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diff --git a/41472.txt b/41472.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2018533..0000000 --- a/41472.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,17596 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 6, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 6 - "Lightfoot, Joseph" to "Liquidation" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: November 24, 2012 [EBook #41472] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE LIGHTHOUSE: "Examples of mercury floats are shown in figs. - 41, 42, 43 and Plate I., figs. 54 and 55." 'and' amended from 'an'. - - ARTICLE LIGHTHOUSE: "Electricity was substituted as an illuminant - for the then existing oil light at St Catherine's in 1888." - 'Electricity' amended from 'Elctricity'. - - ARTICLE LIGHTING: "They were, however, costly to install, so that - the flat flame burner retained its popularity in spite of the fact - that its duty was comparatively low ..." 'install' amended from - 'instal'. - - ARTICLE LIGHTING: "... the filament in the form of a lustrous and - dense deposit having an appearance like steel when seen under the - microscope." 'microscope' amended from 'miscroscope'. - - ARTICLE LIMB: "... or to the subordinate members of the Cinque - Ports, attached to one of the principal towns; Pevensey was thus a - 'limb' of Hastings." 'subordinate' amended from 'surbordinate'. - - ARTICLE LIMON: "Its chief towns, after Limon, are Reventazon and - Matina, both with fewer than 3000 inhabitants." 'fewer' amended - from 'fever'. - - ARTICLE LIMOUSIN: "Limousin takes its name from the Lemovices, a - Gallic tribe whose county was included by Augustus in the province - of Aquitania Magna." 'Aquitania' amended from 'Aquitanic'. - - ARTICLE LIPSIUS, JUSTUS: "He then returned to Louvain, but was soon - driven by the Civil War to take refuge in Antwerp, where he - received, in 1579, a call to the newly founded university of - Leiden, as professor of history." 'Louvain' amended from 'Louvian'. - - ARTICLE LIPSIUS, JUSTUS: "He died at Louvain on the 23rd of March - (some give 24th of April) 1606." 'Louvain' amended from 'Louvian'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XVI, SLICE VI - - Lightfoot, Joseph to Liquidation - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER LINDAU, PAUL - LIGHTHOUSE LINDAU - LIGHTING LINDEN - LIGHTNING LINDESAY, ROBERT - LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR LINDET, JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT - LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF LINDLEY, JOHN - LIGNE, CHARLES JOSEPH LINDLEY, NATHANIEL LINDLEY - LIGNITE LINDLEY, WILLIAM - LIGONIER, JOHN LIGONIER LINDO, MARK PRAGER - LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI LINDSAY (family) - LIGURES BAEBIANI LINDSAY (town of Canada) - LIGURIA LINDSEY, THEOPHILUS - LI HUNG CHANG LINDSTROM, GUSTAF - LILAC LINDUS - LILBURNE, JOHN LINE - LILIACEAE LINE ENGRAVING - LILIENCRON, DETLEV VON LINEN and LINEN MANUFACTURES - LILITH LINEN-PRESS - LILLE LINER - LILLEBONNE LING, PER HENRIK - LILLIBULLERO LING - LILLO, GEORGE LINGARD, JOHN - LILLY, WILLIAM LINGAYAT - LILOAN LINGAYEN - LILY LINGEN, RALPH ROBERT WHEELER LINGEN - LILYE, WILLIAM LINGEN - LIMA (Ohio, U.S.A.) LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI - LIMA (department of Peru) LINK - LIMA (capital of Peru) LINKOPING - LIMACON LINLEY, THOMAS - LIMASOL LINLITHGOW, JOHN ADRIAN LOUIS HOPE - LIMB LINLITHGOW - LIMBACH LINLITHGOWSHIRE - LIMBER LINNAEUS - LIMBORCH, PHILIPP VAN LINNELL, JOHN - LIMBURG (feudal state) LINNET - LIMBURG (province of Belgium) LINSANG - LIMBURG (town of Germany) LINSEED - LIMBURG (province of Holland) LINSTOCK - LIMBURG CHRONICLE LINT - LIMBURGITE LINTEL - LIMBUS LINTH - LIME (exudation of holly-tree) LINTON, ELIZA LYNN - LIME (tree) LINTON, WILLIAM JAMES - LIMERICK (county of Ireland) LINTOT, BARNABY BERNARD - LIMERICK (city of Ireland) LINUS (Gregorian saint) - LIMERICK (form of verse) LINUS (Greek heroic figure) - LIMES GERMANICUS LINZ - LIMESTONE LION - LIMINA APOSTOLORUM LIONNE, HUGUES DE - LIMITATION, STATUTES OF LIOTARD, JEAN ETIENNE - LIMOGES LIP - LIMON LIPA - LIMONITE LIPAN - LIMOUSIN, LEONARD LIPARI ISLANDS - LIMOUSIN LIPETSK - LIMPOPO LIPPE (river of Germany) - LINACRE, THOMAS LIPPE (principality of Germany) - LINARES (province of Chile) LIPPI - LINARES (town of Spain) LIPPSPRINGE - LINCOLN, EARLS OF LIPPSTADT - LINCOLN, ABRAHAM LIPSIUS, JUSTUS - LINCOLN (England) LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT - LINCOLN (Illinois, U.S.A.) LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHNSTONE - LINCOLN (Nebraska, U.S.A.) LIQUEURS - LINCOLN JUDGMENT, THE LIQUIDAMBAR - LINCOLNSHIRE LIQUIDATION - LIND, JENNY - - - - -LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER (1828-1889), English theologian and bishop of -Durham, was born at Liverpool on the 13th of April 1828. His father was -a Liverpool accountant. He was educated at King Edward's school, -Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, afterwards bishop of Manchester, and -had as contemporaries B. F. Westcott and E. W. Benson. In 1847 Lightfoot -went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, and there read for his degree -with Westcott. He graduated senior classic and 30th wrangler, and was -elected a fellow of his college. From 1854 to 1859 he edited the -_Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology_. In 1857 he became tutor and -his fame as a scholar grew rapidly. He was made Hulsean professor in -1861, and shortly afterwards chaplain to the Prince Consort and honorary -chaplain in ordinary to the queen. In 1866 he was Whitehall preacher, -and in 1871 he became canon of St Paul's. His sermons were not -remarkable for eloquence, but a certain solidity and balance of -judgment, an absence of partisanship, a sobriety of expression combined -with clearness and force of diction, attracted hearers and inspired them -with confidence. As was written of him in _The Times_ after his death, -"his personal character carried immense weight, but his great position -depended still more on the universally recognized fact that his belief -in Christian truth and his defence of it were supported by learning as -solid and comprehensive as could be found anywhere in Europe, and by a -temper not only of the utmost candour but of the highest scientific -capacity. The days in which his university influence was asserted were a -time of much shaking of old beliefs. The disintegrating speculations of -an influential school of criticism in Germany were making their way -among English men of culture just about the time, as is usually the -case, when the tide was turning against them in their own country. The -peculiar service which was rendered at this juncture by the 'Cambridge -School' was that, instead of opposing a mere dogmatic opposition to the -Tubingen critics, they met them frankly on their own ground; and instead -of arguing that their conclusions ought not to be and could not be true, -they simply proved that their facts and their premisses were wrong. It -was a characteristic of equal importance that Dr Lightfoot, like Dr -Westcott, never discussed these subjects in the mere spirit of -controversy. It was always patent that what he was chiefly concerned -with was the substance and the life of Christian truth, and that his -whole energies were employed in this inquiry because his whole heart was -engaged in the truths and facts which were at stake. He was not diverted -by controversy to side-issues; and his labour was devoted to the -positive elucidation of the sacred documents in which the Christian -truth is enshrined." - -In 1872 the anonymous publication of _Supernatural Religion_ created -considerable sensation. In a series of masterly papers in the -_Contemporary Review_, between December 1874 and May 1877, Lightfoot -successfully undertook the defence of the New Testament canon. The -articles were published in collected form in 1889. About the same time -he was engaged in contributions to W. Smith's _Dictionary of Christian -Biography_ and _Dictionary of the Bible_, and he also joined the -committee for revising the translation of the New Testament. In 1875 he -became Lady Margaret professor of divinity in succession to William -Selwyn. He had previously written his commentaries on the epistles to -the Galatians (1865), Philippians (1868) and Colossians (1875), the -notes to which were distinguished by sound judgment and enriched from -his large store of patristic and classical learning. These commentaries -may be described as to a certain extent a new departure in New Testament -exegesis. Before Lightfoot's time commentaries, especially on the -epistles, had not infrequently consisted either of short homilies on -particular portions of the text, or of endeavours to enforce foregone -conclusions, or of attempts to decide with infinite industry and -ingenuity between the interpretations of former commentators. Lightfoot, -on the contrary, endeavoured to make his author interpret himself, and -by considering the general drift of his argument to discover his meaning -where it appeared doubtful. Thus he was able often to recover the -meaning of a passage which had long been buried under a heap of -contradictory glosses, and he founded a school in which sobriety and -common sense were added to the industry and ingenuity of former -commentators. In 1879 Lightfoot was consecrated bishop of Durham in -succession to C. Baring. His moderation, good sense, wisdom, temper, -firmness and erudition made him as successful in this position as he had -been when professor of theology, and he speedily surrounded himself with -a band of scholarly young men. He endeavoured to combine his habits of -theological study with the practical work of administration. He -exercised a large liberality and did much to further the work of -temperance and purity organizations. He continued to work at his -editions of the _Apostolic Fathers_, and in 1885 published an edition of -the Epistles of Ignatius and Polycarp, collecting also a large store of -valuable materials for a second edition of Clement of Rome, which was -published after his death (1st ed., 1869). His defence of the -authenticity of the Epistles of Ignatius is one of the most important -contributions to that very difficult controversy. His unremitting -labours impaired his health and shortened his splendid career at Durham. -He was never married. He died at Bournemouth on the 21st of December -1889, and was succeeded in the episcopate by Westcott, his schoolfellow -and lifelong friend. - - Four volumes of his _Sermons_ were published in 1890. - - - - -LIGHTHOUSE, a form of building erected to carry a light for the purpose -of warning or guidance, especially at sea. - - -1. EARLY HISTORY.--The earliest lighthouses, of which records exist, -were the towers built by the Libyans and Cushites in Lower Egypt, beacon -fires being maintained in some of them by the priests. Lesches, a Greek -poet (c. 660 B.C.) mentions a lighthouse at Sigeum (now Cape -Incihisari) in the Troad. This appears to have been the first light -regularly maintained for the guidance of mariners. The famous Pharos[1] -of Alexandria, built by Sostratus of Cnidus in the reign of Ptolemy II. -(283-247 B.C.) was regarded as one of the wonders of the world. The -tower, which took its name from that of the small island on which it was -built, is said to have been 600 ft. in height, but the evidence in -support of this statement is doubtful. It was destroyed by an earthquake -in the 13th century, but remains are said to have been visible as late -as 1350. The name Pharos became the general term for all lighthouses, -and the term "pharology" has been used for the science of lighthouse -construction. - -The tower at Ostia was built by the emperor Claudius (A.D. 50). Other -famous Roman lighthouses were those at Ravenna, Pozzuoli and Messina. -The ancient Pharos at Dover and that at Boulogne, later known as _la -Tour d'Ordre_, were built by the Romans and were probably the earliest -lighthouses erected in western Europe. Both are now demolished. - -The light of Cordouan, on a rock in the sea at the mouth of the Gironde, -is the earliest example now existing of a wave-swept tower. Earlier -towers on the same rock are attributed the first to Louis le Debonnaire -(c. A.D. 805) and the second to Edward the Black Prince. The existing -structure was begun in 1584 during the reign of Henri II. of France and -completed in 1611. The upper part of the beautiful Renaissance building -was removed towards the end of the 18th century and replaced by a -loftier cylindrical structure rising to a height of 207 ft. above the -rock and with the focal plane of the light 196 ft. above high water -(fig. 1). Until the 18th century the light exhibited from the tower was -from an oak log fire, and subsequently a coal fire was in use for many -years. The ancient tower at Corunna, known as the Pillar of Hercules, is -supposed to have been a Roman Pharos. The Torre del Capo at Genoa -originally stood on the promontory of San Berrique. It was built in 1139 -and first used as a lighthouse in 1326. It was rebuilt on its present -site in 1643. This beautiful tower rises 236 ft. above the cliff, the -light being elevated 384 ft. above sea-level. A lens light was first -installed in 1841. The Pharos of Meloria was constructed by the Pisans -in 1154 and was several times rebuilt until finally destroyed in 1290. -On the abandonment of Meloria by the Pisans, they erected the still -existing tower at Leghorn in 1304. - -In the 17th and 18th centuries numerous towers, on which were erected -braziers or grates containing wood or coal fires, were established in -various positions on the coasts of Europe. Among such stations in the -United Kingdom were Tynemouth (c. 1608), the Isle of May (1636), St -Agnes (1680), St Bees (1718) and the Lizard (1751). The oldest -lighthouse in the United States is believed to be the Boston light -situated on Little Brewster Island on the south side of the main -entrance to Boston Harbour, Mass. It was established in 1716, the -present structure dating from 1859. During the American War of -Independence the lighthouse suffered many vicissitudes and was -successively destroyed and rebuilt three times by the American or -British forces. At the third rebuilding in 1783 a stone tower 68 ft. in -height was erected, the illuminant consisting of four oil lamps. Other -early lighthouse structures on the New England coast were those at -Beaver Tail, near the entrance to Newport Harbour (1740), and the Brant -at the entrance to Nantucket Harbour (1754). A watch-house and beacon -appear to have been erected on Beacon or Lighthouse Island as well as on -Point Allerton Hill near Boston, prior to 1673, but these structures -would seem to have been in the nature of look-out stations in time of -war rather than lighthouses for the guidance of mariners. - - -2. LIGHTHOUSE STRUCTURES.--The structures of lighthouses may be divided -into two classes, (a) those on rocks, shoals or in other situations -exposed to the force of the sea, and (b) the more numerous class of land -structures. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Cordouan Lighthouse.] - -_Wave-swept Towers._--In determining the design of a lighthouse tower to -be erected in a wave-swept position consideration must be given to the -physical features of the site and its surroundings. Towers of this -description are classified as follows: (1) Masonry and concrete -structures; (2) Openwork steel and iron-framed erections on pile or -other foundations; (3) Cast iron plated towers; (4) Structures erected -on cylinder foundations. - -(1) _Masonry Towers._--Masonry or concrete towers are generally -preferred for erection on wave-swept rocks affording good foundation, -and have also been constructed in other situations where adequate -foundations have been made by sinking caissons into a soft sea bed. -Smeaton's tower on the Eddystone Rock is the model upon which most later -designs of masonry towers have been based, although many improvements in -detail have since been made. In situations of great exposure the -following requirements in design should be observed: (a) The centre of -gravity of the tower structure should be as low as possible. (b) The -mass of the structure superimposed at any horizontal section must be -sufficient to prevent its displacement by the combined forces of wind -and waves without dependence on the adhesion at horizontal joint faces -or on the dovetailing of stones introduced as an additional safeguard. -(c) The structure should be circular in plan throughout, this form -affording the least resistance to wave stroke and wind pressure in any -direction. (d) The lower portion of the tower exposed to the direct -horizontal stroke of the waves should, for preference, be constructed -with vertical face. The upper portion to be either straight with uniform -batter or continuously curved in the vertical plane. External -projections from the face of the tower, except in the case of a gallery -under the lantern, should be avoided, the surface throughout being -smooth. (e) The height from sea-level to the top of the tower should be -sufficient to avoid the obscuration of the light by broken water or -dense spray driving over the lantern. (f) The foundation of the tower -should be carried well into the solid rock. (g) The materials of which -the tower is built should be of high density and of resistant nature. -(h) The stones used in the construction of the tower, at any rate those -on the outer face, should be dovetailed or joggled one to the other in -order to prevent their being dislodged by the sea during the process of -construction and as an additional safeguard of stability. Of late years, -cement concrete has been used to a considerable extent for maritime -structures, including lighthouses, either alone or faced with masonry. - -(2) _Openwork Structures._--Many examples of openwork steel and iron -lighthouses exist. Some typical examples are described hereafter. This -form of design is suitable for situations where the tower has to be -carried on a foundation of iron or steel piles driven or screwed into an -insecure or sandy bottom, such as on shoals, coral reefs and sand banks -or in places where other materials of construction are exceptionally -costly and where facility of erection is a desideratum. - -(3) _Cast iron Towers._--Cast iron plated towers have been erected in -many situations where the cost of stone or scarcity of labour would have -made the erection of a masonry tower excessively expensive. - -(4) _Caisson Foundations._--Cylinder or caisson foundations have been -used for lighthouse towers in numerous cases where such structures have -been erected on sand banks or shoals. A remarkable instance is the -Rothersand Tower. Two attempts have been made to sink a caisson in the -outer Diamond Shoal off Cape Hatteras on the Atlantic coast of the -United States, but these have proved futile. - - The following are brief descriptions of the more important wave-swept - towers in various parts of the world. - - _Eddystone_ (_Winstanley's Tower_).--The Eddystone rocks, which lie - about 14 m. off Plymouth, are fully exposed to south-west seas. The - reef is submerged at high water of spring tides. Four towers have been - constructed on the reef. The first lighthouse (fig. 2) was polygonal - in plan and highly ornamented with galleries and projections which - offered considerable resistance to the sea stroke. The work was begun - by Henry Winstanley, a gentleman of Essex, in 1695. In 1698 it was - finished to a height of 80 ft. to the wind vane and the light - exhibited, but in the following year, in consequence of damage by - storms, the tower was increased in diameter from 16 ft. to 24 ft. by - the addition of an outer ring of masonry and made solid to a height of - 20 ft. above the rock, the tower being raised to nearly 120 ft. The - work was completed in the year 1700. The lower part of the structure - appears to have been of stone, the upper part and lantern of timber. - During the great storm of the 20th of November 1703 the tower was - swept away, those in it at the time, including the builder, being - drowned. - - _Eddystone_ (_Rudyerd's Tower_, fig. 3).--This structure was begun in - 1706 and completed in 1709. It was a frustum of a cone 22 ft. 8 in. in - diameter at the base and 14 ft. 3 in. at the top. The tower was 92 ft. - in height to the top of the lantern. The work consisted principally of - oak timbers securely bolted and cramped together, the lower part being - filled in solid with stone to add weight to the structure. The - simplicity of the design and the absence of projections from the outer - face rendered the tower very suitable to withstand the onslaught of - the waves. The lighthouse was destroyed by fire in 1755. - - _Eddystone_ (_Smeaton's Tower_, fig. 4).--This famous work, which - consisted entirely of stone, was begun in 1756, the light being first - exhibited in 1759. John Smeaton was the first engineer to use - dovetailed joints for the stones in a lighthouse structure. The - stones, which averaged 1 ton in weight, were fastened to each other by - means of dovetailed vertical joint faces, oak key wedges, and by oak - tree-nails wedged top and bottom, extending vertically from every - course into the stones beneath it. During the 19th century the tower - was strengthened on two occasions by the addition of heavy wrought - iron ties, and the overhanging cornice was reduced in diameter to - prevent the waves from lifting the stones from their beds. In 1877, - owing partly to the undermining of the rock on which the tower was - built and the insufficient height of the structure, the Corporation - of Trinity House determined on the erection of a new lighthouse in - place of Smeaton's tower. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2. Winstanley 1699 - - FIG. 3. Rudyerd 1706 - - FIG. 4. Smeaton 1756 - - FIG. 5. Sir J. N. Douglass 1882 - - Lighthouses on the Eddystone.] - - _Eddystone, New Lighthouse (J. N. Douglass)._--The site selected for - the new tower is 120 ft. S.S.E. from Smeaton's lighthouse, where a - suitable foundation was found, although a considerable section of the - lower courses had to be laid below the level of low water. The - vertical base is 44 ft. in diameter and 22 ft. in height. The tower - (figs. 5 and 6) is a concave elliptic frustum, and is solid, with the - exception of a fresh-water tank, to a height of 25 ft. 6 in. above - high-water level. The walls above this level vary in thickness from 8 - ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. 3 in. under the gallery. All the stones are - dovetailed, both horizontally and vertically, on all joint faces, the - stones of the foundation course being secured to the rock by Muntz - metal bolts. The tower contains 62,133 cub. ft. of granite, weighing - 4668 tons. The height of the structure from low water ordinary spring - tides to the mean focal plane is 149 ft. and it stands 133 ft. above - high water. The lantern is a cylindrical helically framed structure - with domed roof. The astragals are of gun-metal and the pedestal of - cast iron. The optical apparatus consists of two superposed tiers of - refracting lens panels, 12 in each tier of 920 mm. focal distance. The - lenses subtend an angle of 92 deg. vertically. The 12 lens panels are - arranged in groups of two, thus producing a group flashing light - showing 2 flashes of 1(1/2) seconds' duration every half minute, the - apparatus revolving once in 3 minutes. The burners originally fitted - in the apparatus were of 6-wick pattern, but these were replaced in - 1904 by incandescent oil vapour burners. The intensity of the combined - beam of light from the two apparatus is 292,000 candles. At the time - of the completion of the lighthouse two bells, weighing 2 tons each - and struck by mechanical power, were installed for fog-signalling - purposes. Since that date an explosive gun-cotton fog signal has been - erected, the bells being removed. At a lower level in the tower are - installed 2 21-in. parabolic silvered reflectors with 2-wick burners, - throwing a fixed light of 8000 candle-power over a danger known as the - Hand Deeps. The work of preparing the foundation was begun on the 17th - of July 1878, the foundation stone being laid by the late duke of - Edinburgh on the 19th of August 1879. The last stone was laid on the - 1st of June 1881, and the light was exhibited for the first time on - the 18th of May 1882. The upper portion of Smeaton's tower, which was - removed on completion of the new lighthouse, was re-erected on - Plymouth Hoe, where it replaced the old Trinity House sea mark. One of - the principal features in the design of the new Eddystone lighthouse - tower is the solid vertical base. This construction was much - criticized at the time, but experience has proved that heavy seas - striking the massive cylindrical structure are immediately broken up - and rush round to the opposite side, spray alone ascending to the - height of the lantern gallery. On the other hand, the waves striking - the old tower at its foundation ran up the surface, which presented a - curved face to the waves, and, unimpeded by any projection until - arriving at the lantern gallery, were partially broken up by the - cornice and then spent themselves in heavy spray over the lantern. The - shock to which the cornice of the gallery was exposed was so great - that stones were sometimes lifted from their beds. The new Eddystone - tower presents another point of dissimilarity from Smeaton's - structure, in that the stones forming the floors consist of single - corbels built into the wall and constituting solid portions thereof. - In Smeaton's tower the floors consisted of stone arches, the thrust - being taken by the walls of the tower itself, which were strengthened - for the purpose by building in chains in the form of hoops (fig. 7). - The system of constructing corbelled stone floors was first adopted by - R. Stevenson in the Bell Rock lighthouse (fig. 8). - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Plan of Entrance Floor, Eddystone Lighthouse.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Floor, Smeaton's Eddystone Lighthouse.] - - _Bell Rock Lighthouse_ (fig. 9).--The Bell Rock, which lies 12 m. off - the coast of Forfarshire, is exposed to a considerable extent at low - water. The tower is submerged to a depth of about 16 ft. at high water - of spring tides. The rock is of hard sandstone. The lighthouse was - constructed by Robert Stevenson and is 100 ft. in height, the solid - portion being carried to a height of 21 ft. above high water. The work - of construction was begun in 1807, and finished in 1810, the light - being first exhibited in 1811. The total weight of the tower is 2076 - tons. A new lantern and dioptric apparatus were erected on the tower - in 1902. The focal plane of the light is elevated 93 ft. above high - water. - - [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Floor, Stevenson's Bell Rock Lighthouse.] - - _Skerryvore Lighthouse_ (fig. 10).--The Skerryvore Rocks, 12 m. off - the island of Tyree in Argyllshire, are wholly open to the Atlantic. - The work, designed by Alan Stevenson, was begun in 1838 and finished - in 1844. The tower, the profile of which is a hyperbolic curve, is 138 - ft. high to the lantern base, 42 ft. diameter at the base, and 16 ft. - at the top. Its weight is 4308 tons. The structure contains 9 rooms in - addition to the lantern chamber. It is solid to a height of 26 ft. - above the base. - - _Heaux de Brehat Lighthouse._--The reef on which this tower is - constructed lies off the coast of Brittany, and is submerged at high - tide. The work was carried out in 1836-1839. The tower is circular in - plan with a gallery at a height of about 70 ft. above the base. The - tower is 156 ft. in height from base to lantern floor. - - _Haut Banc du Nord Lighthouse._--This tower is placed on a reef at the - north-west extremity of the Ile de Re, and was constructed in - 1849-1853. It is 86 ft. in height to the lantern floor. - - _Bishop Rock Lighthouse._--The lighthouse on the Bishop Rock, which is - the westernmost landfall rock of the Scilly Islands, occupies perhaps - a more exposed situation than any other in the world. The first - lighthouse erected there was begun in 1847 under the direction of N. - Douglass. The tower consisted of a cast and wrought iron openwork - structure having the columns deeply sunk into the rock. On the 5th of - February 1850, when the tower was ready for the erection of the - lantern and illuminating apparatus, a heavy storm swept away the whole - of the structure. This tower was designed for an elevation of 94 ft. - to the focal plane. In 1851 the erection of a granite tower, from the - designs of James Walker, was begun; the light was first exhibited in - 1858. The tower (fig. 11) had an elevation to the focal plane of 110 - ft., the lower 14 courses being arranged in steps, or offsets, to - break up the force of the waves. This structure also proved - insufficient to withstand the very heavy seas to which it was exposed. - Soon after its completion the 5-cwt. fog bell, fixed to the lantern - gallery 100 ft. above high-water mark, was washed away, together with - the flagstaff and ladder. The tower vibrated considerably during - storms, and it was found that some of the external blocks of granite - had been split by the excessive stress to which they had been exposed. - In 1874 the tower was strengthened by bolting continuous iron ties to - the internal surfaces of the walls. In 1881, when further signs of - damage appeared, it was determined to remove the upper storey or - service room of the lighthouse, and to case the structure from its - base upwards with granite blocks securely dovetailed to each other and - to the existing work. At the same time it was considered advisable to - increase the elevation of the light, and place the mean focal plane of - the new apparatus at an elevation of 146 ft. above high-water mark. - The work was begun in 1883, and the new apparatus was first - illuminated on the 25th of October 1887. During the operation of - heightening the tower it was necessary to install a temporary light, - consisting of a cylindrical lightship lantern with catoptric - apparatus; this was raised from time to time in advance of the - structure as the work proceeded. The additional masonry built into the - tower amounts approximately to 3220 tons. Profiting by the experience - gained after the construction of the new Eddystone tower, Sir J. N. - Douglass decided to build the lower portion of the improved Bishop - Rock tower in the form of a cylinder, but with considerably increased - elevation (figs. 12 and 13). The cylindrical base is 40 ft. in - diameter, and rises to 25 ft. above high-water mark. The lantern is - cylindrical and helically framed, 14 ft. in diameter, the glazing - being 15 ft. in height. The optical apparatus consists of two - superposed tiers of lenses of 1330 mm. focal distance, the lenses - subtending a horizontal angle of 36 deg. and a vertical angle of 80 - deg. The apparatus consists of 5 groups of lenses each group producing - a double flashing light of one minute period, the whole apparatus - revolving once in five minutes. The maximum aggregate candle-power of - the flash is 622,000 candles. A gun-cotton explosive fog signal is - attached to the lantern. The cost of the various lighthouses on the - Bishop Rock has been as follows: - - 1. Cast iron lighthouse L12,500 0 0 - 2. Granite lighthouse 34,559 18 9 - 3. Improved granite lighthouse 64,889 0 0 - - [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Bell Rock. - - FIG. 10.--Skerryvore. - - FIG. 11.--Bishop Rock. - - FIG. 12.--Bishop Rock.] - - _The Smalls Lighthouse._--A lighthouse has existed on the Smalls rock, - 18(1/2) m. off Milford Haven, since 1776, when an oak pile structure - was erected by Henry Whiteside. The existing structure, after the - model of the second lighthouse on the Bishop Rock, was erected in - 1856-1861 by the Trinity House and is 114 ft. in height from the - foundation to the lantern floor. A new optical apparatus was installed - in 1907. - - _Minot's Ledge Lighthouse._--The tower, which is 89 ft. in height, is - built of granite upon a reef off Boston Harbor, Mass., and occupied - five years in construction, being completed in 1860 at a cost of - L62,500. The rock just bares at low water. The stones are dovetailed - vertically but not on their horizontal beds in the case of the lower - 40 ft. or solid portion of the tower, bonding bolts being substituted - for the horizontal dovetailed joints used in the case of the Wolf and - other English towers. The shape of the tower is a conical frustum. - - _Wolf Rock Lighthouse._--This much exposed rock lies midway between - the Scilly Isles and the Lizard Point, and is submerged to the depth - of about 6 ft. at high water. The tower was erected in 1862-1869 (fig. - 14). It is 116 ft. 6 in. high, 41 ft. 8 in. diameter at the base, - decreasing to 17 ft. at the top. The walls are 7 ft. 9(1/2) in. thick, - decreasing to 2 ft. 3 in. The shaft is a concave elliptic frustum, and - contains 3296 tons. The lower part of the tower has projecting - scarcements in order to break up the sea. - - _Dhu Heartach Rock Lighthouse._--The Dhu Heartach Rock, 35 ft. above - high water, is 14 m. from the island of Mull, which is the nearest - shore. The maximum diameter of the tower (fig. 15), which is of - parabolic outline, is 36 ft., decreasing to 16 ft.; the shaft is solid - for 32 ft. above the rock; the masonry weighs 3115 tons, of which 1810 - are contained in the solid part. This tower occupied six years in - erection, and was completed in 1872. - - _Great Basses Lighthouse, Ceylon._--The Great Basses lighthouse lies 6 - m. from the nearest land. The cylindrical base is 32 ft. in diameter, - above which is a tower 67 ft. 5 in. high and 23 ft. in diameter. The - walls vary in thickness from 5 ft. to 2 ft. The tower, including the - base, contains about 2768 tons. The work was finished in three years, - 1870-1873. - - _Spectacle Reef Lighthouse, Lake Huron._--This is a structure similar - to that on Minot's ledge, standing on a limestone reef at the northern - end of the lake. The tower (fig. 16) was constructed with a view to - withstanding the effects of ice massing in solid fields thousands of - acres in extent and travelling at considerable velocity. The tower is - in shape the frustum of a cone, 32 ft. in diameter at the base and 93 - ft. in height to the coping of the gallery. The focal plane is at a - level of 97 ft. above the base. The lower 34 ft. of the tower is - solid. The work was completed in 1874, having occupied four years. The - cost amounted to approximately L78,000. - - _Chicken Rock Lighthouse._--The Chicken Rock lies 1 m. off the Calf of - Man. The curve of the tower, which is 123 ft. 4 in. high, is - hyperbolic, the diameter varying from 42 ft. to 16 ft. The tower is - submerged 5 ft. at high-water springs. The solid part is 32 ft. 6 in. - in height, weighing 2050 tons, the whole weight of the tower being - 3557 tons. The walls decrease from 9 ft. 3 in. to 2 ft. 3 in. in - thickness. The work was begun in 1869 and completed in 1874. - - _Ar'men Lighthouse._--The masonry tower, erected by the French - Lighthouse Service, on the Ar'men Rock off the western extremity of - the Ile de Sein, Finistere, occupied fifteen years in construction - (1867-1881). The rock is of small area, barely uncovered at low water, - and it was therefore found impossible to construct a tower having a - base diameter greater than 24 ft. The focal plane of the light is 94 - ft. above high water (fig. 17). - - _St George's Reef Lighthouse, California._--This structure consists of - a square pyramidal stone tower rising from the easterly end of an oval - masonry pier, built on a rock to a height of 60 ft. above the water. - The focal plane is at an elevation of 146 ft. above high water. The - site is an exceedingly dangerous one, and the work, which was - completed in 1891, cost approximately L144,000. - - _Rattray Head Lighthouse._--This lighthouse was constructed between - the years 1892 and 1895 by the Northern Lighthouse Commissioners upon - the Ron Rock, lying about one-fifth of a mile off Rattray Head, - Aberdeenshire. The focal plane is 91 ft. above high water, the - building being approximately 113 ft. in height. In the tower there is - a fog-horn worked by compressed air. - - _Fastnet Lighthouse._--In the year 1895 it was reported to the Irish - Lights Commissioners that the then existing lighthouse on the Fastnet - Rock off the south-west coast of Ireland, which was completed in 1854 - and consisted of a circular cast iron tower 86 ft. in height on the - summit of the rock, was considerably undermined. It was subsequently - determined to proceed with the erection of a granite structure of - increased height and founded upon a sound ledge of rock on one side of - the higher, but now considerably undermined. portion of the reef. - This lighthouse tower has its foundation laid near high-water level. - The focal plane is at a level of 158 ft. above high-water mark. The - cost of the structure, which was commenced in 1899 and completed in - 1904, was L79,000. - - [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Bishop Rock Lighthouse.] - - _Beachy Head Lighthouse._--A lighthouse has been erected upon the - foreshore at the foot of Beachy Head, near Eastbourne, to replace the - old structure on the cliff having an elevation of 284 ft. above - high-water mark. Experience proved that the light of the latter was - frequently obscured by banks of mist or fog, while at the lower level - the transparency of the atmosphere was considerably less impaired. The - Trinity House therefore decided in the year 1899 to proceed with the - construction of a granite tower upon the foreshore at a distance of - some 570 ft. from the base of the cliff (fig. 18). The foreshore at - this point consists of chalk, and the selected site just bares at low - water ordinary spring tides. The foundation course was laid at a depth - of 10 ft. below the surface, the area being excavated within a - coffer-dam. The tower, which is 47 ft. in diameter at the base, has an - elevation to the focal plane above high water of 103 ft., or a total - height from foundation course to gallery coping of 123 ft. 6 in. The - lower or solid portion of the tower has its face stones constructed in - vertical offsets or steps in a similar manner to that adopted at the - Wolf Rock and elsewhere. The tower is constructed with a facing of - granite, all the stones being dovetailed in the usual manner. The - hearting of the base is largely composed of concrete. The work was - completed in 1902 and cost L56,000. - - _Maplin Lighthouse._--The screw pile lighthouse erected on the Maplin - Sand in the estuary of the river Thames in 1838 is the earliest of its - kind and served as a model for numerous similar structures in various - parts of the world. The piles are nine in number, 5 in. diameter of - solid wrought iron with screws 4 ft. diameter (fig. 19). - - _Fowey Rocks Lighthouse, Florida._--This iron structure, which was - begun in 1875 and completed in 1878, stands on the extreme northern - point of the Florida reefs. The height of the tower, which is founded - on wrought iron piles driven 10 ft. into the coral rock, is 110 ft. - from high water to focal plane. The iron openwork pyramidal structure - encloses a plated iron dwelling for the accommodation of the keepers. - The cost of construction amounted to L32,600. - - _Alligator Reef Lighthouse, Florida._--This tower is one of the finest - iron sea-swept lighthouse structures in the world. It consists of a - pyramidal iron framework 135 ft. 6 in. in height, standing on the - Florida Reef in 5 ft. of water. The cost of the structure, which is - similar to the Fowey Rocks tower, was L37,000. - - _American Shoal Lighthouse, Florida._--This tower (fig. 20) is typical - of the openwork pile structures on the Florida reefs, and was - completed in 1880. The focal plane of the light is at an elevation of - 109 ft. above high water. - - _Wolf Trap Lighthouse._--This building was erected during the years - 1893 and 1894 on Wolf Trap Spit in Chesapeake Bay, near the site of - the old openwork structure which was swept away by ice early in 1893. - The new tower is formed upon a cast iron caisson 30 ft. in diameter - sunk 18 ft. into the sandy bottom. The depth of water on the shoal is - 16 ft. at low water. The caisson was filled with concrete, and is - surmounted by a brick superstructure 52 ft. in height from low water - to the focal plane of the light. A somewhat similar structure was - erected in 1885-1887 on the Fourteen Foot Bank in Delaware Bay, at a - cost of L24,700. The foundation in this case was, however, shifting - sand, and the caisson was carried to a greater depth. - - _Rothersand Lighthouse._--This lighthouse, off the entrance to the - river Weser (Germany), is a structure of great interest on account of - the difficulties met with in its construction. The tower had to be - founded on a bottom of shifting sand 20 ft. below low water and in a - very exposed situation. Work was begun in May 1881, when attempts were - made to sink an iron caisson under pneumatic pressure. Owing to the - enormous scour removing the sand from one side of the caisson it - tilted to an alarming angle, but eventually it was sunk to a level of - 70 ft. below low-water mark. In October of the same year the whole - structure collapsed. Another attempt, made in May 1883, to sink a - caisson of bi-convex shape in plan 47 ft. long, 37 ft. wide and 62 ft. - in height, met with success, and after many difficulties the structure - was sunk to a depth of 73 ft. below low water, the sides being raised - by the addition of iron plating as the caisson sank. The sand was - removed from the interior by suction. Around the caisson foundation - were placed 74,000 cub. yds. of mattress work and stones, the interior - being filled with concrete. Towards the end of 1885 the lighthouse was - completed, at a total cost, including the first attempt, of over - L65,000. The tower is an iron structure in the shape of a concave - elliptic frustum, its base being founded upon the caisson foundation - at about half-tide level (fig. 21). The light is electric, the current - being supplied by cable from the shore. The focal plane is 78 ft. - above high water or 109 ft. from the sand level. The total height from - the foundation of the caisson to the top of the vane is 185 ft. - - Other famous wave-swept towers are those at Haulbowline Rock - (Carlingford Lough, Ireland, 1823); Horsburgh (Singapore, 1851); Bayes - d'Olonne (Bay of Biscay, 1861); Hanois (Alderney, 1862); Daedalus - Reef, iron tower (Red Sea, 1863); Alguada Reef (Bay of Bengal, 1865); - Longships (Land's End, 1872); the Prongs (Bombay, 1874); Little Basses - (Ceylon, 1878); the Graves (Boston, U.S.A., 1905); Jument d'Ouessant - (France, 1907); and Roche Bonne (France, building 1910). - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Wolf Rock. - - FIG. 15.--Dhu Heartach. - - FIG. 16.--Spectacle Reef. - - FIG. 17.--Ar'men. - - FIG. 18.--Beachy Head.] - -_Jointing of Stones in Rock Towers._--Various methods of jointing the -stones in rock towers are shown in figs. 6 and 22. The great distinction -between the towers built by successive engineers to the Trinity House -and other rock lighthouses is that, in the former the stones of each -course are dovetailed together both laterally and vertically and are not -connected by metal or wooden pins and wedges and dowled as in most other -cases. This dovetail method was first adopted at the Hanois Rock at the -suggestion of Nicholas Douglass. On the upper face, one side and at one -end of each block is a dovetailed projection. On the under face and the -other side and end, corresponding dovetailed recesses are formed with -just sufficient clearance for the raised bands to enter in setting (fig. -23). The cement mortar in the joint formed between the faces so locks -the dovetails that the stones cannot be separated without breaking (fig. -24). - - TABLE I.--_Comparative Cost of Exposed Rock Towers_. - - +----------------------------------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------------+ - | | | | Cost per | - | Name of Structure. | Total Cost. |Cub. ft.| cub. ft. of | - | | | | Masonry. | - +----------------------------------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------------+ - | Eddystone, Smeaton (1759) |L40,000 0 0 | 13,343 | L2 9 11(1/2)| - | Bell Rock, Firth of Forth (1811) | 55,619 12 1 | 28,530 | 1 19 0 | - | Skerryvore, west coast of Scotland (1844) | 72,200 11 6 | 58,580 | 1 4 7(3/4)| - | Bishop Rock, first granite tower (1858) | 34,559 18 9 | 35,209 | 0 19 7(1/2)| - | Smalls, Bristol Channel (1861) | 50,124 11 8 | 46,386 | 1 1 7(1/4)| - | Hanois, Alderney (1862) | 25,296 0 0 | 24,542 | 1 0 7(1/4)| - | Wolf Rock, Land's End (1869) | 62,726 0 0 | 59,070 | 1 1 3 | - | Dhu Heartach, west coast of Scotland (1872) | 72,584 9 7 | 42,050 | 1 14 6 | - | Longships, Land's End (1872) | 43,869 8 11 | 47,610 | 0 18 5 | - | Eddystone, Douglass (1882) | 59,255 0 0 | 65,198 | 0 18 2 | - | Bishop Rock, strengthening and part reconstruction (1887)| 64,889 0 0 | 45,080 | 1 8 9 | - | Great Basses, Ceylon (1873) | 63,560 0 0 | 47,819 | 1 6 7 | - | Minot's Ledge, Boston, Mass. (1860) | 62,500 0 0 | 36,322 | 1 17 2 | - | Spectacle Reef, Lake Huron (1874) | 78,125 0 0 | 42,742 | 1 16 2 | - | Ar'men, France (1881) | 37,692 0 0 | 32,400 | 1 3 3 | - | Fastnet, Ireland (1904) | 79,000 0 0 | 62,600 | 1 5 5(1/2)| - +----------------------------------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------------+ - -_Effect of Waves._--The wave stroke to which rock lighthouse towers are -exposed is often considerable. At the Dhu Heartach, during the erection -of the tower, 14 joggled stones, each of 2 tons weight, were washed away -after having been set in cement at a height of 37 ft. above high water, -and similar damage was done during the construction of the Bell Rock -tower. The effect of waves on the Bishop Rock and Eddystone towers has -been noted above. - -_Land Structures for Lighthouses._--The erection of lighthouse towers -and other buildings on land presents no difficulties of construction, -and such buildings are of ordinary architectural character. It will -therefore be unnecessary to refer to them in detail. Attention is -directed to the Phare d'Eckmuhl at Penmarc'h (Finistere), completed in -1897. The cost of this magnificent structure, 207 ft. in height from the -ground, was largely defrayed by a bequest of L12,000 left by the marquis -de Blocqueville. It is constructed entirely of granite, and is octagonal -in plan. The total cost of the tower and other lighthouse buildings -amounted to L16,000. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Maplin Pile Lighthouse.] - -The tower at Ile Vierge (Finistere), completed in 1902, has an elevation -of 247 ft. from the ground level to the focal plane, and is probably the -highest structure of its kind in the world. - -The brick tower, constructed at Spurn Point, at the entrance to the -Humber and completed in 1895, replaced an earlier structure erected by -Smeaton at the end of the 18th century. The existing tower is -constructed on a foundation consisting of concrete cylinders sunk in the -shingle beach. The focal plane of the light is elevated 120 ft. above -high water. - -Besides being built of stone or brick, land towers are frequently -constructed of cast iron plates or open steel-work with a view to -economy. Fine examples of the former are to be found in many British -colonies and elsewhere, that on Dassen Island (Cape of Good Hope), 105 -ft. in height to the focal plane, being typical (fig. 25). Many openwork -structures up to 200 ft. in height have been built. Recent examples are -the towers erected at Cape San Thome (Brazil) in 1882, 148 ft. in height -(fig. 26), Mocha (Red Sea) in 1903, 180 ft. and Sanganeb Reef (Red Sea) -1906, 165 ft. in height to the focal plane. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--American Shoal Lighthouse, Florida.] - - -3. OPTICAL APPARATUS.--Optical apparatus in lighthouses is required for -one or other of three distinct purposes: (1) the concentration of the -rays derived from the light source into a belt of light distributed -evenly around the horizon, condensation in the vertical plane only being -employed; (2) the concentration of the rays both vertically and -horizontally into a pencil or cone of small angle directed towards the -horizon and caused to revolve about the light source as a centre, thus -producing a flashing light; and (3) the condensation of the light in the -vertical plane and also in the horizontal plane in such a manner as to -concentrate the rays over a limited azimuth only. - -Apparatus falling under the first category produce a fixed light, and -further distinction can be provided in this class by mechanical means of -occultation, resulting in the production of an occulting or intermittent -light. Apparatus included in the second class are usually employed to -produce flashing lights, but sometimes the dual condensation is taken -advantage of to produce a fixed pencil of rays thrown towards the -horizon for the purpose of marking an isolated danger or the limits of a -narrow channel. Such lights are best described by the French term _feux -de direction_. Catoptric apparatus, by which dual condensation is -produced, are moreover sometimes used for fixed lights, the light -pencils overlapping each other in azimuth. Apparatus of the third class -are employed for sector lights or those throwing a beam of light over a -wider azimuth than can be conveniently covered by an apparatus of the -second class, and for reinforcing the beam of light emergent from a -fixed apparatus in any required direction. - -The above classification of apparatus depends on the resultant effect of -the optical elements. Another classification divides the instruments -themselves into three classes: (a) catoptric, (b) dioptric and (c) -catadioptric. - -_Catoptric_ apparatus are those by which the light rays are reflected -only from the faces of incidence, such as silvered mirrors of plane, -spherical, parabolic or other profile. _Dioptric_ elements are those in -which the light rays pass through the optical glass, suffering -refraction at the incident and emergent faces (fig. 27). _Catadioptric_ -elements are combined of the two foregoing and consist of optical prisms -in which the light rays suffer refraction at the incident face, total -internal reflexion at a second face and again refraction on emergence at -the third face (fig. 28). - -The object of these several forms of optical apparatus is not only to -produce characteristics or distinctions in lights to enable them to be -readily recognized by mariners, but to utilize the light rays in -directions above and below the horizontal plane, and also, in the case -of revolving or flashing lights, in azimuths not requiring to be -illuminated for strengthening the beam in the direction of the mariner. -It will be seen that the effective condensation in flashing lights is -very much greater than in fixed belts, thus enabling higher intensities -to be obtained by the use of flashing lights than with fixed apparatus. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Rothersand Lighthouse.] - - _Catoptric System._--Parabolic reflectors, consisting of small facets - of silvered glass set in plaster of Paris, were first used about the - year 1763 in some of the Mersey lights by Mr Hutchinson, then dock - master at Liverpool (fig. 29). Spherical metallic reflectors were - introduced in France in 1781, followed by parabolic reflectors on - silvered copper in 1790 in England and France, and in Scotland in - 1803. The earlier lights were of fixed type, a number of reflectors - being arranged on a frame or stand in such a manner that the pencils - of emergent rays overlapped and thus illuminated the whole horizon - continuously. In 1783 the first revolving light was erected at - Marstrand in Sweden. Similar apparatus were installed at Cordouan - (1790), Flamborough Head (1806) and at the Bell Rock (1811). To - produce a revolving or flashing light the reflectors were fixed on a - revolving carriage having several faces. Three or more reflectors in a - face were set with their axes parallel. - - A type of parabolic reflector now in use is shown in fig. 30. The - sizes in general use vary from 21 in. to 24 in. diameter. These - instruments are still largely used for light-vessel illumination, and - a few important land lights are at the present time of catoptric type, - including those at St Agnes (Scilly Islands), Cromer and St Anthony - (Falmouth). - - _Dioptric System._--The first adaptation of dioptric lenses to - lighthouses is probably due to T. Rogers, who used lenses at one of - the Portland lighthouses between 1786 and 1790. Subsequently lenses by - the same maker were used at Howth, Waterford and the North Foreland. - Count Buffon had in 1748 proposed to grind out of a solid piece of - glass a lens in steps or concentric zones in order to reduce the - thickness to a minimum (fig. 31). Condorcet in 1773 and Sir D. - Brewster in 1811 designed built-up lenses consisting of stepped - annular rings. Neither of these proposals, however, was intended to - apply to lighthouse purposes. In 1822 Augustin Fresnel constructed a - built-up annular lens in which the centres of curvature of the - different rings receded from the axis according to their distances - from the centre, so as practically to eliminate spherical aberration; - the only spherical surface being the small central part or "bull's - eye" (fig. 32). These lenses were intended for revolving lights only. - Fresnel next produced his cylindric refractor or lens belt, consisting - of a zone of glass generated by the revolution round a vertical axis - of a medial section of the annular lens (fig. 33). The lens belt - condensed and parallelized the light rays in the vertical plane only, - while the annular lens does so in every plane. The first revolving - light constructed from Fresnel's designs was erected at the Cordouan - lighthouse in 1823. It consisted of 8 panels of annular lenses placed - round the lamp at a focal distance of 920 mm. To utilize the light, - which would otherwise escape above the lenses, Fresnel introduced a - series of 8 plain silvered mirrors, on which the light was thrown by a - system of lenses. At a subsequent period mirrors were also placed in - the lower part of the optic. The apparatus was revolved by clockwork. - This optic embodied the first combination of dioptric and catoptric - elements in one design (fig. 34). In the following year Fresnel - designed a dioptric lens with catoptric mirrors for fixed light, which - was the first of its kind installed in a lighthouse. It was erected at - the Chassiron lighthouse in 1827 (fig. 35). This combination is - geometrically perfect, but not so practically on account of the great - loss of light entailed by metallic reflection which is at least 25% - greater than the system described under. Before his death in 1827 - Fresnel devised his totally reflecting or catadioptric prisms to take - the place of the silvered reflectors previously used above and below - the lens elements (fig. 28). The ray Fi falling on the prismoidal ring - ABC is refracted in the direction i r and meeting the face AB at an - angle of incidence greater than the critical, is totally reflected in - the direction r e emerging after second refraction in a horizontal - direction. Fresnel devised these prisms for use in fixed light - apparatus, but the principle was, at a later date, also applied to - flashing lights, in the first instance by T. Stevenson. Both the - dioptric lens and catadioptric prism invented by Fresnel are still in - general use, the mathematical calculations of the great French - designer still forming the basis upon which lighthouse opticians work. - - [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Courses of various Lighthouse Towers.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Perspective drawing of Dovetailed Stone (Wolf - Rock).] - - [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Section of Dovetail.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Dassen Island Lighthouse (cast iron).] - - [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Cape San Thome Lighthouse.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Dioptric Prism.] - - Fresnel also designed a form of fixed and flashing light in which the - distinction of a fixed light, varied by flashes, was produced by - placing panels of straight refracting prisms in a vertical position on - a revolving carriage outside the fixed light apparatus. The revolution - of the upright prisms periodically increased the power of the beam, by - condensation of the rays emergent from the fixed apparatus, in the - horizontal plane. - - The lens segments in Fresnel's early apparatus were of polygonal form - instead of cylindrical, but subsequently manufacturers succeeded in - grinding glass in cylindrical rings of the form now used. The first - apparatus of this description was made by Messrs Cookson of Newcastle - in 1836 at the suggestion of Alan Stevenson and erected at Inchkeith. - - [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Catadioptric or Reflecting Prism.] - - In 1825 the French Commission des Phares decided upon the exclusive - use of lenticular apparatus in its service. The Scottish Lighthouse - Board followed with the Inchkeith revolving apparatus in 1835 and the - Isle of May fixed optic in 1836. In the latter instrument Alan - Stevenson introduced helical frames for holding the glass prisms in - place, thus avoiding complete obstruction of the light rays in any - azimuth. The first dioptric light erected by the Trinity House was - that formerly at Start Point in Devonshire, constructed in 1836. - Catadioptric or reflecting prisms for revolving lights were not used - until 1850, when Alan Stevenson designed them for the North Ronaldshay - lighthouse. - - _Dioptric Mirror._--The next important improvement in lighthouse - optical work was the invention of the dioptric spherical mirror by Mr - (afterwards Sir) J. T. Chance in 1862. The zones or prisms are - generated round a vertical axis and divided into segments. This form - of mirror is still in general use (figs. 36 and 37). - - [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Early Reflector and Lamp (1763).] - - _Azimuthal Condensing Prisms._--Previous to 1850 all apparatus were - designed to emit light of equal power in every azimuth either - constantly or periodically. The only exception was where a light was - situated on a stretch of coast where a mirror could be placed behind - the flame to utilize the rays, which would otherwise pass landward, - and reflect them back, passing through the flame and lens in a seaward - direction. In order to increase the intensity of lights in certain - azimuths T. Stevenson devised his azimuthal condensing prisms which, - in various forms and methods of application, have been largely used - for the purpose of strengthening the light rays in required directions - as, for instance, where coloured sectors are provided. Applications of - this system will be referred to subsequently. - - [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Modern Parabolic Reflector.] - - _Optical Glass for Lighthouses._--In the early days of lens lights the - only glass used for the prisms was made in France at the St Gobain and - Premontre works, which have long been celebrated for the high quality - of optical glass produced. The early dioptric lights erected in the - United Kingdom, some 13 in all, were made by Messrs Cookson of South - Shields, who were instructed by Leonor Fresnel, the brother of - Augustin. At first they tried to mould the lens and then to grind it - out of one thick sheet of glass. The successors of the Cookson firm - abandoned the manufacture of lenses in 1845, and the firm of - Letourneau & Lepaute of Paris again became the monopolists. In 1850 - Messrs Chance Bros. & Co. of Birmingham began the manufacture of - optical glass, assisted by M. Tabouret, a French expert who had been a - colleague of Augustin Fresnel himself. The first light made by the - firm was shown at the Great Exhibition of 1851, since when numerous - dioptric apparatus have been constructed by Messrs Chance, who are, at - this time, the only manufacturers of lighthouse glass in the United - Kingdom. Most of the glass used for apparatus constructed in France is - manufactured at St Gobain. Some of the glass used by German - constructors is made at Rathenow in Prussia and Goslar in the Harz. - - The glass generally employed for lighthouse optics has for its - refractive index a mean value of [mu] = 1.51, the corresponding - critical angle being 41 deg. 30'. Messrs Chance have used dense flint - glass for the upper and lower refracting rings of high angle lenses - and for dioptric mirrors in certain cases. This glass has a value of - [mu] = l.62 with critical angle 38 deg. 5'. - - [Illustration: FIG. 31. Buffon's Lens.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 32. Fresnel's Annular Lens.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 33. Fresnel's Lens Belt.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Fresnel's Revolving Apparatus at Cordouan - Lighthouse.] - - _Occulting Lights._--During the last 25 years of the 19th century the - disadvantages of fixed lights became more and more apparent. At the - present day the practice of installing such, except occasionally in - the case of the smaller and less important of harbour or river lights, - has practically ceased. The necessity for providing a distinctive - characteristic for every light when possible has led to the conversion - of many of the fixed-light apparatus of earlier years into occulting - lights, and often to their supersession by more modern and powerful - flashing apparatus. An occulting apparatus in general use consists of - a cylindrical screen, fitting over the burner, rapidly lowered and - raised by means of a cam-wheel at stated intervals. The cam-wheel is - actuated by means of a weight or spring clock. Varying characteristics - may be procured by means of such a contrivance--single, double, triple - or other systems of occultation. The eclipses or periods of darkness - bear much the same relation to the times of illumination as do the - flashes to the eclipses in a revolving or flashing light. In the case - of a first-order fixed light the cost of conversion to an occulting - characteristic does not exceed L250 to L300. With apparatus - illuminated by gas the occultations may be produced by successively - raising and lowering the gas at stated intervals. Another form of - occulting mechanism employed consists of a series of vertical screens - mounted on a carriage and revolving round the burner. The carriage is - rotated on rollers or ball bearings or carried upon a small mercury - float. The usual driving mechanism employed is a spring clock. "Otter" - screens are used in cases when it is desired to produce different - periods of occultations in two or more positions in azimuth in order - to differentiate sectors marking shoals, &c. The screens are of sheet - metal blacked and arranged vertically, some what in the manner of the - laths of a venetian blind, and operated by mechanical means. - - _Leading Lights._--In the case of lights designed to act as a lead - through a narrow channel or as direction lights, it is undesirable to - employ a flashing apparatus. Fixed-light optics are employed to meet - such cases, and are generally fitted with occulting mechanism. A - typical apparatus of this description is that at Gage Roads, - Fremantle, West Australia (fig. 38). The occulting bright light covers - the fairway, and is flanked by sectors of occulting red and green - light marking dangers and intensified by vertical condensing prisms. A - good example of a holophotal direction light was exhibited at the 1900 - Paris Exhibition, and afterwards erected at Suzac lighthouse (France). - The light consists of an annular lens 500 mm. focal distance, of 180 - deg. horizontal angle and 157 deg. vertical, with a mirror of 180 deg. - at the back. The lens throws a red beam of about 4(1/2) deg. amplitude - in azimuth, and 50,000 candle-power over a narrow channel. The - illuminant is an incandescent petroleum vapour burner. Holophotal - direction lenses of this type can only be applied where the sector to - be marked is of comparatively small angle. Silvered metallic mirrors - of parabolic form are also used for the purpose. The use of single - direction lights frequently renders the construction of separate - towers for leading lights unnecessary. - - If two distinct lights are employed to indicate the line of navigation - through a channel or between dangers they must be sufficiently far - apart to afford a good lead, the front or seaward light being situated - at a lower elevation than the rear or landward one. - - _Coloured Lights._--Colour is used as seldom as possible as a - distinction, entailing as it does a considerable reduction in the - power of the light. It is necessary in some instances for - differentiating sectors over dangers and for harbour lighting - purposes. The use of coloured lights as alternating flashes for - lighthouse lights is not to be commended, on account of the unequal - absorption of the coloured and bright rays by the atmosphere. When - such distinction has been employed, as in the Wolf Rock apparatus, the - red and white beams can be approximately equalized in initial - intensity by constructing the lens and prism panels for the red light - of larger angle than those for the white beams. Owing to the - absorption by the red colouring, the power of a red beam is only 40% - of the intensity of the corresponding white light. The corresponding - intensity of green light is 25%. When red or green sectors are - employed they should invariably be reinforced by mirrors, azimuthal - condensing prisms, or other means to raise the coloured beam to - approximately the same intensity as the white light. With the - introduction of group-flashing characteristics the necessity for using - colour as a means of distinction disappeared. - - [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Fixed Apparatus at Chassiron Lighthouse - (1827).] - - [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Vertical Section. Prism of Dioptric Spherical - Mirror.] - - _High-Angle Vertical Lenses._--Messrs Chance of Birmingham have - manufactured lenses having 97 deg. of vertical amplitude, but this - result was only attained by using dense flint glass of high refractive - index for the upper and lower elements. It is doubtful, however, - whether the use of refracting elements for a greater angle than 80 - deg. vertically is attended by any material corresponding advantage. - - [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Chance's Dioptric Spherical Mirror.] - - _Group Flashing Lights._--One of the most useful distinctions consists - in the grouping of two or more flashes separated by short intervals of - darkness, the group being succeeded by a longer eclipse. Thus two, - three or more flashes of, say, half second duration or less follow - each other at intervals of about 2 seconds and are succeeded by an - eclipse of, say, 10 seconds, the sequence being completed in a period - of, say, 15 seconds. In 1874 Dr John Hopkinson introduced the very - valuable improvement of dividing the lenses of a dioptric revolving - light with the panels of reflecting prisms above and below them, - setting them at an angle to produce the group-flashing characteristic. - The first apparatus of this type constructed were those now in use at - Tampico, Mexico and the Little Basses lighthouse, Ceylon (double - flashing). The Casquets apparatus (triple flashing) was installed in - 1877. A group-flashing catoptric light had, however, been exhibited - from the "Royal Sovereign" light-vessel in 1875. A sectional plan of - the quadruple-flashing first order apparatus at Pendeen in Cornwall - is shown in fig. 39; and fig. 55 (Plate 1.) illustrates a double - flashing first order light at Pachena Point in British Columbia. - Hopkinson's system has been very extensively used, most of the - group-flashing lights shown in the accompanying tables, being designed - upon the general lines he introduced. A modification of the system - consists in grouping two or more lenses together separated by equal - angles, and filling the remaining angle in azimuth by a reinforcing - mirror or screen. A group-flashing distinction was proposed for gas - lights by J. R. Wigham of Dublin, who obtained it in the case of a - revolving apparatus by alternately raising and lowering the flame. The - first apparatus in which this method was employed was erected at - Galley Head, Co. Cork (1878). At this lighthouse 4 of Wigham's large - gas burners with four tiers of first-order revolving lenses, eight in - each tier, were adopted. By successive lowering and raising of the gas - flame at the focus of each tier of lenses he produced the - group-flashing distinction. The light showed, instead of one prolonged - flash at intervals of one minute, as would be produced by the - apparatus in the absence of a gas occulter, a group of short flashes - varying in number between six and seven. The uncertainty, however, in - the number of flashes contained in each group is found to be an - objection to the arrangement. This device was adopted at other - gas-illuminated stations in Ireland at subsequent dates. The - quadriform apparatus and gas installation at Galley Head were - superseded in 1907 by a first order bi-form apparatus with - incandescent oil vapour burner showing five flashes every 20 seconds. - - [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Gage Roads Direction Light.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 39.--Pendeen Apparatus. Plan at Focal Plane.] - - _Flashing Lights indicating Numbers._--Captain F. A. Mahan, late - engineer secretary to the United States Lighthouse Board, devised for - that service a system of flashing lights to indicate certain numbers. - The apparatus installed at Minot's Ledge lighthouse near Boston - Harbour, Massachusetts, has a flash indicating the number 143, thus: - - ---- ---, the dashes indicating short flashes. Each group is separated - by a longer period of darkness than that between successive members of - a group. The flashes in a group indicating a figure are about 1(1/2) - seconds apart, the groups being 3 seconds apart, an interval of 16 - seconds' darkness occurring between each repetition. Thus the number - is repeated every half minute. Two examples of this system were - exhibited by the United States Lighthouse Board at the Chicago - Exhibition in 1893, viz. the second-order apparatus just mentioned and - a similar light of the first order for Cape Charles on the Virginian - coast. The lenses are arranged in a somewhat similar manner to an - ordinary group-flashing light, the groups of lenses being placed on - one side of the optic, while the other is provided with a catadioptric - mirror. This system of numerical flashing for lighthouses has been - frequently proposed in various forms, notably by Lord Kelvin. The - installation of the lights described is, however, the first practical - application of the system to large and important coast lights. The - great cost involved in the alteration of the lights of any country to - comply with the requirements of a numerical system is one of the - objections to its general adoption. - - [Illustration: PLATE I. - - FIG. 54.--FASTNET LIGHTHOUSE--FIRST ORDER SINGLE-FLASHING BIFORM - APPARATUS. - - FIG. 55.--PACHENA POINT LIGHTHOUSE, B.C.--FIRST ORDER DOUBLE-FLASHING - APPARATUS.] - - [Illustration: PLATE II. - - FIG. 56.--OLD EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE. - - FIG. 57.--EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE. - - FIG. 58.--ILE VIERGE LIGHTHOUSE. - - FIG. 59.--MINOT'S LEDGE LIGHTHOUSE.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Sule Skerry Apparatus.] - - _Hyper-radial Apparatus._--In 1885 Messrs Barbier of Paris constructed - the first hyper-radial apparatus (1330 mm. focal distance) to the - design of Messrs D. and C. Stevenson. This had a height of 1812 mm. It - was tested during the South Foreland experiments in comparison with - other lenses, and found to give excellent results with burners of - large focal diameter. Apparatus of similar focal distance (1330 mm.) - were subsequently established at Round Island, Bishop Rock, and Spurn - Point in England, Fair Isle and Sule Skerry (fig. 40) in Scotland, - Bull Rock and Tory Island in Ireland, Cape d'Antifer in France, Pei - Yu-shan in China and a lighthouse in Brazil. - - The light erected in 1907 at Cape Race, Newfoundland, is a fine - example of a four-sided hyper-radial apparatus mounted on a mercury - float. The total weight of the revolving part of the light amounts to - 7 tons, while the motive clock weight required to rotate this large - mass at a speed of two complete revolutions a minute is only 8 cwt. - and the weight of mercury required for flotation 950 lb. A similar - apparatus was placed at Manora Point, Karachi, India, in 1908 (fig. - 41). - - The introduction of incandescent and other burners of focal - compactness and high intensity has rendered the use of optics of such - large dimensions as the above, intended for burners of great focal - diameter, unnecessary. It is now possible to obtain with a - second-order optic (or one of 700 mm. focal distance), having a - powerful incandescent petroleum burner in focus, a beam of equal - intensity to that which would be obtained from the apparatus having a - 10-wick oil burner or 108-jet gas burner at its focus. - - _Stephenson's Spherical Lenses and Equiangular Prisms._--Mr C. A. - Stephenson in 1888 designed a form of lens spherical in the horizontal - and vertical sections. This admitted of the construction of lenses of - long focal distance without the otherwise corresponding necessity of - increased diameter of lantern. A lens of this type and of 1330 mm. - focal distance was constructed in 1890 for Fair Isle lighthouse. The - spherical form loses in efficiency if carried beyond an angle - subtending 20 deg. at the focus, and to obviate this loss Mr - Stephenson designed his equiangular prisms, which have an inclination - outwards. It is claimed by the designer that the use of equiangular - prisms results in less loss of light and less divergence than is the - case when either the spherical or Fresnel form is adopted. An example - of this design is seen (fig. 40) in the Sule Skerry apparatus (1895). - - _Fixed and Flashing Lights._--The use of these lights, which show a - fixed beam varied at intervals by more powerful flashes, is not to be - recommended, though a large number were constructed in the earlier - years of dioptric illumination and many are still in existence. The - distinction can be produced in one or other of three ways: (a) by the - revolution of detached panels of straight condensing lens prisms - placed vertically around a fixed light optic, (b) by utilizing - revolving lens panels in the middle portion of the optic to produce - the flashing light, the upper and lower sections of the apparatus - being fixed zones of catadioptric or reflecting elements emitting a - fixed belt of light, and (c) by interposing panels of fixed light - section between the flashing light panels of a revolving apparatus. In - certain conditions of the atmosphere it is possible for the fixed - light of low power to be entirely obscured while the flashes are - visible, thus vitiating the true characteristic of the light. Cases - have frequently occurred of such lights being mistaken for, and even - described in lists of light as, revolving or flashing lights. - - _"Cute" and Screens._--Screens of coloured glass, intended to - distinguish the light in particular azimuths, and of sheet iron, when - it is desired to "cut off" the light sharply on any angle, should be - fixed as far from the centre of the light as possible in order to - reduce the escape of light rays due to divergence. These screens are - usually attached to the lantern framing. - - _Divergence._--A dioptric apparatus designed to bend all incident rays - of light from the light source in a horizontal direction would, if the - flame could be a point, have the effect of projecting a horizontal - band or zone of light, in the case of a fixed apparatus, and a - cylinder of light rays, in the case of a flashing light, towards the - horizon. Thus the mariner in the near distance would receive no light, - the rays, visible only at or near the horizon, passing above the level - of his eye. In practice this does not occur, sufficient natural - divergence being produced ordinarily owing to the magnitude of the - flame. Where the electric arc is employed it is often necessary to - design the prisms so as to produce artificial divergence. The measure - of the natural divergence for any point of the lens is the angle whose - sine is the ratio of the diameter of the flame to the distance of the - point from centre of flame. - - In the case of vertical divergence the mean height of the flame must - be substituted for the diameter. The angle thus obtained is the total - divergence, that is, the sum of the angles above and below the - horizontal plane or to right and left of the medial section. In fixed - dioptric lights there is, of course, no divergence in the horizontal - plane. In flashing lights the horizontal divergence is a matter of - considerable importance, determining as it does the duration or length - of time the flash is visible to the mariner. - - _Feux-Eclairs or Quick Flashing Lights._--One of the most important - developments in the character of lighthouse illuminating apparatus - that has occurred in recent years has been in the direction of - reducing the length of flash. The initiative in this matter was taken - by the French lighthouse authorities, and in France alone forty lights - of this type were established between 1892 and 1901. The use of short - flash lights rapidly spread to other parts of the world. In England - the lighthouse at Pendeen (1900) exhibits a quadruple flash every 15 - seconds, the flashes being about 1/4 second duration (fig. 39), while - the bivalve apparatus erected on Lundy Island (1897) shows 2 flashes - of 1/3 second duration in quick succession every 20 seconds. Since - 1900 many quick flashing lights have been erected on the coasts of the - United Kingdom and in other countries. The early _feux-eclairs_, - designed by the French engineers and others, had usually a flash of - (1/10)th to (1/3)rd of a second duration. As a result of experiments - carried out in France in 1903-1904, 3/10 second has been adopted by - the French authorities as the minimum duration for white flashing - lights. If shorter flashes are used it is found that the reduction in - duration is attended by a corresponding, but not proportionate, - diminution in effective intensity. In the case of many electric - flashing lights the duration is of necessity reduced, but the greater - initial intensity of the flash permits this loss without serious - detriment to efficiency. Red or green requires a considerably greater - duration than do white flashes. The intervals between the flashes in - lights of this character are also small, 2(1/2) seconds to 7 seconds. - In group-flashing lights the intervals between the flashes are about 2 - seconds or even less, with periods of 7 to 10 or 15 seconds between - the groups. The flashes are arranged in single, double, triple or even - quadruple groups, as in the older forms of apparatus. The _feu-eclair_ - type of apparatus enables a far higher intensity of flash to be - obtained than was previously possible without any corresponding - increase in the luminous power of the burner or other source of light. - This result depends entirely upon the greater ratio of condensation of - light employed, panels of greater angular breadth than was customary - in the older forms of apparatus being used with a higher rotatory - velocity. It has been urged that short flashes are insufficient for - taking bearings, but the utility of a light in this respect does not - seem to depend so much upon the actual length of the flash as upon its - frequent recurrence at short intervals. At the Paris Exhibition of - 1900 was exhibited a fifth-order flashing light giving short flashes - at 1 second intervals; this represents the extreme to which the - movement towards the reduction of the period of flashing lights has - yet been carried. - - _Mercury Floats._--It has naturally been found impracticable to - revolve the optical apparatus of a light with its mountings, sometimes - weighing over 7 tons, at the high rate of speed required for - _feux-eclairs_ by means of the old system of roller carriages, though - for some small quick-revolving lights ball bearings have been - successfully adopted. It has therefore become almost the universal - practice to carry the rotating portions of the apparatus upon a - mercury float. This beautiful application of mercury rotation was the - invention of Bourdelles, and is now utilized not only for the - high-speed apparatus, but also generally for the few examples of the - older type still being constructed. The arrangement consists of an - annular cast iron bath or trough of such dimensions that a similar but - slightly smaller annular float immersed in the bath and surrounded by - mercury displaces a volume of the liquid metal whose weight is equal - to that of the apparatus supported. Thus a comparatively insignificant - quantity of mercury, say 2 cwt., serves to ensure the flotation of a - mass of over 3 tons. Certain differences exist between the type of - float usually constructed in France and those generally designed by - English engineers. In all cases provision is made for lowering the - mercury bath or raising the float and apparatus for examination. - Examples of mercury floats are shown in figs. 41, 42, 43 and Plate I., - figs. 54 and 55. - - [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Manora Point Apparatus and Lantern.] - - _Multiform Apparatus._--In order to double the power to be obtained - from a single apparatus at stations where lights of exceptionally high - intensity are desired, the expedient of placing one complete lens - apparatus above another has sometimes been adopted, as at the Bishop - Rock (fig. 13), and at the Fastnet lighthouse in Ireland (Plate I., - fig. 54). Triform and quadriform apparatus have also been erected in - Ireland; particulars of the Tory Island triform apparatus will be - found in table VII. The adoption of the multiform system involves the - use of lanterns of increased height. - - _Twin Apparatus._--Another method of doubling the power of a light is - by mounting two complete and distinct optics side by side on the same - revolving table, as I shown in fig. 43 of the Ile Vierge apparatus. - Several such lights have been installed by the French Lighthouse - Service. - - _Port Lights._--Small self-contained lanterns and lights are in common - use for marking the entrances to harbours and in other similar - positions where neither high power nor long range is requisite. Many - such lights are unattended in the sense that they do not require the - attention of a keeper for days and even weeks together. These are - described in more detail in section 6 of this article. A typical port - light consists of a copper or brass lantern containing a lens of the - fourth order (250 mm. focal distance) or smaller, and a single wick or - 2-wick Argand capillary burner. Duplex burners are also used. The - apparatus may exhibit a fixed light or, more usually, an occulting - characteristic is produced by the revolution of screens actuated by - spring clockwork around the burner. The lantern may be placed at the - top of a column, or suspended from the head of a mast. Coal gas and - electricity are also used as illuminants for port lights when local - supplies are available. The optical apparatus used in connexion with - electric light is described below. - - _"Orders" of Apparatus._--Augustin Fresnel divided the dioptric - lenses, designed by him, into "orders" or sizes depending on their - local distance. This division is still used, although two additional - "orders," known as "small third order" and "hyper-radial" respectively - are in ordinary use. The following table gives the principal - dimensions of the several sizes in use:-- - - TABLE II. - - +-------------+---------+-------------------------------------------------------+ - | | | Vertical Angles of Optics. | - | | | (Ordinary Dimensions.) | - | | Focal +-------------------------+-----------------------------+ - | Order. |Distance,| | Holophotal Optics. | - | | mm. | Dioptric +---------+---------+---------+ - | | | Belt only. | Lower | Lens. | Upper | - | | | | Prisms. | | Prisms. | - +-------------+---------+-------------------------+---------+---------+---------+ - | Hyper-Radial| 1330 | 80 deg. | 21 deg. | 57 deg. | 48 deg. | - | 1st order | 920 |92 deg., 80 deg., 58 deg.| 21 deg. | 57 deg. | 48 deg. | - | 2nd " | 700 | 80 deg. | 21 deg. | 57 deg. | 48 deg. | - | 3rd " | 500 | 80 deg. | 21 deg. | 57 deg. | 48 deg. | - | Small 3rd | | | | | | - | order | 375 | 80 deg. | 21 deg. | 57 deg. | 48 deg. | - | 4th order | 250 | 80 deg. | 21 deg. | 57 deg. | 48 deg. | - | 5th " | 187.5 | 80 deg. | 21 deg. | 57 deg. | 48 deg. | - | 6th " | 150 | 80 deg. | 21 deg. | 57 deg. | 48 deg. | - +-------------+---------+-------------------------+---------+---------+---------+ - - Lenses of small focal distance are also made for buoy and beacon - lights. - - [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Cape Naturaliste Apparatus.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 43.--Ile Vierge Apparatus.] - - _Light Intensities._--The powers of lighthouse lights in the British - Empire are expressed in terms of standard candles or in "lighthouse - units" (one lighthouse unit = 1000 standard candles). In France the - unit is the "Carcel" = .952 standard candle. The powers of burners and - optical apparatus, then in use in the United Kingdom, were carefully - determined by actual photometric measurement in 1892 by a committee - consisting of the engineers of the three general lighthouse boards, - and the values so obtained are used as the basis for calculating the - intensities of all British lights. It was found that the intensities - determined by photometric measurement were considerably less than the - values given by the theoretical calculations formerly employed. A - deduction of 20% was made from the mean experimental results obtained - to compensate for loss by absorption in the lantern glass, variations - in effects obtained by different men in working the burners and in the - illuminating quality of oils, &c. The resulting reduced values are - termed "service" intensities. - - As has been explained above, the effect of a dioptric apparatus is to - condense the light rays, and the measure of this condensation is the - ratio between the vertical divergence and the vertical angle of the - optic in the case of fixed lights. In flashing lights the ratio of - vertical condensation must be multiplied by the ratio between the - horizontal divergence and the horizontal angle of the panel. The loss - of light by absorption in passing through the glass and by refraction - varies from 10% to 15%. For apparatus containing catadioptric elements - a larger deduction must be made. - - The intensity of the flash emitted from a dioptric apparatus, showing - a white light, may be found approximately by the empirical formula I = - PCVH/vh, where I = intensity of resultant beam, P = service intensity - of flame, V = vertical angle of optic, v = angle of mean vertical - divergence, H = horizontal angle of panel, h = angle of mean - horizontal divergence, and C = constant varying between .9 and .75 - according to the description of apparatus. The factor H/h must be - eliminated in the case of fixed lights. Deduction must also be made in - the case of coloured lights. It should, however, be pointed out that - photometric measurements alone can be relied upon to give accurate - values for lighthouse intensities. The values obtained by the use of - Allard's formulae, which were largely used before the necessity for - actual photometric measurements came to be appreciated, are - considerably in excess of the true intensities. - - [Illustration: FIG. 43A.--Ile Vierge Apparatus and Lantern. Plan at - focal plane.] - - _Optical Calculations._--The mathematical theory of optical apparatus - for lighthouses and formulae for the calculations of profiles will be - found in the works of the Stevensons, Chance, Allard, Reynaud, Ribiere - and others. Particulars of typical lighthouse apparatus will be found - in tables VI. and VII. - - -4. ILLUMINANTS.--The earliest form of illuminant used for lighthouses -was a fire of coal or wood set in a brazier or grate erected on top of -the lighthouse tower. Until the end of the 18th and even into the 19th -century this primitive illuminant continued to be almost the only one in -use. The coal fire at the Isle of May light continued until 1810 and -that at St Bees lighthouse in Cumberland till 1823. Fires are stated to -have been used on the two towers of Nidingen, in the Kattegat, until -1846. Smeaton was the first to use any form of illuminant other than -coal fires; he placed within the lantern of his Eddystone lighthouse a -chandelier holding 24 tallow candles each of which weighed 2/5 of a -lb. and emitted a light of 2.8 candle power. The aggregate illuminating -power was 67.2 candles and the consumption at the rate of 3.4 lb. per -hour. - - _Oil._--Oil lamps with flat wicks were used in the Liverpool - lighthouses as early as 1763. Argand, between 1780 and 1783, perfected - his cylindrical wick lamp which provides a central current of air - through the burner, thus allowing the more perfect combustion of the - gas issuing from the wick. The contraction in the diameter of the - glass chimney used with wick lamps is due to Lange, and the principle - of the multiple wick burner was devised by Count Rumford. Fresnel - produced burners having two, three and four concentric wicks. Sperm - oil, costing 5s. to 8s. per gallon, was used in English lighthouses - until 1846, but about that year colza oil was employed generally at a - cost of 2s. 9d. per gallon. Olive oil, lard oil and coconut oil have - also been used for lighthouse purposes in various parts of the world. - - _Mineral Oil Burners._--The introduction of mineral oil, costing a - mere fraction of the expensive animal and vegetable oils, - revolutionized the illumination of lighthouses. It was not until 1868 - that a burner was devised which successfully consumed hydrocarbon - oils. This was a multiple wick burner invented by Captain Doty. The - invention was quickly taken advantage of by lighthouse authorities, - and the "Doty" burner, and other patterns involving the same - principle, remained practically the only oil burners in lighthouse use - until the last few years of the 19th century. - - The lamps used for supplying oil to the burner are of two general - types, viz. those in which the oil is maintained under pressure by - mechanical action and constant level lamps. In the case of single - wick, and some 2-wick burners, oil is supplied to the burner by the - capillary action of the wick alone. - - The mineral oils ordinarily in use are petroleum, which for lighthouse - purposes should have a specific gravity of from .820 to .830 at 60 - deg. F. and flashing point of not less than 230 deg. F. (Abel close - test), and Scottish shale oil or paraffin with a specific gravity of - about .810 at 60 deg. F. and flash point of 140 deg. to 165 deg. F. - Both these varieties may be obtained in England at a cost of about - 6(1/2)d. per gallon in bulk. - - _Coal Gas_ had been introduced in 1837 at the inner pier light of - Troon (Ayrshire) and in 1847 it was in use at the Heugh lighthouse - (West Hartlepool). In 1878 cannel coal gas was adopted for the Galley - Head lighthouse, with 108-jet Wigham burners. Sir James Douglass - introduced gas burners consisting of concentric rings, two to ten in - number, perforated on the upper edges. These give excellent results - and high intensity, 2600 candles in the case of the 10-ring burner - with a flame diameter at the focal plane of 5(5/8) in. They are still - in use at certain stations. The use of multiple ring and jet gas - burners is not being further extended. Gas for lighthouse purposes - generally requires to be specially made; the erection of gas works at - the station is thus necessitated and a considerable outlay entailed - which is avoided by the use of oil as an illuminant. - - _Incandescent Coal Gas Burners._--The invention of the Welsbach mantle - placed at the disposal of the lighthouse authorities the means of - producing a light of high intensity combined with great focal - compactness. For lighthouse purposes other gaseous illuminants than - coal gas are as a rule more convenient and economical, and give better - results with incandescent mantles. Mantles have, however, been used - with ordinary coal gas in many instances where a local supply is - available. - - [Illustration: FIG. 44.--"Chance" Incandescent Oil Burner, with 85 mm. - diameter mantle.] - - _Incandescent Mineral Oil Burners._--Incandescent lighting with - high-flash mineral oil was first introduced by the French Lighthouse - Service in 1898 at L'Ile Penfret lighthouse. The burners employed are - all made on the same principle, but differ slightly in details - according to the type of lighting apparatus for which they are - intended. The principle consists in injecting the liquid petroleum in - the form of spray mixed with air into a vaporizer heated by the mantle - flame or by a subsidiary heating burner. A small reservoir of - compressed air is used--charged by means of a hand pump--for providing - the necessary pressure for injection. On first ignition the vaporizer - is heated by a spirit flame to the required temperature. A reservoir - air pressure of 125 lb. per sq. in. is employed, a reducing valve - supplying air to the oil at from 60 to 65 lb. per sq. in. Small - reservoirs containing liquefied carbon dioxide have also been employed - for supplying the requisite pressure to the oil vessel. - - The candle-power of apparatus in which ordinary multiple wick burners - were formerly employed is increased by over 300% by the substitution - of suitable incandescent oil burners. In 1902 incandescent oil burners - were adopted by the general lighthouse authorities in the United - Kingdom. The burners used in the Trinity House Service and some of - those made in France have the vaporizers placed over the flame. In - other forms, of which the "Chance" burner (fig. 44) is a type, the - vaporization is effected by means of a subsidiary burner placed under - the main flame. - - Particulars of the sizes of burner in ordinary use are given in the - following table. - - +--------------------+------------------+-------------------+ - | Diameter of Mantle.|Service Intensity.|Consumption of oil.| - | | | Pints per hour. | - +--------------------+------------------+-------------------+ - | 35 mm. | 600 candles. | .50 | - | 55 mm. | 1200 " | 1.00 | - | 85 mm. | 2150 " | 2.25 | - |Triple mantle 50 mm.| 3300 " | 3.00 | - +--------------------+------------------+-------------------+ - - The intrinsic brightness of incandescent burners generally may be - taken as being equivalent to from 30 candles to 40 candles per sq. cm. - of the vertical section of the incandescent mantle. - - In the case of wick burners, the intrinsic brightness varies, - according to the number of wicks and the type of burner from about 3.5 - candles to about 12 candles per sq. cm., the value being at its - maximum with the larger type of burner. The luminous intensity of a - beam from a dioptric apparatus is, _ceteris paribus_, proportional to - the intrinsic brightness of the luminous source of flame, and not of - the total luminous intensity. The intrinsic brightness of the flame of - oil burners increases only slightly with their focal diameter, - consequently while the consumption of oil increases the efficiency of - the burner for a given apparatus decreases. The illuminating power of - the condensed beam can only be improved to a slight extent, and, in - fact, is occasionally decreased, by increasing the number of wicks in - the burner. The same argument applies to the case of multiple ring and - multiple jet gas burners which, notwithstanding their large total - intensity, have comparatively small intrinsic brightness. The economy - of the new system is instanced by the case of the Eddystone bi-form - apparatus, which with the concentric 6-wick burner consuming 2500 - gals. of oil per annum, gave a total intensity of 79,250 candles. - Under the new regime the intensity is 292,000 candles, the oil - consumption being practically halved. - - _Incandescent Oil Gas Burners._--It has been mentioned that - incandescence with low-pressure coal gas produces flames of - comparatively small intrinsic brightness. Coal gas cannot be - compressed beyond a small extent without considerable injurious - condensation and other accompanying evils. Recourse has therefore been - had to compressed oil gas, which is capable of undergoing compression - to 10 or 12 atmospheres with little detriment, and can conveniently be - stored in portable reservoirs. The burner employed resembles the - ordinary Bunsen burner with incandescent mantle, and the rate of - consumption of gas is 27.5 cub. in. per hour per candle. A reducing - valve is used for supplying the gas to the burner at constant - pressure. The burners can be left unattended for considerable periods. - The system was first adopted in France, where it is installed at eight - lighthouses, among others the Ar'men Rock light, and has been extended - to other parts of the world including several stations in Scotland and - England. The mantles used in France are of 35 mm. diameter. The 35 mm. - mantle gives a candle-power of 400, with an intrinsic brightness of 20 - candles per sq. cm. - - The use of oil gas necessitates the erection of gas works at the - lighthouse or its periodical supply in portable reservoirs from a - neighbouring station. A complete gas works plant costs about L800. The - annual expenditure for gas lighting in France does not exceed L72 per - light where works are installed, or L32 where gas is supplied from - elsewhere. In the case of petroleum vapour lighting the annual cost of - oil amounts to about L26 per station. - - _Acetylene._--The high illuminating power and intrinsic brightness of - the flame of acetylene makes it a very suitable illuminant for - lighthouses and beacons, providing certain difficulties attending its - use can be overcome. At Grangemouth an unattended 21-day beacon has - been illuminated by an acetylene flame for some years with - considerable success, and a beacon light designed to run unattended - for six months was established on Bedout Island in Western Australia - in 1910. Acetylene has also been used in the United States, Germany, - the Argentine, China, Canada, &c., for lighthouse and beacon - illumination. Many buoys and beacons on the German and Dutch coasts - have been supplied with oil gas mixed with 20% of acetylene, thereby - obtaining an increase of over 100% in illuminating intensity. In - France an incandescent burner consuming acetylene gas mixed with air - has been installed at the Chassiron lighthouse (1902). The French - Lighthouse Service has perfected an incandescent acetylene burner with - a 55 mm. mantle having an intensity of over 2000 candle-power, with - intrinsic brightness of 60 candles per sq. cm. - - _Electricity._--The first installation of electric light for - lighthouse purposes in England took place in 1858 at the South - Foreland, where the Trinity House established a temporary plant for - experimental purposes. This installation was followed in 1862 by the - adoption of the illuminant at the Dungeness lighthouse, where it - remained in service until the year 1874 when oil was substituted for - electricity. The earliest of the permanent installations now existing - in England is that at Souter Point which was illuminated in 1871. - There are in England four important coast lights illuminated by - electricity, and one, viz. Isle of May, in Scotland. Of the former St - Catherine's, in the Isle of Wight, and the Lizard are the most - powerful. Electricity was substituted as an illuminant for the then - existing oil light at St Catherine's in 1888. The optical apparatus - consisted of a second-order 16-sided revolving lens, which was - transferred to the South Foreland station in 1904, and a new second - order (700 mm.) four-sided optic with a vertical angle of 139 deg., - exhibiting a flash of .21 second duration every 5 seconds substituted - for it. A fixed holophote is placed inside the optic in the dark or - landward arc, and at the focal plane of the lamp. This holophote - condenses the rays from the arc falling upon it into a pencil of small - angle, which is directed horizontally upon a series of reflecting - prisms which again bend the light and throw it downwards through an - aperture in the lantern floor on to another series of prisms, which - latter direct the rays seaward in the form of a sector of fixed red - light at a lower level in the tower. A somewhat similar arrangement - exists at Souter Point lighthouse. - - The apparatus installed at the Lizard in 1903 is similar to that at St - Catherine's, but has no arrangement for producing a subsidiary sector - light. The flash is of .13 seconds duration every 3 seconds. The - apparatus replaced the two fixed electric lights erected in 1878. - - [Illustration: FIG. 45.--Isle of May Apparatus.] - - The Isle of May lighthouse, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth, was - first illuminated by electricity in 1886. The optical apparatus - consists of a second-order fixed-light lens with reflecting prisms, - and is surrounded by a revolving system of vertical condensing prisms - which split up the vertically condensed beam of light into 8 separate - beams of 3 deg. in azimuth. The prisms are so arranged that the - apparatus, making one complete revolution in the minute, produces a - group characteristic of 4 flashes in quick succession every 30 seconds - (fig. 45). The fixed light is not of the ordinary Fresnel section, the - refracting portion being confined to an angle of 10 deg., and the - remainder of the vertical section consisting of reflecting prisms. - - In France the old south lighthouse at La Heve was lit by electricity - in 1863. This installation was followed in 1865 by a similar one at - the north lighthouse. In 1910 there were thirteen important coast - lights in France illuminated by electricity. In other parts of the - world, Macquarie lighthouse, Sydney, was lit by electricity in 1883; - Tino, in the gulf of Spezia, in 1885; and Navesink lighthouse, near - the entrance to New York Bay, in 1898. Electric apparatus were also - installed at the lighthouse at Port Said in 1869, on the opening of - the canal; Odessa in 1871; and at the Rothersand, North Sea, in 1885. - There are several other lights in various parts of the world - illuminated by this agency. - - Incandescent electric lighting has been adopted for the illumination - of certain light-vessels in the United States, and a few small harbour - and port lights, beacons and buoys. - - Table VI. gives particulars of some of the more important electric - lighthouses of the world. - - _Electric Lighthouse Installations in France._--A list of the thirteen - lighthouses on the French coast equipped with electric light - installations will be found in table VI. It has been already mentioned - that the two lighthouses at La Heve were lit by electric light in 1863 - and 1865. These installations were followed within a few years by the - establishment of electricity as illuminant at Gris-Nez. In 1882 M. - Allard, the then director-general of the French Lighthouse Service, - prepared a scheme for the electric lighting of the French littoral by - means of 46 lights distributed more or less uniformly along the - coast-line. All the apparatus were to be of the same general type, the - optics consisting of a fixed belt of 300 mm. focal distance, around - the outside of which revolved a system of 24 faces of vertical lenses. - These vertical panels condensed the belt of fixed light into beams of - 3 deg. amplitude in azimuth, producing flashes of about 3/4 sec. - duration. To illuminate the near sea the vertical divergence of the - lower prisms of the fixed belt was artificially increased. These - optics are very similar to that in use at the Souter Point lighthouse, - Sunderland. The intensities obtained were 120,000 candles in the case - of fixed lights and 900,000 candles with flashing lights. As a result - of a nautical inquiry held in 1886, at which date the lights of - Dunkerque, Calais, Gris-Nez, La Canche, Baleines and Planier had been - lighted, in addition to the old apparatus at La Heve, it was decided - to limit the installation of electrical apparatus to important - landfall lights--a decision which the Trinity House had already - arrived at in the case of the English coast--and to establish new - apparatus at six stations only. These were Creac'h d'Ouessant - (Ushant), Belle-Ile, La Coubre at the mouth of the river Gironde, - Barfleur, Ile d'Yeu and Penmarc'h. At the same time it was determined - to increase the powers of the existing electric lights. The scheme as - amended in 1886 was completed in 1902.