violation of this rule is given in the case +of the concept _actions_, when divided into _good-actions_ and +_bad-actions_, but omitting the very important species of +_indifferent-actions_. Carelessness in observance of this rule leads to +fallacious reasoning and cloudy thinking. + +III. _The division should be in logical sequence._ It is illogical to +skip or pass over intermediate divisions, as for instance, when we +divide _animals_ into _horses_, _trout and swallows_, omitting the +intermediate division into _mammals_, _fish and birds_. The more perfect +the sequence, the clearer the analysis and the thought resulting +therefrom. + +IV. _The division should be exclusive._ That is, the various species +divided from a genus, should be reciprocally exclusive--should exclude +one another. Thus to divide _mankind_ into _male_, _men and women_, +would be illogical, because the class _male_ includes _men_. The +division should be either: "_male and female_;" or else: "men, women, +boys, girls." + +The exercise of Division along these lines, and according to these +rules, will tend to improve one's powers of conception and analysis. +Any class of objects--any general concept--may be used for practice. A +trial will show you the great powers of unfoldment contained within this +simple process. It tends to broaden and widen one's conception of almost +any class of objects. + +There are also several rules for Partition which should be observed, as +follows: + +I. _The partition should be complete and exhaustive._ That is, it should +unfold the full meaning of the term or concept, so far as is concerned +its several general qualities, properties and attributes. But this +applies only to the qualities, properties and attributes which are +_common_ to the class or concept, and not to the minor qualities which +belong solely to the various sub-divisions composing the class; nor to +the accidental or individual qualities belonging to the separate +individuals in any sub-class. The qualities should be _essential_ and +not _accidental_--general, not particular. A famous violation of this +rule was had in the case of the ancient Platonic definition of "Man" as: +"A two-legged animal without feathers," which Diogenes rendered absurd +by offering a plucked chicken as a "man" according to the definition. +Clearness in thought requires the recognition of the distinction between +the general qualities and the individual, particular or accidental +qualities. Red-hair is an accidental quality of a particular man and not +a general quality of the class _man_. + +II. _The partition should consider the qualities, properties and +attributes_, according to the classification of logical division. That +is, the various qualities, properties and attributes should be +considered in the form of genus and species, as in Division. In this +classification, the rules of Division apply. + +It will be seen that there is a close relationship existing between +Partition and Definition. Definition is really a statement of the +various qualities, attributes, and properties of a concept, either +stated in particular or else in concepts of other and larger classes. +There is perhaps no better exercise for the cultivation of clear thought +and conception than Definition. In order to define, one must exercise +his power of analysis to a considerable extent. Brooks says: "Exercises +in logical definition are valuable in unfolding our conception. Logical +definition, including both the genus and the specific difference, gives +clearness, definiteness and adequacy to our conceptions. It separates a +conception from all other conceptions by fixing upon and presenting the +essential and distinctive property or properties of the conception +defined. The value of exercises in logical definition is thus readily +apparent." + +If the student will select some familiar term and endeavor to define it +correctly, writing down the result, and will then compare the latter +with the definition given in some standard dictionary, he will see a new +light regarding logical definition. Practice in definition, conducted +along these lines, will cultivate the powers of analysis and conception +and will, at the same time, tend toward the acquiring of correct and +scientific methods of thought and clear expression. + +Hyslop gives the following excellent Rules of Logical Definition, which +should be followed by the student in his exercises: + +"I. A definition should state the essential attributes of the species +defined. + +"II. A definition must not contain the name or word defined. Otherwise +the definition is called _a circulus in definiendo_ (defining in a +circle). + +"III. The definition must be exactly equivalent to the species defined. + +"IV. A definition should not be expressed in obscure, figurative or +ambiguous language. + +"V. A definition must not be negative when it can be affirmative." + +_Logical Synthesis_ is the exact opposite of Logical Analysis. In the +latter we strive to separate and take apart; in the former we strive to +bind together and combine the particulars into the general. Beginning +with individual things and comparing them with each other according to +observed points of resemblance, we proceed to group them into species or +narrow classes. These classes, or species, we then combine with similar +ones, into a larger class or genus; and then, according to the same +process, into broader classes as we have shown in the first part of this +chapter. + +The process of Synthesis is calculated to develop and cultivate the mind +in several directions and exercises along these lines will give a new +habit and sense of orderly arrangement, which will be most useful to +the student in his every-day life. Halleck says: "Whenever a person is +comparing a specimen to see whether it may be put in the same class with +other specimens, he is _thinking_. Comparison is an absolutely essential +factor of thought, and classification demands comparison. The man who +has not properly classified the myriad individual objects with which he +has to deal, must advance like a cripple. He, only, can travel with +seven-league boots, who has thought out the relations existing between +these stray individuals and put them into their proper classes. In a +minute a business man may put his hand on any one of ten thousand +letters if they are properly classified. In the same way, the student of +history, sociology or any other branch, can, if he studies the subjects +aright, have all his knowledge classified and speedily available for +use.... In this way, we may make our knowledge of the world more +minutely exact. We cannot classify without seeing things under a new +aspect." + +The study of Natural History, in any or all of its branches, will do +much to cultivate the power of Classification. But one may practice +classification with the objects around him in his every-day life. +Arranging things mentally, into small classes, and these into larger, +one will soon be able to form a logical connection between particular +ideas and general ideas; particular objects and general classes. The +practice of classification gives to the mind a constructive turn--a +"building-up" tendency, which is most desirable in these days of +construction and development. Regarding some of the pitfalls of +classification, Jevons says: + +"In classifying things, we must take great care not to be misled by +outward resemblances. Things may seem to be very much like each other +which are not so. Whales, porpoises, seals and several other animals +live in the sea exactly like fish; they have a similar shape and are +usually classed among fish. People are said to go whale-fishing. Yet +these animals are not really fish at all, but are much more like dogs +and horses and other quadrupeds than they are like fish. They cannot +live entirely under water and breathe the air contained in the water +like fish, but they have to come up to the surface at intervals to take +breath. Similarly, we must not class bats with birds because they fly +about, although they have what would be called wings; these wings are +not like those of birds and in truth bats are much more like rats and +mice than they are like birds. Botanists used at one time to classify +plants according to their size, as trees, shrubs or herbs, but we now +know that a great tree is often more similar in its character to a tiny +herb than it is to other great trees. A daisy has little resemblance to +a great Scotch thistle; yet the botanist regards them as very similar. +The lofty growing bamboo is a kind of grass, and the sugarcane also +belongs to the same class with wheat and oats." + +Remember that analysis of a genus into its component species is +accomplished by a separation according to _differences_; and species are +built up by synthesis into a genus because of _resemblances_. The same +is true regarding individual and species, building up in accordance to +points of resemblance, while analysis or separation is according to +points of difference. + +The use of a good dictionary will be advantageous to the student in +developing the power of Generalization or Conception. Starting with a +species, he may build up to higher and still higher classes by +consulting the dictionary; likewise, starting with a large class, he may +work down to the several species composing it. An encyclopedia, of +course, is still better for the purpose in many cases. Remember that +Generalization is a prime requisite for clear, logical thinking. +Moreover, it is a great developer of Thought. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +JUDGMENT + + +We have seen that in the several mental processes which are grouped +together under the general head of Understanding, the stage or step of +Abstraction is first; following which is the second step or phase, +called Generalization or Conception. The third step or phase is that +which is called Judgment. In the exercise of the faculty of Judgment, we +determine the agreement or disagreement between two concepts, ideas, or +objects of thought, by comparing them one with another. From this +process of comparison arises the Judgment, which is expressed in the +shape of a logical Proposition. A certain form of Judgment must be used, +however, in the actual formation of a Concept, for we must first compare +qualities, and make a judgment thereon, in order to form a general idea. +In this place, however, we shall confine ourselves to the consideration +of the faculty of Judgment in the strictly logical usage of the term, +as previously stated. + +We have seen that the expression of a concept is called a Term, which is +the _name_ of the concept. In the same way when we compare two terms +(expressions of concepts) and pass Judgment thereon, the expression of +that Judgment is called a Proposition. In every Judgment and Proposition +there must be two Terms or Concepts, connected by a little word "is" or +"are," or some form of the verb "to be," in the present tense +indicative. This connecting word is called the Copula. For instance, we +may compare the two terms _horse_ and _animal_, as follows: "A horse is +an animal," the word _is_ being the Copula or symbol of the +_affirmative_ Judgment, which connects the two terms. In the same way we +may form a _negative_ Judgment as follows: "A horse is not a cow." In a +Proposition, _the term of which something is affirmed_ is called the +Subject; and _the term expressing that which is affirmed of the subject_ +is called the Predicate. + +Besides the distinction between affirmative Judgments, or Propositions, +there is a distinction arising from _quantity_, which separates them +into the respective classes of _particular_ and _universal_. Thus, +"_all_ horses are animals," is a _universal_ Judgment; while "_some_ +horses are black" is a particular Judgment. Thus all Judgments must be +either _affirmative_ or _negative_; and also either _particular_ or +_universal_. This gives us four possible classes of Judgments, as +follows, and illustrated symbolically: + + 1. Universal Affirmative, as "All A is B." + + 2. Universal Negative, as "No A is B." + + 3. Particular Affirmative, as "Some A is B." + + 4. Particular Negative, as "Some A is not B." + +The Term or Judgment is said to be "_distributed_" (that is, extended +universally) when it is used in its fullest sense, in which it is used +in the sense of "each and every" of its kind or class. Thus in the +proposition "Horses are animals" the meaning is that "_each and every_" +horse is an animal--in this case the _subject_ is "distributed" or made +universal. But the _predicate_ is _not_ "distributed" or made universal, +but remains particular or restricted and implies merely "some." For the +proposition does not mean that the class "_horses_" includes _all_ +animals. For we may say that: "_Some_ animals are _not_ horses." So you +see we have several instances in which the "distribution" varies, both +as regards the subject and also the predicate. The rule of logic +applying in this case is as follows: + + 1. In _universal_ propositions, the _subject_ is distributed. + + 2. In _particular_ propositions, the _subject_ is _not_ distributed. + + 3. In _negative_ propositions, the _predicate_ is distributed. + + 4. In _affirmative_ propositions, the _predicate_ is _not_ distributed. + +A little time devoted to the analysis and understanding of the above +rules will repay the student for his trouble, inasmuch as it will train +his mind in the direction of logical distinction and judgment. The +importance of these rules will appear later. + +Halleck says: "Judgment is the power revolutionizing the world. The +revolution is slow because nature's forces are so complex, so hard to be +reduced to their simplest forms, and so disguised and neutralized by +the presence of other forces. The progress of the next hundred years +will join many concepts, which now seem to have no common qualities. If +the vast amount of energy latent in the sunbeams, in the rays of the +stars, in the winds, in the rising and falling of the tides, is +treasured up and applied to human purposes, it will be a fresh triumph +for judgment. This world is rolling around in a universe of energy, of +which judgment has as yet harnessed only the smallest appreciable +fraction. Fortunately, judgment is ever working and silently comparing +things that, to past ages, have seemed dissimilar; and it is constantly +abstracting and leaving out of the field of view those qualities which +have simply served to obscure the point at issue." Brooks says: "The +power of judgment is of great value to its products. It is involved in +or accompanies every act of the intellect, and thus lies at the +foundation of all intellectual activity. It operates directly in every +act of the understanding; and even aids the other faculties of the mind +in completing their activities and products." + +The best method of cultivating the power of Judgment is the exercise of +the faculty in the direction of making comparisons, of weighing +differences and resemblances, and in generally training the mind along +the lines of Logical Thinking. Another volume of this series is devoted +to the latter subject, and should aid the student who wishes to +cultivate the habit of logical and scientific thought. The study of +mathematics is calculated to develop the faculty of Judgment, because it +necessitates the use of the powers of comparison and decision. Mental +arithmetic, especially, will tend to strengthen, and exercise this +faculty of the mind. + +Geometry and Logic will give the very best exercise along these lines to +those who care to devote the time, attention and work to the task. +Games, such as chess, and checkers or draughts, tend to develop the +powers of Judgment. The study of the definitions of words in a good +dictionary will also tend to give excellent exercise along the same +lines. The exercises given in this book for the cultivation and +development of the several faculties, will tend to develop this +particular faculty in a general way, for the exercise of Judgment is +required at each step of the way, and in each exercise. + +Brooks says: "It should be one of the leading objects of the culture of +young people to lead them to acquire the habit of forming judgments. +They should not only be led to see things, but to have opinions about +things. They should be trained to see things in their relations, and to +put these relations into definite propositions. Their ideas of objects +should be worked up into thoughts concerning the objects. Those methods +of teaching are best which tend to excite a thoughtful habit of mind +that notices the similitudes and diversities of objects, and endeavors +to read the thoughts which they embody and of which they are the +symbols." + +The exercises given at the close of the next chapter, entitled "Derived +Judgments," will give to the mind a decided trend in the direction of +logical judgment. We heartily recommend them to the student. + +The student will find that he will tend to acquire the habit of clear +logical comparison and judgment, if he will memorize and apply in his +thinking the following excellent _Primary Rules of Thought_, stated by +Jevons: + +"I. _Law of Identity_: The same quality or thing is _always_ the same +quality or thing, no matter how different the conditions in which it +occurs. + +"II. _Law of Contradiction_: Nothing can at the same time and place +_both_ be and not be. + +"III. _Law of Excluded Middle_: Everything must _either_ be, or not be; +there is no other alternative or middle course." + +Jevons says of these laws: "Students are seldom able to see at first +their full meaning and importance. All arguments may be explained when +these self-evident laws are granted; and it is not too much to say that +_the whole of logic will be plain to those who will constantly use these +laws as their key_." + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +DERIVED JUDGMENTS + + +As we have seen, a Judgment is obtained by comparing two objects of +thought according to their agreement or difference. The next higher +step, that of logical Reasoning, consists of the comparing of two ideas +through their relation to a third. This form of reasoning is called +_mediate_, because it is effected through the _medium_ of the third +idea. There is, however, a certain process of Understanding which comes +in between this mediate reasoning on the one hand, and the formation of +a plain judgment on the other. Some authorities treat it as a form of +_reasoning_, calling it _Immediate Reasoning_ or Immediate Inference, +while others treat it as a higher form of Judgment, calling it Derived +Judgment. We shall follow the latter classification, as best adapted for +the particular purposes of this book. + +The fundamental principle of Derived Judgment is that ordinary Judgments +are often so related to each other that one Judgment may be derived +directly and immediately from another. The two particular forms of the +general method of Derived Judgment are known as those of (1) Opposition; +and (2) Conversion; respectively. + +In order to more clearly understand the logical processes involved in +Derived Judgment, we should acquaint ourselves with the general +relations of Judgments, and with the symbolic letters used by logicians +as a means of simplifying the processes of thought. Logicians denote +each of the four classes of Judgments or Propositions by a certain +letter, the first four vowels--A, E, I and O, being used for the +purpose. It has been found very convenient to use these symbols in +denoting the various forms of Propositions and Judgments. The following +table should be memorized for this purpose: + + _Universal Affirmative_, symbolized by "A." + _Universal Negative_, symbolized by "E." + _Particular Affirmative_, symbolized by "I." + _Particular Negative_, symbolized by "O." + +It will be seen that these four forms of Judgments bear certain +relations to each other, from which arises what is called opposition. +This may be better understood by reference to the following table called +the Square of Opposition: + + A CONTRARIES E + +------------------------+ + |\ / | + | \ /S | + | C\ /E | + | O\ /I | + | N\ /R | + | T\ /O | + S| R\ /T |S + U| A\ /C |U + B| \ /I |B + A| \ /D |A + L| \ / |L + T| / \ |T + E| / D\ |E + R| / I\ |R + N| /A C\ |N + S| /R T\ |S + | /T O\ | + | /N R\ | + | /O I\ | + | /C E\ | + | / S\ | + |/ \ | + +------------------------+ + I SUB-CONTRARIES O + +Thus, A and E are _contraries_; I and O are _sub-contraries_; A and I, +and also E and O are _subalterns_; A and O, and also E and I are +_contradictories_. + +The following will give a symbolic table of each of the four Judgments +or Propositions with the logical symbols attached: + +(A) "All A is B." + +(E) "No A is B." + +(I) "Some A is B." + +(O) "Some A is not B." + +The following are the rules governing and expressing the relations above +indicated: + +I. Of the Contradictories: _One must be true, and the other must be +false_. As for instance, (A) "All A is B;" and (O) "Some A is not B;" +cannot both be true at the same time. Neither can (E) "No A is B;" and +(I) "Some A is B;" both be true at the same time. They are +_contradictory_ by nature,--and if one is true, the other must be false; +if one is false, the other must be true. + +II. Of the Contraries: _If one is true the other must be false; but, +both may be false_. As for instance, (A) "All A is B;" and (E) "No A is +B;" cannot both be true at the same time. If one is true the other +_must_ be false. _But_, both may be _false_, as we may see when we find +we may state that (I) "_Some_ A is B." So while these two propositions +are _contrary_, they are not _contradictory_. While, if one of them is +_true_ the other must be false, it does not follow that if one is +_false_ the other must be _true_, for both _may be false_, leaving the +truth to be found in a third proposition. + +III. Of the Subcontraries: _If one is false the other must be true; but +both may be true_. As for instance, (I) "Some A is B;" and (O) "Some A +is not B;" may both be true, for they do not contradict each other. But +one or the other must be true--they can not both be false. + +IV. Of the Subalterns: _If the Universal (A or E) be true the Particular +(I or O) must be true_. As for instance, if (A) "All A is B" is true, +then (I) "Some A is B" must also be true; also, if (E) "No A is B" is +true, then "Some A is not B" must also be true. The Universal carries +the particular within its truth and meaning. But; _If the Universal is +false, the particular may be true or it may be false_. As for instance +(A) "All A is B" may be false, and yet (I) "Some A is B" may be either +true or false, without being determined by the (A) proposition. And, +likewise, (E) "No A is B" may be false without determining the truth or +falsity of (O) "Some A is not B." + +But: _If the Particular be false, the Universal also must be false_. As +for instance, if (I) "Some A is B" is false, then it must follow that +(A) "All A is B" must also be false; or if (O) "Some A is not B" is +false, then (E) "No A is B" must also be false. But: _The Particular may +be true, without rendering the Universal true_. As for instance: (I) +"_Some_ A is B" may be true without making true (A) "_All_ A is B;" or +(O) "Some A is not B" may be true without making true (E) "No A is B." + +The above rules may be worked out not only with the symbols, as "All A +is B," but also with _any_ Judgments or Propositions, such as "All +horses are animals;" "All men are mortal;" "Some men are artists;" etc. +The principle involved is identical in each and every case. The "All A +is B" symbology is merely adopted for simplicity, and for the purpose of +rendering the logical process akin to that of mathematics. The letters +play the same part that the numerals or figures do in arithmetic or the +_a_, _b_, _c_; _x_, _y_, _z_, in algebra. Thinking in symbols tends +toward clearness of thought and reasoning. + +_Exercise_: Let the student apply the principles of Opposition by using +any of the above judgments mentioned in the preceding paragraph, in the +direction of erecting a Square of Opposition of them, after having +attached the symbolic letters A, E, I and O, to the appropriate forms of +the propositions. + +Then let him work out the following problems from the Tables and Square +given in this chapter. + +1. If "A" is true; show what follows for E, I and O. Also what follows +if "A" be _false_. + +2. If "E" is true; show what follows for A, I and O. Also what follows +if "E" be _false_. + +3. If "I" is true; show what follows for A, E and O. Also what follows +if "I" be _false_. + +4. If "O" is true; show what follows for A, E and I. Also what happens +if "O" be _false_. + + +CONVERSION OF JUDGMENTS + +Judgments are capable of the process of Conversion, or _the change of +place of subject and predicate_. Hyslop says: "Conversion is the +transposition of subject and predicate, or the process of immediate +inference by which we can infer from a given preposition another having +the predicate of the original for its subject, and the subject of the +original for its predicate." The process of converting a proposition +seems simple at first thought but a little consideration will show that +there are many difficulties in the way. For instance, while it is a true +judgment that "All _horses_ are _animals_," it is not a correct Derived +Judgment or Inference that "All _animals_ are _horses_." The same is +true of the possible conversion of the judgment "All biscuit is bread" +into that of "All bread is biscuit." There are certain rules to be +observed in Conversion, as we shall see in a moment. + +The Subject of a judgment is, of course, _the term of which something is +affirmed_; and the Predicate is _the term expressing that which is +affirmed of the Subject_. The Predicate is really an expression of an +_attribute_ of the Subject. Thus when we say "All horses are animals" we +express the idea that _all horses_ possess the _attribute_ of +"animality;" or when we say that "Some men are artists," we express the +idea that _some men_ possess the _attributes_ or qualities included in +the concept "artist." In Conversion, the original judgment is called the +Convertend; and the new form of judgment, resulting from the conversion, +is called the Converse. Remember these terms, please. + +The two Rules of Conversion, stated in simple form, are as follows: + +I. Do not change the quality of a judgment. The quality of the converse +must remain the same as that of the convertend. + +II. Do not distribute an undistributed term. No term must be distributed +in the converse which is not distributed in the convertend. + +The reason of these rules is that it would be contrary to truth and +logic to give to a converted judgment a higher degree of quality and +quantity than is found in the original judgment. To do so would be to +attempt to make "twice 2" more than "2 plus 2." + +There are three methods or kinds of Conversion, as follows: (1) Simple +Conversion; (2) Limited Conversion; and (3) Conversion by +Contraposition. + +_In Simple Conversion_, there is no change in either quality or +quantity. For instance, by Simple Conversion we may convert a +proposition by changing the places of its subject and predicate, +respectively. But as Jevons says: "It does not follow that the new one +will always be true if the old one was true. Sometimes this is the +case, and sometimes it is not. If I say, 'some churches are +wooden-buildings,' I may turn it around and get 'some wooden-buildings +are churches;' the meaning is exactly the same as before. This kind of +change is called Simple Conversion, because we need do nothing but +simply change the subjects and predicates in order to get a new +proposition. We see that the Particular Affirmative proposition can be +simply converted. Such is the case also with the Universal Negative +proposition. 'No large flowers are green things' may be converted simply +into 'no green things are large flowers.'" + +_In Limited Conversion_, the quantity is changed from Universal to +Particular. Of this, Jevons continues: "But it is a more troublesome +matter, however, to convert a Universal Affirmative proposition. The +statement that 'all jelly fish are animals,' is true; but, if we convert +it, getting 'all animals are jelly fish,' the result is absurd. This is +because the predicate of a universal proposition is really particular. +We do not mean that jelly fish are 'all' the animals which exist, but +only 'some' of the animals. The proposition ought really to be 'all +jelly fish are _some_ animals,' and if we converted this simply, we +should get, 'some animals are all jelly fish.' But we almost always +leave out the little adjectives _some_ and _all_ when they would occur +in the predicate, so that the proposition, when converted, becomes +'_some_ animals are jelly fish.' This kind of change is called Limited +Conversion, and we see that a Universal Affirmative proposition, when so +converted, gives a Particular Affirmative one." + +In Conversion by Contraposition, there is a change in the position of +the negative copula, which shifts the expression of the quality. As for +instance, in the Particular Negative "Some animals are not horses," we +cannot say "Some horses are not animals," for that would be a violation +of the rule that "no term must be distributed in the converse which is +not distributed in the convertend," for as we have seen in the preceding +chapter: "In Particular propositions the _subject_ is _not_ +distributed." And in the original proposition, or convertend, "animals" +is the _subject_ of a Particular proposition. Avoiding this, and +proceeding by Conversion by Contraposition, we convert the Convertend +(O) into a Particular Affirmative (I), saying: "Some animals are +not-horses;" or "Some animals are things not horses;" and then +proceeding by Simple Conversion we get the converse, "Some things not +horses are animals," or "Some not-horses are animals." + +The following gives the application of the appropriate form of +Conversion to each of the several four kind of Judgments or +Propositions: + +(A) _Universal Affirmative_: This form of proposition is converted by +Limited Conversion. The predicate not being distributed in the +convertend, it cannot be distributed in the converse, by saying "all." +("In affirmative propositions the _predicate_ is _not_ distributed.") +Thus by this form of Conversion, we convert "All horses are animals" +into "Some animals are horses." The Universal Affirmative (A) is +converted by limitation into a Particular Affirmative (I). + +(E) _Universal Negative_: This form of proposition is converted by +Simple Conversion. In a Universal Negative _both terms