[2] - - All the electrically lit apparatus, in common with other optics - established in France since 1893, have been provided with mercury - rotation. The most recent electric lights have been constructed in the - form of twin apparatus, two complete and distinct optics being mounted - side by side upon the same revolving table and with corresponding - faces parallel. It is found that a far larger aggregate candle-power - is obtained from two lamps with 16 mm. to 23 mm. diameter carbons and - currents of 60 to 120 amperes than with carbons and currents of larger - dimensions in conjunction with single optics of greater focal - distance. A somewhat similar circumstance led to the choice of the - twin form for the two very powerful non-electric apparatus at Ile - Vierge (figs. 43 and 43A) and Ailly, particulars of which will be seen - in table VII. - - Several of the de Meritens magneto-electric machines of 5.5 K.W., laid - down many years ago at French electric lighthouse stations, are still - in use. All these machines have five induction coils, which, upon the - installation of the twin optics, were separated into two distinct - circuits, each consisting of 2(1/2) coils. This modification has - enabled the old plants to be used with success under the altered - conditions of lighting entailed by the use of two lamps. The - generators adopted in the French service for use at the later stations - differ materially from the old type of de Meritens machine. The Phare - d'Eckmuhl (Penmarc'h) installation serves as a type of the more modern - machinery. The dynamos are alternating current two-phase machines, and - are installed in duplicate. The two lamps are supplied with current - from the same machine, the second dynamo being held in reserve. The - speed is 810 to 820 revolutions per minute. - - The lamp generally adopted is a combination of the Serrin and Berjot - principles, with certain modifications. Clockwork mechanism with a - regulating electromagnet moves the rods simultaneously and controls - the movements of the carbons so that they are displaced at the same - rate as they are consumed. It is usual to employ currents of varying - power with carbons of corresponding dimensions according to the - atmospheric conditions. In the French service two variations are used - in the case of twin apparatus produced by currents of 60 and 120 - amperes at 45 volts with carbons 14 mm. and 18 mm. diameter, while in - single optic apparatus currents of 25, 50 and 100 amperes are utilized - with carbon of 11 mm., 16 mm. and 23 mm. diameter. In England fluted - carbons of larger diameter are employed with correspondingly increased - current. Alternating currents have given the most successful results - in all respects. Attempts to utilize continuous current for lighthouse - arc lights have, up to the present, met with little success. - - The cost of a first-class electric lighthouse installation of the most - recent type in France, including optical apparatus, lantern, dynamos, - engines, air compressor, siren, &c., but not buildings, amounts - approximately to L5900. - - _Efficiency of the Electric Light._--In 1883 the lighthouse - authorities of Great Britain determined that an exhaustive series of - experiments should be carried out at the South Foreland with a view to - ascertaining the relative suitability of electricity, gas and oil as - lighthouse illuminants. The experiments extended over a period of more - than twelve months, and were attended by representatives of the chief - lighthouse authorities of the world. The results of the trials tended - to show that the rays of oil and gas lights suffered to about equal - extent by atmospheric absorption, but that oil had the advantage over - gas by reason of its greater economy in cost of maintenance and in - initial outlay on installation. The electric light was found to suffer - to a much larger extent than either oil or gas light per unit of power - by atmospheric absorption, but the infinitely greater total intensity - of the beam obtainable by its use, both by reason of the high luminous - intensity of the electric arc and its focal compactness, more than - outweighed the higher percentage of loss in fog. The final conclusion - of the committee on the relative merits of electricity, gas or oil as - lighthouse illuminants is given in the following words: "That for - ordinary necessities of lighthouse illumination, mineral oil is the - most suitable and economical illuminant, and that for salient - headlands, important landfalls, and places where a very powerful light - is required electricity offers the greater advantages." - - - 5. MISCELLANEOUS LIGHTHOUSE EQUIPMENT. _Lanterns._--Modern lighthouse - lanterns usually consist of a cast iron or steel pedestal, cylindrical - in plan, on which is erected the lantern glazing, surmounted by a - domed roof and ventilator (fig. 41). Adequate ventilation is of great - importance, and is provided by means of ventilators in the pedestal - and a large ventilating dome or cowl in the roof. The astragals - carrying the glazing are of wrought steel or gun-metal. The astragals - are frequently arranged helically or diagonally, thus causing a - minimum of obstruction to the light rays in any vertical section and - affording greater rigidity to the structure. The glazing is usually - (1/4)-in. thick plate-glass curved to the radius of the lantern. In - situations of great exposure the thickness is increased. Lantern roofs - are of sheet steel or copper secured to steel or cast-iron rafter - frames. In certain instances it is found necessary to erect a grille - or network outside the lantern to prevent the numerous sea birds, - attracted by the light, from breaking the glazing by impact. Lanterns - vary in diameter from 5 ft. to 16 ft. or more, according to the size - of the optical apparatus. For first order apparatus a diameter of 12 - ft. or 14 ft. is usual. - - _Lightning Conductors._--The lantern and principal metallic structures - in a lighthouse are usually connected to a lightning conductor carried - either to a point below low water or terminating in an earth plate - embedded in wet ground. Conductors may be of copper tape or - copper-wire rope. - - _Rotating Machinery._--Flashing-light apparatus are rotated by - clockwork mechanism actuated by weights. The clocks are fitted with - speed governors and electric warning apparatus to indicate variation - in speed and when rewinding is required. For occulting apparatus - either weight clocks or spring clocks are employed. - - _Accommodation for Keepers, &c._--At rock and other isolated stations, - accommodation for the keepers is usually provided in the towers. In - the case of land lighthouses, dwellings are provided in close - proximity to the tower. The service or watch room should be situated - immediately under the lantern floor. Oil is usually stored in - galvanized steel tanks. A force pump is sometimes used for pumping oil - from the storage tanks to a service tank in the watch-room or lantern. - - 6. UNATTENDED LIGHTS AND BEACONS.--Until recent years no unattended - lights were in existence. The introduction of Pintsch's gas system in - the early 'seventies provided a means of illumination for beacons and - buoys of which large use has been made. Other illuminants are also in - use to a considerable extent. - - _Unattended Electric Lights._--In 1884 an iron beacon lighted by an - incandescent lamp supplied with current from a secondary battery was - erected on a tidal rock near Cadiz. A 28-day clock was arranged for - eclipsing the light between sunrise and sunset and automatically - cutting off the current at intervals to produce an occulting - characteristic. Several small dioptric apparatus illuminated with - incandescent electric lamps have been made by the firm of Barbier - Benard et Turenne of Paris, and supplied with current from batteries - of Daniell cells, with electric clockwork mechanism for occulting the - light. These apparatus have been fitted to beacons and buoys, and are - generally arranged to automatically switch off the current during the - day-time. They run unattended for periods up to two months. Two - separate lenses and lamps are usually provided, with lamp changer, - only one lamp being in circuit at a time. In the event of failure in - the upper lamp of the two the current automatically passes to the - lower lamp. - - [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Garvel Beacon.] - - _Oil-gas Beacons._--In 1881 a beacon automatically lighted by - Pintsch's compressed oil gas was erected on the river Clyde, and large - numbers of these structures have since been installed in all parts of - the world. The gas is contained in an iron or steel reservoir placed - within the beacon structure, refilled by means of a flexible hose on - the occasions of the periodical visits of the tender. The beacons, - which remain illuminated for periods up to three months are charged to - 7 atmospheres. Many lights are provided with occulting apparatus - actuated by the gas passing from the reservoir to the burner - automatically cutting off and turning on the supply. The Garvel beacon - (1899) on the Clyde is shown in fig. 46. The burner has 7 jets, and - the light is occulting. Since 1907 incandescent mantle burners for oil - gas have been largely used for beacon illumination, both for fixed and - occulting lights. - - Acetylene has also been used for the illumination of beacons and other - unattended lights. - - _Lindberg Lights._--In 1881-1882 several beacons lighted automatically - by volatile petroleum spirit on the Lindberg-Lyth and Lindberg-Trotter - systems were established in Sweden. Many lights of this type have - subsequently been placed in different parts of the world. The volatile - spirit lamp burns day and night. Occultations are produced by a screen - or series of screens rotated round the light by the ascending current - of heated air and gases from the lamp acting upon a horizontal fan. - The speed of rotation of the fan cannot be accurately adjusted, and - the times of occultation therefore are liable to slight variation. The - lights run unattended for periods up to twenty-one days. - - _Benson-Lee Lamps._--An improvement upon the foregoing is the - Benson-Lee lamp, in which a similar occulting arrangement is often - used, but the illuminant is paraffin consumed in a special burner - having carbon-tipped wicks which require no trimming. The flame - intensity of the light is greater than that of the burner consuming - light spirit. The introduction of paraffin also avoids the danger - attending the use of the more volatile spirit. Many of these lights - are in use on the Scottish coast. They are also used in other parts of - the United Kingdom, and in the United States, Canada and other - countries. - - _Permanent Wick Lights._--About 1891 the French Lighthouse Service - introduced petroleum lamps consuming ordinary high-flash lighthouse - oil, and burning without attention for periods of several months. The - burners are of special construction, provided with a very thick wick - which is in the first instance treated in such a manner as to cause - the formation of a deposit of carbonized tar on its exposed upper - surface. This crust prevents further charring of the wick after - ignition, the oil becoming vaporized from the under side of the crust. - Many fixed, occulting and flashing lights fitted with these burners - are established in France and other countries. In the case of the - occulting types a revolving screen is placed around the burner and - carried upon a miniature mercury float. The rotation is effected by - means of a small Gramme motor on a vertical axis, fitted with a speed - governor, and supplied with current from a battery of primary cells. - The oil reservoir is placed in the upper part of the lantern and - connected with the burner by a tube, to which is fitted a constant - level regulator for maintaining the burning level of the oil at a - fixed height. In the flashing or revolving light types the arrangement - is generally similar, the lenses being revolved upon a mercury float - which is rotated by the electric motor. The flashing apparatus - established at St Marcouf in 1901 has a beam intensity of 1000 - candle-power, and is capable of running unattended for three months. - The electric current employed for rotating the apparatus is supplied - by four Lalande and Chaperon primary cells, coupled in series, each - giving about 0.15 ampere at a voltage of 0.65. The power required to - work the apparatus is at the maximum about 0.165 ampere at 0.75 volt, - the large surplus of power which is provided for the sake of safety - being absorbed by a brake or governor connected with the motor. - - _Wigham Beacon Lights._--Wigham introduced an oil lamp for beacon and - buoy purposes consisting of a vertical container filled with ordinary - mineral oil or paraffin, and carrying a roller immediately under the - burner case over which a long flat wick passes. One end of the wick is - attached to a float which falls in the container as the oil is - consumed, automatically drawing a fresh portion of the wick over the - roller. The other end of the wick is attached to a free counterweight - which serves to keep it stretched. The oil burns from the convex - surface of the wick as it passes over the roller, a fresh portion - being constantly passed under the action of the flame. The light is - capable of burning without attention for thirty days. These lights are - also fitted with occulting screens on the Lindberg system. The - candle-power of the flame is small. - - - 7. LIGHT-VESSELS.--The earliest light-vessel placed in English waters - was that at the Nore in 1732. The early light-ships were of small size - and carried lanterns of primitive construction and small size - suspended from the yard-arms. Modern light-vessels are of steel, wood - or composite construction. Steel is now generally employed in new - ships. The wood and composite ships are sheathed with Muntz metal. The - dimensions of English light-vessels vary. The following may be taken - as the usual limits: - - Length 80 ft. to 114 ft. - Beam 20 ft. to 24 ft. - Depth moulded 13 ft. to 15 ft. 6 in. - Tonnage 155 to 280. - - The larger vessels are employed at outside and exposed stations, the - smaller ships being stationed in sheltered positions and in estuaries. - The moorings usually consist of 3-ton mushroom anchors and 1(5/8) open - link cables. The lanterns in common use are 8 ft. in diameter, - circular in form, with glazing 4 ft. in height. They are annular in - plan, surrounding the mast of the vessel upon which they are hoisted - for illumination, and are lowered to the deck level during the day. - Fixed lanterns mounted on hollow steel masts are now being used in - many services, and are gradually displacing the older type. The first - English light-vessel so equipped was constructed in 1904. Of the 87 - light-vessels in British waters, including unattended light-vessels, - eleven are in Ireland and six in Scotland. At the present time there - are over 750 light-vessels in service throughout the world. - - Until about 1895 the illuminating apparatus used in light-vessels was - exclusively of catoptric form, usually consisting of 21 in. or 24 in. - silvered parabolic reflectors, having 1, 2 or 3-wick mineral oil - burners in focus. The reflectors and lamps are hung in gimbals to - preserve the horizontal direction of the beams. - - The following table gives the intensity of beam obtained by means of a - type of reflector in general use: - - _21-in. Trinity House Parabolic Reflector_ - - Service Intensity - of Beam. - - Burners 1 wick "Douglass" 2715 candles - " 2 " (Catoptric) 4004 " - " 2 " (Dioptric) 6722 " - " 3 " 7528 " - - In revolving flashing lights two or more reflectors are arranged in - parallel in each face. Three, four or more faces or groups of - reflectors are arranged around the lantern in which they revolve, and - are carried upon a turn-table rotated by clockwork. The intensity of - the flashing beam is therefore equivalent to the combined intensities - of the beams emitted by the several reflectors in each face. The first - light-vessel with revolving light was placed at the Swin Middle at the - entrance to the Thames in 1837. Group-flashing characteristics can be - produced by special arrangements of the reflectors. Dioptric apparatus - is now being introduced in many new vessels, the first to be so fitted - in England being that stationed at the Swin Middle in 1905, the - apparatus of which is gas illuminated and gives a flash of 25,000 - candle-power. - - Fog signals, when provided on board light-vessels are generally in the - form of reed-horns or sirens, worked by compressed air. The - compressors are driven from steam or oil engines. The cost of a modern - type of English light-vessel, with power-driven compressed air siren, - is approximately L16,000. - - In the United States service, the more recently constructed vessels - have a displacement of 600 tons, each costing L18,000. They are - provided with self-propelling power and steam whistle fog signals. The - illuminating apparatus is usually in the form of small dioptric lens - lanterns suspended at the mast-head--3 or more to each mast, but a few - of the ships, built since 1907, are provided with fourth-order - revolving dioptric lights in fixed lanterns. There are 53 - light-vessels in service on the coasts of the United States with 13 - reserve ships. - - _Electrical Illumination._--An experimental installation of the - electric light placed on board a Mersey light-vessel in 1886 by the - Mersey Docks and Harbour Board proved unsuccessful. The United States - Lighthouse Board in 1892 constructed a light-vessel provided with a - powerful electric light, and moored her on the Cornfield Point station - in Long Island Sound. This vessel was subsequently placed off Sandy - Hook (1894) and transferred to the Ambrose Channel Station in 1907. - Five other light-vessels in the United States have since been provided - with incandescent electric lights--either with fixed or occulting - characteristics--including Nantucket Shoals (1896), Fire Island - (1897), Diamond Shoals (1898), Overfalls Shoal (1901) and San - Francisco (1902). - - _Gas Illumination._--In 1896 the French Lighthouse Service completed - the construction of a steel light-vessel (Talais), which was - ultimately placed at the mouth of the Gironde. The construction of - this vessel was the outcome of experiments carried out with a view to - produce an efficient light-vessel at moderate cost, lit by a dioptric - flashing light with incandescent oil-gas burner. The construction of - the Talais was followed by that of a second and larger vessel, the - Snouw, on similar lines, having a length of 65 ft. 6 in., beam 20 ft. - and a draught of 12 ft., with a displacement of 130 tons. The cost of - this vessel complete with optical apparatus and gasholders, with - accommodation for three men, was approximately L5000. The vessel was - built in 1898-1899.[3] A third vessel was constructed in 1901-1902 for - the Sandettie Bank on the general lines adopted for the preceding - examples of her class, but of the following increased dimensions: - length 115 ft.; width at water-line 20 ft. 6 in.; and draught 15 ft., - with a displacement of 342 tons (fig. 47). Accommodation is provided - for a crew of eight men. The optical apparatus (fig. 48) is dioptric, - consisting of 4 panels of 250 mm. focal distance, carried upon a - "Cardan" joint below the lens table, and counter-balanced by a heavy - pendulum weight. The apparatus is revolved by clockwork and - illuminated by compressed oil gas with incandescent mantle. The - candle-power of the beam is 35,000. The gas is contained in three - reservoirs placed in the hold. The apparatus is contained in a 6-ft. - lantern constructed at the head of a tubular mast 2 ft. 6 in. - diameter. A powerful siren is provided with steam engine and boiler - for working the air compressors. The total cost of the vessel, - including fog signal and optical apparatus, was L13,600. A vessel of - similar construction to the Talais was placed by the Trinity House in - 1905 on the Swin Middle station. The illuminant is oil gas. Gas - illuminated light-vessels have also been constructed for the German - and Chinese Lighthouse Service. - - _Unattended Light-vessels._--In 1881 an unattended light-vessel, - illuminated with Pintsch's oil gas, was constructed for the Clyde, and - is still in use at the Garvel Point. The light is occulting, and is - shown from a dioptric lens fitted at the head of a braced iron lattice - tower 30 ft. above water-level. The vessel is of iron, 40 ft. long, 12 - ft. beam and 8 ft. deep, and has a storeholder on board containing oil - gas under a pressure of six atmospheres capable of maintaining a light - for three months. A similar vessel is placed off Calshot Spit in - Southampton Water, and several have been constructed for the French - and other Lighthouse Services. The French boats are provided with deep - main and bilge keels similar to those adopted in the larger gas - illuminated vessels. In 1901 a light-vessel 60 ft. in length was - placed off the Otter Rock on the west coast of Scotland; it is - constructed of steel, 24 ft. beam, 12 ft. deep and draws 9 ft. of - water (fig. 49). The focal plane is elevated 25 ft. above the - water-line, and the lantern is 6 ft. in diameter. The optical - apparatus is of 500 mm. focal distance and hung in gimbals with a - pendulum balance and "Cardan" joint as in the Sandettie light-vessel. - The illuminant is oil gas, with an occulting characteristic. The - storeholder contains 10,500 cub. ft. of gas at eight atmospheres, - sufficient to supply the light for ninety days and nights. A bell is - provided, struck by clappers moved by the roll of the vessel. The cost - of the vessel complete was L2979. The Northern Lighthouse - Commissioners have four similar vessels in service, and others have - been stationed in the Hugli estuary, at Bombay, off the Chinese coasts - and elsewhere. In 1909 an unattended gas illuminated light-vessel - provided with a dioptric flashing apparatus was placed at the Lune - Deep in Morecambe Bay. It is also fitted with a fog bell struck - automatically by a gas operated mechanism. - - [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Sandettie Lightship.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 48.--Lantern of Sandettie Lightship.] - - _Electrical Communication of Light-vessels with the - Shore._--Experiments were instituted in 1886 at the Sunk light-vessel - off the Essex coast with the view to maintaining telephonic - communication with the shore by means of a submarine cable 9 m. in - length. Great difficulties were experienced in maintaining - communication during stormy weather, breakages in the cable being - frequent. These difficulties were subsequently partially overcome by - the employment of larger vessels and special moorings. Wireless - telegraphic installations have now (1910) superseded the cable - communications with light-vessels in English waters except in four - cases. Seven light-vessels, including the four off the Goodwin Sands, - are now fitted for wireless electrical communication with the shore. - - In addition many pile lighthouses and isolated rock and island - stations have been placed in electrical communication with the shore - by means of cables or wireless telegraphy. The Fastnet lighthouse was, - in 1894, electrically connected with the shore by means of a - non-continuous cable, it being found impossible to maintain a - continuous cable in shallow water near the rock owing to the heavy - wash of the sea. A copper conductor, carried down from the tower to - below low-water mark, was separated from the cable proper, laid on the - bed of the sea in a depth of 13 fathoms, by a distance of about 100 - ft. The lighthouse was similarly connected to earth on the opposite - side of the rock. The conductor terminated in a large copper plate, - and to the cable end was attached a copper mushroom. Weak currents - were induced in the lighthouse conductor by the main current in the - cable, and messages received in the tower by the help of electrical - relays. On the completion of the new tower on the Fastnet Rock in 1906 - this installation was superseded by a wireless telegraphic - installation. - - -8. DISTRIBUTION AND DISTINCTION OF LIGHTS, &c.--_Methods of -Distinction._--The following are the various light characteristics which -may be exhibited to the mariner:-- - -_Fixed._--Showing a continuous or steady light. Seldom used in modern -lighthouses and generally restricted to small port or harbour lights. A -fixed light is liable to be confused with lights of shipping or other -shore lights. - -_Flashing._[4]--Showing a single flash, the duration of darkness always -being greater than that of light. This characteristic or that -immediately following is generally adopted for important lights. The -French authorities have given the name _Feux-Eclair_ to flashing lights -of short duration. - -_Group-Flashing._--Showing groups of two or more flashes in quick -succession (not necessarily of the same colour) separated by eclipses -with a larger interval of darkness between the groups. - -_Fixed and Flashing._--Fixed light varied by a single white or coloured -flash, which may be preceded and followed by a short eclipse. This type -of light, in consequence of the unequal intensities of the beams, is -unreliable, and examples are now seldom installed although many are -still in service. - -_Fixed and Group-Flashing._--Similar to the preceding and open to the -same objections. - -_Revolving._--This term is still retained in the "Lists of Lights" -issued by the Admiralty and some other authorities to denote a light -gradually increasing to full effect, then decreasing to eclipse. At -short distances and in clear weather a faint continuous light may be -observed. There is no essential difference between revolving and -flashing lights, the distinction being merely due to the speed of -rotation, and the term might well be abandoned as in the United States -lighthouse list. - -_Occulting._--A continuous light with, at regular intervals, one sudden -and total eclipse, the duration of light always being equal to or -greater than that of darkness. This characteristic is usually exhibited -by fixed dioptric apparatus fitted with some form of occulting -mechanism. Many lights formerly of fixed characteristic have been -converted to occulting. - -_Group Occulting._--A continuous light with, at regular intervals, -groups of two or more sudden and total eclipses. - -_Alternating._--Lights of different colours (generally red and white) -alternately without any intervening eclipse. This characteristic is not -to be recommended for reasons which have already been referred to. Many -of the permanent and unwatched lights on the coasts of Norway and Sweden -are of this description. - -_Colour._--The colours usually adopted for lights are white, red and -green. White is to be preferred whenever possible, owing to the great -absorption of light by the use of red or green glass screens. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Otter Rock Light-vessel.] - -_Sectors._--Coloured lights are often requisite to distinguish cuts or -sectors, and should be shown from fixed or occulting light apparatus and -not from flashing apparatus. In marking the passage through a channel, -or between sandbanks or other dangers, coloured light sectors are -arranged to cover the dangers, white light being shown over the fairway -with sufficient margin of safety between the edges of the coloured -sectors next the fairway and the dangers. - - _Choice of Characteristic and Description of Apparatus._--In - determining the choice of characteristic for a light due regard must - be paid to existing lights in the vicinity. No light should be placed - on a coast line having a characteristic the same as, or similar to, - another in its neighbourhood unless one or more lights of dissimilar - characteristic, and at least as high power and range, intervene. In - the case of "landfall lights" the characteristic should differ from - any other within a range of 100 m. In narrow seas the distance between - lights of similar characteristic may be less. Landfall lights are, in - a sense, the most important of all and the most powerful apparatus - available should be installed at such stations. The distinctive - characteristic of a light should be such that it may be readily - determined by a mariner without the necessity of accurately timing the - period or duration of flashes. For landfall and other important coast - stations flashing dioptric apparatus of the first order (920 mm. focal - distance) with powerful burners are required. In countries where the - atmosphere is generally clear and fogs are less prevalent than on the - coasts of the United Kingdom, second or third order lights suffice for - landfalls having regard to the high intensities available by the use - of improved illuminants. Secondary coast lights may be of second, - third or fourth order of flashing character, and important harbour - lights of third or fourth order. Less important harbours and places - where considerable range is not required, as in estuaries and narrow - seas, may be lighted by flashing lights of fourth order or smaller - size. Where sectors are requisite, occulting apparatus should be - adopted for the main light; or subsidiary lights, fixed or occulting, - may be exhibited from the same tower as the main light but at a lower - level. In such cases the vertical distance between the high and the - low light must be sufficient to avoid commingling of the two beams at - any range at which both lights are visible. Such commingling or - blending is due to atmospheric aberration. - - _Range of Lights._--The range of a light depends first on its - elevation above sea-level and secondly on its intensity. Most - important lights are of sufficient power to render them visible at the - full geographical range in clear weather. On the other hand there are - many harbour and other lights which do not meet this condition. - - The distances given in lists of lights from which lights are - visible--except in the cases of lights of low power for the reason - given above--are usually calculated in nautical miles as seen from a - height of 15 ft. above sea-level, the elevation of the lights being - taken as above high water. Under certain atmospheric conditions, and - especially with the more powerful lights, the glare of the light may - be visible considerably beyond the calculated range. - - TABLE III.--_Distances at which Objects can be seen at Sea, - according to their Respective Elevations and the Elevation of the - Eye of the Observer._ (A. Stevenson.) - - +--------+------------+---------------------+ - | |Distances in| |Distances in| - |Heights |Geographical|Heights |Geographical| - |in Feet.|or Nautical |in Feet.|or Nautical | - | | Miles. | | Miles. | - +--------+------------+--------+------------+ - | 5 | 2.565 | 110 | 12.03 | - | 10 | 3.628 | 120 | 12.56 | - | 15 | 4.443 | 130 | 13.08 | - | 20 | 5.130 | 140 | 13.57 | - | 25 | 5.736 | 150 | 14.02 | - | 30 | 6.283 | 200 | 16.22 | - | 35 | 6.787 | 250 | 18.14 | - | 40 | 7.255 | 300 | 19.87 | - | 45 | 7.696 | 350 | 21.46 | - | 50 | 8.112 | 400 | 22.94 | - | 55 | 8.509 | 450 | 24.33 | - | 60 | 8.886 | 500 | 25.65 | - | 65 | 9.249 | 550 | 26.90 | - | 70 | 9.598 | 600 | 28.10 | - | 75 | 9.935 | 650 | 29.25 | - | 80 | 10.26 | 700 | 30.28 | - | 85 | 10.57 | 800 | 32.45 | - | 90 | 10.88 | 900 | 34.54 | - | 95 | 11.18 | 1000 | 36.28 | - | 100 | 11.47 | | | - +--------+------------+--------+------------+ - - EXAMPLE: A tower 200 ft. high will be visible 20.66 nautical miles - to an observer, whose eye is elevated 15 ft. above the water; thus, - from the table: - - 15 ft. elevation, distance visible 4.44 nautical miles - 200 " " 16.22 " - ----- - 20.66 " - - _Elevation of Lights._--The elevation of the light above sea-level - need not, in the case of landfall lights, exceed 200 ft., which is - sufficient to give a range of over 20 nautical miles. One hundred and - fifty feet is usually sufficient for coast lights. Lights placed on - high headlands are liable to be enveloped in banks of fog at times - when at a lower level the atmosphere is comparatively clear (e.g. - Beachy Head). No definite rule can, however, be laid down, and local - circumstances, such as configuration of the coast line, must be taken - into consideration in every case. - - _Choice of Site._--"Landfall" stations should receive first - consideration and the choice of location for such a light ought never - to be made subservient to the lighting of the approaches to a port. - Subsidiary lights are available for the latter purpose. Lights - installed to guard shoals, reefs or other dangers should, when - practicable, be placed seaward of the danger itself, as it is - desirable that seamen should be able to "make" the light with - confidence. Sectors marking dangers seaward of the light should not - be employed except when the danger is in the near vicinity of the - light. Outlying dangers require marking by a light placed on the - danger or by a floating light in its vicinity. - - [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Spar Gas Buoy.] - - - 9. ILLUMINATED BUOYS.--_Gas Buoys._ Pintsch's oil gas has been in use - for the illumination of buoys since 1878. In 1883 an automatic - occulter was perfected, worked by the gas passing from the reservoir - to the burner. The lights placed on these buoys burn continuously for - three or more months. The buoys and lanterns are made in various forms - and sizes. The spar buoy (fig. 50) may be adopted for situations where - strong tides or currents prevail. Oil gas lights are frequently fitted - to Courtenay whistling (fig. 51) and bell buoys. - - In the ordinary type of gas buoy lantern the burner employed is of the - multiple-jet, Argand ring, or incandescent type. Incandescent mantles - have been applied to buoy lights in France with successful results. - Since 1906, and more recently the same system of illumination has been - adopted in England and other countries. The lenses employed are of - cylindrical dioptric fixed-light form, usually 100 mm. to 300 mm. - diameter. Some of the largest types of gas-buoy in use on the French - coast have an elevation from water level to the focal plane of over 26 - ft. with a beam intensity of more than 1000 candles. A large gas-buoy - with an elevation of 34 ft. to the focal plane was placed at the - entrance to the Gironde in 1907. It has an incandescent burner and - exhibits a light of over 1500 candles. Oil gas forms the most - trustworthy and efficient illuminant for buoy purposes yet introduced, - and the system has been largely adopted by lighthouse and harbour - authorities. - - There are now over 2000 buoys fitted with oil gas apparatus, in - addition to 600 beacons, light-vessels and boats. - - _Electric Lit Buoys._--Buoys have been fitted with electric light, - both fixed and occulting. Six electrically lit spar-buoys were laid - down in the Gedney channel, New York lower bay, in 1888. These were - illuminated by 100 candle-power Swan lamps with continuous current - supplied by cable from a power station on shore. The wear and tear of - the cables caused considerable trouble and expense. In 1895 - alternating current was introduced. The installation was superseded by - gas lit buoys in 1904. - - _Acetylene and Oil Lighted Buoys._--Acetylene has been extensively - employed for the lighting of buoys in Canada and in the United States; - to a less extent it has also been adopted in other countries. Both the - low pressure system, by which the acetylene gas is produced by an - automatic generator, and the so-called high pressure system in which - purified acetylene is held in solution in a high pressure gasholder - filled with asbestos composition saturated with acetone, have been - employed for illuminating buoys and beacons. Wigham oil lamps are also - used to a limited extent for buoy lighting. - - _Bell Buoys._--One form of clapper actuated by the roll of the buoy - (shown in fig. 52) consists of a hardened steel ball placed in a - horizontal phosphor-bronze cylinder provided with rubber buffers. - Three of these cylinders are arranged around the mouth of the fixed - bell, which is struck by the balls rolling backwards and forwards as - the buoy moves. Another form of bell mechanism consists of a fixed - bell with three or more suspended clappers placed externally which - strike the bell when the buoy rolls. - - [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Courtenay's Automatic Whistling Buoy. - - A, Cylinder, 27 ft. 6 in. long. - B, Mooring shackle. - C, Rudder. - D, Buoy. - E, Diaphragm. - F, Ball valves. - G, Air inlet tubes. - H, Air (compressed outlet tube to whistle). - I, Compressed air inlet to buoy. - K, Manhole. - L, Steps. - N, Whistle.] - - - 10. FOG SIGNALS.--The introduction of coast fog signals is of - comparatively recent date. They were, until the middle of the 19th - century, practically unknown except so far as a few isolated bells and - guns were concerned. The increasing demands of navigation, and the - application of steam power to the propulsion of ships resulting in an - increase of their speed, drew attention to the necessity of providing - suitable signals as aids to navigation during fog and mist. In times - of fog the mariner can expect no certain assistance from even the - most efficient system of coast lighting, since the beams of light from - the most powerful electric lighthouse are frequently entirely - dispersed and absorbed by the particles of moisture, forming a sea fog - of even moderate density, at a distance of less than a 1/4 m. from the - shore. The careful experiments and scientific research which have been - devoted to the subject of coast fog-signalling have produced much that - is useful and valuable to the mariner, but unfortunately the practical - results so far have not been so satisfactory as might be desired, - owing to (1) the very short range of the most powerful signals yet - produced under certain unfavourable acoustic conditions of the - atmosphere, (2) the difficulty experienced by the mariner in judging - at any time how far the atmospheric conditions are against him in - listening for the expected signal, and (3) the difficulty in locating - the position of a sound signal by phonic observations. - - [Illustration: FIG. 52.--Buoy Bell.] - - _Bells and Gongs_ are the oldest and, generally speaking, the least - efficient forms of fog signals. Under very favourable acoustic - conditions the sounds are audible at considerable ranges. On the other - hand, 2-ton bells have been inaudible at distances of a few hundred - yards. The 1893 United States trials showed that a bell weighing 4000 - lb. struck by a 450 lb. hammer was heard at a distance of 14 m. across - a gentle breeze and at over 9 m. against a 10-knot breeze. Bells are - frequently used for beacon and buoy signals, and in some cases at - isolated rock and other stations where there is insufficient - accommodation for sirens and horns, but their use is being gradually - discontinued in this country for situations where a powerful signal - is required. Gongs, usually of Chinese manufacture, were formerly in - use on board English light-ships and are still used to some extent - abroad. These are being superseded by more powerful sound instruments. - - _Explosive Signals._--Guns were long used at many lighthouse and - light-vessel stations in England, and are still in use in Ireland and - at some foreign stations. These are being gradually displaced by other - explosive or compressed air signals. No explosive signals are in use - on the coasts of the United States. In 1878 sound rockets charged with - gun-cotton were first used at Flamborough Head and were afterwards - supplied to many other stations.[5] The nitrated gun-cotton or tonite - signals now in general use are made up in 4 oz. charges. These are - hung at the end of an iron jib or pole attached to the lighthouse - lantern or other structure, and fired by means of a detonator and - electric battery. The discharge may take place within 12 ft. of a - structure without danger. The cartridges are stored for a considerable - period without deterioration and with safety. This form of signal is - now very generally adopted for rock and other stations in Great - Britain, Canada, Newfoundland, northern Europe and other parts of the - world. An example will be noticed in the illustration of the Bishop - Rock lighthouse, attached to the lantern (fig. 13). Automatic hoisting - and firing appliances are also in use. - - _Whistles._--Whistles, whether sounded by air or steam, are not used - in Great Britain, except in two instances of harbour signals under - local control. It has been objected that their sound has too great a - resemblance to steamers' whistles, and they are wasteful of power. In - the United States and Canada they are largely used. The whistle - usually employed consists of a metallic dome or bell against which the - high-pressure steam impinges. Rapid vibrations are set up both in the - metal of the bell and in the internal air, producing a shrill note. - The Courtenay buoy whistle, already referred to, is an American - invention and finds favour in the United States, France, Germany and - elsewhere. - - _Reed-Horns._--These instruments in their original form were the - invention of C. L. Daboll, an experimental horn of his manufacture - being tried in 1851 by the United States Lighthouse Board. In 1862 the - Trinity House adopted the instrument for seven land and light-vessel - stations. For compressing air for the reed-horns as well as sirens, - caloric, steam, gas and oil engines have been variously used, - according to local circumstances. The reed-horn was improved by - Professor Holmes, and many examples from his designs are now in use in - England and America. At the Trinity House experiments with fog signals - at St Catherine's (1901) several types of reed-horn were experimented - with. The Trinity House service horn uses air at 15 lb. pressure with - a consumption of .67 cub. ft. per second and 397 vibrations. A small - manual horn of the Trinity House type consumes .67 cub. ft. of air at - 5 lb. pressure. The trumpets of the latter are of brass. - - _Sirens._--The most powerful and efficient of all compressed air fog - signals is the siren. The principle of this instrument may be briefly - explained as follows:--It is well known that if the tympanic membrane - is struck periodically and with sufficient rapidity by air impulses or - waves a musical sound is produced. Robinson was the first to construct - an instrument by which successive puffs of air under pressure were - ejected from the mouth of a pipe. He obtained this effect by using a - stop-cock revolving at high speed in such a manner that 720 pulsations - per second were produced by the intermittent escape of air through the - valves or ports, a smooth musical note being given. Cagniard de la - Tour first gave such an instrument the name of siren, and constructed - it in the form of an air chamber with perforated lid or cover, the - perforations being successively closed and opened by means of a - similarly perforated disk fitted to the cover and revolving at high - speed. The perforations being cut at an angle, the disk was - self-rotated by the oblique pressure of the air in escaping through - the slots. H. W. Dove and Helmholtz introduced many improvements, and - Brown of New York patented, about 1870, a steam siren with two disks - having radial perforations or slots. The cylindrical form of the siren - now generally adopted is due to Slight, who used two concentric - cylinders, one revolving within the other, the sides being perforated - with vertical slots. To him is also due the centrifugal governor - largely used to regulate the speed of rotation of the siren. Over the - siren mouth is placed a conical trumpet to collect and direct the - sound in the desired direction. In the English service these trumpets - are generally of considerable length and placed vertically, with bent - top and bell mouth. Those at St Catherine's are of cast-iron with - copper bell mouth, and have a total axial length of 22 ft. They are 5 - in. in diameter at the siren mouth, the bell mouth being 6 ft. in - diameter. At St Catherine's the sirens are two in number, 5 in. in - diameter, being sounded simultaneously and in unison (fig. 53). Each - siren is provided with ports for producing a high note as well as a - low note, the two notes being sounded in quick succession once every - minute. The trumpet mouths are separated by an angle of 120 deg. - between their axes. This double form has been adopted in certain - instances where the angle desired to be covered by the sound is - comparatively wide. In Scotland the cylindrical form is used - generally, either automatically or motor driven. By the latter means - the admission of air to the siren can be delayed until the cylinder is - rotating at full speed, and a much sharper sound is produced than in - the case of the automatic type. The Scottish trumpets are frequently - constructed so that the greater portion of the length is horizontal. - The Girdleness trumpet has an axial length of 16 ft., 11 ft. 6 in. - being horizontal. The trumpet is capable of being rotated through an - angle as well as dipped below the horizon. It is of cast-iron, no bell - mouth is used, and the conical mouth is 4 ft. in diameter. In France - the sirens are cylindrical and very similar to the English self-driven - type. The trumpets have a short axial length, 4 ft. 6 in., and are of - brass, with bent bell mouth. The Trinity House has in recent years - reintroduced the use of disk sirens, with which experiments are still - being carried out both in the United Kingdom and abroad. For - light-vessels and rock stations where it is desired to distribute the - sound equally in all directions the mushroom-head trumpet is - occasionally used. The Casquets trumpet of this type is 22 ft. in - length, of cast-iron, with a mushroom top 6 ft. in diameter. In cases - where neither the mushroom trumpet nor the twin siren is used the - single bent trumpet is arranged to rotate through a considerable - angle. Table IV. gives particulars of a few typical sirens of the most - recent form. - - [Illustration: FIG. 53.--St Catherine's Double-noted Siren.] - - - TABLE IV. - - +-----------------------+----------------------+----------+---------+----------------+--------------------+ - | | | |Sounding |Cub. ft. of air | | - | | |Vibrations|Pressure |used per sec. of| | - | Station. | Description. | per sec. |in lb per| blast reduced | Remarks. | - | | | | sq. in. | to atmospheric | | - | | | | | pressure. | | - +-----------------------+----------------------+-----+----+---------+-------+--------+--------------------+ - | | |High.|Low.| | High. | Low. | | - |St Catherine's (Trinity|Two 5-in. cylindrical,| 295 | 182| 25 | 32 | 16 |The air consumption | - | House) | automatically driven| | | | | | is for 2 sirens. | - | | sirens | | | | | | | - |Girdleness (N.L.C) |7-in. cylindrical | 234 | 100| 30 | 130 | 26 | | - | | siren, motor driven | | | | | | | - |Casquets (Trinity |7-in. disk siren, | .. | 98| 25 | .. | 36 | | - | House) | motor driven | | | | | | | - |French pattern siren |6-in. cylindrical | 326 | .. | 28 | 14 | .. |A uniform note of | - | | siren, automatically| | | | | | 326 vibrations per| - | | driven | | | | | | sec. has now been | - | | | | | | | | adopted generally | - | | | | | | | | in France. | - +-----------------------+----------------------+-----+----+---------+-------+--------+--------------------+ - - Since the first trial of the siren at the South Foreland in 1873 a - very large number of these instruments have been established both at - lighthouse stations and on board light-vessels. In all cases in Great - Britain and France they are now supplied with air compressed by steam - or other mechanical power. In the United States and some other - countries steam, as well as compressed air, sirens are in use. - - _Diaphones._--The diaphone is a modification of the siren, which has - been largely used in Canada since 1903 in place of the siren. It is - claimed that the instrument emits a note of more constant pitch than - does the siren. The distinction between the two instruments is that in - the siren a revolving drum or disk alternately opens and closes - elongated air apertures, while in the diaphone a piston pulsating at - high velocity serves to alternately cover and uncover air slots in a - cylinder. - - _The St Catherine's Experiments._--Extensive trials were carried out - during 1901 by the Trinity House at St Catherine's lighthouse, Isle of - Wight, with several types of sirens and reed-horns. Experiments were - also made with different pattern of trumpets, including forms having - elliptical sections, the long axis being placed vertically. The - conclusions of the committee may be briefly summarized as follows: (1) - When a large arc requires to be guarded two fixed trumpets suitably - placed are more effective than one large trumpet capable of being - rotated. (2) When the arc to be guarded is larger than that - effectively covered by two trumpets, the mushroom-head trumpet is a - satisfactory instrument for the purpose. (3) A siren rotated by a - separate motor yields better results than when self-driven. (4) No - advantage commensurate with the additional power required is obtained - by the use of air at a higher pressure than 25 lb. per sq. in. (5) The - number of vibrations per second produced by the siren or reed should - be in unison with the proper note of the associated trumpet. (6) When - two notes of different pitch are employed the difference between these - should, if possible, be an octave. (7) For calm weather a low note is - more suitable than a high note, but when sounding against the wind and - with a rough and noisy sea a high note has the greater range. (8) From - causes which cannot be determined at the time or predicted beforehand, - areas sometimes exist in which the sounds of fog signals may be - greatly enfeebled or even lost altogether. This effect was more - frequently observed during comparatively calm weather and at no great - distance from the signal station. (It has often been observed that the - sound of a signal may be entirely lost within a short distance of the - source, while heard distinctly at a greater distance and at the same - time.) (9) The siren was the most effective signal experimented with; - the reed-horn, although inferior in power, is suitable for situations - of secondary importance. (No explosive signals were under trial during - the experiments.) (10) A fog signal, owing to the uncertainty - attending its audibility, must be regarded only as an auxiliary aid to - navigation which cannot at all times be relied upon. - - _Submarine Bell Signals._--As early as 1841 J. D. Colladon conducted - experiments on the lake of Geneva to test the suitability of water as - a medium for transmission of sound signals and was able to convey - distinctly audible sounds through water for a distance of over 21 m., - but it was not until 1904 that any successful practical application of - this means of signalling was made in connexion with light-vessels. - There are at present (1910) over 120 submarine bells in service, - principally in connexion with light-vessels, off the coasts of the - United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Germany, France and other - countries. These bells are struck by clappers actuated by pneumatic or - electrical mechanism. Other submerged bells have been fitted to buoys - and beacon structures, or placed on the sea bed; in the former case - the bell is actuated by the motion of the buoy and in others by - electric current, transmitted by cable from the shore. In some cases, - when submarine bells are associated with gas buoys or beacons, the - compressed gas is employed to actuate the bell striking mechanism. To - take full advantage of the signals thus provided it is necessary for - ships approaching them to be fitted with special receiving mechanism - of telephonic character installed below the water line and in contact - with the hull plating. The signals are audible by the aid of ear - pieces similar to ordinary telephone receivers. Not only can the bell - signals be heard at considerable distances--frequently over 10 m.--and - in all conditions of weather, but the direction of the bell in - reference to the moving ship can be determined within narrow limits. - The system is likely to be widely extended and many merchant vessels - and war ships have been fitted with signal receiving mechanism. - - The following table (V.) gives the total numbers of fog signals of - each class in use on the 1st of January 1910 in certain countries. - - TABLE V. - - +----------------------------+-------+------+--------------+------+---------+-----+------+------+------+-------+ - | | | | Horns, | |Explosive| | | |Subm- | | - | |Sirens.| Diap-| Trumpets, &c.| Whis-| Signals |Guns.|Bells.|Gongs.|arine |Totals.| - | | | hone.+------+-------+ tles.| (tonite,| | | |Bells.| | - | | | |Power.|Manual.| | &c.). | | | | | | - +----------------------------+-------+------+------+-------+------+---------+-----+------+------+------+-------+ - | England and Channel Islands| 44 | .. | 27 | 31 | 2 | 15 | .. | 48 | 10 | 16 | 193 | - | Scotland and Isle of Man | 35 | .. | 6 | 2 | .. | 5 | .. | 16 | 3 | .. | 67 | - | Ireland | 12 | .. | 2 | 6 | .. | 11 | 3 | 11 | .. | 3 | 48 | - | France | 12 | .. | 7 | 1 | .. | 1 | .. | 25 | .. | 2 | 48 | - | United States (excluding | | | | | | | | | | | | - | inland lakes and rivers) | 43 | .. | 35 | 15 | 59 | .. | .. | 218 | 1 | 36 | 407 | - | British North America | | | | | | | | | | | | - | (excluding inland lakes | | | | | | | | | | | | - | and rivers) | 6 | 66 | 5 | 79 | 16 | 8 | .. | 24 | .. | 11 | 215 | - +----------------------------+-------+------+--------------+------+---------+-----+------+------+------+-------+ - - When two kinds of signal are employed at any one station, one being - subsidiary, the latter is omitted from the enumeration. Buoy and - unattended beacon bells and whistles are also omitted, but local port - and harbour signals not under the immediate jurisdiction of the - various lighthouse boards are included, more especially in Great - Britain. - - -11. LIGHTHOUSE ADMINISTRATION. The principal countries of the world -possess organized and central authorities responsible for the -installation and maintenance of coast lights and fog signals, buoys and -beacons. - - _United Kingdom._--In England the corporation of Trinity House, or - according to its original charter, "The Master Wardens, and Assistants - of the Guild Fraternity or Brotherhood of the most glorious and - undivided Trinity and of St Clement, in the Parish of Deptford Strond, - in the county of Kent," existed in the reign of Henry VII. as a - religious house with certain duties connected with pilotage, and was - incorporated during the reign of Henry VIII. In 1565 it was given - certain rights to maintain beacons, &c., but not until 1680 did it own - any lighthouses. Since that date it has gradually purchased most of - the ancient privately owned lighthouses and has erected many new ones. - The act of 1836 gave the corporation control of English coast lights - with certain supervisory powers over the numerous local lighting - authorities, including the Irish and Scottish Boards. The corporation - now consists of a Master, Deputy-master, and 22 Elder Brethren (10 of - whom are honorary), together with an unlimited number of Younger - Brethren, who, however, perform no executive duties. In Scotland and - the Isle of Man the lights are under the control of the Commissioners - of Northern Lighthouses constituted in 1786 and incorporated in 1798. - The lighting of the Irish coast is in the hands of the Commissioners - of Irish Lights formed in 1867 in succession to the old Dublin Ballast - Board. The principal local light boards in the United Kingdom are the - Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, and the Clyde Lighthouse Trustees. The - three general lighthouse boards of the United Kingdom, by the - provision of the Mercantile Marine Act of 1854, are subordinate to the - Board of Trade, which controls all finances. - - On the 1st of January 1910 the lights, fog signals and submarine bells - in service under the control of the several authorities in the United - Kingdom were as follows: - - +----------------------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+ - | |Light- | Light- | Fog |Submarine| - | |houses.|vessels.|Signals.| Bells. | - +----------------------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+ - | Trinity House | 116 | 51 | 97 | 12 | - | Northern Lighthouse Commissioners| 138 | 5 | 44 | .. | - | Irish Lights Commissioners | 93 | 11 | 35 | 3 | - | Mersey Docks and Harbour Board | 16 | 6 | 13 | 2 | - | Admiralty | 31 | 2 | 6 | .. | - | Clyde Lighthouse Trustees | 14 | 1 | 5 | .. | - | Other local lighting authorities | 809 | 11 | 89 | 2 | - | +-------+--------+--------+---------+ - | Totals | 1217 | 87 | 289 | 19 | - +----------------------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+ - - Some small harbour and river lights of subsidiary character are not - included in the above total. - - _United States._--The United States Lighthouse Board was constituted - by act of Congress in 1852. The Secretary of Commerce and Labor is the - ex-officio president. The board consists of two officers of the navy, - two engineer officers of the army, and two civilian scientific - members, with two secretaries, one a naval officer, the other an - officer of engineers in the army. The members are appointed by the - president of the United States. The coast-line of the states, with the - lakes and rivers and Porto Rico, is divided into 16 executive - districts for purposes of administration. - - The following table shows the distribution of lighthouses, - light-vessels, &c., maintained by the lighthouse board in the United - States in June 1909. In addition there are a few small lights and - buoys privately maintained. - - Lighthouses and beacon lights 1333 - Light-vessels in position 53 - Light-vessels for relief 13 - Gas lighted buoys in position 94 - Fog signals operated by steam or oil engines 228 - Fog signals operated by clockwork, &c. 205 - Submarine signals 43 - Post lights 2333 - Day or unlighted beacons 1157 - Bell buoys in position 169 - Whistling buoys in position 94 - Other buoys 5760 - Steam tenders 51 - Constructional Staff 318 - Light keepers; and light attendants 3137 - Officers and crews of light-vessels and tenders 1693 - - _France._--The lighthouse board of France is known as the Commission - des Phares, dating from 1792 and remodelled in 1811, and is under the - direction of the minister of public works. It consists of four - engineers, two naval officers and one member of the Institute, one - inspector-general of marine engineers, and one hydrographic engineer. - The chief executive officers are an Inspecteur General des Ponts et - Chaussees, who is director of the board, and another engineer of the - same corps, who is engineer-in-chief and secretary. The board has - control of about 750 lights, including those of Corsica, Algeria, &c. - A similar system has been established in Spain. - - - TABLE VI.--_Electric Lighthouse Apparatus._ - - +--------------------------+-----------------+-----+----------+-----------+----------+-------------+-------+----+--------+--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+-------+---------------------------------------------------+ - | | | P | | | | | C | V | C | | | | | | | - | | | e | | | | Ratio of | u | o | a | | | | | | | - | | | r | | Candle- | Focal | Angular | r | l | r | | | |Elevation| Year | | - | Name. | Characteristic. | i | Duration | power | Distance | Breadth of | r | t | b | Electric | Lamps. |Engines.| above | Estab-| Remarks. | - | | | o | of Flash.| (Service | of Lens. | Panel to | e | a | o | Generators. | | | High |lished.| | - | | | d | |Intensity).| |Whole Circle.| n | g | n | | | | Water. | | | - | | | . | | | | | t | e | s | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | . | . | . | | | | | | | - +--------------------------+-----------------+-----+----------+-----------+----------+-------------+-------+----+--------+--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+-------+---------------------------------------------------+ - | | | | | Standard | | | | | | | | | | | | - |UNITED KINGDOM-- | |Secs.| Secs. | Candles. | mm. | | Amps. | | mm. | | | | Feet. | | | - | Souter Point | Single flash | 30 | 5 | | 500 | 1 : 8 | .. | 40 | 17 | Holmes machines, | Serrin | Steam | 150 | 1871 |Fixed light apparatus, with revolving vertical | - | (Durham) | | | |\ C n | | | | | | alternating (400 revs.) | | | | | condensing lenses in eight panels. | - | South Foreland | Single flash | 2.5| .35 || a o d | 700 | 1 : 16 | .. | 40 | 26 | do. | Serrin | Steam | 374 | 1904 |Lens elements only; 97 deg. vertical angle. | - | (Kent) | | | || n t e | | | | | | | | | | | (This apparatus was in use at St Catherine's, | - | | | | || d t | | | | | | | | | | |1888 to 1904, and replaced the two fixed electric | - | | | | || l o e | | | | | | | | | | |lights established in 1872.) | - | Lizard | Single flash | 3 | .13 || e f r | 700 | 1 : 4 |145 for| 40 | 50 and | De Meritens alternators | Modified | Oil | 230 | 1903 | Mercury rotation; vertical angle, 139 deg. | - | (Cornwall) | | | | > - f m | | | 50 mm.| | 60 | (600 revs.) | Berjot- | engines| | | Replaced the two fixed electric lights erected | - | | | | || p i i | | |carbons| | fluted | | Serrin | | | | in 1878. | - | St Catherine's | Single flash | 5 | .21 || o c n | 700 | 1 : 4 |145 for| 40 | 50 and | do. | do. |2 Steam,| 136 | 1904 |Mercury rotation; vertical angle, 139 deg. | - | (Isle of Wight) | | | || w i e | | | 50 mm.| | 60 | | | each 50| | | | - | | | | || e a d | | |carbons| | fluted | | | h.p. | | | | - | Isle of May | 4 flash | 30 | .4 || r l . | 700 | 1 : 8 | 220 | 40 | 40 | do. | Berjot- | Steam | 240 | 1886 |Fixed light apparatus, with revolving vertical | - | (Firth of Forth) | | | || l | (Fixed | | | | | | Serrin | | | | condensing lenses. | - | | | | |/ y |apparatus)| | | | | | | | | | | - |FRANCE-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Dunkerque | 2 flash | 10 | .2 to .4 | 3,500,000 | 300 | 1 : 12 | 30 | 45 | 14 and |2 De Meritens alternators,| Improved | 2 Semi-| 193 | 1902 |Twelve panels in groups of two. | - | (Strait of Dover) | | | | to | | | and | | 18 | each of 5.5 k.w. | Serrin |portable| | | (This apparatus was in use at Barfleur, 1893 | - | | | | | 6,500,000 | | | 60 | | | (550 revs.) | | steam, | | |to 1902.) | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | each 30| | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | i.h.p. | | | | - | Calais | 4 flash | 15 | .75 | 900,000 | 300 | 1 : 24 | 60 | 45 | 18 | do. | French | do. | 190 | 1883 |Fixed light apparatus, with revolving vertical | - | (Strait of Dover) | | | | | | | | | | | Service | | | | condensing prisms. | - | [Les Baleines (1882) | | | | | | | | | | | pattern | | | | | - | similar] | | | | | | | | | | | (1902) | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Cap Gris-nez | Single flash | 5 |.10 to .14| 15,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 60 | 45 | 18 and | do. | do. | Steam | 233 | 1899 |Twin optic, mercury rotation. | - | (Strait of Dover) | | | | to | | | to | | 28 | | | | | | (This light superseded a triple-flashing electric| - | | | | | 30,000,000| | | 120 | | | | | | | |light, with intermediate red flash, of the Calais | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |type, established in 1885. The first installation | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |of the electric light at this station was in 1869.)| - | La Canche | 2 flash | 10 |.10 to .14| 15,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 30 | 45 | 14 and | do. | do. | do. | 174 | 1900 |Twin optic, mercury rotation. | - | (Strait of Dover) | | | | to | | | to | | 18 | | | | | | (This light superseded a fixed electric light | - | | | | | 30,000,000| | | 60 | | | | | | | |established in 1884.) | - | Cap de la Heve | Single flash | 5 |.10 to .14| 10,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 60 | 45 | 18 and | De Meritens alternators | Improved | do. | 397 | 1893 | Mercury rotation. | - | (Havre, English | | | | to | | | to | | 28 | (550 revs.) | Serrin | | | | (The first installation of electric light at this| - | Channel) | | | | 20,000,000| | | 120 | | | | | | | |lighthouse was in 1863.) | - | [Ile d'Yeu in the Bay | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | of Biscay (1895) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | similar] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Creac'h d'Ouessant | 2 flash | 10 |.10 to .14| 15,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 60 | 45 | 18 and |2 De Meritens alternators,| French | do. | 225 | 1901 |Twin optic, mercury rotation. | - | (Ushant) | | | | to | | | to | | 28 | each of 5.5 k.w. | Service | | | | (This light superseded a double-flashing | - | [Barfleur (English | | | | 30,000,000| | | 120 | | | (550 revs.) | pattern | | | |electric light, similar to that now at Dunkerque, | - | Channel) 1903, La | | | | | | | | | | | (1902) | | | |established in 1888.) | - | Coubre (Bay of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Biscay) 1905, and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Belle Ile (Bay | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | of Biscay) 1903, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | similar] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Penmarc'h (Phare | Single flash | 5 |.10 to .14| 15,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 30 | 45 | 14 and | Two-phase Labour alter- | do. | do. | 197 | 1897 |Twin optic, mercury rotation. | - | d'Eckmuhl) | | | | to | | | and | | 18 |nators (810 to 820 revs.) | | | | | | - | (Finistere) | | | | 30,000,000| | | 60 | | | | | | | | | - | Planier | Single flash | 5 |.10 to .14| 15,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 30 | 45 |14 to 18| De Meritens alternators | do. | do. | 207 | 1902 |Twin optic, mercury rotation. | - | (near Marseilles) | | | | to | | | to | | | (550 revs.) | | | | | (This light superseded an electric light estab- | - | | | | | 30,000,000| | | 60 | | | | | | | |lished in 1881, showing a group of three white | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |flashes separated by one red flash of the Calais | - |ITALY-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |type.) | - | Tino | 3 flash | 30 | 1.25 | Undeter- | 700 | 1 : 24 | 50 | 50 | 15 | do. | Berjot- | do. | 384 | 1885 |Eight panels of three lenses each, no mirror. | - | (Gulf of Spezia) | | | | mined. | | | 110 | | 25 | (830 revs.) | Serrin | | | | | - | | | | | | | | 200 | | 35 | | | | | | | - |AMERICA-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Navesink | Single flash | 5 | .08 | About | 700 | Nearly 1 : 2| Max. | 50 | 23 | Alternating dynamos | Modified | Oil, | 246 | 1898 |Mercury rotation. Bivalve of 165 deg. | - | (Entrance to New | | | | 60,000,000| | | 100 | | | (800 revs.) | Serrin | each | | | | - | York Bay) | | | | | | | | | | | (Ciolina)| 25 h.p.| | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |AUSTRALIA-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Macquarie | Single flash | 60 | 8 | 5,000,000 | 920 | 1 : 16 | 55 | 50 | 15 | De Meritens alternators | Serrin | Gas | 345 | 1883 |16-panel revolving apparatus, with 180 deg. fixed | - | (Sydney, N.S.W.) | | | | | | | 110 | | 25 | (600 revs.) | | | | | mirror. | - +--------------------------+-----------------+-----+----------+-----------+----------+-------------+-------+----+--------+--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+-------+---------------------------------------------------+ - - - TABLE VII.--_Typical Non-Electric Lighthouse Apparatus._ - - +----------------+-------------------+--------------+-------+--------+------------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------------+----------+-------+----------+-------------------------------------------------------------+ - | | | | | | Candle- | | Ratio of | | | | | | | - | | | | | | Power in | | Angular | | | Service | Height| | | - | Name. | Locality. | Character- |Period.|Duration| Standard | Focal | Breadth of | Illuminant. | Burner. | Candle- | above | Year | Remarks. | - | | | istic. | | of | Candles |Distance | Panel to | | | power | High | Estab- | | - | | | | |Flashes.| (Service |of Lens.|Whole Circle.| | |of Burner.| Water.| lished.* | | - | | | | | | Intensity).| | | | | | | | | - +----------------+-------------------+--------------+-------+--------+------------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------------+----------+-------+----------+-------------------------------------------------------------+ - | | | | Secs. | Secs. | | mm. | | | | | Feet. | | | - |Casquets | Channel Islands | 3 flash | 30 | 1.5 | 185,000 | 920 | 1 : 9 | Incandescent| "Matthews" 3-50 | 3300 | 120 | 1877 |Dioptric holophote, 126(1/2) deg. vertical angle; 3 sides | - | | | | | | | | | petroleum | mm. dia. mantles | | | | of 3 panels in each. | - | | | | | | | | | vapour | | | | | | - |Eddystone | South Devon | 2 flash | 30 | 1.5 | 292,000 | 920 | 1 : 12 | do. | do. | 3300 | 133 | 1882 |Biform apparatus, lens elements only, 92 deg. vertical angle;| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 6 sides of 2 panels each. | - |Bishop Rock | Scilly Isles | 2 flash | 60 | 4.0 | 622,000 | 1330 | 1 : 10 | do. | do. | 3300 | 134 | 1886 |Biform apparatus, lens elements only, 80 deg. vertical angle;| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 5 sides of 2 panels each. | - |Spurn Point | Yorkshire | Single flash | 20 | 1.5 | 519,000 | 1330 | 1 : 6 | do. | do. | 3300 | 120 | 1895 |Lens elements only, 80 deg. vertical angle. | - |Lundy Island | Bristol Channel | 2 flash | 20 | .33 | 374,000 | 920 | Nearly 1 : 4| do. | do. | 3300 | 165 | 1897 |Mercury rotation, 4-panel bivalve. | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [St. Mary's Isle, Northumberland (1898), is similar.] | - |Pendeen | Cornwall | 4 flash | 15 | .25 | 190,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | do. | do. | 3300 | 195 | 1900 |80 deg. vertical angle lens, 2 sides of 4 panels each, | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | mercury rotation. | - |Roker Pier | Sunderland | Single flash | 5 | .10 | 175,000 | 500 | Nearly 1 : 2| do. | "Chance" 55 mm. | 1200 | 83 | 1903 |Mercury rotation; univalve 164 deg. in azimuth, with 164 deg.| - | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | dioptric mirror in rear. | - |Bell Rock | Near Firth of Tay | Red and white| 60 | .50 | 392,000 | 920 and | White about | do. | "Chance" 55 mm. | 1200 | 93 | 1902 |Combined hyper-radial and first-order light with back | - | | |flashes alter-| | | | 1330 | 1 : 9 | | dia. mantle | | | | prisms in white and mirrors in red. Revolves in 60 | - | | |nately every | | | | | red about | | | | | | secs. | - | | | 30 secs. | | | | | 1 : 2.2 | | | | | |[Holy Island, 1905 (Lamlash), similar, flash every 15 secs.] | - |Kinnaird's Head | Aberdeenshire | Single flash | 15 | .50 | 881,000 | 920 and | 1 : 2.2 | do. | do. | 2150 | 120 | 1903 |Composite apparatus; panels of 1330 mm. and 920 mm. | - | | | | | | | 1330 | | | | | | | focal distance; 2 faces. | - |Tarbet Ness | Dornoch Firth | 6 flash | 30 | .50 | 89,000 | 700 | 1 : 12 | do. | "Chance" 55 mm. | 1200 | 175 | 1892 |6 panels (lens) of 30 deg. with 180 deg. mirror. | - | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | [Douglas Head (Isle of Man) similar.] | - |Sule Skerry | West of Orkneys | 3 flash | 30 | 1.0 | 378,000 | 1330 | 1 : 9 | do. | "Chance" 85 mm. | 2150 | 113 | 1895 |Equiangular lenses. | - | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | | - |Pladda | South end of Arran| 3 flash | 30 | .50 | 597,000 | 1330 | 1 : 6 | do. | do. | 2150 | 130 | 1901 |3 equiangular lens panels with mirror in rear; side panels | - | | Island | | | | | | | | | | | | eccentric. | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [Hyskin Rocks (1904) similar.] | - |Tory Island | Co. Donegal | 3 flash | 60 | 3.0 | 17,000 to | 1330 | 1 : 6 | Coal Gas | Wigham, 108 jets | 2300 | 130 | 1887 |Triform apparatus, vertical angle of lenses 65 deg.; 6 sides,| - | | | | | | 326,000 | | | | (maximum) | (max.) | | | one revolution in 6 minutes. The single flash from | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | lens is divided by eclipsing burner into 3 flashes. | - |Fastnet | Co. Cork | Single flash | 5 | .17 | 750,000 | 920 | 1 : 4 | Incandescent| Irish pattern | 1200 | 160 | 1904 |Biform apparatus; 4 panels of 90 deg. vertical angle and 90 | - | | | | | | | | | petroleum | 50 mm. mantle | | | | deg. in azimuth; mercury rotation. | - | | | | | | | | | vapour | | | | | | - |Kinsale | do. | 2 flash | 10 | .25 | 460,000 | 920 | 1 : 6 | do. | do. | 1200 | 236 | 1907 |Biform apparatus, 3 sides each of 2 panels; vertical | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | angle 96 deg.; mercury rotation. | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | |[St. John's Point, Co. Down (1908) similar, period 7.5 secs.]| - |Howth Bailey | Dublin Bay | Single flash | 30 | 1.0 | 950,000 | 920 | 13 : 32 | do. |Irish pattern 3-50| 3300 | 134 | 1902 |Bivalve apparatus; panels of 147 deg. in azimuth and 122 deg.| - | | | | | | | | | | mm. dia. mantles | | | | vertical angle; mercury rotation. | - | | | | | / 1.0 | 70,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | Oil | 6 wick | 480 | 164 | 1891 |\ | - | | | | || .50 | 180,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | Incandescent| / 30 mm. dia. | 400 | 164 | 1895 | |The old first-order apparatus has been utilized in all | - |Chassiron | Bay of Biscay | Single flash | 10 || | | | | oil gas | | mantle | | | | | cases. | - | | | | || .70 | 360,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | Incandescent| | 55 mm. dia. | 1300 | 164 | 1902 | | | - | | | | | \ | | | | acetylene | \ mantle | | | |/ | - |Cap d'Antifer | English Channel | Single flash | 20 | 1.0 | 400,000 | 1330 | 1 : 6 | Incandescent| French pattern | 2150 | 394 | 1894 |Mercury rotation, hyper-radial apparatus with reflecting | - | | | | | | | | | petroleum | 85 mm. mantle | | | | prisms. This is the only apparatus of this focal | - | | | | | | | | | vapour | | | | | distance on the French coast. | - |Ile de Batz | Finistere | 4 flash | 25 | .37 | 200,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | do. | do. | 2150 | 223 | 1900 |Group-flashing apparatus; 4 panels of 45 deg., with 180 deg. | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | mirror in rear; mercury rotation. | - |Ar'men | do. | 3 flash | 20 | .38 | 200,000 | 700 | 1 : 5 | do. | do. | 2150 | 94 | 1897 |Mercury rotation; 3 panels, mirror in rear. | - |Villefranche | Mediterranean | Single flash | 5 | .38 | 250,000 | 700 | 1 : 4 | do. | do. | 2150 | 229 | 1902 |Mercury rotation. | - |Ile Vierge | Finistere | Single flash | 5 | .38 | 500,000 | 700 | 1 : 4 | do. | do. | 2150 | 252 | 1902 |Twin optic; mercury rotation. | - |Kennery Island | Bombay | 2 flash | 10 | .25 | 250,000 | 920 | Nearly 1:4 | do. |70 mm. dia. mantle| 1400 | 153 | 1902 |Mercury rotation; bivalve apparatus; 2 double-flashing | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 170 deg. panels. | - |Cape Race | Newfoundland | Single flash | 7.5 | .30 | 1,100,000 | 1330 | 1 : 4 | do. | "Chance" 85 mm. | 2150 | 165 | 1907 |4 panels, vertical angle 121(1/2) deg.; mercury rotation. | - | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | [Manora Point, Karachi, 1909, similar.] | - |Pachena Point | British Columbia | 2 flash | 7.5 | .44 | 220,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | do. | do. | 2150 | .. | 1908 |Mercury rotation. 4 sides of 2 panels each. | - |Cape Hermes | Cape Colony | Single flash | 3 | .31 | 30,000 | 250 | 1 : 3 | do. | "Chance" 55 mm. | 1200 | 175 | 1904 |3 panels, vertical angle 150 deg.; mercury rotation. | - | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | | - |Hood Point | do. | 4 flash | 40 | .58 | 200,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | do. | "Chance" 85 mm. | 2150 | 180 | 1895 |Mercury rotation; 4 panels of 45 deg. in azimuth and 80 deg. | - | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | vertical angle, with catadioptric mirror in rear. | - |Cape Naturaliste| West Australia | 2 flash | 10 | .15 | 450,000 | 920 | About 1 : 3 | do. | do. | 2150 | 404 | 1904 |Mercury rotation; 2 lenses of 126(1/2) deg. in azimuth, with | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | mirror of 107 deg. | - |Point Cloates | do. | Single flash | 5 | .30 | 300,000 | 700 | 1 : 3 | do. | do. | 2150 | 190 | 1909 |Mercury rotation; 3 panels, each 120 deg. in azimuth and | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 133(1/2) deg. vertical angle. | - |Pecks Ledge |Connecticut, U.S.A.| 2 flash | 30 | .50 | 10,000 | 250 | 1 : 4 | do. |34 mm. dia. mantle| 300 | 54 | 1906 |Rotated on ball bearings. 2 lenses of 90 deg. each and | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | mirror. | - |Fire Island | New York, U.S.A. | Single flash | 60 | 4.0 | 250,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | do. |55 mm. dia. mantle| 1000 | 167 | 1858 |Rotated on roller bearings. | - |Gray's Harbor |Washington, Pacific| Alternating | 5 | .20|White 10,000| 500 | .. | Oil | 3 wick | 160 | 122 | 1898 |Mercury rotation; one (red) lens of 170 deg. in azimuth, re- | - | | Coast, U.S.A. | red and white| | | red 8,000 | | | | | | | | inforced by two 60 deg. mirrors; one (white) lens of 60 | - | | | flashes | | | | | | | | | | | deg. in azimuth. | - +----------------+-------------------+--------------+-------+--------+------------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------------+----------+-------+----------+-------------------------------------------------------------+ - - * The dates given are of the establishment of the optical apparatus. - In many cases incandescent burners have been installed at later - dates. - - - _English Colonies._--In Canada the coast lighting is in the hands of - the minister of marine, and in most other colonies the public works - departments have control of lighthouse matters. - - _Other Countries._--In Denmark, Austria, Holland, Russia, Sweden, - Norway and many other countries the minister of marine has charge of - the lighting and buoying of coasts; in Belgium the public works - department controls the service. - - In the Trinity House Service at shore lighthouse stations there are - usually two keepers, at rock stations three or four, one being ashore - on leave. When there is a fog signal at a station there is usually an - additional keeper, and at electric light stations a mechanical - engineer is also employed as principal keeper. The crews of - light-vessels as a rule consist of 11 men, three of them and the - master or mate going on shore in rotation. - - The average annual cost of maintenance of an English shore lighthouse, - with two keepers, is L275. For shore lighthouses with three keepers - and a siren fog signal the average cost is L444. The maintenance of a - rock lighthouse with four keepers and an explosive fog signal is about - L760, and an electric light station costs about L1100 annually to - maintain. - - A light-vessel of the ordinary type in use in the United Kingdom - entails an annual expenditure on maintenance of approximately L1320, - excluding the cost of periodical overhaul. - - AUTHORITIES.--Smeaton, _Eddystone Lighthouse_ (London, 1793); A. - Fresnel, _Memoire sur un nouveau system d'eclairage des phares_ - (Paris, 1822); R. Stevenson, _Bell Rock Lighthouse_ (Edinburgh, 1824); - Alan Stevenson, _Skerryvore Lighthouse_ (1847); Renaud, _Memoire sur - l'eclairage et le balisage des cotes de France_ (Paris, 1864); Allard, - _Memoire sur l'intensite et la portee des phares_ (Paris, 1876); T. - Stevenson, _Lighthouse Construction and Illumination_ (London, 1881); - Allard, _Memoire sur les phares electriques_ (Paris, 1881); Renaud, - _Les Phares_ (Paris, 1881); Edwards, _Our Sea Marks_ (London, 1884); - D. P. Heap, _Ancient and Modern Lighthouses_ (Boston, 1889); Allard, - _Les Phares_ (Paris, 1889); Rey, _Les Progres d'eclairage des cotes_ - (Paris, 1898); Williams, _Life of Sir J. N. Douglass_ (London, 1900); - J. F. Chance, _The Lighthouse Work of Sir Jas. Chance_ (London, 1902); - de Rochemont and Deprez, _Cours des travaux maritimes_, vol. ii. - (Paris, 1902); Ribiere, _Phares et Signaux maritimes_ (Paris, 1908); - Stevenson, "Isle of May Lighthouse," _Proc. Inst. Mech. Engineers_ - (1887); J. N. Douglass, "Beacon Lights and Fog Signals," _Proc. Roy. - Inst._ (1889); Ribiere, "Proprietes optiques des appareils des - phares," _Annales des ponts et chaussees_ (1894); Preller, "Coast - Lighthouse Illumination in France," _Engineering_ (1896); "Lighthouse - Engineering at the Paris Exhibition," Engineer (1901-1902); N. G. - Gedye, "Coast Fog Signals," _Engineer_ (1902); _Trans. Int. Nav. - Congress_ (Paris, 1900, Milan, 1905); _Proc. Int. Eng. Congress_ - (Glasgow, 1901, St Louis, 1904); _Proc. Int. Maritime Congress_ - (London, 1893); J. T. Chance, "On Optical Apparatus used in - Lighthouses," _Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. xxvi.; J. N. Douglass, "The Wolf - Rock Lighthouse," ibid. vol. xxx.; W. Douglass, "Great Basses - Lighthouse," ibid. vol. xxxviii.; J. T. Chance, "Dioptric Apparatus in - Lighthouses," ibid. vol. lii.; J. N. Douglass, "Electric Light applied - to Lighthouse Illumination," ibid. vol. lvii.; W. T. Douglass, "The - New Eddystone Lighthouse," ibid. vol. lxxv.; Hopkinson, "Electric - Lighthouses at Macquarie and Tino," ibid. vol. lxxxvii.; Stevenson, - "Ailsa Craig Lighthouse and Fog Signals," ibid. vol. lxxxix.; W. T. - Douglass, "The Bishop Rock Lighthouses," ibid. vol. cviii.; Brebner, - "Lighthouse Lenses," ibid. vol. cxi.; Stevenson, "Lighthouse - Refractors," ibid. vol. cxvii.; Case, "Beachy Head Lighthouse," ibid. - vol. clix.; _Notice sur les appareils d'eclairage_ (French Lighthouse - Service exhibits at Chicago and Paris) (Paris, 1893 and 1900); _Report - on U.S. Lighthouse Board Exhibit at Chicago_ (Washington, 1894); - _Reports of the Lighthouse Board of the United States_ (Washington, - 1852, et seq.); British parliamentary reports, _Lighthouse - Illuminants_ (1883, et seq.), _Light Dues_ (1896), _Trinity House Fog - Signal Committee_ (1901), _Royal Commission on Lighthouse - Administration_ (1908); _Memoires de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils - de France_, _Annales des ponts et chaussees_ (Paris); _Proc. Inst. C. - E._; _The Engineer_; _Engineering_ (_passim_). (W. T. D.; N. G. G.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] A full account is given in Hermann Thiersch, _Pharos Antike, - Islam und Occident_ (1909). See also MINARET. - - [2] In 1901 one of the lights decided upon in 1886 and installed in - 1888--Creac'h d'Ouessant--was replaced by a still more powerful twin - apparatus exhibited at the 1900 Paris Exhibition. Subsequently - similar apparatus to that at Creac'h were installed at Gris-Nez, La - Canche, Planier, Barfleur, Belle-Ile and La Coubre, and the old - Dunkerque optic has been replaced by that removed from Belle-Ile. - - [3] Both the Talais and Snouw light-vessels have since been converted - into unattended light-vessels. - - [4] For the purposes of the mariner a light is classed as flashing or - occulting solely according to the duration of light and darkness and - without any reference to the apparatus employed. Thus, an occulting - apparatus, in which the period of darkness is greater than that of - light, is classed in the Admiralty "List of Lights" as a "flashing" - light. - - [5] The Flamborough Head rocket was superseded by a siren fog signal - in 1908. - - - - -LIGHTING. Artificial light is generally produced by raising some body to -a high temperature. If the temperature of a solid body be greater than -that of surrounding bodies it parts with some of its energy in the form -of radiation. Whilst the temperature is low these radiations are not of -a kind to which the eye is sensitive; they are exclusively radiations -less refrangible and of greater wave-length than red light, and may be -called infra-red. As the temperature is increased the infra-red -radiations increase, but presently there are added radiations which the -eye perceives as red light. As the temperature is further increased, the -red light increases, and yellow, green and blue rays are successively -thrown off. On raising the temperature to a still higher point, -radiations of a wave-length shorter even than violet light are produced, -to which the eye is insensitive, but which act strongly on certain -chemical substances; these may be called ultra-violet rays. Thus a very -hot body in general throws out rays of various wave-length; the hotter -the body the more of every kind of radiation will it throw out, but the -proportion of short waves to long waves becomes vastly greater as the -temperature is increased. Our eyes are only sensitive to certain of -these waves, viz. those not very long and not very short. The problem of -the artificial production of light with economy of energy is the same as -that of raising some body to such a temperature that it shall give as -large a proportion as possible of those rays which the eye is capable of -feeling. For practical purposes this temperature is the highest -temperature we can produce. As an illustration of the luminous effect of -the high temperature produced by converting other forms of energy into -heat within a small space, consider the following statements. If burned -in ordinary gas burners, 120 cub. ft. of 15 candle gas will give a light -of 360 standard candles for one hour. The heat produced by the -combustion is equivalent to about 60 million foot-pounds. If this gas be -burned in a modern gas-engine, about 8 million foot-pounds of useful -work will be done outside the engine, or about 4 horse-power for one -hour. If this be used to drive a dynamo for one hour, even if the -machine has an efficiency of only 80%, the energy of the current will be -about 6,400,000 foot-pounds per hour, about half of which, or only -3,200,000 foot-pounds, is converted into radiant energy in the electric -arc. But this electric arc will radiate a light of 2000 candles when -viewed horizontally, and two or three times as much when viewed from -below. Hence 3 million foot-pounds changed to heat in the electric arc -may be said roughly to affect our eyes six times as much as 60 million -foot-pounds changed to heat in an ordinary gas burner. - -Owing to the high temperature at which it remains solid, and to its -great emissive power, the radiant body used for artificial illumination -is usually some form of carbon. In an oil or ordinary coal-gas flame -this carbon is present in minute particles derived from the organic -substances with which the flame is supplied and heated to incandescence -by the heat liberated in their decomposition, while in the electric -light the incandescence is the effect of the heat developed by the -electric current passed through a resisting rod or filament of carbon. -In some cases, however, other substances replace carbon as the radiating -body; in the incandescent gas light certain earthy oxides are utilized, -and in metallic filament electric lamps such metals as tungsten or -tantalum. - - -1. OIL LIGHTING - - Vegetable and animal oils. - -From the earliest times the burning of oil has been a source of light, -but until the middle of the 19th century only oils of vegetable and -animal origin were employed in indoor lamps for this purpose. Although -many kinds were used locally, only colza and sperm oils had any very -extended use, and they have been practically supplanted by mineral oil, -which was introduced as an illuminant in 1853. Up to the latter half of -the 18th century the lamps were shallow vessels into which a short -length of wick dipped; the flame was smoky and discharged acrid vapours, -giving the minimum of light with the maximum of smell. The first notable -improvement was made by Ami Argand in 1784. His burner consisted of two -concentric tubes between which the tubular wick was placed; the open -inner tube led a current of air to play upon the inner surface of the -circular flame, whilst the combustion was materially improved by placing -around the flame a chimney which rested on a perforated gallery a short -distance below the burner. Argand's original burner is the parent form -of innumerable modifications, all more or less complex, such as the -Carcel and the moderator. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - - A typical example of the Argand burner and chimney is represented in - fig. 1, in which the burner is composed of three tubes, d, f, g. The - tube g is soldered to the bottom of the tube d, just above o, and the - interval between the outer surface of the tube g and the inner surface - of the tube d is an annular cylindrical cavity closed at the bottom, - containing the cylindrical cotton wick immersed in oil. The wick is - fixed to the wick tube ki, which is capable of being moved spirally; - within the annular cavity is also the tube f, which can be moved - round, and serves to elevate and depress the wick. P is a cup that - screws on the bottom of the tube d, and receives the superfluous oil - that drops down from the wick along the inner surface of the tube g. - The air enters through the holes o, o, and passes up through the tube - g to maintain the combustion in the interior of the circular flame. - The air which maintains the combustion on the exterior part of the - wick enters through the holes m, with which rn is perforated. When the - air in the chimney is rarefied by the heat of the flame, the - surrounding heavier air, entering the lower part of the chimney, - passes upward with a rapid current, to restore the equilibrium. RG is - the cylindrical glass chimney with a shoulder or constriction at R, G. - The oil flows from a side reservoir, and occupies the cavity between - the tubes g and d. The part ki is a short tube, which receives the - circular wick, and slides spirally on the tube g, by means of a pin - working in the hollow spiral groove on the exterior surface of g. The - wick-tube has also a catch, which works in a perpendicular slit in the - tube f; and, by turning the tube f, the wick-tube will be raised or - lowered, for which purpose a ring, or gallery, rn, fits on the tube d, - and receives the glass chimney RG; a wire S is attached to the tube f, - and, bending over, descends along the outside of d. The part rn, that - supports the glass chimney, is connected by four other wires with the - ring q, which surrounds the tube d, and can be moved round. When rn is - turned round, it carries with it the ring q, the wire S, and the tube - f, thus raising or depressing the wick. - - A device in the form of a small metallic disk or button, known as the - Liverpool button from having been first adopted in the so-called - Liverpool lamp, effects for the current of air passing up the interior - of the Argand burner the same object as the constriction of the - chimney RG secures in the case of the external tube. The button fixed - on the end of a wire is placed right above the burner tube g, and - throws out equally all round against the flame the current of air - which passes up through g. The result of these expedients, when - properly applied, is the production of an exceedingly solid brilliant - white light, absolutely smokeless, this showing that the combustion of - the oil is perfectly accomplished. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of Reading Lamp.] - - The means by which a uniformly regulated supply of oil is brought to - the burner varies with the position of the oil reservoir. In some - lamps, not now in use, by ring-formed reservoirs and other expedients, - the whole of the oil was kept as nearly as possible at the level of - the burner. In what are termed fountain reading, or study lamps, the - principal reservoir is above the burner level, and various means are - adopted for maintaining a supply from them at the level of the burner. - But the most convenient position for the oil reservoir in lamps for - general use is directly under the burner, and in this case the stand - of the lamp itself is utilized as the oil vessel. In the case of fixed - oils, as the oils of animal and vegetable origin used to be called, it - is necessary with such lamps to introduce some appliance for forcing a - supply of oil to the burner, and many methods of effecting this were - devised, most of which were ultimately superseded by the moderator - lamp. The Carcel or pump lamp, invented by B. G. Carcel in 1800, is - still to some extent used in France. It consists of a double piston or - pump, forcing the oil through a tube to the burner, worked by - clockwork. - - A form of reading lamp still in use is seen in section in fig. 2. The - lamp is mounted on a standard on which it can be raised or lowered at - will, and fixed by a thumb screw. The oil reservoir is in two parts, - the upper ac being an inverted flask which fits into bb, from which - the burner is directly fed through the tube _d_; _h_ is an overflow - cup for any oil that escapes at the burner, and it is pierced with - air-holes for admitting the current of air to the centre tube of the - Argand burner. The lamp is filled with oil by withdrawing the flask - ac, filling it, and inverting it into its place. The under reservoir - _bb_ fills from it to the burner level ee, on a line with the mouth of - ac. So soon as that level falls below the mouth of _ac_, a bubble of - air gets access to the upper reservoir, and oil again fills up bb to - the level _ee_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Moderator Lamp.] - - The moderator lamp (fig. 3), invented by Franchot about 1836, from the - simplicity and efficiency of its arrangements rapidly superseded - almost all other forms of mechanical lamp for use with animal and - vegetable oils. The two essential features of the moderator lamp are - (1) the strong spiral spring which, acting on a piston within the - cylindrical reservoir of the lamp, serves to propel the oil to the - burner, and (2) the ascending tube C through which the oil passes - upwards to the burner. The latter consist of two sections, the lower - fixed to and passing through the piston A into the oil reservoir, and - the upper attached to the burner. The lower or piston section moves - within the upper, which forms a sheath enclosing nearly its whole - length when the spring is fully wound up. Down the centre of the upper - tube passes a wire, "the moderator," G, and it is by this wire that - the supply of oil to the burner is regulated. The spring exerts its - greatest force on the oil in the reservoir when it is fully wound up, - and in proportion as it expands and descends its power decreases. But - when the apparatus is wound up the wire passing down the upper tube - extends throughout the whole length of the lower and narrower piston - tube, obstructing to a certain extent the free flow of the oil. In - proportion as the spring uncoils, the length of the wire within the - lower tube is decreased; the upward flow of oil is facilitated in the - same ratio as the force urging it upwards is weakened. In all - mechanical lamps the flow is in excess of the consuming capacity of - the burner, and in the moderator the surplus oil, flowing over the - wick, falls back into the reservoir above the piston, whence along - with new supply oil it descends into the lower side by means of - leather valves a, a. B represents the rack which, with the pinion D, - winds up the spiral spring hard against E when the lamp is prepared - for use. The moderator wire is seen separately in GG; and FGC - illustrates the arrangement of the sheathing tubes, in the upper - section of which the moderator is fixed. - - - Mineral oils. - -As early as 1781 the idea was mooted of burning naphtha, obtained by the -distillation of coal at low temperatures, for illuminating purposes, and -in 1820, when coal gas was struggling into prominence, light oils -obtained by the distillation of coal tar were employed in the Holliday -lamp, which is still the chief factor in illuminating the street barrow -of the costermonger. In this lamp the coal naphtha is in a conical -reservoir, from the apex of which it flows slowly down through a long -metal capillary to a rose burner, which, heated up by the flame, -vaporizes the naphtha, and thus feeds the ring of small jets of flame -escaping from its circumference. - -It was in 1847 that James Young had his attention drawn to an exudation -of petroleum in the Riddings Colliery at Alfreton, in Derbyshire, and -found that he could by distillation obtain from it a lubricant of -considerable value. The commercial success of this material was -accompanied by a failure of the supply, and, rightly imagining that as -the oil had apparently come from the Coal Measures, it might be obtained -by distillation from material of the same character, Young began -investigations in this direction, and in 1850 started distilling oils -from a shale known as the "Bathgate mineral," in this way founding the -Scotch oil industry. At first little attention was paid to the fitness -of the oil for burning purposes, although in the early days at Alfreton -Young attempted to burn some of the lighter distillates in an Argand -lamp, and later in a lamp made many years before for the consumption of -turpentine. About 1853, however, it was noticed that the lighter -distillates were being shipped to Germany, where lamps fitted for the -consumption of the grades of oil now known as lamp oil were being made -by Stohwasser of Berlin; some of these lamps were imported, and similar -lamps were afterwards manufactured by Laidlaw in Edinburgh. - -In Pennsylvania in 1859 Colonel E. L. Drake's successful boring for -petroleum resulted in the flooding of the market with oil at prices -never before deemed possible, and led to the introduction of lamps from -Germany for its consumption. Although the first American patent for a -petroleum lamp is dated 1859, that year saw forty other applications, -and for the next twenty years they averaged about eighty a year. - -English lamp-makers were not behind in their attempts to improve on the -methods in use for producing the highest results from the various grades -of oil, and in 1865 Hinks introduced the duplex burner, while later -improvements made in various directions, by Hinks, Silber, and Defries -led to the high degree of perfection to be found in the lamps of to-day. -Mineral oil for lamps as used in England at the present time may be -defined as consisting of those portions of the distillate from shale oil -or crude petroleum which have their flash-point above 73 deg. F., and -which are mobile enough to be fed by capillarity in sufficient quantity -to the flame. The oil placed in the lamp reservoir is drawn up by the -capillarity of the wick to the flame, and being there volatilized, is -converted by the heat of the burning flame into a gaseous mixture of -hydrogen and hydrocarbons, which is ultimately consumed by the oxygen of -the air and converted into carbon dioxide and water vapour, the products -of complete combustion. - - To secure high illuminating power, together with a smokeless flame and - only products of complete combustion, strict attention must be paid to - several important factors. In the first place, the wick must be so - arranged as to supply the right quantity of oil for gasification at - the burner-head--the flame must be neither starved nor overfed: if the - former is the case great loss of light is occasioned, while an excess - of oil, by providing more hydrocarbons than the air-supply to the - flame can completely burn, gives rise to smoke and products of - incomplete combustion. The action of the wick depending on the - capillary action of the microscopic tubes forming the cotton fibre, - nothing but long-staple cotton of good quality should be employed; - this should be spun into a coarse loose thread with as little twist in - it as possible, and from this the wick is built up. Having obtained a - wick of soft texture and loose plait, it should be well dried before - the fire, and when put in position in the lamp must fill the - wick-holder without being compressed. It should be of sufficient - length to reach to the bottom of the oil reservoir and leave an inch - or two on the bottom. Such a wick will suck up the oil in a regular - and uniform way, provided that the level of the oil is not allowed to - fall too low in the lamp, but it must be remembered that the wick acts - as a filter for the oil, and that if any sediment be present it will - be retained by and choke the capillaries upon which the action of the - wick depends, so that a wick should not be used for too long a time. A - good rule is that the wick should, when new, trail for 2 in. on the - bottom of the oil vessel, and should be discarded when these 2 in. - have been burnt off. - - When the lamp is lighted the oil burns with a heavy, smoky flame, - because it is not able to obtain sufficient oxygen to complete the - combustion, and not only are soot flakes produced, but products of - incomplete combustion, such as carbon monoxide and even petroleum - vapour, escape--the first named highly injurious to health, and the - second of an offensive odour. To supply the _necessary amount of air_ - to the flame, an artificial draught has to be created which shall - impinge upon the bottom of the flame and sweep upwards over its - surface, giving it rigidity, and by completing the combustion in a - shorter period of time than could be done otherwise, increasing the - calorific intensity and thus raising the carbon particles in the - flame to a far higher incandescence so as to secure a greater - illuminating power. This in practice has been done in two ways, first - by drawing in the air by the up-suck of the heated and expanded - products of combustion in a chimney fitted over the flame, and - secondly by creating a draught from a small clockwork fan in the base - of the lamp. It is necessary to break the initial rush of the draught: - this is mostly effected by disks of perforated metal in the base of - the burner, called _diffusers_, while the metal dome which surrounds - and rises slightly above the wick-holder serves to deflect the air on - to the flame, as in the Wanzer lamp. These arrangements also act to a - certain extent as regenerators, the air passing over the heated metal - surfaces being warmed before reaching the flame, whilst disks, cones, - buttons, perforated tubes, inner air-tubes, &c., have been introduced - to increase the illuminating power and complete the combustion. - - TABLE I. - - +---------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+ - | | | Grains of Oil | | - | | | per candle-power |Total Candle-power.| - | Type. | Name. | per hour. | | - | | +---------+--------+---------+---------+ - | | |American.|Russian.|American.| Russian.