are distributed_. +("In universal propositions, the _subject_ is distributed;" "In +negative propositions, the _predicate_ is distributed.") So we may say +"No cows are horses," and then convert the proposition into "No horses +are cows." We simply convert one Universal Negative (E) into another +Universal Negative (E). + +(I) _Particular Affirmative_: This form of proposition is converted by +Simple Conversion. For _neither term is distributed_ in a Particular +Affirmative. ("In particular propositions, the _subject_ is _not_ +distributed. In affirmative propositions, the _predicate_ is _not_ +distributed.") And neither term being distributed in the convertend, it +must not be distributed in the converse. So from "Some horses are males" +we may by Simple Conversion derive "Some males are horses." We simply +convert one Particular Affirmative (I), into another Particular +Affirmative (I). + +(O) _Particular Negative_: This form of proposition is converted by +Contraposition or Negation. We have given examples and illustrations in +the paragraph describing Conversion by Contraposition. The Particular +Negative (I) is converted by contraposition into a Particular +Affirmative (I) which is then simply converted into another Particular +Affirmative (I). + +There are several minor processes or methods of deriving judgments from +each other, or of making immediate inferences, but the above will give +the student a very fair idea of the minor or more complete methods. + +_Exercise_: The following will give the student good practice and +exercise in the methods of Conversion. It affords a valuable mental +drill, and tends to develop the logical faculties, particularly that of +Judgment. The student should _convert_ the following propositions, +according to the rules and examples given in this chapter: + + 1. All men are reasoning beings. + 2. Some men are blacksmiths. + 3. No men are quadrupeds. + 4. Some birds are sparrows. + 5. Some horses are vicious. + 6. No brute is rational. + 7. Some men are not sane. + 8. All biscuit is bread. + 9. Some bread is biscuit. + 10. Not all bread is biscuit. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +REASONING + + +In the preceding chapters we have seen that in the group of mental +processes involved in the general process of Understanding, there are +several stages or steps, three of which we have considered in turn, +namely: (1) Abstraction; (2) Generalization or Conception; (3) Judgment. +The _fourth_ step, or stage, and the one which we are now about to +consider, is that called Reasoning. + +_Reasoning_ is that faculty of the mind whereby we compare two +Judgments, one with the other, and from which comparison we are enabled +to form a third judgment. It is a form of indirect or mediate +comparison, whereas, the ordinary Judgment is a form of immediate or +direct comparison. As, when we form a Judgment, we compare two concepts +and decide upon their agreement or difference; so in Reasoning we +compare two Judgments and from the comparison we draw or produce a new +Judgment. Thus, we may reason that the particular dog "Carlo" is an +animal, by the following process: + +(1) _All_ dogs are animals; (2) Carlo is a dog; therefore, (3) Carlo is +an animal. Or, in the same way, we may reason that a whale is not a +fish, as follows: + +(1) _All_ fish are cold-blooded animals; (2) A whale is _not_ a +cold-blooded animal; therefore, (3) A whale is _not_ a fish. + +In the above processes it will be seen that the third and final Judgment +is derived from a comparison of the first two Judgments. Brooks states +the process as follows: "Looking at the process more closely, it will be +seen that in inference in Reasoning involves a comparison of relations. +We infer the relation of two objects from their relation to a third +object. We must thus grasp in the mind two relations and from the +comparison of these two relations we infer a third relation. The two +relations from which we infer a third, are judgments; hence, Reasoning +may also be defined as the process of deriving one judgment from two +other judgments. We compare the two given judgments and from this +comparison derive the third judgment. This constitutes a single step in +Reasoning, and an argument so expressed is called a _Syllogism_." + +The _Syllogism_ consists of three propositions, the first two of which +express the grounds or basis of the argument and are called the +_premises_; the third expresses the inference derived from a comparison +of the other two and is called the _conclusion_. We shall not enter into +a technical consideration of the Syllogism in this book, as the subject +is considered in detail in the volume of this series devoted to the +subject of "Logic." Our concern here is to point out the natural process +and course of Reasoning, rather than to consider the technical features +of the process. + +Reasoning is divided into two general classes, known respectively as (1) +_Inductive Reasoning_; (2) _Deductive Reasoning_. + +_Inductive Reasoning_ is the process of arriving at a general truth, law +or principle from a consideration of many particular facts and truths. +Thus, if we find that a certain thing is true of a great number of +particular objects, we may infer that the same thing is true of _all_ +objects of this particular kind. In one of the examples given above, one +of the judgments was that "all fish are cold-blooded animals," which +general truth was arrived at by Inductive Reasoning based upon the +examination of a great number of fish, and from thence assuming that +_all_ fish are true to this general law of truth. + +_Deductive Reasoning_ is the reverse of Inductive Reasoning, and is a +process of arriving at a particular truth from the assumption of a +general truth. Thus, from the assumption that "all fish are cold-blooded +animals," we, by Deductive Reasoning, arrive at the conclusion that the +particular fish before us must be cold-blooded. + +Inductive Reasoning proceeds upon the basic principle that "_What is +true of the many is true of the whole_," while Deductive Reasoning +proceeds upon the basic principle that "_What is true of the whole is +true of its parts_." + +Regarding the principle of _Inductive Reasoning_, Halleck says: "Man has +to find out through his own experience, or that of others, the major +premises from which he argues or draws his conclusions. By induction, we +examine what seems to us a sufficient number of individual cases. We +then conclude that the rest of these cases, which we have not examined, +will obey the same general law. The judgment 'All men are mortal' was +reached by induction. It was observed that all past generations of men +had died, and this fact warranted the conclusion that all men living +will die. We make that assertion as boldly as if we had seen them all +die. The premise, 'All cows chew the cud,' was laid down after a certain +number of cows had been examined. If we were to see a cow twenty years +hence, we should expect to find that she chewed the cud. It was noticed +by astronomers that, after a certain number of days, the earth regularly +returned to the same position in its orbit, the sun rose in the same +place, and the day was of the same length. Hence, the length of the year +and of each succeeding day was determined, and the almanac maker now +infers that the same will be true of future years. He tells us that the +sun on the first of next December will rise at a given time, although he +cannot throw himself into the future to verify the conclusion." + +Brooks says regarding this principle: "This proposition is founded on +our faith in the uniformity of nature; take away this belief, and all +reasoning by induction fails. The basis of induction is thus often +stated to be _man's faith in the uniformity of nature_. Induction has +been compared to a ladder upon which we ascend from facts to laws. This +ladder cannot stand unless it has something to rest upon; and this +something is our faith in the constancy of nature's laws." + +There are two general ways of obtaining our basis for the process of +Inductive Reasoning. One of these is called Perfect Induction and the +other Imperfect Induction. Perfect Induction is possible only when we +have had the opportunity of examining every particular object or thing +of which the general idea is expressed. For instance, if we could +examine every fish in the universe we would have the basis of Perfect +Induction for asserting the general truth that "all fishes are +cold-blooded." But this is practically impossible in the great majority +of cases, and so we must fall back upon more or less Imperfect +Induction. We must assume the general law from the fact that it is seen +to exist in a very great number of particular cases; upon the principle +that "What is true of the many is true of the whole." As Halleck says +regarding this: "Whenever we make a statement such as, 'All men are +mortal,' without having tested each individual case or, in other words, +without having seen every man die, we are reasoning from _imperfect_ +induction. Every time a man buys a piece of beef, a bushel of potatoes +or a loaf of bread, he is basing his action on inference from imperfect +induction. He believes that beef, potatoes and bread will prove +nutritious food, although he has not actually tested those special +edibles before purchasing them. They have hitherto been found to be +nutritious on trial and he argues that the same will prove true of those +special instances. Whenever a man takes stock in a new national bank, a +manufactory or a bridge, he is arguing from past cases that this special +investment will prove profitable. We instinctively believe in the +uniformity of nature; if we did not we should not consult our almanacs. +If sufficient heat will cause phosphorus to burn today, we conclude that +the same result will follow tomorrow if the circumstances are the +same." + +But, it will be seen, much care must be exercised in making +observations, experiments and comparisons, and in making +generalizations. The following general principles will give the views of +the authorities regarding this: + +Atwater gives the two general rules: + +_Rule of Agreement_: "If, whenever a given object or agency is present, +without counteracting