| - |---------------+------------------+---------+--------+---------+---------+ - | /| Veritas, 60-line | 64.5 | 112.5 | 122.5 | 78 | - | | | " 30-line | 42.5 | 50. | 60 | 60 | - | | | " 20-line | 43.75 | 58.5 | 40 | 35 | - |Circular wick| | Ariel, 12-line | | | | | - | | | center draught | 52.8 | 70.9 | 18 | 18 | - | | | Reading, 14-line | 97.9 | 85.4 | 12 | 12 | - | | | Kosmos, 10-line | 63.9 | 97.2 | 9 | 9 | - | \| Wizard, 15-line | 56.9 | 51.3 | 18 | 19 | - | /| Wanzer, no glass | 42.6 | 48.3 | 17 | 17 | - |Flat wick, | | Solid slip, gauze| | | | | - | single | | and cone | 84.4 | 84.4 | 8 | 8 | - | | | Old slip, fixed | | | | | - | \| gauze | 60.9 | 89.3 | 7 | 7 | - |Flat wick, /| Feeder wick | 56.2 | 55.7 | 20 | 22 | - | duplex \| Ordinary | 51.2 | 46.6 | 20 | 22 | - +---------------+------------------+---------+--------+---------+---------+ - - American oil--Sp. gr. 0.7904; flash-point, 110 deg.F. Russian - oil--Sp. gr. 0.823; flash-point, 83 deg. F. - - According to Sir Boverton Redwood, duplex burners which give a flame - of 28 candle-power have an average oil consumption of 50 grains per - candle per hour, while Argand flames of 38 candle-power consume about - 45 grains of oil per candle per hour. These figures were obtained from - lamps of the best types, and to obtain information as to the - efficiency of the lamps used in daily practice, a number of the most - popular types were examined, using both American and Russian oil. The - results obtained are embodied in Table 1. The first noteworthy point - in this table is the apparent superiority of the American over Russian - oil in the majority of the lamps employed, and there is no doubt that - the bulk of the lamps on the market are constructed to burn American - or shale oil. A second interesting point is that with the flat-flame - lamps the Russian oil is as good as the American. We have Redwood's - authority, moreover, for the fact that after prolonged burning the - Russian oil, even in lamps least suited to it, gives highly improved - results. Although the average consumption with these lamps is close - upon 60 grains per candle with American oil, yet some of the burners - are so manifestly wasteful that 50 grains per candle-power per hour is - the fairest basis to take for any calculation as to cost. - - The dangers of the mineral oil lamp, which were a grave drawback in - the past, have been very much reduced by improvements in construction - and quality, and if it were possible to abolish the cheap and - dangerous rubbish sold in poor neighbourhoods, and to prevent the use - of side-fillers and glass reservoirs in lamps of better quality, a - still larger reduction in the number of accidents would take place. In - the use of the lamp for domestic purposes only soft well-fitting wicks - should be employed, and the lamp should be filled with oil each day so - as never to allow it to burn too low and so leave a large space above - the surface of the oil in the reservoir. The lamp should never be - moved whilst alight, and it should only be put out by means of a - proper extinguisher or by blowing across the top instead of down the - chimney. By these means the risk of accident would be so reduced as to - compare favourably with other illuminants. - - Candles, oil and coal gas all emit the same products of complete - combustion, viz. carbon dioxide and water vapour. The quantities of - these compounds emitted from different illuminants for every candle of - light per hour will be seen from the following table: - - Cubic Feet per Candle - Illuminant. Carbon Dioxide. Water Vapour. - - Sperm candle 0.41 0.41 - Oil lamp 0.24 0.18 - Gas--Flat flame 0.26 0.67 - Argand 0.17 0.45 - Regenerative 0.07 0.19 - Incandescent 0.03 0.08 - - From these data it appears that if the sanitary condition of the air - of a dwelling-room be measured by the amount of carbon dioxide - present, as is usually done, candles are the most prejudicial to - health and comfort, oil lamps less so, and gas least, an assumption - which practical experience does not bear out. The explanation of this - is to be found in these facts: First, where we illuminate a room with - candles or oil we are contented with a less intense and more local - light than when we are using gas, and in a room of ordinary size would - be more likely to use a lamp or two candles than the far higher - illumination we should demand if gas were employed. Secondly, the - amount of water vapour given off during the combustion of gas is - greater than in the case of the other illuminants, and water vapour - absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas becomes heated, and, - diffusing itself about the room, causes great oppression. Also the - air, being highly charged with moisture, is unable to take up so - rapidly the water vapour which is always evaporating from the surface - of our skin, and in this way the functions of the body receive a - slight check, resulting in a feeling of depression. - - - Oil-spray lamps. - -A very successful type of oil lamp for use in engineering is represented -by the Lucigen, Doty, and Wells lights, in which the oil is forced from -a reservoir by air-pressure through a spiral heated by the flame of the -lamp, and the heated oil, being then ejected partly as vapour and partly -as spray, burns with a large and highly luminous flame. The great -drawback to these devices is that a certain proportion of the oil spray -escapes combustion and is deposited in the vicinity of the light. This -form of lamp is often used for heating as well as lighting; the rivets -needed for the Forth Bridge were heated in trays by lamps of this type -at the spot where they were required. The great advantage of these lamps -was that oils of little value could be employed, and the light obtained -approximated to 750 candles per gallon of oil consumed. They may to a -certain extent be looked upon as the forerunners of perhaps the most -successful form of incandescent oil-burner. - - - Oil applied to incandescent lighting. - -As early as 1885 Arthur Kitson attempted to make a burner for heating -purposes on the foregoing principle, i.e. by injecting oil under -pressure from a fine tube into a chamber where it would be heated by the -waste heat escaping from the flame below, the vapour so produced being -made to issue from a small jet under the pressure caused by the initial -air-pressure and the expansion in the gasifying tube. This jet of gas -was then led into what was practically an atmospheric burner, and drew -in with it sufficient air to cause its combustion with a non-luminous -blue flame of great heating power. At the time when this was first done -the Welsbach mantle had not yet reached the period of commercial -utility, and attempts were made to use this flame for the generation of -light by consuming it in a mantle of fine platinum gauze, which, -although giving a very fine illuminating effect during the first few -hours, very soon shared the fate of all platinum mantles--that is, -carbonization of the platinum surface took place, and destroyed its -power of light emissivity. It was not until 1893 that the perfecting of -the Welsbach mantle enabled this method of consuming the oil to be -employed. The Kitson lamp, and also the Empire lamp on a similar -principle, have given results which ought to ensure their future -success, the only drawback being that they need a certain amount of -intelligent care to keep them in good working order. - - - Incandescent table-lamps. - -Oil gas and oil vapours differ from coal gas merely in the larger -proportion and greater complexity of the hydrocarbon molecules present, -and to render the oil flame available for incandescent lighting it is -only necessary to cause the oil gas or vapour to become mixed with a -sufficient proportion of air before it arrives at the point of -combustion. But with gases so rich in hydrocarbons as those developed -from oil it is excessively difficult to get the necessary air intimately -and evenly mixed with the gas in sufficient proportion to bring about -the desired result. If even coal gas be taken and mixed with 2.27 -volumes of air, its luminosity is destroyed, but such a flame would be -useless with the incandescent mantle, as if the non-luminous flame be -superheated a certain proportion of its luminosity will reappear. When -such a flame is used with a mantle the superheating effect of the mantle -itself very quickly leads to the decomposition of the hydrocarbons and -blackening of the mantle, which not only robs it of its light-giving -powers, but also rapidly ends its life. If, however, the proportion of -air be increased, the appearance of the flame becomes considerably -altered, and the hydrocarbon molecules being burnt up before impact -with the heated surface of the mantle, all chance of blackening is -avoided. - - On the first attempts to construct a satisfactory oil lamp which could - be used with the incandescent mantle, this trouble showed itself to be - a most serious one, as although it was comparatively easy so to - regulate a circular-wicked flame fed by an excess of air as to make it - non-luminous, the moment the mantle was put upon this, blackening - quickly appeared, while when methods for obtaining a further air - supply were devised, the difficulty of producing a flame which would - burn for a considerable time without constant necessity for regulation - proved a serious drawback. This trouble has militated against most of - the incandescent oil lamps placed upon the market. - - It soon became evident that if a wick were employed the difficulty of - getting it perfectly symmetrical was a serious matter, and that it - could only be utilized in drawing the oil up to a heating chamber - where it could be volatilized to produce the oil gas, which on then - being mixed with air would give the non-luminous flame. In the earlier - forms of incandescent oil lamps the general idea was to suck the oil - up by the capillarity of a circular wick to a point a short distance - below the opening of the burner at which the flame was formed, and - here the oil was vaporized or gasified by the heat of the head of the - burner. An air supply was then drawn up through a tube passing through - the centre of the wick-tube, while a second air current was so - arranged as to discharge itself almost horizontally upon the burning - gas below the cap, in this way giving a non-luminous and very hot - flame, which if kept very carefully adjusted afforded excellent - results with an incandescent mantle. It was an arrangement somewhat of - this character that was introduced by the Welsbach Company. The lamps, - however, required such careful attention, and were moreover so - irregular in their performance, that they never proved very - successful. Many other forms have reached a certain degree of - perfection, but have not so far attained sufficient regularity of - action to make them commercial successes. One of the most successful - was devised by F. Altmann, in which an ingenious arrangement caused - the vaporization of oil and water by the heat of a little oil lamp in - a lower and separate chamber, and the mixture of oil gas and steam was - then burnt in a burner-head with a special arrangement of air supply, - heating a mantle suspended above the burner-head. - - The perfect petroleum incandescent lamp has not yet been made, but the - results thus obtained show that when the right system has been found a - very great increase in the amount of light developed from the - petroleum may be expected. In one lamp experimented with for some time - it was easy to obtain 3500 candle hours per gallon of oil, or three - times the amount of light obtainable from the oil when burnt under - ordinary conditions. - - - Air-gas. - -Before the manufacture of coal-gas had become so universal as it is at -present, a favourite illuminant for country mansions and even villages -where no coal-gas was available was a mixture of air with the vapour of -very volatile hydrocarbons, which is generally known as "air-gas." This -was produced by passing a current of dry air through or over petroleum -spirit or the light hydrocarbons distilled from tar, when sufficient of -the hydrocarbon was taken up to give a luminous flame in flat flame and -Argand burners in the same way as coal-gas, the trouble being that it -was difficult to regulate the amount of hydrocarbon held in suspension -by the air, as this varied very widely with the temperature. As coal-gas -spread to the smaller villages and electric lighting became utilized in -large houses, the use of air-gas died out, but with the general -introduction of the incandescent mantle it again came to the front. In -the earlier days of this revival, air-gas rich in hydrocarbon vapour was -made and was further aerated to give a non-luminous flame by burning it -in an atmospheric burner. - - One of the best illustrations of this system was the Aerogene gas - introduced by A. I. van Vriesland, which was utilized for lighting a - number of villages and railway stations on the continent of Europe. In - this arrangement a revolving coil of pipes continually dips into - petroleum spirit contained in a cylinder, and the air passed into the - cylinder through the coil of pipes becomes highly carburetted by the - time it reaches the outlet at the far end of the cylinder. The - resulting gas when burnt in an ordinary burner gives a luminous flame; - it can be used in atmospheric burners differing little from those of - the ordinary type. With an ordinary Welsbach "C" burner it gives a - duty of about 30 candles per foot of gas consumed, the high - illuminating power being due to the fact that the gas is under a - pressure of from 6 to 8 in. With such a gas, containing a considerable - percentage of hydrocarbon vapour, any leakage into the air of a room - would give rise to an explosive mixture, in the same way that coal-gas - would do, but inasmuch as mixtures of the vapour of petroleum spirit - and air are only explosive for a very short range, that is, from 1.25 - to 5.3%, some systems have been introduced in which by keeping the - amount of petroleum vapour at 2% and burning the gas under pressure in - a specially constructed non-aerating mantle burner, not only has it - been found possible to produce a very large volume of gas per gallon - of spirit employed, but the gas is itself non-explosive, increase in - the amount of air taking it farther away from the explosive limit. The - Hooker, De Laitte and several other systems have been based upon this - principle. - - -2. GAS LIGHTING - -In all measurements of illuminating value the standard of comparison -used in England is the light yielded by a sperm candle of the size known -as "sixes," i.e. six to the pound, consuming 120 grains of sperm per -hour, and although in photometric work slight inequalities in burning -have led to the candle being discarded in practice, the standard lamps -burning pentane vapour which have replaced them are arranged to yield a -light of ten candles, and the photometric results are expressed as -before in terms of candles. - -When William Murdoch first used coal-gas at his Redruth home in 1779, he -burnt the gas as it escaped from the open end of a small iron tube, but -soon realizing that this plan entailed very large consumption of gas and -gave a very small amount of light, he welded up the end of his tube and -bored three small holes in it, so arranged that they formed three -divergent jets of flame. From the shape of the flame so produced this -burner received the name of the "cockspur" burner, and it was the one -used by Murdoch when in 1807 he fitted up an installation of gas -lighting at Phillips & Lee's works in Manchester. This--the earliest -form of gas burner--gave an illuminating value of a little under one -candle per cubic foot of gas consumed, and this duty was slightly -increased when the burner was improved by flattening up the welded end -of the tube and making a series of small holes in line and close -together, the jets of flame from which gave the burner the name of the -"cockscomb." It did not need much inventive faculty to replace the line -of holes by a saw-cut, the gas issuing from which burnt in a sheet, the -shape of which led to the burner being called the "batswing." This was -followed in 1820 by the discovery of J. B. Neilson, of Glasgow, whose -name is remembered in connexion with the use of the hot-air blast in -iron-smelting, that, by allowing two flames to impinge upon one another -so as to form a flat flame, a slight increase in luminosity was -obtained, and after several preliminary stages the union jet or -"fishtail" burner was produced. In this form of burner two holes, bored -at the necessary angle in the same nipple, caused two streams of gas to -impinge upon each other so that they flattened themselves out into a -sheet of flame. The flames given by the batswing and fishtail burners -differed in shape, the former being wide and of but little height, -whilst the latter was much higher and more narrow. This factor ensured -for the fishtail a greater amount of popularity than the batswing burner -had obtained, as the flame was less affected by draughts and could be -used with a globe, although the illuminating efficiency of the two -burners differed little. - - - Regenerative burner. - -In a lecture at the Royal Institution on the 20th of May 1853, Sir -Edward Frankland showed a burner he had devised for utilizing the heat -of the flame to raise the temperature of the air supply necessary for -the combustion of the gas. The burner was an Argand of the type then in -use, consisting of a metal ring pierced with holes so as to give a -circle of small jets, the ring of flame being surrounded by a chimney. -But in addition to this chimney, Frankland added a second external one, -extending some distance below the first and closed at the bottom by a -glass plate fitted air-tight to the pillar carrying the burner. In this -way the air needed for the combustion of the gas had to pass down the -space between the two chimneys, and in so doing became highly heated, -partly by contact with the hot glass, and partly by radiation. Sir -Edward Frankland estimated that the temperature of the air reaching the -flame was about 500 deg.F. In 1854 a very similar arrangement was -brought forward by the Rev. W. R. Bowditch, and, as a large amount of -publicity was given to it, the inception of the regenerative burner was -generally ascribed to Bowditch, although undoubtedly due to Frankland. - -The principle of regeneration was adopted in a number of lamps, the best -of which was brought out by Friedrich Siemens in 1879. Although -originally made for heating purposes, the light given by the burner was -so effective and superior to anything obtained up to that time that it -was with some slight alterations adapted for illuminating purposes. - -Improvements followed in the construction and design of the regenerative -lamp, and when used as an overhead burner it was found that not only was -an excellent duty obtained per cubic foot of gas consumed, but that the -lamp could be made a most efficient engine of ventilation, as an -enormous amount of vitiated air could be withdrawn from the upper part -of a room through a flue in the ceiling space. So marked was the -increase in light due to the regeneration that a considerable number of -burners working on this principle were introduced, some of them like the -Wenham and Cromartie coming into extensive use. They were, however, -costly to install, so that the flat flame burner retained its popularity -in spite of the fact that its duty was comparatively low, owing to the -flame being drawn out into a thin sheet and so exposed to the cooling -influence of the atmosphere. Almost at the same time that Murdoch was -introducing the cockscomb and cockspur burners, he also made rough forms -of Argand burner, consisting of two concentric pipes between which the -gas was led and burnt with a circular flame. This form was soon improved -by filling in the space between the tubes with a ring of metal, bored -with fine holes so close together that the jets coalesced in burning and -gave a more satisfactory flame, the air necessary to keep the flame -steady and ensure complete combustion being obtained by the draught -created by a chimney placed around it. When it began to be recognized -that the temperature of the flame had a great effect upon the amount of -light emitted, the iron tips, which had been universally employed, both -in flat flame and Argand burners, were replaced by steatite or other -non-conducting material of similar character, to prevent as far as -possible heat from being withdrawn from the flame by conduction. - -In 1880 the burners in use for coal-gas therefore consisted of flat -flame, Argand, and regenerative burners, and the duty given by them with -a 16-candle gas was as follows:-- - - Candle units - per cub. ft. - Burner. of gas. - Union jet flat flame, No. 0 0.59 - " " 1 0.85 - " " 2 1.22 - " " 3 1.63 - " " 4 1.74 - " " 5 1.87 - " " 6 2.15 - " " 7 2.44 - Ordinary Argand 2.90 - Standard Argand 3.20 - Regenerative 7 to 10 - -The luminosity of a coal-gas flame depends upon the number of carbon -particles liberated within it, and the temperature to which they can be -heated. Hence the light given by a flame of coal-gas can be augmented by -(1) increasing the number of the carbon particles, and (2) raising the -temperature to which they are exposed. The first process is carried out -by enrichment (see GAS: _Manufacture_), the second is best obtained by -regeneration, the action of which is limited by the power possessed by -the material of which burners are composed to withstand the -superheating. Although with a perfectly made regenerative burner it -might be possible for a short time to get a duty as high as 16 candles -per cubic foot from ordinary coal-gas, such a burner constructed of the -ordinary materials would last only a few hours, so that for practical -use and a reasonable life for the burner 10 candles per cubic foot was -about the highest commercial duty that could be reckoned on. This -limitation naturally caused inventors to search for methods by which the -emission of light could be obtained from coal-gas otherwise than by the -incandescence of the carbon particles contained within the flame -itself. A coal-gas flame consumed in an atmospheric burner under the -conditions necessary to develop its maximum heating power could be -utilized to raise to incandescence particles having a higher emissivity -for light than carbon. This led to the gradual evolution of incandescent -gas lighting. - - - Incandescent gas light. - -Long before the birth of the Welsbach mantle it had been known that when -certain unburnable refractory substances were heated to a high -temperature they emitted light, and Goldsworthy Gurney in 1826 showed -that a cylinder of lime could be brought to a state of dazzling -brilliancy by the flame of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, a fact which was -utilized by Thomas Drummond shortly afterwards in connexion with the -Ordnance Survey of Ireland. The mass of a lime cylinder is, however, -relatively very considerable, and consequently an excessive amount of -heat has to be brought to bear upon it, owing to radiation and -conduction tending to dissipate the heat. This is seen by holding in the -flame of an atmospheric burner a coil of thick platinum wire, the result -being that the wire is heated to a dull red only. With wire of medium -thickness a bright red heat is soon attained, and a thin wire glows with -a vivid incandescence, and will even melt in certain parts of the flame. -Attempts were accordingly made to reduce the mass of the material -heated, and this form of lighting was tried in the streets of Paris, -buttons of zirconia and magnesia being heated by an oxy-coal-gas flame, -but the attempt was soon abandoned owing to the high cost and constant -renewals needed. In 1835 W. H. Fox Talbot discovered that even the -feeble flame of a spirit lamp is sufficient to heat lime to -incandescence, provided the lime be in a sufficiently fine state of -division. This condition he fulfilled by soaking blotting-paper in a -solution of a calcium salt and then incinerating it. Up to 1848, when J. -P. Gillard introduced the intermittent process of making water-gas, the -spirit flame and oxy-hydrogen flame were alone free from carbon -particles. Desiring to use the water-gas for lighting as well as heating -purposes Gillard made a mantle of fine platinum gauze to fit over the -flame, and for a time obtained excellent results, but after a few days -the lighting value of the mantle fell away gradually until it became -useless, owing to the wire becoming eroded on the surface by the flame -gases. This idea has been revived at intervals, but the trouble of -erosion has always led to failure. - -The next important stage in the history of gas lighting was the -discovery by R. W. von Bunsen about 1855 of the atmospheric burner, in -which a non-luminous coal-gas flame is obtained by causing the coal-gas -before its combustion to mix with a certain amount of air. This simple -appliance has opened up for coal-gas a sphere of usefulness for heating -purposes as important as its use for lighting. After the introduction of -the atmospheric burner the idea of the incandescent mantle was revived -early in the eighties by the Clamond basket and a resuscitation of the -platinum mantle. The Clamond basket or mantle, as shown at the Crystal -Palace exhibition of 1882-1883, consisted of a cone of threads of -calcined magnesia. A mixture of magnesium hydrate and acetate, converted -into a paste or cream by means of water, was pressed through holes in a -plate so as to form threads, and these, after being moulded to the -required shape, were ignited. The heat decomposed the acetate to form a -luting material which glued the particles of magnesium oxide produced -into a solid mass, whilst the hydrate gave off water and became oxide. -The basket was supported with its apex downwards in a little platinum -wire cage, and a mixture of coal-gas and air was driven into it under -pressure from an inverted blowpipe burner above it. - -The Welsbach mantle was suggested by the fact that Auer von Welsbach had -been carrying out researches on the rare earths, with constant use of -the spectroscope. Desiring to obtain a better effect than that produced -by heating his material on a platinum wire, he immersed cotton in a -solution of the metallic salt, and after burning off the organic matter -found that a replica of the original thread, composed of the oxide of -the metal, was left, and that it glowed brightly in the flame. From this -he evolved the idea of utilizing a fabric of cotton soaked in a -solution of a metallic salt for lighting purposes, and in 1885 he -patented his first commercial mantle. The oxides used in these mantles -were zirconia, lanthania, and yttria, but these were so fragile as to be -practically useless, whilst the light they emitted was very poor. Later -he found that the oxide of thorium--thoria--in conjunction with other -rare earth oxides, not only increased the light-giving powers of the -mantle, but added considerably to its strength, and the use of this -oxide was protected by his 1886 patent. Even these mantles were very -unsatisfactory until it was found that the purity of the oxides had a -wonderful effect upon the amount of light, and finally came the great -discovery that it was a trace of ceria in admixture with the thoria that -gave the mantle the marvellous power of emitting light. - - Certain factors limit the number of oxides that can be used in the - manufacture of an incandescent mantle. Atmospheric influences must not - have any action upon them, and they must be sufficiently refractory - not to melt or even soften to any extent at the temperature of the - flame; they must also be non-volatile, whilst the shrinkage during the - process of "burning off" must not be excessive. The following table - gives the light-emissivity from pure and commercial samples of the - oxides which most nearly conform to the above requirements; the effect - of impurity upon the lighting power will be seen to be most marked. - - Pure. Commercial. - Metals-- - Zirconia 1.5 3.1 - Thoria 0.5 6.0 - Earth metals-- - Cerite earths--Ceria 0.4 0.9 - Lanthania 6.0 - Yttrite earths--Yttria 3.2 - Erbia 0.6 1.7 - Common earths--Chromium oxide 0.4 0.4 - Alumina 0.6 0.6 - Alkaline earth metals-- - Baryta 3.3 3.3 - Strontia 5.2 5.5 - Magnesia 5.0 5.0 - - Of these oxides thoria, when tested for shrinkage, duration and - strength, stands pre-eminent. It is also possible to employ zirconia - and alumina. Zirconia has the drawback that in the hottest part of the - flame it is liable not only to shrinkage and semi-fusion, but also to - slow volatilization, and the same objections hold good with respect to - alumina. With thoria the shrinkage is smaller than with any other - known substance, and it possesses very high refractory powers. - - The factor which gives thoria its pre-eminence as the basis of the - mantle is that in the conversion of thorium nitrate into thorium oxide - by heat, an enormous expansion takes place, the oxide occupying more - than ten times the volume of the nitrate. This means that the mass is - highly spongy, and contains an enormous number of little air-cells - which must render it an excellent non-conductor. A mantle made with - thoria alone gives practically no light. But the power of - light-emissivity is awakened by the addition of a small trace of - ceria; and careful experiment shows that as ceria is added to it - little by little, the light which the mantle emits grows greater and - greater, until the ratio of 99% of thoria and 1% of ceria is reached, - when the maximum illuminating effect is obtained. The further addition - of ceria causes gradual diminution of light, until, when with some 10% - of ceria has been added, the light given by the mantle is again almost - inappreciable. When cerium nitrate is converted by heat into cerium - oxide, the expansion which takes place is practically nil, the ceria - obtained from a gramme of the nitrate occupying about the same space - as the original nitrate. Thus, although by weight the ratio of ceria - to thoria is as 1:99, by volume it is only as 1:999. - - - Manufacture of mantles. - -The most successful form of mantle is made by taking a cylinder of -cotton net about 8 in. long, and soaking it in a solution of nitrates of -the requisite metals until the microscopic fibres of the cotton are -entirely filled with liquid. A longer soaking is not advantageous, as -the acid nature of the liquid employed tends to weaken the fabric and -render it more delicate to handle. The cotton is then wrung out to free -it from the excess of liquid, and one end is sewn together with an -asbestos thread, a loop of the same material or of thin platinum wire -being fixed across the constricted portion to provide a support by which -the mantle may be held by the carrying rod, which is either external to -the mantle, or (as is most often the case) fixed centrally in the burner -head. It is then ready for "burning off," a process in which the organic -matter is removed and the nitrates are converted into oxides. The flame -of an atmospheric burner is first applied to the constricted portion at -the top of the mantle, whereupon the cotton gradually burns downwards, -the shape of the mantle to a great extent depending on the regularity -with which the combustion takes place. A certain amount of carbon is -left behind after the flame has died out, and this is burnt off by the -judicious application of a flame from an atmospheric blast burner to the -interior. The action which takes place during the burning off is as -follows: The cellulose tubes of the fibre are filled with the -crystallized nitrates of the metals used, and as the cellulose burns the -nitrates decompose, giving up oxygen and forming fusible nitrites, which -in their semi-liquid condition are rendered coherent by the rapid -expansion as the oxide forms. As the action continues the nitrites -become oxides, losing their fusibility, so that by the time the organic -matter has disappeared a coherent thread of oxide is left in place of -the nitrate-laden thread of cotton. In the early days of incandescent -lighting the mantles had to be sent out unburnt, as no process was known -by which the burnt mantle could be rendered sufficiently strong to bear -carriage. As the success of a mantle depends upon its fitting the flame, -and as the burning off requires considerable skill, this was a great -difficulty. Moreover the acid nature of the nitrates in the fibres -rapidly rotted them, unless they had been subjected to the action of -ammonia gas, which neutralized any excess of acid. It was discovered, -however, that the burnt-off mantle could be temporarily strengthened by -dipping it in collodion, a solution of soluble gun-cotton in ether and -alcohol together with a little castor-oil or similar material to prevent -excessive shrinkage when drying. When the mantle was removed from the -solution a thin film of solid collodion was left on it, and this could -be burned away when required. - - After the Welsbach mantle had proved itself a commercial success many - attempts were made to evade the monopoly created under the patents, - and, although it was found impossible to get the same illuminating - power with anything but the mixture of 99% thoria and 1% ceria, many - ingenious processes were devised which resulted in at least one - improvement in mantle manufacture. One of the earliest attempts in - this direction was the "Sunlight" mantle, in which cotton was - saturated with the oxides of aluminium, chromium and zirconium, the - composition of the burnt-off mantle being:-- - - Alumina 86.88 - Chromium oxide 8.68 - Zirconia 4.44 - ------ - 100.00 - - The light given by these mantles was entirely dependent upon the - proportion of chromium oxides present, the alumina playing the part of - base in the same way that the thoria does in the Welsbach mantle, the - zirconia being added merely to strengthen the structure. These mantles - enjoyed considerable popularity owing to the yellowish pink light they - emitted, but, although they could give an initial illumination of 12 - to 15 candles per foot of gas consumed, they rapidly lost their - light-giving power owing to the slow volatilization of the oxides of - chromium and aluminium. - - Another method of making the mantle was first to produce a basis of - thoria, and, having got the fabric in thorium oxide, to coat it with a - mixture of 99% thoria and 1% ceria. This modification seems to give an - improvement in the initial amount of light given by the mantle. In the - Voelker mantle a basis of thoria was produced, and was then coated by - dipping in a substance termed by the patentee "Voelkerite," a body - made by fusing together a number of oxides in the electric furnace. - The fused mass was then dissolved in the strongest nitric acid, and - diluted with absolute alcohol to the necessary degree. A very good - mantle having great lasting power was thus produced. It was claimed - that the process of fusing the materials together in the electric - furnace altered the composition in some unexplained way, but the true - explanation is probably that all water of hydration was eliminated. - - The "Daylight" mantle consisted of a basis of thoria or thoria mixed - with zirconia, dipped in collodion containing a salt of cerium in - solution; on burning off the collodion the ceria was left in a finely - divided condition on the surface of the thoria. In this way a very - high initial illuminating power was obtained, which, however, rapidly - fell as the ceria slowly volatilized. - - Perhaps the most interesting development of the Welsbach process was - dependent upon the manufacture of filaments of soluble guncotton or - collodion as in the production of artificial silk. In general the - process consisted in forcing a thick solution of the nitrated - cellulose through capillary glass tubes, the bore of which was less - than the one-hundredth of a millimetre. Ten or twelve of the expressed - fibres were then twisted together and wound on a bobbin, the air of - the room being kept sufficiently heated to cause the drying of the - filaments a few inches from the orifice of the tube. The compound - thread was next denitrated to remove its extreme inflammability, and - for this purpose the skeins were dipped in a solution of (for - instance) ammonium sulphide, which converted them into ordinary - cellulose. After washing and drying the skeins were ready for the - weaving machines. In 1894 F. de Mare utilized collodion for the - manufacture of a mantle, adding the necessary salts to the collodion - before squeezing it into threads. O. Knofler in 1895, and later on A. - Plaissetty, took out patents for the manufacture of mantles by a - similar process to De Mare's, the difference between the two being - that Knofler used ammonium sulphide for the denitration of his fabric, - whilst Plaissetty employed calcium sulphide, the objection to which is - the trace of lime left in the material. Another method for making - artificial silk which has a considerable reputation is that known as - the Lehner process, which in its broad outlines somewhat resembles the - Chardonnet, but differs from it in that the excessively high pressures - used in the earlier method are done away with by using a solution of a - more liquid character, the thread being hardened by passing through - certain organic solutions. This form of silk lends itself perhaps - better to the carrying of the salts forming the incandescent oxides - than the previous solutions, and mantles made by this process, known - as Lehner mantles, showed promise of being a most important - development of De Mare's original idea. Mantles made by these - processes show that it is possible to obtain a very considerable - increase in life and light-emissivity, but mantles made on this - principle could not now be sold at a price which would enable them to - compete with mantles of the Welsbach type. - - The cause of the superiority of these mantles having been realized, - developments in the required direction were made. The structure of the - cotton mantle differed widely from that obtained by the various - collodion processes, and this alteration in structure was mainly - responsible for the increase in life. Whereas the average of a large - number of Welsbach mantles tested only showed a useful life of 700 to - 1000 hours, the collodion type would average about 1500 hours, some - mantles being burnt for an even longer period and still giving an - effective illumination. This being so, it was clear that one line of - advance would be found in obtaining some material which, whilst giving - a structure more nearly approaching that of the collodion mantle, - would be sufficiently cheap to compete with the Welsbach mantle, and - this was successfully done. - - By the aid of the microscope the structure of the mantle can be - clearly defined, and in examining the Welsbach mantle before and after - burning, it will be noticed that the cotton thread is a closely - twisted and plaited rope of myriads of minute fibres, whilst the - collodion mantle is a bundle of separate filaments without plait or - heavy twisting, the number of such filaments varying with the process - by which it was made. This latter factor experiment showed to have a - certain influence on the useful light-giving life of the mantle, as - whereas the Knofler and Plaissetty mantles had an average life of - about 1500 hours, the Lehner fabric, which contained a larger number - of finer threads, could often be burnt continuously for over 3000 - hours, and at the end of that period gave a better light than most of - the Welsbach after as many hundred. - - It is well known that plaiting gave the cotton candle-wick that power - of bending over, when freed from the binding effect of the candle - material and influenced by heat, which brought the tip out from the - side of the flame. This, by enabling the air to get at it and burn it - away, removed the nuisance of having to snuff the candle, which for - many centuries has rendered it a tiresome method of lighting. In the - cotton mantle, the tight twisting of the fibre brings this torsion - into play. When the cotton fibres saturated with the nitrates of the - rare metals are burnt off, and the conversion into oxides takes place, - as the cotton begins to burn, not only does the shrinkage of the mass - throw a strain on the oxide skeleton, but the last struggle of torsion - in the burning of the fibre tends towards disintegration of the - fragile mass, and this all plays a part in making the cotton mantle - inferior to the collodion type. - - If ramie fibre be prepared in such a way as to remove from it all - traces of the glutinous coating, a silk-like fabric can be obtained - from it, and if still further prepared so as to improve its absorbent - powers, it can be formed into mantles having a life considerably - greater than is possessed by those of the cotton fabric. Ramie thus - seemed likely to yield a cheap competitor in length of endurance to - the collodion mantle, and results have justified this expectation. By - treating the fibre so as to remove the objections against its use for - mantle-making, and then making it into threads with the least possible - amount of twist, a mantle fabric can be made in every way superior to - that given by cotton. - - The Plaissetty mantles, which as now manufactured also show a - considerable advance in life and light over the original Welsbach - mantles, are made by impregnating stockings of either cotton or ramie - with the nitrates of thorium and cerium in the usual way, and, before - burning off, mercerizing the mantle by steeping in ammonia solution, - which converts the nitrates into hydrates, and gives greater density - and strength to the finished mantle. The manufacturers of the - Plaissetty mantle have also made a modification in the process by - which the saturated fabric can be so prepared as to be easily burnt - off by the consumer on the burner on which it is to be used, in this - way doing away with the initial cost of burning off, shaping, - hardening and collodionizing. - - - Intensifying systems. - -Since 1897 inventions have been patented for methods of intensifying the -light produced by burning gas under a mantle and increasing the light -generated per unit volume of gas. The systems have either been -self-intensifying or have depended on supplying the gas (or gas and air) -under an increased pressure. Of the self-intensifying systems those of -Lucas and Scott-Snell have been the most successful. A careful study has -been made by the inventor of the Lucas light of the influence of various -sizes and shapes of chimneys in the production of draught. The specially -formed chimney used exerts a suction on the gas flame and air, and the -burner and mantle are so constructed as to take full advantage of the -increased air supply, with the result that the candle power given by the -mantle is considerably augmented. With the Scott-Snell system the -results obtained are about the same as those given by the Lucas light, -but in this case the waste heat from the burner is caused to operate a -plunger working in the crown of the lamp which sucks and delivers gas to -the burner. Both these systems are widely used for public lighting in -many large towns of the United Kingdom and the continent of Europe. - -The other method of obtaining high light-power from incandescent gas -burners necessitates the use of some form of motive power in order to -place the gas, or both gas and air, under an increased pressure. The gas -compressor is worked by a water motor, hot air or gas engine; a low -pressure water motor may be efficiently driven by water from the main, -but with large installations it is more economical to drive the -compressor by a gas engine. To overcome the intermittent flow of gas -caused by the stroke of the engine, a regulator on the floating bell -principle is placed after the compressor; the pressure of gas in the -apparatus governs automatically the flow of gas to the engine. With the -Sugg apparatus for high power lighting the gas is brought from the -district pressure, which is equal to about 2(1/2) in. of water, to an -average of 12 in. water pressure. The light obtained by this system when -the gas pressure is 9(1/2) in. is 300 candle power with an hourly -consumption of 10 cub. ft. of gas, equivalent to 30 candles per cubic -foot, and with a gas pressure equal to 14 in. of water 400 candles are -obtained with an hourly consumption of 12(1/2) cub. ft., which -represents a duty of 32 candles per cubic foot of gas consumed. High -pressure incandescent lighting makes it possible to burn a far larger -volume of gas in a given time under a mantle than is the case with low -pressure lighting, so as to create centres of high total illuminating -value to compete with arc lighting in the illumination of large spaces, -and the Lucas, Keith, Scott-Snell, Millennium, Selas, and many other -pressure systems answer most admirably for this purpose. - - - Inverted burners. - -The light given by the ordinary incandescent mantle burning in an -upright position tends rather to the upward direction, because owing to -the slightly conical shape of the mantle the maximum light is emitted at -an angle a little above the horizontal. Inasmuch as for working purposes -the surface that a mantle illuminates is at angles below 45 deg. from -the horizontal, it is evident that a considerable loss of efficient -lighting is brought about, whilst directly under the light the burner -and fittings throw a strong shadow. To avoid this trouble attempts have -from time to time been made to produce inverted burners which should -heat a mantle suspended below the mouth of the burner. As early as 1882 -Clamond made what was practically an inverted gas and air blowpipe to -use with his incandescent basket, but it was not until 1900-1901 that -the inverted mantle became a possibility. Although there was a strong -prejudice against it at first, as soon as a really satisfactory burner -was introduced, its success was quickly placed beyond doubt. The -inverted mantle has now proved itself one of the chief factors in the -enormous success achieved by incandescent mantle lighting, as the -illumination given by it is far more efficient than with the upright -mantle, and it also lends itself well to ornamental treatment. - - - Burners. - -When the incandescent mantle was first introduced in 1886 an ordinary -laboratory Bunsen burner was experimentally employed, but unless a very -narrow mantle just fitting the top of the tube was used the flame could -not be got to fit the mantle, and it was only the extreme outer edge of -the flame which endowed the mantle fabric with the high incandescent. A -wide burner top was then placed on the Bunsen tube so as to spread the -flame, and a larger mantle became possible, but it was then found that -the slowing down of the rate of flow at the mouth of the burner owing to -its enlargement caused flashing or firing back, and to prevent this a -wire gauze covering was fitted to the burner head; and in this way the -1886-1887 commercial Welsbach burner was produced. The length of the -Bunsen tube, however, made an unsightly fitting, so it was shortened, -and the burner head made to slip over it, whilst an external lighting -back plate was added. The form of the "C" burner thus arrived at has -undergone no important further change. When later on it was desired to -make incandescent mantle burners that should not need the aid of a -chimney to increase the air supply, the long Bunsen tube was reverted -to, and the Kern, Bandsept, and other burners of this class all have a -greater total length than the ordinary burners. To secure proper mixing -of the air and gas, and to prevent flashing back, they all have heads -fitted with baffles, perforations, gauze, and other devices which oppose -considerable resistance to the flow of the stream of air and gas. - -In 1900, therefore, two classes of burner were in commercial existence -for incandescent lighting--(1) the short burner with chimney, and (2) -the long burner without chimney. Both classes had the burner mouth -closed with gauze or similar device, and both needed as an essential -that the mantle should fit closely to the burner head. - - Prior to 1900 attempts had been made to construct a burner in which an - incandescent mantle should be suspended head downwards. Inventors all - turned to the overhead regenerative gas lamps of the Wenham type, or - the inverted blowpipe used by Clamond, and in attempting to make an - inverted Bunsen employed either artificial pressure to the gas or the - air, or to both, or else enclosed the burner and mantle in a globe, - and by means of a long chimney created a strong draught. These burners - also were all regenerative and aimed at heating the air or gas or - mixture of the two, and they had the further drawback of being - complicated and costly. Regeneration is a valuable adjunct in ordinary - gas lighting as it increases the actions that liberate the carbon - particles upon which the luminosity of a flame is dependent, and also - increases the temperature; but with the mixture of air and gas in a - Bunsen regeneration is not a great gain when low and is a drawback - when intense, because incipient combination is induced between the - oxygen of the air and the coal-gas before the burner head is reached, - the proportions of air and gas are disturbed, and the flame instead of - being non-luminous shows slight luminosity and tends to blacken the - mantle. The only early attempt to burn a mantle in an inverted - position without regeneration or artificial pressure or draught was - made by H. A. Kent in 1897, and he used, not an inverted Bunsen, but - one with the top elongated and turned over to form a siphon, so that - the point of admixture of air and gas was below the level of the - burner head, and was therefore kept cool and away from the products of - combustion. - -In 1900 J. Bernt and E. Cervenka set themselves to solve the problem of -making a Bunsen burner which should consume gas under ordinary gas -pressure in an inverted mantle. They took the short Bunsen burner, as -found in the most commonly used upright incandescent burners, and fitted -to it a long tube, preferably of non-conducting material, which they -called an isolator, and which is designed to keep the flame at a -distance from the Bunsen. They found that it burnt fairly well, and that -the tendency of the flame to burn or lap back was lessened, but that the -hot up-current of heated air and products of combustion streamed up to -the air holes of the Bunsen, and by contaminating the air supply caused -the flame to pulsate. They then fixed an inverted cone on the isolator -to throw the products of combustion outwards and away from the air -holes, and found that the addition of this "deflecting cone" steadied -the flame. Having obtained a satisfactory flame, they attacked the -problem of the burner head. Experiments showed that the burner head must -be not only open but also of the same size or smaller than the burner -tube, and that by projecting it downwards into the mantle and leaving a -space between the mantle and the burner head the maximum mantle surface -heated to incandescence was obtained. It was also found that the -distance which the burner head projects into the mantle is equivalent to -the same amount of extra water pressure on the gas, and with a long -mantle it was found useful under certain conditions to add a cylinder or -sleeve with perforated sides to carry the gas still lower into the -mantle. The principles thus set forth by Kent, Bernt and Cervenka form -the basis of construction of all the types of inverted mantle burners -which so greatly increased the popularity of incandescent gas lighting -at the beginning of the 20th century, whilst improvements in the shape -of the mantle for inverted lighting and the methods of attachment to the -burner have added to the success achieved. - -The wonderful increase in the amount of light that can be obtained from -gas by the aid of the incandescent gas mantle is realized when one -compares the 1 to 3.2 candles per cubic foot given by the burners used -in the middle of the 19th century with the duty of incandescent burners, -as shown in the following table:-- - - _Light yielded per cubic foot of Gas._ - - Burner. Candle power. - Low pressure upright incandescent burners 15 to 20 candles - Inverted burners 14 to 21 " - Kern burners 20 to 24 " - High pressure burners 22 to 36 " - - (V. B. L.) - - -3. ELECTRIC LIGHTING. - -Electric lamps are of two varieties: (1) _Arc Lamps_ and (2) -_Incandescent_ or _Glow Lamps_. Under these headings we may briefly -consider the history, physical principles, and present practice of the -art of electric lighting. - -1. _Arc Lamps._--If a voltaic battery of a large number of cells has its -terminal wires provided with rods of electrically-conducting carbon, and -these are brought in contact and then slightly separated, a form of -electric discharge takes place between them called the _electric arc_. -It is not quite certain who first observed this effect of the electric -current. The statement that Sir Humphry Davy, in 1801, first produced -and studied the phenomenon is probably correct. In 1808 Davy had -provided for him at the Royal Institution a battery of 2000 cells, with -which he exhibited the electric arc on a large scale. - -The electric arc may be produced between any conducting materials -maintained at different potentials, provided that the source of electric -supply is able to furnish a sufficiently large current; but for -illuminating purposes pieces of hard graphitic carbon are most -convenient. If some source of continuous electric current is connected -to rods of such carbon, first brought into contact and then slightly -separated, the following facts may be noticed: With a low electromotive -force of about 50 or 60 volts no discharge takes place until the carbons -are in actual contact, unless the insulation of the air is broken down -by the passage of a small electric spark. When this occurs, the space -between the carbons is filled at once with a flame or luminous vapour, -and the carbons themselves become highly incandescent at their -extremities. If they are horizontal the flame takes the form of an arch -springing between their tips; hence the name _arc_. This varies somewhat -in appearance according to the nature of the current, whether continuous -or alternating, and according as it is formed in the open air or in an -enclosed space to which free access of oxygen is prevented. Electric -arcs between metal surfaces differ greatly in colour according to the -nature of the metal. When formed by an alternating current of high -electromotive force they resemble a lambent flame, flickering and -producing a somewhat shrill humming sound. - -Electric arcs may be classified into continuous or alternating current -arcs, and open or enclosed arcs, carbon arcs with pure or chemically -impregnated carbons, or so-called flame arcs, and arcs formed with -metallic or oxide electrodes, such as magnetite. A continuous current -arc is formed with an electric current flowing always in the same -direction; an alternating current arc is formed with a periodically -reversed current. An open arc is one in which the carbons or other -material forming the arc are freely exposed to the air; an enclosed arc -is one in which they are included in a glass vessel. If carbons -impregnated with various salts are used to colour or increase the light, -the arc is called a chemical or flame arc. The carbons or electrodes may -be arranged in line one above the other, or they may be inclined so as -to project the light downwards or more in one direction. In a carbon arc -if the current is continuous the positive carbon becomes much hotter at -the end than the negative, and in the open air it is worn away, partly -by combustion, becoming hollowed out at the extremity into a _crater_. -At the same time the negative carbon gradually becomes pointed, and also -wears away, though much less quickly than the positive. In the -continuous-current open arc the greater part of the light proceeds from -the highly incandescent positive crater. When the arc is examined -through dark glasses, or by the optical projection of its image upon a -screen, a violet band or stream of vapour is seen to extend between the -two carbons, surrounded by a nebulous golden flame or aureole. If the -carbons are maintained at the right distance apart the arc remains -steady and silent, but if the carbons are impure, or the distance -between them too great, the true electric arc rapidly changes its place, -flickering about and frequently becoming extinguished; when this happens -it can only be restored by bringing the carbons once more into contact. -If the current is alternating, then the arc is symmetrical, and both -carbons possess nearly the same appearance. If it is enclosed in a -vessel nearly air-tight, the rate at which the carbons are burnt away is -greatly reduced, and if the current is continuous the positive carbon is -no longer cratered out and the negative no longer so much pointed as in -the case of the open arc. - - - Carbons. - -Davy used for his first experiments rods of wood charcoal which had been -heated and plunged into mercury to make them better conductors. Not -until 1843 was it proposed by J. B. L. Foucault to employ pencils cut -from the hard graphitic carbon deposited in the interior of gas retorts. -In 1846 W. Greener and W. E. Staite patented a process for manufacturing -carbons for this purpose, but only after the invention of the Gramme -dynamo in 1870 any great demand arose for them. F. P. E. Carre in France -in 1876 began to manufacture arc lamp carbons of high quality from coke, -lampblack and syrup. Now they are made by taking some specially refined -form of finely divided carbon, such as the soot or lampblack formed by -cooling the smoke of burning paraffin or tar, or by the carbonization of -organic matter, and making it into a paste with gum or syrup. This -carbon paste is forced through dies by means of a hydraulic press, the -rods thus formed being subsequently baked with such precautions as to -preserve them perfectly straight. In some cases they are _cored_, that -is to say, have a longitudinal hole down them, filled in with a softer -carbon. Sometimes they are covered with a thin layer of copper by -electro-deposition. They are supplied for the market in sizes varying -from 4 or 5 to 30 or 40 millimetres in diameter, and from 8 to 16 in. in -length. The value of carbons for arc lighting greatly depends on their -purity and freedom from ash in burning, and on perfect uniformity of -structure. For ordinary purposes they are generally round in section, -but for certain special uses, such as lighthouse work, they are made -fluted or with a star-shaped section. The positive carbon is usually of -larger section than the negative. For continuous-current arcs a cored -carbon is generally used as a positive, and a smaller solid carbon as a -negative. For flame arc lamps the carbons are specially prepared by -impregnating them with salts of calcium, magnesium and sodium. The -calcium gives the best results. The rod is usually of a composite type. -The outer zone is pure carbon to give strength, the next zone contains -carbon mixed with the metallic salts, and the inner core is the same -but less compressed. In addition to the metallic salts a flux has to be -introduced to prevent the formation of a non-conducting ash, and this -renders it desirable to place the carbons in a downward pointing -direction to get rid of the slag so formed. Bremer first suggested in -1898 for this purpose the fluorides of calcium, strontium or barium. -When such carbons are used to form an electric arc the metallic salts -deflagrate and produce a flame round the arc which is strongly coloured, -the object being to produce a warm yellow glow, instead of the somewhat -violet and cold light of the pure carbon arc, as well as a greater -emission of light. As noxious vapours are however given off, flame arcs -can only be used out of doors. Countless researches have been made on -the subject of carbon manufacture, and the art has been brought to great -perfection. - - Special manuals must be consulted for further information (see - especially a treatise on _Carbon making for all electrical purposes_, - by F. Jehl, London, 1906). - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - - - Physical phenomena. - -The physical phenomena of the electric arc are best examined by forming -a carbon arc between two carbon rods of the above description, held in -line in a special apparatus, and arranged so as to be capable of being -moved to or from each other with a slow and easily regulated motion. An -arrangement of this kind is called a _hand-regulated arc lamp_ (fig. 4). -If such an arc lamp is connected to a source of electric supply having -an electromotive force preferably of 100 volts, and if some resistance -is included in the circuit, say about 5 ohms, a steady and continuous -arc is formed when the carbons are brought together and then slightly -separated. Its appearance may be most conveniently examined by -projecting its image upon a screen of white paper by means of an -achromatic lens. A very little examination of the distribution of light -from the arc shows that the illuminating or candle-power is not the same -in different directions. If the carbons are vertical and the positive -carbon is the upper of the two, the illuminating power is greatest in a -direction at an angle inclined about 40 or 50 degrees below the horizon, -and at other directions has different values, which may be represented -by the lengths of radial lines drawn from a centre, the extremities of -which define a curve called the _illuminating curve_ of the arc lamp -(fig. 5). Considerable differences exist between the forms of the -illuminating-power curves of the continuous and alternating current and -the open or enclosed arcs. The chief portion of the emitted light -proceeds from the incandescent crater; hence the form of the -illuminating-power curve, as shown by A. P. Trotter in 1892, is due to -the apparent area of the crater surface which is visible to an eye -regarding the arc in that direction. The form of the illuminating-power -curve varies with the length of the arc and relative size of the -carbons. Leaving out of account for the moment the properties of the arc -as an illuminating agent, the variable factors with which we are -concerned are (i.) the current through the arc; (ii.) the potential -difference of the carbons; (iii.) the length of the arc; and (iv.) the -size of the carbons. Taking in the first place the typical -direct-current arc between solid carbons, and forming arcs of different -lengths and with carbons of different sizes, it will be found that, -beginning at the lowest current capable of forming a true arc, the -potential difference of the carbons (the arc P.D.) decreases as the -current increases. Up to a certain current strength the arc is silent, -but at a particular critical value P.D. suddenly drops about 10 volts, -the current at the same time rising 2 or 3 amperes. At that moment the -arc begins to _hiss_, and in this hissing condition, if the current is -still further increased, P.D. remains constant over wide limits. This -drop in voltage on hissing was first noticed by A. Niaudet (_La Lumiere -electrique_, 1881, 3, p. 287). It has been shown by Mrs Ayrton (_Journ. -Inst. Elec. Eng._ 28, 1899, p. 400) that the hissing is mainly due to -the oxygen which gains access from the air to the crater, when the -latter becomes so large by reason of the increase of the current as to -overspread the end of the positive carbon. According to A. E. Blondel -and Hans Luggin, hissing takes place whenever the current density -becomes greater than about 0.3 or 0.5 ampere per square millimetre of -crater area. - - The relation between the current, the carbon P.D., and the length of - arc in the case of the direct-current arc has been investigated by - many observers with the object of giving it mathematical expression. - - Let V stand for the potential difference of the carbons in volts, A - for the current through the arc in amperes, L for the length of the - arc in millimetres, R for the resistance of the arc; and let a, b, c, - d, &c., be constants. Erik Edlund in 1867, and other workers after - him, considered that their experiments showed that the relation - between V and L could be expressed by a simple linear equation, - - V = a + bL. - - Later researches by Mrs Ayrton (Electrician, 1898, 41, p. 720), - however, showed that for a direct-current arc of given size with solid - carbons, the observed values of V can be better represented as a - function both of A and of L of the form - - c + dL - V = a + bL + ------. - A - - In the case of direct-current arcs formed with solid carbons, Edlund - and other observers agree that the arc resistance R may be expressed - by a simple straight line law, R = e + fL. If the arc is formed with - cored carbons, Mrs Ayrton demonstrated that the lines expressing - resistance as a function of arc length are no longer straight, but - that there is a rather sudden dip down when the length of the arc is - less than 3 mm. - - The constants in the above equation for the potential difference of - the carbons were determined by Mrs Ayrton in the case of solid carbons - to be-- - - 11.7 + 10.5L - V = 38.9 + 2.07L + ------------. - A - - There has been much debate as to the meaning to be given to the - constant a in the above equation, which has a value apparently not far - from forty volts for a direct-current arc with solid carbons. The - suggestion made in 1867 by Edlund (_Phil. Mag._, 1868, 36, p. 358), - that it implied the existence of a counter-electromotive force in the - arc, was opposed by Luggin in 1889 (_Wien. Ber._ 98, p. 1198), Ernst - Lecher in 1888 (_Wied. Ann._, 1888, 33, p. 609), and by Franz Stenger - in 1892 (_Id._ 45, p. 33); whereas Victor von Lang and L. M. Arons in - 1896 (_Id._ 30, p. 95), concluded that experiment indicated the - presence of a counter-electromotive force of 20 volts. A. E. Blondel - concludes, from experiments made by him in 1897 (_The Electrician_, - 1897, 39, p. 615), that there is no counter-electromotive force in the - arc greater than a fraction of a volt. Subsequently W. Duddell (_Proc. - Roy. Soc._, 1901, 68, p. 512) described experiments tending to prove - the real existence of a counter-electromotive force in the arc, - probably having a thermo-electric origin, residing near the positive - electrode, and of an associated lesser adjuvant _e.m.f._ near the - negative carbon. - - This fall in voltage between the carbons and the arc is not uniformly - distributed. In 1898 Mrs Ayrton described the results of experiments - showing that if V1 is the potential difference between the positive - carbon and the arc, then - - 9 + 3.1L - V1 = 31.28 + --------; - A - - and if V2 is the potential difference between the arc and the negative - carbon, then - - 13.6 - V2 = 7.6 + ----, - A - - where A is the current through the arc in amperes and L is the length - of the arc in millimetres. - - The total potential difference between the carbons, minus the fall in - potential down the arc, is therefore equal to the sum of V1 + V2 = V3. - - 22.6 + 3.1L - Hence V3 = 38.88 + -----------. - A - - The difference between this value and the value of V, the total - potential difference between the carbons, gives the loss in potential - due to the true arc. These laws are simple consequences of - straight-line laws connecting the work spent in the arc at the two - electrodes with the other quantities. If W be the work spent in the - arc on either carbon, measured by the product of the current and the - potential drop in passing from the carbon to the arc, or vice versa, - then for the positive carbon W = a + bA, if the length of arc is - constant, W = c + dL, if the current through the arc is constant, and - for the negative carbon W = e + fA. - - In the above experiments the potential difference between the carbons - and the arc was measured by using a third exploring carbon as an - electrode immersed in the arc. This method, adopted by Lecher, F. - Uppenborn, S. P. Thompson, and J. A. Fleming, is open to the objection - that the introduction of the third carbon may to a considerable extent - disturb the distribution of potential. - - The total work spent in the continuous-current arc with solid carbons - may, according to Mrs Ayrton, be expressed by the equation - - W = 11.7 + 10.5L + (38.9 + 2.07L)A. - - It will thus be seen that the arc, considered as a conductor, has the - property that if the current through it is increased, the difference - of potential between the carbons is decreased, and in one sense, - therefore, the arc may be said to act as if it were a _negative - resistance_. Frith and Rodgers (_Electrician_, 1896, 38, p. 75) have - suggested that the resistance of the arc should be measured by the - ratio between a small increment of carbon potential difference and the - resulting small increment of current; in other words, by the equation - dV/dA, and not by the ratio simply of V:A. Considerable discussion has - taken place whether an electrical resistance can have a negative - value, belonging as it does to the class of scalar mathematical - quantities. Simply considered as an electrical conductor, the arc - resembles an intensely heated rod of magnesia or other refractory - oxide, the true resistance of which is decreased by rise of - temperature. Hence an increase of current through such a rod of - refractory oxide is accompanied by a decrease in the potential - difference of the ends. This, however, does not imply a negative - resistance, but merely the presence of a resistance with a negative - temperature coefficient. If we plot a curve such that the ordinates - are the difference of potential of the carbons and the abscissae the - current through the arc for constant length of arc, this curve is now - called a _characteristic curve_ of the arc and its slope at any point - the instantaneous resistance of the arc. - -Other physical investigations have been concerned with the intrinsic -brightness of the crater. It has been asserted by many observers, such -as Blondel, Sir W. de W. Abney, S. P. Thompson, Trotter, L. J. G. Violle -and others, that this is practically independent of the current passing, -but great differences of opinion exist as to its value. Abney's values -lie between 39 and 116, Trotter's between 80 and 170 candles per square -millimetre. Blondel in 1893 made careful determinations of the -brightness of the arc crater, and came to the conclusion that it was 160 -candles per square millimetre. Subsequently J. E. Petavel found a value -of 147 candles per square millimetre for current densities varying from -.06 to .26 amperes per square millimetre (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1899, 65, -p. 469). Violle also, in 1893, supported the opinion that the brightness -of the crater per square millimetre was independent of the current -density, and from certain experiments and assumptions as to the specific -heat of carbon, he asserted the temperature of the crater was about 3500 -deg. C. It has been concluded that this constancy of temperature, and -therefore of brightness, is due to the fact that the crater is at the -temperature of the boiling-point of carbon, and in that case its -temperature should be raised by increasing the pressure under which the -arc works. W. E. Wilson in 1895 attempted to measure the brightness of -the crater under various pressures, and found that under five -atmospheres the resistance of the arc appeared to increase and the -temperature of the crater to fall, until at a pressure of 20 atmospheres -the brightness of the crater had fallen to a dull red. In a later paper -Wilson and G. F. Fitzgerald stated that these preliminary experiments -were not confirmed, and their later researches throw considerable doubt -on the suggestion that it is the boiling-point of carbon which -determines the temperature of the crater. (See _Electrician_, 1895, 35, -p. 260, and 1897, 38, p. 343.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - - - Alternating current arc. - -The study of the alternating-current arc has suggested a number of new -experimental problems for investigators. In this case all the factors, -namely, current, carbon P.D., resistance, and illuminating power, are -periodically varying; and as the electromotive force reverses itself -periodically, at certain instants the current through the arc is zero. -As the current can be interrupted for a moment without extinguishing -the arc, it is possible to work the electric arc from an alternating -current generator without apparent intermission in the light, provided -that the frequency is not much below 50. During the moment that the -current is zero the carbon continues to glow. Each carbon in turn -becomes, so to speak, the crater carbon, and the illuminating power is -therefore symmetrically distributed. The curve of illumination is as -shown in fig. 3. The nature of the variation of the current and arc P.D. -can be examined by one of two methods, or their modifications, -originally due to Jules Joubert and A. E. Blondel. Joubert's method, -which has been perfected by many observers, consists in attaching to the -shaft of the alternator a contact which closes a circuit at an assigned -instant during the phase. This contact is made to complete connexion -either with a voltmeter or with a galvanometer placed as a shunt across -the carbons or in series with the arc. By this arrangement these -instruments do not read, as usual, the root-mean-square value of the arc -P.D. or current, but give a constant indication determined by, and -indicating, the instantaneous values of these quantities at some -assigned instant. By progressive variation of the phase-instant at which -the contact is made, the successive instantaneous values of the electric -quantities can be measured and plotted out in the form of curves. This -method has been much employed by Blondel, Fleming, C. P. Steinmetz, -Tobey and Walbridge, Frith, H. Gorges and many others. The second -method, due to Blondel, depends on the use of the _Oscillograph_, which -is a galvanometer having a needle or coil of very small periodic time of -vibration, say (1/2000)th part of a second or less, so that its -deflections can follow the variations of current passing through the -galvanometer. An improved form of oscillograph, devised by Duddell, -consists of two fine wires, which are strained transversely to the lines -of flux of a strong magnetic field (see OSCILLOGRAPH). The current to be -examined is made to pass up one wire and down the other, and these wires -are then slightly displaced in opposite directions. A small mirror -attached to the wires is thus deflected rapidly to and fro in -synchronism with the variations of the current. From the mirror a ray of -light is reflected which falls upon a photographic plate made to move -across the field with a uniform motion. In this manner a photographic -trace can be obtained of the wave form. By this method the variations of -electric quantities in an alternating-current arc can be watched. The -variation of illuminating power can be followed by examining and -measuring the light of the arc through slits in a revolving stroboscopic -disk, which is driven by a motor synchronously with the variation of -current through the arc. - -The general phenomena of the alternating-current arc are as follow:-- - - If the arc is supplied by an alternator of low inductance, and soft or - cored carbons are employed to produce a steady and silent arc, the - potential difference of the carbons periodically varies in a manner - not very different from that of the alternator on open circuit. If, - however, hard carbons are used, the alternating-current arc deforms - the shape of the alternator electromotive force curve; the carbon P.D. - curve may then have a very different form, and becomes, in general, - more rectangular in shape, usually having a high peak at the front. - The arc also impresses the deformation on the current curve. Blondel - in 1893 (_Electrician_, 32, p. 161) gave a number of potential and - current curves for alternating-current arcs, obtained by the Joubert - contact method, using two movable coil galvanometers of high - resistance to measure respectively potential difference and current. - Blondel's deductions were that the shape of the current and volt - curves is greatly affected by the nature of the carbons, and also by - the amount of inductance and resistance in the circuit of the - alternator. Blondel, W. E. Ayrton, W. E. Sumpner and Steinmetz have - all observed that the alternating-current arc, when hissing or when - formed with uncored carbons, acts like an inductive resistance, and - that there is a lag between the current curves and the potential - difference curves. Hence the _power-factor_, or ratio between the true - power and the product of the root-mean-square values of arc current - and carbon potential difference, in this case is less than unity. For - silent arcs Blondel found power-factors lying between 0.88 and 0.95, - and for hissing ones, values such as 0.70. Ayrton and Sumpner stated - that the power-factor may be as low as 0.5. Joubert, as far back as - 1881, noticed the deformation which the alternating-current arc - impresses upon the electromotive force curve of an alternator, giving - an open circuit a simple harmonic variation of electromotive force. - Tobey and Walbridge in 1890 gave the results of a number of - observations taken with commercial forms of alternating-current arc - lamps, in which the same deformation was apparent. Blondel in 1896 - came to the conclusion that with the same alternator we can produce - carbon P.D. curves of very varied character, according to the material - of the core, the length of the arc, and the inductance of the circuit. - Hard carbons gave a P.D. curve with a flat top even when worked on a - low inductance alternator. - - The periodic variation of light in the alternating-current arc has - also been the subject of inquiry. H. Gorges in 1895 at Berlin applied - a stroboscopic method to steady the variations of illuminating power. - Fleming and Petavel employed a similar arrangement, driving the - stroboscopic disk by a synchronous motor (_Phil. Mag._, 1896, 41). The - light passing through slits of the disk was selected in one particular - period of the phase, and by means of a lens could be taken from any - desired portion of the arc or the incandescent carbons. The light so - selected was measured relatively to the mean value of the horizontal - light emitted by the arc, and accidental variations were thus - eliminated. They found that the light from any part is periodic, but - owing to the slow cooling of the carbons never quite zero, the minimum - value happening a little later than the zero value of the current. The - light emitted by a particular carbon when it is the negative, does not - reach such a large maximum value as when it is the positive. The same - observers made experiments which seemed to show that for a given - expenditure of power in the arc the alternating current arc in general - gives less mean spherical candle-power than the continuous current - one. - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.] - - The effect of the wave form on the efficiency of the - alternating-current arc has engaged the attention of many workers. - Rossler and Wedding in 1894 gave an account of experiments with - alternating-current arcs produced by alternators having electromotive - force curves of very different wave forms, and they stated that the - efficiency or mean spherical candle-power per watt expended in the arc - was greatest for the flattest of the three wave forms by nearly 50%. - Burnie in 1897 gave the results of experiments of the same kind. His - conclusion was, that since the light of the arc is a function of the - temperature, that wave form of current is most efficient which - maintains the temperature most uniformly throughout the half period. - Hence, generally, if the current rises to a high value soon after its - commencement, and is preserved at that value, or nearly at that value, - during the phase, the efficiency of the arc will be greater when the - current curve is more pointed or peaked. An important contribution to - our knowledge concerning alternating-current arc phenomena was made in - 1899 by W. Duddell and E. W. Marchant, in a paper containing valuable - results obtained with their improved oscillograph.[1] They studied the - behaviour of the alternating-current arc when formed both with solid - carbons, with cored carbons, and with carbon and metal rods. They - found that with solid carbons the arc P.D. curve is always - square-shouldered and begins with a peak, as shown in fig. 7 (a), but - with cored carbons it is more sinusoidal. Its shape depends on the - total resistance in the circuit, but is almost independent of the type - of alternator, whereas the current wave form is largely dependent on - the machine used, and on the nature and amount of the impedance in the - circuit; hence the importance of selecting a suitable alternator for - operating alternating-current arcs. The same observers drew attention - to the remarkable fact that if the arc is formed between a carbon and - metal rod, say a zinc rod, there is a complete interruption of the - current over half a period corresponding to that time during which the - carbon is positive; this suggests that the rapid cooling of the metal - facilitates the flow of the current from it, and resists the flow of - current to it. The dotted curve in fig. 7 (b) shows the current curve - form in the case of a copper rod. By the use of the oscillograph - Duddell and Marchant showed that the hissing continuous-current arc is - intermittent, and that the current is oscillatory and may have a - frequency of 1000 per second. They also showed that enclosing the arc - increases the arc reaction, the front peak of the potential curve - becoming more marked and the power-factor of the arc reduced. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Enclosed Arc Lamp.] - - - Enclosed arc lamps. - -If a continuous-current electric arc is formed in the open air with a -positive carbon having a diameter of about 15 millimetres, and a -negative carbon having a diameter of about 9 millimetres, and if a -current of 10 amperes is employed, the potential difference between the -carbons is generally from 40 to 50 volts. Such a lamp is therefore -called a 500-watt arc. Under these conditions the carbons each burn away -at the rate of about 1 in. per hour, actual combustion taking place in -the air which gains access to the highly-heated crater and negative tip; -hence the most obvious means of preventing this disappearance is to -enclose the arc in an air-tight glass vessel. Such a device was tried -very early in the history of arc lighting. The result of using a -completely air-tight globe, however, is that the contained oxygen is -removed by combustion with the carbon, and carbon vapour or hydrocarbon -compounds diffuse through the enclosed space and deposit themselves on -the cool sides of the glass, which is thereby obscured. It was, however, -shown by L. B. Marks (_Electrician_ 31, p. 502, and 38, p. 646) in 1893, -that if the arc is an arc formed with a small current and relatively -high voltage, namely, 80 to 85 volts, it is possible to admit air in -such small amount that though the rate of combustion of the carbons is -reduced, yet the air destroys by oxidation the carbon vapour escaping -from the arc. An arc lamp operated in this way is called an enclosed arc -lamp (fig. 8). The top of the enclosing bulb is closed by a gas check -plug which admits through a small hole a limited supply of air. The -peculiarity of an enclosed arc lamp operated with a continuous current -is that the carbons do not burn to a crater on the positive, and a sharp -tip or mushroom on the negative, but preserve nearly flat surfaces. This -feature affects the distribution of the light. The illuminating curve of -the enclosed arc, therefore, has not such a strongly marked maximum -value as that of the open arc, but on the other hand the true arc or -column of incandescent carbon vapour is less steady in position, -wandering round from place to place on the surface of the carbons. As a -compensation for this defect, the combustion of the carbons per hour in -commercial forms of enclosed arc lamps is about one-twentieth part of -that of an open arc lamp taking the same current. - -It was shown by Fleming in 1890 that the column of incandescent carbon -vapour constituting the true arc possesses a unilateral conductivity -(_Proc. Roy. Inst._ 13, p. 47). If a third carbon is dipped into the arc -so as to constitute a third pole, and if a small voltaic battery of a -few cells, with a galvanometer in circuit, is connected in between the -middle pole and the negative carbon, it is found that when the negative -pole of the battery is in connexion with the negative carbon the -galvanometer indicates a current, but does not when the positive pole of -the battery is in connexion with the negative carbon of the arc. - - - The arc as an illuminant. - -Turning next to the consideration of the electric arc as a source of -light, we have already noticed that the illuminating power in different -directions is not the same. If we imagine an electric arc, formed -between a pair of vertical carbons, to be placed in the centre of a -hollow sphere painted white on the interior, then it would be found that -the various zones of this sphere are unequally illuminated. If the -points in which the carbons when prolonged would intercept the sphere -are called the poles, and the line where the horizontal plane through -the arc would intercept the sphere is called the equator, we might -consider the sphere divided up by lines of latitude into zones, each of -which would be differently illuminated. The total quantity of light or -the total illumination of each zone is the product of the area of the -zone and the intensity of the light falling on the zone measured in -candle-power. We might regard the sphere as uniformly illuminated with -an intensity of light such that the product of this intensity and the -total surface of the sphere was numerically equal to the surface -integral obtained by summing up the products of the areas of all the -elementary zones and the intensity of the light falling on each. This -mean intensity is called the _mean spherical candle-power_ of the arc. -If the distribution of the illuminating power is known and given by an -illumination curve, the mean spherical candle-power can be at once -deduced (_La Lumiere electrique_, 1890, 37, p. 415). - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.] - - Let BMC (fig. 9) be a semicircle which by revolution round the - diameter BC sweeps out a sphere. Let an arc be situated at A, and let - the element of the circumference PQ = _ds_ sweep out a zone of the - sphere. Let the intensity of light falling on this zone be I. Then if - [theta] [asymp] the angle MAP and d[theta] the incremental angle PAQ, - and if R is the radius of the sphere, we have - - ds = R d[theta]; - - also, if we project the element PQ on the line DE we have - - ab = ds cos [theta], - - :. ab = R cos [theta] d[theta] - - and - - Iab = IR cos [theta] d[theta]. - - Let r denote the radius PT of the zone of the sphere, then - - r = R cos [theta]. - - Hence the area of the zone swept out by PQ is equal to - - 2[pi]R cos [theta] ds = 2[pi]R^2 cos [theta] d[theta] - - in the limit, and the total quantity of light falling on the zone is - equal to the product of the mean intensity or candle-power I in the - direction AP and the area of the zone, and therefore to - - 2[pi]IR^2 cos [theta] d[theta]. - - Let I0 stand for the mean spherical candle-power, that is, let I0 be - defined by the equation - - 4[pi]R^2I0 = 2[pi]R[Sigma](Iab) - - where [Sigma](Iab) is the sum of all the light actually falling on - the sphere surface, then - - 1 - I0 = -- [Sigma](Iab) - 2R - - [Sigma](Iab) - = ------------ I_(max) - 2RI_(max) - - where I_(max) stands for the maximum candle-power of the arc. If, - then, we set off at b a line bH perpendicular to DE and in length - proportional to the candle-power of the arc in the direction AP, and - carry out the same construction for a number of different observed - candle-power readings at known angles above and below the horizon, the - summits of all ordinates such as bH will define a curve DHE. The mean - spherical candle-power of the arc is equal to the product of the - maximum candle-power (I_(max)), and a fraction equal to the ratio of - the area included by the curve DHE to its circumscribing rectangle - DFGE. The area of the curve DHE multiplied by 2[pi]/R gives us the - _total flux of light_ from the arc. - - Owing to the inequality in the distribution of light from an electric - arc, it is impossible to define the illuminating power by a single - number in any other way than by stating the mean spherical - candle-power. All such commonly used expressions as "an arc lamp of - 2000 candle-power" are, therefore, perfectly meaningless. - - - Photometry of arc. - -The photometry of arc lamps presents particular difficulties, owing to -the great difference in quality between the light radiated by the arc -and that given by any of the ordinarily used light standards. (For -standards of light and photometers, see PHOTOMETER.) All photometry -depends on the principle that if we illuminate two white surfaces -respectively and exclusively by two separate sources of light, we can by -moving the lights bring the two surfaces into such a condition that -their _illumination_ or _brightness_ is the same without regard to any -small colour difference. The quantitative measurement depends on the -fact that the illumination produced upon a surface by a source of light -is inversely as the square of the distance of the source. The trained -eye is capable of making a comparison between two surfaces illuminated -by different sources of light, and pronouncing upon their equality or -otherwise in respect of brightness, apart from a certain colour -difference; but for this to be done with accuracy the two illuminated -surfaces, the brightness of which is to be compared, must be absolutely -contiguous and not separated by any harsh line. The process of comparing -the light from the arc directly with that of a candle or other similar -flame standard is exceedingly difficult, owing to the much greater -proportion and intensity of the violet rays in the arc. The most -convenient practical working standard is an incandescent lamp run at a -high temperature, that is, at an efficiency of about 2(1/2) watts per -candle. If it has a sufficiently large bulb, and has been _aged_ by -being worked for some time previously, it will at a constant voltage -preserve a constancy in illuminating power sufficiently long to make the -necessary photometric comparisons, and it can itself be compared at -intervals with another standard incandescent lamp, or with a flame -standard such as a Harcourt pentane lamp. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.] - - In measuring the candle-power of arc lamps it is necessary to have - some arrangement by which the brightness of the rays proceeding from - the arc in different directions can be measured. For this purpose the - lamp may be suspended from a support, and a radial arm arranged to - carry three mirrors, so that in whatever position the arm may be - placed, it gathers light proceeding at one particular angle above or - below the horizon from the arc, and this light is reflected out - finally in a constant horizontal direction. An easily-arranged - experiment enables us to determine the constant loss of light by - reflection at all the mirrors, since that reflection always takes - place at 45 deg. The ray thrown out horizontally can then be compared - with that from any standard source of light by means of a fixed - photometer, and by sweeping round the radial arm the photometric or - illuminating curve of the arc lamp can be obtained. From this we can - at once determine the nature of the illumination which would be - produced on a horizontal surface if the arc lamp were suspended at a - given distance above it. Let A (fig. 10) be an arc lamp placed at a - height h( = AB) above a horizontal plane. Let ACD be the illuminating - power curve of the arc, and hence AC the candle-power in a direction - AP. The illumination (I) or brightness on the horizontal plane at P is - equal to - - AC cos APM/(AP)^2 = FC/(h^2 + x^2), where x = BP. - - Hence if the candle-power curve of the arc and its height above the - surface are known, we can describe a curve BMN, whose ordinate PM will - denote the brightness on the horizontal surface at any point P. It is - easily seen that this ordinate must have a maximum value at some - point. This brightness is best expressed in _candle-feet_, taking the - unit of illumination to be that given by a standard candle on a white - surface at a distance of 1 ft. If any number of arc lamps are placed - above a horizontal plane, the brightness at any point can be - calculated by adding together the illuminations due to each - respectively. - - The process of delineating the photometric or polar curve of intensity - for an arc lamp is somewhat tedious, but the curve has the advantage - of showing exactly the distribution of light in different directions. - When only the mean spherical or mean hemispherical candle-power is - required the process can be shortened by employing an integrating - photometer such as that of C. P. Matthews (_Trans. Amer. Inst. Elec. - Eng._, 1903, 19, p. 1465), or the lumen-meter of A. E. Blondel which - enables us to determine at one observation the total flux of light - from the arc and therefore the mean spherical candle-power per watt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.] - - - Street arc lighting. - -In the use of arc lamps for street and public lighting, the question of -the distribution of light on the horizontal surface is all-important. In -order that street surfaces may be well lighted, the minimum illumination -should not fall below 0.1 candle-foot, and in general, in well-lighted -streets, the maximum illumination will be 1 candle-foot and upwards. By -means of an illumination photometer, such as that of W. H. Preece and A. -P. Trotter, it is easy to measure the illumination in candle-feet at any -point in a street surface, and to plot out a number of contour lines of -equal illumination. Experience has shown that to obtain satisfactory -results the lamps must be placed on a high mast 20 or 25 ft. above the -roadway surface. These posts are now generally made of cast iron in -various ornamental forms (fig. 11), the necessary conductors for -conveying the current up to the lamp being taken inside the iron mast. -(The pair of incandescent lamps halfway down the standard are for use in -the middle of the night, when the arc lamp would give more light than is -required; they are lighted by an automatic switch whenever the arc is -extinguished.) The lamp itself is generally enclosed in an opalescent -spherical globe, which is woven over with wire-netting so that in case -of fracture the pieces may not cause damage. The necessary trimming, -that is, the replacement of carbons, is effected either by lowering the -lamp or, preferably, by carrying round a portable ladder enabling the -trimmer to reach it. For the purpose of public illumination it is very -usual to employ a lamp taking 10 amperes, and therefore absorbing about -500 watts. Such a lamp is called a 500-watt arc lamp, and it is found -that a satisfactory illumination is given for most street purposes by -placing 500-watt arc lamps at distances varying from 40 to 100 yds., and -at a height of 20 to 25 ft. above the roadway. The maximum candle-power -of a 500-watt arc enclosed in a roughened or ground-glass globe will not -exceed 1500 candles, and that of a 6.8-ampere arc (continuous) about 900 -candles. If, however, the arc is an enclosed arc with double globes, the -absorption of light would reduce the effective maximum to about 200 c.p. -and 120 c.p. respectively. When arc lamps are placed in public -thoroughfares not less than 40 yds. apart, the illumination anywhere on -the street surface is practically determined by the two nearest ones. -Hence the total illumination at any point may be obtained by adding -together the illuminations due to each arc separately. Given the -photometric polar curves or illuminating-power curves of each arc taken -outside the shade or globe, we can therefore draw a curve representing -the resultant illumination on the horizontal surface. It is obvious that -the higher the lamps are placed, the more uniform is the street surface -illumination, but the less its average value; thus two 10-ampere arcs -placed on masts 20 ft. above the road surface and 100 ft. apart will -give a maximum illumination of about 1.1 and a minimum of about 0.15 -candle-feet in the interspace (fig 12). If the lamps are raised on -40-ft. posts the maximum illumination will fall to 0.3, and the minimum -will rise to 0.2. For this reason masts have been employed as high as 90 -ft. In docks and railway yards high masts (50 ft.) are an advantage, -because the strong contrasts due to shadows of trucks, carts, &c., then -become less marked, but for street illumination they should not exceed -30 to 35 ft. in height. Taking the case of 10-ampere and 6.8-ampere arc -lamps in ordinary opal shades, the following figures have been given by -Trotter as indicating the nature of the resultant horizontal -illumination:-- - - +-----------+------------+---------+------------------------+ - | | | | Horizontal Illumination| - |Arc Current|Height above| Distance| in Candle-Feet. | - | in | Road | apart +-----------+------------+ - | Amperes. | in Feet. | in Feet.| Maximum. | Minimum. | - +-----------+------------+---------+-----------+------------+ - | 10 | 20 | 120 | 1.85 | 0.12 | - | 10 | 25 | 120 | 1.17 | 0.15 | - | 10 | 40 | 120 | 0.5 | 0.28 | - | 6.8 | 20 | 90 | 1.1 | 0.21 | - | 6.8 | 40 | 120 | 0.3 | 0.17 | - +-----------+------------+---------+-----------+------------+ - - -As regards distance apart, a very usual practice is to place the lamps -at spaces equal to six to ten times their height above the road surface. -Blondel (_Electrician_, 35, p. 846) gives the following rule for the -height (h) of the arc to afford the maximum illumination at a distance -(d) from the foot of the lamp-post, the continuous current arc being -employed:-- - - For naked arc h = 0.95 d. - " arc in rough glass globe h = 0.85 d. - " " opaline glob h = " - " " opal globe h = 0.5 d. - " " holophane globe h = 0.5 d. - -These figures show that the distribution of light on the horizontal -surface is greatly affected by the nature of the enclosing globe. For -street illumination naked arcs, although sometimes employed in works and -factory yards, are entirely unsuitable, since the result produced on the -eye by the bright point of light is to paralyse a part of the retina and -contract the pupil, hence rendering the eye less sensitive when directed -on feebly illuminated surfaces. Accordingly, diffusing globes have to be -employed. It is usual to place the arc in the interior of a globe of -from 12 to 18 in. in diameter. This may be made of ground glass, opal -glass, or be a dioptric globe such as the holophane. The former two are -strongly absorptive, as may be seen from the results of experiments by -Guthrie and Redhead. The following table shows the astonishing loss of -light due to the use of opal globes:-- - - +--------------------------------------+-----+--------+-------+-------+ - | | | Arc | Arc in| Arc | - | |Naked|in Clear| Rough |in Opal| - | | Arc.| Globe. | Glass | Globe.| - | | | | Globe.| | - +--------------------------------------+-----+--------+-------+-------+ - | Mean spherical c.p. | 319 | 235 | 160 | 144 | - | Mean hemispherical c.p. | 450 | 326 | 215 | 138 | - | Percentage value of transmitted light| 100 | 53 | 23 | 19 | - | Percentage absorption | 0 | 47 | 77 | 81 | - +--------------------------------------+-----+--------+-------+-------+ - -By using Trotter's, Fredureau's or the holophane globe, the light may be -so diffused that the whole globe appears uniformly luminous, and yet not -more than 20% of the light is absorbed. Taking the absorption of an -ordinary opal globe into account, a 500-watt arc does not usually give -more than 500 c.p. as a maximum candle-power. Even with a naked 500-watt -arc the mean spherical candle-power is not generally more than 500 c.p., -or at the rate of 1 c.p. per watt. The maximum candle-power for a given -electrical power is, however, greatly dependent on the current density -in the carbon, and to obtain the highest current density the carbons -must be as thin as possible. (See T. Hesketh, "Notes on the Electric -Arc," _Electrician_, 39, p. 707.) - -For the efficiency of arcs of various kinds, expressed by the mean -hemispherical candle power per ampere and per watt expended in the arc, -the following figures were given by L. Andrews ("Long-flame Arc Lamps," -_Journal Inst. Elec. Eng.,_ 1906, 37, p. 4). - - Candle-power Candle-power - per ampere. per watt. - Ordinary open carbon arc 82 1.54 - Enclosed carbon arc 55 0.77 - Chemical carbon or flame arc 259 5.80 - High voltage inclined carbon arc 200 2.24 - -It will be seen that the flame arc lamp has an enormous advantage over -other types in the light yielded for a given electric power consumption. - - - Arc lamp mechanism. - -The practical employment of the electric arc as a means of illumination -is dependent upon mechanism for automatically keeping two suitable -carbon rods in the proper position, and moving them so as to enable a -steady arc to be maintained. Means must be provided for holding the -carbons in line, and when the lamp is not in operation they must fall -together, or come together when the current is switched on, so as to -start the arc. As soon as the current passes, they must be moved -slightly apart, and gripped in position immediately the current reaches -its right value, being moved farther apart if the current increases in -strength, and brought together if it decreases. Moreover, it must be -possible for a considerable length of carbon to be fed through the lamp -as required. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13] - -[Illustration: FIG. 14] - - One early devised form of arc-lamp mechanism was a system of clockwork - driven by a spring or weight, which was started and stopped by the - action of an electromagnet; in modern lighthouse lamps a similar - mechanism is still employed. W. E. Staite (1847), J. B. L. Foucault - (1849), V. L. M. Serrin (1857), J. Duboscq (1858), and a host of later - inventors, devised numerous forms of mechanical and clockwork lamps. - The modern self-regulating type may be said to have been initiated in - 1878 by the differential lamp of F. von Hefner-Alteneck, and the - clutch lamp of C. F. Brush. The general principle of the former may be - explained as follows: There are two solenoids, placed one above the - other. The lower one, of thick wire, is in series with the two carbon - rods forming the arc, and is hence called the _series coil_. Above - this there is placed another solenoid of fine wire, which is called - the _shunt coil_. Suppose an iron rod to be placed so as to be partly - in one coil and partly in another; then when the coils are traversed - by currents, the iron core will be acted upon by forces tending to - pull it into these solenoids. If the iron core be attached to one end - of a lever, the other end of which carries the upper carbon, it will - be seen that if the carbons are in contact and the current is switched - on, the series coil alone will be traversed by the current, and its - magnetic action will draw down the iron core, and therefore pull the - carbons apart and strike the arc. The moment the carbons separate, - there will be a difference of potential between them, and the shunt - coil will then come into action, and will act on the core so as to - draw the carbons together. Hence the two solenoids act in opposition - to each other, one increasing and the other diminishing the length of - the arc, and maintaining the carbons in the proper position. In the - lamp of this type the upper carbon is in reality attached to a rod - having a side-rack gearing, with a train of wheels governed by a - pendulum. The action of the series coil on the mechanism is to first - lock or stop the train, and then lift it as a whole slightly. This - strikes the arc. When the arc is too long, the series coil lowers the - gear and finally releases the upper carbon, so that it can run down by - its own weight. The principle of a shunt and series coil operating on - an iron core in opposition is the basis of the mechanism of a number - of arc lamps. Thus the lamp invented by F. Krizik and L. Piette, - called from its place of origin the Pilsen lamp, comprises an iron - core made in the shape of a double cone or spindle (fig. 13), which is - so arranged in a brass tube that it can move into or out of a shunt - and series coil, wound the one with fine and the other with thick - insulated wire, and hence regulate the position of the carbon attached - to it. The movement of this core is made to feed the carbons directly - without the intervention of any clockwork, as in the case of the - Hefner-Alteneck lamp. In the clutch-lamp mechanism the lower carbon is - fixed, and the upper carbon rests upon it by its own weight and that - of its holder. The latter consists of a long rod passing through - guides, and is embraced somewhere by a ring capable of being tilted or - lifted by a finger attached to the armature of an electromagnet the - coils of which are in series with the arc. When the current passes - through the magnet it attracts the armature, and by tilting the ring - lifts the upper carbon-holder and hence strikes the arc. If the - current diminishes in value, the upper carbon drops a little by its - own weight, and the feed of the lamp is thus effected by a series of - small lifts and drops of the upper carbon (fig. 14). Another element - sometimes employed in arc-lamp mechanism is the brake-wheel regulator. - This is a feature of one form of the Brockie and of the - Crompton-Pochin lamps. In these the movement of the carbons is - effected by a cord or chain which passes over a wheel, or by a rack - geared with the brake wheel. When no current is passing through the - lamp, the wheel is free to move, and the carbons fall together; but - when the current is switched on, the chain or cord passing over the - brake wheel, or the brake wheel itself is gripped in some way, and at - the same time the brake wheel is lifted so that the arc is struck. - -Although countless forms of self-regulating device have been invented -for arc lamps, nothing has survived the test of time so well as the -typical mechanisms which work with carbon rods in one line, one or both -rods being moved by a controlling apparatus as required. The early forms -of semi-incandescent arc lamp, such as those of R. Werdermann and -others, have dropped out of existence. These were not really true arc -lamps, the light being produced by the incandescence of the extremity of -a thin carbon rod pressed against a larger rod or block. The once famous -Jablochkoff candle, invented in 1876, consisted of two carbon rods about -4 mm. in diameter, placed parallel to each other and separated by a -partition of kaolin, steatite or other refractory non-conductor. -Alternating currents were employed, and the candle was set in operation -by a match or starter of high-resistance carbon paste which connected -the tips of the rods. When this burned off, a true arc was formed -between the parallel carbons, the separator volatilizing as the carbons -burned away. Although much ingenuity was expended on this system of -lighting between 1877 and 1881, it no longer exists. One cause of its -disappearance was its relative inefficiency in light-giving power -compared with other forms of carbon arc taking the same amount of power, -and a second equally important reason was the waste in carbons. If the -arc of the electric candle was accidentally blown out, no means of -relighting existed; hence the great waste in half-burnt candles. H. -Wilde, J. C. Jamin, J. Rapieff and others endeavoured to provide a -remedy, but without success. - - It is impossible to give here detailed descriptions of a fraction of - the arc-lamp mechanisms devised, and it must suffice to indicate the - broad distinctions between various types. (1) Arc lamps may be either - _continuous-current_ or _alternating-current_ lamps. For outdoor - public illumination the former are greatly preferable, as owing to the - form of the illuminating power-curve they send the light down on the - road surface, provided the upper carbon is the positive one. For - indoor, public room or factory lighting, _inverted arc_ lamps are - sometimes employed. In this case the positive carbon is the lower one, - and the lamp is carried in an inverted metallic reflector shield, so - that the light is chiefly thrown up on the ceiling, whence it is - diffused all round. The alternating-current arc is not only less - efficient in mean spherical candle-power per watt of electric power - absorbed, but its distribution of light is disadvantageous for street - purposes. Hence when arc lamps have to be worked off an - alternating-current circuit for public lighting it is now usual to - make use of a _rectifier_, which rectifies the alternating current - into an unidirectional though pulsating current. (2.) Arc lamps may be - also classified, as above described, into _open_ or _enclosed arcs_. - The enclosed arc can be made to burn for 200 hours with one pair of - carbons, whereas open-arc lamps are usually only able to work, 8, 16 - or 32 hours without recarboning, even when fitted with double carbons. - (3) Arc lamps are further divided into _focussing_ and _non-focussing_ - lamps. In the former the lower carbon is made to move up as the upper - carbon moves down, and the arc is therefore maintained at the same - level. This is advisable for arcs included in a globe, and absolutely - necessary in the case of lighthouse lamps and lamps for optical - purposes. (4) Another subdivision is into _hand-regulated_ and - _self-regulating_ lamps. In the hand-regulated arcs the carbons are - moved by a screw attachment as required, as in some forms of - search-light lamp and lamps for optical lanterns. The carbons in large - search-light lamps are usually placed horizontally. The - self-regulating lamps may be classified into groups depending upon the - nature of the regulating appliances. In some cases the regulation is - controlled only by a _series coil_, and in others only by a _shunt - coil_. Examples of the former are the original Gulcher and Brush - clutch lamp, and some modern enclosed arc lamps; and of the latter, - the Siemens "band" lamp, and the Jackson-Mensing lamp. In series coil - lamps the variation of the current in the coil throws into or out of - action the carbon-moving mechanism; in shunt coil lamps the variation - in voltage between the carbons is caused to effect the same changes. - Other types of lamp involve the use both of shunt and series coils - acting against each other. A further classification of the - self-regulating lamps may be found in the nature of the carbon-moving - mechanism. This may be some modification of the Brush ring clutch, - hence called _clutch_ lamps; or some variety of _brake wheel_, as - employed in Brockie and Crompton lamps; or else some form of _electric - motor_ is thrown into or out of action and effects the necessary - changes. In many cases the arc-lamp mechanism is provided with a - _dash-pot_, or contrivance in which a piston moving nearly air-tight - in a cylinder prevents sudden jerks in the motion of the mechanism, - and thus does away with the "hunting" or rapid up-and-down movements - to which some varieties of clutch mechanism are liable. One very - efficient form is illustrated in the Thomson lamp and Brush-Vienna - lamp. In this mechanism a shunt and series coil are placed side by - side, and have iron cores suspended to the ends of a rocking arm held - partly within them. Hence, according as the magnetic action of the - shunt or series coil prevails, the rocking arm is tilted backwards or - forwards. When the series coil is not in action the _motion_ is free, - and the upper carbon-holder slides down, or the lower one slides up, - and starts the arc. The series coil comes into action to withdraw the - carbons, and at the same time locks the mechanism. The shunt coil then - operates against the series coil, and between them the carbon is fed - forwards as required. The control to be obtained is such that the arc - shall never become so long as to flicker and become extinguished, when - the carbons would come together again with a rush, but the feed should - be smooth and steady, the position of the carbons responding quickly - to each change in the current. - - The introduction of enclosed arc lamps was a great improvement, in - consequence of the economy effected in the consumption of carbon and - in the cost of labour for trimming. A well-known and widely used form - of enclosed arc lamp is the Jandus lamp, which in large current form - can be made to burn for two hundred hours without recarboning, and in - small or midget form to burn for forty hours, taking a current of two - amperes at 100 volts. Such lamps in many cases conveniently replace - large sizes of incandescent lamps, especially for shop lighting, as - they give a whiter light. Great improvements have also been made in - inclined carbon arc lamps. One reason for the relatively low - efficiency of the usual vertical rod arrangement is that the crater - can only radiate laterally, since owing to the position of the - negative carbon no crater light is thrown directly downwards. If, - however, the carbons are placed in a downwards slanting position at a - small angle like the letter V and the arc formed at the bottom tips, - then the crater can emit downwards all the light it produces. It is - found, however, that the arc is unsteady unless a suitable magnetic - field is employed to keep the arc in position at the carbon tips. This - method has been adopted in the Carbone arc, which, by the employment - of inclined carbons, and a suitable electromagnet to keep the true arc - steady at the ends of the carbons, has achieved considerable success. - One feature of the Carbone arc is the use of a relatively high voltage - between the carbons, their potential difference being as much as 85 - volts. - - - Arrangement. - -Arc lamps may be arranged either (i.) in series, (ii.) in parallel or -(iii.) in series parallel. In the first case a number, say 20, may be -traversed by the same current, in that case supplied at a pressure of -1000 volts. Each must have a magnetic cut-out, so that if the carbons -stick together or remain apart the current to the other lamps is not -interrupted, the function of such a cut-out being to close the main -circuit immediately any one lamp ceases to pass current. Arc lamps -worked in series are generally supplied with a current from a constant -current dynamo, which maintains an invariable current of, say 10 -amperes, independently of the number of lamps on the external circuit. -If the lamps, however, are worked in series off a constant potential -circuit, such as one supplying at the same time incandescent lamps, -provision must be made by which a resistance coil can be substituted for -any one lamp removed or short-circuited. When lamps are worked in -parallel, each lamp is independent, but it is then necessary to add a -resistance in series with the lamp. By special devices three lamps can -be worked in series of 100 volt circuits. Alternating-current arc lamps -can be worked off a high-tension circuit in parallel by providing each -lamp with a small transformer. In some cases the alternating -high-tension current is _rectified_ and supplied as a unidirectional -current to lamps in series. If single alternating-current lamps have to -be worked off a 100 volt alternating-circuit, each lamp must have in -series with it a choking coil or economy coil, to reduce the circuit -pressure to that required for one lamp. Alternating-current lamps take a -larger _effective_ current, and work with a less effective or virtual -carbon P.D., than continuous current arcs of the same wattage. - - - Cost. - -The cost of working public arc lamps is made up of several items. There -is first the cost of supplying the necessary electric energy, then the -cost of carbons and the labour of recarboning, and, lastly, an item due -to depreciation and repairs of the lamps. An ordinary type of open 10 -ampere arc lamp, burning carbons 15 and 9 mm. in diameter for the -positive and negative, and working every night of the year from dusk to -dawn, uses about 600 ft. of carbons per annum. If the positive carbon is -18 mm. and the negative 12 mm., the consumption of each size of carbon -is about 70 ft. per 1000 hours of burning. It may be roughly stated that -at the present prices of plain open arc-lamp carbons the cost is about -15s. per 1000 hours of burning; hence if such a lamp is burnt every -night from dusk to midnight the annual cost in that respect is about L1, -10s. The annual cost of labour per lamp for trimming is in Great Britain -from L2 to L3; hence, approximately speaking, the cost per annum of -maintenance of a public arc lamp burning every night from dusk to -midnight is about L4 to L5, or perhaps L6, per annum, depreciation and -repairs included. Since such a 10 ampere lamp uses half a Board of Trade -unit of electric energy every hour, it will take 1000 Board of Trade -units per annum, burning every night from dusk to midnight; and if this -energy is supplied, say at 1(1/2)d. per unit, the annual cost of energy -will be about L6, and the upkeep of the lamp, including carbons, labour -for trimming and repairs, will be about L10 to L11 per annum. The cost -for labour and carbons is considerably reduced by the employment of the -enclosed arc lamp, but owing to the absorption of light produced by the -inner enclosing globe, and the necessity for generally employing a -second outer globe, there is a lower resultant candle-power per watt -expended in the arc. Enclosed arc lamps are made to burn without -attention for 200 hours, singly on 100 volt circuits, or two in series -on 200 volt circuits, and in addition to the cost of carbons per hour -being only about one-twentieth of that of the open arc, they have -another advantage in the fact that there is a more uniform distribution -of light on the road surface, because a greater proportion of light is -thrown out horizontally. - -It has been found by experience that the ordinary type of open arc lamp -with vertical carbons included in an opalescent globe cannot compete in -point of cost with modern improvements in gas lighting as a means of -street illumination. The violet colour of the light and the sharp -shadows, and particularly the non-illuminated area just beneath the -lamp, are grave disadvantages. The high-pressure flame arc lamp with -inclined chemically treated carbons has, however, put a different -complexion on matters. Although the treated carbons cost more than the -plain carbons, yet there is a great increase of emitted light, and a -9-ampere flame arc lamp supplied with electric energy at 1(1/2)d. per -unit can be used for 1000 hours at an inclusive cost of about Ls to L6, -the mean emitted illumination being at the rate of 4 c.p. per watt -absorbed. In the Carbone arc lamp, the carbons are worked at an angle of -15 deg. or 20 deg. to each other and the arc is formed at the lower -ends. If the potential difference of the carbons is low, say only 50-60 -volts, the crater forms between the tips of the carbons and is therefore -more or less hidden. If, however, the voltage is increased to 90-100 -then the true flame of the arc is longer and is curved, and the crater -forms at the exteme tip of the carbons and throws all its light -downwards. Hence results a far greater mean hemispherical candle power -(M.H.S.C.P.), so that whereas a 10-ampere 60 volt open arc gives at most -1200 M.H.S.C.P., a Carbone 10-ampere 85 volt arc will give 2700 -M.H.S.C.P. Better results still can be obtained with impregnated -carbons. But the flame arcs with impregnated carbons cannot be enclosed, -so the consumption of carbon is greater, and the carbons themselves are -more costly, and leave a greater ash on burning; hence more trimming is -required. They give a more pleasing effect for street lighting, and -their golden yellow globe of light is more useful than an equally costly -plain arc of the open type. This improvement in efficiency is, however, -accompanied by some disadvantages. The flame arc is very sensitive to -currents of air and therefore has to be shielded from draughts by -putting it under an "economizer" or chamber of highly refractory -material which surrounds the upper carbon, or both carbon tips, if the -arc is formed with inclined carbons. (For additional information on -flame arc lamps see a paper by L. B. Marks and H. E. Clifford, -_Electrician_, 1906, 57, p. 975.) - -2. _Incandescent Lamps._--Incandescent electric lighting, although not -the first, is yet in one sense the most obvious method of utilizing -electric energy for illumination. It was evolved from the early observed -fact that a conductor is heated when traversed by an electric current, -and that if it has a high resistance and a high melting-point it may be -rendered incandescent, and therefore become a source of light. Naturally -every inventor turned his attention to the employment of wires of -refractory metals, such as platinum or alloys of platinum-iridium, &c., -for the purpose of making an incandescent lamp. F. de Moleyns -experimented in 1841, E. A. King and J. W. Starr in 1845, J. J. W. -Watson in 1853, and W. E. Staite in 1848, but these inventors achieved -no satisfactory result. Part of their want of success is attributable to -the fact that the problem of the economical production of electric -current by the dynamo machine had not then been solved. In 1878 T. A. -Edison devised lamps in which a platinum wire was employed as the -light-giving agent, carbon being made to adhere round it by pressure. -Abandoning this, he next directed his attention to the construction of -an "electric candle," consisting of a thin cylinder or rod formed of -finely-divided metals, platinum, iridium, &c., mixed with refractory -oxides, such as magnesia, or zirconia, lime, &c. This refractory body -was placed in a closed vessel and heated by being traversed by an -electric current. In a further improvement he proposed to use a block of -refractory oxide, round which a bobbin of fine platinum or -platinum-iridium wire was coiled. Every other inventor who worked at the -problem of incandescent lighting seems to have followed nearly the same -path of invention. Long before this date, however, the notion of -employing carbon as a substance to be heated by the current had entered -the minds of inventors; even in 1845 King had employed a small rod of -plumbago as the substance to be heated. It was obvious, however, that -carbon could only be so heated when in a space destitute of oxygen, and -accordingly King placed his plumbago rod in a barometric vacuum. S. W. -Konn in 1872, and S. A. Kosloff in 1875, followed in the same direction. - - - Carbon filament lamp. - -No real success attended the efforts of inventors until it was finally -recognized, as the outcome of the work by J. W. Swan, T. A. Edison, and, -in a lesser degree, St. G. Lane Fox and W. E. Sawyer and A. Man, that -the conditions of success were as follow: First, the substance to be -heated must be carbon in the form of a thin wire rod or thread, -technically termed a _filament_; second, this must be supported and -enclosed in a vessel formed entirely of glass; third, the vessel must be -exhausted as perfectly as possible; and fourth, the current must be -conveyed into and out of the carbon filament by means of platinum wires -hermetically sealed through the glass. - - One great difficulty was the production of the carbon filament. King, - Sawyer, Man and others had attempted to cut out a suitably shaped - piece of carbon from a solid block; but Edison and Swan were the first - to show that the proper solution of the difficulty was to carbonize an - organic substance to which the necessary form had been previously - given. For this purpose cardboard, paper and ordinary thread were - originally employed, and even, according to Edison, a mixture of - lampblack and tar rolled out into a fine wire and bent into a spiral. - At one time Edison employed a filament of bamboo, carbonized after - being bent into a horse-shoe shape. Swan used a material formed by - treating ordinary crochet cotton-thread with dilute sulphuric acid, - the "parchmentized thread" thus produced being afterwards carbonized. - In the modern incandescent lamp the filament is generally constructed - by preparing first of all a form of soluble cellulose. Carefully - purified cotton-wool is dissolved in some solvent, such as a solution - of zinc chloride, and the viscous material so formed is forced by - hydraulic pressure through a die. The long thread thus obtained, when - hardened, is a semi-transparent substance resembling cat-gut, and when - carefully carbonized at a high temperature gives a very dense and - elastic form of carbon filament. It is cut into appropriate lengths, - which after being bent into horse-shoes, double-loops, or any other - shape desired, are tied or folded round carbon formers and immersed in - plumbago crucibles, packed in with finely divided plumbago. The - crucibles are then heated to a high temperature in an ordinary - combustion or electric furnace, whereby the organic matter is - destroyed, and a skeleton of carbon remains. The higher the - temperature at which this carbonization is conducted, the denser is - the resulting product. The filaments so prepared are sorted and - measured, and short leading-in wires of platinum are attached to their - ends by a carbon cement or by a carbon depositing process, carried out - by heating electrically the junction of the carbon and platinum under - the surface of a hydrocarbon liquid. They are then mounted in bulbs - of lead glass having the same coefficient of expansion as platinum, - through the walls of which, therefore, the platinum wires can be - hermetically sealed. The bulbs pass into the exhausting-room, where - they are exhausted by some form of mechanical or mercury pump. During - this process an electric current is sent through the filament to heat - it, in order to disengage the gases occluded in the carbon, and - exhaustion must be so perfect that no luminous glow appears within the - bulb when held in the hand and touched against one terminal of an - induction coil in operation. - - In the course of manufacture a process is generally applied to the - carbon which is technically termed "treating." The carbon filament is - placed in a vessel surrounded by an atmosphere of hydrocarbon, such as - coal gas or vapour of benzol. If current is then passed through the - filament the hydrocarbon vapour is decomposed, and carbon is thrown - down upon the filament in the form of a lustrous and dense deposit - having an appearance like steel when seen under the microscope. This - deposited carbon is not only much more dense than ordinary carbonized - organic material, but it has a much lower specific electric - resistance. An untreated carbon filament is generally termed the - primary carbon, and a deposited carbon the secondary carbon. In the - process of treating, the greatest amount of deposit is at any places - of high resistance in the primary carbon, and hence it tends to cover - up or remedy the defects which may exist. The bright steely surface of - a well-treated filament is a worse radiator than the rougher black - surface of an untreated one; hence it does not require the expenditure - of so much electric power to bring it to the same temperature, and - probably on account of its greater density it ages much less rapidly. - - [Illustration: FIG. 15.