forces, a given effect is produced, there is a +strong evidence that the object or agency is the cause of the effect." + +_Rule of Disagreement_: "If when the supposed cause is present the +effect is present, and when the supposed cause is absent the effect is +wanting, there being in neither case any other agents present to effect +the result, we may reasonably infer that the supposed cause is the real +one." + +_Rule of Residue_: "When in any phenomena we find a result remaining +after the effects of all known causes are estimated, we may attribute it +to a residual agent not yet reckoned." + +_Rule of Concomitant Variations_: "When a variation in a given +antecedent is accompanied by a variation of a given consequent, they +are in some manner related as cause and effect." + +Atwater says, of the above rules, that "whenever either of these +criteria is found, free from conflicting evidence, and especially when +several of them concur, the evidence is clear that the cases observed +are fair representatives of the whole class, and warrant a valid +universal inductive conclusion." + +We now come to what is known as Hypothesis or Theory, which is an +assumed general principle--a conjecture or supposition founded upon +observed and tested facts. Some authorities use the term "theory" in the +sense of "a verified hypothesis," but the two terms are employed loosely +and the usage varies with different authorities. What is known as "the +probability of a hypothesis" is the proportion of the number of facts it +will explain. The greater the number of facts it will explain, the +greater is its "probability." A Hypothesis is said to be "verified" when +it will account for all the facts which are properly to be referred to +it. Some very critical authorities hold that verification should also +depend upon there being no other possible hypotheses which will account +for the facts, but this is generally considered an extreme position. + +A Hypothesis is the result of a peculiar mental process which seems to +act in the direction of making a sudden anticipatory leap toward a +theory, after the mind has been saturated with a great body of +particular facts. Some have spoken of the process as almost _intuitive_ +and, indeed, the testimony of many discoverers of great natural laws +would lead us to believe that the Subconscious region of the mind is +most active in making what La Place has called "the great guess" of +discovery of principle. As Brooks says: "The forming of hypotheses +requires a suggestive mind, a lively fancy, a philosophic imagination, +that catches a glimpse of the idea through the form, or sees the law +standing behind the fact." + +Thomson says: "The system of anatomy which has immortalized the name of +Oken, is the consequence of a flash of anticipation which glanced +through his mind when he picked up in a chance walk the skull of a deer, +bleached and disintegrated by the weather, and exclaimed, after a +glance, 'It is part of a vertebral column.' When Newton saw the apple +fall, the anticipatory question flashed through his mind, 'Why do not +the heavenly bodies fall like this apple?' In neither case had accident +any important share; Newton and Oken were prepared by the deepest +previous study to seize upon the unimportant fact offered to them, and +show how important it might become; and if the apple and the deer-skull +had been wanting, some other falling body, or some other skull, would +have touched the string so ready to vibrate. But in each case there was +a great step of anticipation; Oken thought he saw the type of the whole +skeleton in a single vertebra, whilst Newton conceived at once that the +whole universe was full of bodies tending to fall." + +Passing from the consideration of Inductive Reasoning to that of +Deductive Reasoning we find ourselves confronted with an entirely +opposite condition. As Brooks says: "The two methods of reasoning are +the reverse of each other. One goes from particulars to generals; the +other from generals to particulars. One is a process of analysis; the +other is a process of synthesis. One rises from facts to laws; the +other descends from laws to facts. Each is independent of the other; and +each is a valid and essential method of inference." + +_Deductive Reasoning_ is, as we have seen, dependent upon the process of +deriving a particular truth from a general law, principle or truth, upon +the fundamental axiom that: "What is true of the whole is true of its +parts." It is an analytical process, just as Inductive Reasoning is +synthetical. It is a descending process, just as Inductive Reasoning is +ascending. + +Halleck says of Deductive Reasoning: "After induction has classified +certain phenomena and thus given us a major premise, we proceed +deductively to apply the inference to any new specimen that can be shown +to belong to that class. Induction hands over to deduction a ready-made +major premise, _e.g._ '_All scorpions are dangerous_.' Deduction takes +this as a fact, making no inquiry about its truth. When a new object is +presented, say a possible scorpion, the only troublesome step is to +decide whether the object is really a scorpion. This may be a severe +task on judgment. The average inhabitant of the temperate zone would +probably not care to risk a hundred dollars on his ability to +distinguish a scorpion from a centipede, or from twenty or thirty other +creatures bearing some resemblance to a scorpion. Here there must be +accurately formed concepts and sound judgment must be used in comparing +them. As soon as we decide that the object is really a scorpion, we +complete the deduction in this way:--'_All scorpions are dangerous_; +_this creature is a scorpion_; _this creature is dangerous_.' The +reasoning of early life must be necessarily inductive. The mind is then +forming general conclusions from the examination of individual +phenomena. Only after general laws have been laid down, after objects +have been classified, after major premises have been formed, can +deduction be employed." + +What is called _Reasoning by Analogy_ is really but a higher degree of +Generalization. It is based upon the idea that if two or more things +resemble each other in many particulars, they are apt to resemble each +other in other particulars. Some have expressed the principle as +follows: "Things that have some things in common have other things in +common." Or as Jevons states it: "The rule for reasoning by analogy is +that if two or more things resemble each other in many points, they will +probably resemble each other also in more points." + +This form of reasoning, while quite common and quite convenient, is also +very dangerous. It affords many opportunities for making false +inferences. As Jevons says: "In many cases Reasoning by Analogy is found +to be a very uncertain guide. In some cases unfortunate mistakes are +committed. Children are sometimes killed by gathering and eating +poisonous berries, wrongly inferring that they can be eaten, because +other berries, of a somewhat similar appearance, have been found +agreeable and harmless. Poisonous toadstools are occasionally mistaken +for mushrooms, especially by people not accustomed to gather them.... +There is no way in which we can really assure ourselves that we are +arguing safely by analogy. The only rule that can be given is this, +_that the more things resemble each other, the more likely is it that +they are the same in other respects, especially in points closely +connected with those observed_." + +Halleck says: "In argument or reasoning we are much aided by the habit +of searching for hidden resemblances. We may here use the term _analogy_ +in the narrower sense as a resemblance of ratios. There is analogical +relation between autumnal frosts and vegetation on the one hand, and +death and human life on the other. Frosts stand in the same relation to +vegetation that death does to life. The detection of such a relation +cultivates thought. If we are to succeed in argument, we must develop +what some call a sixth sense for the detection of such relations.... +Many false analogies are manufactured and it is excellent thought +training to expose them. The majority of people think so little that +they swallow false analogies just as newly-fledged robins swallow small +stones dropped into their open mouths.... The study of poetry may be +made very serviceable in detecting analogies and cultivating the +reasoning powers. When the poet brings clearly to mind the change due to +death, using as an illustration the caterpillar body transformed into +the butterfly spirit, moving with winged ease over flowing meadows, he +is cultivating our apprehension of relations, none the less valuable +because they are beautiful." + +There are certain studies which tend to develop the power or faculty of +_Inductive Reasoning_. Any study which leads the mind to consider +classification and general principles, laws or truth, will tend to +develop the faculty of deduction. Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, Biology +and Natural History are particularly adapted to develop the mind in this +particular direction. Moreover, the mind should be directed to an +inquiry into the _causes_ of _things_. Facts and phenomena should be +observed and an attempt should be made not only to classify them, but +also to discover general principles moving them. Tentative or +provisional hypotheses should be erected and then the facts re-examined +in order to see whether they support the hypotheses or theory. Study of +the processes whereby the great scientific theories were erected, and +the proofs then adduced in support of them, will give the mind the habit +of thinking along the lines of logical induction. The question ever in +the mind in Inductive Reasoning is "_Why?