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Incandescent Lamp Sockets.] - - Finally, the lamp is provided with a collar having two sole plates on - it, to which the terminal wires are attached, or else the terminal - wires are simply bent into two loops; in a third form, the Edison - screw terminal, it is provided with a central metal plate, to which - one end of the filament is connected, the other end being joined to a - screw collar. The collars and screws are formed of thin brass embedded - in plaster of Paris, or in some material like vitrite or black glass - (fig. 15). To put the lamp into connexion with the circuit supplying - the current, it has to be fitted into a socket or holder. Three of the - principal types of holder in use are the bottom contact (B.C.) or - Dornfeld socket, the Edison screw-collar socket and the Swan or loop - socket. In the socket of C. Dornfeld (fig. 16, a and a') two spring - pistons, in contact with the two sides of the circuit, are fitted into - the bottom of a short metallic tube having bayonet joint slots cut in - the top. The brass collar on the lamp has two pins, by means of which - a bayonet connexion is made between it and the socket; and when this - is done, the spring pins are pressed against the sole plates on the - lamp. In the Edison socket (fig. 16, b) a short metal tube with an - insulating lining has on its interior a screw sleeve, which is in - connexion with one wire of the circuit; at the bottom of the tube, and - insulated from the screw sleeve, is a central metal button, which is - in connexion with the other side of the circuit. On screwing the lamp - into the socket, the screw collar of the lamp and the boss or plate at - the base of the lamp make contact with the corresponding parts of the - socket, and complete the connexion. In some cases a form of switch is - included in the socket, which is then termed the key-holder. For loop - lamps the socket consists of an insulated block, having on it two - little hooks, which engage with the eyes of the lamp. This insulating - block also carries some form of spiral spring or pair of spring loops, - by means of which the lamp is pressed away from the socket, and the - eyes kept tight by the hooks. This spring or Swan socket (fig. 16, c) - is found useful in places where the lamps are subject to vibration, - for in such cases the Edison screw collar cannot well be used, because - the vibration loosens the contact of the lamp in the socket. The - sockets may be fitted with appliances for holding ornamental shades or - conical reflectors. - - The incandescent filament being a very brilliant line of light, - various devices are adopted for moderating its brilliancy and - distributing the light. A simple method is to sand-blast the exterior - of the bulb, whereby it acquires an appearance similar to that of - ground glass, or the bare lamp may be enclosed in a suitable glass - shade. Such shades, however, if made of opalescent or semi-opaque - glass, absorb 40 to 60% of the light; hence various forms of dioptric - shade have been invented, consisting of clear glass ruled with - prismatic grooves in such a manner as to diffuse the light without any - very great absorption. Invention has been fertile in devising etched, - coloured, opalescent, frosted and ornamental shades for decorative - purposes, and in constructing special forms for use in situations, - such as mines and factories for explosives, where the globe containing - the lamp must be air-tight. High candle-power lamps, 500, 1000 and - upwards, are made by placing in one large glass bulb a number of - carbon filaments arranged in parallel between two rings, which are - connected with the main leading-in wires. When incandescent lamps are - used for optical purposes it is necessary to compress the filament - into a small space, so as to bring it into the focus of a lens or - mirror. The filament is then coiled or crumpled up into a spiral or - zigzag form. Such lamps are called _focus lamps_. - - - Classification of lamps. - -Incandescent lamps are technically divided into high and low voltage -lamps, high and low efficiency lamps, standard and fancy lamps. The -difference between high and low efficiency lamps is based upon the -relation of the power absorbed by the lamp to the candle-power emitted. -Every lamp when manufactured is marked with a certain figure, called the -_marked volts_. This is understood to be the electromotive force in -volts which must be applied to the lamp terminals to produce through the -filament a current of such magnitude that the lamp will have a -practically satisfactory life, and give in a horizontal direction a -certain candle-power, which is also marked upon the glass. The numerical -product of the current in amperes passing through the lamp, and the -difference in potential of the terminals measured in volts, gives the -total power taken up by the lamp in watts; and this number divided by -the candle-power of the lamp (taking generally a horizontal direction) -gives the _watts per candle-power_. This is an important figure, because -it is determined by the temperature; it therefore determines the quality -of the light emitted by the lamp, and also fixes the average duration of -the filament when rendered incandescent by a current. Even in a good -vacuum the filament is not permanent. Apart altogether from accidental -defects, the carbon is slowly volatilized, and carbon molecules are also -projected in straight lines from different portions of the filament. -This process not only causes a change in the nature of the surface of -the filament, but also a deposit of carbon on the interior of the bulb, -whereby the glass is blackened and the candle-power of the lamp reduced. -The volatilization increases very rapidly as the temperature rises. -Hence at points of high resistance in the filament, more heat being -generated, a higher temperature is attained, and the scattering of the -carbon becomes very rapid; in such cases the filament is sooner or later -cut through at the point of high resistance. In order that incandescent -lighting may be practically possible, it is essential that the lamps -shall have a certain _average life_, that is, duration; and this useful -duration is fixed not merely by the possibility of passing a current -through the lamp at all, but by the rate at which the candle-power -diminishes. The decay of candle-power is called the _ageing_ of the -lamp, and the useful life of the lamp may be said to be that period of -its existence before it has deteriorated to a point when it gives only -75% of its original candle-power. It is found that in practice carbon -filament lamps, as at present made, if worked at a higher efficiency -than 2(1/2) watts per candle-power, exhibit a rapid deterioration in -candle-power and an abbreviated life. Hence lamp manufacturers classify -lamps into various classes, marked for use say at 2(1/2), 3, 3(1/2) and -4 watts per candle. A 2(1/2) watt per candle lamp would be called a -_high-efficiency lamp_, and a 4 watt per candle lamp would be called a -_low-efficiency_ lamp. In ordinary circumstances the low-efficiency lamp -would probably have a longer life, but its light would be less suitable -for many purposes of illumination in which colour discrimination is -required. - -The possibility of employing high-efficiency lamps depends greatly on -the uniformity of the electric pressure of the supply. If the voltage is -exceedingly uniform, then high-efficiency lamps can be satisfactorily -employed; but they are not adapted for standing the variations in -pressure which are liable to occur with public supply-stations, since, -other things being equal, their filaments are less substantial. The -classification into high and low voltage lamps is based upon the watts -per candle-power corresponding to the marked volts. When incandescent -lamps were first introduced, the ordinary working voltage was 50 or 100, -but now a large number of public supply-stations furnish current to -consumers at a pressure of 200 or 250 volts. This increase was -necessitated by the enlarging area of supply in towns, and therefore the -necessity for conveying through the same subterranean copper cables a -large supply of electric energy without increasing the maximum current -value and the size of the cables. This can only be done by employing a -higher working electromotive force; hence arose a demand for -incandescent lamps having marked volts of 200 and upwards, technically -termed high-voltage lamps. The employment of higher pressures in public -supply-stations has necessitated greater care in the selection of the -lamp fittings, and in the manner of carrying out the wiring work. The -advantages, however, of higher supply pressures, from the point of view -of supply-stations, are undoubted. At the same time the consumer desired -a lamp of a higher efficiency than the ordinary carbon filament lamp. -The demand for this stimulated efforts to produce improved carbon lamps, -and it was found that if the filament were exposed to a very high -temperature, 3000 deg. C. in an electric furnace, it became more -refractory and was capable of burning in a lamp at an efficiency of -2(1/2) watts per c.p. Inventors also turned their attention to -substances other than carbon which can be rendered incandescent by the -electric current. - - - Oxide filaments. - -The luminous efficiency of any source of light, that is to say, the -percentage of rays emitted which affect the eye as light compared with -the total radiation, is dependent upon its temperature. In an ordinary -oil lamp the luminous rays do not form much more than 3% of the total -radiation. In the carbon-filament incandescent lamp, when worked at -about 3 watts per candle, the luminous efficiency is about 5%; and in -the arc lamp the radiation from the crater contains about 10 to 15% of -eye-affecting radiation. The temperature of a carbon filament working at -about 3 watts per candle is not far from the melting-point of platinum, -that is to say, is nearly 1775 deg. C. If it is worked at a higher -efficiency, say 2.5 watts per candle-power, the temperature rises -rapidly, and at the same time the volatilization and molecular -scattering of the carbon is rapidly increased, so that the average -duration of the lamp is very much shortened. An improvement, therefore, -in the efficiency of the incandescent lamp can only be obtained by -finding some substance which will endure heating to a higher temperature -than the carbon filament. Inventors turned their attention many years -ago, with this aim, to the refractory oxides and similar substances. -Paul Jablochkoff in 1877 described and made a lamp consisting of a piece -of kaolin, which was brought to a state of incandescence first by -passing over it an electric spark, and afterwards maintained in a state -of incandescence by a current of lower electromotive force. Lane Fox and -Edison, in 1878, proposed to employ platinum wires covered with films of -lime, magnesia, steatite, or with the rarer oxides, zirconia, thoria, -&c.; and Lane Fox, in 1879, suggested as an incandescent substance a -mixture of particles of carbon with the earthy oxides. These earthy -oxides--magnesia, lime and the oxides of the rare earths, such as -thoria, zirconia, erbia, yttria, &c.--possess the peculiarity that at -ordinary temperatures they are practically non-conductors, but at very -high temperatures their resistance at a certain point rapidly falls, and -they become fairly good conductors. Hence if they can once be brought -into a state of incandescence a current can pass through them and -maintain them in that state. But at this temperature they give up oxygen -to carbon; hence no mixtures of earthy oxides with carbon are permanent -when heated, and failure has attended all attempts to use a carbon -filament covered with such substances as thoria, zirconia or other of -the rare oxides. - - - Nernst lamp. - -H. W. Nernst in 1897, however, patented an incandescent lamp in which -the incandescent body consists entirely of a slender rod or filament of -magnesia. If such a rod is heated by the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe to a high -temperature it becomes conductive, and can then be maintained in an -intensely luminous condition by passing a current through it after the -flame is withdrawn. Nernst found that by mixing together, in suitable -proportions, oxides of the rare earths, he was able to prepare a -material which can be formed into slender rods and threads, and which is -rendered sufficiently conductive to pass a current with an electromotive -force as low as 100 volts, merely by being heated for a few moments with -a spirit lamp, or even by the radiation from a neighbouring platinum -spiral brought to a state of incandescence. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Nernst Lamp A Type.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Nernst Lamp, Burners for B Type. a, low -voltage; b, high voltage.] - - The Nernst lamp, therefore (fig. 17), consists of a slender rod of the - mixed oxides attached to platinum wires by an oxide paste. Oxide - filaments of this description are not enclosed in an exhausted glass - vessel, and they can be brought, without risk of destruction, to a - temperature considerably higher than a carbon filament; hence the lamp - has a higher luminous efficiency. The material now used for the oxide - rod or "glower" of Nernst lamps is a mixture of zirconia and yttria, - made into a paste and squirted or pressed into slender rods. This - material is non-conductive when cold, but when slightly heated it - becomes conductive and then falls considerably in resistance. The - glower, which is straight in some types of the lamp but curved in - others, is generally about 3 or 4 cm. long and 1 or 2 mm. in diameter. - It is held in suitable terminals, and close to it, or round it, but - not touching it, is a loose coil of platinum wire, also covered with - oxide and called the "heater" (fig. 18). In series with it is a spiral - of iron wire, enclosed in a bulb full of hydrogen, which is called the - "ballast resistance." The socket also contains a switch controlled by - an electromagnet. When the current is first switched on it passes - through the heater coil which, becoming incandescent, by radiation - heats the glower until it becomes conductive. The glower then takes - current, becoming itself brilliantly incandescent, and the - electromagnet becoming energized switches the heater coil out of - circuit. The iron ballast wire increases in resistance with increase - of current, and so operates to keep the total current through the - glower constant in spite of small variations of circuit voltage. The - disadvantages of the lamp are (1) that it does not light immediately - after the current is switched on and is therefore not convenient for - domestic use; (2) that it cannot be made in small light units such as - 5 c.p.; (3) that the socket and fixture are large and more complicated - than for the carbon filament lamp. But owing to the higher - temperature, the light is whiter than that of the carbon glow lamp, - and the efficiency or candle power per watt is greater. Since, - however, the lamp must be included in an opal globe, some considerable - part of this last advantage is lost. On the whole the lamp has found - its field of operation rather in external than in domestic lighting. - - - Metallic filament lamps. - -Great efforts were made in the latter part of the 19th century and the -first decade of the 20th to find a material for the filament of an -incandescent lamp which could replace carbon and yet not require a -preliminary heating like the oxide glowers. This resulted in the -production of refractory metallic filament lamps made of osmium, -tantalum, tungsten and other rare metals. Auer von Welsbach suggested -the use of osmium. This metal cannot be drawn into wire on account of -its brittleness, but it can be made into a filament by mixing the finely -divided metal with an organic binding material which is carbonized in -the usual way at a high temperature, the osmium particles then cohering. -The difficulty has hitherto been to construct in this way metallic -filament lamps of low candle power (16 c.p.) for 220 volt circuits, but -this is being overcome. When used on modern supply circuits of 220 volts -a number of lamps may be run in series, or a step-down transformer -employed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Tantalum Lamp.] - -The next great improvement came when W. von Bolton produced the tantalum -lamp in 1904. There are certain metals known to have a melting point -about 2000 deg. C. or upwards, and of these tantalum is one. It can be -produced from the potassium tantalo-fluoride in a pulverulent form. By -carefully melting it _in vacuo_ it can then be converted into the -reguline form and drawn into wire. In this condition it has a density of -16.6 (water = 1), is harder than platinum and has greater tensile -strength than steel, viz. 95 kilograms per sq. mm., the value for good -steel being 70 to 80 kilograms per sq. mm. The electrical resistance at -15 deg. C. is 0.146 ohms per metre with section of 1 sq. mm. after -annealing at 1900 deg. C. _in vacuo_ and therefore about 6 times that of -mercury; the temperature coefficient is 0.3 per degree C. At the -temperature assumed in an incandescent lamp when working at 1.5 watts -per c.p. the resistance is 0.830 ohms per metre with a section of 1 sq. -mm. The specific heat is 0.0365. Bolton invented methods of producing -tantalum in the form of a long fine wire 0.05 mm. in diameter. To make a -25 c.p. lamp 650 mm., or about 2 ft., of this wire are wound backwards -and forwards zigzag on metallic supports carried on a glass frame, which -is sealed into an exhausted glass bulb. The tantalum lamp so made (fig. -19), working on a 110 volt circuit takes 0.36 amperes or 39 watts, and -hence has an efficiency of about 1.6 watts per c.p. The useful life, -that is the time in which it loses 20% of its initial candle power, is -about 400-500 hours, but in general a life of 800-1000 hours can be -obtained. The bulb blackens little in use, but the life is said to be -shorter with alternating than with direct current. When worked on -alternating current circuits the filament after a time breaks up into -sections which become curiously sheared with respect to each other but -still maintain electrical contact. The resistance of tantalum increases -with the temperature; hence the temperature coefficient is positive, and -sudden rises in working voltage do not cause such variations in -candle-power as in the case of the carbon lamp. - -Patents have also been taken out for lamps made with filaments of such -infusible metals as tungsten and molybdenum, and Siemens and Halske, -Sanders and others, have protected methods for employing zirconium and -other rare metals. According to the patents of Sanders (German patents -Nos. 133701, 137568, 137569) zirconium filaments are manufactured from -the hydrogen or nitrogen compounds of the rare earths by the aid of some -organic binding material. H. Kuzel of Vienna (British Patent No. 28154 -of 1904) described methods of making metallic filaments from any metal. -He employs the metals in a colloidal condition, either as hydrosol, -organosol, gel, or colloidal suspension. The metals are thus obtained in -a gelatinous form, and can be squirted into filaments which are dried -and reduced to the metallic form by passing an electric current through -them (_Electrician_, 57, 894). This process has a wide field of -application, and enables the most refractory and infusible metals to be -obtained in a metallic wire form. The zirconium and tungsten wire lamps -are equal to or surpass the tantalum lamp in efficiency and are capable -of giving light, with a useful commercial life, at an efficiency of -about one watt per candle. Lamps called osram lamps, with filaments -composed of an alloy of osmium and tungsten (wolfram), can be used with -a life of 1000 hours when run at an efficiency of about 1.5 watts per -candle. - -Tungsten lamps are made by the processes of Just and Hanaman (German -patent No. 154262 of 1903) and of Kuzel, and at a useful life of 1000 -hours, with a falling off in light-giving power of only 10-15%, they -have been found to work at an efficiency of one to 1.25 watts per c.p. -Further collected information on modern metallic wire lamps and the -patent literature thereof will be found in an article in the _Engineer_ -for December 7, 1906. - -Mention should also be made of the Helion filament glow lamp in which -the glower is composed largely of silicon, a carbon filament being used -as a base. This filament is said to have a number of interesting -qualities and an efficiency of about 1 watt per candle (see the -_Electrician_, 1907, 58, p. 567). - - - Mercury vapour lamps. - -The mercury vapour lamps of P. Cooper-Hewitt, C. O. Bastian and others -have a certain field of usefulness. If a glass tube, highly exhausted, -contains mercury vapour and a mercury cathode and iron anode, a current -can be passed through it under high electromotive force and will then be -maintained when the voltage is reduced. The mercury vapour is rendered -incandescent and glows with a brilliant greenish light which is highly -actinic, but practically monochromatic, and is therefore not suitable -for general illumination because it does not reveal objects in their -daylight colours. It is, however, an exceedingly economical source of -light. A 3-ampere Cooper-Hewitt mercury lamp has an efficiency of 0.15 -to 0.33 watts per candle, or practically the same as an arc lamp, and -will burn for several thousand hours. A similar lamp with mercury vapour -included in a tube of _uviol_ glass specially transparent to -ultra-violet light (prepared by Schott & Co. of Jena) seems likely to -replace the Finsen arc lamp in the treatment of lupus. Many attempts -have been made to render the mercury vapour lamp polychromatic by the -use of amalgams of zinc, sodium and bismuth in place of pure mercury for -the negative electrode. - - - Photometry of glow lamps. - -An important matter in connexion with glow lamps is their photometry. -The arrangement most suitable for the photometry and testing of -incandescent lamps is a gallery or room large enough to be occupied by -several workers, the walls being painted dead black. The photometer, -preferably one of the Lummer-Brodhun form, is set up on a gallery or -bench. On one side of it must be fixed a working standard, which as -first suggested by Fleming is preferably a large bulb incandescent lamp -with a specially "aged" filament. Its candle-power can be compared, at -regular intervals and known voltages, with that of some accepted flame -standard, such as the 10 candle pentane lamp of Vernon Harcourt. In a -lamp factory or electrical laboratory it is convenient to have a number -of such large bulb standard lamps. This working standard should be -maintained at a fixed distance on one side of the photometer, such that -when worked at a standard voltage it creates an illumination of one -candle-foot on one side of the photometer disk. The incandescent lamp to -be examined is then placed on the other side of the photometer disk on a -travelling carriage, so that it can be moved to and fro. Arrangements -must be made to measure the current and the voltage of this lamp under -test, and this is most accurately accomplished by employing a -potentiometer (q.v.). The holder which carries the lamp should allow the -lamp to be held with its axis in any required position; in making normal -measurements the lamp should have its axis vertical, the filament being -so situated that none of the turns or loops overlies another as seen -from the photometer disk. Observations can then be made of the -candle-power corresponding to different currents and voltages. - - The candle-power of the lamp varies with the other variables in - accordance with exponential laws of the following kind:-- - - If A is the current in amperes through the lamp, V the voltage or - terminal potential difference, W the power absorbed in watts, _c.p._ - the maximum candle-power, and a, b, c, &c., constants, it has been - found that A and _c.p._ are connected by an exponential law such that - - c.p. = aA^x - - For carbon filament lamps x is a number lying between 5 and 6, - generally equal to 5.5 or 5.6. Also it has been found that c.p. = bW^3 - very nearly, and that - - c.p. = cV^y nearly - - where c is some other constant, and for carbon filaments y is a number - nearly equal to 6. It is obvious that if the candle-power of the lamp - varies very nearly as the 6th power of the current and of the voltage, - the candle-power must vary as the cube of the wattage. - - Sir W. de W. Abney and E. R. Festing have also given a formula - connecting candle-power and watts equivalent to c.p. = (W - d)^2 where - d is a constant. - - In the case of the tantalum lamp the exponent x has a value near to 6, - but the exponent y is a number near to 4, and the same for the osmium - filament. Hence for these metallic glowers a certain percentage - variation of voltage does not create so great a variation in - candle-power as in the case of the carbon lamp. - - Curves delineating the relation of these variables for any - incandescent lamp are called its _characteristic-curves_. The life or - average duration is a function of W/c.p., or of the _watts per - candle-power_, and therefore of the voltage at which the lamp is - worked. It follows from the above relation that the watts per - candle-power vary inversely as the fourth power of the voltage. - - From limited observations it seems that the average life of a - carbon-filament lamp varies as the fifth or sixth power of the watts - per candle-power. If V is the voltage at which the lamp is worked and - L is its average life, then L varies roughly as the twenty-fifth power - of the reciprocal of the voltage, or - - L = aV^(-25). - - A closer approximation to experience is given by the formula - - V V^2 - log10L = 13.5 - -- - ------. - 10 20,000 - - (See J. A. Fleming, "Characteristic Curves of Incandescent Lamps," - _Phil. Mag._ May 1885). - - - Ageing of lamps. - -All forms of incandescent or glow lamps are found to deteriorate in -light-giving power with use. In the case of carbon filaments this is due -to two causes. As already explained, carbon is scattered from the -filament and deposited upon the glass, and changes also take place in -the filament which cause it to become reduced in temperature, even when -subjected to the same terminal voltage. In many lamps it is found that -the first effect of running the lamp is slightly to increase its -candle-power, even although the voltage be kept constant; this is the -result of a small decrease in the resistance of the filament. The -heating to which it is subjected slightly increases the density of the -carbon at the outset; this has the effect of making the filament lower -in resistance, and therefore it takes more current at a constant -voltage. The greater part, however, of the subsequent decay in -candle-power is due to the deposit of carbon upon the bulb, as shown by -the fact that if the filament is taken out of the bulb and put into a -new clean bulb the candle-power in the majority of cases returns to its -original value. For every lamp there is a certain point in its career -which may be called the "smashing-point," when the candle-power falls -below a certain percentage of the original value, and when it is -advantageous to replace it by a new one. Variations of pressure in the -electric supply exercise a prejudicial effect upon the light-giving -qualities of incandescent lamps. If glow lamps, nominally of 100 volts, -are supplied from a public lighting-station, in the mains of which the -pressure varies between 90 and 110 volts, their life will be greatly -abbreviated, and they will become blackened much sooner than would be -the case if the pressure were perfectly constant. Since the candle-power -of the lamp varies very nearly as the fifth or sixth power of the -voltage, it follows that a variation of 10% in the electromotive force -creates a variation of nearly 50% in the candle-power. Thus a 16 -candle-power glow lamp, marked for use at 100 volts, was found on test -to give the following candle-powers at voltages varying between 90 and -105: At 105 volts it gave 22.8 c.p.; at 100 volts, 16.7 c.p.; at 95 -volts, 12.2 c.p.; and at 90 volts, 8.7 c.p. Thus a variation of 25% in -the candle-power was caused by a variation in voltage of only 5%. The -same kind of variation in working voltage exercises also a marked effect -upon the average duration of the lamp. The following figures show the -results of some tests on typical 3.1 watt lamps run at voltages above -the normal, taking the average life when worked at the marked volts -(namely, 100) as 1000 hours: - - At 101 volts the life was 818 hours. - " 102 " " 681 " - " 103 " " 662 " - " 104 " " 452 " - " 105 " " 374 " - " 106 " " 310 " - - - Voltage regulators. - -Self-acting regulators have been devised by which the voltage at the -points of consumption is kept constant, even although it varies at the -point of generation. If, however, such a device is to be effective, it -must operate very quickly, as even the momentary effect of increased -pressure is felt by the lamp. It is only therefore where the working -pressure can be kept exceedingly constant that high-efficiency lamps can -be advantageously employed, otherwise the cost of lamp renewals more -than counterbalances the economy in the cost of power. The slow changes -that occur in the resistance of the filament make themselves evident by -an increase in the watts per candle-power. The following table shows -some typical figures indicating the results of ageing in a 16 -candle-power carbon-filament glow lamp:-- - - +----------+-------------+-------------+ - |Hours run.|Candle-Power.| Watts per | - | | |Candle-Power.| - +----------+-------------+-------------+ - | 0 | 16.0 | 3.16 | - | 100 | 15.8 | 3.26 | - | 200 | 15.86 | 3.13 | - | 300 | 15.68 | 3.37 | - | 400 | 15.41 | 3.53 | - | 500 | 15.17 | 3.51 | - | 600 | 14.96 | 3.54 | - | 700 | 14.74 | 3.74 | - +----------+-------------+-------------+ - -The gradual increase in watts per candle-power shown by this table does -not imply necessarily an increase in the total power taken by the lamp, -but is the consequence of the decay in candle-power produced by the -blackening of the lamp. Therefore, to estimate the value of an -incandescent lamp the user must take into account not merely the price -of the lamp and the initial watts per candle-power, but the rate of -decay of the lamp. - - - Edison effect. - -The scattering of carbon from the filament to the glass bulb produces -interesting physical effects, which have been studied by T. A. Edison, -W. H. Preece and J. A. Fleming. If into an ordinary carbon-filament glow -lamp a platinum plate is sealed, not connected to the filament but -attached to a third terminal, then it is found that when the lamp is -worked with continuous current a galvanometer connected in between the -middle plate and the positive terminal of the lamp indicates a current, -but not when connected in between the negative terminal of the lamp and -the middle plate. If the middle plate is placed between the legs of a -horse-shoe-shaped filament, it becomes blackened most quickly on the -side facing the negative leg. This effect, commonly called the _Edison -effect_, is connected with an electric discharge and convection of -carbon which takes place between the two extreme ends of the filament, -and, as experiment seems to show, consists in the conveyance of an -electric charge, either by carbon molecules or by bodies smaller than -molecules. There is, however, an electric discharge between the ends of -the filament, which rapidly increases with the temperature of the -filament and the terminal voltage; hence one of the difficulties of -manufacturing high-voltage glow lamps, that is to say, glow lamps for -use on circuits having an electromotive force of 200 volts and upwards, -is the discharge from one leg of the filament to the other. - - - Domestic use. - -A brief allusion may be made to the mode of use of incandescent lamps -for interior and private lighting. At the present time hardly any other -method of distribution is adopted than that of an arrangement _in -parallel_; that is to say, each lamp on the circuit has one terminal -connected to a wire which finally terminates at one pole of the -generator, and its other terminal connected to a wire leading to the -other pole. The lamp filaments are thus arranged between the conductors -like the rungs of a ladder. In series with each lamp is placed a switch -and a fuse or cut-out. The lamps themselves are attached to some variety -of ornamental fitting, or in many cases suspended by a simple pendant, -consisting of an insulated double flexible wire attached at its upper -end to a ceiling rose, and carrying at the lower end a shade and socket -in which the lamp is placed. Lamps thus hung head downwards are -disadvantageously used because their _end-on candle-power_ is not -generally more than 60% of their maximum candle-power. In interior -lighting one of the great objects to be attained is uniformity of -illumination with avoidance of harsh shadows. This can only be achieved -by a proper distribution of the lamps. It is impossible to give any hard -and fast rules as to what number must be employed in the illumination of -any room, as a great deal depends upon the nature of the reflecting -surfaces, such as the walls, ceilings, &c. As a rough guide, it may be -stated that for every 100 sq. ft. of floor surface one 16 candle-power -lamp placed about 8 ft. above the floor will give a dull illumination, -two will give a good illumination and four will give a brilliant -illumination. We generally judge of the nature of the illumination in a -room by our ability to read comfortably in any position. That this may -be done, the horizontal illumination on the book should not be less than -one candle-foot. The following table shows approximately the -illuminations in candle-feet, in various situations, derived from actual -experiments:-- - - In a well-lighted room on the floor or tables 1.0 to 3.0 c.f. - On a theatre stage 3.0 to 4.0 c.f. - On a railway platform .05 to .5 c.f. - In a picture gallery .65 to 3.5 c.f. - The mean daylight in May in the interior - of a room 30.0 to 40.0 c.f. - In full sunlight 7000 to 10,000 c.f. - In full moonlight 1/60th to 1/100th c.f. - -From an artistic point of view, one of the worst methods of lighting a -room is by pendant lamps, collected in single centres in large numbers. -The lights ought to be distributed in different portions of the room, -and so shaded that the light is received only by reflection from -surrounding objects. Ornamental effects are frequently produced by means -of candle lamps in which a small incandescent lamp, imitating the flame -of a candle, is placed upon a white porcelain tube as a holder, and -these small units are distributed and arranged in electroliers and -brackets. For details as to the various modes of placing conducting -wires in houses, and the various precautions for safe usage, the reader -is referred to the article ELECTRICITY SUPPLY. In the case of low -voltage metallic filament lamps when the supply is by alternating -current there is no difficulty in reducing the service voltage to any -lower value by means of a transformer. In the case of direct current the -only method available for working such low voltage lamps off higher -supply voltages is to arrange the lamps in series. - - Additional information on the subjects treated above may be found in - the following books and original papers:-- - - Mrs Ayrton, _The Electric Arc_ (London, 1900); Houston and Kennelly, - _Electric Arc Lighting and Electric Incandescent Lighting_; S. P. - Thompson, _The Arc Light_, Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts (1895); H. - Nakano, "The Efficiency of the Arc Lamp," _Proc. American Inst. Elec. - Eng._ (1889); A. Blondel, "Public and Street Lighting by Arc Lamps," - _Electrician_, vols. xxxv. and xxxvi. (1895); T. Heskett, "Notes on - the Electric Arc," _Electrician_, vol. xxxix. (1897); G. S. Ram, _The - Incandescent Lamp and its Manufacture_ (London, 1895); J. A. Fleming, - _Electric Lamps and Electric Lighting_ (London, 1899); J. A. Fleming, - "The Photometry of Electric Lamps," _Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng._ (1903), - 32, p. 1 (in this paper a copious bibliography of the subject of - photometry is given); J. Dredge, _Electric Illumination_ (2 vols., - London, 1882, 1885); A. P. Trotter, "The Distribution and Measurement - of Illumination," _Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. cx. (1892); E. L. Nichols, - "The Efficiency of Methods of Artificial Illumination," _Trans. - American Inst. Elec. Eng._ vol. vi. (1889); Sir W. de W. Abney, - _Photometry_, Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts (1894); A. Blondel, - "Photometric Magnitudes and Units," _Electrician_ (1894); J. E. - Petavel, "An Experimental Research on some Standards of Light," _Proc. - Roy. Soc._ lxv. 469 (1899); F. Jehl, _Carbon-Making for all Electrical - Purposes_ (London, 1906); G. B. Dyke, "On the Practical Determination - of the Mean Spherical Candle Power of Incandescent and Arc Lamps," - _Phil. Mag._ (1905); the _Preliminary Report of the Sub-Committee of - the American Institute of Electrical Engineers_ on "Standards of - Light"; Clifford C. Paterson, "Investigations on Light Standards and - the Present Condition of the High Voltage Glow Lamp," _Jour. Inst. - Elec. Eng._ (January 24, 1907); J. Swinburne, "New Incandescent - Lamps," _Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng._ (1907); L. Andrews, "Long Flame Arc - Lamps," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1906); W. von Bolton and O. Feuerlein, - "The Tantalum Lamp," _The Electrician_ (Jan. 27, 1905). Also the - current issues of _The Illuminating Engineer_. (J. A. F.) - - - Methods of charging. - -_Commercial Aspects._--The cost of supplying electricity depends more -upon the rate of supply than upon the quantity supplied; or, as John -Hopkinson put it, "the cost of supplying electricity for 1000 lamps for -ten hours is very much less than ten times the cost of supplying the -same number of lamps for one hour." Efforts have therefore been made to -devise a system of charge which shall in each case bear some relation to -the cost of the service. Consumers vary largely both in respect to the -quantity and to the period of their demands, but the cost of supplying -any one of them with a given amount of electricity is chiefly governed -by the amount of his maximum demand at any one time. The reason for this -is that it is not generally found expedient to store electricity in -large quantities. Electricity supply works generate the electricity for -the most part at the moment it is used by the consumer. Electric lamps -are normally in use on an average for only about four hours per day, and -therefore the plant and organization, if employed for a lighting load -only, are idle and unremunerative for about 20 hours out of the 24. It -is necessary to have in readiness machinery capable of supplying the -maximum possible requirements of all the consumers at any hour, and this -accounts for a very large proportion of the total cost. The cost of raw -material, viz. coal, water and stores consumed in the generation of -electricity sold, forms relatively only a small part of the total cost, -the major part of which is made up of the fixed charges attributable to -the time during which the works are unproductive. This makes it very -desirable to secure demands possessing high "load" and "diversity" -factors. The correct way to charge for electricity is to give liberal -rebates to those consumers who make prolonged and regular use of the -plant, that is to say, the lower the "peak" demand and the more -continuous the consumption, the better should be the discount. The -consumer must be discouraged from making sudden large demands on the -plant, and must be encouraged, while not reducing his total consumption, -to spread his use of the plant over a large number of hours during the -year. Mr Arthur Wright has devised a tariff which gives effect to this -principle. The system necessitates the use of a special indicator--not -to measure the quantity of electricity consumed, which is done by the -ordinary meter--but to show the maximum amount of current taken by the -consumer at any one time during the period for which he is to be -charged. In effect it shows the proportion of plant which has had to be -kept on hand for his use. If the indicator shows that say twenty lamps -is the greatest number which the consumer has turned on simultaneously, -then he gets a large discount on all the current which his ordinary -meter shows that he has taken beyond the equivalent of one hour's daily -use of those twenty lamps. Generally the rate charged under this system -is 7d. per unit for the equivalent of one hour's daily use of the -maximum demand and 1d. per unit for all surplus. It is on this principle -that it pays to supply current for tramway and other purposes at a price -which prima facie is below the cost of production; it is only apparently -so in comparison with the cost of producing electricity for lighting -purposes. In the case of tramways the electricity is required for 15 or -16 hours per day. Electricity for a single lamp would cost on the basis -of this "maximum-demand-indicator" system for 15 hours per day only -1.86d. per unit. In some cases a system of further discounts to very -large consumers is combined with the Wright system. Some undertakers -have abandoned the Wright system in favour of average flat rates, but -this does not imply any failure of the Wright system; on the contrary, -the system, having served to establish the most economical consumption -of electricity, has demonstrated the average rate at which the -undertakers are able to give the supply at a fair profit, and the -proportion of possible new customers being small the undertakers find it -a simplification to dispense with the maximum demand indicator. But in -some cases a mistake has been made by offering the unprofitable -early-closing consumers the option of obtaining electricity at a flat -rate much lower than their load-factor would warrant and below cost -price. The effect of this is to nullify the Wright system of charging, -for a consumer will not elect to pay for his electricity on the Wright -system if he can obtain a lower rate by means of a flat rate system. -Thus the long-hour profitable consumer is made to pay a much higher -price than he need be charged, in order that the unprofitable short-hour -consumer may be retained and be made actually still more unprofitable. -It is not improbable that ultimately the supply will be charged for on -the basis of a rate determined by the size and character of the -consumer's premises, or the number and dimensions of the electrical -points, much in the same way as water is charged for by a water rate -determined by the rent of the consumer's house and the number of water -taps. - - - Wiring of houses. - -Most new houses within an electricity supply area are wired for -electricity during construction, but in several towns means have to be -taken to encourage small shopkeepers and tenants of small houses to use -electricity by removing the obstacle of the first outlay on wiring. The -cost of wiring may be taken at 15s. to L2 per lamp installed including -all necessary wire, switches, fuses, lamps, holders, casing, but not -electroliers or shades. Many undertakers carry out wiring on the easy -payment or hire-purchase system. Parliament has sanctioned the adoption -of these systems by some local authorities and even authorized them to -do the work by direct employment of labour. The usual arrangement is to -make an additional charge of (1/2)d. per unit on all current used, with -a minimum payment of 1s. per 8 c.p. lamp, consumers having the option of -purchasing the installation at any time on specified conditions. The -consumer has to enter into an agreement, and if he is only a tenant the -landlord has to sign a memorandum to the effect that the wiring and -fittings belong to the supply undertakers. Several undertakers have -adopted a system of maintenance and renewal of lamps, and at least one -local authority undertakes to supply consumers with lamps free of -charge. - - - Consumption. - -There is still considerable scope for increasing the business of -electricity supply by judicious advertising and other methods. -Comparisons of the kilowatt hour consumption per capita in various towns -show that where an energetic policy has been pursued the profits have -improved by reason of additional output combined with increased load -factor. The average number of equivalent 8 c.p. lamps connected per -capita in the average of English towns is about 1.2. The average number -of units consumed per capita per annum is about 23, and the average -income per capita per annum is about 5s. In a number of American cities -20s. per capita per annum is obtained. In the United States a -co-operative electrical development association canvasses both the -general public and the electricity supply undertakers. Funds are -provided by the manufacturing companies acting in concert with the -supply authorities and contractors, and the spirit underlying the work -is to advertise the merits of electricity--not any particular company or -interest. Their efforts are directed to securing new consumers and -stimulating the increased and more varied use of electricity among -actual consumers. - -All supply undertakers are anxious to develop the consumption of -electricity for power purposes even more than for lighting, but the -first cost of installing electric motors is a deterrent to the adoption -of electricity in small factories and shops, and most undertakers are -therefore prepared to let out motors, &c., on hire or purchase on -varying terms according to circumstances. - -A board of trade unit will supply one 8 c.p. carbon lamp of 30 hours or -30 such lamps for one hour. In average use an incandescent lamp will -last about 800 hours, which is equal to about 12 months normal use; a -good lamp will frequently last more than double this time before it -breaks down. - -A large number of towns have adopted electricity for street lighting. -Frank Bailey has furnished particulars of photometric tests which he has -made on new and old street lamps in the city of London. From these tests -the following comparative figures are deduced:-- - - Average total Cost - Gas-- per c.p. per annum. - Double burner ordinary low pressure incandescent - (mean of six tests) 11.1d. - Single burner high-pressure gas 9.0 - Double burner high-pressure gas 11.7 - Arc lamp-- - Old type of lantern 8 - Flame arc 5 - -From these tests of candle-power the illumination at a distance of 100 -ft. from the source is estimated as follows:-- - - Candle Ft. Ratio. - Double ordinary incandescent gas lamp - illumination 0.013 = 1.0 - Single high pressure ordinary incandescent - gas lamp illumination 0.016 = 1.24 - Double high pressure ordinary incandescent - gas lamp illumination 0.027 = 2.10 - Ordinary arc lamp 0.060 = 4.50 - Flame arc lamp 0.120 = 9.00 - -The cost of electricity, light for light, is very much less than that of -gas. The following comparative figures relating to street lighting at -Croydon have been issued by the lighting committee of that -corporation:-- - - +----------------------+---------+------------+--------+------------+-------------+ - | Type of Lamp. | Number | Distance | Total |Average c.p.|Cost per c.p.| - | |of Lamps.|apart (yds.)| Cost. | per Mile. | per annum. | - +----------------------+---------+------------+--------+------------+-------------+ - | Incandescent gas | 2,137 | 80 | L7,062 | 839 | 15.86d. | - | Incandescent electric| 90 | 66 | 288 | 1,373 | 13.71 | - | Electric arcs | 428 | 65 | 7,212 | 10,537 | 11.32 | - +----------------------+---------+------------+--------+------------+-------------+ - -Apart from cheaper methods of generation there are two main sources of -economy in electric lighting. One is the improved arrangement and use of -electrical installations, and the other is the employment of lamps of -higher efficiency. As regards the first, increased attention has been -given to the position, candle-power and shading of electric lamps so as -to give the most effective illumination in varying circumstances and to -avoid excess of light. The ease with which electric lamps may be -switched on and off from a distance has lent itself to arrangements -whereby current may be saved by switching off lights not in use and by -controlling the number of lamps required to be alight at one time on an -electrolier. Appreciable economies are brought about by the scientific -disposition of lights and the avoidance of waste in use. As regards the -other source of economy, the Nernst, the tantalum, the osram, and the -metallized carbon filament lamp, although costing more in the first -instance than carbon lamps, have become popular owing to their economy -in current consumption. Where adopted largely they have had a distinct -effect in reducing the rate of increase of output from supply -undertakings, but their use has been generally encouraged as tending -towards the greater popularity of electric light and an ultimately wider -demand. Mercury vapour lamps for indoor and outdoor lighting have also -proved their high efficiency, and the use of flame arc lamps has greatly -increased the cheapness of outdoor electric lighting. - -The existence of a "daylight load" tends to reduce the all-round cost of -generating and distributing electricity. This daylight load is partly -supplied by power for industrial purposes and partly by the demand for -electricity in many domestic operations. The use of electric heating and -cooking apparatus (including radiators, ovens, grills, chafing dishes, -hot plates, kettles, flat-irons, curling irons, &c.) has greatly -developed, and provides a load which extends intermittently throughout -the greater part of the twenty-four hours. Electric fans for home -ventilation are also used, and in the domestic operations where a small -amount of power is required (as in driving sewing machines, boot -cleaners, washing machines, mangles, knife cleaners, "vacuum" cleaners, -&c.) the electric motor is being largely adopted. The trend of affairs -points to a time when the total demand from such domestic sources will -greatly exceed the demand for lighting only. The usual charges for -current to be used in domestic heating or power operations vary from 1d. -to 2d. per unit. As the demand increases the charges will undergo -reduction, and there will also be a reflex action in bringing down the -cost of electricity for lighting owing to the improved load factor -resulting from an increase in the day demand. In the cooking and heating -and motor departments also there has been improvement in the efficiency -of the apparatus, and its economy is enhanced by the fact that current -may be switched on and off as required. - - - Testing meters. - -The Board of Trade are now prepared to receive electric measuring -instruments for examination or testing at their electrical standardizing -laboratory, where they have a battery power admitting of a maximum -current of 7000 amperes to be dealt with. The London county council and -some other corporations are prepared upon requisition to appoint -inspectors to test meters on consumers' premises. - - - Wiring rules. - - All supply undertakers now issue rules and regulations for the - efficient wiring of electric installations. The rules and regulations - issued by the institution of electrical engineers have been accepted - by many local authorities and companies, and also by many of the fire - insurance companies. The Phoenix fire office rules were the first to - be drawn up, and are adopted by many of the fire offices, but some - other leading insurance offices have their own rules under which risks - are accepted without extra premium. In the opinion of the insurance - companies "the electric light is the safest of all illuminants and is - preferable to any others when the installation has been thoroughly - well put up." Regulations have also been issued by the London county - council in regard to theatres, &c., by the national board of fire - underwriters of America (known as the "National Electrical Code"), by - the fire underwriters association of Victoria (Commonwealth of - Australia), by the Calcutta fire insurance agents association and - under the Canadian Electric Light Inspection Act. In Germany rules - have been issued by the Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker and by the - union of private fire insurance companies of Germany, in Switzerland - by the Association Suisse des electriciens, in Austria by the - Elektrotechnischer Verein of Vienna, in France by ministerial decree - and by the syndicat professionel des industries electriques. (For - reprints of these regulations see _Electrical Trades Directory_.) - (E. Ga.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] _Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng._ 28, p. 1. The authors of this paper - give numerous instructive curves taken with the oscillograph, showing - the form of the arc P.D. and current curves for a great variety of - alternating-current arcs. - - - - -LIGHTNING, the visible flash that accompanies an electric discharge in -the sky. In certain electrical conditions of the atmosphere a cloud -becomes highly charged by the coalescence of drops of vapour. A large -drop formed by the fusion of many smaller ones contains the same amount -of electricity upon a smaller superficial area, and the electric -potential of each drop, and of the whole cloud, rises. When the cloud -passes near another cloud stratum or near a hilltop, tower or tree, a -discharge takes place from the cloud in the form of lightning. The -discharge sometimes takes place from the earth to the cloud, or from a -lower to a higher stratum, and sometimes from conductors silently. Rain -discharges the electricity quietly to earth, and lightning frequently -ceases with rain (see ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY). - - - - -LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR, or LIGHTNING ROD (Franklin), the name usually given -to apparatus designed to protect buildings or ships from the destructive -effects of lightning (Fr. _paratonnerre_, Ger. _Blitzableiter_). The -upper regions of the atmosphere being at a different electrical -potential from the earth, the thick dense clouds which are the usual -prelude to a thunder storm serve to conduct the electricity of the upper -air down towards the earth, and an electrical discharge takes place -across the air space when the pressure is sufficient. Lightning -discharges were distinguished by Sir Oliver Lodge into two distinct -types--the _A_ and the _B_ flashes. The _A_ flash is of the simple type -which arises when an electrically charged cloud approaches the earth -without an intermediate cloud intervening. In the second type _B_, where -another cloud intervenes between the cloud carrying the primary charge -and the earth, the two clouds practically form a condenser; and when a -discharge from the first takes place into the second the free charge on -the earth side of the lower cloud is suddenly relieved, and the -disruptive discharge from the latter to earth takes such an erratic -course that according to the Lightning Research Committee "no series of -lightning conductors of the hitherto recognized type suffice to protect -the building." In Germany two kinds of lightning stroke have been -recognized, one as "zundenden" (causing fire), analogous to the _B_ -flash, the other as "kalten" (not causing fire), the ordinary _A_ -discharge. The destructive effect of the former was noticed in 1884 by -A. Parnell, who quoted instances of damage due to mechanical force, -which he stated in many cases took place in a more or less upward -direction. - -The object of erecting a number of pointed rods to form a lightning -conductor is to produce a glow or brush discharge and thus neutralize or -relieve the tension of the thunder-cloud. This, if the latter is of the -_A_ type, can be successfully accomplished, but sometimes the lightning -flash takes place so suddenly that it cannot be prevented, however great -the number of points provided, there being such a store of energy in the -descending cloud that they are unable to ward off the shock. A _B_ flash -may ignore the points and strike some metal work in the vicinity; to -avoid damage to the structure this must also be connected to the -conductors. A single air terminal is of no more use than an inscribed -sign-board; besides multiplying the number of points, numerous paths, as -well as interconnexions between the conductors, must be arranged to lead -the discharge to the earth. The system of pipes and gutters on a roof -must be imitated; although a single rain-water pipe would be sufficient -to deal with a summer shower, in practice pipes are used in sufficient -number to carry off the greatest storm. - -_Protected Area._--According to Lodge "there is no space near a rod -which can be definitely styled an area of protection, for it is possible -to receive violent sparks and shocks from the conductor itself, not to -speak of the innumerable secondary discharges that are liable to occur -in the wake of the main flash." The report of the Lightning Research -Committee contains many examples of buildings struck in the so-called -"protected area." - -_Material for Conductors._--Franklin's original rods (1752) were made of -iron, and this metal is still employed throughout the continent of -Europe and in the United States. British architects, who objected to the -unsightliness of the rods, eventually specified copper tape, which is -generally run round the sharp angles of a building in such a manner as -to increase the chances of the lightning being diverted from the -conductor. The popular idea is that to secure the greatest protection a -rod of the largest area should be erected, whereas a single large -conductor is far inferior to a number of smaller ones and copper as a -material is not so suitable for the purpose as iron. A copper rod allows -the discharge to pass too quickly and produces a violent shock, whereas -iron offers more impedance and allows the flash to leak away by damping -down the oscillations. Thus there is less chance of a side flash from an -iron than from a copper conductor. - -_Causes of Failure._--A number of failures of conductors were noticed in -the 1905 report of the Lightning Research Committee. One cause was the -insufficient number of conductors and earth connexions; another was the -absence of any system for connecting the metallic portion of the -buildings to the conductors. In some cases the main stroke was received, -but damage occurred by side-flash to isolated parts of the roof. There -were several examples of large metallic surfaces being charged with -electricity, the greater part of which was safely discharged, but enough -followed unauthorized paths, such as a speaking-tube or electric bell -wires, to cause damage. In one instance a flash struck the building at -two points simultaneously; one portion followed the conductor, but the -other went to earth jumping from a small finial to a greenhouse 30 ft. -below. - -_Construction of Conductors._--The general conclusions of the Lightning -Research Committee agree with the independent reports of similar -investigators in Germany, Hungary and Holland. The following is a -summary of the suggestions made:-- - -The conductors may be of copper, or of soft iron protected by -galvanizing or coated with lead. A number of paths to earth must be -provided; well-jointed rain-water pipes may be utilized. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Holdfast.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Aigrette.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Holdfast on Roof.] - -Every chimney stack or other prominence should have an air terminal. -Conductors should run in the most direct manner from air to earth, and -be kept away from the walls by holdfasts (fig. 1), in the manner shown -by A (fig. 2); the usual method is seen in B (fig. 2), where the tape -follows the contour of the building and causes side flash. A building -with a long roof should also be fitted with a horizontal conductor along -the ridge, and to this aigrettes (fig. 3) should be attached; a simpler -method is to support the cable by holdfasts armed with a spike (fig. 4). -Joints must be held together mechanically as well as electrically, and -should be protected from the action of the air. At Westminster Abbey the -cables are spliced and inserted in a box which is filled with lead run -in when molten. - -[Illustration: _Fig_. 5.--Tubular Earth.] - -_Earth Connexion._--A copper plate not less than 3 sq. ft. in area may -be used as an earth connexion if buried in permanently damp ground. -Instead of a plate there are advantages in using the tubular earth shown -in fig. 5. The cable packed in carbon descends to the bottom of the -perforated tube which is driven into the ground, a connexion being made -to the nearest rain-water pipe to secure the necessary moisture. No -further attention is required. Plate earths should be tested every year. -The number of earths depends on the area of the building, but at least -two should be provided. Insulators on the conductor are of no advantage, -and it is useless to gild or otherwise protect the points of the -air-terminals. As heated air offers a good path for lightning (which is -the reason why the kitchen-chimney is often selected by the discharge), -a number of points should be fixed to high chimneys and there should be -at least two conductors to earth. All roof metals, such as finials, -flashings, rain-water gutters, ventilating pipes, cowls and stove pipes, -should be connected to the system of conductors. The efficiency of the -installation depends on the interconnexion of all metallic parts, also -on the quality of the earth connexions. In the case of magazines used -for explosives, it is questionable whether the usual plan of erecting -rods at the sides of the buildings is efficient. The only way to ensure -safety is to enclose the magazine in iron; the next best is to arrange -the conductors so that they surround it like a bird cage. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature, although extensive, contains so many - descriptions of ludicrous devices, that the student, after reading - Benjamin Franklin's _Experiments and Observations on Electricity made - at Philadelphia_ (1769), may turn to the _Report_ of the Lightning Rod - Conference of December 1881. In the latter work there are abstracts of - many valuable papers, especially the reports made to the French - Academy, among others by Coulomb, Laplace, Gay-Lussac, Fresnel, - Regnault, &c. In 1876 J. Clerk Maxwell read a paper before the British - Association in which he brought forward the idea (based on Faraday's - experiments) of protecting a building from the effects of lightning by - surrounding it with a sort of cage of rods or stout wire. It was not, - however, until the Bath meeting of the British Association in 1888 - that the subject was fully discussed by the physical and engineering - sections. Sir Oliver Lodge showed the futility of single conductors, - and advised the interconnexion of all the metal work on a building to - a number of conductors buried in the earth. The action of lightning - flashes was also demonstrated by him in lectures delivered before the - Society of Arts (1888). The Clerk Maxwell system was adopted to a - large extent in Germany, and in July 1901 a sub-committee of the - Berlin Electro-technical Association was formed, which published - rules. In 1900 a paper entitled "The Protection of Public Buildings - from Lightning," by Killingworth Hedges, led to the formation, by the - Royal Institute of British Architects and the Surveyors' Institution, - of the Lightning Research Committee, on which the Royal Society and - the Meteorological Society were represented. The _Report_, edited by - Sir Oliver Lodge, Sir John Gavey and Killingworth Hedges (Hon. Sec.), - was published in April 1905. An illustrated supplement, compiled by K. - Hedges and entitled _Modern Lightning Conductors_ (1905), contains - particulars of the independent reports of the German committee, the - Dutch Academy of Science, and the Royal Joseph university, Budapest. A - description is also given of the author's modified Clerk Maxwell - system, in which the metal work of the roofs of a building form the - upper part, the rain-water pipes taking the place of the usual - lightning-rods. See also Sir Oliver Lodge, _Lightning Conductors_ - (London, 1902). (K. H.) - - - - -LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF. - - Non-Christian religions. - -The ceremonial use of lights in the Christian Church, with which this -article is mainly concerned, probably has a double origin: in a very -natural symbolism, and in the adaptation of certain pagan and Jewish -rites and customs of which the symbolic meaning was Christianized. Light -is everywhere the symbol of joy and of life-giving power, as darkness is -of death and destruction. Fire, the most mysterious and impressive of -the elements, the giver of light and of all the good things of life, is -a thing sacred and adorable in primitive religions, and fire-worship -still has its place in two at least of the great religions of the world. -The Parsis adore fire as the visible expression of Ahura-Mazda, the -eternal principle of light and righteousness; the Brahmans worship it as -divine and omniscient.[1] The Hindu festival of Dewali (Diyawali, from -_diya_, light), when temples and houses are illuminated with countless -lamps, is held every November to celebrate Lakhshmi, the goddess of -prosperity. In the ritual of the Jewish temple fire and light played a -conspicuous part. In the Holy of Holies was a "cloud of light" -(_shekinah_), symbolical of the presence of Yahweh, and before it stood -the candlestick with six branches, on each of which and on the central -stem was a lamp eternally burning; while in the forecourt was an altar -on which the sacred fire was never allowed to go out. Similarly the -Jewish synagogues have each their eternal lamp; while in the religion of -Islam lighted lamps mark things and places specially holy; thus the -Ka'ba at Mecca is illuminated by thousands of lamps hanging from the -gold and silver rods that connect the columns of the surrounding -colonnade. - - - Greece and Rome. - -The Greeks and Romans, too, had their sacred fire and their ceremonial -lights. In Greece the _Lampadedromia_ or _Lampadephoria_ (torch-race) -had its origin in ceremonies connected with the relighting of the sacred -fire. Pausanias (i. 26, S 6) mentions the golden lamp made by -Callimachus which burned night and day in the sanctuary of Athena Polias -on the Acropolis, and (vii. 22, SS 2 and 3) tells of a statue of Hermes -Agoraios, in the market-place of Pharae in Achaea, before which lamps -were lighted. Among the Romans lighted candles and lamps formed part of -the cult of the domestic tutelary deities; on all festivals doors were -garlanded and lamps lighted (Juvenal, _Sat._ xii. 92; Tertullian, -_Apol._ xxxv.). In the cult of Isis lamps were lighted by day. In the -ordinary temples were candelabra, e.g. that in the temple of Apollo -Palatinus at Rome, originally taken by Alexander from Thebes, which was -in the form of a tree from the branches of which lights hung like fruit. -In comparing pagan with Christian usage it is important to remember that -the lamps in the pagan temples were not symbolical, but votive offerings -to the gods. Torches and lamps were also carried in religious -processions. - - - Funeral lamps. - -The pagan custom of burying lamps with the dead conveyed no such -symbolical meaning as was implied in the late Christian custom of -placing lights on and about the tombs of martyrs and saints. Its object -was to provide the dead with the means of obtaining light in the next -world, a wholly material conception; and the lamps were for the most -part unlighted. It was of Asiatic origin, traces of it having been -observed in Phoenicia and in the Punic colonies, but not in Egypt or -Greece. In Europe it was confined to the countries under the domination -of Rome.[2] - - - Christian symbolism of light. - -In Christianity, from the very first, fire and light are conceived as -symbols, if not as visible manifestations, of the divine nature and the -divine presence. Christ is "the true Light" (John i. 9), and at his -transfiguration "the fashion of his countenance was altered, and his -raiment was white and glistering" (Luke ix. 29); when the Holy Ghost -descended upon the apostles, "there appeared unto them cloven tongues of -fire, and it sat upon each of them" (Acts ii. 3); at the conversion of -St Paul "there shined round him a great light from heaven" (Acts ix. 3); -while the glorified Christ is represented as standing "in the midst of -seven candlesticks ... his head and hairs white like wool, as white as -snow; and his eyes as a flame of fire" (Rev. i. 14, 15). Christians are -"children of Light" at perpetual war with "the powers of darkness." - - - The early Church. - - Tertullian and Lactantius. - - 2nd and 3rd centuries. - -All this might very early, without the incentive of Jewish and pagan -example, have affected the symbolic ritual of the primitive Church. -There is, however, no evidence of any ceremonial use of lights in -Christian worship during the first two centuries. It is recorded, indeed -(Acts xx. 7, 8), that on the occasion of St Paul's preaching at -Alexandria in Troas "there were many lights in the upper chamber"; but -this was at night, and the most that can be hazarded is that a specially -large number were lighted as a festive illumination, as in modern Church -festivals (Martigny, _Dict. des antiqu. Chret._). As to a purely -ceremonial use, such early evidence as exists is all the other way. A -single sentence of Tertullian (_Apol._ xxxv.) sufficiently illuminates -Christian practice during the 2nd century. "On days of rejoicing," he -says, "we do not shade our door-posts with laurels nor encroach upon the -day-light with lamps" (_die laeto non laureis postes obumbramus nec -lucernis diem infringimus_). Lactantius, writing early in the 4th -century, is even more sarcastic in his references to the heathen -practice. "They kindle lights," he says, "as though to one who is in -darkness. Can he be thought sane who offers the light of lamps and -candles to the Author and Giver of all light?" (_Div. Inst. vi. de vero -cultu_, cap. 2, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ vi. 637).[3] This is primarily an -attack on votive lights, and does not necessarily exclude their -ceremonial use in other ways. There is, indeed, evidence that they were -so used before Lactantius wrote. The 34th canon of the synod of Elvira -(305), which was contemporary with him, forbade candles to be lighted in -cemeteries during the day-time, which points to an established custom as -well as to an objection to it; and in the Roman catacombs lamps have -been found of the 2nd and 3rd centuries which seem to have been -ceremonial or symbolical.[4] Again, according to the _Acta_ of St -Cyprian (d. 258), his body was borne to the grave _praelucentibus -cereis_, and Prudentius, in his hymn on the martyrdom of St Lawrence -(_Peristeph._ ii. 71, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ lx. 300), says that in the -time of St Laurentius, i.e. the middle of the 3rd century, candles stood -in the churches of Rome on golden candelabra. The gift, mentioned by -Anastasius (_in Sylv._), made by Constantine to the Vatican basilica, of -a _pharum_ of gold, garnished with 500 dolphins each holding a lamp, to -burn before St Peter's tomb, points also to a custom well established -before Christianity became the state religion. - - - Jerome and Vigilantius. - -Whatever previous custom may have been--and for the earliest ages it is -difficult to determine absolutely owing to the fact that the Christians -held their services at night--by the close of the 4th century the -ceremonial use of lights had become firmly and universally established -in the Church. This is clear, to pass by much other evidence, from the -controversy of St Jerome with Vigilantius. - - Vigilantius, a presbyter of Barcelona, still occupied the position of - Tertullian and Lactantius in this matter. "We see," he wrote, "a rite - peculiar to the pagans introduced into the churches on pretext of - religion, and, while the sun is still shining, a mass of wax tapers - lighted.... A great honour to the blessed martyrs, whom they think to - illustrate with contemptible little candles (_de vilissimis - cereolis_)!" Jerome, the most influential theologian of the day, took - up the cudgels against Vigilantius (he "ought to be called - Dormitantius"), who, in spite of his fatherly admonition, had dared - again "to open his foul mouth and send forth a filthy stink against - the relics of the holy martyrs" (_Hier. Ep._ cix. al. 53--_ad - Ripuarium Presbyt._, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ p. 906). If candles are - lit before their tombs, are these the ensigns of idolatry? In his - treatise _contra Vigilantium_ (_Patr. lat._ t. xxiii.) he answers the - question with much common sense. There can be no harm if ignorant and - simple people, or religious women, light candles in honour of the - martyrs. "We are not born, but reborn, Christians," and that which - when done for idols was detestable is acceptable when done for the - martyrs. As in the case of the woman with the precious box of - ointment, it is not the gift that merits reward, but the faith that - inspires it. As for lights in the churches, he adds that "in all the - churches of the East, whenever the gospel is to be read, lights are - lit, though the sun be rising (_jam sole rutilante_), not in order to - disperse the darkness, but as a visible sign of gladness (_ad signum - laetitiae demonstrandum_)." Taken in connexion with a statement which - almost immediately precedes this--"Cereos autem non clara luce - accendimus, sicut frustra calumniaris: sed ut noctis tenebras hoc - solatio temperemus" (S 7)--this seems to point to the fact that the - ritual use of lights in the church services, so far as already - established, arose from the same conservative habit as determined the - development of liturgical vestments, i.e. the lights which had been - necessary at the nocturnal meetings were retained, after the hours of - service had been altered, and invested with a symbolical meaning. - - - Practice in the 4th century. - - Eastern Church. - -Already they were used at most of the conspicuous functions of the -Church. Paulinus, bishop of Nola (d. 431), describes the altar at the -eucharist as "crowned with crowded lights,"[5] and even mentions the -"eternal lamp."[6] For their use at baptisms we have, among much other -evidence, that of Zeno of Verona for the West,[7] and that of Gregory of -Nazianzus for the East.[8] Their use at funerals is illustrated by -Eusebius's description of the burial of Constantine,[9] and Jerome's -account of that of St Paula.[10] At ordinations they were used, as is -shown by the 6th canon of the council of Carthage (398), which decrees -that the acolyte is to hand to the newly ordained deacon _ceroferarium -cum cereo_. As to the blessing of candles, according to the _Liber -pontificalis_ Pope Zosimus in 417 ordered these to be blessed,[11] and -the Gallican and Mozarabic rituals also provided for this ceremony.[12] -The Feast of the Purification of the Virgin, known as Candlemas (q.v.), -because on this day the candles for the whole year are blessed, was -established--according to some authorities--by Pope Gelasius I. about -492. As to the question of "altar lights," however, it must be borne in -mind that these were not placed upon the altar, or on a retable behind -it, until the 12th century. These were originally the candles carried by -the deacons, according to the _Ordo Romanus_ (i. 8; ii. 5; iii. 7) seven -in number, which were set down either on the steps of the altar, or, -later, behind it. In the Eastern Church, to this day, there are no -lights on the high altar; the lighted candles stand on a small altar -beside it, and at various parts of the service are carried by the -lectors or acolytes before the officiating priest or deacon. The "crowd -of lights" described by Paulinus as crowning the altar were either -grouped round it or suspended in front of it; they are represented by -the sanctuary lamps of the Latin Church and by the crown of lights -suspended in front of the altar in the Greek. - - - Development of the use. - -To trace the gradual elaboration of the symbolism and use of ceremonial -lights in the Church, until its full development and systematization in -the middle ages, would be impossible here. It must suffice to note a few -stages in the process. The burning of lights before the tombs of martyrs -led naturally to their being burned also before relics and lastly before -images and pictures. This latter practice, hotly denounced as idolatry -during the iconoclastic controversy (see ICONOCLASM), was finally -established as orthodox by the second general council of Nicaea (787), -which restored the worship of images. A later development, however, by -which certain lights themselves came to be regarded as objects of -worship and to have other lights burned before _them_, was condemned as -idolatrous by the synod of Noyon in 1344.[13] The passion for symbolism -extracted ever new meanings out of the candles and their use. Early in -the 6th century Ennodius, bishop of Pavia, pointed out the three-fold -elements of a wax-candle (_Opusc._ ix. and x.), each of which would make -it an offering acceptable to God; the rush-wick is the product of pure -water, the wax is the offspring of virgin bees,[14] the flame is sent -from heaven.[15] Clearly, wax was a symbol of the Blessed Virgin and the -holy humanity of Christ. The later middle ages developed the idea. -Durandus, in his _Rationale_, interprets the wax as the body of Christ, -the wick as his soul, the flame as his divine nature; and the consuming -candle as symbolizing his passion and death. - - - In the Roman Catholic Church. - - Dedication of a church. - - At Mass and choir services. - - Sanctuary lamps. - - Symbol of the Real Presence. - - In the completed ritual system of the medieval Church, as still - preserved in the Roman Catholic communion, the use of ceremonial - lights falls under three heads. (1) They may be symbolical of the - light of God's presence, of Christ as "Light of Light," or of "the - children of Light" in conflict with the powers of darkness; they may - even be no more than expressions of joy on the occasion of great - festivals. (2) They may be votive, i.e. offered as an act of worship - (_latria_) to God. (3) They are, in virtue of their benediction by the - Church, _sacramentalia_, i.e. efficacious for the good of men's souls - and bodies, and for the confusion of the powers of darkness.[16] With - one or more of these implications, they are employed in all the public - functions of the Church. At the consecration of a church twelve lights - are placed round the walls at the twelve spots where these are - anointed by the bishop with holy oil, and on every anniversary these - are relighted; at the dedication of an altar tapers are lighted and - censed at each place where the table is anointed (_Pontificale Rom._ - p. ii. _De eccl. dedicat. seu consecrat._). At every liturgical - service, and especially at Mass and at choir services, there must be - at least two lighted tapers on the altar,[17] as symbols of the - presence of God and tributes of adoration. For the Mass the rule is - that there are six lights at High Mass, four at a _missa cantata_, and - two at private masses. At a Pontifical High Mass (i.e. when the bishop - celebrates) the lights are seven, because seven golden candlesticks - surround the risen Saviour, the chief bishop of the Church (see Rev. - i. 12). At most pontifical functions, moreover, the bishop--as the - representative of Christ--is preceded by an acolyte with a burning - candle (_bugia_) on a candlestick. The _Ceremoniale Episcoporum_ (i. - 12) further orders that a burning lamp is to hang at all times before - each altar, three in front of the high altar, and five before the - reserved Sacrament, as symbols of the eternal Presence. In practice, - however, it is usual to have only one lamp lighted before the - tabernacle in which the Host is reserved. The special symbol of the - real presence of Christ is the _Sanctus_ candle, which is lighted at - the moment of consecration and kept burning until the communion. The - same symbolism is intended by the lighted tapers which must accompany - the Host whenever it is carried in procession, or to the sick and - dying. - - As symbols of light and joy a candle is held on each side of the - deacon when reading the Gospel at Mass; and the same symbolism - underlies the multiplication of lights on festivals, their number - varying with the importance of the occasion. As to the number of these - latter no rule is laid down. They differ from liturgical lights in - that, whereas these must be tapers of pure beeswax or lamps fed with - pure olive oil (except by special dispensation under certain - circumstances), those used merely to add splendour to the celebration - may be of any material; the only exception being, that in the - decoration of the altar gas-lights are forbidden. - - - Tenebrae. - - In general the ceremonial use of lights in the Roman Catholic Church - is conceived as a dramatic representation in fire of the life of - Christ and of the whole scheme of salvation. On Easter Eve the new - fire, symbol of the light of the newly risen Christ, is produced, and - from this are kindled all the lights used throughout the Christian - year until, in the gathering darkness (_tenebrae_) of the Passion, - they are gradually extinguished. This quenching of the light of the - world is symbolized at the service of _Tenebrae_ in Holy Week by the - placing on a stand before the altar of thirteen lighted tapers - arranged pyramidally, the rest of the church being in darkness. The - penitential psalms are sung, and at the end of each a candle is - extinguished. When only the central one is left it is taken down and - carried behind the altar, thus symbolizing the betrayal and the death - and burial of Christ. This ceremony can be traced to the 8th century - at Rome. - - - The Paschal Candle. - - On Easter Eve new fire is made[18] with a flint and steel, and - blessed; from this three candles are lighted, the _lumen Christi_, and - from these again the Paschal Candle.[19] This is the symbol of the - risen and victorious Christ, and burns at every solemn service until - Ascension Day, when it is extinguished and removed after the reading - of the Gospel at High Mass. This, of course, symbolizes the Ascension; - but meanwhile the other lamps in the church have received their light - from the Paschal Candle, and so symbolize throughout the year the - continued presence of the light of Christ. - - - Baptism. - - Ordination, etc. - - Funeral lights. - - At the consecration of the baptismal water the burning Paschal Candle - is dipped into the font "so that the power of the Holy Ghost may - descend into it and make it an effective instrument of regeneration." - This is the symbol of baptism as rebirth as children of Light. Lighted - tapers are also placed in the hands of the newly-baptized, or of their - god-parents, with the admonition "to preserve their baptism inviolate, - so that they may go to meet the Lord when he comes to the wedding." - Thus, too, as "children of Light," candidates for ordination and - novices about to take the vows carry lights when they come before the - bishop; and the same idea underlies the custom of carrying lights at - weddings, at the first communion, and by priests going to their first - mass, though none of these are liturgically prescribed. Finally, - lights are placed round the bodies of the dead and carried beside them - to the grave, partly as symbols that they still live in the light of - Christ, partly to frighten away the powers of darkness. - - - Excommunication. - - Conversely, the extinction of lights is part of the ceremony of - excommunication (_Pontificale Rom._ pars iii.). Regino, abbot of Prum, - describes the ceremony as it was carried out in his day, when its - terrors were yet unabated (_De eccles. disciplina_, ii. 409). "Twelve - priests should stand about the bishop, holding in their hands lighted - torches, which at the conclusion of the anathema or excommunication - they should cast down and trample under foot." When the - excommunication is removed, the symbol of reconciliation is the - handing to the penitent of a burning taper. - - - Protestant Churches. - -As a result of the Reformation the use of ceremonial lights was either -greatly modified, or totally abolished in the Protestant Churches. In -the Reformed (Calvinistic) Churches altar lights were, with the rest, -done away with entirely as popish and superstitious. In the Lutheran -Churches they were retained, and in Evangelical Germany have even -survived most of the other medieval rites and ceremonies (e.g. the use -of vestments) which were not abolished at the Reformation itself. - - - Church of England. - - The "Lincoln Judgment." - -In the Church of England the practice has been less consistent. The -first Prayer-book of Edward VI. directed two lights to be placed on the -altar. This direction was omitted in the second Prayer-book; but the -"Ornaments Rubric" of Queen Elizabeth's Prayer-book seemed again to make -them obligatory. The question of how far this did so is a much-disputed -one and is connected with the whole problem of the meaning and scope of -the rubric (see VESTMENTS). An equal uncertainty reigns with regard to -the actual usage of the Church of England from the Reformation onwards. -Lighted candles certainly continued to decorate the holy table in Queen -Elizabeth's chapel, to the scandal of Protestant zealots. They also seem -to have been retained, at least for a while, in certain cathedral and -collegiate churches. There is, however, no mention of ceremonial candles -in the detailed account of the services of the Church of England given -by William Harrison (_Description of England_, 1570); and the attitude -of the Church towards their use, until the ritualistic movement of the -17th century, would seem to be authoritatively expressed in the _Third -Part of the Sermon against Peril of Idolatry_, which quotes with -approval the views of Lactantius and compares "our Candle Religion" -with the "Gentiles Idolators." This pronouncement, indeed, though it -certainly condemns the use of ceremonial lights in most of its later -developments, and especially the conception of them as votive offerings -whether to God or to the saints, does not necessarily exclude, though it -undoubtedly discourages, their purely symbolical use.[20] In this -connexion it is worth pointing out that the homily against idolatry was -reprinted, without alteration and by the king's authority, long after -altar lights had been restored under the influence of the high church -party supreme at court. Illegal under the Act of Uniformity they seem -never to have been. The use of "wax lights and tapers" formed one of the -indictments brought by P. Smart, a Puritan prebendary of Durham, against -Dr Burgoyne, Cosin and others for setting up "superstitious ceremonies" -in the cathedral "contrary to the Act of Uniformity." The indictments -were dismissed in 1628 by Sir James Whitelocke, chief justice of Chester -and a judge of the King's Bench, and in 1629 by Sir Henry Yelverton, a -judge of Common Pleas and himself a strong Puritan (see _Hierurgia -Anglicana_, ii pp. 230 seq.). The use of ceremonial lights was among the -indictments in the impeachment of Laud and other bishops by the House of -Commons, but these were not based on the Act of Uniformity. From the -Restoration onwards the use of ceremonial lights, though far from -universal, was not unusual in cathedrals and collegiate churches.[21] It -was not, however, till the ritual revival of the 19th century that their -use was at all widely extended in parish churches. The growing custom -met with fierce opposition; the law was appealed to, and in 1872 the -Privy Council declared altar lights to be illegal (_Martin_ v. -_Mackonochie_). This judgment, founded as was afterwards admitted on -insufficient knowledge, produced no effect; and, in the absence of any -authoritative pronouncement, advantage was taken of the ambiguous -language of the Ornaments Rubric to introduce into many churches -practically the whole ceremonial use of lights as practised in the -pre-Reformation Church. The matter was again raised in the case of _Read -and others_ v. _the Bishop of Lincoln_ (see LINCOLN JUDGMENT), one of -the counts of the indictment being that the bishop had, during the -celebration of Holy Communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a -shelf or retable behind the communion table when they were not necessary -for giving light. The archbishop of Canterbury, in whose court the case -was heard (1889), decided that the mere presence of two candles on the -table, burning during the service but lit before it began, was lawful -under the first Prayer-Book of Edward VI. and had never been made -unlawful. On the case being appealed to the Privy Council, this -particular indictment was dismissed on the ground that the vicar, not -the bishop, was responsible for the presence of the lights, the general -question of the legality of altar lights being discreetly left open. - -The custom of placing lighted candles round the bodies of the dead, -especially when "lying in state," has never wholly died out in -Protestant countries, though their significance has long been lost sight -of.[22] In the 18th century, moreover, it was still customary in England -to accompany a funeral with lighted tapers. Picart (_op. cit._ 1737) -gives a plate representing a funeral cortege preceded and accompanied by -boys, each carrying four lighted candles in a branched candlestick. -There seems to be no record of candles having been carried in other -processions in England since the Reformation. The usage in this respect -in some "ritualistic" churches is a revival of pre-Reformation -ceremonial. - - See the article "Lucerna," by J. Toutain in Daremberg and Saglio's - _Dict. des antiquites grecques et romaines_ (Paris, 1904); J. - Marquardt, "Romische Privatalterthumer" (vol. v. of Becker's _Rom. - Alterthumer_), ii. 238-301; article "Cierges et lampes," in the Abbe - J. A. Martigny's _Dict. des Antiquites Chretiennes_ (Paris, 1865); the - articles "Lichter" and "Koimetarien" (pp. 834 seq.) in Herzog-Hauck's - _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed., Leipzig. 1901); the article "Licht" in - Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_ (Freiburg-i.-B., 1882-1901), an - excellent exposition of the symbolism from the Catholic point of view, - also "Kerze" and "Lichter"; W. Smith and S. Cheetham, _Dict. of Chr. - Antiquities_ (London, 1875-1880), i. 939 seq.; in all these numerous - further references will be found. See also Muhlbauer, _Gesch. u. - Bedeutung der Wachslichter bei den kirchlichen Funktionen_ (Augsburg, - 1874); V. Thalhofer, _Handbuch der Katholischen Liturgik_ - (Freiburg-i.-B., 1887), i. 666 seq.; and, for the post-Reformation use - in the Church of England, _Hierurgia Anglicana_, new ed. by Vernon - Staley (London, 1903). (W. A. P.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] "O Fire, thou knowest all things!" See A. Bourquin, - "Brahma-karma, ou rites sacres des Brahmans," in the _Annales du - Musee Guimet_ (Paris, 1884, t. vii.). - - [2] J. Toutain, in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire, s.v._ - "Lucerna." - - [3] This is quoted with approval by Bishop Jewel in the homily - _Against Peril of Idolatry_ (see below). - - [4] This symbolism--whatever it was--was not pagan, i.e. the lamps - were not placed in the graves as part of the furniture of the - dead--in the Catacombs they are found only in the niches of the - galleries and the arcosolia--nor can they have been votive in the - sense popularized later. - - [5] "Clara coronantur densis altaria lychnis" (_Poem. De S. Felice - natalitium_, xiv. 99, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ lxi. 467). - - [6] "Continuum scyphus est argenteus aptus ad usum." - - [7] "Sal, ignis et oleum" (Lib. i. Tract. xiv. 4, in Migne, xi. 358). - - [8] _In sanct. Pasch._ c. 2; Migne, _Patr. graeca_, xxxvi. 624. - - [9] [Greek: phota t' ephapsantes kyklo epi skeuon chryson, thaumaston - theama tois horosi pareichon] (_Vita Constantini_, iv. 66). - - [10] "Cum alii Pontifices lampadas cereosque proferrent, alii choras - psallentium ducerent" (Ep. cviii. _ad Eustochium virginem_, in - Migne). - - [11] This may be the paschal candle only. In some codices the text - runs: "Per parochias concessit licentiam benedicendi Cereum - Paschalem" (Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Cereum Paschale"). In the - three variants of the notice of Zosimus given in Duchesne's edition - of the _Lib. pontif._ (1886-1892) the word _cera_ is, however, alone - used. Nor does the text imply that he gave to the suburbican churches - a privilege hitherto exercised by the metropolitan church. The - passage runs: "Hic constituit ut diaconi leva tecta haberent de - palleis linostimis per parrochias et ut cera benedicatur," &c. _Per - parrochias_ here obviously refers to the head-gear of the deacons, - not to the candles. - - [12] See also the _Peregrinatio Sylviae_ (386), 86, &c., for the use - of lights at Jerusalem, and Isidore of Seville (_Etym._ vii. 12; xx. - 10) for the usage in the West. That even in the 7th century the - blessing of candles was by no means universal is proved by the 9th - canon of the council of Toledo (671), "De benedicendo cereo et - lucerna in privilegiis Paschae." This canon states that candles and - lamps are not blessed in some churches, and that inquiries have been - made why _we_ do it. In reply, the council decides that it should be - done to celebrate the mystery of Christ's resurrection. See Isidore - of Seville, _Conc._, in Migne, _Pat. lat._ lxxxiv. 