_" The dominant idea in +Inductive Reasoning is the Search for Causes. + + * * * * * + +In regard to the pitfalls of Inductive Reasoning--the fallacies, +so-called, Hyslop says: "It is not easy to indicate the inductive +fallacies, if it be even possible, in the formal process of +induction.... It is certain, however, that in respect to the +subject-matter of the conclusion in inductive reasoning there are some +very definite limitations upon the right to transcend the premises. We +cannot infer anything we please from any premises we please. We must +conform to certain definite rules or principles. Any violation of them +will be a fallacy. These rules are the same as those for material +fallacies in deduction, so that the fallacies of induction, whether they +are ever formal or not, are at least material; that is they occur +whenever equivocation and presumption are committed. There are, then, +two simple rules which should not be violated. (1) The subject-matter in +the conclusion should be of the same general kind as in the premises. +(2) The facts constituting the premises must be accepted and must not +be fictitious." + +One may develop his faculty or power of _Deductive Reasoning_ by +pursuing certain lines of study. The study of Mathematics, particularly +in its branch of Mental Arithmetic is especially valuable in this +direction. Algebra and Geometry have long been known to exercise an +influence over the mind which gives to it a logical trend and cast. The +processes involved in Geometry are akin to those employed in Logical +reasoning, and must necessarily train the mind in this special +direction. As Brooks says: "So valuable is geometry as a discipline that +many lawyers and others review their geometry every year in order to +keep the mind drilled to logical habits of thinking." The study of +Grammar, Rhetoric and the Languages, are also valuable in the culture +and development of the faculty of Deductive Reasoning. The study of +Psychology and Philosophy have value in this connection. The study of +Law is very valuable in creating logical habits of thinking deductively. + +But in the study of Logic we have possibly the best exercise in the +development and culture of this particular faculty. As Brooks well +says: "The study of Logic will aid in the development of the power of +deductive reasoning. It does this first by showing the method by which +we reason. To know how we reason, to see the laws which govern the +reasoning process, to analyze the syllogism and see its conformity to +the laws of thought, is not only an exercise of reasoning, but gives +that knowledge of the process that will be both a stimulus and a guide +to thought. No one can trace the principles and processes of thought +without receiving thereby an impetus to thought. In the second place, +the study of logic is probably even more valuable because it gives +practice in deductive thinking. This, perhaps, is its principal value, +since _the mind reasons instinctively without knowing how it reasons_. +One can think without the knowledge of the science of thinking, just as +one can use language correctly without a knowledge of grammar; yet as +the study of grammar improves one's speech, so the study of logic cannot +but improve one's thought." + +The study of the common _fallacies_, such as "Begging the Question," +"Reasoning in a Circle," etc., is particularly important to the +student, for when one realizes that such fallacies exist, and is able to +detect and recognize them, he will avoid their use in framing his own +arguments, and will be able to expose them when they appear in the +arguments of others. + +The fallacy of "Begging the Question" consists in assuming as a proven +fact something that has not been proven, or is not accepted as proven by +the other party to the argument. It is a common trick in debate. The +fact assumed may be either the particular point to be proved, or the +premise necessary to prove it. Hyslop gives the following illustration +of this fallacy: "_Good institutions should be united_; Church and State +are good institutions; therefore, Church and State should be united." +The above syllogism seems reasonable at first thought, but analysis will +show that the major premise "Good institutions should be united" is a +mere assumption without proof. Destroy this premise and the whole +reasoning fails. + +Another form of fallacy, quite common, is that called "Reasoning in a +Circle," which consists in assuming as proof of a proposition the +proposition itself, as for instance, "This man is a rascal, _because he +is a rogue_; he is a rogue, _because he is a rascal_." "We see through +glass, _because it is transparent_." "The child is dumb, _because it has +lost the power of speech_." "He is untruthful, _because he is a liar_." +"The weather is warm, _because it is summer_; it is summer, _because the +weather is warm_." + +These and other fallacies may be detected by a knowledge of Logic, and +the perception and detection of them strengthens one in his faculty of +Deductive Reasoning. The study of the Laws of the Syllogism, in Logic, +will give to one a certain habitual sense of stating the terms of his +argument according to these laws, which when acquired will be a long +step in the direction of logical thinking, and the culture of the +faculties of deductive reasoning. + +In concluding this chapter, we wish to call your attention to a fact +often overlooked by the majority of people. Halleck well expresses it as +follows: "Belief is a mental state which might as well be classed under +_emotion_ as under thinking, for it combines both elements. Belief is a +part inference from the known to the unknown, and part feeling and +emotion." Others have gone so far as to say that the majority of people +employ their intellects merely to _prove_ to themselves and others that +which they _feel to be true_, or _wish to be true_, rather than to +ascertain what is _actually true_ by logical methods. Others have said +that "men do not require _arguments_ to convince them; they want only +_excuses_ to justify them in their feelings, desires or actions." +Cynical though this may seem, there is sufficient truth in it to warn +one to guard against the tendency. + +Jevons says, regarding the question of the culture of logical processes +of thought: "Monsieur Jourdain, an amusing person in one of Moliere's +plays, expressed much surprise on learning that he had been talking +prose for more than forty years without knowing it. Ninety-nine people +out of a hundred might be equally surprised on hearing that they had +long been converting propositions, syllogizing, falling into +paralogisms, framing hypotheses and making classifications with genera +and species. If asked if they were logicians, they would probably +answer, No. They would be partly right; for I believe that a large +number even of educated persons have no clear idea of what logic is. +Yet, in a certain way, every one must have been a logician since he +began to speak. It may be asked:--If we cannot help being logicians, why +do we need logic books at all? The answer is that there are logicians, +and _logicians_. All persons are logicians in some manner or degree; but +unfortunately many people are bad ones and suffer harm in consequence. +It is just the same in other matters. Even if we do not know the meaning +of the name, we are all _athletes_ in some manner or degree. No one can +climb a tree or get over a gate without being more or less an athlete. +Nevertheless, he who wishes to do these actions really well, to have a +strong muscular frame and thereby to secure good health and personal +safety, as far as possible, should learn athletic exercises." + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +CONSTRUCTIVE IMAGINATION + + +From the standpoint of the old psychology, a chapter bearing the above +title would be considered quite out of place in a book on +Thought-Culture, the Imagination being considered as outside the realm +of practical psychology, and as belonging entirely to the idealistic +phase of mental activities. The popular idea concerning the Imagination +also is opposed to the "practical" side of its use. In the public mind +the Imagination is regarded as something connected with idle dreaming +and fanciful mental imaging. Imagination is considered as almost +synonomous with "Fancy." + +But the New Psychology sees beyond this negative phase of the +Imagination and recognizes the positive side which is essentially +constructive when backed up with a determined will. It recognizes that +while the Imagination is by its very nature _idealistic_, yet these +ideals may be made real--these subjective pictures may be materialized +objectively. The positive phase of the Imagination manifests in +planning, designing, projecting, mapping out, and in general in erecting +the mental framework which is afterward clothed with the material +structure of actual accomplishment. And, accordingly, it has seemed to +us that a chapter on "Constructive Imagination" might well conclude this +book on Thought-Culture. + +Halleck says: "It was once thought that the imagination should be +repressed, not cultivated, that it was in the human mind like weeds in a +garden.... In this age there is no mental power that stands more in need +of cultivation than the imagination. So practical are its results that a +man without it cannot possibly be a good plumber. He must image short +cuts for placing his pipe. The image of the direction to take to elude +an obstacle must precede the actual laying of the pipe. If he fixes it +before traversing the way with his imagination, he frequently gets into +trouble and has to tear down his work. Some one has said that the more +imagination a blacksmith has, the better will he shoe a horse. Every +time he strikes the red-hot iron, he makes it approximate to the image +in his mind. Nor is this image a literal copy of the horse's foot. If +there is a depression in that, the imagination must build out a +corresponding elevation in the image, and the blows must make the iron +fit the image." + +Brodie says: "Physical investigation, more than anything else, helps to +teach us the actual value and right use of the imagination--of that +wondrous faculty, which, when left to ramble uncontrolled, leads us +astray into a wilderness of perplexities and errors, a land of mists and +shadows; but which, properly controlled by experience and reflection, +becomes the noblest attribute of man, the source of poetic genius, the +instrument of discovery in science, without the aid of which Newton +would never have invented fluxions nor Davy have decomposed the earths +and alkalies, nor would Columbus have found another continent." + +The Imagination is more than Memory, for