369. - - [13] Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Candela." - - [14] Bees were believed, like fish, to be sexless. - - [15] "Venerandis compactam elementis facem tibi, Domine, mancipamus: - in qua trium copula munerum primum de impari numero complacebit: quae - quod gratis Deo veniat auctoribus, non habetur incertum: unum quod de - fetibus fluminum accedunt nutrimenta flammarum: aliud quod apum - tribuit intemerata fecunditas, in quarum partibus nulla partitur - damna virginitas: ignis etiam coelo infusus adhibetur" (_Opusc._ x. - in Migne, _Patr. lat._ t. lxiii.). - - [16] All three conceptions are brought out in the prayers for the - blessing of candles on the Feast of the Purification of the B.V.M. - (Candlemas, q.v.). (1) "O holy Lord, ... who ... by the command didst - cause this liquid to come by the labour of bees to the perfection of - wax, ... we beseech thee ... to bless and sanctify these candles for - the use of men, and the health of bodies and souls...." (2) "... - these candles, which we thy servants desire to carry lighted to - magnify thy name; that by offering them to thee, being worthily - inflamed with the holy fire of thy most sweet charity, we may - deserve," &c. (3) "O Lord Jesus Christ, the true light, ... - mercifully grant, that as these lights enkindled with visible fire - dispel nocturnal darkness, so our hearts illumined by invisible - fire," &c. (_Missale Rom._). In the form for the blessing of candles - _extra diem Purificationis B. Mariae Virg._ the virtue of the - consecrated candles in discomfiting demons is specially brought out: - "that in whatever places they may be lighted, or placed, the princes - of darkness may depart, and tremble, and may fly terror-stricken with - all their ministers from those habitations, nor presume further to - disquiet and molest those who serve thee, Almighty God" (_Rituale - Rom._). - - [17] Altar candlesticks consist of five parts: the foot, stem, knob - in the centre, bowl to catch the drippings, and pricket (a sharp - point on which the candle is fixed). It is permissible to use a long - tube, pointed to imitate a candle, in which is a small taper forced - to the top by a spring (_Cong. Rit._, 11th May 1878). - - [18] This is common to the Eastern Church also. Pilgrims from all - parts of the East flock to Jerusalem to obtain the "new fire" on - Easter Eve at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Here the fire is - supposed to be miraculously sent from heaven. The rush of the - pilgrims to kindle their lights at it is so great, that order is - maintained with difficulty by Mahommedan soldiers. - - [19] The origin of the Paschal Candle is lost in the mists of - antiquity. According to the abbe Chatelain (quoted in Diderot's - _Encyclopedie, s.v._ "Cierge") the Paschal Candle was not originally - a candle at all, but a wax column on which the dates of the movable - feasts were inscribed. These were later written on paper and fixed to - the Paschal Candle, a custom which in his day survived in the Cluniac - churches. - - [20] This homily, written by Bishop Jewel, is largely founded on - Bullinger's _De origine erroris in Divinorum et sacrorum cultu_ - (1528, 1539). - - [21] A copper-plate in Bernard Picart's _Ceremonies and Religious - Customs of the Various Nations_ (Eng. trans., London, 1737), vi. pt. - 1, p. 78, illustrating an Anglican Communion service at St Paul's, - shows two lighted candles on the holy table. - - [22] In some parts of Scotland it is still customary to place two - lighted candles on a table beside a corpse on the day of burial. - - - - -LIGNE, CHARLES JOSEPH, PRINCE DE (1735-1814), soldier and writer, came -of a princely family of Hainaut, and was born at Brussels in 1735. As an -Austrian subject he entered the imperial army at an early age. He -distinguished himself by his valour in the Seven Years' War, notably at -Breslau, Leuthen, Hochkirch and Maxen, and after the war rose rapidly to -the rank of lieutenant field marshal. He became the intimate friend and -counsellor of the emperor Joseph II., and, inheriting his father's vast -estates, lived in the greatest splendour and luxury till the War of the -Bavarian Succession brought him again into active service. This war was -short and uneventful, and the prince then travelled in England, Germany, -Italy, Switzerland and France, devoting himself impartially to the -courts, the camps, the salons and the learned assemblies of philosophers -and scientists in each country. In 1784 he was again employed in -military work, and was promoted to Feldzeugmeister. In 1787 he was with -Catherine II. in Russia, accompanied her in her journey to the Crimea, -and was made a Russian field marshal by the empress. In 1788 he was -present at the siege of Belgrade. Shortly after this he was invited to -place himself at the head of the Belgian revolutionary movement, in -which one of his sons and many of his relatives were prominent, but -declined with great courtesy, saying that "he never revolted in the -winter." Though suspected by Joseph of collusion with the rebels, the -two friends were not long estranged, and after the death of the emperor -the prince remained in Vienna. His Brabant estates were overrun by the -French in 1792-1793, and his eldest son killed in action at La -Croix-du-Bois in the Argonne (September 14, 1792). He was given the rank -of field marshal (1809) and an honorary command at court, living in -spite of the loss of his estates in comparative luxury and devoting -himself to literary work. He lived long enough to characterize the -proceedings of the congress of Vienna with the famous _mot_: "Le Congres -danse mais ne marche pas." He died at Vienna on the 13th of December -1814. His grandson, Eugene Lamoral de Ligne (1804-1880), was a -distinguished Belgian statesman. - - His collected works appeared in thirty-four volumes at Vienna during - the last years of his life (_Melanges militaires_, _litteraires_, - _sentimentaires_), and he bequeathed his manuscripts to the emperor's - Trabant Guard, of which he was captain (_Oeuvres posthumes_, Dresden - and Vienna, 1817). Selections were published in French and German - (_Oeuvres choisies de M. le prince de Ligne_ (Paris, 1809); _Lettres - et pensees du Marechal Prince de Ligne_, ed. by Madame de Stael - (1809); _Oeuvres historiques, litteraires ... correspondance et - poesies diverses_ (Brussels, 1859); _Des Prinzen Karl von Ligne - militarische Werke_, ed. Count Pappenheim (Sulzbach, 1814). The most - important of his numerous works on all military subjects is the - _Fantaisies et prejuges militaires_, which originally appeared in - 1780. A modern edition is that published by J. Dumaine (Paris, 1879). - A German version (_Militarische Vorurtheile und Phantasien_, &c.) - appeared as early as 1783. This work, though it deals lightly and - cavalierly with the most important subjects (the prince even proposes - to found an international academy of the art of war, wherein the - reputation of generals could be impartially weighed), is a military - classic, and indispensable to the students of the post-Frederician - period. On the whole, it may be said that the prince adhered to the - school of Guibert (q.v.), and a full discussion will be found in Max - Jahns' _Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften_, iii. 2091 et seq. Another - very celebrated work by the prince is the mock autobiography of Prince - Eugene (1809). - - See _Revue de Bruxelles_ (October 1839); Reiffenberg, "Le Feldmarechal - Prince Charles Joseph de Ligne," _Memoires de l'academie de - Bruxelles_, vol. xix.; Peetermans, _Le Prince de Ligne, ou un ecrivain - grand seigneur_ (Liege, 1857), _Etudes et notices historiques - concernant l'histoire des Pays Bas_, vol. iii. (Brussels, 1890); - _Memoires et publications de la Societe des Sciences, &c. du - Hainault_, vol. iii., 5th series; Dublet _Le Prince de Ligne et ses - contemporains_ (Paris, 1889), Wurzbach, _Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserth. - Osterr_. (Vienna, 1858); Hirtenfeld, _Der - Militar-Maria-Theresien-Orden_, vol. i. (Vienna, 1857), Ritter von - Rettersberg, _Biogr. d. ausgezeichnetsten Feldherren_ (Prague, 1829); - Schweigerd, _Osterr. Helden_, vol. iii. (Vienna, 1854); Thurheim, _F. - M. Karl Joseph Furst de Ligne_ (Vienna, 1877). - - - - -LIGNITE (Lat. _lignum_, wood), an imperfectly formed coal, usually -brownish in colour, and always showing the structure of the wood from -which it was derived (see COAL). - - - - -LIGONIER, JOHN (JEAN LOUIS) LIGONIER, EARL (1680-1770), British Field -Marshal, came of a Huguenot family of Castres in the south of France, -members of which emigrated to England at the close of the 17th century. -He entered the army as a volunteer under Marlborough. From 1702 to 1710 -he was engaged, with distinction, in nearly every important battle and -siege of the war. He was one of the first to mount the breach at the -siege of Liege, commanded a company at the Schellenberg and at Blenheim, -and was present at Menin (where he led the storming of the covered way), -Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet (where he received twenty-three -bullets through his clothing and remained unhurt). In 1712 he became -governor of Fort St Philip, Minorca, and in 1718 was adjutant-general of -the troops employed in the Vigo expedition, where he led the stormers of -Fort Marin. Two years later he became colonel of the "Black Horse" (now -7th Dragoon Guards), a command which he retained for 29 years. His -regiment soon attained an extraordinary degree of efficiency. He was -made brigadier-general in 1735, major-general in 1739, and accompanied -Lord Stair in the Rhine Campaign of 1742-1743. George II. made him a -Knight of the Bath on the field of Dettingen. At Fontenoy Ligonier -commanded the British foot, and acted throughout the battle as adviser -to the duke of Cumberland. During the "Forty-Five" he was called home to -command the British army in the Midlands, but in January 1746 was placed -at the head of the British and British-paid contingents of the Allied -army in the Low Countries. He was present at Roucoux (11th Oct. 1746), -and, as general of horse, at Val (1st July 1747), where he led the last -charge of the British cavalry. In this encounter his horse was killed, -and he was taken prisoner, but was exchanged in a few days. With the -close of the campaign ended Ligonier's active career, but (with a brief -interval in 1756-1757) he occupied various high civil and military posts -to the close of his life. In 1757 he was made, in rapid succession, -commander-in-chief, colonel of the 1st Foot Guards (now Grenadier -Guards), and a peer of Ireland under the title of Viscount Ligonier of -Enniskillen, a title changed in 1762 for that of Clonmell. From 1759 to -1762 he was master-general of the Ordnance, and in 1763 he became Baron, -and in 1766 Earl, in the English peerage. In the latter year he became -field marshal. He died in 1770. His younger brother, Francis, was also a -distinguished soldier; and his son succeeded to the Irish peerage of -Lord Ligonier. - - See Combes, _J. L. Ligonier, une etude_ (Castres, 1866), and the - histories of the 7th Dragoon Guards and Grenadier Guards. - - - - -LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI (1696-1787), saint and doctor of the Church -of Rome, was born at Marianella, near Naples, on the 27th of September -1696, being the son of Giuseppe dei Liguori, a Neapolitan noble. He -began life at the bar, where he obtained considerable practice; but the -loss of an important suit, in which he was counsel for a Neapolitan -noble against the grand duke of Tuscany, and in which he had entirely -mistaken the force of a leading document, so mortified him that he -withdrew from the legal world. In 1726 he entered the Congregation of -Missions as a novice, and became a priest in 1726. In 1732 he founded -the "Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer" at Scala, near Salerno; the -headquarters of the Order were afterwards transferred to Nocera dei -Pagani. Its members, popularly called Liguorians or Redemptorists, -devote themselves to the religious instruction of the poor, more -especially in country districts; Liguori specially forbade them to -undertake secular educational work. In 1750 appeared his celebrated -devotional book on the _Glories of Mary_; three years later came his -still more celebrated treatise on moral theology. In 1755 this was much -enlarged and translated into Latin under the title of _Homo -Apostolicus_. In 1762, at the express desire of the pope, he accepted -the bishopric of Sant' Agata dei Goti, a small town in the province of -Benevent; though he had previously refused the archbishopric of Palermo. -Here he worked diligently at practical reforms, being specially anxious -to raise the standard of clerical life and work. In 1775 he resigned his -bishopric on the plea of enfeebled health; he retired to his -Redemptorists at Nocera, and died there in 1787. In 1796 Pius VI. -declared him "venerable"; he was beatified by Pius VII. in 1816, -canonized by Gregory XVI. in 1839, and finally declared one of the -nineteen "Doctors of the Church" by Pius IX. in 1871. - -Liguori is the chief representative of a school of casuistry and -devotional theology still abundantly represented within the Roman Church. -Not that he was in any sense its founder. He was simply a fair -representative of the Italian piety of his day--amiable, ascetic in his -personal habits, indefatigable in many forms of activity, and of more -than respectable abilities; though the emotional side of his character -had the predominance over his intellect. He was learned, as learning was -understood among the Italian clergy of the 18th century; but he was -destitute of critical faculty, and the inaccuracy of his quotations is -proverbial. In his casuistical works he was a diligent compiler, whose -avowed design was to take a middle course between the two current -extremes of severity and laxity. In practice, he leant constantly towards -laxity. Eighteenth-century Italy looked on religion with apathetic -indifference, and Liguori convinced himself that only the gentlest and -most lenient treatment could win back the alienated laity; hence he was -always willing to excuse errors on the side of laxity as due to an excess -of zeal in winning over penitents. Severity, on the other hand, seemed to -him not only inexpedient, but positively wrong. By making religion hard -it made it odious, and thus prepared the way for unbelief. Like all -casuists, he took for granted that morality was a recondite science, -beyond the reach of all but the learned. When a layman found himself in -doubt, his duty was not to consult his conscience, but to take the advice -of his confessor; while the confessor himself was bound to follow the -rules laid down by the casuistical experts, who delivered themselves of a -kind of "counsel's opinion" on all knotty points of practical morality. -But experts proverbially differ: what was to be done when they disagreed? -Suppose, for instance, that some casuists held it wrong to dance on -Sunday, while others held it perfectly lawful. In Liguori's time there -were four ways of answering the question. Strict moralists--called -rigorists, or "tutiorists"--maintained that the austerer opinion ought -always to be followed; dancing on Sundays was certainly wrong, if any -good authorities had declared it to be so. Probabiliorists maintained -that the more general opinion ought to prevail, irrespectively of whether -it was the stricter or the laxer; dancing on Sunday was perfectly lawful, -if the majority of casuists approved it. Probabilists argued that any -opinion might be followed, if it could show good authority on its side, -even if there was still better authority against it; dancing on Sunday -must be innocent, if it could show a fair sprinkling of eminent names in -its favour. The fourth and last school--the "laxists"--carried this -principle a step farther, and held that a practice must be -unobjectionable, if it could prove that any one "grave Doctor" had -defended it; even if dancing on Sunday had hitherto lain under the ban of -the church, a single casuist could legitimate it by one stroke of his -pen. Liguori's great achievement lay in steering a middle course between -these various extremes. The gist of his system, which is known as -"equi-probabilism," is that the more indulgent opinion may always be -followed, whenever the authorities in its favour are as good, or nearly -as good, as those on the other side. In this way he claimed that he had -secured liberty in its rights without allowing it to degenerate into -licence. However much they might personally disapprove, zealous priests -could not forbid their parishioners to dance on Sunday, if the practice -had won widespread toleration; on the other hand, they could not relax -the usual discipline of the church on the strength of a few unguarded -opinions of too indulgent casuists. Thus the Liguorian system surpassed -all its predecessors in securing uniformity in the confessional on a -basis of established usage, two advantages amply sufficient to ensure its -speedy general adoption within the Church of Rome. - - _Lives_ by A. M. Tannoja, a pupil of Liguori's (3 vols., Naples, - 1798-1802); new ed., Turin, 1857; French trans., Paris, 1842; P. v. A. - Giattini (Rome, 1815: Ger. trans., Vienna, 1835); F. W. Faber (4 - vols., London, 1848-1849); M. A. Hugues (Munster, 1857); O. Gisler - (Einsiedeln, 1887); K. Dilgskron (2 vols., Regensburg, 1887), perhaps - the best; A. Capecelatro (2 vols., Rome, 1893); A. des Retours (Paris, - 1903); A. C. Berthe (St Louis, 1906). - - _Works_ (a) Collected editions. Italian: (Monza, 1819, 1828; Venice, - 1830; Naples, 1840 ff.; Turin, 1887, ff.). French: (Tournai, 1855 ff., - new ed., 1895 ff.) German: (Regensburg, 1842-1847). English: (22 - vols., New York, 1887-1895). Editions of the _Theologia Moralis_ and - other separate works are very numerous. (b) _Letters_: (2 vols., - Monza, 1831; 3 vols., Rome, 1887 ff.). See also Meyrick, _Moral and - Devotional Theology of the Church of Rome, according to the Teaching - of S. Alfonso de Liguori_ (London, 1857), and art. CASUISTRY. - (St. C.) - - - - -LIGURES BAEBIANI, in ancient geography, a settlement of Ligurians in -Samnium, Italy. The towns of Taurasia and Cisauna in Samnium had been -captured in 298 B.C. by the consul L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, and the -territory of the former remained Roman state domain. In 180 B.C. 47,000 -Ligurians from the neighbourhood of Luna (Ligures Apuani), with women -and children, were transferred to this district, and two settlements -were formed taking their names from the consuls of 181 B.C., the Ligures -Baebiani and the Ligures Corneliani. The site of the former town lies 15 -m. N. of Beneventum, on the road to Saepinum and Aesernia. In its ruins -several inscriptions have been found, notably a large bronze tablet -discovered in a public building in the Forum bearing the date A.D. 101, -and relating to the alimentary institution founded by Trajan here (see -VELEIA). A sum of money was lent to landed proprietors of the district -(whose names and estates are specified in the inscription), and the -interest which it produced formed the income of the institution, which, -on the model of that of Veleia, would have served to support a little -over one hundred children. The capital was 401,800 sesterces, and the -annual interest probably at 5%, i.e. 20,090 sesterces (L4018 and L201 -respectively). The site of the other settlement--that of the Ligures -Corneliani--is unknown. - - See T. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ ix. (Berlin, 1883), 125 sqq. - (T. As.) - - - - -LIGURIA, a modern territorial division of Italy, lying between the -Ligurian Alps and the Apennines on the N., and the Mediterranean on the -S. and extending from the frontier of France on the W. to the Gulf of -Spezia on the E. Its northern limits touch Piedmont and Lombardy, while -Emilia and Tuscany fringe its eastern borders, the dividing line -following as a rule the summits of the mountains. Its area is 2037 sq. -m. The railway from Pisa skirts the entire coast of the territory, -throwing off lines to Parma from Sarzana and Spezia, to Milan and Turin -from Genoa, and to Turin from Savona, and there is a line from -Ventimiglia to Cuneo and Turin by the Col di Tenda. Liguria embraces the -two provinces of Genoa and Porto Maurizio (Imperia), which once formed -the republic of Genoa. Its sparsely-peopled mountains slope gently -northward towards the Po, descending, however, abruptly into the sea at -several points; the narrow coast district, famous under the name of the -Riviera (q.v.), is divided at Genoa into the Riviera di Ponente towards -France, and the Riviera di Levante towards the east. Its principal -products are wheat, maize, wine, oranges, lemons, fruits, olives and -potatoes, though the olive groves are being rapidly supplanted by -flower-gardens, which grow flowers for export. Copper and iron pyrites -are mined. The principal industries are iron-works, foundries, iron -shipbuilding, engineering, and boiler works (Genoa, Spezia, -Sampierdarena, Sestri Ponente, &c.), the production of cocoons, and the -manufacture of cottons and woollens. Owing to the sheltered situation -and the mildness of their climate, many of the coast towns are chosen by -thousands of foreigners for winter residence, while the Italians -frequent them in summer for sea-bathing. The inhabitants have always -been adventurous seamen--Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci were -Genoese,--and the coast has several good harbours, Genoa, Spezia and -Savona being the best. In educational and general development, Liguria -stands high among the regions of Italy. The populations of the -respective provinces and their chief towns are, according to the census -of 1901 (_popolazione residente_ or _legale_)--province of Genoa, pop. -931,156; number of communes 197; chief towns--Genoa (219,507), Spezia -(66,263), Savona (38,648), Sampierdarena (34,084), Sestri Ponente -(17,225). Province of Porto Maurizio, pop. 144,604, number of communes -106; chief towns--Porto Maurizio (7207), S. Remo (20,027), Ventimiglia -(11,468), Oneglia (8252). Total for Liguria, 1,075,760. - -The Ligurian coast became gradually subject to the Romans, and the road -along it must have been correspondingly prolonged: up to the end of the -Hannibalic war the regular starting-point for Spain by sea was Pisae, in -195 B.C. it was the harbour of Luna (Gulf of Spezia),[1] though Genua -must have become Roman a little before this time, while, in 137 B.C., C. -Hostilius Mancinus marched as far as Portus Herculis (Villafranca), and -in 121 B.C. the province of Gallia Narbonensis was formed and the -coast-road prolonged to the Pyrenees. In 14 B.C. Augustus restored the -whole road from Placentia to Dertona (Via Postumia), and thence to Vada -Sabatia (Via Aemilia^2) and the River Varus (Var), so that it thenceforth -took the name of Via Julia Augusta (see AEMILIA, VIA^2). The other chief -roads of Liguria were the portion of the Via Postumia from Dertona to -Genua, a road from above Vada through Augusta Bagiennorum and Pollentia -to Augusta Taurinorum, and another from Augusta Taurinorum to Hasta and -Valentia. The names of the villages--Quarto, Quinto, &c.--on the -south-east side and Pontedecimo on the north of Genoa allude to their -distance along the Roman roads. The Roman Liguria, forming the ninth -region of Augustus, was thus far more extensive than the modern, -including the country on the north slopes of the Apennines and Maritime -Alps between the Trebia and the Po, and extending a little beyond -Albintimilium. On the west Augustus formed the provinces of the Alpes -Maritimae and the Alpes Cottiae. Towns of importance were few, owing to -the nature of the country. Dertona was the only colony, and Alba -Pompeia, Augusta Bagiennorum, Pollentia, Hasta, Aquae Statiellae, and -Genua may also be mentioned; but the Ligurians dwelt entirely in -villages, and were organized as tribes. The mountainous character of -Liguria made the spread of culture difficult; it remained a forest -district, producing timber, cattle, ponies, mules, sheep, &c. Oil and -wine had to be imported, and when the cultivation of the olive began is -not known. - -The arrangement made by Augustus lasted until the time of Diocletian, -when the two Alpine provinces were abolished, and the watershed became -the boundary between Italy and Gaul. At this time we find the name -Liguria extended as far as Milan, while in the 6th century the old -Liguria was separated from it, and under the Lombards formed the fifth -Italian province under the name of Alpes Cottiae. In the middle ages the -ancient Liguria north of the Apennines fell to Piedmont and Lombardy, -while that to the south, with the coast strip, belonged to the republic -of Genoa. (T. As.) - -_Archaeology and Philology._--It is clear that in earlier times the -Ligurians occupied a much more extensive area than the Augustan region; -for instance Strabo (i. 2, 92; iv. 1, 7) gives earlier authorities for -their possession of the land on which the Greek colony of Massalia -(Marseilles) was founded; and Thucydides (vi. 2) speaks of a settlement -of Ligurians in Spain who expelled the Sicani thence. Southward their -domain extended as far as Pisa on the coast of Etruria and Arretium -inland in the time of Polybius (ii. 6), and a somewhat vague reference -in Lycophron (line 1351) to the Ligurians as enemies of the founders of -Agylla (i.e. Caere) suggests that they once occupied even a larger tract -to the south. Seneca (_Cons. ad Helv._ vii. 9), states that the -population of Corsica was partly Ligurian. By combining traditions -recorded by Dionysius (i. 22; xiv. 37) and others (e.g. Serv. _ad. Aen._ -xi. 317) as having been held by Cato the Censor and by Philistus of -Syracuse (385 B.C.) respectively, Professor Ridgeway (_Who were the -Romans?_ London, 1908, p. 3) decides in favour of identifying the -Ligurians with a tribe called the Aborigines who occupy a large place in -the early traditions of Italy (see Dionysius i. cc. 10 ff.); and who may -at all events be regarded with reasonable certainty as constituting an -early pre-Roman and pre-Tuscan stratum in the population of Central -Italy (see LATIUM). For a discussion of this question see VOLSCI. -Ridgeway holds that the language of the Ligurians, as well as their -antiquities, was identical with that of the early Latins, and with that -of the Plebeians of Rome (as contrasted with that of the Patrician or -Sabine element), see ROME: _History_ (_ad. init._). The archaeological -side of this important question is difficult. Although great progress -has been made with the study of the different strata of remains in -prehistoric Italy and of those of Liguria itself (see for instance the -excellent _Introduction a l'histoire romaine_ by Basile Modestov (Paris, -1907, p. 122 ff.) and W. Ridgeway's _Early Age of Greece_, p. 240 ff.) -no general agreement has been reached among archaeologists as to the -particular races who are to be identified as the authors of the early -strata, earlier, that is, than that stratum which represents the -Etruscans. - -On the linguistic side some fairly certain conclusions have been -reached. D'Arbois de Jubainville (_Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe_, -ed. 2, Paris, 1880-1894) pointed out the great frequency of the suffix --_asco_- (and -_usco_-) both in ancient and in modern Ligurian -districts, and as far north as _Caranusca_ near Metz, and also in the -eastern Alps and in Spain. He pointed out also, what can scarcely be -doubted, that the great mass of the Ligurian proper names (e.g. the -streams _Vinelasca_, _Porcobera_, _Comberanea_; _mons Tuledo_; -_Venascum_), have a definite Indo-European character. Farther Karl -Mullenhof in vol. iii. of his _Deutsche Alterthumskunde_ (Berlin, 1898) -made a careful collection of the proper names reserved in Latin -inscriptions of the Ligurian districts, such as the _Tabula Genuatium_ -(_C.I.L._ i. 99) of 117 B.C. A complete collection of all Ligurian place -and personal names known has been made by S. Elizabeth Jackson, B.A., -and the collection is to be combined with the inscriptional remains of -the district in _The Pre-Italic Dialects_, edited by R. S. Conway (see -_The Proceedings of the British Academy_). Following Kretschmer _Kuhn's -Zeitschrift_ (xxxviii. 97), who discussed several inscriptions found -near Ornavasso (Lago Maggiore) and concluded that they showed an -Indo-European language, Conway, though holding that the inscriptions are -more Celtic than Ligurian, pointed out strong evidence in the ancient -place names of Liguria that the language spoken there in the period -which preceded the Roman conquest was Indo-European, and belonged to a -definite group, namely, languages which preserved the original _q_ as -Latin did, and did not convert it into _p_ as did the Umbro-Safine -tribes. The same is probably true of Venetia (see VENETI), and of an -Indo-European language preserved on inscriptions found at Coligny and -commonly referred to the Sequani (see _Comptes Rendus de l'Ac. d'Insc._, -Paris, 1897, 703; E. B. Nicholson, _Sequanian_, London, 1898; -Thurneysen, _Zeitschr. f. Kelt. Phil._, 1899, 523). Typically Ligurian -names are _Quiamelius_, which contains the characteristic Ligurian word -_melo_- "stone" as in _mons Blustiemelus_ (_C.I.L._ v. 7749), -_Intimelium_ and the modern _Vintimiglia_. The tribal names _Soliceli_, -_Stoniceli_, clearly contain the same element as Lat. _aequi-coli_ -(dwellers on the plain), _sati-cola_, &c., namely _quel_-, cf. Lat. -_in-quil-inus_, _colo_, Gr. [Greek: polein, tellesthai]. And it should -be added that the Ligurian ethnica show the prevailing use of the two -suffixes -_co_- and -_ati_-, which there is reason to refer to the -pre-Roman stratum of population in Italy (see VOLSCI). - - Besides the authorities already cited the student may be referred to - C. Pauli, _Altitalische Studien_, vol. i., especially for the alphabet - of the insc.; W. Ridgeway, _Who were the Romans?_ (followed by the - abstract of a paper by the present writer) in _The Proceedings of the - British Academy_, vol. iii. p. 42; and to W. H. Hall's, _The Romans on - the Riviera and the Rhone_ (London, 1898); Issel's _La Liguria - geologica e preistorica_ (Genoa, 1892). A further batch of - Celto-Ligurian inscriptions from Giubiasco near Bellinzona (Canton - Ticino) is published by G. Herbig, in the _Anzeiger f. Schweizer. - Altertumskunde_, vii. (1905-1906), p. 187; and one of the same class - by Elia Lattes, _Di un' Iscriz. ante-Romana trovata a Carcegna sul - Lago d' Orta_ (_Atti d. r. Accad. d. Scienze di Torino_, xxxix., Feb. - 1904). (R. S. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The dividing line between Liguria and Etruria was the lower - course of the river Macra (Magra), so that, while the harbour of Luna - was in the former, Luna itself was in the latter. - - - - -LI HUNG CHANG (1823-1901), Chinese statesman, was born on the 16th of -February 1823 at Hofei, in Ngan-hui. From his earliest youth he showed -marked ability, and when quite young he took his bachelor degree. In -1847 he became a Tsin-shi, or graduate of the highest order, and two -years later was admitted into the imperial Hanlin college. Shortly after -this the central provinces of the empire were invaded by the Taiping -rebels, and in defence of his native district he raised a regiment of -militia, with which he did such good service to the imperial cause that -he attracted the attention of Tseng Kuo-fan, the generalissimo in -command. In 1859 he was transferred to the province of Fu-kien, where he -was given the rank of taotai, or intendant of circuit. But Tseng had not -forgotten him, and at his request Li was recalled to take part against -the rebels. He found his cause supported by the "Ever Victorious Army," -which, after having been raised by an American named Ward, was finally -placed under the command of Charles George Gordon. With this support Li -gained numerous victories leading to the surrender of Suchow and the -capture of Nanking. For these exploits he was made governor of Kiangsu, -was decorated with a yellow jacket, and was created an earl. An incident -connected with the surrender of Suchow, however, left a lasting stain -upon his character. By an arrangement with Gordon the rebel wangs, or -princes, yielded Nanking on condition that their lives should be spared. -In spite of the assurance given them by Gordon, Li ordered their instant -execution. This breach of faith so aroused Gordon's indignation that he -seized a rifle, intending to shoot the falsifier of his word, and would -have done so had not Li saved himself by flight. On the suppression of -the rebellion (1864) Li took up his duties as governor, but was not long -allowed to remain in civil life. On the outbreak of the rebellion of the -Nienfei, a remnant of the Taipings, in Ho-nan and Shan-tung (1866) he -was ordered again to take the field, and after some misadventures he -succeeded in suppressing the movement. A year later he was appointed -viceroy of Hukwang, where he remained until 1870, when the Tientsin -massacre necessitated his transfer to the scene of the outrage. He was, -as a natural consequence, appointed to the viceroyalty of the -metropolitan province of Chihli, and justified his appointment by the -energy with which he suppressed all attempts to keep alive the -anti-foreign sentiment among the people. For his services he was made -imperial tutor and member of the grand council of the empire, and was -decorated with many-eyed peacocks' feathers. - -To his duties as viceroy were added those of the superintendent of -trade, and from that time until his death, with a few intervals of -retirement, he practically conducted the foreign policy of China. He -concluded the Chifu convention with Sir Thomas Wade (1876), and thus -ended the difficulty caused by the murder of Mr Margary in Yunnan; he -arranged treaties with Peru and Japan, and he actively directed the -Chinese policy in Korea. On the death of the emperor T'ungchi in 1875 -he, by suddenly introducing a large armed force into the capital, -effected a _coup d'etat_ by which the emperor Kwang Su was put on the -throne under the tutelage of the two dowager empresses; and in 1886, on -the conclusion of the Franco-Chinese war, he arranged a treaty with -France. Li was always strongly impressed with the necessity of -strengthening the empire, and when viceroy of Chihli he raised a large -well-drilled and well-armed force, and spent vast sums both in -fortifying Port Arthur and the Taku forts and in increasing the navy. -For years he had watched the successful reforms effected in Japan and -had a well-founded dread of coming into conflict with that empire. But -in 1894 events forced his hand, and in consequence of a dispute as to -the relative influence of China and Japan in Korea, war broke out. The -result proved the wisdom of Li's fears. Both on land and at sea the -Chinese forces were ignominiously routed, and in 1895, on the fall of -Wei-hai-wei, the emperor sued for peace. With characteristic subterfuge -his advisers suggested as peace envoys persons whom the mikado very -properly and promptly refused to accept, and finally Li was sent to -represent his imperial master at the council assembled at Shimonoseki. -With great diplomatic skill Li pleaded the cause of his country, but -finally had to agree to the cession of Formosa, the Pescadores, and the -Liaotung peninsula to the conquerors, and to the payment of an indemnity -of 200,000,000 taels. By a subsequent arrangement the Liaotung peninsula -was restored to China, in exchange for an increased indemnity. During -the peace discussions at Shimonoseki, as Li was being borne through the -narrow streets of the town, a would-be assassin fired a pistol -point-blank in his face. The wound inflicted was not serious, and after -a few days' rest Li was able to take up again the suspended -negotiations. In 1896 he represented the emperor at the coronation of -the tsar, and visited Germany, Belgium, France, England, and the United -States of America. For some time after his return to China his services -were demanded at Peking, where he was virtually constituted minister for -foreign affairs; but in 1900 he was transferred to Canton as viceroy of -the two Kwangs. The Boxer movement, however, induced the emperor to -recall him to the capital, and it was mainly owing to his exertions -that, at the conclusion of the outbreak, a protocol of peace was signed -in September 1901. For many months his health had been failing, and he -died on the 7th of November 1901. He left three sons and one daughter. - (R. K. D.) - - - - -LILAC,[1] or PIPE TREE (_Syringa vulgaris_), a tree of the olive family, -Oleaceae. The genus contains about ten species of ornamental hardy -deciduous shrubs native in eastern Europe and temperate Asia. They have -opposite, generally entire leaves and large panicles of small regular -flowers, with a bell-shaped calyx and a 4-lobed cylindrical corolla, -with the two stamens characteristic of the order attached at the mouth -of the tube. The common lilac is said to have come from Persia in the -16th century, but is doubtfully indigenous in Hungary, the borders of -Moldavia, &c. Two kinds of _Syringa_, viz. _alba_ and _caerulea_, are -figured and described by Gerard (_Herball_, 1597), which he calls the -white and the blue pipe privets. The former is the common privet, -_Ligustrum vulgare_, which, and the ash tree, _Fraxinus excelsior_, are -the only members of the family native in Great Britain. The latter is -the lilac, as both figure and description agree accurately with it. It -was carried by the European colonists to north-east America, and is -still grown in gardens of the northern and middle states. - - There are many fine varieties of lilac, both with single and double - flowers; they are among the commonest and most beautiful of - spring-flowering shrubs. The so-called Persian lilac of gardens (_S. - dubia_, _S. chinensis_ var. _Rothomagensis_), also known as the - Chinese or Rouen lilac, a small shrub 4 to 6 ft. high with intense - violet flowers appearing in May and June, is considered to be a hybrid - between _S. vulgaris_ and _S. persica_--the true Persian lilac, a - native of Persia and Afghanistan, a shrub 4 to 7 ft. high with - bluish-purple or white flowers. Of other species, _S. Josikaea_, from - Transylvania, has scentless bluish-purple flowers; _S. Emodi_, a - native of the Himalayas, is a handsome shrub with large ovate leaves - and dense panicles of purple or white strongly scented flowers. Lilacs - grow freely and flower profusely in almost any soil and situation, but - when neglected are apt to become choked with suckers which shoot up in - great numbers from the base. They are readily propagated by means of - these suckers. - - Syringa is also a common name for the mock-orange _Philadelphus - coronarius_ (nat. ord. _Saxifragaceae_), a handsome shrub 2 to 10 ft. - high, with smooth ovate leaves and clusters of white flowers which - have a strong orange-like scent. It is a native of western Asia, and - perhaps some parts of southern Europe. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The Span. _lilac_, Fr. _lilac_, mod. lilas, are adapted from - Arab. _lilak_, Pers. _lilak_, variant of _milak_, of a blue color, - _mil_, blue, the indigo-plant. - - - - -LILBURNE, JOHN (c. 1614-1657), English political agitator, was the -younger son of a gentleman of good family in the county of Durham. At -the age of twelve he was apprenticed to a clothier in London, but he -appears to have early addicted himself to the "contention, novelties, -opposition of government, and violent and bitter expressions" for which -he afterwards became so conspicuous as to provoke the saying of Harry -Marten (the regicide) that, "if the world was emptied of all but John -Lilburn, Lilburn would quarrel with John, and John with Lilburn." He -appears at one time to have been law-clerk to William Prynne. In -February 1638, for the part he had taken in importing and circulating -_The Litany_ and other publications of John Bastwick and Prynne, -offensive to the bishops, he was sentenced by the Star Chamber to be -publicly whipped from the Fleet prison to Palace Yard, Westminster, -there to stand for two hours in the pillory, and afterwards to be kept -in gaol until a fine of L500 had been paid. He devoted his enforced -leisure to his favourite form of literary activity, and did not regain -his liberty until November 1640, one of the earliest recorded speeches -of Oliver Cromwell being made in support of his petition to the House of -Commons (Nov. 9, 1640). In 1641 he received an indemnity of L3000. He -now entered the army, and in 1642 was taken prisoner at Brentford and -tried for his life; sentence would no doubt have been executed had not -the parliament by threatening reprisals forced his exchange. He soon -rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, but in April 1645, having become -dissatisfied with the predominance of Presbyterianism, and refusing to -take the covenant, he resigned his commission, presenting at the same -time to the Commons a petition for considerable arrears of pay. His -violent language in Westminster Hall about the speaker and other public -men led in the following July to his arrest and committal to Newgate, -whence he was discharged, however, without trial, by order of the House, -in October. In January 1647 he was committed to the Tower for -accusations against Cromwell, but was again set at liberty in time to -become a disappointed spectator of the failure of the "Levellers" or -ultrademocratic party in the army at the Ware rendezvous in the -following November. The scene produced a deep impression on his mind, -and in February 1649 he along with other petitioners presented to the -House of Commons a paper entitled _The Serious Apprehensions of a part -of the People on behalf of the Commonwealth_, which he followed up with -a pamphlet, _England's New Chains Discovered_, criticizing Ireton, and -another exposing the conduct of Cromwell, Ireton and other leaders of -the army since June 1647 (_The Hunting of the Foxes from Newmarket and -Triploe Heath to Whitehall by Five Small Beagles_, the "beagles" being -Lilburne, Richard Overton, William Walwyn, Prince and another). Finally, -the _Second Part of England's New Chains Discovered_, a violent outburst -against "the dominion of a council of state, and a constitution of a new -and unexperienced nature," became the subject of discussion in the -House, and led anew to the imprisonment of its author in the Tower on -the 11th of April. His trial in the following October, on a charge of -seditious and scandalous practices against the state, resulted in his -unanimous acquittal, followed by his release in November. In 1650 he was -advocating the release of trade from the restrictions of chartered -companies and monopolists. - -In January 1652, for printing and publishing a petition against Sir -Arthur Hesilrige and the Haberdashers' Hall for what he conceived to -have been an injury done to his uncle George Lilburne in 1649, he was -sentenced to pay fines amounting to L7000, and to be banished the -Commonwealth, with prohibition of return under the pain of death. In -June 1653 he nevertheless came back from the Low Countries, where he had -busied himself in pamphleteering and such other agitation as was -possible, and was immediately arrested; the trial, which was protracted -from the 13th of July to the 20th of August, issued in his acquittal, to -the great joy of London, but it was nevertheless thought proper to keep -him in captivity for "the peace of the nation." He was detained -successively in the Tower, in Jersey, in Guernsey and in Dover Castle. -At Dover he came under Quaker influence, and signified his readiness at -last to be done with "carnal sword fightings and fleshly bustlings and -contests"; and in 1655, on giving security for his good behaviour, he -was set free. He now settled at Eltham in Kent, frequently preaching at -Quaker meetings in the neighbourhood during the brief remainder of his -troubled life. He died on the 29th of August 1657. - -His brother, Colonel Robert Lilburne, was among those who signed the -death-warrant of Charles I. In 1656 he was M.P. for the East Riding of -Yorkshire, and at the restoration was sentenced to lifelong -imprisonment. - - See D. Masson, _Life of Milton_ (iv. 120); Clement Walker (_History of - Independency_, ii. 247); W. Godwin (_Commonwealth_, iii. 163-177), and - Robert Bisset (_Omitted Chapters of the History of England_, 191-251). - - - - -LILIACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Monocotyledons belonging to the -series Liliiflorae, and generally regarded as representing the typical -order of Monocotyledons. The plants are generally perennial herbs -growing from a bulb or rhizome, sometimes shrubby as in butcher's broom -(_Ruscus_) or tree-like as in species of _Dracaena, Yucca_ or _Aloe_. -The flowers are with few exceptions hermaphrodite, and regular with -parts in threes (fig. 5), the perianth which is generally petaloid -occupying the two outer whorls, followed by two whorls of stamens, with -a superior ovary of three carpels in the centre of the flower; the ovary -is generally three-chambered and contains an indefinite number of -anatropous ovules on axile placentas (see fig. 2). The fruit is a -capsule splitting along the septa (septicidal) (fig. 1), or between them -(loculicidal), or a berry (fig. 6, 3); the seeds contain a small embryo -in a copious fleshy or cartilaginous endosperm. Liliaceae is one of the -larger orders of flowering plants containing about 2500 species in 200 -genera; it is of world-wide distribution. The plants show great -diversity in vegetative structure, which together with the character and -mode of dehiscence of the fruit afford a basis for the subdivision of -the order into tribes, eleven of which are recognized. The following are -the most important tribes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Fruit or Capsule of Meadow Saffron (_Colchicum -autumnale_) dehiscing along the septa.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Same cut across showing the three chambers with -the seeds attached along the middle line--axile placentation.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Corm of Meadow Saffron (_Colchicum autumnale_). -a, Old corm shrivelling; b, young corm produced laterally from the old -one.] - - _Melanthoideae._--The plants have a rhizome or corm, and the fruit is - a capsule. It contains 36 genera, many of which are north temperate - and three are represented in Britain, viz. _Tofieldia_, an arctic and - alpine genus of small herbs with a slender scape springing from a tuft - of narrow ensiform leaves and bearing a raceme of small green flowers; - _Narthecium_ (bog-asphodel), herbs with a habit similar to - _Tofieldia_, but with larger golden-yellow flowers; and _Colchicum_, a - genus with about 30 species including the meadow saffron or autumn - crocus (_C. autumnale_). _Colchicum_ illustrates the corm-development - which is rare in Liliaceae though common in the allied order - Iridaceae; a corm is formed by swelling at the base of the axis (figs. - 3, 4) and persists after the flowers and leaves, bearing next season's - plant as a lateral shoot in the axil of a scale-leaf at its base. - _Gloriosa_, well known in cultivation, climbs by means of its - tendril-like leaf-tips; it has handsome flowers with decurved - orange-red or yellow petals; it is a native of tropical Asia and - Africa. _Veratrum_ is an alpine genus of the north temperate zone. - - _Asphodeloideae._--The plants generally have a rhizome bearing radical - leaves, as in asphodel, rarely a stem with a tuft of leaves as in - _Aloe_, very rarely a tuber (_Eriospermum_) or bulb (_Bowiea_). The - flowers are borne in a terminal raceme, the anthers open introrsely - and the fruit is a capsule, very rarely, as in _Dianella_, a berry. It - contains 64 genera. _Asphodelus_ (asphodel) is a Mediterranean genus; - _Simethis_, a slender herb with grassy radical leaves, is a native of - west and southern Europe extending into south Ireland. _Anthericum_ - and _Chlorophytum_, herbs with radical often grass-like leaves and - scapes bearing a more or less branched inflorescence of small - generally white flowers, are widely spread in the tropics. Other - genera are _Funkia_, native of China and Japan, cultivated in the open - air in Britain; _Hemerocallis_, a small genus of central Europe and - temperate Asia--_H. flava_ is known in gardens as the day lily; - _Phormium_, a New Zealand genus to which belongs New Zealand flax, _P. - tenax_, a useful fibre-plant; _Kniphofia_, South and East Africa, - several species of which are cultivated; and _Aloe_. A small group of - Australian genera closely approach the order Juncaceae in having small - crowded flowers with a scarious or membranous perianth; they include - _Xanthorrhoea_ (grass-tree or black-boy) and _Kingia_, arborescent - plants with an erect woody stem crowned with a tuft of long stiff - narrow leaves, from the centre of which rises a tall dense - flower-spike or a number of stalked flower-heads; this group has been - included in Juncaceae, from which it is doubtfully distinguished only - by the absence of the long twisted stigmas which characterize the true - rushes. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Corm of _Colchicum autumnale_ in autumn when - the plant is in flower. - - k, Present corm. - h, h, Brown scales covering it. - w, Its roots. - st, Its withered flowering stem. - k', Younger corm produced from k. - wh, Roots from k', which grows at expense of k. - s, s', s", Sheathing leaves. - l', l", Foliage leaves. - b, b', Flowers. - k", Young corm produced from - k', in autumn, which in succeeding autumn will produce flowers.] - - _Allioideae._--The plants grow from a bulb or short rhizome; the - inflorescence is an apparent umbel formed of several shortened - monochasial cymes and subtended by a pair of large bracts. It contains - 22 genera, the largest of which _Allium_ has about 250 species--7 are - British; _Agapanthus_ or African lily is a well-known garden plant; in - _Gagea_, a genus of small bulbous herbs found in most parts of Europe, - the inflorescence is reduced to a few flowers or a single flower; _G. - lutea_ is a local and rare British plant. - - _Lilioideae._--Bulbous plants with a terminal racemose inflorescence; - the anthers open introrsely and the capsule is loculicidal. It - contains 28 genera, several being represented in Britain. The typical - genus _Lilium_ and _Fritillaria_ are widely distributed in the - temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; _F. meleagris_, snake's - head, is found in moist meadows in some of the southern and central - English counties; _Tulipa_ contains more than 50 species in Europe and - temperate Asia, and is specially abundant in the dry districts of - central Asia; _Lloydia_, a small slender alpine plant, widely - distributed in the northern hemisphere, occurs on Snowdon in Wales; - _Scilla_ (squill) is a large genus, chiefly in Europe and Asia--_S. - nutans_ is the bluebell or wild hyacinth; _Ornithogalum_ (Europe, - Africa and west Asia) is closely allied to _Scilla_--_O. umbellatum_, - star of Bethlehem, is naturalized in Britain; _Hyacinthus_ and - _Muscari_ are chiefly Mediterranean; _M. racemosum_, grape hyacinth, - occurs in sandy pastures in the eastern counties of England. To this - group belong a number of tropical and especially South African genera - such as _Albuca_, _Urginea_, _Drimia_, _Lachenalia_ and others. - - _Dracaenoideae._--The plants generally have an erect stem with a crown - of leaves which are often leathery; the anthers open introrsely and - the fruit is a berry or capsule. It contains 9 genera, several of - which, such as _Yucca_ (fig. 5), _Dracaena_ and _Cordyline_ include - arborescent species in which the stem increases in thickness - continually by a centrifugal formation of new tissue; an extreme case - is afforded by _Dracaena Draco_, the dragon-tree of Teneriffe. _Yucca_ - and several allied genera are natives of the dry country of the - southern and western United States and of Central America. _Dracaena_ - and the allied genus _Cordyline_ occur in the warmer regions of the - Old World. There is a close relation between the pollination of many - yuccas and the life of a moth (_Pronuba yuccasella_); the flowers are - open and scented at night when the female moth becomes active, first - collecting a load of pollen and then depositing her eggs, generally in - a different flower from that which has supplied the pollen. The eggs - are deposited in the ovary-wall, usually just below an ovule; after - each deposition the moth runs to the top of the pistil and thrusts - some pollen into the opening of the stigma. Development of larva and - seed go on together, a few of the seeds serving as food for the - insect, which when mature eats through the pericarp and drops to the - ground, remaining dormant in its cocoon until the next season of - flowering when it emerges as a moth. - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Yucca gloriosa._ Plant much reduced. 1, - Floral diagram. 2, Flower.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Twig of Butcher's Broom, _Ruscus aculeatus_, - slightly enlarged. 1, Male flower, 2, female flower, both enlarged; 3, - berry, slightly reduced.] - - [Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by - permission of Gustav Fischer. - - FIG. 7.--Rhizome of _Polygonatum multiflorum_. - - a, Bud of next year's aerial shoot. - b, Scar of this year's, and c, d, e, scars of three preceding years' - aerial shoots. - w, Roots.] - - _Asparagoideae._--Plants growing from a rhizome; fruit a berry. - _Asparagus_ contains about 100 species in the dryer warmer parts of - the Old World; it has a short creeping rhizome, from which springs a - slender, herbaceous or woody, often very much branched, erect or - climbing stem, the ultimate branches of which are flattened or - needle-like leaf-like structures (_cladodes_), the true leaves being - reduced to scales or, in the climbers, forming short, hard more or - less recurved spines. _Ruscus aculeatus_ (fig. 6) is butcher's broom, - an evergreen shrub with flattened leaf-like cladodes, native in the - southerly portion of England and Wales; the small flowers are - unisexual and borne on the face of the cladode; the male contains - three stamens, the filaments of which are united to form a short - stout column on which are seated the diverging cells of the anthers; - in the female the ovary is enveloped by a fleshy staminal tube on - which are borne three barren anthers. _Polygonatum_ and _Maianthemum_ - are allied genera with a herbaceous leafy stem and, in the former - axillary flowers, in the latter flowers in a terminal raceme; both - occur rarely in woods in Britain; _P. multiflorum_ is the well-known - Solomon's seal of gardens (fig. 7), so called from the seal-like scars - on the rhizome of stems of previous seasons, the hanging flowers of - which contain no honey, but are visited by bees for the pollen. - _Convallaria_ is lily of the valley; _Aspidistra_, native of the - Himalayas, China and Japan, is a well-known pot plant; its flowers - depart from the normal arrangement of the order in having the parts in - fours (tetramerous). Paris, including the British Herb _Paris_ (_P. - quadrifolia_), has solitary tetra- to poly-merous flowers terminating - the short annual shoot which bears a whorl of four or more leaves - below the flower; in this and in some species of the nearly allied - genus _Trillium_ (chiefly temperate North America) the flowers have a - fetid smell, which together with the dark purple of the ovary and - stigmas and frequently also of the stamens and petals, attracts - carrion-loving flies, which alight on the stigma and then climb the - anthers and become dusted with pollen; the pollen is then carried to - the stigmas of another flower. - - _Luzuriagoideae_ are shrubs or undershrubs with erect or climbing - branches and fruit a berry. _Lapageria_, a native of Chile, is a - favourite greenhouse climber with fine bell-shaped flowers. - - _Smilacoideae_ are climbing shrubs with broad net-veined leaves and - small dioecious flowers in umbels springing from the leaf-axils; the - fruit is a berry. They climb by means of tendrils, which are stipular - structures arising from the leaf-sheath. _Smilax_ is a characteristic - tropical genus containing about 200 species; the dried roots of some - species are the drug sarsaparilla. - - The two tribes _Ophiopogonoideae_ and _Aletroideae_ are often included - in a distinct order, Haemodoraceae. The plants have a short rhizome - and narrow or lanceolate basal leaves; and they are characterized by - the ovary being often half-inferior. They contain a few genera chiefly - old world tropical and subtropical. The leaves of species of - _Sansevieria_ yield a valuable fibre. - -Liliaceae may be regarded as the typical order of the series -Liliiflorae. It resembles Juncaceae in the general plan of the flower, -which, however, has become much more elaborate and varied in the form -and colour of its perianth in association with transmission of pollen by -insect agency; a link between the two orders is found in the group of -Australian genera referred to above under Asphodeloideae. The tribe -Ophiopogonoideae, with its tendency to an inferior ovary, suggests an -affinity with the Amaryllidaceae which resemble Liliaceae in habit and -in the horizontal plan of the flower, but have an inferior ovary. The -tribe Smilacoideae, shrubby climbers with net-veined leaves and small -unisexual flowers, bears much the same relationship to the order as a -whole as does the order Dioscoreaceae, which have a similar habit, but -flowers with an inferior ovary, to the Amaryllidaceae. - - - - -LILIENCRON, DETLEV VON (1844-1909), German poet and novelist, was born -at Kiel on the 3rd of June 1844. He entered the army and took part in -the campaigns of 1866 and 1870-71, in both of which he was wounded. He -retired with the rank of captain and spent some time in America, -afterwards settling at Kellinghusen in Holstein, where he remained till -1887. After some time at Munich, he settled in Altona and then at -Altrahistedt, near Hamburg. He died in July 1909. He first attracted -attention by the volume of poems, _Adjutantenritte und andere Gedichte_ -(1883), which was followed by several unsuccessful dramas, a volume of -short stories, _Eine Sommerschlacht_ (1886), and a novel _Breide -Hummelsbuttel_ (1887). Other collections of short stories appeared under -the titles _Unter flatternden Fahnen_ (1888). _Der Macen_ (1889), _Krieg -und Frieden_ (1891); of lyric poetry in 1889, 1890 (_Der Heideganger -und andere Gedichte_), 1893, and 1903 (_Bunte Beute_). Interesting, too, -is the humorous epic _Poggfred_ (1896; 2nd ed. 1904). Liliencron is one -of the most eminent of recent German lyric poets; his _Adjutantenritte_, -with its fresh original note, broke with the well-worn literary -conventions which had been handed down from the middle of the century. -Liliencron's work is, however, somewhat unequal, and he lacks the -sustained power which makes the successful prose writer. - - Liliencron's _Samtliche Werke_ have been published in 14 vols. - (1904-1905); his _Gedichte_ having been previously collected in four - volumes under the titles _Kampf und Spiele, Kampfe und Ziele, Nebel - und Sonne_ and _Bunte Beute_ (1897-1903). See O. J. Bierbaum, _D. von - Liliencron_ (1892); H. Greinz, _Liliencron, eine literarhistorische - Wurdigung_ (1896); F. Oppenheimer, _D. von Liliencron_ (1898). - - - - -LILITH (Heb. _lilatu_, "night"; hence "night-monster"), a female demon -of Jewish folk-lore, equivalent to the English vampire. The personality -and name are derived from a Babylonian-Assyrian demon Lilit or Lilu. -Lilith was believed to have a special power for evil over children. The -superstition was extended to a cult surviving among some Jews even as -late as the 7th century A.D. In the Rabbinical literature Lilith becomes -the first wife of Adam, but flies away from him and becomes a demon. - - - - -LILLE, a city of northern France, capital of the department of Nord, 154 -m. N. by E. of Paris on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 196,624. Lille -is situated in a low fertile plain on the right bank of the Deule in a -rich agricultural and industrial region of which it is the centre. It is -a first-class fortress and headquarters of the I. army corps, and has an -enceinte and a pentagonal citadel, one of Vauban's finest works, -situated to the west of the town, from which it is divided by the Deule. -The modern fortifications comprise over twenty detached forts and -batteries, the perimeter of the defences being about 20 m. Before 1858 -the town, fortified by Vauban about 1668, occupied an elliptical area of -about 2500 yds. by 1300, with the church of Notre-Dame de la Treille in -the centre, but the ramparts on the south side have been demolished and -the ditches filled up, their place being now occupied by the great -Boulevard de la Liberte, which extends in a straight line from the goods -station of the railway to the citadel. At the S.E. end of this boulevard -are grouped the majority of the numerous educational establishments of -the city. The new enceinte encloses the old communes of Esquermes, -Wazemmes and Moulins-Lille, the area of the town being thus more than -doubled. In the new quarters fine boulevards and handsome squares, such -as the Place de la Republique, have been laid out in pleasant contrast -with the sombre aspect of the old town. The district of St Andre to the -north, the only elegant part of the old town, is the residence of the -aristocracy. Outside the enceinte populous suburbs surround the city on -every side. The demolition of the fortifications on the north and east -of the city, which is continued in those directions by the great suburbs -of La Madeleine, St Maurice and Fives, must accelerate its expansion -towards Roubaix and Tourcoing. At the demolition of the southern -fortifications, the Paris gate, a triumphal arch erected in 1682 in -honour of Louis XIV., after the conquest of Flanders, was preserved. On -the east the Ghent and Roubaix gates, built in the Renaissance style, -with bricks of different colours, date from 1617 and 1622, the time of -the Spanish domination. On the same side the Noble-Tour is a relic of -the medieval ramparts. The present enceinte is pierced by numerous -gates, including water gates for the canal of the Deule and for the -Arbonnoise, which extends into a marsh in the south-west corner of the -town. The citadel, which contains the barracks and arsenal, is -surrounded by public gardens. The more interesting buildings are in the -old town, where, in the Grande Place and Rue Faidherbe, its animation is -concentrated. St Maurice, a church in the late Gothic style, dates in -its oldest portions from the 15th century, and was restored in 1872; Ste -Catherine belongs to the 15th, 16th and 18th centuries, St Andre to the -first years of the 18th century, and Ste Madeleine to the last half of -the 17th century; all possess valuable pictures, but St Maurice alone, -with nave and double aisles, and elegant modern spire, is -architecturally notable. Notre-Dame de la Treille, begun in 1855, in the -style of the 15th century, possesses an ancient statue of the Virgin -which is the object of a well-known pilgrimage. Of the civil buildings -the Bourse (17th century) built round a courtyard in which stands a -bronze statue of Napoleon I., the Hotel d'Aigremont, the Hotel Gentil -and other houses are in the Flemish style; the Hotel de Ville, dating in -the main from the middle of the 19th century, preserves a portion of a -palace built by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in the 15th century. -The prefecture, the Palais des Beaux-Arts, the law-courts, the school of -arts and crafts, and the Lycee Faidherbe are imposing modern buildings. -In the middle of the Grande Place stands a column, erected in 1848, -commemorating the defence of the town in 1792 (see below), and there are -also statues to Generals L. L. C. Faidherbe and F. O. de Negrier, and -busts of Louis Pasteur and the popular poet and singer A. Desrousseaux. -The Palais des Beaux-Arts contains a museum and picture galleries, among -the richest in France, as well as a unique collection of original -designs of the great masters bequeathed to Lille by J. B. Wicar, and -including a celebrated wax model of a girl's head usually attributed to -some Italian artist of the 16th century. The city also possesses a -commercial and colonial museum, an industrial museum, a fine collection -of departmental and municipal archives, the museum of the Institute of -Natural Sciences and a library containing many valuable manuscripts, -housed at the Hotel de Ville. The large military hospital, once a Jesuit -college, is one of several similar institutions. - -Lille is the seat of a prefect and has tribunals of first instance and -of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a -branch of the Bank of France. It is the centre of an academie -(educational division) and has a university with faculties of laws, -letters, science and medicine and pharmacy, together with a Catholic -institute comprising faculties of theology, law, medicine and pharmacy, -letters, science, a technical school, and a department of social and -political science. Secondary education is given at the Lycee Faidherbe, -and the Lycee Fenelon (for girls), a higher school of commerce, a -national technical school and other establishments; to these must be -added schools of music and fine arts, and the Industrial and Pasteur -Institutes. - -The industries, which are carried on in the new quarters of the town and -in the suburbs, are of great variety and importance. In the first rank -comes the spinning of flax and the weaving of cloth, table-linen, -damask, ticking and flax velvet. The spinning of flax thread for sewing -and lace-making is specially connected with Lille. The manufacture of -woollen fabrics and cotton-spinning and the making of cotton-twist of -fine quality are also carried on. There are important printing -establishments, state factories for the manufacture of tobacco and the -refining of saltpetre and very numerous breweries, while chemical, oil, -white lead and sugar-works, distilleries, bleaching-grounds, dye-works, -machinery and boiler works and cabinet-making occupy many thousands of -workmen. Plant for sugar-works and distilleries, military stores, -steam-engines, locomotives, and bridges of all kinds are produced by the -company of Fives-Lille. Lille is one of the most important junctions of -the Northern railway, and the Deule canal affords communication with -neighbouring ports and with Belgium. Trade is chiefly in the raw -material and machinery for its industries, in the products thereof, and -in the wheat and other agricultural products of the surrounding -district. - -Lille (l'Ile) is said to date its origin from the time of Count Baldwin -IV. of Flanders, who in 1030 surrounded with walls a little town which -had arisen around the castle of Buc. In the first half of the 13th -century, the town, which had developed rapidly, obtained communal -privileges. Destroyed by Philip Augustus in 1213, it was rebuilt by -Joanna of Constantinople, countess of Flanders, but besieged and retaken -by Philip the Fair in 1297. After having taken part with the Flemings -against the king of France, it was ceded to the latter in 1312. In 1369 -Charles V., king of France, gave it to Louis de Male, who transmitted -his rights to his daughter Margaret, wife of Philip the Bold, duke of -Burgundy. Under the Burgundian rule Lille enjoyed great prosperity; its -merchants were at the head of the London Hansa. Philip the Good made it -his residence, and within its walls held the first chapters of the order -of the Golden Fleece. With the rest of Flanders it passed from the dukes -of Burgundy to Austria and then to Spain. After the death of Philip IV. -of Spain, Louis XIV. reclaimed the territory and besieged Lille in 1667. -He forced it to capitulate, but preserved all its laws, customs, -privileges and liberties. In 1708, after an heroic resistance, it -surrendered to Prince Eugene and the duke of Marlborough. The treaty of -Utrecht restored it to France. In 1792 the Austrians bombarded it for -nine days and nights without intermission, but had ultimately to raise -the siege. - - See E. Vanhende, _Lille et ses institutions communales de 620 a 1804_ - (Lille, 1888). - - - - -LILLEBONNE, a town of France in the department of Seine-Inferieure, -3(1/2) m. N. of the Seine and 24 m. E. of Havre by the Western railway. -Pop. (1906) 5370. It lies in the valley of the Bolbec at the foot of -wooded hills. The church of Notre-Dame, partly modern, preserves a -Gothic portal of the 16th century and a graceful tower of the same -period. The park contains a fine cylindrical donjon and other remains of -a castle founded by William the Conqueror and rebuilt in the 13th -century. The principal industries are cotton-spinning and the -manufacture of calico and candles. - -Lillebonne under the Romans, _Juliobona_, was the capital of the -Caletes, or inhabitants of the Pays de Caux, in the time of Caesar, by -whom it was destroyed. It was afterwards rebuilt by Augustus, and before -it was again ruined by the barbarian invasions it had become an -important centre whence Roman roads branched out in all directions. The -remains of ancient baths and of a theatre capable of holding 3000 -persons have been brought to light. Many Roman and Gallic relics, -notably a bronze statue of a woman and two fine mosaics, have been found -and transported to the museum at Rouen. In the middle ages the -fortifications of the town were constructed out of materials supplied by -the theatre. The town recovered some of its old importance under William -the Conqueror. - - - - -LILLIBULLERO, or LILLIBURLERO, the name of a song popular at the end of -the 17th century, especially among the army and supporters of William -III. in the war in Ireland during the revolution of 1688. The tune -appears to have been much older, and was sung to an Irish nursery song -at the beginning of the 17th century, and the attribution of Henry -Purcell is based on the very slight ground that it was published in -_Music's Handmaid_, 1689, as "A new Irish Tune" by Henry Purcell. It was -also a marching tune familiar to soldiers. The doggerel verses have -generally been assigned to Thomas Wharton, and deal with the -administration of Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel, appointed by James as his -lieutenant in Ireland in 1687. The refrain of the song _lilliburllero -bullen a la_ gave the title of the song. Macaulay says of the song "The -verses and the tune caught the fancy of the nation. From one end of -England to the other all classes were singing this idle rhyme." Though -Wharton claimed he had "sung a king out of three kingdoms" and Burnet -says "perhaps never had so slight a thing so great an effect" the -success of the song was "the effect, and not the cause of that excited -state of public feeling which produced the revolution" (Macaulay, _Hist. -of Eng._ chap. ix.). - - - - -LILLO, GEORGE (1693-1739), English dramatist, son of a Dutch jeweller, -was born in London on the 4th of February 1693. He was brought up to his -father's trade and was for many years a partner in the business. His -first piece, _Silvia, or the Country Burial_, was a ballad opera -produced at Lincoln's Inn Fields in November 1730. On the 22nd of June -1731 his domestic tragedy, _The Merchant_, renamed later _The London -Merchant, or the History of George Barnwell_, was produced by Theophilus -Cibber and his company at Drury Lane. The piece is written in prose, -which is not free from passages which are really blank verse, and is -founded on "An excellent ballad of George Barnwell, an apprentice of -London who ... thrice robbed his master, and murdered his uncle in -Ludlow." In breaking through the tradition that the characters of every -tragedy must necessarily be drawn from people of high rank and fortune -he went back to the Elizabethan domestic drama of passion of which the -_Yorkshire Tragedy_ is a type. The obtrusively moral purpose of this -play places it in the same literary category as the novels of -Richardson. Scoffing critics called it, with reason, a "Newgate -tragedy," but it proved extremely popular on the stage. It was regularly -acted for many years at holiday seasons for the moral benefit of the -apprentices. The last act contained a scene, generally omitted on the -London stage, in which the gallows actually figured. In 1734 Lillo -celebrated the marriage of the Princess Anne with William IV. of Orange -in _Britannia and Batavia_, a masque. A second tragedy, _The Christian -Hero_, was produced at Drury Lane on the 13th of January 1735. It is -based on the story of Scanderbeg, the Albanian chieftain, a life of whom -is printed with the play. Thomas Whincop (d. 1730) wrote a piece on the -same subject, printed posthumously in 1747. Both Lillo and William -Havard, who also wrote a dramatic version of the story, were accused of -plagiarizing Whincop's _Scanderbeg_. Another murder-drama, _Fatal -Curiosity_, in which an old couple murder an unknown guest, who proves -to be their own son, was based on a tragedy at Bohelland Farm near -Penryn in 1618. It was produced by Henry Fielding at the Little Theatre -in the Haymarket in 1736, but with small success. In the next year -Fielding tacked it on to his own _Historical Register for 1736_, and it -was received more kindly. It was revised by George Colman the elder in -1782, by Henry Mackenzie in 1784, &c. Lillo also wrote an adaptation of -the Shakespearean play of _Pericles, Prince of Tyre_, with the title -_Marina_ (Covent Garden, August 1st, 1738); and a tragedy, _Elmerick, or -Justice Triumphant_ (produced posthumously, Drury Lane, February 23rd, -1740). The statement made in the prologue to this play that Lillo died -in poverty seems unfounded. His death took place on the 3rd of September -1739. He left an unfinished version of _Arden of Feversham_, which was -completed by Dr John Hoadly and produced in 1759. Lillo's reputation -proved short-lived. He has nevertheless a certain cosmopolitan -importance, for the influence of _George Barnwell_ can be traced in the -sentimental drama of both France and Germany. - - See _Lillo's Dramatic Works with Memoirs of the Author by Thomas - Davies_ (reprint by Lowndes, 1810); Cibber's _Lives of the Poets_, v.; - Genest, _Some Account of the English Stage_; Alois Brandl, "Zu Lillo's - Kaufmann in London," in _Vierteljahrschrift fur Literaturgeschichte_ - (Weimar, 1890, vol. iii.); Leopold Hoffmann, _George Lillo_ (Marburg, - 1888); Paul von Hofmann-Wellenhof, _Shakspere's Pericles und George - Lillo's Marina_ (Vienna, 1885). There is a novel founded on Lillo's - play, _Barnwell_ (1807), by T. S. Surr, and in "George de Barnwell" - (_Novels by Eminent Hands_) Thackeray parodies Bulwer-Lytton's _Eugene - Aram_. - - - - -LILLY, WILLIAM (1602-1681), English astrologer, was born in 1602 at -Diseworth in Leicestershire, his family having been settled as yeomen in -the place for "many ages." He received a tolerably good classical -education at the school of Ashby-de-la-Zouche, but he naively tells us -what may perhaps have some significance in reference to his after -career, that his master "never taught logic." In his eighteenth year, -his father having fallen into great poverty, he went to London and was -employed in attendance on an old citizen and his wife. His master, at -his death in 1627, left him an annuity of L20; and, Lilly having soon -afterwards married the widow, she, dying in 1633, left him property to -the value of about L1000. He now began to dabble in astrology, reading -all the books on the subject he could fall in with, and occasionally -trying his hand at unravelling mysteries by means of his art. The years -1642 and 1643 were devoted to a careful revision of all his previous -reading, and in particular having lighted on Valentine Naibod's -_Commentary on Alchabitius_, he "seriously studied him and found him to -be the profoundest author he ever met with." About the same time he -tells us that he "did carefully take notice of every grand action -betwixt king and parliament, and did first then incline to believe that -as all sublunary affairs depend on superior causes, so there was a -possibility of discovering them by the configurations of the superior -bodies." And, having thereupon "made some essays," he "found -encouragement to proceed further, and ultimately framed to himself that -method which he ever afterwards followed." He then began to issue his -prophetical almanacs and other works, which met with serious attention -from some of the most prominent members of the Long Parliament. If we -may believe himself, Lilly lived on friendly and almost intimate terms -with Bulstrode Whitlock, Lenthall the speaker, Sir Philip Stapleton, -Elias Ashmole and others. Even Selden seems to have given him some -countenance, and probably the chief difference between him and the mass -of the community at the time was that, while others believed in the -general truth of astrology, he ventured to specify the future events to -which its calculations pointed. Even from his own account of himself, -however, it is evident that he did not trust implicitly to the -indications given by the aspects of the heavens, but like more vulgar -fortune-tellers kept his eyes and ears open for any information which -might make his predictions safe. It appears that he had correspondents -both at home and in foreign parts to keep him conversant with the -probable current of affairs. Not a few of his exploits indicate rather -the quality of a clever police detective than of a profound astrologer. -After the Restoration he very quickly fell into disrepute. His sympathy -with the parliament, which his predictions had generally shown, was not -calculated to bring him into royal favour. He came under the lash of -Butler, who, making allowance for some satiric exaggeration, has given -in the character of Sidrophel a probably not very incorrect picture of -the man; and, having by this time amassed a tolerable fortune, he bought -a small estate at Hersham in Surrey, to which he retired, and where he -diverted the exercise of his peculiar talents to the practice of -medicine. He died in 1681. - - Lilly's life of himself, published after his death, is still worth - looking into as a remarkable record of credulity. So lately as 1852 a - prominent London publisher put forth a new edition of Lilly's - _Introduction to Astrology_, "with numerous emendations adapted to the - improved state of the science." - - - - -LILOAN, a town of the province of Cebu, Philippine Islands, on the E. -coast, 10 m. N.E. of Cebu, the capital of the province. Pop. (1903), -after the annexation of Compostela, 15,626. There are seventeen villages -or _barrios_ in the town, and eight of them had in 1903 a population -exceeding 1000. The language is Visayan. Fishing is the principal -industry. Liloan has one of the principal coal beds on the island; and -rice, Indian corn, sugar-cane and coffee are cultivated. Coconuts and -other tropical fruits are important products. - - - - -LILY, _Lilium_, the typical genus of the botanical order Liliaceae, -embracing nearly eighty species, all confined to the northern -hemisphere, and widely distributed throughout the north temperate zone. -The earliest in cultivation were described in 1597 by Gerard (_Herball_, -p. 146), who figures eight kinds of true lilies, which include _L. -album_ (_L. candidum_) and a variety, _bizantinum_, two umbellate forms -of the type _L. bulbiferum_, named _L. aureum_ and _L. cruentum -latifolium_, and three with pendulous flowers, apparently forms of the -martagon lily. Parkinson, in his _Paradisus_ (1629), described five -varieties of martagon, six of umbellate kinds--two white ones, and _L. -pomponium_, _L. chalcedonicum_, _L. carniolicum_ and _L. -pyrenaicum_--together with one American, _L. canadense_, which had been -introduced in 1629. For the ancient and medieval history of the lily, -see M. de Cannart d'Hamale's _Monographie historique et litteraire des -lis_ (Malines, 1870). Since that period many new species have been -added. The latest authorities for description and classification of the -genus are J. G. Baker ("Revision of the Genera and Species of Tulipeae," -_Journ. of Linn. Soc._ xiv. p. 211, 1874), and J. H. Elwes (_Monograph -of the Genus_ Lilium, 1880), who first tested all the species under -cultivation, and has published every one beautifully figured by W. H. -Fitch, and some hybrids. With respect to the production of hybrids, the -genus is remarkable for its power of resisting the influence of foreign -pollen, for the seedlings of any species, when crossed, generally -resemble that which bears them. A good account of the new species and -principal varieties discovered since 1880, with much information on the -cultivation of lilies and the diseases to which they are subject, will -be found in the report of the Conference on Lilies, in the _Journal of -the Royal Horticultural Society_, 1901. The new species include a number -discovered in central and western China by Dr Augustine Henry and other -collectors; also several from Japan and California. - -The structure of the flower represents the simple type of -monocotyledons, consisting of two whorls of petals, of three free parts -each, six free stamens, and a consolidated pistil of three carpels, -ripening into a three-valved capsule containing many winged seeds. In -form, the flower assumes three types: trumpet-shaped, with a more or -less elongated tube, e.g. _L. longiflorum_ and _L. candidum_; an open -form with spreading perianth leaves, e.g. _L. auratum_; or assuming a -pendulous habit, with the tips strongly reflexed, e.g. the martagon -type. All have scaly bulbs, which in three west American species, as _L. -Humboldti_, are remarkable for being somewhat intermediate between a -bulb and a creeping rhizome. _L. bulbiferum_ and its allies produce -aerial reproductive bulbils in the axils of the leaves. The bulbs of -several species are eaten, such as of _L. avenaceum_ in Kamchatka, of -_L. Martagon_ by the Cossacks, and of _L. tigrinum_, the "tiger lily," -in China and Japan. Medicinal uses were ascribed to the species, but -none appear to have any marked properties in this respect. - -[Illustration: Madonna or White Lily (_Lilium candidum_). About 1/4 nat. -size.] - - The white lily, _L. candidum_, the [Greek: leirion] of the Greeks, was - one of the commonest garden flowers of antiquity, appearing in the - poets from Homer downwards side by side with the rose and the violet. - According to Hehn, roses and lilies entered Greece from the east by - way of Phrygia, Thrace and Macedonia (_Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere_, - 3rd ed., p. 217). The word [Greek: leirion] itself, from which - _lilium_ is derived by assimilation of consonants, appears to be - Eranian (Ibid. p. 527), and according to ancient etymologists - (Lagarde, _Ges. Abh._ p. 227) the town of Susa was connected with the - Persian name of the lily _susan_ (Gr. [Greek: souson], Heb. - _shoshan_). Mythologically the white lily, _Rosa Junonis_, was fabled - to have sprung from the milk of Hera. As the plant of purity it was - contrasted with the rose of Aphrodite. The word [Greek: krinon], on - the other hand, included red and purple lilies, Plin. _H.N._ xxi. 5 - (11, 12), the red lily being best known in Syria and Judaea - (Phaselis). This perhaps is the "red lily of Constantinople" of - Gerard, _L. chalcedonicum_. The lily of the Old Testament (shoshan) - may be conjectured to be a red lily from the simile in Cant. v. 13, - unless the allusion is to the fragrance rather than the colour of the - lips, in which case the white lily must be thought of. The "lilies of - the field," Matt. vi. 28, are [Greek: krina], and the comparison of - their beauty with royal robes suggests their identification with the - red Syrian lily of Pliny. Lilies, however, are not a conspicuous - feature in the flora of Palestine, and the red anemone (_Anemone - coronaria_), with which all the hill-sides of Galilee are dotted in - the spring, is perhaps more likely to have suggested the figure. For - the lily in the pharmacopoeia of the ancients see Adams's _Paul. - Aegineta_, iii. 196. It was used in unguents and against the bites of - snakes, &c. In the middle ages the flower continued to be common and - was taken as the symbol of heavenly purity. The three golden lilies of - France are said to have been originally three lance-heads. - - Lily of the valley, _Convallaria majalis_, belongs to a different - tribe (_Asparagoideae_) of the same order. It grows wild in woods in - some parts of England, and in Europe, northern Asia and the Alleghany - Mountains of North America. The leaves and flower-scapes spring from - an underground creeping stem. The small pendulous bell-shaped flowers - contain no honey but are visited by bees for the pollen. - - The word "lily" is loosely used in connexion with many plants which - are not really liliums at all, but belong to genera which are quite - distinct botanically. Thus, the Lent lily is _Narcissus - Pseudo-narcissus_; the African lily is _Agapanthus umbellatus_; the - Belladonna lily is _Amaryllis Belladonna_ (q.v.); the Jacobaea lily is - _Sprekelia formosissima_; the Mariposa lily is _Calochortus_; the lily - of the Incas is _Alstroemeria pelegrina_; St Bernard's lily is - _Anthericum Liliago_; St Bruno's lily is _Anthericum_ (or _Paradisia_) - _Liliastrum_; the water lily is _Nymphaea alba_; the Arum lily is - _Richardia africana_; and there are many others. - - [Illustration: Lily of the Valley (_Convallaria majalis_). About 1/4 - nat. size.] - - The true lilies are so numerous and varied that no general cultural - instructions will be alike suitable to all. Some species, as _L. - Martagon_, _candidum_, _chalcedonicum_, _Szovitzianum_ (or - _colchicum_), _bulbiferum_, _croceum_, _Henryi_, _pomponium_--the - "Turk's cap lily," and others, will grow in almost any good garden - soil, and succeed admirably in loam of a rather heavy character, and - dislike too much peat. But a compost of peat, loam and leaf-soil suits - _L. auratum_, _Brownii_, _concolor_, _elegans_, _giganteum_, - _japonicum_, _longiflorum_, _monadelphum_, _pardalinum_, _speciosum_, - and the tiger lily (_L. tigrinum_) well, and a larger proportion of - peat is indispensable for the beautiful American _L. superbum_ and - _canadense_. The margin of rhododendron beds, where there are - sheltered recesses amongst the plants, suits many of the more delicate - species well, partial shade and shelter of some kind being essential. - The bulbs should be planted from 6 to 10 in. (according to size) below - the surface, which should at once be mulched over with half-decayed - leaves or coconut fibre to keep out frost. - - The noble _L. auratum_, with its large white flowers, having a yellow - band and numerous red or purple spots, is a magnificent plant when - grown to perfection; and so are the varieties called _rubro-vittatum_ - and _cruentum_, which have the central band crimson instead of yellow; - and the broad-petalled _platyphyllum_, and its almost pure white - sub-variety called _virginale_. Of _L. speciosum_ (well known to most - gardeners as _lancifolium_), the true typical form and the red-spotted - and white varieties are grand plants for late summer blooming in the - conservatory. The tiger lily, _L. tigrinum_, and its varieties - _Fortunei_, _splendidum_ and _flore-pleno_, are amongst the best - species for the flower garden; _L. Thunbergianum_ and its many - varieties being also good border flowers. The pretty _L. Leichtlinii_ - and _L. colchicum_ (or _Szovitsianum_) with drooping yellow flowers - and the scarlet drooping-flowered _L. tenuifolium_ make up, with those - already mentioned, a series of the finest hardy flowers of the summer - garden. The Indian _L. giganteum_ is perfectly distinct in character, - having broad heart-shaped leaves, and a noble stem 10 to 14 ft. high, - bearing a dozen or more large deflexed, funnel-shaped, white, - purple-stained flowers; _L. cordifolium_ (China and Japan) is similar - in character, but dwarfer in habit. - - For pot culture, the soil should consist of three parts turfy loam to - one of leaf-mould and thoroughly rotted manure, adding enough pure - grit to keep the compost porous. If leaf-mould is not at hand, turfy - peat may be substituted for it. The plants should be potted in - October. The pots should be plunged in a cold frame and protected from - frost, and about May may be removed to a sheltered and moderately - shady place out-doors to remain till they flower, when they may be - removed to the greenhouse. This treatment suits the gorgeous _L. - auratum_, the splendid varieties of _L. speciosum_ (_lancifolium_) and - also the chaste-flowering trumpet-tubed _L. longiflorum_ and its - varieties. Thousands of bulbs of such lilies as _longiflorum_ and - _speciosum_ are now retarded in refrigerators and taken out in batches - for greenhouse work as required. - - _Diseases._--Lilies are, under certain conditions favourable to the - development of the disease, liable to the attacks of three parasitic - fungi. The most destructive is _Botrytis cinerea_ which forms - orange-brown or buff specks on the stems, pedicels, leaves and - flower-buds, which increase in size and become covered with a delicate - grey mould, completely destroying or disfiguring the parts attacked. - The spores formed on the delicate grey mould are carried during the - summer from one plant to another, thus spreading the disease, and also - germinate in the soil where the fungus may remain passive during the - winter producing a new crop of spores next spring, or sometimes - attacking the scales of the bulbs forming small black hard bodies - embedded in the flesh. For prevention, the surface soil covering bulbs - should be removed every autumn and replaced by soil mixed with kainit; - manure for mulching should also be mixed with kainit, which acts as a - steriliser. If the fungus appears on the foliage spray with potassium - sulphide solution (2 oz. in 3 gallons of water). _Uromyces - Erythronii_, a rust, sometimes causes considerable injury to the - foliage of species of _Lilium_ and other bulbous plants, forming large - discoloured blotches on the leaves. The diseased stems should be - removed and burned before the leaves fall; as the bulb is not attacked - the plant will start growth next season free from disease. _Rhizopus - necans_ is sometimes the cause of extensive destruction of bulbs. The - fungus attacks injured roots and afterwards passes into the bulb which - becomes brown and finally rots. The fungus hibernates in the soil and - enters through broken or injured roots, hence care should be taken - when removing the bulbs that the roots are injured as little as - possible. An excellent packing material for dormant buds is coarsely - crushed wood-charcoal to which has been added a sprinkling of flowers - of sulphur. This prevents infection from outside and also destroys any - spores or fungus mycelium that may have been packed away along with - the bulbs. - - When cultivated in greenhouses liliums are subject to attack from - aphides (green fly) in the early stages of growth. These pests can be - kept in check by syringing with nicotine, soft-soap and quassia - solutions, or by "vaporising" two or three evenings in succession, - afterwards syringing the plants with clear tepid water. - - - - -LILYE, or LILY, WILLIAM (c. 1468-1522), English scholar, was born at -Odiham in Hampshire. He entered the university of Oxford in 1486, and -after graduating in arts went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On his -return he put in at Rhodes, which was still occupied by the knights of -St John, under whose protection many Greeks had taken refuge after the -capture of Constantinople by the Turks. He then went on to Italy, where -he attended the lectures of Sulpitius Verulanus and Pomponius Laetus at -Rome, and of Egnatius at Venice. After his return he settled in London -(where he became intimate with Thomas More) as a private teacher of -grammar, and is believed to have been the first who taught Greek in that -city. In 1510 Colet, dean of St Paul's, who was then founding the school -which afterwards became famous, appointed Lilye the first high master. -He died of the plague on the 25th of February 1522. - - Lilye is famous not only as one of the pioneers of Greek learning, but - as one of the joint-authors of a book, familiar to many generations of - students during the 19th century, the old Eton Latin grammar. The - _Brevissima Institutio_, a sketch by Colet, corrected by Erasmus and - worked upon by Lilye, contains two portions, the author of which is - indisputably Lilye. These are the lines on the genders of nouns, - beginning _Propria quae maribus_, and those on the conjugation of - verbs beginning _As in praesenti_. The _Carmen de Moribus_ bears - Lilye's name in the early editions; but Hearne asserts that it was - written by Leland, who was one of his scholars, and that Lilye only - adapted it. Besides the _Brevissima Institutio_, Lilye wrote a variety - of Latin pieces both in prose and Verse. Some of the latter are - printed along with the Latin verses of Sir Thomas More in - _Progymnasmata Thomae Mori et Gulielmi Lylii Sodalium_ (1518). Another - volume of Latin verse (_Antibossicon ad Gulielmum Hormannum_, 1521) is - directed against a rival schoolmaster and grammarian, Robert - Whittington, who had "under the feigned name of Bossus, much provoked - Lilye with scoffs and biting verses." - - See the sketch of Lilye's life by his son George, canon of St Paul's, - written for Paulus Jovius, who was collecting for his history the - lives of the learned men of Great Britain; and the article by J. H. - Lupton, formerly sur-master of St Paul's School, in the _Dictionary of - National Biography_. - - - - -LIMA, a city and the county-seat of Allen county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the -Ottawa river, about 70 m. S.S.W. of Toledo, Pop. (1890) 15,981; (1900) -21,723, of whom 1457 were foreign-born and 731 were negroes; (1910 -census) 30,508. It is served by the Pennsylvania (Pittsburgh, Ft. Wayne -& Chicago division), the Erie, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the -Lake Erie & Western, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton railways, and by six -interurban electric lines. Immediately N. of the city is a state asylum -for the insane. Lima has a Carnegie library, a city hospital and a -public park of 100 acres. Among the principal buildings are the county -court house, a masonic temple, an Elks' home and a soldiers' and -sailors' memorial building. Lima College was conducted here from 1893 to -1908. Lima is situated in the centre of the great north-western -oil-field (Trenton limestone of the Ordovician system) of Ohio, which -was first developed in 1885; the product of the Lima district was -20,575,138 barrels in 1896, 15,877,730 barrels in 1902 and 6,748,676 -barrels in 1908. The city is a headquarters of the Standard Oil Company, -and the refining of petroleum is one of the principal industries. The -total value of the factory product in 1905 was $8,155,586, an increase -of 31.1% over that in 1900. Lima contains railway shops of the -Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton and the Lake Erie & Western railways. The -city has a large wholesale and jobbing trade. The municipality owns and -operates the water-works. Lima was laid out in 1831, and was first -organized as a city under a general state law in 1842. - - - - -LIMA, a coast department of central Peru, bounded N. by Ancachs, E. by -Junin and Huancavelica, S. by Ica and W. by the Pacific Ocean. Pop. -(1906 estimate) 250,000; area 13,314 sq. m. The eastern boundary follows -the crests of the Western Cordillera, which gives to the department the -western slopes of this chain with the drainage basins of the rivers -Huaura, Chancay, Chillon, Rimac, Lurin, Mala and Canete. Although the -department forms part of the rainless region, these rivers, fed from the -snows of the high Andes, provide water for the irrigation of large areas -devoted to the raising of cotton, sugar, sorghum, Indian corn, alfalfa, -potatoes, grapes and olives. The sugar estates of the Canete are among -the best in Peru and are served by a narrow gauge railway terminating at -the small port of Cerro Azul. Indian corn is grown in Chancay and other -northern valleys, and is chiefly used, together with alfalfa and barley, -in fattening swine for lard. The mineral resources are not important, -though gold washings in the Canete valley have been worked since early -colonial times. One of the most important industrial establishments in -the republic is the smelting works at Casapalca, on the Oroya railway, -in the Rimac valley, which receives ores from neighbouring mines of the -district of Huarochiri. The department is crossed from S.W. to N.E. by -the Oroya railway, and several short lines run from the city of Lima to -neighbouring towns. Besides Lima (q.v.) the principal towns are Huacho, -Canete (port), Canta, Yauyos, Chorrillos, Miraflores and Barranco--the -last three being summer resorts for the people of the capital, with -variable populations of 15,000, 6000 and 5000 respectively. About 15 m. -S. of Lima, near the mouth of the Lurin, are the celebrated ruins of -Pachacamac, which are believed to antedate the occupation of this region -by the Incas. - - - - -LIMA, the principal city and the capital of Peru and of the department -and province of Lima, on the left bank of the river Rimac, 7(1/2) m. -above its mouth and the same distance E. by N. of its seaport Callao, in -12 deg. 2' 34" S., 77 deg. 7' 36" W. Pop. (1906 estimate) 140,000, of -whom a large proportion is of negro descent, and a considerable number -of foreign birth. The city is about 480 ft. above sea-level, and stands -on an arid plain, which rises gently toward the S., and occupies an -angle between the Cerros de San Jeronimo (2493 ft.) and San Cristobal -(1411 ft.) on the N. and a short range of low hills, called the Cerros -de San Bartolome, on the E. The surrounding region is arid, like all -this part of the Pacific coast, but through irrigation large areas have -been brought under cultivation, especially along the watercourses. The -Rimac has its source about 105 m. N.E. of Lima and is fed by the melting -snows of the higher Andes. It is an insignificant stream in winter and a -raging torrent in summer. Its tributaries are all of the same character, -except the Rio Surco, which rises near Chorrillos and flowing northward -joins the Rimac a few miles above the city. These, with the Rio Lurin, -which enters the Pacific a short distance S. of Chorrillos, provide -water for irrigating the districts near Lima. The climate varies -somewhat from that of the arid coast in general, in having a winter of -four months characterized by cloudy skies, dense fogs and sometimes a -drizzling rain. The air in this season is raw and chilly. For the rest -of the year the sky is clear and the air dry. The mean temperature for -the year is 66 deg. F., the winter minimum being 59 deg. and the summer -maximum 78 deg. - -The older part of Lima was laid out and built with mathematical -regularity, the streets crossing each other at right angles and -enclosing square areas, called _manzanas_, of nearly uniform size. Later -extensions, however, did not follow this plan strictly, and there is -some variation from the straight line in the streets and also in the -size and shape of the manzanas. The streets are roughly paved with -cobble stones and lighted with gas or electricity. A broad boulevard of -modern construction partly encircles the city, occupying the site of the -old brick walls (18 to 20 ft. high, 10 to 12 ft. thick at the base and 9 -ft. at the top) which were constructed in 1585 by a Fleming named Pedro -Ramon, and were razed by Henry Meiggs during the administration of -President Balta. The water-supply is derived from the Rimac and -filtered, and the drainage, once carried on the surface, now passes into -a system of subterranean sewers. The streets and suburbs of Lima are -served by tramways, mostly worked by electric traction. The suburban -lines include two to Callao, one to Magdalena, and one to Miraflores and -Chorrillos. On the north side of the river is the suburb or district of -San Lazaro, shut in by the encircling hills and occupied in great part -by the poorer classes. The principal squares are the Plaza Mayor, Plaza -Bolivar (formerly P. de la Inquisicion and P. de la Independencia), -Plaza de la Exposicion, and Plaza del Acho, on the north side of the -river, the site of the bull-ring. The public gardens, connected with the -Exposition palace on the S. side of the city, and the Paseo Colon are -popular among the Limenos as pleasure resorts. The long Paseo Colon, -with its parallel drives and paths, is ornamented with trees, shrubbery -and statues, notably the Columbus statue, a group in marble designed by -the sculptor Salvatore Revelli. It is the favourite fashionable resort. -A part of the old wagon road from Lima to Callao, which was paved and -improved with walks and trees by viceroy O'Higgins, is also much -frequented. The avenue (3 m. long) leading from the city to Magdalena -was beautified by the planting of four rows of palms during the Pierola -administration. Among other public resorts are the Botanical garden, the -Grau and Bolognesi avenues (parts of the Boulevard), the Acho avenue on -the right bank of the Rimac, and the celebrated avenue of the Descalzos, -on the N. side of the river, bordered with statuary. The noteworthy -monuments of the city are the bronze equestrian statue of Bolivar in the -plaza of that name, the Columbus statue already mentioned, the Bolognesi -statue in the small square of that name, and the San Martin statue in -the Plaza de la Exposicion. The 22nd of May monument, a marble shaft -crowned by a golden bronze figure of Victory, stands where the Callao -road crosses the Boulevard. Most conspicuous among the public buildings -of Lima is the cathedral, whose twin towers and broad facade look down -upon the Plaza Mayor. Its foundation stone was laid in 1535 but the -cathedral was not consecrated until 1625. The great earthquake of 1746 -reduced it to a mass of ruins, but it was reconstructed by 1758, -practically, as it now stands. It has double aisles and ten -richly-decorated chapels, in one of which rest the remains of Francisco -Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru. Also facing the same square are the -archiepiscopal and government palaces; the latter formerly the palace of -the viceroys. The interesting _casa_ of the Inquisition, whose tribunals -rivalled those of Madrid in cruelty, faces upon Plaza Bolivar, as also -the old University of San Marcos, which dates from 1551 and has -faculties of theology, law, medicine, philosophy and literature, -mathematics, and administrative and political economy. The churches and -convents of Lima are richly endowed as a rule, and some of the churches -represent a very large expenditure of money. The convent of San -Francisco, near the Plaza Mayor, is the largest monastic establishment -in Lima and contains some very fine carvings. Its church is the finest -in the city after the cathedral. Other noteworthy churches are those of -the convents of Santo Domingo, La Merced and San Augustine. There are a -number of conventual establishments (for both sexes), which, with their -chapels, and with the smaller churches, retreats, sanctuaries, &c., make -up a total of 66 institutions devoted to religious observances. An -attractive, and perhaps the most popular public building in Lima is the -Exposition palace on the plaza and in the public gardens of the same -name, on the south side of the city. It dates from 1872; its halls are -used for important public assemblies, and its upper floor is occupied by -the National Historical Institute, its museum and the gallery of -historical paintings. Other noteworthy edifices and institutions are the -National Library, the Lima Geographical Society, founded in 1888; the -Mint, which dates from 1565 and is considered to be one of the best in -South America; the great bull-ring of the Plaza del Acho, which dates -from 1768 and can seat 8000 spectators; the Concepcion market; a modern -penitentiary; and various charitable institutions. In addition to the -old university on the Plaza Bolivar, which has been modernized and -greatly improved, Lima has a school of engineers and mines (founded -1876), the old college of San Carlos, a normal school (founded 1905), a -school of agriculture (situated outside the city limits and founded in -1902), two schools for girls under the direction of religious sisters, -an episcopal seminary called the Seminario Conciliar de Santo Toribio, -and a school of arts and trades in which elementary technical -instruction is given. Under the old regime, primary instruction was -almost wholly neglected, but the 20th century brought about important -changes in this respect. In addition to the primary schools, the -government maintains free night schools for workmen. - -The residences of the city are for the most part of one storey and have -mud walls supported by a wooden framework which enclose open spaces, -called _patios_, around which the living rooms are ranged. The better -class of dwellings have two floors and are sometimes built of brick. A -projecting, lattice-enclosed window for the use of women is a prominent -feature of the larger houses and gives a picturesque effect to the -streets. - -Manufacturing has had some considerable development since the closing -years of the 19th century; the most important manufactories are -established outside the city limits; they produce cotton and woollen -textiles, the products of the sugar estates, chocolate, cocaine, cigars -and cigarettes, beer, artificial liquors, cotton-seed oil, hats, -macaroni, matches, paper, soap and candles. The commercial interests of -the city are important, a large part of the interior being supplied from -this point. With its port Callao the city is connected by two steam -railways, one of which was built as early as 1848; one railway runs -northward to Ancon, and another, the famous Oroya line, runs inland 130 -m., crossing the Western Cordillera at an elevation of 15,645 ft. above -sea-level, with branches to Cerro de Pasco and Huari. The export trade -properly belongs to Callao, though often credited to Lima. The Limenos -are an intelligent, hospitable, pleasure-loving people, and the many -attractive features of their city make it a favourite place of residence -for foreigners. - -Lima was founded on the 18th of January 1535 by Francisco Pizarro, who -named it Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings) in honour of the -emperor Charles V. and Dona Juana his mother, or, according to some -authorities, in commemoration of the Feast of the Epiphany (6th January) -when its site is said to have been selected. The name soon after gave -place to that of Lima, a Spanish corruption of the Quichua word Rimac. -In 1541 Lima was made an episcopal see, which in 1545 was raised to a -metropolitan see. Under Spanish rule, Lima was the principal city of -South America, and for a time was the entrepot for all the Pacific coast -colonies south of Panama. It became very prosperous during this period, -though often visited by destructive earthquakes, the most disastrous of -which was that of the 28th of October 1746, when the cathedral and the -greater part of the city were reduced to ruins, many lives were lost, -and the port of Callao was destroyed. Lima was not materially affected -by the military operations of the war of independence until 1821, when a -small army of Argentines and Chileans under General San Martin invested -the city, and took possession of it on the 12th of July upon the -withdrawal of the Spanish forces. San Martin was proclaimed the -protector of Peru as a free state on the 28th of July, but resigned that -office on the 20th of September 1822 to avoid a fratricidal struggle -with Bolivar. In March 1828 Lima was again visited by a destructive -earthquake, and in 1854-1855 an epidemic of yellow fever carried off a -great number of its inhabitants. In November 1864, when a hostile -Spanish fleet was on the coast, a congress of South American -plenipotentiaries was held here to concert measures of mutual defence. -Lima has been the principal sufferer in the many revolutions and -disorders which have convulsed Peru under the republic, and many of them -originated in the city itself. During the earlier part of this period -the capital twice fell into the hands of foreigners, once in 1836 when -the Bolivian general Santa Cruz made himself the chief of a -Bolivian-Peruvian confederation, and again in 1837 when an invading -force of Chileans and Peruvian refugees landed at Ancon and defeated the -Peruvian forces under President Orbegoso. The city prospered greatly -under the two administrations of President Ramon Castilla, who gave Peru -its first taste of peace and good government, and under those of -Presidents Balta and Pardo, during which many important public -improvements were made. The greatest calamity in the history of Lima was -its occupation by a Chilean army under the command of General Baquedano -after the bloody defeat of the Peruvians at Miraflores on the 15th of -January 1881. Chorrillos and Miraflores with their handsome country -residences had already been sacked and burned and their helpless -residents murdered. Lima escaped this fate, thanks to the intervention -of foreign powers, but during the two years and nine months of this -occupation the Chileans systematically pillaged the public edifices, -turned the old university of San Marcos into barracks, destroyed the -public library, and carried away the valuable contents of the Exposition -palace, the models and apparatus of the medical school and other -educational institutions, and many of the monuments and art treasures -with which the city had been enriched. A forced contribution of -$1,000,000 a month was imposed upon the population in addition to the -revenues of the custom house. When the Chilean garrison under Captain -Lynch was withdrawn on the 22nd of October 1883, it took 3000 wagons to -carry away the plunder which had not already been shipped. Of the -government palace and other public buildings nothing remained but the -bare walls. The buoyant character of the people, and the sympathy and -assistance generously offered by many civilized nations, contributed to -a remarkably speedy recovery from so great a misfortune. Under the -direction of its keeper, Don Ricardo Palma, 8315 volumes of the public -library were recovered, to which were added valuable contributions from -other countries. The portraits of the Spanish viceroys were also -recovered, except five, and are now in the portrait gallery of the -Exposition palace. The poverty of the country after the war made -recovery difficult, but years of peace have assisted it. - - See Mariano F. Paz Soldan, _Diccionario geografico-estadistico del - Peru_ (Lima, 1877); Mateo Paz Soldan and M. F. Paz Soldan, _Geografia - del Peru_ (Paris, 1862); Manuel A. Fuentes, _Lima, or Sketches of the - Capital of Peru_ (London, 1866); C. R. Markham, _Cuzo and Lima_ - (London, 1856), and _History of Peru_ (Chicago, 1892); Alexandre - Garland, _Peru in 1906_ (Lima, 1907); and C. R. Enock, _Peru_ (London, - 1908). For earlier descriptions see works referred to under PERU. - (A. J. L.) - - - - -LIMACON (from the Lat. _limax_, a slug), a curve invented by Blaise -Pascal and further investigated and named by Gilles Personne de -Roberval. It is generated by the extremities of a rod which is -constrained to move so that its middle point traces out a circle, the -rod always passing through a fixed point on the circumference. The polar -equation is r = a+b cos [theta], where 2a = length of the rod, and b = -diameter of the circle. The curve may be regarded as an epitrochoid (see -EPICYCLOID) in which the rolling and fixed circles have equal radii. It -is the inverse of a central conic for the focus, and the first positive -pedal of a circle for any point. The form of the limacon depends on the -ratio of the two constants; if a be greater than b, the curve lies -entirely outside the circle; if a equals b, it is known as a cardioid -(q.v.); if a is less than b, the curve has a node within the circle; the -particular case when b = 2a is known as the trisectrix (q.v.). In the -figure (1) is a limacon, (2) the cardioid, (3) the trisectrix. - -[Illustration] - -Properties of the limacon may be deduced from its mechanical -construction; thus the length of a focal chord is constant and the -normals at the extremities of a focal chord intersect on a fixed circle. -The area is (b^2 + a^2/2)[pi], and the length is expressible as an -elliptic integral. - - - - -LIMASOL, a seaport of Cyprus, on Akrotiri Bay of the south coast. Pop. -(1901) 8298. Excepting a fort attributed to the close of the 12th -century the town is without antiquities of interest, but in the -neighbourhood are the ancient sites of Amathus and Curium. Limasol has a -considerable trade in wine and carobs. The town was the scene of the -marriage of Richard I., king of England, with Berengaria, in 1191. - - - - -LIMB. (1) (In O. Eng. _lim_, cognate with the O. Nor. and Icel. _limr_, -Swed. and Dan. _lem_; probably the word is to be referred to a root -_li_- seen in an obsolete English word "lith," a limb, and in the Ger. -_Glied_), originally any portion or member of the body, but now -restricted in meaning to the external members of the body of an animal -apart from the head and trunk, the legs and arms, or, in a bird, the -wings. It is sometimes used of the lower limbs only, and is synonymous -with "leg." The word is also used of the main branches of a tree, of the -projecting spurs of a range of mountains, of the arms of a cross, &c. As -a translation of the Lat. _membrum_, and with special reference to the -church as the "body of Christ," "limb" was frequently used by -ecclesiastical writers of the 16th and 17th centuries of a person as -being a component part of the church; cf. such expressions as "limb of -Satan," "limb of the law," &c. From the use of _membrum_ in medieval -Latin for an estate dependent on another, the name "limb" is given to an -outlying portion of another, or to the subordinate members of the Cinque -Ports, attached to one of the principal towns; Pevensey was thus a -"limb" of Hastings. (2) An edge or border, frequently used in scientific -language for the boundary of a surface. It is thus used of the edge of -the disk of the sun or moon, of the expanded part of a petal or sepal in -botany, &c. This word is a shortened form of "limbo" or "limbus," Lat. -for an edge, for the theological use of which see LIMBUS. - - - - -LIMBACH, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, in the manufacturing district -of Chemnitz, 6 m. N.W. of that city. Pop. (1905) 13,723. It has a public -park and a monument to the composer Pache. Its industries include the -making of worsteds, cloth, silk and sewing-machines, and dyeing and -bleaching. - - - - -LIMBER, an homonymous word, having three meanings. (1) A two-wheeled -carriage forming a detachable part of the equipment of all guns on -travelling carriages and having on it a framework to contain ammunition -boxes, and, in most cases, seats for two or three gunners. The French -equivalent is _avant-train_, the Ger. _Protz_ (see ARTILLERY and -ORDNANCE). (2) An adjective meaning pliant or flexible and so used with -reference to a person's mental or bodily qualities, quick, nimble, -adroit. (3) A nautical term for the holes cut in the flooring in a ship -above the keelson, to allow water to drain to the pumps. - - The etymology of these words is obscure. According to the _New English - Dictionary_ the origin of (1) is to be found in the Fr. _limoniere_, a - derivative of _limon_, the shaft of a vehicle, a meaning which appears - in English from the 15th century but is now obsolete, except - apparently among the miners of the north of England. The earlier - English forms of the word are _lymor_ or _limmer_. Skeat suggests that - (2) is connected with "limp," which he refers to a Teutonic base - _lap_-, meaning to hang down. The _New English Dictionary_ points out - that while "limp" does not occur till the beginning of the 18th - century, "limber" in this sense is found as early as the 16th. In - Thomas Cooper's (1517?