the latter merely reproduces +the impressions made upon it, while the Imagination gathers up the +material of impression and weaves new fabrics from them or builds new +structures from their separated units. As Tyndall well said: +"Philosophers may be right in affirming that we cannot transcend +experience; but we can at all events carry it a long way from its +origin. We can also magnify, diminish, qualify and combine experiences, +so as to render them fit for purposes entirely new. We are gifted with +the power of imagination and by this power we can lighten the darkness +which surrounds the world of the senses. There are tories, even in +science, who regard imagination as a faculty to be feared and avoided +rather than employed. But bounded and conditioned by cooperant reason, +imagination becomes the mightiest instrument of the physical discoverer. +Newton's passage from a falling apple to a falling moon was, at the +outset, a leap of the imagination." + +Brooks says: "The imagination is a creative as well as a combining +power.... The Imagination can combine objects of sense into new forms, +but it can do more than this. The objects of sense are, in most cases, +merely the materials with which it works. The imagination is a plastic +power, moulding the things of sense into new forms to express its +ideals; and it is these ideals that constitute the real products of the +imagination. The objects of the material world are to it like clay in +the hands of the potter; it shapes them into forms according to its own +ideals of grace and beauty.... He, who sees no more than a mere +combination in these creations of the imagination, misses the essential +element and elevates into significance that which is merely incidental." + +Imagination, in some degree or phase, must come before voluntary +physical action and conscious material creation. Everything that has +been created by the hand of man has first been created in the _mind_ of +man by the exercise of the Imagination. Everything that man has wrought +has first existed in his mind as an _ideal_, before his hands, or the +hands of others, wrought it into material _reality_. As Maudsley says: +"It is certain that in order to execute consciously a voluntary act we +must have in the mind a conception of the aim and purpose of the act." +Kay says: "It is as serving to guide and direct our various activities +that mental images derive their chief value and importance. In anything +that we purpose or intend to do, we must first of all have an idea or +image of it in the mind, and the more clear and correct the image, the +more accurately and efficiently will the purpose be carried out. We +cannot exert an act of volition without having in the mind an idea or +image of what we will to effect." + +Upon the importance of a scientific use of the Imagination in every-day +life, the best authorities agree. Maudsley says: "We cannot do an act +voluntarily unless we know what we are going to do, and we cannot know +exactly what we are going to do until we have taught ourselves to do +it." Bain says: "By aiming at a new construction, we must clearly +conceive what is aimed at. Where we have a very distinct and +intelligible model before us, we are in a fair way to succeed; in +proportion as the ideal is dim and wavering we stagger and miscarry." +Kay says: "A clear and accurate idea of what we wish to do, and how it +is to be effected, is of the utmost value and importance in all the +affairs of life. A man's conduct naturally shapes itself according to +the ideas in his mind, and nothing contributes more to his success in +life than having a high ideal and keeping it constantly in view. Where +such is the case one can hardly fail in attaining it. Numerous +unexpected circumstances will be found to conspire to bring it about, +and even what seemed at first hostile may be converted into means for +its furtherance; while by having it constantly before the mind he will +be ever ready to take advantage of any favoring circumstances that may +present themselves." + +Simpson says: "A passionate desire and an unwearied will can perform +impossibilities, or what seem to be such, to the cold and feeble." +Lytton says: "Dream, O youth, dream manfully and nobly, and thy dreams +shall be prophets." Foster says: "It is wonderful how even the +casualities of life seem to bow to a spirit that will not bow to them, +and yield to subserve a design which they may, in their first apparent +tendency, threaten to frustrate. When a firm decisive spirit is +recognized it is curious to see how space clears around a man and leaves +him room and freedom." Tanner says: "To believe firmly is almost +tantamount in the end to accomplishment." Maudsley says: "Aspirations +are often prophecies, the harbingers of what a man shall be in a +condition to perform." Macaulay says: "It is related of Warren Hastings +that when only seven years old there arose in his mind a scheme which +through all the turns of his eventful life was never abandoned." Kay +says: "When one is engaged in seeking for a thing, if he keep the image +of it clearly before the mind, he will be very likely to find it, and +that too, probably, where it would otherwise have escaped his notice." +Burroughs says: "No one ever found the walking fern who did not have the +walking fern in his mind. A person whose eye is full of Indian relics +picks them up in every field he walks through. They are quickly +recognized because the eye has been commissioned to find them." + +Constructive Imagination differs from the phases of the faculty of +Imagination which are akin to "Fancy," in a number of ways, the chief +points of difference being as follows: + +The Constructive Imagination is always exercised in the pursuance of _a +definite intent and purpose_. The person so using the faculty starts out +with the idea of accomplishing certain purposes, and with the direct +intent of thinking and planning in that particular direction. The +fanciful phase of the Imagination, on the contrary, starts with no +definite intent or purpose, but proceeds along the line of mere idle +phantasy or day-dreaming. + +The Constructive Imagination _selects its material_. The person using +the faculty in this manner abstracts from his general stock of mental +images and impressions those particular materials which fit in with his +general intent and purpose. Instead of allowing his imagination to +wander around the entire field of memory, or representation, he +deliberately and voluntarily selects and sets apart only such objects as +seem to be conducive to his general design or plan, and which are +logically associated with the same. + +The Constructive Imagination operates upon the lines of _logical +thought_. One so using the faculty subjects his mental images, or ideas, +to his _thinking faculties_, and proceeds with his imaginative +constructive work along the lines of Logical Thought. He goes through +the processes of Abstraction, Generalization or Conception, Judgment and +the higher phases of Reasoning, in connection with his general work of +Constructive Imagination. Instead of having the objects of thought +before him in material form, he has them represented to his mind _in +ideal form_, and he works upon his material in that shape. + +The Constructive Imagination is _voluntary_--under the control and +direction of the will. Instead of being in the nature of a dream +depending not upon the will or reason, it is directly controlled not +only by reason but also by the will. + +The Constructive Imagination, like every other faculty of the mind, may +be developed and cultivated by Use and Nourishment. It must be exercised +in order to develop its mental muscle; and it must be supplied with +nourishment upon which it may grow. Drawing, Composing, Designing and +Planning along any line is calculated to give to this faculty the +exercise that it requires. The reading of the right kind of literature +is also likely to lead the faculty into activity by inspiring it with +ideals and inciting it by example. + +The mind should be supplied with the proper material for the exercise of +this faculty. As Halleck says: "Since the imagination has not the +miraculous power necessary to create something out of nothing, the +first essential thing is to get the proper perceptional material in +proper quantity. If a child has enough blocks, he can build a castle or +a palace. Give him but three blocks, and his power of combination is +painfully limited. Some persons wonder why their imaginative power is no +greater, when they have only a few accurate ideas." It thus follows that +the active use of the Perceptive faculties will result in storing away a +quantity of material, which, when represented or reproduced by the +Memory, will give to the Constructive Imagination the material it +requires with which to build. The greater the general knowledge of the +person, the greater will be his store of material for this use. This +knowledge need not necessarily be acquired at first hand from personal +observation, but may also be in the nature of information acquired from +the experience of others and known through their conversation, writings, +etc. + +The necessity of forming clear concepts is very apparent when we come to +exercise the Constructive Imaginative. Unless we have clear-cut ideas of +the various things concerned with the subject before us, we cannot focus +the imagination clearly upon its task. The general ideas should be +clearly understood and the classification should be intelligent. +Particular things should be clearly seen in "the mind's eye;" that is, +the power of visualization or forming mental images should be cultivated +in this connection. One may improve this particular faculty by either +writing a description of scenes or particular things we have seen, or +else by verbally describing them to others. As Halleck says: "An attempt +at a clear-cut oral description of something to another person will +often impress ourselves and him with the fact that our mental images are +hazy, and that the first step toward better description consists in +improving them." + +Tyndall has aptly stated the importance of visualizing one's ideas and +particular concepts, as follows: "How, for example, are we to lay hold +of the physical basis of light since, like that of life itself, it lies +entirely without the domain of the senses?... Bring your imaginations +once more into play and figure a series of sound-waves passing through +air. Follow them up to their origin, and what do you there find? A +definite, tangible, vibrating body. It may be the vocal chords of a +human being, it may be an organ-pipe, or it may be a stretched string. +Follow in the same manner a train of ether waves to their source, +remembering at the same time that your ether is matter, dense, elastic +and capable of motions subject to and determined by mechanical laws. +What then do you expect to find as the source of a series of ether +waves? Ask your imagination if it will accept a vibrating multiple +proportion--a numerical ratio in a state of oscillation? I do not think +it will. You cannot crown the edifice by this abstraction. The +scientific imagination which is here authoritative, demands as the +origin and cause of a series of ether waves a particle of vibrating +matter quite as definite, though it may be excessively minute, as that +which gives origin to a musical sound. Such a particle we name an atom +or a molecule. I think the seeking intellect, when focused so as to give +definition without penumbral haze, is sure to realize this image at the +last." + +By repeatedly exercising the faculty of Imagination upon a particular +idea, we add power and clearness to that idea. This is but another +example of the familiar psychological principle expressed by Carpenter +as follows: "The continued concentration of attention upon a certain +idea gives it a dominant power." Kay says: "Clearness and accuracy of +image is only to be obtained by repeatedly having it in the mind, or by +repeated action of the faculty. Each repeated act of any of the +faculties renders the mental image of it more clear and accurate than +the preceding, and in proportion to the clearness and accuracy of the +image will the act itself be performed easily, readily, skillfully. The +course to be pursued, the point to be gained, the amount of effort to be +put forth, become more and more clear to the mind. It is only from what +we have done that we are able to judge what we can do, and understand +how it is to be effected. When our ideas or conceptions of what we can +do are not based on experience, they become fruitful sources of error." + +Galton says: "There is no doubt as to the utility of the visualizing +faculty where it is duly subordinated to the higher intellectual +operations. A visual image is the most perfect form of mental +representation wherever the shape, position and relation of objects in +space are concerned. It is of importance in every handicraft and +profession where design is required. The best workmen are those who +visualize the whole of what they propose to do before they take a tool +in their hands." + +Kay says: "If we bear in mind that every sensation or idea must form an +image in the mind before it can be perceived or understood, and that +every act of volition is preceded by its image, it will be seen that +images play an important part in all our mental operations. According to +the nature of the ideas or images which he entertains will be the +character and conduct of the man. The man tenacious of purpose is the +man who holds tenaciously certain ideas; the flighty man is he who +cannot keep one idea before him for any length of time, but constantly +flits from one to another; the insane man is he who entertains insane +ideas often, it may be, on only one or two subjects. We may distinguish +two great classes of individuals according to the prevailing character +of their images. There are those in whose mind sensory images +predominate, and those whose images are chiefly such as tend to action. +Those of the former class are observant, often thoughtful, men of +judgment and, it may be, of learning; but if they have not also the +active faculty in due force, they will fail in giving forth or in +turning to proper account their knowledge or learning, and instances of +this kind are by no means uncommon. The man, on the other hand, who has +ever in his mind images of things to be done, is the man of action and +enterprise. If he is not also an observant and thoughtful man, if his +mind is backward in forming images of what is presented to it from +without, he will be constantly liable to make mistakes." + +Galton says of the faculty of visualization: "Our bookish and wordy +education tends to repress this valuable gift of nature. A faculty that +is of importance in all technical and artistic occupations, that gives +accuracy to our perceptions and justness to our generalizations, is +starved by lazy disuse, instead of being cultivated judiciously in such +a way as will, on the whole, bring the best return. I believe that a +serious study of the best method of developing and using this faculty +without prejudice to the practice of abstract thought in symbols, is +one of the many pressing desiderata in the yet unformed science of +education." + +This consideration of the faculty of, and culture of, the Imagination, +may appropriately be concluded by the following quotation from Prof. +Halleck, which shows the danger of misuse and abuse of this important +faculty. The aforesaid well-known authority says: "From its very nature, +the imagination is peculiarly liable to abuse. The common practices of +day-dreaming or castle-building are both morally and physically +unhealthful. We reach actual success in life by slow, weary steps. The +day-dreamer attains eminence with one bound. He is without trouble a +victorious general on a vast battlefield, an orator swaying thousands, a +millionaire with every amusement at his command, a learned man +confounding the wisest, a president, an emperor or a czar. After +reveling in these imaginative sweets, the dry bread of actual toil +becomes exceedingly distasteful. It is so much easier to live in regions +where everything comes at the magic wand of fancy. Not infrequently +these castle-builders abandon effort in an actual world. Success comes +too slow for them. They become speculators or gamblers, and in spite of +all their grand castles, gradually sink into utter nonentities in the +world of action.... The young should never allow themselves to build any +imaginative castle, unless they are willing by hard effort to try to +make that castle a reality. They must be willing to take off their +coats, go into the quarries of life, chisel out the blocks of the stone, +and build them with much toil into the castle walls. If castle-building +is merely the formation of an ideal, which we show by our effort that we +are determined to attain, then all will be well." + +It will be seen that, in reality, the Cultivation of the Imagination is +rather the training and intelligent direction of that faculty, instead +of the development of its power. The majority of people have the faculty +of Imagination well developed, but to them it is largely an untrained, +fanciful self-willed faculty. Cultivation is needed in the direction of +bringing it under the guidance of the reason, and control by the will. +Thought-Culture in general will do much for the Imagination, for the +very processes employed in the development and cultivation of the +various other faculties of the mind will also tend to bring the +Imagination into subjection and under control, instead of allowing it to +remain the wild, fanciful irresponsible faculty that it is in the +majority of cases. Use the faculty of Imagination as a faculty of +_Thought_, instead of a thing of _Fancy_. Attach it to the _Intellect_ +instead of to the _Emotions_. Harness it up with the other faculties of +Thought, and your chariot of Understanding and Attainment will reach the +goal far sooner than under the old arrangement. Establish harmony +between Intellect and Imagination, and you largely increase the power +and achievements of both. + + +FINIS. + + + + +THE + +Pathway of Roses + +_By_ CHRISTIAN D. LARSON + + +Who would so live that the dreams of the night shall rise with the +morning but shall not depart with the setting sun--it is to men and +women such as these that we recommend THE PATHWAY OF ROSES. + +The thinking world of today is being filled with a phase of thought that +has exceptional value. True, some of it is in a somewhat chaotic +condition, but most of it is rich, containing within itself the very +life of that truth that is making the world free. But in the finding of +this truth, and in the application of its principles, where are we to +begin? What are we to do first? And after we have begun, and find +ourselves in the midst of a life so large, so immense and so marvelous +that it will require eternity to live it all, what are the great +essentials that we should ever remember and apply? What are the great +centers of life about which we may build a greater and a greater life? +These are questions that thousands are asking today, and the answer may +be found in THE PATHWAY OF ROSES. + +Beautifully and substantially bound in silk cloth +Contains about 400 pages + +Price, postpaid, $1.50 + +THE PROGRESS COMPANY--CHICAGO + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + + +Obvious typos and printer errors have been corrected without comment. + +In addition to obvious errors, the following corrections have been made: + + 1. Page 140: Italics were added for consistency in the phrase, "E and O + are _subalterns_." + + 2. Page 144: In order to preserve the meaning, "E" was changed to "I" + in the phrase, "Also what follows if "I" be _false_." + + 3. Page 161: The word "is" was added to maintain the sense of the + phrase, "... the Subconscious region of the mind is most active...." + +Other than the above errors, no attempt has been made to correct common +spelling, punctuation, grammar, etc. The author's usage is preserved as +printed in the original publication. Unconventional spelling which has +been preserved includes, but is not limited to the following: + + minature + synonomous + +Spelling of the name "Kay" appears twice in the text as "Kays". + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Thought-Culture, by William Walker Atkinson + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41519 *** |