-1594) _Thesaurus Linguae Romanae et - Britannicae_ (1565), it appears as the English equivalent of the Latin - _lentus_. A possible derivation connects it with "limb." - - - - -LIMBORCH, PHILIPP VAN (1633-1712), Dutch Remonstrant theologian, was -born on the 19th of June 1633, at Amsterdam, where his father was a -lawyer. He received his education at Utrecht, at Leiden, in his native -city, and finally at Utrecht University, which he entered in 1652. In -1657 he became a Remonstrant pastor at Gouda, and in 1667 he was -transferred to Amsterdam, where, in the following year, the office of -professor of theology in the Remonstrant seminary was added to his -pastoral charge. He was a friend of John Locke. He died at Amsterdam on -the 30th of April 1712. - - His most important work, _Institutiones theologiae christianae, ad - praxin pietatis et promotionem pacis christianae unice directae_ - (Amsterdam, 1686, 5th ed., 1735), is a full and clear exposition of - the system of Simon Episcopius and Stephan Curcellaeus. The fourth - edition (1715) included a posthumous "Relatio historica de origine et - progressu controversiarum in foederato Belgio de praedestinatione." - Limborch also wrote _De veritate religionis Christianae amica collatio - cum erudito Judaeo_ (Gouda, 1687); _Historia Inquisitionis_ (1692), in - four books prefixed to the "Liber Sententiarum Inquisitionis - Tolosanae" (1307-1323); and _Commentarius in Acta Apostolorum et in - Epistolas ad Romanos et ad Hebraeos_ (Rotterdam, 1711). His editorial - labours included the publication of various works of his predecessors, - and of _Epistolae ecclesiasticae praestantium ac eruditorum virorum_ - (Amsterdam, 1684), chiefly by Jakobus Arminius, Joannes Uytenbogardus, - Konrad Vorstius (1569-1622), Gerhard Vossius (1577-1649), Hugo - Grotius, Simon Episcopius (his grand-uncle) and Gaspar Barlaeus; they - are of great value for the history of Arminianism. An English - translation of the Theologia was published in 1702 by William Jones - (_A Complete System or Body of Divinity, both Speculative and - Practical, founded on Scripture and Reason_, London, 1702); and a - translation of the _Historia Inquisitionis_, by Samuel Chandler, with - "a large introduction concerning the rise and progress of persecution - and the real and pretended causes of it" prefixed, appeared in 1731. - See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_. - - - - -LIMBURG, one of the many small feudal states into which the duchy of -Lower Lorraine was split up in the second half of the 11th century. The -first count, Walram of Arlon, married Judith the daughter of Frederick -of Luxemburg, duke of Lower Lorraine (d. 1065), who bestowed upon him a -portion of his possessions lying upon both sides of the river Meuse. It -received its name from the strong castle built by Count Walram on the -river Vesdre, where the town of Limburg now stands. Henry, Walram's son -(d. 1119), was turbulent and ambitious. On the death of Godfrey of -Bouillon (1089) he forced the emperor Henry IV. to recognize him as duke -of Lower Lorraine. He was afterwards deposed and imprisoned by Count -Godfrey of Louvain on whom the ducal title had been bestowed by the -emperor Henry V. (1106). For three generations the possession of the -ducal title was disputed between the rival houses of Limburg and -Louvain. At length a reconciliation took place (1155); the name of duke -of Lower Lorraine henceforth disappears, the rulers of the territory on -the Meuse become dukes of Limburg, those of the larger territory to the -west dukes of Brabant. With the death of Duke Walram IV. (1280) the -succession passed to his daughter, Irmingardis, who was married to -Reinald I., count of Guelders. Irmingardis died without issue (1282), -and her cousin, Count Adolph of Berg, laid claim to the duchy. His -rights were disputed by Reinald, who was in possession and was -recognized by the emperor. Too weak to assert his claim by force of arms -Adolph sold his rights (1283) to John, duke of Brabant (q.v.). This led -to a long and desolating war for five years, at the end of which (1288), -finding the power of Brabant superior to his own Reinald in his turn -sold his rights to count Henry III. of Luxemburg. Henry and Reinald, -supported by the archbishop of Cologne and other allies, now raised a -great army. The rival forces met at Woeringen (5th of June 1288) and -John of Brabant (q.v.) gained a complete victory. It proved decisive, -the duchies of Limburg and Brabant passing under the rule of a common -sovereign. The duchy comprised during this period the bailiwicks of -Herve, Montzen, Baelen, Sprimont and Wallhorn, and the counties of -Rolduc, Daelhem and Falkenberg, to which was added in 1530 the town of -Maastricht. The provisions and privileges of the famous Charter of -Brabant, the _Joyeuse Entree_ (q.v.), were from the 15th century -extended to Limburg and remained in force until the French Revolution. -By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the duchy was divided into two -portions, the counties of Daelhem and Falkenberg with the town of -Maastricht being ceded by Spain to the United Provinces, where they -formed what was known as a "Generality-Land." At the peace of Rastatt -(1714) the southern portion passed under the dominion of the Austrian -Habsburgs and formed part of the Austrian Netherlands until the French -conquest in 1794. During the period of French rule (1794-1814) Limburg -was included in the two French departments of Ourthe and Meuse -Inferieure. In 1814 the old name of Limburg was restored to one of the -provinces of the newly created kingdom of the Netherlands, but the new -Limburg comprised besides the ancient duchy, a piece of Gelderland and -the county of Looz. At the revolution of 1830 Limburg, with the -exception of Maastricht, threw in its lot with the Belgians, and during -the nine years that King William refused to recognize the existence of -the kingdom of Belgium the Limburgers sent representatives to the -legislature at Brussels and were treated as Belgians. When in 1839 the -Dutch king suddenly announced his intention of accepting the terms of -the settlement proposed by the treaty of London, as drawn up by -representatives of the great powers in 1831, Belgium found herself -compelled to relinquish portions of Limburg and Luxemburg. The part of -Limburg that lay on the right bank of the Meuse, together with the town -of Maastricht and a number of communes--Weert, Haelen, Kepel, Horst, -&c.--on the left bank of the river, became a sovereign duchy under the -rule of the king of Holland. In exchange for the cession of the rights -of the Germanic confederation over the portion of Luxemburg, which was -annexed by the treaty to Belgium, the duchy of Limburg (excepting the -communes of Maastricht and Venloo) was declared to belong to the -Germanic confederation. This somewhat unsatisfactory condition of -affairs continued until 1866, when at a conference of the great powers, -held in London to consider the Luxemburg question (see LUXEMBURG), it -was agreed that Limburg should be freed from every political tie with -Germany. Limburg became henceforth an integral part of Dutch territory. - - See P. S. Ernst, _Histoire du Limbourg_ (7 vols., Liege, 1837-1852); - C. J. Luzac, _De Landen van Overmuze in Zonderheid 1662_ (Leiden, - 1888); M. J. de Poully, _Histoire de Maastricht et de ses environs_ - (1850); _Diplomaticke bescheiden betreffends de Limburg-Luxemburgsche - aangelegenheden 1866-1867_ (The Hague, 1868); and R. Fruin, _Geschied. - der Staats-Instellingen in Nederland_ (The Hague, 1901). (G. E.) - - - - -LIMBURG, or LIMBOURG, the smallest of the nine provinces of Belgium, -occupying the north-east corner of the kingdom. It represents only a -portion of the ancient duchy of Limburg (see above). The part east of -the Meuse was transferred to Holland by the London conference, and a -further portion was attached to the province of Liege including the old -capital now called Dolhain. Much of the province is represented by the -wild heath district called the Campine, recently discovered to form an -extensive coal-field. The operations for working it were only begun in -1906. North-west of Hasselt is Beverloo, where all the Belgian troops go -through a course of instruction annually. Among the towns are Hasselt, -the capital, St Trond and Looz. From the last named is derived the title -of the family known as the dukes of Looz, whose antiquity equals that of -the extinct reigning family of Limburg itself. The title of duc de Looz -is one of the four existing ducal titles in the Netherlands, the other -three being d'Arenberg, Croy and d'Ursel. Limburg contains 603,085 acres -or 942 sq. m. In 1904 the population was 255,359, giving an average of -271 per sq. m. - - - - -LIMBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on -the Lahn, here crossed by a bridge dating from 1315, and on the main -line of railway from Coblenz to Lollar and Cassel, with a branch to -Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 9917. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic -bishop. The small seven-towered cathedral, dedicated to St George the -martyr, is picturesquely situated on a rocky site overhanging the -river. This was founded by Conrad Kurzbold, count of Niederlahngau, -early in the 10th century, and was consecrated in 1235. It was restored -in 1872-1878. Limburg has a castle, a new town hall and a seminary for -the education of priests; its industries include the manufacture of -cloth, tobacco, soap, machinery, pottery and leather. Limburg, which was -a flourishing place during the middle ages, had its own line of counts -until 1414, when it was purchased by the elector of Trier. It passed to -Nassau in 1803. In September 1796 it was the scene of a victory gained -by the Austrians under the archduke Charles over the French. - - See Hillebrand, _Limburg an der Lahn unter Pfandherrschaft 1344-1624_ - (Wiesbaden, 1899). - - - - -LIMBURG, the south-easternmost and smallest province of Holland, bounded -N. by Gelderland, N.W. by North Brabant, S.W. by the Belgian province of -Limburg, and S. by that of Liege, and E. by Germany. Its area is 850 sq. -m., and its population in 1900 was 281,934. It is watered by the Meuse -(Maas) which forms part of its south-western boundary (with Belgium) and -then flows through its northern portion, and by such tributaries as the -Geul and Roer (Ruhr). Its capital is Maastricht, which gives name to one -of the two administrative districts into which it is divided, the other -being Roermond. - - - - -LIMBURG CHRONICLE, or FESTI LIMPURGENSES, the name of a German chronicle -written most probably by Tileman Elhen von Wolfhagen after 1402. It is a -source for the history of the Rhineland between 1336 and 1398, but is -perhaps more valuable for the information about German manners and -customs, and the old German folk-songs and stories which it contains. It -has also a certain philological interest. - - The chronicle was first published by J. F. Faust in 1617, and has been - edited by A. Wyss for the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Deutsche - Chroniken_, Band iv. (Hanover, 1883). See A. Wyss, _Die Limburger - Chronik untersucht_ (Marburg, 1875). - - - - -LIMBURGITE, in petrology, a dark-coloured volcanic rock resembling -basalt in appearance, but containing normally no felspar. The name is -taken from Limburg (Germany), where they occur in the well-known rock of -the Kaiserstuhl. They consist essentially of olivine and augite with a -brownish glassy ground mass. The augite may be green, but more commonly -is brown or violet; the olivine is usually pale green or colourless, but -is sometimes yellow (hyalosiderite). In the ground mass a second -generation of small eumorphic augites frequently occurs; more rarely -olivine is present also as an ingredient of the matrix. The principal -accessory minerals are titaniferous iron oxides and apatite. Felspar -though sometimes present is never abundant, and nepheline also is -unusual. In some limburgites large phenocysts of dark brown hornblende -and biotite are found, mostly with irregular borders blackened by -resorption; in others there are large crystals of soda orthoclase or -anorthoclase. Hauyne is an ingredient of some of the limburgites of the -Cape Verde Islands. Rocks of this group occur in considerable numbers in -Germany (Rhine district) and in Bohemia, also in Scotland, Auvergne, -Spain, Africa (Kilimanjaro), Brazil, &c. They are associated principally -with basalts, nepheline and leucite basalts and monchiquites. From the -last-named rocks the limburgites are not easily separated as the two -classes bear a very close resemblance in structure and in mineral -composition, though many authorities believe that the ground mass of the -monchiquites is not a glass but crystalline analcite. Limburgites may -occur as flows, as sills or dykes, and are sometimes highly vesicular. -Closely allied to them are the _augitites_, which are distinguished only -by the absence of olivine; examples are known from Bohemia, Auvergne, -the Canary Islands, Ireland, &c. - - - - -LIMBUS (Lat. for "edge," "fringe," e.g. of a garment), a theological -term denoting the border of hell, where dwell those who, while not -condemned to torture, yet are deprived of the joy of heaven. The more -common form in English is "limbo," which is used both in the technical -theological sense and derivatively in the sense of "prison," or for the -condition of being lost, deserted, obsolete. In theology there are (1) -the _Limbus Infantum_, and (2) the _Limbus Patrum_. - -1. The _Limbus Infantum_ or _Puerorum_ is the abode to which human -beings dying without actual sin, but with their original sin unwashed -away by baptism, were held to be consigned; the category included, not -unbaptized infants merely, but also idiots, cretins and the like. The -word "limbus," in the theological application, occurs first in the -_Summa_ of Thomas Aquinas; for its extensive currency it is perhaps most -indebted to the _Commedia_ of Dante (_Inf._ c. 4). The question as to -the destiny of infants dying unbaptized presented itself to theologians -at a comparatively early period. Generally speaking it may be said that -the Greek fathers inclined to a cheerful and the Latin fathers to a -gloomy view. Thus Gregory of Nazianzus (_Orat._ 40) says "that such -children as die unbaptized without their own fault shall neither be -glorified nor punished by the righteous Judge, as having done no -wickedness, though they die unbaptized, and as rather suffering loss -than being the authors of it." Similar opinions were expressed by -Gregory of Nyssa, Severus of Antioch and others--opinions which it is -almost impossible to distinguish from the Pelagian view that children -dying unbaptized might be admitted to eternal life, though not to the -kingdom of God. In his recoil from Pelagian heresy, Augustine was -compelled to sharpen the antithesis between the state of the saved and -that of the lost, and taught that there are only two alternatives--to be -with Christ or with the devil, to be with Him or against Him. Following -up, as he thought, his master's teaching, Fulgentius declared that it is -to be believed as an indubitable truth that, "not only men who have come -to the use of reason, but infants dying, whether in their mother's womb -or after birth, without baptism in the name of the Father, Son and Holy -Ghost, are punished with everlasting punishment in eternal fire." Later -theologians and schoolmen followed Augustine in rejecting the notion of -any final position intermediate between heaven and hell, but otherwise -inclined to take the mildest possible view of the destiny of the -irresponsible and unbaptized. Thus the proposition of Innocent III. that -"the punishment of original sin is deprivation of the vision of God" is -practically repeated by Aquinas, Scotus, and all the other great -theologians of the scholastic period, the only outstanding exception -being that of Gregory of Rimini, who on this account was afterwards -called "tortor infantum." The first authoritative declaration of the -Latin Church upon this subject was that made by the second council of -Lyons (1274), and confirmed by the council of Florence (1439), with the -concurrence of the representatives of the Greek Church, to the effect -that "the souls of those who die in mortal sin or in original sin only -forthwith descend into hell, but to be punished with unequal -punishments." Perrone remarks (_Prael. Theol._ pt. iii. chap. 6, art. 4) -that the damnation of infants and also the comparative lightness of the -punishment involved in this are thus _de fide_; but nothing is -determined as to the place which they occupy in hell, as to what -constitutes the disparity of their punishment, or as to their condition -after the day of judgment. In the council of Trent there was -considerable difference of opinion as to what was implied in deprivation -of the vision of God, and no definition was attempted, the Dominicans -maintaining the severer view that the "limbus infantum" was a dark -subterranean fireless chamber, while the Franciscans placed it in a -region of light above the earth. Some theologians continue to maintain -with Bellarmine that the infants "in limbo" are affected with some -degree of sadness on account of a felt privation; others, following the -_Nodus praedestinationis_ of Celestine Sfrondati (1649-1696), hold that -they enjoy every kind of natural felicity, as regards their souls now, -and as regards their bodies after the resurrection, just as if Adam had -not sinned. In the condemnation (1794) of the synod of Pistoia (1786), -the twenty-sixth article declares it to be false, rash and injurious to -treat as Pelagian the doctrine that those dying in original sin are not -punished with fire, as if that meant that there is an intermediate -place, free from fault and punishment, between the kingdom of God and -everlasting damnation. - -2. The _Limbus Patrum_, _Limbus Inferni_ or _Sinus Abrahae_ ("Abraham's -Bosom"), is defined in Roman Catholic theology as the place in the -underworld where the saints of the Old Testament were confined until -liberated by Christ on his "descent into hell." Regarding the locality -and its pleasantness or painfulness nothing has been taught as _de -fide_. It is sometimes regarded as having been closed and empty since -Christ's descent, but other authors do not think of it as separate in -place from the _limbus infantum_. The whole idea, in the Latin Church, -has been justly described as the mere _caput mortuum_ of the old -catholic doctrine of Hades, which was gradually superseded in the West -by that of purgatory. - - - - -LIME (O. Eng. _lim_, Lat. _limus_, mud, from _linere_, to smear), the -name given to a viscous exudation of the holly-tree, used for snaring -birds and known as "bird-lime." In chemistry, it is the popular name of -calcium oxide, CaO, a substance employed in very early times as a -component of mortars and cementing materials. It is prepared by the -burning of limestone (a process described by Dioscorides and Pliny) in -kilns similar to those described under CEMENT. The value and subsequent -treatment of the product depend on the purity of the limestone; a pure -stone yields a "fat" lime which readily slakes; an impure stone, -especially if magnesia be present, yields an almost unslakable "poor" -lime. See CEMENT, CONCRETE and MORTAR, for details. - -Pure calcium oxide "quick-lime," obtained by heating the pure carbonate, -is a white amorphous substance, which can be readily melted and boiled -in the electric furnace, cubic and acicular crystals being deposited on -cooling the vapour. It combines with water, evolving much heat and -crumbling to pieces; this operation is termed "slaking" and the -resulting product "slaked lime"; it is chemically equivalent to the -conversion of the oxide into hydrate. A solution of the hydrate in -water, known as lime-water, has a weakly alkaline reaction; it is -employed in the detection of carbonic acid. "Milk of lime" consists of a -cream of the hydrate and water. Dry lime has no action upon chlorine, -carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide, although in the presence of water -combination ensues. - -In medicine lime-water, applied externally, is an astringent and -desiccative, and it enters into the preparation of linamentum calcis and -carron oil which are employed to heal burns, eczema, &c. Applied -internally, lime-water is an antacid; it prevents the curdling of milk -in large lumps (hence its prescription for infants); it also acts as a -gastric sedative. Calcium phosphate is much employed in treating -rickets, and calcium chloride in haemoptysis and haemophylia. It is an -antidote for mineral and oxalic acid poisoning. - - - - -LIME,[1] or LINDEN. The lime trees, species of _Tilia_, are familiar -timber trees with sweet-scented, honeyed flowers, which are borne on a -common peduncle proceeding from the middle of a long bract. The genus, -which gives the name to the natural order Tiliaceae, contains about ten -species of trees, natives of the north temperate zone. The general name -_Tilia europaea_, the name given by Linnaeus to the European lime, -includes several well-marked sub-species, often regarded as distinct -species. These are: (1) the small-leaved lime, _T. parvifolia_ (or _T. -cordata_), probably wild in woods in England and also wild throughout -Europe, except in the extreme south-east, and Russian Asia. (2) _T. -intermedia_, the common lime, which is widely planted in Britain but not -wild there, has a less northerly distribution than _T. cordata_, from -which it differs in its somewhat larger leaves and downy fruit. (3) The -large-leaved lime, _T. platyphyllos_ (or _T. grandifolia_), occurs only -as an introduction in Britain, and is wild in Europe south of Denmark. -It differs from the other two limes in its larger leaves, often 4 in. -across, which are downy beneath, its downy twigs and its prominently -ribbed fruit. The lime sometimes acquires a great size; one is recorded -in Norfolk as being 16 yds. in circumference, and Ray mentions one of -the same girth. The famous linden tree which gave the town of Neuenstadt -in Wurttemberg the name of "_Neuenstadt an der grossen Linden_" was 9 -ft. in diameter. - -The lime is a very favourite tree. It is an object of beauty in the -spring when the delicately transparent green leaves are bursting from -the protection of the pink and white stipules, which have formed the -bud-scales, and retains its fresh green during early summer. Later, the -fragrance of its flowers, rich in honey, attracts innumerable bees; in -the autumn the foliage becomes a clear yellow but soon falls. Among the -many famous avenues of limes may be mentioned that which gave the name -to one of the best-known ways in Berlin, "Unter den Linden," and the -avenue at Trinity College, Cambridge. - - The economic value of the tree chiefly lies in the inner bark or liber - (Lat. for bark), called bast, and the wood. The former was used for - paper and mats and for tying garlands by the ancients (_Od._ i. 38; - Pliny xvi. 14. 25, xxiv. 8. 33). Bast mats are now made chiefly in - Russia, the bark being cut in long strips, when the liber is easily - separable from the corky superficial layer. It is then plaited into - mats about 2 yds. square; 14,000,000 come to Britain annually, chiefly - from Archangel. The wood is used by carvers, being soft and light, and - by architects in framing the models of buildings. Turners use it for - light bowls, &c. _T. americana_ (bass-wood) is one of the most common - trees in the forests of Canada and extends into the eastern and - southern United States. It is sawn into lumber and under the name of - white-wood used in the manufacture of wooden ware, cheap furniture, - &c., and also for paper pulp (C. S. Sargent, _Silva of North - America_). It was cultivated by Philip Miller at Chelsea in 1752. - - The common lime was well known to the ancients. Theophrastus says the - leaves are sweet and used for fodder for most kinds of cattle. Pliny - alludes to the use of the liber and wood, and describes the tree as - growing in the mountain-valleys of Italy (xvi. 30). See also Virg. - _Geo._ i. 173, &c.; Ov. _Met._ viii. 621, x. 92. Allusion to the - lightness of the wood is made in Aristoph. _Birds_, 1378. - - For the sweet lime (_Citrus Limetta_ or _Citrus acida_) and - lime-juice, see LEMON. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] This is an altered form of O. Eng. and M. Eng. _lind_; cf. Ger. - _Linde_, cognate with Gr. [Greek: elate], the silver fir. "Linden" in - English means properly "made of lime--or lind--wood," and the - transference to the tree is due to the Ger. _Lindenbaum_. - - - - -LIMERICK, a western county of Ireland, in the province of Munster, -bounded N. by the estuary of the Shannon and the counties of Clare and -Tipperary, E. by Tipperary, S. by Cork and W. by Kerry. The area is -680,842 acres, or about 1064 sq. m. The greater part of the county is -comparatively level, but in the south-east the picturesque Galtees, -which extend into Tipperary, attain in Galtymore a height of 3015 ft., -and on the west, stretching into Kerry, there is a circular amphitheatre -of less elevated mountains. The Shannon is navigable for large vessels -to Limerick, above which are the rapids of Doonas and Castleroy, and a -canal. The Shannon is widely famous as a sporting river, and -Castleconnell is a well-known centre. The Maigne, which rises in the -Galtees and flows into the Shannon, is navigable as far as the town of -Adare. - - This is mainly a Carboniferous Limestone county, with fairly level - land, broken by ridges of Old Red Sandstone. On the north-east, the - latter rock rises on Slievefelim, round a Silurian core, to 1523 ft. - In the south, Old Red Sandstone rises above an enclosed area of - Silurian shales at Ballylanders, the opposite scarp of Old Red - Sandstone forming the Ballyhoura Hills on the Cork border. Volcanic - ashes, andesites, basalts and intrusive sheets of basic rock, mark an - eruptive episode in the Carboniferous Limestone. These are well seen - under Carrigogunnell Castle, and in a ring of hills round Ballybrood. - At Ballybrood, Upper Carboniferous beds occur, as an outlier of a - large area that links the west of the county with the north of Kerry. - The coals in the west are not of commercial value. Lead-ore has been - worked in places in the limestone. - - Limerick includes the greater part of the Golden Vale, the most - fertile district of Ireland, which stretches from Cashel in Tipperary - nearly to the town of Limerick. Along the banks of the Shannon there - are large tracts of flat meadow land formed of deposits of calcareous - and peaty matter, exceedingly fertile. The soil in the mountainous - districts is for the most part thin and poor, and incapable of - improvement. The large farms occupy the low grounds, and are almost - wholly devoted to grazing. The acreage under tillage decreases, the - proportion to pasturage being as one to nearly three. All the crops - (of which oats and potatoes are the principal) show a decrease, but - there is a growing acreage of meadow land. The numbers of live stock, - on the other hand, are on the whole well maintained, and cattle, - sheep, pigs, goats and poultry are all extensively reared. The - inhabitants are employed chiefly in agriculture, but coarse woollens - are manufactured, and also paper, and there are many meal and flour - mills. Formerly there were flax-spinning and weaving mills, but the - industry is now practically extinct. Limerick is the headquarters of - an important salmon-fishery on the Shannon. The railway communications - are entirely included in the Great Southern and Western system, whose - main line crosses the south-eastern corner of the county, with two - branches to the city of Limerick from Limerick Junction and from - Charleville, and lines from Limerick south-westward to Tralee in - county Kerry, and to Foynes on the Shannon estuary. Limerick is also - served by a line from the north through county Tipperary. The port of - Limerick, at the head of the estuary, is the most important on the - west coast. - - The county includes 14 baronies. The number of members returned to the - Irish parliament was eight, two being returned for each of the - boroughs of Askeaton and Kilmallock, in addition to two returned for - the county, and two for the county of the city of Limerick. The - present county parliamentary divisions are the east and west, each - returning one member. The population (158,912 in 1891, 146,098 in - 1901) shows a decrease somewhat under the average of the Irish - counties generally, emigration being, however, extensive; of the total - about 94% are Roman Catholics, and about 73% are rural. The chief - towns are Limerick (pop. 38,151), Rathkeale (1749) and Newcastle or - Newcastle West (2599). The city of Limerick constitutes a county in - itself. Assizes are held at Limerick, and quarter-sessions at Bruff, - Limerick, Newcastle and Rathkeale. The county is divided between the - Protestant dioceses of Cashel, Killaloe and Limerick; and between the - Roman Catholic dioceses of the same names. - -Limerick was included in the kingdom of Thomond. Afterwards it had a -separate existence under the name of Aine-Cliach. From the 8th to the -11th century it was partly occupied by the Danes (see LIMERICK, City). -As a county, Limerick is one of the twelve generally considered to owe -their formation to King John. By Henry II. it was granted to Henry -Fitzherbert, but his claim was afterwards resigned, and subsequently -various Anglo-Norman settlements were made. About 100,000 acres of the -estates of the earl of Desmond, which were forfeited in 1586, were -situated in the county, and other extensive confiscations took place -after the Cromwellian wars. In 1709 a German colony from the Palatinate -was settled by Lord Southwell near Bruff, Rathkeale and Adare. - -There are only slight remains of the round tower at Ardpatrick, but that -at Dysert is much better preserved; another at Kilmallock is in great -part a reconstruction. There are important remains of stone circles, -pillar stones and altars at Loch Gur. In several places there are -remains of old moats and tumuli. Besides the monasteries in the city of -Limerick, the most important monastic ruins are those of Adare abbey, -Askeaton abbey, Galbally friary, Kilflin monastery, Kilmallock and -Monaster-Nenagh abbey. - - - - -LIMERICK, a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough, port and the -chief town of Co. Limerick, Ireland, occupying both banks and an island -(King's Island) of the river Shannon, at the head of its estuary, 129 m. -W.S.W. of Dublin by the Great Southern and Western railway. Pop. (1901) -38,151. The situation is striking, for the Shannon is here a broad and -noble stream, and the immediately surrounding country consists of the -rich lowlands of its valley, while beyond rise the hills of the counties -Clare and Tipperary. The city is divided into English Town (on King's -Island), Irish Town and Newtown Pery, the first including the ancient -nucleus of the city, and the last the principal modern streets. The main -stream of the Shannon is crossed by Thomond Bridge and Sarsfield or -Wellesley Bridge. The first is commanded by King John's Castle, on -King's Island, a fine Norman fortress fronting the river, and used as -barracks. At the west end of the bridge is preserved the Treaty Stone, -on which the Treaty of Limerick was signed in 1691. The cathedral of St -Mary, also on King's Island, was originally built in 1142-1180, and -exhibits some Early English work, though largely altered at dates -subsequent to that period. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St John is a -modern building (1860) in early pointed style. The churches of St -Munchin (to whom is attributed the foundation of the see in the 6th -century) and St John, Whitamore's Castle and a Dominican priory, are -other remains of antiquarian interest; while the principal city and -county buildings are a chamber of commerce, a custom house commanding -the river, and court house, town hall and barracks. A picturesque public -park adjoins the railway station in Newtown Pery. - -The port is the most important on the west coast, and accommodates -vessels of 3000 tons in a floating dock; there is also a graving dock. -Communication with the Atlantic is open and secure, while a vast network -of inland navigation is opened up by a canal avoiding the rapids above -the city. Quays extend for about 1600 yds. on each side of the river, -and vessels of 600 tons can moor alongside at spring tides. The -principal imports are grain, sugar, timber and coal. The exports consist -mainly of agricultural produce. The principal industrial establishments -include flour-mills (Limerick supplying most of the west of Ireland with -flour), factories for bacon-curing and for condensed milk and -creameries. Some brewing, distilling and tanning are carried on, and the -manufacture of very beautiful lace is maintained at the Convent of the -Good Shepherd; but a formerly important textile industry has lapsed. The -salmon fisheries of the Shannon, for which Limerick is the headquarters -of a district, are the most valuable in Ireland. The city is governed by -a corporation, and the parliamentary borough returns one member. - -Limerick is said to have been the _Regia_ of Ptolemy and the -_Rosse-de-Nailleagh_ of the Annals of Multifernan. There is a tradition -that it was visited by St Patrick in the 5th century, but it is first -authentically known as a settlement of the Danes, who sacked it in 812 -and afterwards made it the principal town of their kingdom of Limerick, -but were expelled from it towards the close of the 10th century by Brian -Boroimhe. From 1106 till its conquest by the English in 1174 it was the -seat of the kings of Thomond or North Munster, and, although in 1179 the -kingdom of Limerick was given by Henry II. to Herbert Fitzherbert, the -city was frequently in the possession of the Irish chieftains till 1195. -Richard I. granted it a charter in 1197. By King John it was committed -to the care of William de Burgo, who founded English Town, and for its -defence erected a strong castle. The city was frequently besieged in the -13th and 14th centuries. In the 15th century its fortifications were -extended to include Irish Town, and until their demolition in 1760 it -was one of the strongest fortresses of the kingdom. In 1651 it was taken -by General Ireton, and after an unsuccessful siege by William III. in -1690 its resistance was terminated on the 3rd of October of the -following year by the treaty of Limerick. The dismantling of its -fortifications began in 1760, but fragments of the old walls remain. The -original municipal rights of the city had been confirmed and extended by -a succession of sovereigns, and in 1609 it received a charter -constituting it a county of a city, and also incorporating a society of -merchants of the staple, with the same privileges as the merchants of -the staple of Dublin and Waterford. The powers of the corporation were -remodelled by the Limerick Regulation Act of 1823. The prosperity of the -city dates chiefly from the foundation of Newtown Pery in 1769 by Edmund -Sexton Pery (d. 1806), speaker of the Irish House of Commons, whose -family subsequently received the title of the earldom of Limerick. Under -the Local Government Act of 1898 Limerick became one of the six county -boroughs having a separate county council. - - - - -LIMERICK, a name which has been adopted to distinguish a certain form of -verse which began to be cultivated in the middle of the 19th century. A -limerick is a kind of burlesque epigram, written in five lines. In its -earlier form it had two rhymes, the word which closed the first or -second line being usually employed at the end of the fifth, but in later -varieties different rhyming words are employed. There is much -uncertainty as to the meaning of the name, and as to the time when it -became attached to a particular species of nonsense verses. According to -the _New Eng. Dict._ "a song has existed in Ireland for a very -considerable time, the construction of the verse of which is identical -with that of Lear's" (see below), and in which the invitation is -repeated, "Will you come up to Limerick?" Unfortunately, the specimen -quoted in the _New Eng. Dict._ is not only not identical with, but does -not resemble Lear's. Whatever be the derivation of the name, however, it -is now universally used to describe a set of verses formed on this -model, with the variations in rhyme noted above:-- - - "There was an old man who said 'Hush! - I perceive a young bird in that bush!' - When they said, 'Is it small?' - He replied, 'Not at all! - It is five times the size of the bush.'" - -The invention, or at least the earliest general use of this form, is -attributed to Edward Lear, who, when a tutor in the family of the earl -of Derby at Knowsley, composed, about 1834, a large number of -nonsense-limericks to amuse the little grandchildren of the house. Many -of these he published, with illustrations, in 1846, and they enjoyed and -still enjoy an extreme popularity. Lear preferred to give a geographical -colour to his absurdities, as in:-- - - "There was an old person of Tartary - Who cut through his jugular artery, - When up came his wife, - And exclaimed, 'O my Life, - How your loss will be felt through all Tartary!'" - -but this is by no means essential. The neatness of the form has led to a -very extensive use of the limerick for all sorts of mock-serious -purposes, political, social and sarcastic, and a good many specimens -have achieved a popularity which has been all the wider because they -have, perforce, been confined to verbal transmission. In recent years -competitions of the "missing word" type have had considerable vogue, the -competitor, for instance, having to supply the last line of the -limerick. - - - - -LIMES GERMANICUS. The Latin noun _limes_ denoted generally a path, -sometimes a boundary path (possibly its original sense) or boundary, and -hence it was utilized by Latin writers occasionally to denote frontiers -definitely delimited and marked in some distinct fashion. This latter -sense has been adapted and extended by modern historians concerned with -the frontiers of the Roman Empire. Thus the Wall of Hadrian in north -England (see BRITAIN: _Roman_) is now sometimes styled the _Limes -Britannicus_, the frontier of the Roman province of Arabia facing the -desert the _Limes Arabicus_ and so forth. In particular the remarkable -frontier lines which bounded the Roman provinces of Upper (southern) -Germany and Raetia, and which at their greatest development stretched -from near Bonn on the Rhine to near Regensburg on the Danube, are often -called the _Limes Germanicus_. The history of these lines is the subject -of the following paragraphs. They have in the last fifteen years become -much better known through systematic excavations financed by the German -empire and through other researches connected therewith, and though many -important details are still doubtful, their general development can be -traced. - -From the death of Augustus (A.D. 14) till after A.D. 70 Rome accepted as -her German frontier the water-boundary of the Rhine and upper Danube. -Beyond these rivers she held only the fertile plain of Frankfort, -opposite the Roman border fortress of Moguntiacum (Mainz), the -southernmost slopes of the Black Forest and a few scattered -tetes-du-pont. The northern section of this frontier, where the Rhine is -deep and broad, remained the Roman boundary till the empire fell. The -southern part was different. The upper Rhine and upper Danube are easily -crossed. The frontier which they form is inconveniently long, enclosing -an acute-angled wedge of foreign territory--the modern Baden and -Wurttemberg. The German populations of these lands seem in Roman times -to have been scanty, and Roman subjects from the modern Alsace and -Lorraine had drifted across the river eastwards. The motives alike of -geographical convenience and of the advantages to be gained by -recognizing these movements of Roman subjects combined to urge a forward -policy at Rome, and when the vigorous Vespasian had succeeded the -fool-criminal Nero, a series of advances began which gradually closed up -the acute angle, or at least rendered it obtuse. - -The first advance came about 74, when what is now Baden was invaded and -in part annexed and a road carried from the Roman base on the upper -Rhine, Strassburg, to the Danube just above Ulm. The point of the angle -was broken off. The second advance was made by Domitian about A.D. 83. -He pushed out from Moguntiacum, extended the Roman territory east of it -and enclosed the whole within a systematically delimited and defended -frontier with numerous blockhouses along it and larger forts in the -rear. Among the blockhouses was one which by various enlargements and -refoundations grew into the well-known Saalburg fort on the Taunus near -Homburg. This advance necessitated a third movement, the construction -of a frontier connecting the annexations of A.D. 74 and 83. We know the -line of this frontier which ran from the Main across the upland Odenwald -to the upper waters of the Neckar and was defended by a chain of forts. -We do not, however, know its date, save that, if not Domitian's work, it -was carried out soon after his death, and the whole frontier thus -constituted was reorganized, probably by Hadrian, with a continuous -wooden palisade reaching from Rhine to Danube. The angle between the -rivers was now almost full. But there remained further advance and -further fortification. Either Hadrian or, more probably, his successor -Pius pushed out from the Odenwald and the Danube, and marked out a new -frontier roughly parallel to but in advance of these two lines, though -sometimes, as on the Taunus, coinciding with the older line. This is the -frontier which is now visible and visited by the curious. It consists, -as we see it to-day, of two distinct frontier works, one, known as the -Pfahlgraben, is an earthen mound and ditch, best seen in the -neighbourhood of the Saalburg but once extending from the Rhine -southwards into southern Germany. The other, which begins where the -earthwork stops, is a wall, though not a very formidable wall, of stone, -the Teufelsmauer; it runs roughly east and west parallel to the Danube, -which it finally joins at Heinheim near Regensburg. The Pfahlgraben is -remarkable for the extraordinary directness of its southern part, which -for over 50 m. runs mathematically straight and points almost absolutely -true for the Polar star. It is a clear case of an ancient frontier laid -out in American fashion. This frontier remained for about 100 years, and -no doubt in that long period much was done to it to which we cannot -affix precise dates. We cannot even be absolutely certain when the -frontier laid out by Pius was equipped with the Pfahlgraben and -Teufelsmauer. But we know that the pressure of the barbarians began to -be felt seriously in the later part of the 2nd century, and after long -struggles the whole or almost the whole district east of Rhine and north -of Danube was lost--seemingly all within one short period--about A.D. -250. - - The best English account will be found in H. F. Pelham's essay in - _Trans. of the Royal Hist. Soc._ vol. 20, reprinted in his _Collected - Papers_, pp. 178-211 (Oxford, 1910), where the German authorities are - fully cited. (F. J. H.) - - - - -LIMESTONE, in petrography, a rock consisting essentially of carbonate of -lime. The group includes many varieties, some of which are very -distinct; but the whole group has certain properties in common, arising -from the chemical composition and mineral character of its members. All -limestones dissolve readily in cold dilute acids, giving off bubbles of -carbonic acid. Citric or acetic acid will effect this change, though the -mineral acids are more commonly employed. Limestones, when pure, are -soft rocks readily scratched with a knife-blade or the edge of a coin, -their hardness being 3; but unless they are earthy or incoherent, like -chalk or sinter, they do not disintegrate by pressure with the fingers -and cannot be scratched with the finger nail. When free from impurities -limestones are white, but they generally contain small quantities of -other minerals than calcite which affect their colour. Many limestones -are yellowish or creamy, especially those which contain a little iron -oxide, iron carbonate or clay. Others are bluish from the presence of -iron sulphide, or pyrites or marcasite; or grey and black from admixture -with carbonaceous or bituminous substances. Red limestones usually -contain haematite; in green limestones there may be glauconite or -chlorite. In crystalline limestones or marbles many silicates may occur -producing varied colours, e.g. epidote, chlorite, augite (green); -vesuvianite and garnet (brown and red); graphite, spinels (black and -grey); epidote, chondrodite (yellow). The specific gravity of limestones -ranges from 2.6 to 2.8 in typical examples. - -When seen in the field, limestones are often recognizable by their -method of weathering. If very pure, they may have smooth rounded -surfaces, or may be covered with narrow runnels cut out by the rain. In -such cases there is very little soil, and plants are found growing only -in fissures or crevices where the insoluble impurities of the limestone -have been deposited by the rain. The less pure rocks have often eroded -or pitted surfaces, showing bands or patches rendered more resistant to -the action of the weather by the presence of insoluble materials such as -sand, clay or chert. These surfaces are often known from the crust of -hydrous oxides of iron produced by the action of the atmosphere on any -ferriferous ingredients of the rock; they are sometimes black when the -limestone is carbonaceous; a thin layer of gritty sand grains may be -left on the surface of limestones which are slightly arenaceous. Most -limestones which contain fossils show these most clearly on weathered -surfaces, and the appearance of fragments of corals, crinoids and shells -on the exposed parts of a rock indicate a strong probability that that -rock is a limestone. The interior usually shows the organic structures -very imperfectly or not at all. - -Another characteristic of pure limestones, where they occur in large -masses occupying considerable areas, is the frequency with which they -produce bare rocky ground, especially at high elevations, or yield only -a thin scanty soil covered with short grass. In mountainous districts -limestones are often recognizable by these peculiarities. The chalk -downs are celebrated for the close green sward which they furnish. More -impure limestones, like those of the Lias and Oolites, contain enough -insoluble mineral matter to yield soils of great thickness and value, -e.g. the Cornbrash. In limestone regions all waters tend to be hard, on -account of the abundant carbonate of lime dissolved by percolating -waters, and caves, swallow holes, sinks, pot-holes and underground -rivers may occur in abundance. Some elevated tracts of limestone are -very barren (e.g. the Causses), because the rain which falls in them -sinks at once into the earth and passes underground. To a large extent -this is true of the chalk downs, where surface waters are notably -scarce, though at considerable depths the rocks hold large supplies of -water. - - The great majority of limestones are of organic formation, consisting - of the debris of the skeletons of animals. Some are foraminiferal, - others are crinoidal, shelly or coral limestones according to the - nature of the creatures whose remains they contain. Of foraminiferal - limestones chalk is probably the best known; it is fine, white and - rather soft, and is very largely made up of the shells of globigerina - and other foraminifera (see CHALK). Almost equally important are the - nummulitic limestones so well developed in Mediterranean countries - (Spain, France, the Alps, Greece, Algeria, Egypt, Asia Minor, &c.). - The pyramids of Egypt are built mainly of nummulitic limestone. - Nummulites are large cone-shaped foraminifera with many chambers - arranged in spiral order. In Britain the small globular shells of - _Saccamina_ are important constituents of some Carboniferous - limestones; but the upper portion of that formation in Russia, eastern - Asia and North America is characterized by the occurrence of - limestones filled with the spindle-shaped shells of _Fusulina_, a - genus of foraminifera now extinct. - - Coral limestones are being formed at the present day over a large - extent of the tropical seas; many existing coral reefs must be of - great thickness. The same process has been going on actively since a - very early period of the earth's history, for similar rocks are found - in great abundance in many geological formations. Some Silurian - limestones are rich in corals; in the Devonian there are deposits - which have been described as coral reefs (Devonshire, Germany). The - Carboniferous limestone, or mountain limestones of England and North - America, is sometimes nearly entirely coralline, and the great - dolomite masses of the Trias in the eastern Alps are believed by many - to be merely altered coral reefs. A special feature of coral - limestones is that, although they may be to a considerable extent - dolomitized, they are generally very free from silt and mechanical - impurities. - - Crinoidal limestones, though abundant among the older rocks, are not - in course of formation on any great scale at the present time, as - crinoids, formerly abundant, are now rare. Many Carboniferous and - Silurian limestones consist mainly of the little cylindrical joints of - these animals. They are easily recognized by their shape, and by the - fact that many of them show a tube along their axes, which is often - filled up by carbonate of lime; under the microscope they have a - punctate or fenestrate structure and each joint behaves as a simple - crystalline plate with uniform optical properties in polarized light. - Remains of other echinoderms (starfishes and sea urchins) are often - found in plenty in Secondary and Tertiary limestones, but very seldom - make up the greater part of the rock. Shelly limestones may consist of - mollusca or of brachiopoda, the former being common in limestones of - all ages while the latter attained their principal development in the - Palaeozoic epoch. The shells are often broken and may have been - reduced to shell sand before the rock consolidated. Many rocks of this - class are impure and pass into marls and shelly sandstones which were - deposited in shallow waters, where land-derived sediment mingled with - remains of the creatures which inhabited the water. Fresh-water - limestones are mostly of this class and contain shells of those - varieties of mollusca which inhabit lakes. Brackish water limestones - also are usually shelly. Corallines (bryozoa, polyzoa, &c.), - cephalopods (e.g. ammonites, belemnites), crustaceans and sponges - occur frequently in limestones. It should be understood that it is not - usual for a rock to be built up entirely of one kind of organism - though it is classified according to its most abundant or most - conspicuous ingredients. - - In the organic limestones there usually occurs much finely granular - calcareous matter which has been described as limestone mud or - limestone paste. It is the finely ground substance which results from - the breaking down of shells, &c., by the waves and currents, and by - the decay which takes place in the sea bottom before the fragments are - compacted into hard rock. The skeletal parts of marine animals are not - always converted into limestone in the place where they were formed. - In shallow waters, such as are the favourite haunts of mollusca, - corals, &c., the tides and storms are frequently sufficiently powerful - to shift the loose material on the sea bottom. A large part of a coral - reef consists of broken coral rock dislodged from the growing mass and - carried upwards to the beach or into the lagoon. Large fragments also - fall over the steep outward slopes of the reef and build up a talus at - their base. Coral muds and coral sands produced by the waves acting in - these detached blocks, are believed to cover two and a half millions - of square miles of the ocean floor. Owing to the fragile nature of the - shells of foraminifera they readily become disintegrated, especially - at considerable depths, largely by the solvent action of carbonic acid - in sea water as they sink to the bottom. The chalk in very great part - consists not of entire shells but of debris of foraminifera, and - mollusca (such as _Inoceramus_, &c.). The Globigerina ooze is the most - widespread of modern calcareous formations. It occupies nearly fifty - millions of square miles of the sea bottom, at an average depth of two - thousand fathoms. Pteropod ooze, consisting mainly of the shells of - pteropods (mollusca) also has a wide distribution, especially in - northern latitudes. - - Consolidation may to a considerable extent be produced by pressure, - but more commonly cementation and crystallization play a large part in - the process. Recent shell sands on beaches and in dunes are not - unfrequently converted into a soft, semi-coherent rock by rain water - filtering downwards, dissolving and redepositing carbonate of lime - between the sand grains. In coral reefs also the mass soon has its - cavities more or less obliterated by a deposit of calcite from - solution. The fine interstitial mud or paste presents a large surface - to the solvents, and is more readily attacked than the larger and more - compact shell fragments. In fresh-water marls considerable masses of - crystalline calcite may be produced in this way, enclosing - well-preserved molluscan shells. Many calcareous fragments consist of - aragonite, wholly or principally, and this mineral tends to be - replaced by calcite. The aragonite, as seen in sections under the - microscope, is usually fibrous or prismatic, the calcite is more - commonly granular with a well-marked network of rhombohedral cleavage - cracks. The replacement of aragonite by calcite goes on even in shells - lying on modern sea shores, and is often very complete in rocks - belonging to the older geological periods. By the recrystallization of - the finer paste and the introduction of calcite in solution the - interior of shells, corals, foraminifera, &c., becomes occupied by - crystalline calcite, sometimes in comparatively large grains, while - the original organic structures may be very well-preserved. - - Some limestones are exceedingly pure, e.g. the chalk and some - varieties of mountain limestone, and these are especially suited for - making lime. The majority, however, contain admixture of other - substances, of which the commonest are clay and sand. Clayey or - argillaceous limestones frequently occur in thin or thick beds - alternating with shales, as in the Lias of England (the marlstone - series). Friable argillaceous fresh-water limestones are called - "marls," and are used in many districts for top dressing soils, but - the name "marl" is loosely applied and is often given to beds which - are not of this nature (e.g. the red marls of the Trias). The "cement - stones" of the Lothians in Scotland are argillaceous limestones of - Lower Carboniferous age, which when burnt yield cement. The gault - (Upper Cretaceous) is a calcareous clay, often containing - well-preserved fossils, which lies below the chalk and attains - considerable importance in the south-east of England. Arenaceous - limestones pass by gradual transitions into shelly sandstones; in the - latter the shells are often dissolved leaving cavities, which may be - occupied by casts. Some of the Old Red Sandstone is calcareous. In - other cases the calcareous matter has recrystallized in large plates - which have shining cleavage surfaces dotted over with grains of sand - (Lincolnshire limestone). The Fontainebleau sandstone has large - calcite rhombohedra filled with sand grains. Limestones sometimes - contain much plant matter which has been converted into a dark coaly - substance, in which the original woody structures may be preserved or - may not. The calcareous petrified plants of Fifeshire occur in such a - limestone, and much has been learned from a microscopic study of them - regarding the anatomy of the plants of the Carboniferous period. - Volcanic ashes occur in some limestones, a good example being the - calcareous schalsteins or tuffs of Devonshire, which are usually much - crushed by earth movements. In the Globigerina ooze of the present day - there is always a slight admixture of volcanic materials derived - either from wind-blown dust, from submarine eruptions or from floating - pieces of pumice. Other limestones contain organic matter in the shape - of asphalt, bitumen or petroleum, presumably derived from plant - remains. The well-known _Val de Travers_ is a bituminous limestone of - lower Neocomian age found in the valley of that name near Neuchatel. - Some of the oil beds of North America are porous limestones, in the - cavities of which the oil is stored up. Siliceous limestones, where - their silica is original and of organic origin, have contained - skeletons of sponges or radiolaria. In the chalk the silica has - usually been dissolved and redeposited as flint nodules, and in the - Carboniferous limestone as chert bands. It may also be deposited in - the corals and other organic remains, silicifying them, with - preservation of the original structures (e.g. some Jurassic and - Carboniferous limestones). - - The oolitic limestones form a special group distinguished by their - consisting of small rounded or elliptical grains resembling fish roe; - when coarse they are called pisolites. Many of them are very pure and - highly fossiliferous. The oolitic grains in section may have a - nucleus, e.g. a fragment of a shell, quartz grain, &c., around which - concentric layers have been deposited. In many cases there is also a - radiating structure. They consist of calcite or aragonite, and between - the grains there is usually a cementing material of limestone mud or - granular calcite crystals. Deposits of silica, carbonate of iron or - small rhombohedra of dolomite are often found in the interior of the - spheroids, and oolites may be entirely silicified (Pennsylvania, - Cambrian rocks of Scotland). Oolitic ironstones are very abundant in - the Cleveland district of Yorkshire and form an important iron ore. - They are often impure, and their iron may be present as haematite or - as chalybite. Oolitic limestones are known from many geological - formations, e.g. the Cambrian and Silurian of Scotland and Wales, - Carboniferous limestone (Bristol), Jurassic, Tertiary and Recent - limestones. They are forming at the present day in some coral reefs - and in certain petrifying springs like those of Carlsbad. Their chief - development in England is in the Jurassic rocks where they occur in - large masses excellently adapted for building purposes, and yield the - well-known freestones of Portland and Bath. Some hold that they are - chemical precipitates and that the concentric oolitic structure is - produced by successive layers of calcareous deposit laid down on - fragments of shells, &c., in highly calcareous waters. An alternative - hypothesis is that minute cellular plants (_Girvanella_, &c.), have - extracted the carbonate of lime from the water, and have been the - principal agents in producing the successive calcareous crusts. Such - plants can live even in hot waters, and there seems much reason for - regarding them as of importance in this connexion. - - Another group of limestones is of inorganic or chemical origin, having - been deposited from solution in water without the intervention of - living organisms. A good example of these is the "stalactite" which - forms pendent masses on the roofs of caves in limestone districts, the - calcareous waters exposed to evaporation in the air of the cave laying - down successive layers of stalactite in the places from which they - drip. At the same time and in the same way "stalagmite" gathers on the - floor below, and often accumulates in thick masses which contain bones - of animals and the weapons of primitive cave-dwelling man. Calc - sinters are porous limestones deposited by the evaporation of - calcareous springs; travertine is a well-known Italian rock of this - kind. At Carlsbad oolitic limestones are forming, but it seems - probable that minute algae assist in this process. Chemical deposits - of carbonate of lime may be produced by the evaporation of sea water - in some upraised coral lagoons and similar situations, but it is - unlikely that this takes place to any extent in the open sea, as sea - water contains very little carbonate of lime, apparently because - marine organisms so readily abstract it; still some writers believe - that a considerable part of the chalk is really a chemical - precipitate. Onyx marbles are banded limestones of chemical origin - with variegated colours such as white, yellow, green and red. They are - used for ornamental work and are obtained in Persia, France, the - United States, Mexico, &c. - - Limestones are exceedingly susceptible to chemical changes of a - metasomatic kind. They are readily dissolved by carbonated waters and - acid solutions, and their place may then be occupied by deposits of a - different kind. The silification of oolites and coral rocks and their - replacement by iron ores above mentioned are examples of this process. - Many extensive hematite deposits are in this way formed in limestone - districts. Phosphatization sometimes takes place, amorphous phosphate - of lime being substituted for carbonate of lime, and these replacement - products often have great value as sources of natural fertilizers. On - ocean rocks in dry climates the droppings of birds (guano) which - contain much phosphate, percolating into the underlying limestones - change them into a hard white or yellow phosphate rock (e.g. Sombrero, - Christmas Island, &c.), sometimes known as rock-guano or mineral - guano. In the north of France beds of phosphate are found in the - chalk; they occur also in England on a smaller scale. All limestones, - especially those laid down in deep waters contain some lime phosphate, - derived from shells of certain brachiopods, fish bones, teeth, whale - bones, &c. and this may pass into solution and be redeposited in - certain horizons, a process resembling the formation of flints. On the - sea bottom at the present day phosphatic nodules are found which have - gathered round the dead bodies of fishes and other animals. As in - flint the organic structures of the original limestone may be well - preserved though the whole mass is phosphatized. - - Where uprising heated waters carrying mineral solutions are proceeding - from deep seated masses of igneous rocks they often deposit a portion - of their contents in limestone beds. At Leadville, in Colorado, for - example, great quantities of rich silver lead ore, which have yielded - not a little gold, have been obtained from the limestones, while other - rocks, though apparently equally favourably situated, are barren. The - lead and fluorspar deposits of the north of England (Alston Moor, - Derbyshire) occur in limestone. In the Malay States the limestones - have been impregnated with tin oxide. Zinc ores are very frequently - associated with beds of limestone, as at Vieille Montagne in Belgium, - and copper ores are found in great quantity in Arizona in rocks of - this kind. Apart from ore deposits of economic value a great number of - different minerals, often well crystallized, have been observed in - limestones. - - When limestones occur among metamorphic schists or in the vicinity of - intrusive plutonic masses (such as granite), they are usually - recrystallized and have lost their organic structures. They are then - known as crystalline limestones or marbles (q.v.). (J. S. F.) - - - - -LIMINA APOSTOLORUM, an ecclesiastical term used to denote Rome, and -especially the church of St Peter and St Paul. A _Visitatio Liminum_ -might be undertaken _ex voto_ or _ex lege_. The former, visits paid in -accordance with a vow, were very frequent in the middle ages, and were -under the special protection of the pope, who put the ban upon any who -should molest pilgrims "who go to Rome for God's sake." The question of -granting dispensations from such a vow gave rise to much canonical -legislation, in which the papacy had finally to give in to the bishops. -The visits demanded by law were of more importance. In 743 a Roman synod -decreed that all bishops subject to the metropolitan see of Rome should -meet personally every year in that city to give an account of the state -of their dioceses. Gregory VII. included in the order all metropolitans -of the Western Church, and Sixtus V. (by the bull _Romanus Pontifex_, -Dec. 20, 1584) ordered the bishops of Italy, Dalmatia and Greece to -visit Rome every three years; those of France, Germany, Spain and -Portugal, Belgium, Hungary, Bohemia and the British Isles every four -years; those from the rest of Europe every five years; and bishops from -other continents every ten years. Benedict XIV. in 1740 extended the -summons to all abbots, provosts and others who held territorial -jurisdiction. - - - - -LIMITATION, STATUTES OF, the name given to acts of parliament by which -rights of action are limited in the United Kingdom to a fixed period -after the occurrence of the events giving rise to the cause of action. -This is one of the devices by which lapse of time is employed to settle -disputed claims. There are mainly two modes by which this may be -effected. We may say that the active enjoyment of a right--or -possession--for a determined period shall be a good title against all -the world. That is the method known generally as Prescription (q.v.). It -looks to the length of time during which the defendant in a disputed -claim has been in possession or enjoyment of the matter in dispute. But -the principle of the statutes of limitation is to look to the length of -time during which the plaintiff has been out of possession. The point of -time at which he might first have brought his action having been -ascertained, the lapse of the limited period after that time bars him -for ever from bringing his action. In both cases the policy of the law -is expressed by the maxim _Interest reipublicae ut sit finis litium_. - -The principle of limitation was first adopted in English law in -connexion with real actions, i.e. actions for the recovery of real -property. At first a fixed date was taken, and no action could be -brought of which the cause had arisen before that date. By the Statute -of Westminster the First (3 Edward I. c. 39), the beginning of the reign -of Richard I. was fixed as the date of limitation for such actions. This -is the well-known "period of legal memory" recognized by the judges in a -different class of cases to which a rule of prescription was applied. -Possession of rights in _alieno solo_ from time immemorial was held to -be an indefeasible title, and the courts held time immemorial to begin -with the first year of Richard I. - -A period absolutely fixed became in time useless for the purposes of -limitation, and the method of counting back a certain number of years -from the date of the writs was adopted in the Statute 32 Henry VIII. c. -2, which fixed periods of thirty, fifty and sixty years for various -classes of actions named therein. A large number of statutes since that -time have established periods of limitation for different kinds of -actions. Of those now in force the most important are the Limitation Act -1623 for personal actions in general, and the Real Property Limitation -Act 1833 relating to actions for the recovery of land. The latter -statute has been repealed and virtually re-enacted by the Real Property -Limitation Act 1874, which reduced the period of limitation from twenty -years to twelve, for all actions brought after the 1st January 1879. The -principal section of the act of 1833 will show the _modus operandi_: -"After the 31st December 1833, no person shall make an entry or -distress, or bring an action to recover any land or rent _but within -twenty years next after the time_ at which the right to make such entry -or distress or to bring such action shall have first accrued to some -person through whom he claims, or shall have first accrued to the person -making or bringing the same." Another section defines the times at which -the right of action or entry shall be deemed to have accrued in -particular cases; e.g. when the estate claimed shall have been an estate -or interest in reversion, such right shall be deemed to have first -accrued at the time at which such estate or interest became an estate or -interest in possession. Thus suppose lands to be let by A to B from 1830 -for a period of fifty years, and that a portion of such lands is -occupied by C from 1831 without any colour of title from B or A--C's -long possession would be of no avail against an action brought by A for -the recovery of the land after the determination of B's lease. A would -have twelve years after the determination of the lease within which to -bring his action, and might thus, by an action brought in 1891, -disestablish a person who had been in quiet possession since 1831. What -the law looks to is not the length of time during which C has enjoyed -the property, but the length of time which A has suffered to elapse -since he might first have brought his action. It is to be observed, -however, that the Real Property Limitation Act does more than bar the -remedy. It extinguishes the right, differing in this respect from the -other Limitation Acts, which, while barring the remedy, preserve the -right, so that it may possibly become available in some other way than -by action. - -By section 14 of the act of 1833, when any acknowledgment of the title -of the person entitled shall have been given to him or his agent in -writing signed by the person in possession, or in receipt of the profits -or rent, then the right of the person (to whom such acknowledgment shall -have been given) to make an entry or distress or bring an action shall -be deemed to have first accrued at the time at which such -acknowledgment, or the last of such acknowledgments, was given. By -section 15, persons under the disability of infancy, lunacy or -coverture, or beyond seas, and their representatives, are to be allowed -ten years from the termination of this disability, or death (which shall -have first happened), notwithstanding that the ordinary period of -limitation shall have expired. - -By the act of 1623 actions of trespass, detinue, trover, replevin or -account, actions on the case (except for slander), actions of debt -arising out of a simple contract and actions for arrears of rent not due -upon specialty shall be limited to six years from the date of the cause -of action. Actions for assault, menace, battery, wounds and imprisonment -are limited to four years, and actions for slander to two years. Persons -labouring under the disabilities of infancy, lunacy or unsoundness of -mind are allowed the same time after the removal of the disability. When -the defendant was "beyond seas" (i.e. outside the United Kingdom and the -adjacent islands) an extension of time was allowed, but by the Real -Property Limitation Act of 1874 such an allowance is excluded as to real -property, and as to other matters by the Mercantile Law Amendment Act -1856. - -An acknowledgment, whether by payment on account or by mere spoken -words, was formerly sufficient to take the case out of the statute. The -Act 9 Geo. IV. c. 14 (Lord Tenterden's act) requires any promise or -admission of liability to be in writing and signed by the party to be -charged, otherwise it will not bar the statute. - -Contracts under seal are governed as to limitation by the act of 1883, -which provides that actions for rent upon any indenture of demise, or of -covenant, or debt or any bond or other specialty, and on recognizances, -must be brought within twenty years after cause of action. Actions of -debt on an award (the submission being not under seal), or for a -copyhold fine, or for money levied on a writ of _fieri facias_, must be -brought within six years. With regard to the rights of the crown, the -principle obtains that _nullum tempus occurrit regi_, so that no statute -of limitation affects the crown without express mention. But by the -Crown Suits Act 1769, as amended by the Crown Suits Act 1861, in suits -relating to land, the claims of the crown to recover are barred after -the lapse of sixty years. For the prosecution of criminal offences -generally there is no period of limitation, except where they are -punishable on summary conviction. In such case the period is six months -by the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1848. But there are various -miscellaneous limitations fixed by various acts, of which the following -may be noticed. Suits and indictments under penal statutes are limited -to two years if the forfeiture is to the crown, to one year if the -forfeiture is to the common informer. Penal actions by persons aggrieved -are limited to two years by the act of 1833. Prosecutions under the Riot -Act can only be sued upon within twelve months after the offence has -been committed, and offences against the Customs Acts within three -years. By the Public Authorities Protection Act 1893, a prosecution -against any person acting in execution of statutory or other public duty -must be commenced within six months. Prosecutions under the Criminal Law -Amendment Act, as amended by the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act -1904, must be commenced within six months after the commission of the -offence. - -Trustees are expressly empowered to plead statutes of limitation by the -Trustees Act 1888; indeed, a defence under the statutes of limitations -must in general be specially pleaded. Limitation is regarded strictly as -a law of procedure. The English courts will therefore apply their own -rules to all actions, although the cause of action may have arisen in a -country in which different rules of limitation exist. This is also a -recognized principle of private international law (see J. A. Foote, -_Private International Law_, 3rd ed., 1904, p. 516 seq.). - -_United States._--The principle of the statute of limitations has passed -with some modification into the statute-books of every state in the -Union except Louisiana, whose laws of limitation are essentially the -prescriptions of the civil law drawn from the _Partidas_, or "Spanish -Code." As to personal actions, it is generally provided that they shall -be brought within a certain specified time--usually six years or -less--from the time when the cause of action accrues, and not after, -while for land the "general if not universal limitation of the right to -bring action or to make entry is to twenty years after the right to -enter or to bring the action accrues" (Bouvier's _Law Dictionary_, art. -"Limitations"). The constitutional provision prohibiting states from -passing laws impairing the obligation of contracts is not infringed by a -law of limitations, unless it bars a right of action already accrued -without giving a reasonable term within which to bring the action. - - See Darby and Bosanquet, _Statutes of Limitations_ (1899); Hewitt, - _Statutes of Limitations_ (1893). - - - - -LIMOGES, a town of west-central France, capital of the department of -Haute-Vienne, formerly capital of the old province of Limousin, 176 m. -S. by W. of Orleans on the railway to Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, -75,906; commune, 88,597. The station is a junction for Poitiers, -Angouleme, Perigueux and Clermont-Ferrand. The town occupies a hill on -the right bank of the Vienne, and comprises two parts originally -distinct, the _Cite_ with narrow streets and old houses occupying the -lower slope, and the town proper the summit. In the latter a street -known as the Rue de la Boucherie is occupied by a powerful and ancient -corporation of butchers. The site of the fortifications which formerly -surrounded both quarters is occupied by boulevards, outside which are -suburbs with wide streets and spacious squares. The cathedral, the most -remarkable building in the Limousin, was begun in 1273. In 1327 the -choir was completed, and before the middle of the 16th century the -transept, with its fine north portal and the first two bays of the nave; -from 1875 to 1890 the construction of the nave was continued, and it was -united with the west tower (203 ft. high), the base of which belongs to -a previous Romanesque church. In the interior there are a magnificent -rood loft of the Renaissance, and the tombs of Jean de Langeac (d. 1541) -and other bishops. Of the other churches of Limoges, St Michel des Lions -(14th and 15th centuries) and St Pierre du Queyroix (12th and 13th -centuries) both contain interesting stained glass. The principal modern -buildings are the town hall and the law-courts. The Vienne is crossed by -a railway viaduct and four bridges, two of which, the Pont St Etienne -and the Pont St Martial, date from the 13th century. Among the chief -squares are the Place d'Orsay on the site of a Roman amphitheatre, the -Place Jourdan with the statue of Marshal J. B. Jourdan, born at Limoges, -and the Place d'Aine with the statue of J. L. Gay-Lussac. President -Carnot and Denis Dussoubs, both of whom have statues, were also natives -of the town. The museum has a rich ceramic collection and art, -numismatic and natural history collections. - -Limoges is the headquarters of the XII. army corps and the seat of a -bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and a court of assizes, and has -tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade -arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. -The educational institutions include a _lycee_ for boys, a preparatory -school of medicine and pharmacy, a higher theological seminary, a -training college, a national school of decorative art and a commercial -and industrial school. The manufacture and decoration of porcelain give -employment to about 13,000 persons in the town and its vicinity. -Shoe-making and the manufacture of clogs occupy over 2000. Other -industries are liqueur-distilling, the spinning of wool and -cloth-weaving, printing and the manufacture of paper from straw. -Enamelling, which flourished at Limoges in the middle ages and during -the Renaissance (see ENAMEL), but subsequently died out, was revived at -the end of the 19th century. There is an extensive trade in wine and -spirits, cattle, cereals and wood. The Vienne is navigable for rafts -above Limoges, and the logs brought down by the current are stopped at -the entrance of the town by the inhabitants of the Naveix quarter, who -form a special gild for this purpose. - -Limoges was a place of importance at the time of the Roman conquest, and -sent a large force to the defence of Alesia. In 11 B.C. it took the name -of Augustus (_Augustoritum_); but in the 4th century it was anew called -by the name of the _Lemovices_, whose capital it was. It then contained -palaces and baths, had its own senate and the right of coinage. -Christianity was introduced by St Martial. In the 5th century Limoges -was devastated by the Vandals and the Visigoths, and afterwards suffered -in the wars between the Franks and Aquitanians and in the invasions of -the Normans. Under the Merovingian kings Limoges was celebrated for its -mints and its goldsmiths' work. In the middle ages the town was divided -into two distinct parts, each surrounded by walls, forming separate -fiefs with a separate system of administration, an arrangement which -survived till 1792. Of these the more important, known as the _Chateau_, -which grew up round the tomb of St Martial in the 9th century, and was -surrounded with walls in the 10th and again in the 12th, was under the -jurisdiction of the viscounts of Limoges, and contained their castle and -the monastery of St Martial; the other, the _Cite_, which was under the -jurisdiction of the bishop, had but a sparse population, the habitable -ground being practically covered by the cathedral, the episcopal palace -and other churches and religious buildings. In the Hundred Years' War -the bishops sided with the French, while the viscounts were unwilling -vassals of the English. In 1370 the _Cite_, which had opened its gates -to the French, was taken by the Black Prince and given over to fire and -sword. - -The religious wars, pestilence and famine desolated Limoges in turn, and -the plague of 1630-1631 carried off more than 20,000 persons. The wise -administrations of Henri d'Aguesseau, father of the chancellor, and of -Turgot enabled Limoges to recover its former prosperity. There have been -several great fires, destroying whole quarters of the city, built, as it -then was, of wood. That of 1790 lasted for two months, and destroyed 192 -houses; and that of 1864 laid under ashes a large area. Limoges -celebrates every seven years a curious religious festival (Fete -d'Ostension), during which the relics of St Martial are exposed for -seven weeks, attracting large numbers of visitors. It dates from the -10th century, and commemorates a pestilence (mal des ardents) which, -after destroying 40,000 persons, is believed to have been stayed by the -intercession of the saint. - -Limoges was the scene of two ecclesiastical councils, in 1029 and 1031. -The first proclaimed the title of St Martial as "apostle of Aquitaine"; -the second insisted on the observance of the "truce of God." In 1095 -Pope Urban II. held a synod of bishops here in connexion with his -efforts to organize a crusade, and on this occasion consecrated the -basilica of St Martial (pulled down after 1794). - - See Celestin Pore, _Limoges_, in Joanne's guides, _De Paris a Ager_ - (1867); Ducourtieux, _Limoges d'apres ses anciens plans_ (1884) and - _Limoges et ses environs_ (3rd ed., 1894). A very full list of works - on Limoges, the town, viscounty, bishopric, &c., is given by U. - Chevalier in _Repertoire des sources hist. du moyen age. - Topo-bibliogr._ (Mont Celiard, 1903), t. ii. s.v. - - - - -LIMON, or PORT LIMON, the chief Atlantic port of Costa Rica, Central -America, and the capital of a district also named Limon, on a bay of the -Caribbean Sea, 103 m. E. by N. of San Jose. Pop. (1904) 3171. Limon was -founded in 1871, and is the terminus of the transcontinental railway to -Puntarenas which was begun in the same year. The swamps behind the town, -and the shallow coral lagoon in front of it, have been filled in. The -harbour is protected by a sea-wall built along the low-water line, and -an iron pier affords accommodation for large vessels. A breakwater from -the harbour to the island of Uvita, about 1200 yds. E. would render -Limon a first-class port. There is an excellent water-supply from the -hills above the harbour. Almost the entire coffee and banana crops of -Costa Rica are sent by rail for shipment at Limon to Europe and the -United States. The district (_comarca_) of Limon comprises the whole -Atlantic littoral, thus including the Talamanca country inhabited by -uncivilized Indians; the richest banana-growing territories in the -country; and the valuable forests of the San Juan valley. It is annually -visited by Indians from the Mosquito coast of Nicaragua, who come in -canoes to fish for turtle. Its chief towns, after Limon, are Reventazon -and Matina, both with fewer than 3000 inhabitants. - - - - -LIMONITE, or BROWN IRON ORE, a natural ferric hydrate named from the Gr. -[Greek: leimon] (meadow), in allusion to its occurrence as "bog-ore" in -meadows and marshes. It is never crystallized, but may have a fibrous or -microcrystalline structure, and commonly occurs in concretionary forms -or in compact and earthy masses; sometimes mammillated, botryoidal, -reniform or stalactitic. The colour presents various shades of brown and -yellow, and the streak is always brownish, a character which -distinguishes it from haematite with a red, or from magnetite with a -black streak. It is sometimes called brown haematite. - -Limonite is a ferric hydrate, conforming typically with the formula -Fe4O3(OH)6, or 2Fe2O3.3H2O. Its hardness is rather above 5, and its -specific gravity varies from 3.5 to 4. In many cases it has been formed -from other iron oxides, like haematite and magnetite, or by the -alteration of pyrites or chalybite. - - By the operation of meteoric agencies, iron pyrites readily pass into - limonite often with retention of external form; and the masses of - "gozzan" or "gossan" on the outcrop of certain mineral-veins consist - of rusty iron ore formed in this way, and associated with cellular - quartz. Many deposits of limonite have been found, on being worked, to - pass downwards into ferrous carbonate; and crystals of chalybite - converted superficially into limonite are well known. Minerals, like - glauconite, which contain ferrous silicate, may in like manner yield - limonite, on weathering. The ferric hydrate is also readily deposited - from ferruginous waters, often by means of organic agencies. Deposits - of brown iron ore of great economic value occur in many sedimentary - rocks, such as the Lias, Oolites and Lower Greensand of various parts - of England. They appear in some cases to be altered limestones and in - others altered glauconitic sandstones. An oolitic structure is - sometimes present, and the ores are generally phosphatic, and may - contain perhaps 30% of iron. The oolitic brown ores of Lorraine and - Luxemburg are known as "minette," a diminutive of the French _mine_ - (ore), in allusion to their low content of metal. Granular and - concretionary limonite accumulates by organic action on the floor of - certain lakes in Sweden, forming the curious "lake ore." Larger - concretions formed under other conditions are known as "bean ore." - Limonite often forms a cementing medium in ferruginous sands and - gravels, forming "pan"; and in like manner it is the agglutinating - agent in many conglomerates, like the South African "banket," where it - is auriferous. In iron-shot sands the limonite may form hollow - concretions, known in some cases as "boxes." The "eagle stones" of - older writers were generally concretions of this kind, containing some - substance, like sand, which rattled when the hollow nodule was shaken. - Bog iron ore is an impure limonite, usually formed by the influence of - micro-organisms, and containing silica, phosphoric acid and organic - matter, sometimes with manganese. The various kinds of brown and - yellow ochre are mixtures of limonite with clay and other impurities; - whilst in umber much manganese oxide is present. Argillaceous brown - iron ore is often known in Germany as _Thoneisenstein_; but the - corresponding term in English (clay iron stone) is applied to nodular - forms of impure chalybite. J. C. Ullmann's name of stilpnosiderite, - from the Greek [Greek: stilpnos] (shining) is sometimes applied to - such kinds of limonite as have a pitchy lustre. Deposits of limonite - in cavities may have a rounded surface or even a stalactitic form, and - may present a brilliant lustre, of blackish colour, forming what is - called in Germany _Glaskopf_ (glass head). It often happens that - analyses of brown iron ores reveal a larger proportion of water than - required by the typical formula of limonite, and hence new species - have been recognized. Thus the yellowish brown ore called by E. - Schmidt xanthosiderite, from [Greek: zanthos] (yellow) and [Greek: - sideros] (iron), contains Fe2O(OH)4, or Fe2O3.2H2O; whilst the bog ore - known as limnite, from [Greek: limne] (marsh) has the formula Fe(OH)3, - or Fe2O3.3H2O. On the other hand there are certain forms of ferric - hydrate containing less water than limonite and approaching to - haematite in their red colour and streak: such is the mineral which - was called hydrohaematite by A. Breithaupt, and is now generally known - under R. Hermann's name of turgite, from the mines of Turginsk, near - Bogoslovsk in the Ural Mountains. This has the formula Fe4O5(OH)2, or - 2Fe2O3.H2O. It probably represents the partial dehydration of - limonite, and by further loss of water may pass into haematite or red - iron ore. When limonite is dehydrated and deoxidized in the presence - of carbonic acid, it may give rise to chalybite. - - - - -LIMOUSIN (or LIMOSIN), LEONARD (c. 1505-c. 1577), French painter, the -most famous of a family of seven Limoges enamel painters, was the son of -a Limoges innkeeper. He is supposed to have studied under Nardon -Penicaud. He was certainly at the beginning of his career influenced by -the German school--indeed, his earliest authenticated work, signed L. L. -and dated 1532, is a series of eighteen plaques of the "Passion of the -Lord," after Albrecht Durer, but this influence was counter-balanced by -that of the Italian masters of the school of Fontainebleau, Primaticcio, -Rosso, Giulio Romano and Solario, from whom he acquired his taste for -arabesque ornament and for mythological subjects. Nevertheless the -French tradition was sufficiently ingrained in him to save him from -becoming an imitator and from losing his personal style. In 1530 he -entered the service of Francis I. as painter and _varlet de chambre_, a -position which he retained under Henry II. For both these monarchs he -executed many portraits in enamel--among them quite a number of plaques -depicting Diane de Poitiers in various characters,--plates, vases, -ewers, and cups, besides decorative works for the royal palaces, for, -though he is best known as an enameller distinguished for rich colour, -and for graceful designs in grisaille on black or bright blue -backgrounds, he also enjoyed a great reputation as an oil-painter. His -last signed works bear the date 1574, but the date of his death is -uncertain, though it could not have been later than the beginning of -1577. It is on record that he executed close upon two thousand enamels. -He is best represented at the Louvre, which owns his two famous votive -tablets for the Sainte Chapelle, each consisting of twenty-three -plaques, signed L. L. and dated 1553; "La Chasse," depicting Henry II. -on a white horse, Diane de Poitiers behind him on horseback; and many -portraits, including the kings by whom he was employed, Marguerite de -Valois, the duc de Guise, and the cardinal de Lorraine. Other -representative examples are at the Cluny and Limoges museums. In -England some magnificent examples of his work are to be found at the -Victoria and Albert Museum, the British Museum, and the Wallace -Collection. In the collection of Signor Rocchi, in Rome, is an -exceptionally interesting plaque representing Frances I. consulting a -fortune-teller. - - See _Leonard Limousin: peintre de portraits_ (_L'Oeuvre des peintres - emailleurs_), by L. Boudery and E. Lachenaud (Paris, 1897)--a careful - study, with an elaborate catalogue of the known existing examples of - the artist's work. The book deals almost exclusively with the - portraits illustrated. See also Alleaume and Duplessis, _Les Douze - Apotres--emaux de Leonard Limousin_, &c. (Paris, 1865); L. Boudery, - _Exposition retrospective de Limoges en 1886_ (Limoges, 1886); L. - Boudery, _Leonard Limousin et son oeuvre_ (Limoges, 1895); _Limoges et - le Limousin_ (Limoges, 1865); A. Meyer, _L'Art de l'email de Limoges, - ancien et moderne_ (Paris, 1896); Emile Molinier, _L'Emaillerie_ - (Paris, 1891). - - - - -LIMOUSIN (Lat. _Pagus Lemovicinus, ager Lemovicensis, regio Lemovicum, -Lemozinum, Limosinium_, &c.), a former province of France. In the time -of Julius Caesar the _pagus Lemovicinus_ covered the county now -comprised in the departments of Haute-Vienne, Correze and Creuse, with -the _arrondissements_ of Confolens in Charente and Nontron in Dordogne. -These limits it retained until the 10th century, and they survived in -those of the diocese of Limoges (except a small part cut off in 1317 to -form that of Tulle) until 1790. The break-up into great fiefs in the -10th century, however, tended rapidly to disintegrate the province, -until at the close of the 12th century Limousin embraced only the -viscounties of Limoges, Turenne and Comborn, with a few ecclesiastical -lordships, corresponding roughly to the present _arrondissements_ of -Limoges and Saint Yrien in Haute-Vienne and part of the -_arrondissements_ of Brive, Tulle and Ussel in Correze. In the 17th -century Limousin, thus constituted, had become no more than a small -_gouvernement_. - -Limousin takes its name from the _Lemovices_, a Gallic tribe whose -county was included by Augustus in the province of _Aquitania Magna_. -Politically its history has little of separate interest; it shared in -general the vicissitudes of Aquitaine, whose dukes from 918 onwards were -its over-lords at least till 1264, after which it was sometimes under -them, sometimes under the counts of Poitiers, until the French kings -succeeded in asserting their direct over-lordship. It was, however, -until the 14th century, the centre of a civilization of which the -enamelling industry (see ENAMEL) was only one expression. The Limousin -dialect, now a mere _patois_, was regarded by the troubadours as the -purest form of Provencal. - - See A. Leroeux, _Geographie et histoire du Limousin_ (Limoges, 1892). - Detailed bibliography in Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources. - Topo-bibliogr._ (Montbeliard, 1902), t. ii. s.v. - - - - -LIMPOPO, or CROCODILE, a river of S.E. Africa over 1000 m. in length, -next to the Zambezi the largest river of Africa entering the Indian -Ocean. Its head streams rise on the northern slopes of the Witwatersrand -less than 300 m. due W. of the sea, but the river makes a great -semicircular sweep across the high plateau first N.W., then N.E. and -finally S.E. It is joined early in its course by the Marico and Notwani, -streams which rise along the westward continuation of the Witwatersrand, -the ridge forming the water-parting between the Vaal and the Limpopo -basins. For a great part of its course the Limpopo forms the north-west -and north frontiers of the Transvaal. Its banks are well wooded and -present many picturesque views. In descending the escarpment of the -plateau the river passes through rocky ravines, piercing the -Zoutpansberg near the north-east corner of the Transvaal at the Toli -Azime Falls. In the low country it receives its chief affluent, the -Olifants river (450 m. long), which, rising in the high veld of the -Transvaal east of the sources of the Limpopo, takes a more direct N.E. -course than the main stream. The Limpopo enters the ocean in 25 deg. 15' -S. The mouth, about 1000 ft. wide, is obstructed by sandbanks. In the -rainy season the Limpopo loses a good deal of its water in the swampy -region along its lower course. High-water level is 24 ft. above -low-water level, when the depth in the shallowest part does not exceed 3 -ft. The river is navigable all the year round by shallow-draught vessels -from its mouth for about 100 m., to a spot known as Gungunyana's Ford. -In flood time there is water communication south with the river Komati -(q.v.). At this season stretches of the Limpopo above Gungunyana's Ford -are navigable. The river valley is generally unhealthy. - - The basin of the Limpopo includes the northern part of the Transvaal, - the eastern portion of Bechuanaland, southern Matabeleland and a large - area of Portuguese territory north of Delagoa Bay. Its chief - tributary, the Olifants, has been mentioned. Of its many other - affluents, the Macloutsie, the Shashi and the Tuli are the most - distant north-west feeders. In this direction the Matoppos and other - hills of Matabeleland separate the Limpopo basin from the valley of - the Zambezi. A little above the Tuli confluence is Rhodes's Drift, the - usual crossing-place from the northern Transvaal into Matabeleland. - Among the streams which, flowing north through the Transvaal, join the - Limpopo is the Nylstroom, so named by Boers trekking from the south in - the belief that they had reached the river Nile. In the coast region - the river has one considerable affluent from the north, the Chengane, - which is navigable for some distance. - - The Limpopo is a river of many names. In its upper course called the - Crocodile that name is also applied to the whole river, which figures - on old Portuguese maps as the Oori (or Oira) and Bembe. Though - claiming the territory through which it ran the Portuguese made no - attempt to trace the river. This was first done by Captain J. F. - Elton, who in 1870 travelling from the Tati goldfields sought to open - a road to the sea via the Limpopo. He voyaged down the river from the - Shashi confluence to the Toli Azime Falls, which he discovered, - following the stream thence on foot to the low country. The lower - course of the river had been explored 1868-1869 by another British - traveller--St Vincent Whitshed Erskine. It was first navigated by a - sea-going craft in 1884, when G. A. Chaddock of the British mercantile - service succeeded in crossing the bar, while its lower course was - accurately surveyed by Portuguese officers in 1895-1896. At the - junction of the Lotsani, one of the Bechuanaland affluents, with the - Limpopo, are ruins of the period of the Zimbabwes. - - - - -LINACRE (or LYNAKER), THOMAS (c. 1460-1524), English humanist and -physician, was probably born at Canterbury. Of his parentage or descent -nothing certain is known. He received his early education at the -cathedral school of Canterbury, then under the direction of William -Celling (William Tilly of Selling), who became prior of Canterbury in -1472. Celling was an ardent scholar, and one of the earliest in England -who cultivated Greek learning. From him Linacre must have received his -first incentive to this study. Linacre entered Oxford about the year -1480, and in 1484 was elected a fellow of All Souls' College. Shortly -afterwards he visited Italy in the train of Celling, who was sent by -Henry VIII. as an envoy to the papal court, and he accompanied his -patron as far as Bologna. There he became the pupil of Angelo Poliziano, -and afterwards shared the instruction which that great scholar imparted -at Florence to the sons of Lorenzo de' Medici. The younger of these -princes became Pope Leo X., and was in after years mindful of his old -companionship with Linacre. Among his other teachers and friends in -Italy were Demetrius Chalcondylas, Hermolaus Barbaras, Aldus Romanus the -printer of Venice, and Nicolaus Leonicenus of Vicenza. Linacre took the -degree of doctor of medicine with great distinction at Padua. On his -return to Oxford, full of the learning and imbued with the spirit of the -Italian Renaissance, he formed one of the brilliant circle of Oxford -scholars, including John Colet, William Grocyn and William Latimer, who -are mentioned with so much warm eulogy in the letters of Erasmus. - -Linacre does not appear to have practised or taught medicine in Oxford. -About the year 1501 he was called to court as tutor of the young prince -Arthur. On the accession of Henry VIII. he was appointed the king's -physician, an office at that time of considerable influence and -importance, and practised medicine in London, having among his patients -most of the great statesmen and prelates of the time, as Cardinal -Wolsey, Archbishop Warham and Bishop Fox. - -After some years of professional activity, and when in advanced life, -Linacre received priest's orders in 1520, though he had for some years -previously held several clerical benefices. There is no doubt that his -ordination was connected with his retirement from active life. Literary -labours, and the cares of the foundation which owed its existence -chiefly to him, the Royal College of Physicians, occupied Linacre's -remaining years till his death on the 20th of October 1524. - -Linacre was more of a scholar than a man of letters, and rather a man of -learning than a scientific investigator. It is difficult now to judge of -his practical skill in his profession, but it was evidently highly -esteemed in his own day. He took no part in political or theological -questions, and died too soon to have to declare himself on either side in -the formidable controversies which were even in his lifetime beginning to -arise. But his career as a scholar was one eminently characteristic of -the critical period in the history of learning through which he lived. He -was one of the first Englishmen who studied Greek in Italy, whence he -brought back to his native country and his own university the lessons of -the "New Learning." His teachers were some of the greatest scholars of -the day. Among his pupils was one--Erasmus--whose name alone would -suffice to preserve the memory of his instructor in Greek, and others of -note in letters and politics, such as Sir Thomas More, Prince Arthur and -Queen Mary. Colet, Grocyn, William Lilye and other eminent scholars were -his intimate friends, and he was esteemed by a still wider circle of -literary correspondents in all parts of Europe. - - Linacre's literary activity was displayed in two directions, in pure - scholarship and in translation from the Greek. In the domain of - scholarship he was known by the rudiments of (Latin) grammar - (_Progymnasmata Grammatices vulgaria_), composed in English, a revised - version of which was made for the use of the Princess Mary, and - afterwards translated into Latin by Robert Buchanan. He also wrote a - work on Latin composition, _De emendata structura Latini sermonis_, - which was published in London in 1524 and many times reprinted on the - continent of Europe. - - Linacre's only medical works were his translations. He desired to make - the works of Galen (and indeed those of Aristotle also) accessible to - all readers of Latin. What he effected in the case of the first, - though not trifling in itself, is inconsiderable as compared with the - whole mass of Galen's writings; and of his translations from - Aristotle, some of which are known to have been completed, nothing has - survived. The following are the works of Galen translated by Linacre: - (1) _De sanitate tuenda_, printed at Paris in 1517; (2) _Methodus - medendi_ (Paris, 1519); (3) _De temperamentis et de Inaequali - Intemperie_ (Cambridge, 1521); (4) _De naturalibus facultatibus_ - (London, 1523); (5) _De symptomatum differentiis et causis_ (London, - 1524); (6) _De pulsuum Usu_ (London, without date). He also translated - for the use of Prince Arthur an astronomical treatise of Proclus, _De - sphaera_, which was printed at Venice by Aldus in 1499. The accuracy - of these translations and their elegance of style were universally - admitted. They have been generally accepted as the standard versions - of those parts of Galen's writings, and frequently reprinted, either - as a part of the collected works or separately. - - But the most important service which Linacre conferred upon his own - profession and science was not by his writings. To him was chiefly - owing the foundation by royal charter of the College of Physicians in - London, and he was the first president of the new college, which he - further aided by conveying to it his own house, and by the gift of his - library. Shortly before his death Linacre obtained from the king - letters patent for the establishment of readerships in medicine at - Oxford and Cambridge, and placed valuable estates in the hands of - trustees for their endowment. Two readerships were founded in Merton - College, Oxford, and one in St John's College, Cambridge, but owing to - neglect and bad management of the funds, they fell into uselessness - and obscurity. The Oxford foundation was revived by the university - commissioners in 1856 in the form of the Linacre professorship of - anatomy. Posterity has done justice to the generosity and public - spirit which prompted these foundations; and it is impossible not to - recognize a strong constructive genius in the scheme of the College of - Physicians, by which Linacre not only first organized the medical - profession in England, but impressed upon it for some centuries the - stamp of his own individuality. - - The intellectual fastidiousness of Linacre, and his habits of minute - accuracy were, as Erasmus suggests, the chief cause why he left no - more permanent literary memorials. It will be found, perhaps, - difficult to justify by any extant work the extremely high reputation - which he enjoyed among the scholars of his time. His Latin style was - so much admired that, according to the flattering eulogium of Erasmus, - Galen spoke better Latin in the version of Linacre than he had before - spoken Greek; and even Aristotle displayed a grace which he hardly - attained to in his native tongue. Erasmus praises also Linacre's - critical judgment ("vir non exacti tantum sed severi judicii"). - According to others it was hard to say whether he were more - distinguished as a grammarian or a rhetorician. Of Greek he was - regarded as a consummate master; and he was equally eminent as a - "philosopher," that is, as learned in the works of the ancient - philosophers and naturalists. In this there may have been some - exaggeration; but all have acknowledged the elevation of Linacre's - character, and the fine moral qualities summed up in the epitaph - written by John Caius: "Fraudes dolosque mire perosus; fidus amicis; - omnibus ordinibus juxta carus." - - The materials for Linacre's biography are to a large extent contained - in the older biographical collections of George Lilly (in Paulus - Jovius, _Descriptio Britanniae_), Bale, Leland and Pits, in Wood's - _Athenae Oxonienses_ and in the _Biographia Britannica_; but all are - completely collected in the _Life of Thomas Linacre_, by Dr Noble - Johnson (London, 1835). Reference may also be made to Dr Munk's _Roll - of the Royal College of Physicians_ (2nd ed., London, 1878); and the - Introduction, by Dr J. F. Payne, to a facsimile reproduction of - Linacre's version of _Galen de temperamentis_ (Cambridge, 1881). With - the exception of this treatise, none of Linacre's works or - translations has been reprinted in modern times. - - - - -LINARES, an inland province of central Chile, between Talca on the N. -and Nuble on the S., bounded E. by Argentina and W. by the province of -Maule. Pop. (1895) 101,858; area, 3942 sq. m. The river Maule forms its -northern boundary and drains its northern and north-eastern regions. The -province belongs partly to the great central valley of Chile and partly -to the western slopes of the Andes, the S. Pedro volcano rising to a -height of 11,800 ft. not far from the sources of the Maule. The northern -part is fertile, as are the valleys of the Andean foothills, but arid -conditions prevail throughout the central districts, and irrigation is -necessary for the production of crops. The vine is cultivated to some -extent, and good pasturage is found on the Andean slopes. The province -is traversed from N. to S. by the Chilean Central railway, and the river -Maule gives access to the small port of Constitucion, at its mouth. From -Parral, near the southern boundary, a branch railway extends westward to -Cauquenes, the capital of Maule. The capital, Linares, is centrally -situated, on an open plain, about 20 m. S. of the river Maule. It had a -population of 7331 in 1895 (which an official estimate of 1902 reduced -to 7256). Parral (pop. 8586 in 1895; est. 10,219 in 1902) is a railway -junction and manufacturing town. - - - - -LINARES, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Jaen, among the -southern foothills of the Sierra Morena, 1375 ft. above sea-level and 3 -m. N.W. of the river Guadalimar. Pop. (1900) 38,245. It is connected by -four branch railways with the important argentiferous lead mines on the -north-west, and with the main railways from Madrid to Seville, Granada -and the principal ports on the south coast. The town was greatly -improved in the second half of the 19th century, when the town hall, -bull-ring, theatre and many other handsome buildings were erected; it -contains little of antiquarian interest save a fine fountain of Roman -origin. Its population is chiefly engaged in the lead-mines, and in such -allied industries as the manufacture of gunpowder, dynamite, match for -blasting purposes, rope and the like. The mining plant is entirely -imported, principally from England; and smelting, desilverizing and the -manufacture of lead sheets, pipes, &c., are carried on by British firms, -which also purchase most of the ore raised. Linares lead is unsurpassed -in quality, but the output tends to decrease. There is a thriving local -trade in grain, wine and oil. About 2 m. S. is the village of Cazlona, -which shows some remains of the ancient _Castulo_. The ancient mines -some 5 m. N., which are now known as Los Pozos de Anibal, may possibly -date from the 3rd century B.C., when this part of Spain was ruled by the -Carthaginians. - - - - -LINCOLN, EARLS OF. The first earl of Lincoln was probably William de -Roumare (c. 1095-c. 1155), who was created earl about 1140, although it -is possible that William de Albini, earl of Arundel, had previously held -the earldom. Roumare's grandson, another William de Roumare (c. 1150-c. -1198), is sometimes called earl of Lincoln, but he was never recognized -as such, and about 1148 King Stephen granted the earldom to one of his -supporters, Gilbert de Gand (d. 1156), who was related to the former -earl. After Gilbert's death the earldom was dormant for about sixty -years; then in 1216 it was given to another Gilbert de Gand, and later -it was claimed by the great earl of Chester, Ranulf, or Randulph, de -Blundevill (d. 1232). From Ranulf the title to the earldom passed -through his sister Hawise to the family of Lacy, John de Lacy (d. 1240) -being made earl of Lincoln in 1232. He was son of Roger de Lacy (d. -1212), justiciar of England and constable of Chester. It was held by -the Lacys until the death of Henry, the 3rd earl. Henry served Edward I. -in Wales, France and Scotland, both as a soldier and a diplomatist. He -went to France with Edmund, earl of Lancaster, in 1296, and when Edmund -died in June of this year, succeeded him as commander of the English -forces in Gascony; but he did not experience any great success in this -capacity and returned to England early in 1298. The earl fought at the -battle of Falkirk in July 1298, and took some part in the subsequent -conquest of Scotland. He was then employed by Edward to negotiate -successively with popes Boniface VIII. and Clement V., and also with -Philip IV. of France; and was present at the death of the English king -in July 1307. For a short time Lincoln was friendly with the new king, -Edward II., and his favourite, Piers Gaveston; but quickly changing his -attitude, he joined earl Thomas of Lancaster and the baronial party, was -one of the "ordainers" appointed in 1310 and was regent of the kingdom -during the king's absence in Scotland in the same year. He died in -London on the 5th of February 1311, and was buried in St Paul's -Cathedral. He married Margaret (d. 1309), granddaughter and heiress of -William Longsword, 2nd earl of Salisbury, and his only surviving child, -Alice (1283-1348), became the wife of Thomas, earl of Lancaster, who -thus inherited his father-in-law's earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury. -Lincoln's Inn in London gets its name from the earl, whose London -residence occupied this site. He founded Whalley Abbey in Lancashire, -and built Denbigh Castle. - -In 1349 Henry Plantagenet, earl (afterwards duke) of Lancaster, a nephew -of Earl Thomas, was created earl of Lincoln; and when his grandson Henry -became king of England as Henry IV. in 1399 the title merged in the -crown. In 1467 John de la Pole (c. 1464-1487), a nephew of Edward IV., -was made earl of Lincoln, and the same dignity was conferred in 1525 -upon Henry Brandon (1516-1545), son of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk. -Both died without sons, and the next family to hold the earldom was that -of Clinton. - -EDWARD FIENNES CLINTON, 9th Lord Clinton (1512-1585), lord high admiral -and the husband of Henry VIII.'s mistress, Elizabeth Blount, was created -earl of Lincoln in 1572. Before his elevation he had rendered very -valuable services both on sea and land to Edward VI., to Mary and to -Elizabeth, and he was in the confidence of the leading men of these -reigns, including William Cecil, Lord Burghley. From 1572 until the -present day the title has been held by Clinton's descendants. In 1768 -Henry Clinton, the 9th earl (1720-1794), succeeded his uncle Thomas -Pelham as 2nd duke of Newcastle-under-Lyne, and since this date the -title of earl of Lincoln has been the courtesy title of the eldest son -of the duke of Newcastle. - - See G. E. C.(okayne), _Complete Peerage_, vol. v. (1893). - - - - -LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (1809-1865), sixteenth president of the United States -of America, was born on "Rock Spring" farm, 3 m. from Hodgenville, in -Hardin (now Larue) county, Kentucky, on the 12th of February 1809.[1] -His grandfather,[2] Abraham Lincoln, settled in Kentucky about 1780 and -was killed by Indians in 1784. His father, Thomas (1778-1851), was born -in Rockingham (then Augusta) county, Virginia; he was hospitable, -shiftless, restless and unsuccessful, working now as a carpenter and now -as a farmer, and could not read or write before his marriage, in -Washington county, Kentucky, on the 12th of June 1806, to Nancy Hanks -(1783-1818), who was, like him, a native of Virginia, but had much more -strength of character and native ability, and seemed to have been, in -intellect and character, distinctly above the social class in which she -was born. The Lincolns had removed from Elizabethtown, Hardin county, -their first home, to the Rock Spring farm, only a short time before -Abraham's birth; about 1813 they removed to a farm of 238 acres on Knob -Creek, about 6 m. from Hodgenville; and in 1816 they crossed the Ohio -river and settled on a quarter-section, 1(1/2) m. E. of the present -village of Gentryville, in Spencer county, Indiana. There Abraham's -mother died on the 5th of October 1818. In December 1819 his father -married, at his old home, Elizabethtown, Mrs Sarah (Bush) Johnston (d. -1869), whom he had courted years before, whose thrift greatly improved -conditions in the home, and who exerted a great influence over her -stepson. Spencer county was still a wilderness, and the boy grew up in -pioneer surroundings, living in a rude log-cabin, enduring many -hardships and knowing only the primitive manners, conversation and -ambitions of sparsely settled backwoods communities. Schools were rare, -and teachers qualified only to impart the merest rudiments. "Of course -when I came of age I did not know much," wrote he years afterward, -"still somehow I could read, write and cipher to the rule of three, but -that was all. I have not been to school since. The little advance I now -have upon this store of education I have picked up from time to time -under the pressure of necessity." His entire schooling, in five -different schools, amounted to less than a twelvemonth; but he became a -good speller and an excellent penman. His own mother taught him to read, -and his stepmother urged him to study. He read and re-read in early -boyhood the Bible, Aesop, _Robinson Crusoe_, _Pilgrim's Progress_, -Weems's _Life of Washington_ and a history of the United States; and -later read every book he could borrow from the neighbours, Burns and -Shakespeare becoming favourites. He wrote rude, coarse satires, crude -verse, and compositions on the American government, temperance, &c. At -the age of seventeen he had attained his full height, and began to be -known as a wrestler, runner and lifter of great weights. When nineteen -he made a journey as a hired hand on a flatboat to New Orleans. - -In March 1830 his father emigrated to Macon county, Illinois (near the -present Decatur), and soon afterward removed to Coles county. Being now -twenty-one years of age, Abraham hired himself to Denton Offutt, a -migratory trader and storekeeper then of Sangamon county, and he helped -Offutt to build a flatboat and float it down the Sangamon, Illinois and -Mississippi rivers to New Orleans. In 1831 Offutt made him clerk of his -country store at New Salem, a small and unsuccessful settlement in -Menard county; this gave him moments of leisure to devote to -self-education. He borrowed a grammar and other books, sought -explanations from the village schoolmaster and began to read law. In -this frontier community law and politics claimed a large proportion of -the stronger and the more ambitious men; the law early appealed to -Lincoln and his general popularity encouraged him as early as 1832 to -enter politics. In this year Offutt failed and Lincoln was thus left -without employment. He became a candidate for the Illinois House of -Representatives; and on the 9th of March 1832 issued an address "To the -people of Sangamon county" which betokens talent and education far -beyond mere ability to "read, write and cipher," though in its -preparation he seems to have had the help of a friend. Before the -election the Black Hawk Indian War broke out; Lincoln volunteered in one -of the Sangamon county companies on the 21st of April and was elected -captain by the members of the company. It is said that the oath of -allegiance was administered to Lincoln at this time by Lieut. Jefferson -Davis. The company, a part of the 4th Illinois, was mustered out after -the five weeks' service for which it volunteered, and Lincoln -re-enlisted as a private on the 29th of May, and was finally mustered -out on the 16th of June by Lieut. Robert Anderson, who in 1861 commanded -the Union troops at Fort Sumter. As captain Lincoln was twice in -disgrace, once for firing a pistol near camp and again because nearly -his entire company was intoxicated. He was in no battle, and always -spoke lightly of his military record. He was defeated in his campaign -for the legislature in 1832, partly because of his unpopular adherence -to Clay and the American system, but in his own election precinct, he -received nearly all the votes cast. With a friend, William Berry, he -then bought a small country store, which soon failed chiefly because of -the drunken habits of Berry and because Lincoln preferred to read and to -tell stories--he early gained local celebrity as a story-teller--rather -than sell; about this time he got hold of a set of Blackstone. In the -spring of 1833 the store's stock was sold to satisfy its creditors, and -Lincoln assumed the firm's debts, which he did not fully pay off for -fifteen years. In May 1833, local friendship, disregarding politics, -procured his appointment as postmaster of New Salem, but this paid him -very little, and in the same year the county surveyor of Sangamon county -opportunely offered to make him one of his deputies. He hastily -qualified himself by study, and entered upon the practical duties of -surveying farm lines, roads and town sites. "This," to use his own -words, "procured bread, and kept body and soul together." - -In 1834 Lincoln was elected (second of four successful candidates, with -only 14 fewer votes than the first) a member of the Illinois House of -Representatives, to which he was re-elected in 1836, 1838 and 1840, -serving until 1842. In his announcement of his candidacy in 1836 he -promised to vote for Hugh L. White of Tennessee (a vigorous opponent of -Andrew Jackson in Tennessee politics) for president, and said: "I go for -all sharing the privileges of the government who assist in bearing its -burdens. Consequently, I go for admitting all whites to the right of -suffrage, who pay taxes or bear arms (by no means excluding females)"--a -sentiment frequently quoted to prove Lincoln a believer in woman's -suffrage. In this election he led the poll in Sangamon county. In the -legislature, like the other representatives of that county, who were -called the "Long Nine," because of their stature, he worked for internal -improvements, for which lavish appropriations were made, and for the -division of Sangamon county and the choice of Springfield as the state -capital, instead of Vandalia. He and his party colleagues followed -Stephen A. Douglas in adopting the convention system, to which Lincoln -had been strongly opposed. In 1837 with one other representative from -Sangamon county, named Dan Stone, he protested against a series of -resolutions, adopted by the Illinois General Assembly, expressing -disapproval of the formation of abolition societies and asserting, among -other things, that "the right of property in slaves is sacred to the -slave holding states under the Federal Constitution"; and Lincoln and -Stone put out a paper in which they expressed their belief "that the -institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but -that the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase -than abate its evils," "that the Congress of the United States has no -power under the Constitution to interfere with the institution of -slavery in the different states," "that the Congress of the United -States has the power, under the Constitution, to abolish slavery in the -District of Columbia, but that the power ought not to be exercised -unless at the request of the people of the District." Lincoln was very -popular among his fellow legislators, and in 1838 and in 1840 he -received the complimentary vote of his minority colleagues for the -speakership of the state House of Representatives. In 1842 he declined a -renomination to the state legislature and attempted unsuccessfully to -secure a nomination to Congress. In the same year he became interested -in the Washingtonian temperance movement. - -In 1846 he was elected a member of the National House of Representatives -by a majority of 1511 over his Democratic opponent, Peter Cartwright, -the Methodist preacher. Lincoln was the only Whig member of Congress -elected in Illinois in 1846. In the House of Representatives on the 22nd -of December 1847 he introduced the "Spot Resolutions," which quoted -statements in the president's messages of the 11th of May 1846 and the -7th and 8th of December that Mexican troops had invaded the territory of -the United States, and asked the president to tell the precise "spot" of -invasion; he made a speech on these resolutions in the House on the 12th -of January 1848. His attitude toward the war and especially his vote for -George Ashmun's amendment to the supply bill at this session, declaring -that the Mexican War was "unnecessarily and unconstitutionally commenced -by the President," greatly displeased his constituents. He later -introduced a bill regarding slavery in the District of Columbia, which -(in accordance with his statement of 1837) was to be submitted to the -vote of the District for approval, and which provided for compensated -emancipation, forbade the bringing of slaves into the District of -Columbia, except by government officials from slave states, and the -selling of slaves away from the District, and arranged for the -emancipation after a period of apprenticeship of all slave children born -after the 1st of January 1850. While he was in Congress he voted -repeatedly for the principle of the Wilmot Proviso. At the close of his -term in 1848 he declined an appointment as governor of the newly -organized Territory of Oregon and for a time worked, without success, -for an appointment as Commissioner of the General Land Office. During -the presidential campaign he made speeches in Illinois, and in -Massachusetts he spoke before the Whig State Convention at Worcester on -the 12th of September, and in the next ten days at Lowell, Dedham, -Roxbury, Chelsea, Cambridge and Boston. He had become an eloquent and -influential public speaker, and in 1840 and 1844 was a candidate on the -Whig ticket for presidential elector. - -In 1834 his political friend and colleague John Todd Stuart (1807-1885), -a lawyer in full practice, had urged him to fit himself for the bar, and -had lent him text-books; and Lincoln, working diligently, was admitted -to the bar in September 1836. In April 1837 he quitted New Salem, and -removed to Springfield, which was the county-seat and was soon to become -the capital of the state, to begin practice in a partnership with -Stuart, which was terminated in April 1841; from that time until -September 1843 he was junior partner to Stephen Trigg Logan (1800-1880), -and from 1843 until his death he was senior partner of William Henry -Herndon (1818-1891). Between 1849 and 1854 he took little part in -politics, devoted himself to the law and became one of the leaders of -the Illinois bar. His small fees--he once charged $3.50 for collecting -an account of nearly $600.00--his frequent refusals to take cases which -he did not think right and his attempts to prevent unnecessary -litigation have become proverbial. Judge David Davis, who knew Lincoln -on the Illinois circuit and whom Lincoln made in October 1862 an -associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, said that -he was "great both at _nisi prius_ and before an appellate tribunal." He -was an excellent cross-examiner, whose candid friendliness of manner -often succeeded in eliciting important testimony from unwilling -witnesses. Among Lincoln's most famous cases were: one (_Bailey_ v. -_Cromwell_, 4 Ill. 71; frequently cited) before the Illinois Supreme -Court in July 1841 in which he argued against the validity of a note in -payment for a negro girl, adducing the Ordinance of 1787 and other -authorities; a case (tried in Chicago in September 1857) for the Rock -Island railway, sued for damages by the owners of a steamboat sunk after -collision with a railway bridge, a trial in which Lincoln brought to the -service of his client a surveyor's knowledge of mathematics and a -riverman's acquaintance with currents and channels, and argued that -crossing a stream by bridge was as truly a common right as navigating it -by boat, thus contributing to the success of Chicago and railway -commerce in the contest against St Louis and river transportation; the -defence (at Beardstown in May 1858) on the charge of murder of William -("Duff") Armstrong, son of one of Lincoln's New Salem friends, whom -Lincoln freed by controverting with the help of an almanac the testimony -of a crucial witness that between 10 and 11 o'clock at night he had seen -by moonlight the defendant strike the murderous blow--this dramatic -incident is described in Edward Eggleston's novel, _The Graysons_; and -the defence on the charge of murder (committed in August 1859) of -"Peachy" Harrison, a grandson of Peter Cartwright, whose testimony was -used with great effect. - -From law, however, Lincoln was soon drawn irresistibly back into -politics. The slavery question, in one form or another, had become the -great overshadowing issue in national, and even in state politics; the -abolition movement, begun in earnest by W. L. Garrison in 1831, had -stirred the conscience of the North, and had had its influence even upon -many who strongly deprecated its extreme radicalism; the Compromise of -1850 had failed to silence sectional controversy, and the Fugitive Slave -Law, which was one of the compromise measures, had throughout the North -been bitterly assailed and to a considerable extent had been nullified -by state legislation; and finally in 1854 the slavery agitation was -fomented by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which repealed the -Missouri Compromise and gave legislative sanction to the principle of -"popular sovereignty"--the principle that the inhabitants of each -Territory as well as of each state were to be left free to decide for -themselves whether or not slavery was to be permitted therein. In -enacting this measure Congress had been dominated largely by one -man--Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois--then probably the most powerful -figure in national politics. Lincoln had early put himself on record as -opposed to slavery, but he was never technically an abolitionist; he -allied himself rather with those who believed that slavery should be -fought within the Constitution, that, though it could not be -constitutionally interfered with in individual states, it should be -excluded from territory over which the national government had -jurisdiction. In this, as in other things, he was eminently -clear-sighted and practical. Already he had shown his capacity as a -forcible and able debater; aroused to new activity upon the passage of -the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which he regarded as a gross breach of -political faith, he now entered upon public discussion with an -earnestness and force that by common consent gave him leadership in -Illinois of the opposition, which in 1854 elected a majority of the -legislature; and it gradually became clear that he was the only man who -could be opposed in debate to the powerful and adroit Douglas. He was -elected to the state House of Representatives, from which he immediately -resigned to become a candidate for United States senator from Illinois, -to succeed James Shields, a Democrat; but five opposition members, of -Democratic antecedents, refused to vote for Lincoln (on the second -ballot he received 47 votes--50 being necessary to elect) and he turned -the votes which he controlled over to Lyman Trumbull, who was opposed to -the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and thus secured the defeat of Joel Aldrich -Matteson (1808-1883), who favoured this act and who on the eighth ballot -had received 47 votes to 35 for Trumbull and 15 for Lincoln. The various -anti-Nebraska elements came together, in Illinois as elsewhere, to form -a new party at a time when the old parties were disintegrating; and in -1856 the Republican party was formally organized in the state. Lincoln -before the state convention at Bloomington of "all opponents of -anti-Nebraska legislation" (the first Republican state convention in -Illinois) made on the 29th of May a notable address known as the "Lost -Speech." The National Convention of the Republican Party in 1856 cast -110 votes for Lincoln as its vice-presidential candidate on the ticket -with Fremont, and he was on the Republican electoral ticket of this -year, and made effective campaign speeches in the interest of the new -party. The campaign in the state resulted substantially in a drawn -battle, the Democrats gaining a majority in the state for president, -while the Republicans elected the governor and state officers. In 1858 -the term of Douglas in the United States Senate was expiring, and he -sought re-election. On the 16th of June 1858 by unanimous resolution of -the Republican state convention Lincoln was declared "the first and only -choice of the Republicans of Illinois for the United States Senate as -the successor of Stephen A. Douglas," who was the choice of his own -party to succeed himself. Lincoln, addressing the convention which -nominated him, gave expression to the following bold prophecy:-- - - "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this - Government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do - not expect the Union to be dissolved--I do not expect the house to - fall--but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all - one thing or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will - arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind - shall rest in the belief that it is in course of ultimate extinction; - or its advocates will push it forward, till it shall become alike - lawful in all the states, old as well as new--North as well as South." - -In this speech, delivered in the state House of Representatives, Lincoln -charged Pierce, Buchanan, Taney and Douglas with conspiracy to secure -the Dred Scott decision. Yielding to the wish of his party friends, on -the 24th of July, Lincoln challenged Douglas to a joint public -discussion.[3] The antagonists met in debate at seven designated places -in the state. The first meeting was at Ottawa, La Salle County, about 90 -m. south-west of Chicago, on the 21st of August. At Freeport, on the -Wisconsin boundary, on the 27th of August, Lincoln answered questions -put to him by Douglas, and by his questions forced Douglas to "betray -the South" by his enunciation of the "Freeport heresy," that, no matter -what the character of Congressional legislation or the Supreme Court's -decision "slavery cannot exist a day or an hour anywhere unless it is -supported by local police regulations." This adroit attempt to reconcile -the principle of popular sovereignty with the Dred Scott decision, -though it undoubtedly helped Douglas in the immediate fight for the -senatorship, necessarily alienated his Southern supporters and assured -his defeat, as Lincoln foresaw it must, in the presidential campaign of -1860. The other debates were: at Jonesboro, in the southern part of the -state, on the 15th of September; at Charleston, 150 m. N.E. of -Jonesboro, on the 18th of September; and, in the western part of the -state, at Galesburg (Oct. 7), Quincy (Oct. 13) and Alton (Oct. 15). In -these debates Douglas, the champion of his party, was over-matched in -clearness and force of reasoning, and lacked the great moral earnestness -of his opponent; but he dexterously extricated himself time and again -from difficult argumentative positions, and retained sufficient support -to win the immediate prize. At the November election the Republican vote -was 126,084, the Douglas Democratic vote was 121,940 and the Lecompton -(or Buchanan) Democratic vote was 5091; but the Democrats, through a -favourable apportionment of representative districts, secured a majority -of the legislature (Senate: 14 Democrats, 11 Republicans; House: 40 -Democrats, 35 Republicans), which re-elected Douglas. Lincoln's speeches -in this campaign won him a national fame. In 1859 he made two speeches -in Ohio--one at Columbus on the 16th of September criticising Douglas's -paper in the September _Harper's Magazine_, and one at Cincinnati on the -17th of September, which was addressed to Kentuckians,--and he spent a -few days in Kansas, speaking in Elwood, Troy, Doniphan, Atchison and -Leavenworth, in the first week of December. On the 27th of February 1860 -in Cooper Union, New York City, he made a speech (much the same as that -delivered in Elwood, Kansas, on the 1st of December) which made him -known favourably to the leaders of the Republican party in the East and -which was a careful historical study criticising the statement of -Douglas in one of his speeches in Ohio that "our fathers when they -framed the government under which we live understood this question -[slavery] just as well and even better than we do now," and Douglas's -contention that "the fathers" made the country (and intended that it -should remain) part slave. Lincoln pointed out that the majority of the -members of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 opposed slavery and -that they did not think that Congress had no power to control slavery in -the Territories. He spoke at Concord, Manchester, Exeter and Dover in -New Hampshire, at Hartford (5th March), New Haven (6th March), -Woonsocket (8th March) and Norwich (9th March). The Illinois State -Convention of the Republican party, held at Decatur on the 9th and 10th -of May 1860, amid great enthusiasm declared Abraham Lincoln its first -choice for the presidential nomination, and instructed the delegation to -the National Convention to cast the vote of the state as a unit for him. - -The Republican national convention, which made "No Extension of Slavery" -the essential part of the party platform, met at Chicago on the 16th of -May 1860. At this time William H. Seward was the most conspicuous -Republican in national politics, and Salmon P. Chase had long been in -the fore-front of the political contest against slavery. Both had won -greater national fame than had Lincoln, and, before the convention met, -each hoped to be nominated for president. Chase, however, had little -chance, and the contest was virtually between Seward and Lincoln, who by -many was considered more "available," because it was thought that he -could (and Seward could not) secure the vote of certain doubtful states. -Lincoln's name was presented by Illinois and seconded by Indiana. At -first Seward had the strongest support. On the first ballot Lincoln -received only 102 votes to 173(1/2) for Seward. On the second ballot -Lincoln received 181 votes to Seward's 184(1/2). On the third ballot the -50(1/2) votes formerly given to Simon Cameron[4] were given to Lincoln, -who received 231(1/2) votes to 180 for Seward, and without taking -another ballot enough votes were changed to make Lincoln's total 354 -(233 being necessary for a choice) and the nomination was then made -unanimous. Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, was nominated for the -vice-presidency. The convention was singularly tumultuous and noisy; -large claques were hired by both Lincoln's and Seward's managers. During -the campaign Lincoln remained in Springfield, making few speeches and -writing practically no letters for publication. The campaign was -unusually animated--only the Whig campaign for William Henry Harrison in -1840 is comparable to it: there were great torchlight processions of -"wide-awake" clubs, which did "rail-fence," or zigzag, marches, and -carried rails in honour of their candidate, the "rail-splitter." Lincoln -was elected by a popular vote of 1,866,452 to 1,375,157 for Douglas, -847,953 for Breckinridge and 590,631 for Bell--as the combined vote of -his opponents was so much greater than his own he was often called "the -minority president"; the electoral vote was: Lincoln, 180; John C. -Breckinridge, 72; John Bell, 39; Stephen A. Douglas, 12. On the 4th of -March 1861 Lincoln was inaugurated as president. (For an account of his -administration see UNITED STATES: _History_.) - -During the campaign radical leaders in the South frequently asserted -that the success of the Republicans at the polls would mean that the -rights of the slave-holding states under the Federal constitution, as -interpreted by them, would no longer be respected by the North, and -that, if Lincoln were elected, it would be the duty of these -slave-holding states to secede from the Union. There was much opposition -in these states to such a course, but the secessionists triumphed, and -by the time President Lincoln was inaugurated, South Carolina, Georgia, -Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas had formally -withdrawn from the Union. A provisional government under the designation -"The Confederate States of America," with Jefferson Davis as president, -was organized by the seceding states, which seized by force nearly all -the forts, arsenals and public buildings within their limits. Great -division of sentiment existed in the North, whether in this emergency -acquiescence or coercion was the preferable policy. Lincoln's inaugural -address declared the Union perpetual and acts of secession void, and -announced the determination of the government to defend its authority, -and to hold forts and places yet in its possession. He disclaimed any -intention to invade, subjugate or oppress the seceding states. "You can -have no conflict," he said, "without being yourselves the aggressors." -Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbour, had been besieged by the -secessionists since January; and, it being now on the point of surrender -through starvation, Lincoln sent the besiegers official notice on the -8th of April that a fleet was on its way to carry provisions to the -fort, but that he would not attempt to reinforce it unless this effort -were resisted. The Confederates, however, immediately ordered its -reduction, and after a thirty-four hours' bombardment the garrison -capitulated on the 13th of April 1861. (For the military history of the -war, see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR.) - -With civil war thus provoked, Lincoln, on the 15th of April, by -proclamation called 75,000 three months' militia under arms, and on the -4th of May ordered the further enlistment of 64,748 soldiers and 18,000 -seamen for three years' service. He instituted by proclamation of the -19th of April a blockade of the Southern ports, took effective steps to -extemporize a navy, convened Congress in special session (on the 4th of -July), and asked for legislation and authority to make the war "short, -sharp and decisive." The country responded with enthusiasm to his -summons and suggestions; and the South on its side was not less active. - -The slavery question presented vexatious difficulties in conducting the -war. Congress in August 1861 passed an act (approved August 6th) -confiscating rights of slave-owners to slaves employed in hostile -service against the Union. On the 30th of August General Fremont by -military order declared martial law and confiscation against active -enemies, with freedom to their slaves, in the State of Missouri. -Believing that under existing conditions such a step was both -detrimental in present policy and unauthorized in law, President Lincoln -directed him (2nd September) to modify the order to make it conform to -the Confiscation Act of Congress, and on the 11th of September annulled -the parts of the order which conflicted with this act. Strong political -factions were instantly formed for and against military emancipation, -and the government was hotly beset by antagonistic counsel. The -Unionists of the border slave states were greatly alarmed, but Lincoln -by his moderate conservatism held them to the military support of the -government.[5] Meanwhile he sagaciously prepared the way for the supreme -act of statesmanship which the gathering national crisis already dimly -foreshadowed. On the 6th of March 1862, he sent a special message to -Congress recommending the passage of a resolution offering pecuniary aid -from the general government to induce states to adopt gradual -abolishment of slavery. Promptly passed by Congress, the resolution -produced no immediate result except in its influence on public opinion. -A practical step, however, soon followed. In April Congress passed and -the president approved (6th April) an act emancipating the slaves in the -District of Columbia, with compensation to owners--a measure which -Lincoln had proposed when in Congress. Meanwhile slaves of loyal masters -were constantly escaping to military camps. Some commanders excluded -them altogether; others surrendered them on demand; while still others -sheltered and protected them against their owners. Lincoln tolerated -this latitude as falling properly within the military discretion -pertaining to local army operations. A new case, however, soon demanded -his official interference. On the 9th of May 1862 General David Hunter, -commanding in the limited areas gained along the southern coast, issued -a short order declaring his department under martial law, and -adding--"Slavery and martial law in a free country are altogether -incompatible. The persons in these three States--Georgia, Florida and -South Carolina--heretofore held as slaves are, therefore, declared for -ever free." As soon as this order, by the slow method of communication -by sea, reached the newspapers, Lincoln (May 19) published a -proclamation declaring it void; adding further, "Whether it be competent -for me as commander-in-chief of the army and navy to declare the slaves -of any state or states free, and whether at any time or in any case it -shall have become a necessity indispensable to the maintenance of the -government to exercise such supposed power, are questions which under my -responsibility I reserve to myself, and which I cannot feel justified in -leaving to the decision of commanders in the field. These are totally -different questions from those of police regulations in armies or -camps." But in the same proclamation Lincoln recalled to the public his -own proposal and the assent of Congress to compensate states which would -adopt voluntary and gradual abolishment. "To the people of these states -now," he added, "I must earnestly appeal. I do not argue. I beseech you -to make the argument for yourselves. You cannot, if you would, be blind -to the signs of the times." Meanwhile the anti-slavery sentiment of the -North constantly increased. Congress by express act (approved on the -19th of June) prohibited the existence of slavery in all territories -outside of states. On July the 12th the president called the -representatives of the border slave states to the executive mansion, and -once more urged upon them his proposal of compensated emancipation. "If -the war continues long," he said, "as it must if the object be not -sooner attained, the institution in your states will be extinguished by -mere friction and abrasion--by the mere incidents of the war. It will be -gone, and you will have nothing valuable in lieu of it." Although -Lincoln's appeal brought the border states to no practical decision--the -representatives of these states almost without exception opposed the -plan--it served to prepare public opinion for his final act. During the -month of July his own mind reached the virtual determination to give -slavery its _coup de grace_; on the 17th he approved a new Confiscation -Act, much broader than that of the 6th of August 1861 (which freed only -those slaves in military service against the Union) and giving to the -president power to employ persons of African descent for the suppression -of the rebellion; and on the 22nd he submitted to his cabinet the draft -of an emancipation proclamation substantially as afterward issued. -Serious military reverses constrained him for the present to withhold -it, while on the other hand they served to increase the pressure upon -him from anti-slavery men. Horace Greeley having addressed a public -letter to him complaining of "the policy you seem to be pursuing with -regard to the slaves of the rebels," the president replied on the 22nd -of August, saying, "My paramount object is to save the Union, and not -either to save or destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without -freeing any slave, I would do it; if I could save it by freeing all the -slaves, I would do it; and, if I could do it by freeing some and leaving -others alone, I would also do that." Thus still holding back violent -reformers with one hand, and leading up halting conservatives with the -other, he on the 13th of September replied among other things to an -address from a delegation: "I do not want to issue a document that the -whole world will see must necessarily be inoperative like the pope's -bull against the comet.... I view this matter as a practical war -measure, to be decided on according to the advantages or disadvantages -it may offer to the suppression of the rebellion.... I have not decided -against a proclamation of liberty to the slaves, but hold the matter -under advisement." - -The year 1862 had opened with important Union victories. Admiral A. H. -Foote captured Fort Henry on the 6th of February, and Gen. U. S. Grant -captured Fort Donelson on the 16th of February, and won the battle of -Shiloh on the 6th and 7th of April. Gen. A. E. Burnside took possession -of Roanoke island on the North Carolina coast (7th February). The famous -contest between the new ironclads "Monitor" and "Merrimac" (9th April), -though indecisive, effectually stopped the career of the Confederate -vessel, which was later destroyed by the Confederates themselves. (See -HAMPTON ROADS.) Farragut, with a wooden fleet, ran past the twin forts -St Philip and Jackson, compelled the surrender of New Orleans (26th -April), and gained control of the lower Mississippi. The succeeding -three months brought disaster and discouragement to the Union army. -M'Clellan's campaign against Richmond was made abortive by his timorous -generalship, and compelled the withdrawal of his army. Pope's army, -advancing against the same city by another line, was beaten back upon -Washington in defeat. The tide of war, however, once more turned in the -defeat of Lee's invading army at South Mountain and Antietam in Maryland -on the 14th and on the 16th and 17th of September, compelling him to -retreat. - -With public opinion thus ripened by alternate defeat and victory, -President Lincoln, on the 22nd of September 1862, issued his preliminary -proclamation of emancipation, giving notice that on the 1st of January -1863, "all persons held as slaves within any state or designated part of -a state the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United -States shall be then, thenceforward and for ever free." In his message -to Congress on the 1st of December following, he again urged his plan of -gradual, compensated emancipation (to be completed on the 1st of -December 1900) "as a means, not in exclusion of, but additional to, all -others for restoring and preserving the national authority throughout -the Union." On the 1st day of January 1863 the final proclamation of -emancipation was duly issued, designating the States of Arkansas, Texas, -Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, -and certain portions of Louisiana and Virginia, as "this day in -rebellion against the United States," and proclaiming that, in virtue of -his authority as commander-in-chief, and as a necessary war measure for -suppressing rebellion, "I do order and declare that all persons held as -slaves within said designated states and parts of states are and -henceforward shall be free," and pledging the executive and military -power of the government to maintain such freedom. The legal validity of -these proclamations was never pronounced upon by the national courts; -but their decrees gradually enforced by the march of armies were soon -recognized by public opinion to be practically irreversible.[6] Such -dissatisfaction as they caused in the border slave states died out in -the stress of war. The systematic enlistment of negroes and their -incorporation into the army by regiments, hitherto only tried as -exceptional experiments, were now pushed with vigour, and, being -followed by several conspicuous instances of their gallantry on the -battlefield, added another strong impulse to the sweeping change of -popular sentiment. To put the finality of emancipation beyond all -question, Lincoln in the winter session of 1863-1864 strongly supported -a movement in Congress to abolish slavery by constitutional amendment, -but the necessary two-thirds vote of the House of Representatives could -not then be obtained. In his annual message of the 6th of December 1864, -he urged the immediate passage of the measure. Congress now acted -promptly: on the 31st of January 1865, that body by joint resolution -proposed to the states the 13th amendment of the Federal Constitution, -providing that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a -punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, -shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their -jurisdiction." Before the end of that year twenty-seven out of the -thirty-six states of the Union (being the required three-fourths) had -ratified the amendment, and official proclamation made by President -Johnson on the 18th of December 1865, declared it duly adopted. - -The foreign policy of President Lincoln, while subordinate in importance -to the great questions of the Civil War, nevertheless presented several -difficult and critical problems for his decision. The arrest (8th of -November 1861) by Captain Charles Wilkes of two Confederate envoys -proceeding to Europe in the British steamer "Trent" seriously threatened -peace with England. Public opinion in America almost unanimously -sustained the act; but Lincoln, convinced that the rights of Great -Britain as a neutral had been violated, promptly, upon the demand of -England, ordered the liberation of the prisoners (26th of December). -Later friendly relations between the United States and Great Britain, -where, among the upper classes, there was a strong sentiment in favour -of the Confederacy, were seriously threatened by the fitting out of -Confederate privateers in British ports, and the Administration owed -much to the skilful diplomacy of the American minister in London, -Charles Francis Adams. A still broader foreign question grew out of -Mexican affairs, when events culminating in the setting up of Maximilian -of Austria as emperor under protection of French troops demanded the -constant watchfulness of the United States. Lincoln's course was one of -prudent moderation. France voluntarily declared that she sought in -Mexico only to satisfy injuries done her and not to overthrow or -establish local government or to appropriate territory. The United -States Government replied that, relying on these assurances, it would -maintain strict non-intervention, at the same time openly avowing the -general sympathy of its people with a Mexican republic, and that "their -own safety and the cheerful destiny to which they aspire are intimately -dependent on the continuance of free republican institutions throughout -America." In the early part of 1863 the French Government proposed a -mediation between the North and the South. This offer President Lincoln -(on the 6th of February) declined to consider, Seward replying for him -that it would only be entering into diplomatic discussion with the -rebels whether the authority of the government should be renounced, and -the country delivered over to disunion and anarchy. - -The Civil War gradually grew to dimensions beyond all expectation. By -January 1863 the Union armies numbered near a million men, and were kept -up to this strength till the end of the struggle. The Federal war debt -eventually reached the sum of $2,700,000,000. The fortunes of battle -were somewhat fluctuating during the first half of 1863, but the -beginning of July brought the Union forces decisive victories. The -reduction of Vicksburg (4th of July) and Port Hudson (9th of July), with -other operations, restored complete control of the Mississippi, severing -the Southern Confederacy. In the east Lee had the second time marched -his army into Pennsylvania to suffer a disastrous defeat at Gettysburg, -on the 1st, 2nd and 3rd of July, though he was able to withdraw his -shattered forces south of the Potomac. At the dedication of this -battlefield as a soldiers' cemetery in November, President Lincoln made -the following oration, which has taken permanent place as a classic in -American literature:-- - - "Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this - continent a new nation conceived in liberty and dedicated to the - proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a - great civil war testing whether that nation, or any nation so - conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great - battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that - field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives - that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that - we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we - cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living - and dead, who struggled here have consecrated it far above our poor - power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember - what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is - for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work - which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is - rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before - us--that from these honoured dead we take increased devotion to that - cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion--that we - here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that - this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, and that - government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not - perish from the earth." - -In the unexpected prolongation of the war, volunteer enlistments became -too slow to replenish the waste of armies, and in 1863 the government -was forced to resort to a draft. The enforcement of the conscription -created much opposition in various parts of the country, and led to a -serious riot in the city of New York on the 13th-16th of July. President -Lincoln executed the draft with all possible justice and forbearance, -but refused every importunity to postpone it. It was made a special -subject of criticism by the Democratic party of the North, which was now -organizing itself on the basis of a discontinuance of the war, to -endeavour to win the presidential election of the following year. -Clement L. Vallandigham of Ohio, having made a violent public speech at -Mt. Vernon, Ohio, on the 1st of May against the war and military -proceedings, was arrested on the 5th of May by General Burnside, tried -by military commission, and sentenced on the 16th to imprisonment; a -writ of _habeas corpus_ had been refused, and the sentence was changed -by the president to transportation beyond the military lines. By way of -political defiance the Democrats of Ohio nominated Vallandigham for -governor on the 11th of June. Prominent Democrats and a committee of the -Convention having appealed for his release, Lincoln wrote two long -letters in reply discussing the constitutional question, and declaring -that in his judgment the president as commander-in-chief in time of -rebellion or invasion holds the power and responsibility of suspending -the privilege of the writ of _habeas corpus_, but offering to release -Vallandigham if the committee would sign a declaration that rebellion -exists, that an army and navy are constitutional means to suppress it, -and that each of them would use his personal power and influence to -prosecute the war. This liberal offer and their refusal to accept it -counteracted all the political capital they hoped to make out of the -case; and public opinion was still more powerfully influenced in behalf -of the president's action, by the pathos of the query which he -propounded in one of his letters: "Must I shoot the simple-minded -soldier boy who deserts, while I must not touch a hair of a wily -agitator who induces him to desert?" When the election took place in -Ohio, Vallandigham was defeated by a majority of more than a hundred -thousand. - -Many unfounded rumours of a willingness on the part of the Confederate -States to make peace were circulated to weaken the Union war spirit. To -all such suggestions, up to the time of issuing his emancipation -proclamation, Lincoln announced his readiness to stop fighting and grant -amnesty, whenever they would submit to and maintain the national -authority under the Constitution of the United States. Certain agents in -Canada having in 1864 intimated that they were empowered to treat for -peace, Lincoln, through Greeley, tendered them safe conduct to -Washington. They were by this forced to confess that they possessed no -authority to negotiate. The president thereupon sent them, and made -public, the following standing offer:-- - - "To whom it may concern: - - "Any proposition which embraces the restoration of peace, the - integrity of the whole Union, and the abandonment of slavery, and - which comes by and with an authority that can control the armies now - at war against the United States, will be received and considered by - the Executive Government of the United States, and will be met by - liberal terms on substantial and collateral points, and the bearer or - bearers thereof shall have safe conduct both ways. - - "July 18, 1864." - - "ABRAHAM LINCOLN." - -A noteworthy conference on this question took place near the close of -the Civil War, when the strength of the Confederacy was almost -exhausted. F. P. Blair, senior, a personal friend of Jefferson Davis, -acting solely on his own responsibility, was permitted to go from -Washington to Richmond, where, on the 12th of January 1865, after a -private and unofficial interview, Davis in writing declared his -willingness to enter a conference "to secure peace to the two -countries." Report being duly made to President Lincoln, he wrote a note -(dated 18th January) consenting to receive any agent sent informally -"with the view of securing peace to the people of our common country." -Upon the basis of this latter proposition three Confederate -commissioners (A. H. Stevens, J. A. C. Campbell and R. M. T. Hunter) -finally came to Hampton Roads, where President Lincoln and Secretary -Seward met them on the U.S. steam transport "River Queen," and on the -3rd of February 1865 an informal conference of four hours' duration was -held. Private reports of the interview agree substantially in the -statement that the Confederates proposed a cessation of the Civil War, -and postponement of its issues for future adjustment, while for the -present the belligerents should unite in a campaign to expel the French -from Mexico, and to enforce the Monroe doctrine. President Lincoln, -however, although he offered to use his influence to secure compensation -by the Federal government to slave-owners for their slaves, if there -should be "voluntary abolition of slavery by the states," a liberal and -generous administration of the Confiscation Act, and the immediate -representation of the southern states in Congress, refused to consider -any alliance against the French in Mexico, and adhered to the -instructions he had given Seward before deciding to personally accompany -him. These formulated three indispensable conditions to adjustment: -first, the restoration of the national authority throughout all the -states; second, no receding by the executive of the United States on the -slavery question; third, no cessation of hostilities short of an end of -the war, and the disbanding of all forces hostile to the government. -These terms the commissioners were not authorized to accept, and the -interview ended without result. - -As Lincoln's first presidential term of four years neared its end, the -Democratic party gathered itself for a supreme effort to regain the -ascendancy lost in 1860. The slow progress of the war, the severe -sacrifice of life in campaign and battle, the enormous accumulation of -public debt, arbitrary arrests and suspension of _habeas corpus_, the -rigour of the draft, and the proclamation of military emancipation -furnished ample subjects of bitter and vindictive campaign oratory. A -partisan coterie which surrounded M'Clellan loudly charged the failure -of his Richmond campaign to official interference in his plans. -Vallandigham had returned to his home in defiance of his banishment -beyond military lines, and was leniently suffered to remain. The -aggressive spirit of the party, however, pushed it to a fatal extreme. -The Democratic National Convention adopted (August 29, 1864) a -resolution (drafted by Vallandigham) declaring the war a failure, and -demanding a cessation of hostilities; it nominated M'Clellan for -president, and instead of adjourning _sine die_ as usual, remained -organized, and subject to be convened at any time and place by the -executive national committee. This threatening attitude, in conjunction -with alarming indications of a conspiracy to resist the draft, had the -effect to thoroughly consolidate the war party, which had on the 8th of -June unanimously renominated Lincoln, and had nominated Andrew Johnson -of Tennessee for the vice-presidency. At the election held on the 8th of -November 1864, Lincoln received 2,216,076 of the popular votes, and -M'Clellan (who had openly disapproved of the resolution declaring the -war a failure) but 1,808,725; while of the presidential electors 212 -voted for Lincoln and 21 for M'Clellan. Lincoln's second term of office -began on the 4th of March 1865. - -While this political contest was going on the Civil War was being -brought to a decisive close. Grant, at the head of the Army of the -Potomac, followed Lee to Richmond and Petersburg, and held him in siege -to within a few days of final surrender. General W. T. Sherman, -commanding the bulk of the Union forces in the Mississippi Valley, swept -in a victorious march through the heart of the Confederacy to Savannah -on the coast, and thence northward to North Carolina. Lee evacuated -Richmond on the 2nd of April, and was overtaken by Grant and compelled -to surrender his entire army on the 9th of April 1865. Sherman pushed -Johnston to a surrender on the 26th of April. This ended the war. - -Lincoln being at the time on a visit to the army, entered Richmond the -day after its surrender. Returning to Washington, he made his last -public address on the evening of the 11th of April, devoted mainly to -the question of reconstructing loyal governments in the conquered -states. On the evening of the 14th of April he attended Ford's theatre -in Washington. While seated with his family and friends absorbed in the -play, John Wilkes Booth, an actor, who with others had prepared a plot -to assassinate the several heads of government, went into the little -corridor leading to the upper stage-box, and secured it against ingress -by a wooden bar. Then stealthily entering the box, he discharged a -pistol at the head of the president from behind, the ball penetrating -the brain. Brandishing a huge knife, with which he wounded Colonel -Rathbone who attempted to hold him, the assassin rushed through the -stage-box to the front and leaped down upon the stage, escaping behind -the scenes and from the rear of the building, but was pursued, and -twelve days afterwards shot in a barn where he had concealed himself. -The wounded president was borne to a house across the street, where he -breathed his last at 7 A.M. on the 15th of April 1865. - - President Lincoln was of unusual stature, 6 ft. 4 in., and of spare - but muscular build; he had been in youth remarkably strong and skilful - in the athletic games of the frontier, where, however, his popularity - and recognized impartiality oftener made him an umpire than a - champion. He had regular and prepossessing features, dark complexion, - broad high forehead, prominent cheek bones, grey deep-set eyes, and - bushy black hair, turning to grey at the time of his death. Abstemious - in his habits, he possessed great physical endurance. He was almost as - tender-hearted as a woman. "I have not willingly planted a thorn in - any man's bosom," he was able to say. His patience was inexhaustible. - He had naturally a most cheerful and sunny temper, was highly social - and sympathetic, loved pleasant conversation, wit, anecdote and - laughter. Beneath this, however, ran an undercurrent of sadness; he - was occasionally subject to hours of deep silence and introspection - that approached a condition of trance. In manner he was simple, - direct, void of the least affectation, and entirely free from - awkwardness, oddity or eccentricity. His mental qualities were--a - quick analytic perception, strong logical powers, a tenacious memory, - a liberal estimate and tolerance of the opinions of others, ready - intuition of human nature; and perhaps his most valuable faculty was - rare ability to divest himself of all feeling or passion in weighing - motives of persons or problems of state. His speech and diction were - plain, terse, forcible. Relating anecdotes with appreciative humour - and fascinating dramatic skill, he used them freely and effectively in - conversation and argument. He loved manliness, truth and justice. He - despised all trickery and selfish greed. In arguments at the bar he - was so fair to his opponent that he frequently appeared to concede - away his client's case. He was ever ready to take blame on himself and - bestow praise on others. "I claim not to have controlled events," he - said, "but confess plainly that events have controlled me." The - Declaration of Independence was his political chart and inspiration. - He acknowledged a universal equality of human rights. "Certainly the - negro is not our equal in colour," he said, "perhaps not in many other - respects; still, in the right to put into his mouth the bread that his - own hands have earned, he is the equal of every other man white or - black." He had unchanging faith in self-government. "The people," he - said, "are the rightful masters of both congresses and courts, not to - overthrow the constitution, but to overthrow the men who pervert the - constitution." Yielding and accommodating in non-essentials, he was - inflexibly firm in a principle or position deliberately taken. "Let us - have faith that right makes might," he said, "and in that faith let us - to the end dare to do our duty as we understand it." The emancipation - proclamation once issued, he reiterated his purpose never to retract - or modify it. "There have been men base enough," he said, "to propose - to me to return to slavery our black warriors of Port Hudson and - Olustee, and thus win the respect of the masters they fought. Should I - do so I should deserve to be damned in time and eternity. Come what - will, I will keep my faith with friend and foe." Benevolence and - forgiveness were the very basis of his character; his world-wide - humanity is aptly embodied in a phrase of his second inaugural: "With - malice toward none, with charity for all." His nature was deeply - religious, but he belonged to no denomination. - -Lincoln married in Springfield on the 4th of November 1842, Mary Todd -(1818-1882), also a native of Kentucky, who bore him four sons, of whom -the only one to grow up was the eldest, Robert Todd Lincoln (b. 1843), -who graduated at Harvard in 1864, served as a captain on the staff of -General Grant in 1865, was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1867, was -secretary of war in the cabinets of Presidents Garfield and Arthur in -1881-1885, and United States Minister to Great Britain in 1889-1893, and -was prominently connected with many large corporations, becoming in 1897 -president of the Pullman Co. - -Of the many statues of President Lincoln in American cities, the best -known is that, in Chicago, by St Gaudens. Among the others are two by -Thomas Ball, one in statuary hall in the Capitol at Washington, and one -in Boston; two--one in Rochester, N.Y., and one in Springfield, Ill.--by -Leonard W. Volk, who made a life-mask and a bust of Lincoln in 1860; and -one by J. Q. A. Ward, in Lincoln Park, Washington. Francis B. Carpenter -painted in 1864 "Lincoln signing the Emancipation Proclamation," now in -the Capitol at Washington. - - See _The Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln_ (12 vols., New York, - 1906-1907; enlarged from the 2-volume edition of 1894 by John G. - Nicolay and John Hay). There are various editions of the - Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858; perhaps the best is that edited by E. - E. Sparks (1908). There are numerous biographies, and biographical - studies, including: John G. Nicolay and John Hay, _Abraham Lincoln: A - History_ (10 vols., New York, 1890), a monumental work by his private - secretaries who treat primarily his official life; John G. Nicolay, _A - Short Life of Abraham Lincoln_ (New York, 1904), condensed from the - preceding; John T. Morse, Jr., _Abraham Lincoln_ (2 vols., Boston, - 1896), in the "American Statesmen" series, an excellent brief - biography, dealing chiefly with Lincoln's political career; Ida M. - Tarbell, _The Early Life of Lincoln_ (New York, 1896) and _Life of - Abraham Lincoln_ (2 vols., New York, 1900), containing new material to - which too great prominence and credence is sometimes given; Carl - Schurz, _Abraham Lincoln: An Essay_ (Boston, 1891), a remarkably able - estimate; Ward H. Lamon, _The Life of Abraham Lincoln from his Birth - to his Inauguration as President_ (Boston, 1872), supplemented by - _Recollections of Abraham Lincoln 1847-1865_ (Chicago, 1895), compiled - by Dorothy Lamon, valuable for some personal recollections, but - tactless, uncritical, and marred by the effort of the writer, who as - marshal of the District of Columbia, knew Lincoln intimately, to prove - that Lincoln's melancholy was due to his lack of religious belief of - the orthodox sort; William H. Herndon and Jesse W. Weik, _Abraham - Lincoln, the True Story of a Great Life_ (3 vols., Chicago, 1889; - revised, 2 vols., New York, 1892), an intimate and ill-proportioned - biography by Lincoln's law partner who exaggerates the importance of - the petty incidents of his youth and young manhood; Isaac N. Arnold, - _History of Abraham Lincoln and the Overthrow of Slavery_ (Chicago, - 1867), revised and enlarged as _Life of Abraham Lincoln_ (Chicago, - 1885), valuable for personal reminiscences; Gideon Welles, _Lincoln - and Seward_ (New York, 1874), the reply of Lincoln's secretary of the - navy to Charles Francis Adams's eulogy (delivered in Albany in April - 1873) on Lincoln's secretary of state, W. H. Seward, in which Adams - claimed that Seward was the premier of Lincoln's administration; F. B. - Carpenter, _Six Months in the White House_ (New York, 1866), an - excellent account of Lincoln's daily life while president; Robert T. - Hill, _Lincoln the Lawyer_ (New York, 1906); A. Rothschild, _Lincoln, - the Master of Men_ (Boston, 1906); J. Eaton and E. O. Mason, _Grant, - Lincoln, and the Freedmen_ (New York, 1907); R. W. Gilder, _Lincoln, - the Leader, and Lincoln's Genius for Expression_ (New York, 1909); M. - L. Learned, _Abraham Lincoln: An American Migration_ (Philadelphia, - 1909), a careful study of the Lincoln family in America; W. P. - Pickett, _The Negro Problem: Abraham Lincoln's Solution_ (New York, - 1909); James H. Lea and J. R. Hutchinson, _The Ancestry of Abraham - Lincoln_ (Boston, 1909), a careful genealogical monograph; and C. H. - McCarthy, _Lincoln's Plan of Reconstruction_ (New York, 1901). For an - excellent account of Lincoln as president see J. F. Rhodes, _History - of the United States from the Compromise of 1850_ (7 vols., - 1893-1906). (J. G. N.; C. C. W.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Lincoln's birthday is a legal holiday in California, Colorado, - Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, - Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North - Dakota, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, West Virginia - and Wyoming. - - [2] Samuel Lincoln (c. 1619-1690), the president's first American - ancestor, son of Edward Lincoln, gent., of Hingham, Norfolk, - emigrated to Massachusetts in 1637 as apprentice to a weaver and - settled with two older brothers in Hingham, Mass. His son and - grandson were iron founders; the grandson Mordecai (1686-1736) moved - to Chester county, Pennsylvania. Mordecai's son John (1711-c. 1773), - a weaver, settled in what is now Rockingham county, Va., and was the - president's great-grandfather. - - [3] Douglas and Lincoln first met in public debate (four on a side) - in Springfield in December 1839. They met repeatedly in the campaign - of 1840. In 1852 Lincoln attempted with little success to reply to a - speech made by Douglas in Richmond. On the 4th of October 1854 in - Springfield, in reply to a speech on the Nebraska question by Douglas - delivered the day before, Lincoln made a remarkable speech four hours - long, to which Douglas replied on the next day; and in the fortnight - immediately following Lincoln attacked Douglas's record again at - Bloomington and at Peoria. On the 26th of June 1857 Lincoln in a - speech at Springfield answered Douglas's speech of the 12th in which - he made over his doctrine of popular sovereignty to suit the Dred - Scott decision. Before the actual debate in 1858 Douglas made a - speech in Chicago on the 9th of July, to which Lincoln replied the - next day; Douglas spoke at Bloomington on the 16th of July and - Lincoln answered him in Springfield on the 17th. - - [4] Without Lincoln's knowledge or consent, the managers of his - candidacy before the convention bargained for Cameron's votes by - promising to Cameron a place in Lincoln's cabinet, should Lincoln be - elected. Cameron became Lincoln's first secretary of war. - - [5] In November 1861 the president drafted a bill providing (1) that - all slaves more than thirty-five years old in the state of Delaware - should immediately become free; (2) that all children of slave - parentage born after the passage of the act should be free; (3) that - all others should be free on attaining the age of thirty-five or - after the 1st of January 1893, except for terms of apprenticeship; - and (4) that the national government should pay to the state of - Delaware $23,200 a year for twenty-one years. But this bill, which - Lincoln had hoped would introduce a system of "compensated - emancipation," was not approved by the legislature of Delaware, which - considered it in February 1862. - - [6] It is to be noted that slavery in the border slave states was not - affected by the proclamation. The parts of Virginia and Louisiana not - affected were those then considered to be under Federal jurisdiction; - in Virginia 55 counties were excepted (including the 48 which became - the separate state of West Virginia), and in Louisiana 13 parishes - (including the parish of Orleans). As the Federal Government did not, - at the time, actually have jurisdiction over the rest of the - territory of the Confederate States, that really affected, some - writers have questioned whether the proclamation really emancipated - any slaves when it was issued. The proclamation had the most - important political effect in the North of rallying more than ever to - the support of the administration the large anti-slavery element. The - adoption of the 13th amendment to the Federal Constitution in 1865 - rendered unnecessary any decision of the U.S. Supreme Court upon the - validity of the proclamation. - - - - -LINCOLN, a city and county of a city, municipal, county and -parliamentary borough, and the county town of Lincolnshire, England. -Pop. (1901) 48,784. It is picturesquely situated on the summit and south -slope of the limestone ridge of the Cliff range of hills, which rises -from the north bank of the river Witham, at its confluence with the Foss -Dyke, to an altitude of 200 ft. above the river. The cathedral rises -majestically from the crown of the hill, and is a landmark for many -miles. Lincoln is 130 m. N. by W. from London by the Great Northern -railway; it is also served by branches of the Great Eastern, Great -Central and Midland railways. - -Lincoln is one of the most interesting cities in England. The ancient -British town occupied the crown of the hill beyond the Newport or North -Gate. The Roman town consisted of two parallelograms of unequal length, -the first extending west from the Newport gate to a point a little west -of the castle keep. The second parallelogram, added as the town -increased in size and importance, extended due south from this point -down the hill towards the Witham as far as Newland, and thence in a -direction due east as far as Broad Street. Returning thence due north, -it joined the south-east corner of the first and oldest parallelogram in -what was afterwards known as the Minster yard, and terminated its east -side upon its junction with the north wall in a line with the Newport -gate. This is the oldest part of the town, and is named "above hill." -After the departure of the Romans, the city walls were extended still -farther in a south direction across the Witham as far as the great bar -gate, the south entrance to the High Street of the city; the junction of -these walls with the later Roman one was effected immediately behind -Broad Street. The "above hill" portion of the city consists of narrow -irregular streets, some of which are too steep to admit of being -ascended by carriages. The south portion, which is named "below hill," -is much more commodious, and contains the principal business premises. -Here also are the railway stations. - -The glory of Lincoln is the noble cathedral of the Blessed Virgin Mary, -commonly known as the Minster. As a study to the architect and antiquary -this stands unrivalled, not only as embodying the earliest purely Gothic -work extant, but as containing within its compass every variety of style -from the simple massive Norman of the central west front, and the later -and more ornate examples of that style in the west doorways and towers; -onward through all the Gothic styles, of each of which both early and -late examples appear. The building material is the oolite and calcareous -stone of Lincoln Heath and Haydor, which has the peculiarity of becoming -hardened on the surface when tooled. Formerly the cathedral had three -spires, all of wood or leaded timber. The spire on the central tower, -which would appear to have been the highest in the world, was blown down -in 1547. Those on the two western towers were removed in 1808. - - The ground plan of the first church, adopted from that of Rouen, was - laid by Bishop Remigius in 1086, and the church was consecrated three - days after his death, on the 6th of May 1092. The west front consists - of an Early English screen (c. 1225) thrown over the Norman front, the - west towers rising behind it. The earliest Norman work is part of that - of Remigius; the great portals and the west towers up to the third - storey are Norman c. 1148. The upper parts of them date from 1365. - Perpendicular windows (c. 1450) are inserted. The nave and aisles were - completed c. 1220. The transepts mainly built between 1186 and 1235 - have two fine rose windows, that in the N. is Early English, and that - in the S. Decorated. The first has beautiful contemporary stained - glass. These are called respectively the Dean's Eye and Bishop's Eye. - A Galilee of rich Early English work forms the entrance of the S. - transept. Of the choir the western portion known as St Hugh's - (1186-1204) is the famous first example of pointed work; the eastern, - called the Angel Choir, is a magnificently ornate work completed in - 1280. Fine Perpendicular canopied stalls fill the western part. The - great east window, 57 ft. in height, is an example of transition from - Early English to Decorated c. 1288. Other noteworthy features of the - interior are the Easter sepulchre (c. 1300), the foliage ornamentation - of which is beautifully natural; and the organ screen of a somewhat - earlier date. The great central tower is Early English as far as the - first storey, the continuation dates from 1307. The total height is - 271 ft.; and the tower contains the bell, Great Tom of Lincoln, - weighing over 5 tons. The dimensions of the cathedral internally - are--nave, 252 X 79.6 X 80 ft.; choir, 158 X 82 X 72 ft.; angel choir, - which includes presbytery and lady chapel, 166 X 44 X 72 ft.; main - transept, 220 X 63 X 74 ft.; choir transept, 166 X 44 X 72 ft. The - west towers are 206 ft. high. - - The buildings of the close that call for notice are the chapter-house - of ten sides, 60 ft. diameter, 42 ft. high, with a fine vestibule of - the same height, built c. 1225, and therefore the earliest of English - polygonal chapter-houses, and the library, a building of 1675, which - contains a small museum. The picturesque episcopal palace contains - work of the date of St Hugh, and the great hall is mainly Early - English. There is some Decorated work, and much Perpendicular, - including the gateway. It fell into disuse after the Reformation, but - by extensive restoration was brought back to its proper use at the end - of the 19th century. Among the most famous bishops were St Hugh of - Avalon (1186-1200); Robert Grosseteste (1235-1253); Richard Flemming - (1420-1431), founder of Lincoln College, Oxford; William Smith - (1495-1514), founder of Brasenose College, Oxford; William Wake - (1705-1716); and Edmund Gibson (1716-1723). Every stall has produced a - prelate or cardinal. The see covers almost the whole of the county, - with very small portions of Norfolk and Yorkshire, and it included - Nottinghamshire until the formation of the bishopric of Southwell in - 1884. At its earliest formation, when Remigius, almoner of the abbey - of Fecamp, removed the seat of the bishopric here from Dorchester in - Oxfordshire shortly after the Conquest, it extended from the Humber to - the Thames, eastward beyond Cambridge, and westward beyond Leicester. - It was reduced, however, by the formation of the sees of Ely, - Peterborough and Oxford, and by the rearrangement of diocesan - boundaries in 1837. - -The remains of Roman Lincoln are of the highest interest. The Newport -Arch or northern gate of _Lindum_ is one of the most perfect specimens -of Roman architecture in England. It consists of a great arch flanked by -two smaller arches, of which one remains. The Roman Ermine Street runs -through it, leading northward almost in a straight line to the Humber. -Fragments of the town wall remain at various points; a large quantity of -coins and other relics have been discovered; and remains of a -burial-place and buildings unearthed. Of these last the most important -is the series of column-bases, probably belonging to a Basilica, beneath -a house in the street called Bail Gate, adjacent to the Newport Arch. A -villa in Greetwell; a tesselated pavement, a milestone and other relics -in the cloister; an altar unearthed at the church of St Swithin, are -among many other discoveries. Among churches, apart from the minster, -two of outstanding interest are those of St Mary-le-Wigford and St -Peter-at-Gowts (i.e. sluice-gates), both in the lower part of High -Street. Their towers, closely similar, are fine examples of perhaps very -early Norman work, though they actually possess the characteristics of -pre-Conquest workmanship. Bracebridge church shows similar early work; -but as a whole the churches of Lincoln show plainly the results of the -siege of 1644, and such buildings as St Botolph's, St Peter's-at-Arches -and St Martin's are of the period 1720-1740. Several churches are modern -buildings on ancient sites. There were formerly three small priories, -five friaries and four hospitals in or near Lincoln. The preponderance -of friaries over priories of monks is explained by the fact that the -cathedral was served by secular canons. Bishop Grosseteste was the -devoted patron of the friars, particularly the Franciscans, who were -always in their day the town missionaries. The Greyfriars, near St -Swithin's church, is a picturesque two-storied building of the 13th -century. Lincoln is rich in early domestic architecture. The building -known as John of Gaunt's stables, actually St Mary's Guild Hall, is of -two storeys, with rich Norman doorway and moulding. The Jews' House is -another fine example of 12th-century building; and Norman remains appear -in several other houses, such as Deloraine Court and the House of Aaron -the Jew. Lincoln Castle, lying W. of the cathedral, was newly founded by -William the Conqueror when Remigius decided to found his minster under -its protection. The site, with its artificial mounds, is of much -earlier, probably British, date. There are Norman remains in the Gateway -Tower; parts of the walls are of this period, and the keep dates from -the middle of the 12th century. Among medieval gateways, the Exchequer -Gate, serving as the finance-office of the chapter, is a fine specimen -of 13th-century work. Pottergate is of the 14th century, and Stonebow in -High Street of the 15th, with the Guildhall above it. St Dunstan's Lock -is the name, corrupted from Dunestall, now applied to the entrance to -the street where a Jewish quarter was situated; here lived the Christian -boy afterwards known as "little St Hugh," who was asserted to have been -crucified by the Jews in 1255. His shrine remains in the S. choir aisle -of the minster. Other antiquities are the Perpendicular conduit of St -Mary in High Street and the High Bridge, carrying High Street over the -Witham, which is almost unique in England as retaining some of the old -houses upon it. - -Among modern public buildings are the county hall, old and new corn -exchanges and public library. Educational establishments include a -grammar school, a girls' high school, a science and art school and a -theological college. The arboretum in Monks Road is the principal -pleasure-ground; and there is a race-course. The principal industry is -the manufacture of agricultural machinery and implements; there are also -iron foundries and maltings, and a large trade in corn and agricultural -produce. The parliamentary borough, returning one member, falls between -the Gainsborough division of the county on the N., and that of Sleaford -on the S. Area, 3755 acres. - -_History._--The British Lindun, which, according to the geography of -Claudius Ptolemaeus, was the chief town of the Coritani, was probably -the nucleus of the Roman town of Lindum. This was at first a Roman -legionary fortress, and on the removal of the troops northward was -converted into a municipality with the title of _colonia_. Such -important structural remains as have been described attest the rank and -importance of the place, which, however, did not attain a very great -size. Its bishop attended the council of Arles in 314, and Lincoln -(_Lindocolina_, _Lincolle_, _Nicole_) is mentioned in the Itinerary of -Antoninus written about 320. Although said to have been captured by -Hengest in 475 and recovered by Ambrosius in the following year, the -next authentic mention of the city is Bede's record that Paulinus -preached in Lindsey in 628 and built a stone church at Lincoln in which -he consecrated Honorius archbishop of Canterbury. During their inroads -into Mercia, the Danes in 877 established themselves at Lincoln, which -was one of the five boroughs recovered by King Edmund in 941. A mint -established here in the reign of Alfred was maintained until the reign -of Edward I. (Mint Street turning from High Street near the Stonebow -recalls its existence.) At the time of the Domesday Survey Lincoln was -governed by twelve Lawmen, relics of Danish rule, each with hereditable -franchises of sac and soc. Whereas it had rendered L20 annually to King -Edward, and L10 to the earl, it then rendered L100. There had been 1150 -houses, but 240 had been destroyed since the time of King Edward. Of -these 166 had suffered by the raising of the castle by William I. in -1068 partly on the site of the Roman camp. The strength of the position -of the castle brought much fighting on Lincoln. In 1141 King Stephen -regained both castle and city from the empress Maud, but was attacked -and captured in the same year at the "Joust of Lincoln." In 1144 he -besieged the castle, held by the earl of Chester, and recovered it as a -pledge in 1146. In 1101 it was held by Gerard de Camville for Prince -John and was besieged by William Longchamp, Richard's chancellor, in -vain; in 1210 it stood a siege by the partisans of the French prince -Louis, who were defeated at the battle called Lincoln Fair on the 19th -of May 1217. Granted by Henry III. to William Longepee, earl of -Salisbury, in 1224, the castle descended by the marriage of his -descendant Alice to Thomas Plantagenet, and became part of the duchy of -Lancaster. - -In 1157 Henry II. gave the citizens their first charter, granting them -the city at a fee-farm rent and all the liberties which they had had -under William II., with their gild merchant for themselves and the men -of the county as they had then. In 1200 the citizens obtained release -from all but pleas of the Crown without the walls, and pleas of external -tenure, and were given the pleas of the Crown within the city according -to the customs of the city of London, on which those of Lincoln were -modelled. The charter also gave them quittance of toll and lastage -throughout the kingdom, and of certain other dues. In 1210 the citizens -owed the exchequer L100 for the privilege of having a mayor, but the -office was abolished by Henry III. and by Edward I. in 1290, though -restored by the charter of 1300. In 1275 the citizens claimed the return -of writs, assize of bread and ale and other royal rights, and in 1301 -Edward I., when confirming the previous charters, gave them quittance of -murage, pannage, pontage and other dues. The mayor and citizens were -given criminal jurisdiction in 1327, when the burghmanmot held weekly in -the gildhall since 1272 by the mayor and bailiffs was ordered to hear -all local pleas which led to friction with the judges of assize. The -city became a separate county by charter of 1409, when it was decreed -that the bailiffs should henceforth be sheriffs and the mayor the king's -escheator, and the mayor and sheriffs with four others justices of the -peace with defined jurisdiction. As the result of numerous complaints of -inability to pay the fee-farm rent of L180 Edward IV. enlarged the -bounds of the city in 1466, while Henry VIII. in 1546 gave the citizens -four advowsons, and possibly also in consequence of declining trade the -city markets were made free of tolls in 1554. Incorporated by Charles I. -in 1628 under a common council with 13 aldermen, 4 coroners and other -officers, Lincoln surrendered its charters in 1684, but the first -charter was restored after the Revolution, and was in force till 1834. - -Parliaments were held at Lincoln in 1301, 1316 and 1327, and the city -returned two burgesses from 1295 to 1885, when it lost one member. After -the 13th century the chief interests of Lincoln were ecclesiastical and -commercial. As early as 1103 Odericus declared that a rich citizen of -Lincoln kept the treasure of King Magnus of Norway, supplying him with -all he required, and there is other evidence of intercourse with -Scandinavia. There was an important Jewish colony, Aaron of Lincoln -being one of the most influential financiers in the kingdom between 1166 -and 1186. It was probably jealousy of their wealth that brought the -charge of the crucifixion of "little St Hugh" in 1255 upon the Jewish -community. Made a staple of wool, leather and skins in 1291, famous for -its scarlet cloth in the 13th century, Lincoln had a few years of great -prosperity, but with the transference of the staple to Boston early in -the reign of Edward III., its trade began to decrease. The craft gilds -remained important until after the Reformation, a pageant still being -held in 1566. The fair now held during the last whole week of April -would seem to be identical with that granted by Charles II. in 1684. -Edward III. authorized a fair from St Botolph's day to the feast of SS -Peter and Paul in 1327, and William III. gave one for the first -Wednesday in September in 1696, while the present November fair is, -perhaps, a survival of that granted by Henry IV. in 1409 for fifteen -days before the feast of the Deposition of St Hugh. - - See _Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report_, xiv., appendix pt. 8; - John Ross, _Civitas Lincolina, from its municipal and other Records_ - (London, 1870); J. G. Williams, "Lincoln Civic Insignia," - _Lincolnshire Notes and Queries_, vols. vi.-viii. (Horncastle, - 1901-1905); _Victoria County History, Lincolnshire_. - - - - -LINCOLN, a city and the county-seat of Logan county, Illinois, U.S.A., -in the N. central part of the state, 156 m. S.W. of Chicago, and about -28 m. N.E. of Springfield. Pop. (1900) 8962, of whom 940 were -foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,892. It is served by the Illinois Central -and the Chicago & Alton railways and by the Illinois Traction Interurban -Electric line. The city is the seat of the state asylum for -feeble-minded children (established at Jacksonville in 1865 and removed -to Lincoln in 1878), and of Lincoln College (Presbyterian) founded in -1865. There are also an orphans' home, supported by the Independent -Order of Odd Fellows, and a Carnegie library. The old court-house in -which Abraham Lincoln often practised is still standing. Lincoln is -situated in a productive grain region, and has valuable coal mines. The -value of the factory products increased from $375,167 in 1900 to -$784,248 in 1905, or 109%. The first settlement on the site of Lincoln -was made in 1835, and the city was first chartered in 1857. - - - - -LINCOLN, a city of S.E. Nebraska, U.S.A., county-seat of Lancaster -county and capital of the state. Pop. (1900) 40,169 (5297 being -foreign-born); (1910 census) 43,973. It is served by the Chicago, -Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union -Pacific, the Missouri Pacific and the Chicago & North-Western railways. -Lincoln is one of the most attractive residential cities of the Middle -West. Salt Creek, an affluent of the Platte river, skirts the city. On -this side the city has repeatedly suffered from floods. The principal -buildings include a state capitol (built 1883-1889); a city-hall, -formerly the U.S. government building (1874-1879); a county court-house; -a federal building (1904-1906); a Carnegie library (1902); a hospital -for crippled children (1905) and a home for the friendless, both -supported by the state; a state penitentiary and asylum for the insane, -both in the suburbs; and the university of Nebraska. In the suburbs -there are three denominational schools, the Nebraska Wesleyan University -(Methodist Episcopal, 1888) at University Place; Union College (Seventh -Day Adventists, 1891) at College View; and Cotner University (Disciples -of Christ, 1889, incorporated as the Nebraska Christian University) at -Bethany. Just outside the city limits are the state fair grounds, where -a state fair is held annually. Lincoln is the see of a Roman Catholic -bishopric. The surrounding country is a beautiful farming region, but -its immediate W. environs are predominantly bare and desolate -salt-basins. Lincoln's "factory" product increased from $2,763,484 in -1900 to $5,222,620 in 1905, or 89%, the product for 1905 being 3.4% of -the total for the state. The municipality owns and operates its -electric-lighting plant and water-works. - -The salt-springs attracted the first permanent settlers to the site of -Lincoln in 1856, and settlers and freighters came long distances to -reduce the brine or to scrape up the dry-weather surface deposits. In -1886-1887 the state sank a test-well 2463 ft. deep, which discredited -any hope of a great underground flow or deposit. Scarcely any use is -made of the salt waters locally. Lancaster county was organized -extra-legally in 1859, and under legislative act in 1864; Lancaster -village was platted and became the county-seat in 1864 (never being -incorporated); and in 1867, when it contained five or six houses, its -site was selected for the state capital after a hard-fought struggle -between different sections of the state (see NEBRASKA).[1] The new city -was incorporated as Lincoln (and formally declared the county-seat by -the legislature) in 1869, and was chartered for the first time as a city -of the second class in 1871; since then its charter has been repeatedly -altered. After 1887 it was a city of the first class, and after 1889 the -only member of the highest subdivision in that class. After a "reform" -political campaign, the ousting in 1887 of a corrupt police judge by the -mayor and city council, in defiance of an injunction of a federal court, -led to a decision of the U.S. Supreme Court, favourable to the city -authorities and important in questions of American municipal government. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Lincoln was about equally distant from Pawnee City and the Kansas - border, the leading Missouri river towns, and the important towns of - Fremont and Columbus on the N. side of the Platte. - - - - -LINCOLN JUDGMENT, THE. In this celebrated English ecclesiastical suit, -the bishop of Lincoln (Edward King, q.v.) was cited before his -metropolitan, the archbishop of Canterbury (Dr Benson), to answer -charges of various ritual offences committed at the administration of -Holy Communion in the church of St Peter at Gowts, in the diocese of -Lincoln, on the 4th of December 1887, and in Lincoln cathedral on the -10th of December 1887. The promoters were Ernest de Lacy Read, William -Brown, Felix Thomas Wilson and John Marshall, all inhabitants of the -diocese of Lincoln, and the last two parishioners of St Peter at Gowts. -The case has a permanent importance in two respects. First, certain -disputed questions of ritual were legally decided. Secondly, the -jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury alone to try one of his -suffragan bishops for alleged ecclesiastical offences was considered and -judicially declared to be well founded both by the judicial committee of -privy council and by the archbishop of Canterbury with the concurrence -of his assessors. The proceedings were begun on the 2nd of June 1888 by -a petition presented by the promoters to the archbishop, praying that a -citation to the bishop of Lincoln might issue calling on him to answer -certain ritual charges. On the 26th of June 1888 the archbishop, by -letter, declined to issue citation, on the ground that until instructed -by a competent court as to his jurisdiction, he was not clear that he -had it. The promoters appealed to the judicial committee of the privy -council, to which an appeal lies under 25 Henry VIII. c. 19 for "lack of -justice" in the archbishop's court. The matter was heard on the 20th of -July 1888, and on the 8th of August 1888 the committee decided (i.) that -an appeal lay from the refusal of the archbishop to the judicial -committee, and (ii.) that the archbishop had jurisdiction to issue a -citation to the bishop of Lincoln and to hear the promoters' complaint, -but they abstained from expressing an opinion as to whether the -archbishop had a discretion to refuse citation--whether, in fact, he had -any power of "veto" over the prosecution. The case being thus remitted -to the archbishop, he decided to entertain it, and on the 4th of January -1889 issued a citation to the bishop of Lincoln. - -On the 12th of February 1889 the archbishop of Canterbury sat in Lambeth -Palace Library, accompanied by the bishops of London (Dr Temple), -Winchester (Dr Harold Browne), Oxford (Dr Stubbs) and Salisbury (Dr -Wordsworth), and the vicar-general (Sir J. Parker Deane) as assessors. -The bishop of Lincoln appeared in person and read a "Protest" to the -archbishop's jurisdiction to try him except in a court composed of the -archbishop and all the bishops of the province as judges. The court -adjourned in order that the question of jurisdiction might be argued. On -the 11th of May the archbishop gave judgment to the effect that whether -sitting alone or with assessors he had jurisdiction to entertain the -charge. On the 23rd and 24th of July 1889 a further preliminary -objection raised by the bishop of Lincoln's counsel was argued. The -offences alleged against the bishop of Lincoln were largely breaches of -various rubrics in the communion service of the Prayer Book which give -directions to the "minister." These rubrics are by the Acts of -Uniformity (1 Elizabeth c. 2, and 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 4) made legally -binding. But it was argued that a bishop is not a "minister" so as to be -bound by the rubrics. The archbishop, however, held otherwise, and the -assessors (except the bishop of Salisbury, who dissented) concurred in -this decision. At this and subsequent hearings the bishop of Hereford -(Dr Atlay) took the place of the bishop of Winchester as an assessor, -and the bishop of Rochester (Dr Thorold), originally appointed an -assessor, but absent from England at the outset, was present. - - - Charges and decisions. - -The case was heard on its merits in February 1890, before the archbishop -and all the assessors, and the archbishop delivered his judgment on the -21st of November 1890. The alleged offences were eight in number. No -facts were in dispute, but only the legality of the various matters -complained of. I. The bishop was charged with having mixed water with -wine in the chalice during the communion service, and II. with having -administered the chalice so mixed to the communicants. It was decided -that the mixing of the water with the wine during service was illegal, -because an additional ceremony not enjoined in the Prayer Book, but that -the administration of the mixed chalice, the mixing having been effected -before service, was in accordance with primitive practice and not -forbidden in the Church of England. III. The bishop was charged with the -ceremonial washing of the vessels used for the holy communion, and with -drinking the water used for these ablutions. It was decided that the -bishop had committed no offence, and that what he had done was a -reasonable compliance with the requirement of the rubric that any of the -consecrated elements left over at the end of the celebration should be -then and there consumed. IV. The bishop was charged with taking the -eastward position (i.e. standing at the west side of the holy table with -his face to the east and his back to the congregation) during the -ante-communion service (i.e. the part of the communion service prior to -the consecration prayer). The rubric requires the celebrant to stand at -the north side of the table. A vast amount of research convinced the -archbishop that this is an intentionally ambiguous phrase which may with -equal accuracy be applied to the north end of the table as now arranged -in churches, and to the long side of the table, which, in Edward VI.'s -reign, was often placed lengthwise down the church, so that the long -sides would face north and south. It was therefore decided (one of the -assessors dissenting) that both positions are legal, and that the bishop -had not offended in adopting the eastward position. V. The bishop was -charged with so standing during the consecration prayer that the "Manual -Acts" of consecration were invisible to the people gathered round. It -should be stated that the courts (see _Ridsdale_ v. _Clifton_, L.R. 1 -P.D. 316; 2 P.D. 276) had already decided that the eastward position -during the consecration prayer was legal, but that it must not be so -used by the celebrant as to conceal the "Manual Acts." The archbishop -held that the bishop of Lincoln had transgressed the law in this -particular. VI. The bishop was charged with having, during the -celebration of holy communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a -shelf or retable behind the altar when they were not necessary for -giving light. The archbishop decided that the mere presence of two altar -candles burning during the service, but lit before it began, was lawful -under the First Prayer Book of Edward VI., and has never been made -unlawful, and, therefore, that the bishop was justified in what he had -done. VII. The bishop was charged with having permitted the hymn known -as _Agnus Dei_ to be sung immediately after the consecration of the -elements at a celebration of the holy communion. The archbishop decided -that the use of hymns in divine service was too firmly established to be -legally questioned, and that there was nothing to differentiate the use -of this particular hymn at this point of the service from the use of -other hymns on other occasions in public worship. VIII. The bishop was -charged with making the sign of the Cross in the air with his hand in -the benediction and at other times during divine service. The archbishop -held that these crossings were ceremonies not enjoined and, therefore, -illegal. The judgment confined itself to the legal declarations here -summarized, and pronounced no monition or other sentence on the bishop -of Lincoln in respect of the matters in which he appeared to have -committed breaches of the ecclesiastical law. - -The promoters appealed to the judicial committee. The bishop did not -appear on the appeal, which was therefore argued on the side of the -promoters only. The appeal was heard in June and July 1891, before Lords -Halsbury, Hobhouse, Esher, Herschell, Hannen and Shand and Sir Richard -Couch, with the bishop of Chichester (Dr Durnford), the bishop of St -Davids (Dr Basil Jones) and the bishop of Lichfield (Dr Maclagan) as -episcopal assessors. The points appealed were those above numbered II., -III., IV., VI., VII. Judgment was given on the 2nd of August 1892, and -the appeal failed on all points. As to II., III., IV., and VII. the -Committee agreed with the archbishop. As to VI. (altar lights) they held -that, as it was not shown that the bishop was responsible for the -presence of lighted candles, the charge could not be sustained against -him, and so dismissed it without considering the general question of the -lawfulness of altar lights. They also held that the archbishop was -within his right in pronouncing no sentence against the bishop, who, it -should be added, conformed his practice to the judgment from the date of -its delivery. (L. T. D.) - - - - -LINCOLNSHIRE, an eastern county of England, bounded N. by the Humber, E. -by the German Ocean and the Wash, S.E. for 3 m. by Norfolk, S. by -Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire, S.W. by Rutland, W. by -Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire and N.W. by Yorkshire. The area is -2646 sq. m., the county being second to Yorkshire of the English -counties in size. - -The coast-line, about 110 m. in length, including the Humber shore, is -generally low and marshy, and artificial banks for guarding against the -inroads of the sea are to be found, in places, all along the coast. From -Grimsby to Skegness traces of a submarine forest are visible; but while -the sea is encroaching upon some parts of the coast it is receding from -others, as shown by Holbeach, which is now 6 m. from the sea. Several -thousand acres have been reclaimed from this part of the Wash, and round -the mouth of the Nene on the south-east. The deep bay between the coasts -of Lincolnshire and Norfolk, called the Wash, is full of dangerous -sandbanks and silt; the navigable portion off the Lincolnshire coast is -known as the Boston Deeps. The rapidity of the tides in this inlet, and -the lowness of its shores, which are generally indistinct on account of -mist from a moderate offing, render this the most difficult portion of -the navigation of the east coast of England. On some parts of the coast -there are fine stretches of sand, and Cleethorpes, Skegness, Mablethorpe -and Sutton-on-Sea are favourite resorts for visitors. - -The surface of Lincolnshire is generally a large plain, small portions -of which are slightly below the level of the sea. The south-east parts -are perfectly flat; and about one-third of the county consists of fens -and marshes, intersected in all directions by artificial drains, called -locally dykes, delphs, drains, becks, leams and eaux. This flat surface -is broken by two ranges of calcareous hills running north and south -through the county, and known as the Lincoln Edge or Heights, or the -Cliff, and the Wolds. The former range, on the west, runs nearly due -north from Grantham to Lincoln, and thence to the Humber, traversing the -Heaths of Lincolnshire, which were formerly open moors, rabbit warrens -and sheep walks, but are now enclosed and brought into high cultivation. -The Wolds form a ridge of bold hills extending from Spilsby to -Barton-on-Humber for about 40 m., with an average breadth of about 8 m. -The Humber separates Lincolnshire from Yorkshire. Its ports on the -Lincolnshire side are the small ferry-ports of Barton and New Holland, -and the important harbour of Grimsby. The Trent forms part of the -boundary with Nottinghamshire, divides the Isle of Axholme (q.v.) from -the district of Lindsey, and falls into the Humber about 30 m. below -Gainsborough. The Witham rises on the S.W. border of the county, flows -north past Grantham to Lincoln, and thence E. and S.E. to Boston, after -a course of about 80 m. The Welland rises in north-west -Northamptonshire, enters the county at Stamford, and, after receiving -the Glen, flows through an artificial channel into the Fosdyke Wash. The -Nene on the south-east has but a small portion of its course in -Lincolnshire; it flows due north through an artificial outfall, called -the Wisbech Cut. Between the Wolds and the sea lie the Marshes, a level -tract of rich alluvial soil extending from Barton-on-Humber to -Wainfleet, varying in breadth from 5 to 10 m. Between the Welland and -the Nene in the south-east of the county are Gedney Marsh, Holbeach -Marsh, Moulton Marsh and Sutton Marsh. - -The Fens (q.v.), the soil of which has been formed partly by tidal -action and partly by the decay of forests, occupy the Isle of Axholme on -the north-west, the vale of Ancholme on the north, and most of the -country south-east of Lincoln. The chief of these are the Holland, -Wildmore, West and East Fens draining into the Witham; and the Deeping, -Bourn, Great Porsand, and Whaplode Fens draining into the Welland. - -The low lands adjoining the tidal reaches of the Trent and Humber, and -part of those around the Wash have been raised above the natural level -and enriched by the process of warping, which consists in letting the -tide run over the land, and retaining it there a sufficient time to -permit the deposit of the sand and mud held in solution by the waters. - - _Geology._--The geological formations for the most part extend in - parallel belts, nearly in the line of the length of the county, from - north to south, and succeed one another in ascending order from west - to east. The lowest is the Triassic Keuper found in the Isle of - Axholme and the valley of the Trent in the form of marls, sandstone - and gypsum. Fish scales and teeth, with bones and footprints of the - _Labyrinthodon_, are met with in the sandstone. The red clay is - frequently dug for brick-making. The beds dip gently towards the east. - At the junction between the Trias and Lias are series of beds termed - Rhaetics, which seem to mark a transition from one to the other. These - belts are in part exposed in pits near Newark, and extend north by - Gainsborough to where the Trent flows into the Humber, passing thence - into Yorkshire. The characteristic shells are found at Lea, 2 m. south - of Gainsborough, with a thin bone-bed full of fish teeth and scales. - The Lower Lias comes next in order, with a valuable bed of ironstone - now largely worked. This bed is about 27 ft. in thickness, and crops - out at Scunthorpe and Frodingham, where the workings are open and - shallow. The Middle Lias, which enters the county near Woolsthorpe, is - about 20 or 30 ft. thick, and is very variable both in thickness and - mineralogical character; the iron ores of Denton and Caythorpe belong - to this horizon. The Upper Lias enters the county at Stainby, passing - by Grantham and Lincoln where it is worked for bricks. The Lias thus - occupies a vale about 8 or 10 m. in width in the south, narrowing - until on the Humber it is about a mile in width. To this succeed the - Oolite formations. The Inferior Oolite, somewhat narrower than the - Lias, extends from the boundary with Rutland due north past Lincoln to - the vicinity of the Humber; it forms the Cliff of Lincolnshire with a - strong escarpment facing westward. At Lincoln the ridge is notched by - the river Witham. The principal member of the Inferior Oolite is the - Lincolnshire limestone, which is an important water-bearing bed and is - quarried at Lincoln, Ponton, Ancaster, and Kirton Lindsey for building - stone. Eastward of the Inferior Oolite lie the narrow outcrops of the - Great Oolite and Cornbrash. The Middle Oolite, Oxford clay and - Corallian is very narrow in the south near Wilsthorpe, widening - gradually about Sleaford. It then proceeds north from Lincoln with - decreasing width to the vicinity of the Humber. The Upper Oolite, - Kimeridge clay, starts from the vicinity of Stamford, and after - attaining its greatest width near Horncastle, runs north-north-west to - the Humber. The Kimeridge clay is succeeded by the Spilsby sandstone, - Tealby limestone, Claxby ironstone, and carstone which represent the - highest Jurassic and lowest Cretaceous rocks. In the Cretaceous system - of the Wolds, the Lower Greensand runs nearly parallel with the Upper - Oolite past South Willingham to the Humber. The Upper Greensand and - Gault, represented in Lincolnshire by the Red Chalk, run north-west - from Irby, widening out as far as Kelstern on the east, and cross the - Humber. The Chalk formation, about equal in breadth to the three - preceding, extends from Burgh across the Humber. The rest of the - county, comprising all its south-east portions between the Middle - Oolite belt and the sea, all its north-east portions between the chalk - belt and the sea, and a narrow tract up the course of the Ancholme - river, consists of alluvial deposits or of reclaimed marsh. In the - northern part boulder clay and glacial sands cover considerable tracts - of the older rocks. Bunter, Permian, and Coal Measure strata have been - revealed by boring to underlie the Keuper near Haxey. - - Gypsum is dug in the Isle of Axholme, whiting is made from the chalk - near the shores of the Humber, and lime is made on the Wolds. - Freestone is quarried around Ancaster, and good oolite building stone - is quarried near Lincoln and other places. Ironstone is worked at - several places and there are some blast furnaces. - - At Woodhall Spa on the Horncastle branch railway there is a - much-frequented bromine and iodine spring. - - _Climate, Soil and Agriculture._--The climate of the higher grounds is - healthy, and meteorological observation does not justify the - reputation for cold and damp often given to the county as a whole. The - soils vary considerably, according to the geological formations; ten - or twelve different kinds may be found in going across the country - from east to west. A good sandy loam is common in the Heath division; - a sandy loam with chalk, or a flinty loam on chalk marl, abounds on - portions of the Wolds; an argillaceous sand, merging into rich loam, - lies on other portions of the Wolds; a black loam and a rich vegetable - mould cover most of the Isle of Axholme on the north-west; a - well-reclaimed marine marsh, a rich brown loam, and a stiff cold clay - variously occupy the low tracts along the Humber, and between the - north Wolds and the sea; a peat earth, a deep sandy loam, and a rich - soapy blue clay occupy most of the east and south Fens; and an - artificial soil, obtained by "warping," occupies considerable low - strips of land along the tidal reaches of the rivers. - - Lincolnshire is one of the principal agricultural, especially - grain-producing, counties in England. Nearly nine-tenths of the total - area is under cultivation. The wide grazing lands have long been - famous, and the arable lands are specially adapted for the growth of - wheat and beans. The largest individual grain-crop, however, is - barley. Both cattle and sheep are bred in great numbers. The cattle - raised are the Shorthorns and improved Lincolnshire breeds. The dairy, - except in the vicinity of large towns, receives little attention. The - sheep are chiefly of the Lincolnshire and large Leicestershire breeds, - and go to the markets of Yorkshire and London. Lincolnshire has long - been famous for a fine breed of horses both for the saddle and - draught. Horse fairs are held every year at Horncastle and Lincoln. - Large flocks of geese were formerly kept in the Fens, but their number - has been diminished since the drainage of these parts. Where a large - number of them were bred, nests were constructed for them one above - another; they were daily taken down by the gooseherd, driven to the - water, and then reinstated in their nests, without a single bird being - misplaced. Decoys were once numerous in the undrained state of the - Fens. - - _Industries and Communications._--Manufactures are few and, relatively - to the agricultural industry, small. The mineral industries, however, - are of value, and there are considerable agricultural machine and - implement factories at Lincoln, Boston, Gainsborough, Grantham and - Louth. At Little Bytham a very hard brick, called adamantine clinker, - is made of the siliceous clay that the Romans used for similar works. - Bone-crushing, tanning, the manufacture of oil-cake for cattle, and - rope-making are carried on in various places. Grimsby is an important - port both for continental traffic and especially for fisheries; Boston - is second to it in the county; and Gainsborough has a considerable - traffic on the Trent. Sutton Bridge is a lesser port on the Wash. - - The principal railway is the Great Northern, its main line touching - the county in the S.W. and serving Grantham. Its principal branches - are from Peterborough to Spalding, Boston, Louth and Grimsby; and from - Grantham to Sleaford and Boston, and to Lincoln, and Boston to - Lincoln. This company works jointly with the Great Eastern the line - from March to Spalding, Lincoln, Gainsborough and Doncaster, and with - the Midland that from Saxby to Bourn, Spalding, Holbeach, Sutton - Bridge and King's Lynn. The Midland company has a branch from Newark - to Lincoln, and the Lancashire, Derbyshire, and East Coast line - terminates at Lincoln. The Great Central railway connects the west, - Sheffield and Doncaster with Grimsby, and with Hull by ferry from New - Holland. Canals connect Louth with the Humber, Sleaford with the - Witham, and Grantham with the Trent near Nottingham; but the greater - rivers and many of the drainage cuts are navigable, being artificially - deepened and embanked. - - _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is - 1,693,550 acres, with a population in 1891 of 472,878 and in 1901 of - 498,847. The primary divisions are three trithings or Ridings (q.v.). - The north division is called the Parts of Lindsey, the south-west the - Parts of Kesteven, and the south-east the Parts of Holland. Each of - these divisions had in early times its own reeve or gerefa. Each - constitutes an administrative county, the Parts of Lindsey having an - area of 967,689 acres; Kesteven, 465,877 acres; and Holland, 262,766 - acres. The Parts of Lindsey contain 17 wapentakes; Kesteven, exclusive - of the soke and borough of Grantham and the borough of Stamford, 9 - wapentakes; and Holland, 3 wapentakes. The municipal boroughs and - urban districts are as follows:-- - - 1. PARTS OF LINDSEY.--Municipal boroughs--Grimsby, a county borough - (pop. 63,138), Lincoln, a city and county borough and the county town - (48,784), Louth (9518). Urban districts--Alford (2478), - Barton-upon-Humber (5671), Brigg (3137), Broughton (1300), Brumby and - Frodingham (2273), Cleethorpes with Thrunscoe (12,578), Crowle (2769), - Gainsborough (17,660), Horncastle (4038), Mablethorpe (934), Market - Rasen (2188), Roxby-cum-Risby (389), Scunthorpe (6750), Skegness - (2140), Winterton (1361), Woodhall Spa (988). - - 2. PARTS OF KESTEVEN.--Municipal boroughs--Grantham (17,593), Stamford - (8229). Urban districts--Bourne (4361), Bracebridge (1752), Ruskington - (1196), Sleaford (5468). - - 3. PARTS OF HOLLAND.--Municipal borough--Boston (15,667). Urban - districts--Holbeach (4755), Long Sutton (2524), Spalding (9385), - Sutton Bridge (2105). In the Parts of Holland the borough of Boston - has a separate commission of the peace and there are two petty - sessional divisions. Lincolnshire is in the Midland circuit. In the - Parts of Kesteven the boroughs of Grantham and Stamford have each a - separate commission of the peace and separate courts of quarter - sessions, and there are 4 petty sessional divisions. In the Parts of - Lindsey the county boroughs of Grimsby and Lincoln have each a - separate commission of the peace and a separate court of quarter - sessions, while the municipal borough of Louth has a separate - commission of the peace, and there are 14 petty sessional divisions. - The three administrative counties and the county boroughs contain - together 761 civil parishes. The ancient county contains 580 - ecclesiastical parishes and districts, wholly or in part. It is mostly - in the diocese of Lincoln, but in part also in the dioceses of - Southwell and York. For parliamentary purposes the county is divided - into seven divisions, namely, West Lindsey or Gainsborough, North - Lindsey or Brigg, East Lindsey or Louth, South Lindsey or Horncastle, - North Kesteven or Sleaford, South Kesteven or Stamford, and Holland or - Spalding, and the parliamentary boroughs of Boston, Grantham, Grimsby - and Lincoln, each returning one member. - -_History._--Of the details of the English conquest of the district which -is now Lincolnshire little is known, but at some time in the 6th century -Engle and Frisian invaders appear to have settled in the country north -of the Witham, where they became known as the Lindiswaras, the southern -districts from Boston to the Trent basin being at this time dense -woodland. In the 7th century the supremacy over Lindsey alternated -between Mercia and Northumbria, but few historical references to the -district are extant until the time of Alfred, whose marriage with -Ealswitha was celebrated at Gainsborough three years before his -accession. At this period the Danish inroads upon the coast of Lindsey -had already begun, and in 873 Healfdene wintered at Torksey, while in -878 Lincoln and Stamford were included among the five Danish boroughs, -and the organization of the districts dependent upon them probably -resulted about this time in the grouping of Lindsey, Kesteven and -Holland to form the shire of Lincoln. The extent and permanence of the -Danish influence in Lincolnshire is still observable in the names of its -towns and villages and in the local dialect, and, though about 918 the -confederate boroughs were recaptured by Edward the Elder, in 993 a -Viking fleet again entered the Humber and ravaged Lindsey, and in 1013 -the district of the five boroughs acknowledged the supremacy of Sweyn. -The county offered no active resistance to the Conqueror, and though -Hereward appears in the Domesday Survey as a dispossessed under-tenant -of the abbot of Peterborough at Witham-on-the-Hill, the legends -surrounding his name do not belong to this county. In his northward -march in 1068 the Conqueror built a castle at Lincoln, and portioned out -the principal estates among his Norman followers, but the Domesday -Survey shows that the county on the whole was leniently treated, and a -considerable number of Englishmen retained their lands as subtenants. - -The origin of the three main divisions of Lincolnshire is anterior to -that of the county itself, and the outcome of purely natural conditions, -Lindsey being in Roman times practically an island bounded by the swamps -of the Trent and the Witham on the west and south and on the east by the -North Sea, while Kesteven and Holland were respectively the regions of -forest and of fen. Lindsey in Norman times was divided into three -ridings--North, West and South--comprising respectively five, five and -seven wapentakes; while, apart from their division into wapentakes, the -Domesday Survey exhibits a unique planning out of the ridings into -approximately equal numbers of 12-carucate hundreds, the term hundred -possessing here no administrative or local significance, but serving -merely as a unit of area for purposes of assessment. The Norman division -of Holland into the three wapentakes of Elloe, Kirton and Skirbeck has -remained unchanged to the present day. In Kesteven the wapentakes of -Aswardhurn, Aveland, Beltisloe, Haxwell, Langoe, Loveden, Ness, -Winnibriggs, and Grantham Soke have been practically unchanged, but the -Domesday wapentakes of Boothby and Graffo now form the wapentake of -Boothby Graffo. In Northriding Bradley and Haverstoe have been combined -to form Bradley Haverstoe wapentake, and the Domesday wapentake of -Epworth in Westriding has been absorbed in that of Manley. Wall -wapentake in Westriding was a liberty of the bishop of Lincoln, and as -late as 1515 the dean and chapter of Lincoln claimed delivery and return -of writs in the manor and hundred of Navenby. In the 13th century -Baldwin Wake claimed return of writs and a market in Aveland. William de -Vesci claimed liberties and exemptions in Caythorpe, of which he was -summoned to render account at the sheriff's tourn at Halton. The abbot -of Peterborough, the abbot of Tupholme, the abbot of Bardney, the prior -of Catleigh, the prior of Sixhills, the abbot of St Mary's, York, the -prioress of Stixwould and several lay owners claimed liberties and -jurisdiction in their Lincolnshire estates in the 13th century. - -The shire court for Lincolnshire was held at Lincoln every forty days, -the lords of the manor attending with their stewards, or in their -absence the reeve and four men of the vill. The ridings were each -presided over by a riding-reeve, and wapentake courts were held in the -reign of Henry I. twelve times a year, and in the reign of Henry III. -every three weeks, while twice a year all the freemen of the wapentake -were summoned to the view of frankpledge or tourn held by the sheriff. -The boundaries between Kesteven and Holland were a matter of dispute as -early as 1389 and were not finally settled until 1816. - -Lincolnshire was originally included in the Mercian diocese of -Lichfield, but, on the subdivision of the latter by Theodore in 680, the -fen-district was included in the diocese of Lichfield, while the see for -the northern parts of the county was placed at "Sidnacester," generally -identified with Stow. Subsequently both dioceses were merged in the vast -West-Saxon bishopric of Dorchester, the see of which was afterwards -transferred to Winchester, and by Bishop Remigius in 1072 to Lincoln. -The archdeaconry of Lincoln was among those instituted by Remigius, and -the division into rural deaneries also dates from this period. Stow -archdeaconry is first mentioned in 1138, and in 1291 included four -deaneries, while the archdeaconry of Lincoln included twenty-three. In -1536 the additional deaneries of Hill, Holland, Loveden and Graffoe had -been formed within the archdeaconry of Lincoln, and the only deaneries -created since that date are East and West Elloe and North and South -Grantham in Lincoln archdeaconry. The deaneries of Gartree, Grimsby, -Hill, Horncastle, Louthesk, Ludborough, Walshcroft, Wraggoe and -Yarborough have been transferred from the archdeaconry of Lincoln to -that of Stow. Benedictine foundations existed at Ikanho, Barrow, -Bardney, Partney and Crowland as early as the 7th century, but all were -destroyed in the Danish wars, and only Bardney and Crowland were ever -rebuilt. The revival of monasticism after the Conquest resulted in the -erection of ten Benedictine monasteries, and a Benedictine nunnery at -Stainfield. The Cistercian abbeys at Kirkstead, Louth Park, Revesby, -Vaudey and Swineshead, and the Cistercian nunnery at Stixwould were -founded in the reign of Stephen, and at the time of the Dissolution -there were upwards of a hundred religious houses in the county. - -In the struggles of the reign of Stephen, castles at Newark and Sleaford -were raised by Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, against the king, while -Ranulf "Gernons," earl of Chester, in 1140 garrisoned Lincoln for the -empress. The seizure of Lincoln by Stephen in 1141 was accompanied with -fearful butchery and devastation, and by an accord at Stamford William -of Roumare received Kirton in Lindsey, and his tenure of Gainsborough -Castle was confirmed. In the baronial outbreak of 1173 Roger Mowbray, -who had inherited the Isle of Axholme from Nigel d'Albini, garrisoned -Ferry East, or Kinnard's Ferry, and Axholme against the king, and, after -the destruction of their more northern fortresses in this campaign, -Epworth in Axholme became the principal seat of the Mowbrays. In the -struggles between John and his barons Lincoln in 1216 made peace with -the king by surrendering hostages for the payment of a fine of 1000 -marks, but after the landing of Louis the city was captured by Gilbert -de Gant, then earl of Lincoln. After his disastrous march to Swineshead -Abbey, John journeyed through Sleaford to Newark, where he died, and in -the battle of Lincoln in 1217 Gilbert de Gant was captured and the city -sacked. At the time of the Wars of the Roses the county, owing to -territorial influence, was mainly Lancastrian, and in 1461 the Yorkist -strongholds of Grantham and Stamford were sacked to such effect that the -latter never recovered. The Lincolnshire rising of 1470 was crushed by -the defeat of the rebels in the skirmish known as "Losecoat Field" near -Stamford. In the Civil War of the 17th century, Lindsey for the most -part declared for the king, and the Royalist cause was warmly supported -by the earl of Lindsey, Viscount Newark, Sir Peregrine Bertie and the -families of Dymoke, Heneage and Thorold. Lord Willoughby of Parham was a -prominent Parliamentary leader, and the Isle of Axholme and the Puritan -yeomanry of Holland declared for the parliament. In 1643 Cromwell won a -small victory near Grantham, and the Royalist garrisons at Lynn and -Lincoln surrendered to Manchester. In 1644, however, Newark, -Gainsborough, Lincoln, Sleaford and Crowland were all in Royalist hands, -and Newark only surrendered in 1646. Among other historic families -connected with Lincolnshire were the Wakes of Bourne and the -d'Eyncourts, who flourished at Blankney from the Conquest to the reign -of Henry VI.; Belvoir Castle was founded by the Toenis, from whom it -passed by the Daubeneys, then to the Barons Ros and later to the -Manners, earls of Rutland. In the Lindsey Survey of 1115-1118 the name -of Roger Marmion, ancestor of the Marmion family, who had inherited the -fief of Robert Despenser, appears for the first time. - -At the time of the Domesday Survey there were between 400 and 500 mills -in Lincolnshire; 2111 fisheries producing large quantities of eels; 361 -salt-works; and iron forges at Stow, St Mary and at Bytham. Lincoln and -Stamford were flourishing centres of industry, and markets existed at -Kirton-in-Lindsey, Louth, Old Bolingbroke, Spalding, Barton and Partney. -The early manufactures of the county are all connected with the woollen -trade, Lincoln being noted for its scarlet cloth in the 13th century, -while an important export trade in the raw material sprang up at Boston. -The disafforesting of Kesteven in 1230 brought large areas under -cultivation, and the same period is marked by the growth of the maritime -and fishing towns, especially Boston (which had a famous fish-market), -Grimsby, Barton, Saltfleet, Wainfleet and Wrangle. The Lincolnshire -towns suffered from the general decay of trade in the eastern counties -which marked the 15th century, but agriculture was steadily improving, -and with the gradual drainage of the fen-districts culminating in the -vast operations of the 17th century, over 330,000 acres in the county -were brought under cultivation, including more than two-thirds of -Holland. The fen-drainage resulted in the extinction of many local -industries, such as the trade in goose-feathers and the export of wild -fowl to the London markets, a 17th-century writer terming this county -"the aviary of England, 3000 mallards with other birds having been -caught sometimes in August at one draught." Other historic industries of -Lincolnshire are the breeding of horses and dogs and rabbit-snaring; the -Witham was noted for its pike; and ironstone was worked in the south, -now chiefly in the north and west. - -As early as 1295 two knights were returned to parliament for the shire -of Lincoln, and two burgesses each for Lincoln, Grimsby and Stamford. In -the 14th century Lincoln and Stamford were several times the -meeting-places of parliament or important councils, the most notable -being the Lincoln Parliament of 1301, while at Stamford in 1309 a truce -was concluded between the barons, Piers Gaveston and the king. Stamford -discontinued representation for some 150 years after the reign of Edward -II.; Grantham was enfranchised in 1463 and Boston in 1552. Under the act -of 1832 the county was divided into a northern and southern division, -returning each two members, and Great Grimsby lost one member. Under -the act of 1868 the county returned six members in three divisions and -Stamford lost one member. Under the act of 1885 the county returned -seven members in seven divisions; Lincoln, Boston and Grantham lost one -member each and Stamford was disfranchised. - - _Antiquities._--At the time of the suppression of the monasteries in - the reign of Henry VIII. there were upwards of one hundred religious - houses; and among the Fens rose some of the finest abbeys held by the - Benedictines. The Gilbertines were a purely English order which took - its rise in Lincolnshire, the canons following the Austin rule, the - nuns and lay brothers that of the Cistercians. They generally lived in - separate houses, but formed a community having a common church in - which the sexes were divided by a longitudinal wall. These houses were - at Alvingham, Catley, Holland Brigg, Lincoln, before the gate of which - the first Eleanor Cross was erected by Edward I. to his wife, Newstead - in Lindsey, Sempringham, the chief house of the order, founded by St - Gilbert of Gaunt in 1139, of which the Norman nave of the church is in - use, Stamford (a college for students) and Wellow. There were - nunneries of the order at Haverholme, Nun Ormsby and Tunstal. - - The following are a few of the most famous abbeys. Barlings - (Premonstratensian), N.E. of Lincoln, was founded 1154, for fourteen - canons. The tower, Decorated, with arcading pierced with windows, and - the east wall of the south wing remain. The Benedictine Mitred Abbey - of Crowland (q.v.) was founded 716, and refounded in 948. Part of the - church is still in use. Thornton Abbey (Black Canons) in the north - near the Humber was founded in 1139. There remain a fragment of the - south wing of the transept, two sides of the decagonal chapter-house - (1282) and the beautiful west gate-house, Early Perpendicular - (1332-1388), with an oriel window on the east. Kirkstead Abbey - (Cistercian) was founded in 1139. Little remains beyond an Early - English chapel of singular beauty. - - In the Parts of Lindsey several churches present curious early - features, particularly the well-known towers of St Peter, - Barton-on-Humber, St Mary-le-Wigford and St Peter at Gowts, Lincoln, - which exhibit work of a pre-Conquest type. Stow church for Norman of - various dates, Bottesford and St James, Grimsby, for Early English, - Tattershall and Theddlethorpe for Perpendicular are fine examples of - various styles. - - In the Parts of Kesteven the churches are built of excellent stone - which abounds at Ancaster and near Sleaford. The church of St Andrew, - Heckington, is the best example of Decorated architecture in the - county; it is famed for its Easter sepulchre and fine sedilia. The - noble church of St Wulfram, Grantham, with one of the finest spires in - England, is also principally Decorated; this style in fact is - particularly well displayed in Kesteven, as in the churches of - Caythorpe, Claypole, Navenby and Ewerby. At Stamford (q.v.) there are - five churches of various styles. - - It is principally in the Parts of Holland that the finest churches in - the county are found; they are not surpassed by those of any other - district in the kingdom, which is the more remarkable as the district - is composed wholly of marsh land and is without stone of any kind. It - is highly probable that the churches of the south part of this - district owe their origin to the munificence of the abbeys of Crowland - and Spalding. The church of Long Sutton, besides its fine Norman nave, - possesses an Early English tower and spire which is comparable with - the very early specimen at Oxford cathedral. Whaplode church is - another noteworthy example of Norman work; for Early English work the - churches of Kirtop-in-Holland, Pinchbeck and Weston may be noticed; - for Decorated those at Donington and Spalding; and for Perpendicular, - Gedney, together with parts of Kirton church. Of the two later styles, - however, by far the most splendid example is the famous church of St - Botolph, Boston (q.v.), with its magnificent lantern-crowned tower or - "stump." - - There are few remains of medieval castles, although the sites of a - considerable number are traceable. Those of Lincoln and Tattershall (a - fine Perpendicular building in brick) are the most noteworthy, and - there are also fragments at Boston and Sleaford, Country seats worthy - of note (chiefly modern) are Aswarby Hall, Belton House, Brocklesby, - Casewick, Denton Manor, Easton Hall, Grimsthorpe (of the 16th and 18th - centuries, with earlier remains), Haverholm Priory, Nocton Hall, - Panton Hall, Riby Grove, Somerby Hall, Syston Park and Uffington. The - city of Lincoln is remarkably rich in remains of domestic architecture - from the Norman period onward, and there are similar examples at - Stamford and elsewhere. In this connexion the remarkable triangular - bridge at Crowland of the 14th century (see BRIDGES) should be - mentioned. - - See _Victoria County History, Lincolnshire_; Thomas Allen, _The - History of the County of Lincoln_ (2 vols., London, 1834); C. G. - Smith, _A Translation of that portion of the Domesday Book which - relates to Lincolnshire and Rutlandshire_ (London, 1870); G. S. - Streatfield, _Lincolnshire and the Danes_ (London, 1884); _Chronicle - of the Rebellion in Lincolnshire, 1470_, ed. J. E. Nicholls, Camden - Society, _Camden Miscellany_, vol. i. (London, 1847); _The - Lincolnshire Survey, temp. Henry I._, ed. James Greenstreet (London, - 1884); _Lincolnshire Notes and Queries_ (Horncastle, 1888); - _Lincolnshire Record Society_ (Horncastle, 1891). - - - - -LIND, JENNY (1820-1887), the famous Swedish singer, was born at -Stockholm on the 6th of October 1820, the daughter of a lace -manufacturer. Mlle Lundberg, an opera-dancer, first discovered her -musical gift, and induced the child's mother to have her educated for -the stage; during the six or seven years in which she was what was -called an "actress pupil," she occasionally appeared on the stage, but -in plays, not operas, until 1836, when she made a first attempt in an -opera by A. F. Lindblad. She was regularly engaged at the opera-house In -1837. Her first great success was as Agathe, in Weber's _Der -Freischutz_, in 1838, and by 1841, when she started for Paris, she had -already become identified with nearly all the parts in which she -afterwards became famous. But her celebrity in Sweden was due in great -part to her histrionic ability, and there is comparatively little said -about her wonderful vocal art, which was only attained after a year's -hard study under Manuel Garcia, who had to remedy many faults that had -caused exhaustion in the vocal organs. On the completion of her studies -she sang before G. Meyerbeer, in private, in the Paris Opera-house, and -two years afterwards was engaged by him for Berlin, to sing in his -_Feldlager in Schlesien_ (afterwards remodelled as _L' Etoile du nord_); -but the part intended for her was taken by another singer, and her first -appearance took place in _Norma_ on the 15th of December 1844. She -appeared also in Weber's _Euryanthe_ and Bellini's _La Sonnambula_, and -while she was at Berlin the English manager, Alfred Bunn, induced her to -sign a contract (which she broke) to appear in London in the following -season. In December 1845 she appeared at a Gewandhaus concert at -Leipzig, and made the acquaintance of Mendelssohn, as well as of Joachim -and many other distinguished German musicians. In her second Berlin -season she added the parts of Donna Anna (Mozart's _Don Giovanni_), -Julia (Spontini's _Vestalin_) and Valentine (Meyerbeer's _Les -Huguenots_) to her repertory. She sang in operas or concerts at -Aix-la-Chapelle, Hanover, Hamburg, Vienna, Darmstadt and Munich during -the next year, and took up two Donizetti roles, those of Lucia and "la -Figlia del Reggimento," in which she was afterwards famous. At last -Lumley, the manager of Her Majesty's Theatre, succeeded in inducing Mlle -Lind to visit England, in spite of her dread of the penalties threatened -by Bunn on her breach of the contract with him, and she appeared on the -4th of May 1847 as Alice in Meyerbeer's _Robert le Diable_. Her debut -had been so much discussed that the _furore_ she created was a foregone -conclusion. Nevertheless it exceeded everything of the kind that had -taken place in London or anywhere else; the sufferings and struggles of -her well-dressed admirers, who had to stand for hours to get into the -pit, have become historic. She sang in several of her favourite -characters, and in that of Susanna in Mozart's _Figaro_, besides -creating the part of Amalia in Verdi's _I Masnadieri_, written for -England and performed on the 22nd of July. In the autumn she appeared in -operas in Manchester and Liverpool, and in concerts at Brighton, -Birmingham, Hull, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, Norwich, Bristol, Bath and -Exeter. At Norwich began her acquaintance with the bishop, Edward -Stanley (1779-1849), which was said to have led to her final -determination to give up the stage as a career. After four more -appearances in Berlin, and a short visit to Stockholm, she appeared in -London in the season of 1848, when she sang in Donizetti's _L'Elisire -d'amore_ and Bellini's _I Puritani_, in addition to her older parts. In -the same year she organized a memorable performance of _Elijah_, with -the receipts of which the Mendelssohn scholarship was founded, and sang -at a great number of charity and benefit concerts. At the beginning of -the season of 1849 she intended to give up operatic singing, but a -compromise was effected by which she was to sing the music of six -operas, performed without action, at Her Majesty's Theatre; but the -first, a concert performance of Mozart's _Il Flauto magico_, was so -coldly received that she felt bound, for the sake of the manager and the -public, to give five more regular representations, and her last -performance on the stage was on the 10th of May 1849, in _Robert le -Diable_. Her decision was not even revoked when the king of Sweden -urged her to reappear in opera at her old home. She paid visits to -Germany and Sweden again before her departure for America in 1850. Just -before sailing she appeared at Liverpool, for the first time in England, -in an oratorio of Handel, singing the soprano music in _The Messiah_ -with superb art. She remained in America for nearly two years, being for -a great part of the time engaged by P. T. Barnum. In Boston, on the 5th -of February 1852, she married Otto Goldschmidt (1829-1907), whom she had -met at Lubeck in 1850. For some years after her return to England, her -home for the rest of her life, she appeared in oratorios and concerts, -and her dramatic instincts were as strongly and perhaps as -advantageously displayed in these surroundings as they had been on the -stage, for the grandeur of her conceptions in such passages as the -"Sanctus" of _Elijah_, the intensity of conviction which she threw into -the scene of the widow in the same work, or the religious fervour of "I -know that my Redeemer liveth," could not have found a place in opera. In -her later years she took an active interest in the Bach Choir, conducted -by her husband, and not only sang herself in the chorus, but gave the -benefit of her training to the ladies of the society. For some years she -was professor of singing at the Royal College of Music. Her last public -appearance was at Dusseldorf on the 20th of January 1870 when she sang -in _Ruth_, an oratorio composed by her husband. She died at Malvern on -the 2nd of November 1887. The supreme position she held so long in the -operatic world was due not only to the glory of her voice, and the -complete musicianship which distinguished her above all her -contemporaries, but also to the naive simplicity of her acting in her -favourite parts, such as Amina, Alice or Agathe. In these and others she -had the precious quality of conviction, and identified herself with the -characters she represented with a thoroughness rare in her day. Unharmed -by the perils of a stage career, she was a model of rectitude, -generosity and straightforwardness, carrying the last quality into a -certain blunt directness of manner that was sometimes rather startling. - (J. A. F. M.) - - - - -LINDAU, PAUL (1839- ), German dramatist and novelist, the son of a -Protestant pastor, was born at Magdeburg on the 3rd of June 1839. He was -educated at the gymnasium in Halle and subsequently in Leipzig and -Berlin. He spent five years in Paris to further his studies, acting -meanwhile as foreign correspondent to German papers. After his return to -Germany in 1863 he was engaged in journalism in Dusseldorf and -Elberfeld. In 1870 he founded _Das neue Blatt_ at Leipzig; from 1872 to -1881 he edited the Berlin weekly, _Die Gegenwart_; and in 1878 he -founded the well-known monthly, _Nord und Sud_, which he continued to -edit until 1904. Two books of travel, _Aus Venetien_ (Dusseldorf, 1864) -and _Aus Paris_ (Stuttgart, 1865). were followed by some volumes of -critical studies, written in a light, satirical vein, which at once made -him famous. These were _Harmlose Briefe eines deutschen Kleinstadters_ -(Leipzig, 2 vols., 1870), _Moderne Marchen fur grosse Kinder_ (Leipzig, -1870) and _Literarische Rucksichtslosigkeiten_ (Leipzig, 1871). He was -appointed intendant of the court theatre at Meiningen in 1895, but -removed to Berlin in 1899, where he became manager of the Berliner -Theater, and subsequently, until 1905, of the Deutsches Theater. He had -begun his dramatic career in 1868 with _Marion_, the first of a long -series of plays in which he displayed a remarkable talent for stage -effect and a command of witty and lively dialogue. Among the more famous -were _Maria und Magdalena_ (1872), _Tante Therese_ (1876), _Grafin Lea_ -(1879), _Die Erste_ (1895), _Der Abend_ (1896), _Der Herr im Hause_ -(1899), _So ich dir_ (1903), and he adapted many plays by Dumas, Augier -and Sardou for the German stage. Five volumes of his plays have been -published (Berlin, 1873-1888). Some of his volumes of short stories -acquired great popularity, notably _Herr und Frau Bewer_ (Breslau, 1882) -and T_oggenburg und andere Geschichten_ (Breslau, 1883). A -novel-sequence entitled _Berlin_ included _Der Zug nach dem Westen_ -(Stuttgart, 1886, 10th ed. 1903), _Arme Madchen_ (1887, 9th ed. 1905) -and _Spitzen_ (1888, 8th ed. 1904). Later novels were _Die Gehilfin_ -(Breslau, 1894), _Die Bruder_, (Dresden, 1895), _Der Konig von Sidon_ -(Breslau, 1898). His earlier books on _Moliere_ (Leipzig, 1871) and -_Alfred de Musset_ (Berlin, 1877) were followed by some volumes of -dramatic and literary criticism, _Gesammelte Aufsatze_ (Berlin, 1875), -_Dramaturgische Blatter_ (Stuttgart, 2 vols., 1875; new series, Breslau, -1878, 2 vols.), _Vorspiele auf dem Theater_ (Breslau, 1895). - -His brother, RUDOLF LINDAU (b. 1829), was a well-known diplomatist and -author. His novels and tales were collected in 1893 (Berlin, 6 vols.). -The most attractive, such as _Reisegefahrten_ and _Der lange Hollander_, -deal with the life of European residents in the Far East. - - See Hadlich, _Paul Lindau als dramatischer Dichter_ (2nd ed., Berlin, - 1876). - - - - -LINDAU, a town and pleasure resort in the kingdom of Bavaria, and the -central point of the transit trade between that country and Switzerland, -situated on two islands off the north-eastern shore of Lake Constance. -Pop. (1905) 6531. The town is a terminus of the Vorarlberg railway, and -of the Munich-Lindau line of the Bavarian state railways, and is -connected with the mainland both by a wooden bridge and by a railway -enbankment erected in 1853. There are a royal palace and an old and a -new town-hall (the older one having been built in 1422 and restored in -1886-1888), a museum and a municipal library with interesting -manuscripts and a collection of Bibles, also classical, commercial and -industrial schools. The harbour is much frequented by steamers from -Constance and other places on the lake. There are also some Roman -remains, the Heidenmauer, and a fine modern fountain, the Reichsbrunnen. -Opposite the custom-house is a bronze statue of the Bavarian king -Maximilian II., erected in 1856. - -On the site now occupied by the town there was a Roman camp, the -_castrum Tiberii_, and the authentic records of Lindau date back to the -end of the 9th century, when it was known as Lintowa. In 1274, or -earlier, it became a free imperial town; in 1331 it joined the Swabian -league, and in 1531 became a member of the league of Schmalkalden, -having just previously accepted the reformed doctrines. In 1647 it was -ineffectually besieged by the Swedes. In 1804 it lost its imperial -privileges and passed to Austria, being transferred to Bavaria in 1805. - - See Boulan, _Lindau, vor altem und jetzt_ (Lindau, 1872); and - Stettners, _Fuhrer durch Lindau und Umgebungen_ (Lindau, 1900). - - - - -LINDEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, 3 m. S.W. by rail -from the city of that name, of which it practically forms a suburb, and -from which it is separated by the Ihme. Pop. (1905) 57,941. It has a -fine modern town-hall, and a classical and other schools. Chief among -its industries are machine building, weaving, iron and steel works and -the manufacture of chemicals, india-rubber goods and carpets. - - - - -LINDESAY, ROBERT, of Pitscottie (c. 1530-c. 1590), Scottish historian, -of the family of the Lindesays of the Byres, was born at Pitscottie, in -the parish of Ceres, Fifeshire, which he held in lease at a later -period. His _Historie and Cronicles of Scotland_, the only work by which -he is remembered, is described as a continuation of that of Hector -Boece, translated by John Bellenden. It covers the period from 1437 to -1565, and, though it sometimes degenerates into a mere chronicle of -short entries, is not without passages of great picturesqueness. Sir -Walter Scott made use of it in _Marmion_; and, in spite of its -inaccuracy in details, it is useful for the social history of the -period. Lindesay's share in the _Cronicles_ was generally supposed to -end with 1565; but Dr Aeneas Mackay considers that the frank account of -the events connected with Mary Stuart between 1565 and 1575 contained in -one of the MSS. is by his hand and was only suppressed because it was -too faithful in its record of contemporary affairs. - - The _Historie and Cronicles_ was first published in 1728. A complete - edition of the text (2 vols.), based on the Laing MS. No. 218 in the - university of Edinburgh, was published by the Scottish Text Society in - 1899 under the editorship of Aeneas J. G. Mackay. The MS., formerly in - the possession of John Scott of Halkshill, is fuller, and, though in a - later hand, is, on the whole, a better representative of Lindesay's - text. - - - - -LINDET, JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT (1749-1825), French revolutionist, was -born at Bernay (Eure). Before the Revolution he was an _avocat_ at -Bernay. He acted as _procureur-syndic_ of the district of Bernay during -the session of the Constituent Assembly. Appointed deputy to the -Legislative Assembly and subsequently to the Convention, he attained -considerable prominence. He was very hostile to the king, furnished a -_Rapport sur les crimes imputes a Louis Capet_ (10th of December 1792), -and voted for the death of Louis without appeal or respite. He was -instrumental in the establishment of the Revolutionary Tribunal and -contributed to the downfall of the Girondists. As member of the -Committee of Public Safety, he devoted himself particularly to the -question of food-supplies, and it was only by dint of dogged -perseverance and great administrative talent that he was successful in -coping with this difficult problem. He had meanwhile been sent to -suppress revolts in the districts of Rhone, Eure, Calvados and -Finistere, where he had been able to pursue a conciliatory policy. -Without being formally opposed to Robespierre, he did not support him, -and he was the only member of the Committee of Public Safety who did not -sign the order for the execution of Danton and his party. In a like -spirit of moderation he opposed the Thermidorian reaction, and defended -Barere, Billaud-Varenne the Collot d'Herbois from the accusations -launched against them on the 22nd of March 1795. Himself denounced on -the 20th of May 1795, he was defended by his brother Thomas, but only -escaped condemnation by the vote of amnesty of the 4th of Brumaire, year -IV. (26th of October 1795). He was minister of finance from the 18th of -June to the 9th of November 1799, but refused office under the Consulate -and the Empire. In 1816 he was proscribed by the Restoration government -as a regicide, and did not return to France until just before his death -on the 17th of February 1825. His brother Thomas made some mark as a -Constitutional bishop and member of the Convention. - - See Amand Montier, _Robert Lindet_ (Paris, 1899); H. Turpin, _Thomas - Lindet_ (Bernay, 1886); A. Montier, _Correspondance de Thomas Lindet_ - (Paris, 1899). - - - - -LINDLEY, JOHN (1799-1865), English botanist, was born on the 5th of -February 1799 at Catton, near Norwich, where his father, George Lindley, -author of _A Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden_, owned a nursery -garden. He was educated at Norwich grammar school. His first -publication, in 1819, a translation of the _Analyse du fruit_ of L. C. -M. Richard, was followed in 1820 by an original _Monographia Rosarum_, -with descriptions of new species, and drawings executed by himself, and -in 1821 by _Monographia Digitalium_, and by "Observations on Pomaceae," -contributed to the Linnean Society. Shortly afterwards he went to -London, where he was engaged by J. C. Loudon to write the descriptive -portion of the _Encyclopaedia of Plants_. In his labours on this -undertaking, which was completed in 1829, he became convinced of the -superiority of the "natural" system of A. L. de Jussieu, as -distinguished from the "artificial" system of Linnaeus followed in the -_Encyclopaedia_; the conviction found expression in _A Synopsis of -British Flora, arranged according to the Natural Order_ (1829) and in -_An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany_ (1830). In 1829 -Lindley, who since 1822 had been assistant secretary to the -Horticultural Society, was appointed to the chair of botany in -University College, London, which he retained till 1860; he lectured -also on botany from 1831 at the Royal Institution, and from 1836 at the -Botanic Gardens, Chelsea. During his professoriate he wrote many -scientific and popular works, besides contributing largely to the -_Botanical Register_, of which he was editor for many years, and to the -_Gardener's Chronicle_, in which he had charge of the horticultural -department from 1841. He was a fellow of the Royal, Linnean and -Geological Societies. He died at Turnham Green on the 1st of November -1865. - - Besides those already mentioned, his works include _An Outline of the - First Principles of Horticulture_ (1832), _An Outline of the Structure - and Physiology of Plants_ (1832), _A Natural System of Botany_ (1836), - _The Fossil Flora of Great Britain_ (with William Hutton, 1831-1837), - _Flora Medica_ (1838), _Theory of Horticulture_ (1840), _The Vegetable - Kingdom_ (1846), _Folia Orchidacea_ (1852), _Descriptive Botany_ - (1858). - - - - -LINDLEY, NATHANIEL LINDLEY, BARON (1828- ), English judge, son of John -Lindley (q.v.), was born at Acton Green, Middlesex, on the 29th of -November 1828. He was educated at University College School, and studied -for a time at University College, London. He was called to the bar at -the Middle Temple in 1850, and began practice in the Court of Chancery. -In 1855 he published _An Introduction to the Study of Jurisprudence_, -consisting of a translation of the general part of Thibaut's _System des -Pandekten Rechts_, with copious notes. In 1860 he published in two -volumes his _Treatise on the Law of Partnership, including its -Application to Joint Stock and other Companies_, and in 1862 a -supplement including the Companies Act of 1862. This work has since been -developed into two text-books well known to lawyers as _Lindley on -Companies_ and _Lindley on Partnership_. He became a Q.C. in January -1872. In 1874 he was elected a bencher of the Middle Temple, of which he -was treasurer in 1894. In 1875 he was appointed a justice of common -pleas, the appointment of a chancery barrister to a common-law court -being justified by the fusion of law and equity then shortly to be -brought about, in theory at all events, by the Judicature Acts. In -pursuance of the changes now made be became a justice of the common -pleas division of the High Court of Justice, and in 1880 of the queen's -bench division. In 1881 he was raised to the Court of Appeal and made a -privy councillor. In 1897, Lord Justice Lindley succeeded Lord Esher as -master of the rolls, and in 1900 he was made a lord of appeal in -ordinary with a life peerage and the title of Baron Lindley. He resigned -the judicial post in 1905. Lord Lindley was the last serjeant-at-law -appointed, and the last judge to wear the serjeant's coif, or rather the -black patch representing it, on the judicial wig. He married in 1858 -Sarah Katherine, daughter of Edward John Teale of Leeds. - - - - -LINDLEY, WILLIAM (1808-1900), English engineer, was born in London on -the 7th of September 1808, and became a pupil under Francis Giles, whom -he assisted in designing the Newcastle and Carlisle and the London and -Southampton railways. Leaving England about 1837, he was engaged for a -time in railway work in various parts of Europe, and then returned, as -engineer-in-chief to the Hamburg-Bergedorf railway, to Hamburg, near -which city he had received his early education, and to which he was -destined to stand in much the same relation as Baron Haussmann to Paris. -His first achievement was to drain the Hammerbrook marshes, and so add -some 1400 acres to the available area of the city. His real opportunity, -however, came with the great fire which broke out on the 5th of May 1842 -and burned for three days. He was entrusted with the direction of the -operations to check its spread, and the strong measures he adopted, -including the blowing-up of the town hall, brought bis life into danger -with the mob, who professed to see in him an English agent charged with -the destruction of the port of Hamburg. After the extinction of the fire -he was appointed consulting engineer to the senate and town council, to -the Water Board and to the Board of Works. He began with the -construction of a complete sewerage system on principles which did not -escape criticism, but which experience showed to be good. Between 1844 -and 1848 water-works were established from his designs, the intake from -the Elbe being at Rothenburgsort. Subsidence tanks were used for -clarification, but in 1853, when he designed large extensions, he urged -the substitution of sand-filtration, which, however, was not adopted -until the cholera epidemic of 1892-1893 had shown the folly of the -opposition directed against it. In 1846 he erected the Hamburg -gas-works; public baths and wash-houses were built, and large extensions -to the port executed according to his plans in 1854; and he supervised -the construction of the Altona gas and water works in 1855. Among other -services he rendered to the city may be mentioned the trigonometrical -survey executed between 1848 and 1860, and the conduct of the -negotiations which in 1852 resulted in the sale of the "Steelyard" on -the banks of the Thames belonging to it jointly with the two other -Hanseatic towns, Bremen and Lubeck. In 1860 he left Hamburg, and during -the remaining nineteen years of his professional practice he was -responsible for many engineering works in various European cities, -among them being Frankfort-on-the-Main, Warsaw, Pesth, Dusseldorf, -Galatz and Basel. In Frankfort he constructed sewerage works on the same -principles as those he followed in Hamburg, and the system was widely -imitated not only in Europe, but also in America. He was also consulted -in regard to water-works at Berlin, Kiel, Stralsund, Stettin and -Leipzig; he advised the New River Company of London on the adoption of -the constant supply system in 1851; and he was commissioned by the -British Government to carry out various works in Heligoland, including -the big retaining wall "Am Falm." He died at Blackheath, London, on the -22nd of May 1900. - - - - -LINDO, MARK PRAGER (1819-1879), Dutch prose writer, of English-Jewish -descent, was born in London on the 18th of September 1810. He went to -Holland when nineteen years of age, and once established there as a -private teacher of the English language, he soon made up his mind to -remain. In 1842 he passed his examination at Arnhem, qualifying him as a -professor of English in Holland, subsequently becoming a teacher of the -English language and literature at the gymnasium in that town. In 1853 -he was appointed in a similar capacity at the Royal Military Academy in -Breda. Meanwhile Lindo had obtained a thorough grasp of the Dutch -language, partly during his student years at Utrecht University, where -in 1854 he gained the degree of doctor of literature. His proficiency in -the two languages led him to translate into Dutch several of the works -of Dickens, Thackeray and others, and afterwards also of Fielding, -Sterne and Walter Scott. Some of Lindo's translations bore the imprint -of hasty and careless work, and all were very unequal in quality. His -name is much more likely to endure as the writer of humorous original -sketches and novelettes in Dutch, which he published under the pseudonym -of De Oude Herr Smits ("Old Mr Smits"). Among the most popular are; -_Brieven en Ontboezemingen_ ("Letters and Confessions," 1853, with three -"Continuations"); _Familie van Ons_ ("Family of Ours," 1855); -_Bekentenissen eener Jonge Dame_ ("Confessions of a Young Lady," 1858); -_Uittreksels uit het Dagboek van Wijlen den Heer Janus Snor_ ("Extracts -from the Diary of the late Mr Janus Snor," 1865); _Typen_ ("Types," -1871); and, particularly, _Afdrukken van Indrukken_ ("Impressions from -Impressions," 1854, reprinted many times). The last-named was written in -collaboration with Lodewyk Mulder, who contributed some of its drollest -whimsicalities of Dutch life and character, which, for that reason, are -almost untranslatable. Lodewyk Mulder and Lindo also founded together, -and carried on, for a considerable time alone, the _Nederlandsche -Spectator_ ("The Dutch Spectator"), a literary weekly, still published -at The Hague, which bears little resemblance to its English prototype, -and which perhaps reached its greatest popularity and influence when -Vosmaer contributed to it a brilliant weekly letter under the fanciful -title of Vlugmaren ("Swifts"). Lindo's serious original Dutch writings -he published under his own name, the principal one being _De Opkomst en -Ontwikkeling van het Engelsche Volk_ ("The Rise and Development of the -British People," 2 vols. 1868-1874)--a valuable history. Lodewyk Mulder -published in 1877-1879 a collected edition of Lindo's writings in five -volumes, and there has since been a popular reissue. Lindo was appointed -an inspector of primary schools in the province of South Holland in -1865, a post he held until his death at The Hague on the 9th of March -1879. - - - - -LINDSAY, the family name of the earls of Crawford. The family is one of -great antiquity in Scotland, the earliest to settle in that country -being Sir Walter de Lindesia, who attended David, earl of Huntingdon, -afterwards King David I., in his colonization of the Lowlands early in -the 12th century. The descendants of Sir Walter divided into three -branches, one of which held the baronies of Lamberton in Scotland, and -Kendal and Molesworth in England; another held Luffness and Crawford in -Scotland and half Limesi in England; and a third held Breneville and -Byres in Scotland and certain lands, not by baronial tenure, in England. -The heads of all these branches sat as barons in the Scottish parliament -for more than two hundred years before the elevation of the chief of the -house to an earldom in 1398. The Lindsays held the great mountain -district of Crawford in Clydesdale, from which the title of the earldom -is derived, from the 12th century till the close of the 15th, when it -passed to the Douglas earls of Angus. See CRAWFORD, EARLS OF. - - See A. W. C. Lindsay, afterwards earl of Crawford, _Lives of the - Lindsays, or a Memoir of the Houses of Crawford and Belcarres_ (3 - vols., 1843 and 1858). - - - - -LINDSAY, a town and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and capital of -Victoria county, on the Scugog river, 57 m. N.E. of Toronto by rail, on -the Canadian Pacific railway, and at the junction of the Port Hope and -Haliburton branches and the Midland division of the Grand Trunk railway. -Pop. (1901) 7003. It has steamboat communication, by way of the Trent -canal, with Lake Scugog and the ports on the Trent system. It contains -saw and grist mills, agricultural implement and other factories. - - - - -LINDSEY, THEOPHILUS (1723-1808), English theologian, was born in -Middlewich, Cheshire, on the 20th of June 1723, and was educated at the -Leeds Free School and at St John's College, Cambridge, where in 1747 he -became a fellow. For some time he held a curacy in Spitalfields, London, -and from 1734 to 1756 he travelled on the continent of Europe as tutor -to the young duke of Northumberland. He was then presented to the living -of Kirkby-Wiske in Yorkshire, and after exchanging it for that of -Piddletown in Dorsetshire, he removed in 1763 to Catterick in Yorkshire. -Here about 1764 he founded one of the first Sunday schools in England. -Meanwhile he had begun to entertain anti-Trinitarian views, and to be -troubled in conscience about their inconsistency with the Anglican -belief; since 1769 the intimate friendship of Joseph Priestley had -served to foster his scruples, and in 1771 he united with Francis -Blackburne, archdeacon of Cleveland (his father-in-law), John Jebb -(1736-1786), Christopher Wyvill (1740-1822) and Edmund Law (1703-1787), -bishop of Carlisle, in preparing a petition to parliament with the -prayer that clergymen of the church and graduates of the universities -might be relieved from the burden of subscribing to the thirty-nine -articles, and "restored to their undoubted rights as Protestants of -interpreting Scripture for themselves." Two hundred and fifty signatures -were obtained, but in February 1772 the House of Commons declined even -to receive the petition by a majority of 217 to 71; the adverse vote was -repeated in the following year, and in the end of 1773, seeing no -prospect of obtaining within the church the relief which his conscience -demanded, Lindsey resigned his vicarage. In April 1774 he began to -conduct Unitarian services in a room in Essex Street, Strand, London, -where first a church, and afterwards the Unitarian offices, were -established. Here he remained till 1793, when he resigned his charge in -favour of John Disney (1746-1816), who like himself had left the -established church and had become his colleague. He died on the 3rd of -November 1808. - - Lindsey's chief work is _An Historical View of the State of the - Unitarian Doctrine and Worship from the Reformation to our own Times_ - (1783); in it he claims, amongst others, Burnet, Tillotson, S. Clarke, - Hoadly and Sir I. Newton for the Unitarian view. His other - publications include _Apology on Resigning the Vicarage of Catterick_ - (1774), and _Sequel to the Apology_ (1776); _The Book of Common Prayer - reformed according to the plan of the late Dr Samuel Clarke_ (1774); - _Dissertations on the Preface to St John's Gospel and on praying to - Jesus Christ_ (1779); _Vindiciae Priestleianae_ (1788); _Conversations - upon Christian Idolatry_ (1792); and _Conversations on the Divine - Government, showing that everything is from God, and for good to all_ - (1802). Two volumes of _Sermons, with appropriate prayers annexed_, - were published posthumously in 1810; and a volume of Memoirs, by - Thomas Belsham, appeared in 1812. - - - - -LINDSTROM, GUSTAF (1829-1901), Swedish palaeontologist, was born at -Wisby in Gotland on the 27th of August 1829. In 1848 he entered the -university at Upsala, and in 1854 he took his doctor's degree. Having -attended a course of lectures in Stockholm by S. L. Loven, he became -interested in the zoology of the Baltic, and published several papers on -the invertebrate fauna, and subsequently on the fishes. In 1856 he -became a school teacher, and in 1858 a master in the grammar school at -Wisby. His leisure was devoted to researches on the fossils of the -Silurian rocks of Gotland, including the corals, brachiopods, -gasteropods, pteropods, cephalopods and crustacea. He described also -remains of the fish _Cyathaspis_ from Wenlock Beds, and (with T. -Thorell) a scorpion _Palaeaphonus_ from Ludlow Beds at Wisby. He -determined the true nature of the operculated coral _Calceola_; and -while he described organic remains from other parts of northern Europe, -he worked especially at the Palaeozoic fossils of Sweden. He was awarded -the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London in 1895. In 1876 -he was appointed keeper of the fossil Invertebrata in the State Museum -at Stockholm, where he died on the 16th of May 1901. - - See obituary (with portrait), by F. A. Bather, in _Geol. Mag._ (July - 1901), p. 333. - - - - -LINDUS, one of the three chief cities of the island of Rhodes, before -their synoecism in the city of Rhodes. It is situated on the E. side of -the island, and has a finely placed acropolis on a precipitous hill, and -a good natural harbour just N. of it. Recent excavations have discovered -the early temple of Athena Lindia on the Acropolis, and splendid -Propylaea and a staircase, resembling those at Athens. The sculptors of -the Laocoon are among the priests of Athena Lindia, whose names are -recorded by inscriptions. Some early temples have also been found, and -inscriptions cut on the rock recording the sacrifices known as [Greek: -Boukatia]. There are also traces of a theatre and rock-cut tombs. On the -Acropolis is a castle, built by the knights in the 14th century, and -many houses in the town show work of the same date. - - See RHODES; also Chr. Blinkenberg and K. F. Kinch, _Exploration arch. - de Rhodes_ (Copenhagen, 1904-1907). - - - - -LINE, a word of which the numerous meanings may be deduced from the -primary ones of thread or cord, a succession of objects in a row, a mark -or stroke, a course or route in any particular direction. The word is -derived from the Lat. _linea_, where all these meanings may be found, -but some applications are due more directly to the Fr. _ligne_. _Linea_, -in Latin, meant originally "something made of hemp or flax," hence a -cord or thread, from _linum_, flax. "Line" in English was formerly used -in the sense of flax, but the use now only survives in the technical -name for the fibres of flax when separated by heckling from the tow (see -LINEN). The ultimate origin is also seen in the verb "to line," to cover -something on the inside, originally used of the "lining" of a garment -with linen. - -In mathematics several definitions of the line may be framed according -to the aspect from which it is viewed. The synthetical genesis of a line -from the notion of a point is the basis of Euclid's definition, [Greek: -gramme, de mekos aplates] ("a line is widthless length"), and in a -subsequent definition he affirms that the boundaries of a line are -points, [Greek: grammes de perata semeia]. The line appears in -definition 6 as the boundary of a surface: [Greek: epiphaneias de perata -grammai] ("the boundaries of a surface are lines"). Another synthetical -definition, also treated by the ancient Greeks, but not by Euclid, -regards the line as generated by the motion of a point ([Greek: rhysis -semeiou]), and, in a similar manner, the "surface" was regarded as the -flux of a line, and a "solid" as the flux of a surface. Proclus adopts -this view, styling the line [Greek: arche] in respect of this capacity. -Analytical definitions, although not finding a place in the Euclidean -treatment, have advantages over the synthetical derivation. Thus the -boundaries of a solid may define a plane, the edges a line, and the -corners a point; or a section of a solid may define the surface, a -section of a surface the line, and the section of a line the "point." -The notion of dimensions follows readily from either system of -definitions. The solid extends three ways, i.e. it has length, breadth -and thickness, and is therefore three-dimensional; the surface has -breadth and length and is therefore two-dimensional; the line has only -extension and is unidimensional; and the point, having neither length, -breadth nor thickness but only position, has no dimensions. - -The definition of a "straight" line is a matter of much complexity. -Euclid defines it as the line which lies evenly with respect to the -points on itself--[Greek: eutheia gramme estin hetis ex isou tois eph -heautes semeiois keitai]: Plato defined it as the line having its middle -point hidden by the ends, a definition of no purpose since it only -defines the line by the path of a ray of light. Archimedes defines a -straight line as the shortest distance between two points. - -A better criterion of rectilinearity is that of Simplicius, an Arabian -commentator of the 5th century: _Linea recta est quaecumque super duas -ipsius extremitates rotata non movetur de loco suo ad alium locum_ ("a -straight line is one which when rotated about its two extremities does -not change its position"). This idea was employed by Leibnitz, and most -auspiciously by Gierolamo Saccheri in 1733. - -The drawing of a straight line between any two given points forms the -subject of Euclid's first postulate--[Greek: eitestho apo pantos semeiou -epi pan semeion eutheian grammen agagein], and the producing of a -straight line continuously in a straight line is treated in the second -postulate--[Greek: kai peperasmenen eutheian kata to suneches ep' -eutheias ekbalein]. - - For a detailed analysis of the geometrical notion of the line and - rectilinearity, see W. B. Frankland, _Euclid's Elements_ (1905). In - analytical geometry the right line is always representable by an - equation or equations of the first degree; thus in Cartesian - coordinates of two dimensions the equation is of the form Ax + By + C - = 0, in triangular coordinates Ax + By + Cz = 0. In three-dimensional - coordinates, the line is represented by two linear equations. (See - GEOMETRY, ANALYTICAL.) _Line geometry_ is a branch of analytical - geometry in which the line is the element, and not the point as with - ordinary analytical geometry (see GEOMETRY, LINE). - - - - -LINE ENGRAVING, on plates of copper or steel, the method of engraving -(q.v.), in which the line itself is hollowed, whereas in the woodcut -when the line is to print black it is left in relief, and only white -spaces and white lines are hollowed. - -The art of line engraving has been practised from the earliest ages. The -prehistoric Aztec hatchet given to Humboldt in Mexico was just as truly -_engraved_ as a modern copper-plate which may convey a design by -Flaxman; the Aztec engraving is ruder than the European, but it is the -same art. The important discovery which made line engraving one of the -multiplying arts was the discovery how to print an incised line, which -was hit upon at last by accident, and known for some time before its -real utility was suspected. Line engraving in Europe does not owe its -origin to the woodcut, but to the chasing on goldsmiths' work. The -goldsmiths of Florence in the middle of the 15th century were in the -habit of ornamenting their works by means of engraving, after which they -filled up the hollows produced by the burin with a black enamel made of -silver, lead and sulphur, the result being that the design was rendered -much more visible by the opposition of the enamel and the metal. An -engraved design filled up in this manner was called a _niello_. Whilst a -niello was in progress the artist could not see it so well as if the -enamel were already in the lines, yet he did not like to put in the hard -enamel prematurely, as when once it was set it could not easily be got -out again. He therefore took a sulphur cast of his niello in progress, -on a matrix of fine clay, and filled up the lines in the sulphur with -lampblack, thus enabling himself to judge of the state of his engraving. -At a later period it was discovered that a proof could be taken on -damped paper by filling the engraved lines with a certain ink and wiping -it off the surface of the plate, sufficient pressure being applied to -make the paper go into the hollowed lines and fetch the ink out of them. -This was the beginning of plate printing. The niello engravers thought -it a convenient way of proving their work--the metal itself--as it saved -the trouble of the sulphur cast, but they saw no further into the -future. They went on engraving nielli just the same to ornament plate -and furniture; nor was it until the 16th century that the new method of -printing was carried out to its great and wonderful results. There are, -however, certain differences between plate-printing and block-printing -which affect the essentials of art. When paper is driven _into_ a line -so as to fetch the ink out of it, the line may be of unimaginable -fineness, it will print all the same; but when the paper is only pressed -_upon_ a raised line, the line must have some appreciable thickness; the -wood engraving, therefore, can never--except in a _tour de force_--be so -delicate as plate engraving. Again, not only does plate-printing excel -block-printing in delicacy; it excels it also in force and depth. There -never was, and there will never be, a woodcut line having the power of -a deep line in a plate, for in block-printing the line is only a -blackened surface of paper slightly impressed, whereas in plate-printing -it is a _cast_ with an additional thickness of printing ink. - -The most important of the tools used in line-engraving is the burin, -which is a bar of steel with one end fixed in a handle rather like a -mushroom with one side cut away, the burin itself being shaped so that -the cutting end when sharpened takes the form of a lozenge, point -downwards. The burin acts exactly like a plough; it makes a furrow and -turns out a shaving of metal as the plough turns the soil of a field. -The burin, however, is pushed while the plough is pulled, and this -peculiar character of the burin, or graver, as a pushed instrument at -once establishes a wide separation between it and all the other -instruments employed in the arts of design, such as pencils, brushes, -pens and etching needles. - - The elements of engraving with the burin upon metal will be best - understood by an example of a very simple kind, as in the engraving of - letters. The capital letter B contains in itself the rudiments of an - engraver's education. As at first drawn, before the blacks are - inserted, this letter consists of two perpendicular straight lines and - four curves, all the curves differing from each other. Suppose, then, - that the engraver has to make a B, he will scratch these lines, - reversed, very lightly with a sharp point or style. The next thing is - to cut out the blacks (not the whites, as in wood engraving), and this - would be done with two different burins. The engraver would get his - vertical black line by a powerful ploughing with the burin between his - two preparatory first lines, and then take out some copper in the - thickest parts of the two curves. This done, he would then take a - finer burin and work out the gradation from the thick line in the - midst of the curve to the thin extremities which touch the - perpendicular. When there is much gradation in a line the darker parts - of it are often gradually ploughed out by returning to it over and - over again. The hollows so produced are afterwards filled with - printing ink, just as the hollows in a niello were filled with black - enamel; the surplus printing ink is wiped from the smooth surface of - the copper, damped paper is laid upon it, and driven into the hollowed - letter by the pressure of a revolving cylinder; it fetches the ink - out, and you have your letter B in intense black upon a white ground. - - When the surface of a metal plate is sufficiently polished to be used - for engraving, the slightest scratch upon it will print as a black - line, the degree of blackness being proportioned to the depth of the - scratch. An engraved plate from which visiting cards are printed is a - good example of some elementary principles of engraving. It contains - thin lines and thick ones, and a considerable variety of curves. An - elaborate line engraving, if it is a pure line engraving and nothing - else, will contain only these simple elements in different - combinations. The real line engraver is always engraving a line more - or less broad and deep in one direction or another; he has no other - business than this. - -In the early Italian and early German prints, the line is used with such -perfect simplicity of purpose that the methods of the artists are as -obvious as if we saw them actually at work. - -The student may soon understand the spirit and technical quality of the -earliest Italian engraving by giving his attention to a few of the -series which used erroneously to be called the "Playing Cards of -Mantegna," but which have been shown by Mr Sidney Colvin to represent "a -kind of encyclopaedia of knowledge." - -The history of these engravings is obscure. They are supposed to be -Florentine; they are certainly Italian; and their technical manner is -called that of Baccio Baldini. But their style is as clear as a style -can be, as clear as the artist's conception of his art. In all these -figures the outline is the main thing, and next to that the lines which -mark the leading folds of the drapery; lines quite classical in purity -of form and severity of selection, and especially characteristic in -this, that they are always really engraver's lines, such as may -naturally be done with the burin, and they never imitate the freer line -of the pencil or etching needle. Shading is used in the greatest -moderation with thin straight strokes of the burin, that never overpower -the stronger organic lines of the design. Of chiaroscuro, in any -complete sense, there is none. The sky behind the figures is represented -by white paper, and the foreground is sometimes occupied by flat -decorative engraving, much nearer in feeling to calligraphy than to -modern painting. Sometimes there is a cast shadow, but it is not -studied, and is only used to give relief. In this early metal engraving -the lines are often crossed in the shading, whereas in the earliest -woodcuts they are not; the reason being that when lines are incised they -can as easily be crossed as not, whereas, when they are reserved, the -crossing involves much labour of a non-artistic kind. Here, then, we -have pure line-engraving with the burin, that is, the engraving of the -pure line patiently studied for its own beauty, and exhibited in an -abstract manner, with care for natural form combined with inattention to -the effects of nature. Even the forms are idealized, especially in the -cast of draperies, for the express purpose of exhibiting the line to -better advantage. Such are the characteristics of those very early -Italian engravings which were attributed erroneously to Mantegna. When -we come to Mantegna himself we find a style equally decided. Drawing and -shading were for him two entirely distinct things. He did not draw and -shade at the same time, as a modern chiaroscurist would, but he first -got his outlines and the patterns on his dresses all very accurate, and -then threw over them a veil of shading, a very peculiar kind of shading, -all the lines being straight and all the shading diagonal. This is the -primitive method, its peculiarities being due, not to a learned -self-restraint, but to a combination of natural genius with technical -inexperience, which made the early Italians at once desire and discover -the simplest and easiest methods. Whilst the Italians were shading with -straight lines the Germans had begun to use curves, and as soon as the -Italians saw good German work they tried to give to their burins -something of the German suppleness. - -The characteristics of early metal engraving in Germany are seen to -perfection in Martin Schongauer and Albert Durer, who, though with -striking differences, had many points in common. Schongauer died in -1488; whilst the date of Durer's death is 1528. Schongauer was therefore -a whole generation before Durer, yet not greatly inferior to him in the -use of the burin, though Durer has a much greater reputation, due in -great measure to his singular imaginative powers. Schongauer is the -first great German engraver known by name, but he was preceded by an -unknown German master, called "the Master of 1466," who had Gothic -notions of art (in strong contrast to the classicism of Baccio Baldini), -but used the burin skilfully, conceiving of line and shade as separate -elements, yet shading with an evident desire to follow the form of the -thing shaded, and with lines in various directions. Schongauer's art is -a great stride in advance, and we find in him an evident pleasure in the -bold use of the burin. Outline and shade, in Schongauer, are not nearly -so much separated as in Baccio Baldini, and the shading, generally in -curved lines, is far more masterly than the straight shading of -Mantegna. Durer continued Schongauer's curved shading, with increasing -manual delicacy and skill; and as he found himself able to perform feats -with the burin which amused both himself and his buyers, he over-loaded -his plates with quantities of living and inanimate objects, each of -which he finished with as much care as if it were the most important -thing in the composition. The engravers of those days had no conception -of any necessity for subordinating one part of their work to another; -they drew, like children, first one object and then another object, and -so on until the plate was furnished from top to bottom and from the left -side to the right. Here, of course, is an element of facility in -primitive art which is denied to the modern artist. In Durer all objects -are on the same plane. In his "St Hubert" (otherwise known as "St -Eustace") of c. 1505, the stag is quietly standing on the horse's back, -with one hoof on the saddle, and the kneeling knight looks as if he were -tapping the horse on the nose. Durer seems to have perceived the mistake -about the stag, for he put a tree between us and the animal to correct -it, but the stag is on the horse's back nevertheless. This ignorance of -the laws of effect is least visible and obtrusive in plates which have -no landscape distances, such as "The Coat of Arms with the Death's Head" -(1503) and "The Coat of Arms with the Cock" (c. 1512). - -Durer's great manual skill and close observation made him a wonderful -engraver of objects taken separately. He saw and rendered all objects; -nothing escaped him; he applied the same intensity of study to -everything. Though a thorough student of the nude--witness his Adam and -Eve (1504) and other plates--he would pay just as much attention to the -creases of a gaiter as to the development of a muscle; and though man -was his main subject, he would study dogs with equal care (see the five -dogs in the "St Hubert"), as well as pigs (see the "Prodigal Son," c. -1495); and at a time when landscape painting was unknown he studied -every clump of trees, every visible trunk and branch, nay, every -foreground plant, and each leaf of it separately. In his buildings he -saw every brick like a bricklayer, and every joint in the woodwork like -a carpenter. The immense variety of the objects which he engraved was a -training in suppleness of hand. His lines go in every direction, and are -made to render both the undulations of surfaces (see the plane in the -Melencolia, 1514) and their texture (see the granular texture of the -stones in the same print). - -From Durer we come to Italy again, through Marcantonio, who copied -Durer, translating more than sixty of his woodcuts upon metal. It is one -of the most remarkable things in the history of art, that a man who had -trained himself by copying northern work, little removed from pure -Gothicism, should have become soon afterwards the great engraver of -Raphael, who was much pleased with his work and aided him by personal -advice. Yet, although Raphael was a painter, and Marcantonio his -interpreter, the reader is not to infer that engraving had as yet -subordinated itself to painting. Raphael himself evidently considered -engraving a distinct art, for he never once set Marcantonio to work from -a picture, but always (much more judiciously) gave him drawings, which -the engraver might interpret without going outside his own art; -consequently Marcantonio's works are always genuine engravings, and are -never pictorial. Marcantonio was an engraver of remarkable power. In him -the real pure art of line-engraving reached its maturity. He retained -much of the early Italian manner in his backgrounds, where its -simplicity gives a desirable sobriety; but his figures are boldly -modelled in curved lines, crossing each other in the darker shades, but -left single in the passages from dark to light, and breaking away in -fine dots as they approach the light itself, which is of pure white -paper. A school of engraving was thus founded by Raphael, through -Marcantonio, which cast aside the minute details of the early schools -for a broad, harmonious treatment. - -The group known as the engravers of Rubens marked a new development. -Rubens understood the importance of engraving as a means of increasing -his fame and wealth, and directed Vorsterman and others. The theory of -engraving at that time was that it ought not to render accurately the -local colour of painting, which would appear wanting in harmony when -dissociated from the hues of the picture; and it was one of the -anxieties of Rubens so to direct his engravers that the result might be -a fine plate independently of what he had painted. To this end he helped -his engravers by drawings, in which he sometimes indicated what he -thought the best direction for the lines. Rubens liked Vorsterman's -work, and scarcely corrected it, a plate he especially approved being -"Susannah and the Elders," which is a learned piece of work well -modelled, and shaded everywhere on the figures and costumes with fine -curved lines, the straight line being reserved for the masonry. -Vorsterman quitted Rubens after executing fourteen important plates, and -was succeeded by Paul Pontius, then a youth of twenty, who went on -engraving from Rubens with increasing skill until the painter's death. -Boetius a Bolswert engraved from Rubens towards the close of his life, -and his brother Schelte a Bolswert engraved more than sixty compositions -of Rubens, of the most varied character, including hunting scenes and -landscapes. This brings us to the engraving of landscape as a separate -study. Rubens treated landscape in a broad comprehensive manner, and -Schelte's way of engraving it was also broad and comprehensive. The -lines are long and often undulating, the cross-hatchings bold and rather -obtrusive, for they often substitute unpleasant reticulations for the -refinement and mystery of nature, but it was a beginning, and a vigorous -beginning. The technical developments of engraving under the influence -of Rubens may be summed up briefly as follows: (1) The Italian outline -had been discarded as the chief subject of attention, and modelling had -been substituted for it; (2) broad masses had been substituted for the -minutely finished detail of the northern schools; (3) a system of light -and dark had been adopted which was not pictorial, but belonged -especially to engraving, which it rendered (in the opinion of Rubens) -more harmonious. - -The history of line-engraving, from the time of Rubens to the beginning -of the 19th century, is rather that of the vigorous and energetic -application of principles already accepted than any new development. -From the two sources already indicated, the school of Raphael and the -school of Rubens, a double tradition flowed to England and France, where -it mingled and directed English and French practice. The first influence -on English line-engraving was Flemish, and came from Rubens through -Vandyck, Vorsterman, and others; but the English engravers soon -underwent French and Italian influences, for although Payne learned from -a Fleming, Faithorne studied in France under Philippe de Champagne the -painter and Robert Nanteuil the engraver. Sir Robert Strange studied in -France under Philippe Lebas, and then five years in Italy, where he -saturated his mind with Italian art. French engravers came to England as -they went to Italy, so that the art of engraving became in the 18th -century cosmopolitan. In figure-engraving the outline was less and less -insisted upon. Strange made it his study to soften and lose the outline. -Meanwhile, the great classical Renaissance school, with Gerard Audran at -its head, had carried forward the art of modelling with the burin, and -had arrived at great perfection of a sober and dignified kind. Audran -was very productive in the latter half of the 17th century, and died in -1703, after a life of severe self-direction in labour, the best external -influence he underwent being that of the painter Nicolas Poussin. He -made his work more rapid by the use of etching, but kept it entirely -subordinate to the work of the burin. One of the finest of his large -plates is "St John Baptizing," from Poussin, with groups of dignified -figures in the foreground and a background of grand classical landscape, -all executed with the most thorough knowledge according to the ideas of -that time. The influence of Claude Lorrain on the engraving of landscape -was exercised less through his etchings than his pictures, which -compelled the engravers to study delicate distinctions in the values of -light and dark. Through Woollett and Vivares, Claude exercised an -influence on landscape engraving almost equal to that of Raphael and -Rubens on the engraving of the figure, though he did not direct his -engravers personally. - -In the 19th century line-engraving received first an impulse and finally -a check. The impulse came from the growth of public wealth, the -increasing interest in art and the increase in the commerce of art, -which, by means of engraving, fostered in England mainly by John -Boydell, penetrated into the homes of the middle classes, as well as -from the growing demand for illustrated books, which gave employment to -engravers of first-rate ability. The check to line-engraving came from -the desire for cheaper and more rapid methods, a desire satisfied in -various ways, but especially by etching and by the various kinds of -photography. Nevertheless, the 19th century produced most highly -accomplished work in line-engraving, both in the figure and in -landscape. Its characteristics, in comparison with the work of other -centuries, were chiefly a more thorough and delicate rendering of local -colour, light and shade, and texture. The elder engravers could draw as -correctly as the moderns, but they either neglected these elements or -admitted them sparingly, as opposed to the spirit of their art. In a -modern engraving from Landseer may be seen the blackness of a man's -boots (local colour), the soft roughness of his coat (texture), and the -exact value in light and dark of his face and costume against the cloudy -sky. Nay more, there is to be found every sparkle on bit, boot and -stirrup. Modern painting pays more attention to texture and chiaroscuro -than classical painting did, and engraving necessarily followed in the -same directions. But there is a certain sameness in pure line-engraving -more favourable to some forms and textures than to others. This sameness -of line-engraving, and its costliness, led to the adoption of mixed -methods, extremely prevalent in commercial prints from popular artists. -In the well-known prints from Rosa Bonheur, for example, by T. Landseer, -H. T. Ryall, and C. G. Lewis, the tone of the skies is got by -machine-ruling, and so is much undertone in the landscape; the fur of -the animals is all etched, and so are the foreground plants, the real -burin work being used sparingly where most favourable to texture. Even -in the exquisite engravings after Turner, by Cooke, Goodall, Wallis, -Miller, Willmore, and others, who reached a degree of delicacy in light -and shade far surpassing the work of the old masters, the engravers had -recourse to etching, finishing with the burin and dry point. Turner's -name may be added to those of Raphael, Rubens and Claude in the list of -painters who have had a special influence upon engraving. The speciality -of Turner's influence was in the direction of delicacy of tone. In this -respect the Turner vignettes to Roger's poems were a high-water mark of -human attainment, not likely ever to be surpassed. - -The record of the art of line-engraving during the last quarter of the -19th century is one of continued decay. Technical improvements, it was -hoped, might save the art; it was thought by some that the slight revival -resultant on the turning back of the burin's cutting-point--whereby the -operator pulled the tool towards him instead of pushing it from -him--might effect much, in virtue of the time and labour saved by the -device. But by the beginning of the 20th century pictorial line-engraving -in England was practically non-existent, and, with the passing of Jeens -and Stacpoole, the spasmodic demand by publishers for engravers to -engrave new plates remained unanswered. Mr C. W. Sherborn, the exquisite -and facile designer and engraver of book-plates, has scarcely been -surpassed in his own line, but his art is mainly heraldic. There are now -no men capable of such work as that with which Doo, J. H. Robinson, and -their fellows maintained the credit of the English School. Line-engraving -has been killed by etching, mezzotint and the "mixed method." The -disappearance of the art is due not so much to the artistic objection -that the personality of the line-engraver stands obtrusively between the -painter and the public; it is rather that the public refuse to wait for -several years for the proofs for which they have subscribed, when by -another method they can obtain their plates more quickly. An important -line plate may occupy a prodigious time in the engraving; J. H. -Robinson's "Napoleon and the Pope" took about twelve years. The invention -of steel-facing a copper plate would now enable the engraver to proceed -more expeditiously; but even in this case he can no more compete with the -etcher than the mezzotint-engraver can keep pace with the photogravure -manufacturer. - -The Art Union of London in the past gave what encouragement it could; -but with the death of J. Stephenson (1886) and F. Bacon (1887) it was -evident that all hope was gone. John Saddler at the end was driven, in -spite of his capacity to do original work, to spend most of his time in -assisting Thomas Landseer to rule the skies on his plates, simply -because there was not enough line-engraving to do. Since then there was -some promise of a revival, and Mr Bourne engraved a few of the pictures -by Gustave Dore. But little followed. The last of the line-engravers of -Turner's pictures died in the person of Sir Daniel Wilson (d. 1892), -who, recognizing the hopelessness of his early profession, laid his -graver aside, and left Europe for Canada and eventually became president -of the university of Toronto. - -If line-engraving still flourishes in France, it is due not a little to -official encouragement and to intelligent fostering by collectors and -connoisseurs. The prizes offered by the Ecole des Beaux Arts would -probably not suffice to give vitality to the art but for the employment -afforded to the finished artist by the "Chalcographie du Musee du -Louvre," in the name of which commissions are judiciously distributed. -At the same time, it must be recognized that not only are French -engravers less busy than they were in days when line-engraving was the -only "important" method of picture-translation, but they work for the -most part for much smaller rewards. Moreover, the class of the work has -entirely changed, partly through the reduction of prices paid for it, -partly through the change of taste and fashion, and partly, again, -through the necessities of the situation. That is to say, that public -impatience is but a partial factor in the abandonment of the fine broad -sweeping trough cut deep into the copper which was characteristic of the -earlier engraving, either simply cut or crossed diagonally so as to form -the series of "lozenges" typical of engraving at its finest and grandest -period. That method was slow; but scarcely less slow was the shallower -work rendered possible by the steel plate by reason of the much greater -degree of elaboration of which such plates were capable, and which the -public was taught--mainly by Finden--to expect. The French engravers -were therefore driven at last to simplify their work if they were to -satisfy the public and live by the burin. To compensate for loss of -colour, the art developed in the direction of elegance and refinement. -Gaillard (d. 1887), Blanchard, and Alphonse Francois (d. 1888) were -perhaps the earliest chiefs of the new school, the characteristics of -which are the substitution of exquisite greys for the rich blacks of -old, simplicity of method being often allied to extremely high -elaboration. Yet the aim of the modern engraver has always been, while -pushing the capability of his own art to the farthermost limit, to -retain throughout the individual and personal qualities of the master -whose work is translated on the plate. The height of perfection to which -the art is reached is seen in the triptych of Mantegna by Achille -Jacquet (d. 1909), to whom may perhaps be accorded the first place among -several engravers of the front rank. This "Passion" (from the three -pictures in the Louvre and at Tours, forming the predella of the San -Zeno altarpiece in Verona) not only conveys the forms, sentiment, and -colour of the master, but succeeds also in rendering the peculiar -luminosity of the originals. Jacquet, who gained the _Prix de Rome_ in -1870, also translated pictures of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and engraved fine -plates after Paul Dubois, Cabanel, Bouguereau, Meissonier and Detaille. -The freedom of much of his work suggests an affinity with etching and -dry-point; indeed, it appears that he uses the etching-needle and acid -to lay in some of his groundwork and outlines. Leopold Flameng's -engraving after Jan van Eyck's "Virgin with the Donor," in the Louvre, -is one of the most admirable works of its kind, retaining the quality -and sentiment of the master, extreme minuteness and elaboration -notwithstanding. Jules Jacquet is known for his work after Meissonier -(especially the "Friedland") and after Bonnat; Adrien Didier for his -plates after Holbein ("Anne of Cleves"), Raphael, and Paul Veronese, -among the Old Masters, and Bonnat, Bouguereau, and Roybet among the new. -Jazinski (Botticelli's "Primavera"), Sulpis (Mantegna and Gustave -Moreau), Patricot (Gustave Moreau), Burney, and Champollion (d. 1901), -have been among the leaders of the modern school. Their object is to -secure the faithful transcript of the painter they reproduce, while -readily sacrificing the power of the old method, which, whatever its -force and its beauty, was easily acquired by mediocre artists of -technical ability who were nevertheless unable to appreciate or -reproduce anything beyond mechanical excellence. - -The Belgian School of engraving is not without vitality. Gustave Biot -was equally skilful in portraiture and subject (engraving after Gallait, -Cabanel, Gustave Dore, among his best work); A. M. Danse executed plates -after leading painters, and elaborated an effective "mixed method" of -graver-work and dry-point; and de Meerman has engraved a number of good -plates; but private patronage is hardly sufficient in Belgium to -maintain the school in a state of prosperous efficiency. - -In Germany, as might be expected, line-engraving retains not a little of -its popularity in its more orthodox form. The novel Stauffer-Bern -method, in which freedom and lightness are obtained with such delicacy -that the fine lines, employed in great numbers, run into tone, and yield -a supposed advantage in modelling, has not been without appreciation. -But the more usual virtue of the graver has been best supported, and -many have worked in the old-fashioned manner. Friedrich Zimmermann (d. -1887) began his career by engraving such prints as Guido Reni's "Ecce -Homo" in Dresden, and then devoted himself to the translation of modern -German painters. Rudolph Pfnor was an ornamentist representative of his -class; and Joseph Kohlschein, of Dusseldorf, a typical exponent of the -intelligent conservative manner. His "Marriage at Cana" after Paul -Veronese, "The Sistine Madonna" after Raphael, and "St Cecilia" after -the same master, are all plates of a high order. - -In Italy the art is well-nigh as moribund as in England. When Vittorio -Pica (of Naples) and Conconi (of Milan) have been named, it is difficult -to mention other successors to the fine school of the 19th century which -followed Piranesi and Volpato. A few of the pupils of Rosaspina and -Paolo Toschi lived into the last quarter of the century, but to the -present generation Asiolo, Jesi, C. Raimondi, L. Bigola, and Antonio -Isac are remembered rather for their efforts than for their success in -supporting their art against the combined opposition of etching, -"process" and public indifference. - -Outside Europe line-engraving can no longer be said to exist. Here and -there a spasmodic attempt may be made to appeal to the artistic -appreciation of a limited public; but no general attention is paid to -such efforts, nor, it may be added, are these inherently worthy of much -notice. There are still a few who can engrave a head from a photograph -or drawing, or a small engraving for book-illustration or for -book-plates; there are more who are highly proficient in mechanical -engraving for decorative purposes; but the engraving-machine is fast -superseding this class. In short, the art of worthily translating a fine -painting beyond the borders of France, Belgium, Germany and perhaps -Italy can scarcely be said to survive, and even in those countries it -appears to exist on sufferance and by hot-house encouragement. - - AUTHORITIES.--P. G. Hamerton, _Drawing and Engraving_ (Edinburgh, - 1892); H. W. Singer and W. Strang, _Etching, Engraving, and other - methods of Printing Pictures_ (London, 1897); A. de Lostalot, _Les - Procedes de la gravure_ (Paris, 1882); Le Comte Henri Delaborde, La - Gravure (Paris, English trans., with a chapter on English engraving - methods, by William Walker, London, 1886); H. W. Singer, _Geschichte - des Kupferstichs_ (Magdeburg and Leipzig, 1895), and _Der Kupferstich_ - (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1904); Alex. Waldow, _Illustrirte Encyklopadie - der Graphischen Kunste_ (Leipzig, 1881-1884); Lippmann, _Engraving and - Engraving_, translated by Martin Hardie (London, 1906); and for those - who desire books of gossip on the subject, Arthur Hayden, _Chats on - Old Prints_ (London, 1906), and Malcolm C. Salaman, _The Old Engravers - of England_ (London, 1906). (P. G. H.; M. H. S.) - - - - -LINEN and LINEN MANUFACTURES. Under the name of linen are comprehended -all yarns spun and fabrics woven from flax fibre (see FLAX). - -From the earliest periods of human history till almost the close of the -18th century the linen manufacture was one of the most extensive and -widely disseminated of the domestic industries of European countries. -The industry was most largely developed in Russia, Austria, Germany, -Holland, Belgium, the northern provinces of France, and certain parts of -England, in the north of Ireland, and throughout Scotland; and in these -countries its importance was generally recognized by the enactment of -special laws, having for their object the protection and extension of -the trade. The inventions of Arkwright, Hargreaves and Crompton in the -later part of the 18th century, benefiting almost exclusively the art of -cotton-spinning, and the unparalleled development of that branch of -textile manufactures, largely due to the ingenuity of these inventors, -gave the linen trade as it then existed a fatal blow. Domestic spinning, -and with it hand-loom weaving, immediately began to shrink; the trade -which had supported whole villages and provinces entirely disappeared, -and the linen manufacture, in attenuated dimensions and changed -conditions, took refuge in special localities, where it resisted, not -unsuccessfully, the further assaults of cotton, and, with varying -fortunes, rearranged its relations in the community of textile -industries. The linen industries of the United Kingdom were the first to -suffer from the aggression of cotton; more slowly the influence of the -rival textile reached other countries. - -In 1810 Napoleon I. offered a reward of one million francs to any -inventor who should devise the best machinery for the spinning of flax -yarn. Within a few weeks thereafter Philippe de Girard patented in -France important inventions for flax spinning by both dry and wet -methods. His inventions, however, did not receive the promised reward -and were neglected in his native country. In 1815 he was invited by the -Austrian government to establish a spinning mill at Hirtenberg near -Vienna, which was run with his machinery for a number of years, but it -failed to prove a commercial success. In the meantime English inventors -had applied themselves to the task of adapting machines to the -preparation and spinning of flax. The foundation of machine spinning of -flax was laid by John Kendrew and Thomas Porthouse of Darlington, who, -in 1787, secured a patent for "a mill or machine upon new principles for -spinning yarn from hemp, tow, flax or wool." By innumerable successive -improvements and modifications, the invention of Kendrew and Porthouse -developed into the perfect system of machinery with which, at the -present day, spinning-mills are furnished; but progress in adapting flax -fibres for mechanical spinning, and linen yarn for weaving cloth by -power-loom was much slower than in the corresponding case of cotton. - -Till comparatively recent times, the sole spinning implements were the -spindle and distaff. The spindle, which is the fundamental apparatus in -all spinning machinery, was a round stick or rod of wood about 12 in. in -length, tapering towards each extremity, and having at its upper end a -notch or slit into which the yarn might be caught or fixed. In general, -a ring or "whorl" of stone or clay was passed round the upper part of -the spindle to give it momentum and steadiness when in rotation, while -in some few cases an ordinary potato served the purpose of a whorl. The -distaff, or rock, was a rather longer and stronger bar or stick, around -one end of which, in a loose coil or ball, the fibrous material to be -spun was wound. The other extremity of the distaff was carried under the -left arm, or fixed in the girdle at the left side, so as to have the -coil of flax in a convenient position for drawing out to form the yarn. -A prepared end of yarn being fixed into the notch, the spinster, by a -smart rolling motion of the spindle with the right hand against the -right leg, threw it out from her, spinning in the air, while, with the -left hand, she drew from the rock an additional supply of fibre which -was formed into a uniform and equal strand with the right. The yarn -being sufficiently twisted was released from the notch, wound around the -lower part of the spindle, and again fixed in the notch at the point -insufficiently twisted; and so the rotating, twisting and drawing out -operations went on till the spindle was full. So persistent is an -ancient and primitive art of this description that in remote districts -of Scotland--a country where machine spinning has attained a high -standard--spinning with rock and spindle is still practised;[1] and yarn -of extraordinary delicacy, beauty and tenacity has been spun by their -agency. The first improvement on the primitive spindle was found in the -construction of the hand-wheel, in which the spindle, mounted in a -frame, was fixed horizontally, and rotated by a band passing round it -and a large wheel, set in the same framework. Such a wheel became known -in Europe about the middle of the 16th century, but it appears to have -been in use for cotton spinning in the East from time immemorial. At a -later date, which cannot be fixed, the treadle motion was attached to -the spinning wheel, enabling the spinster to sit at work with both hands -free; and the introduction of the two-handed or double-spindle wheel, -with flyers or twisting arms on the spindles, completed the series of -mechanical improvements effected on flax spinning till the end of the -18th century. The common use of the two-handed wheel throughout the -rural districts of Ireland and Scotland is a matter still within the -recollection of some people; but spinning wheels are now seldom seen. - -The modern manufacture of linen divides itself into two branches, -spinning and weaving, to which may be added the bleaching and various -finishing processes, which, in the case of many linen textures, are -laborious undertakings and important branches of industry. The flax -fibre is received in bundles from the scutch mill, and after having been -classed into various grades, according to the quality of the material, -it is labelled and placed in the store ready for the flax mill. The -whole operations in yarn manufacture comprise (1) hackling, (2) -preparing and (3) spinning. - - _Hackling._--This first preparatory process consists not only in - combing out, disentangling and laying smooth and parallel the separate - fibres, but also serves to split up and separate into their ultimate - filaments the strands of fibre which, up to this point, have been - agglutinated together. The hackling process was originally performed - by hand, and it was one of fundamental importance, requiring the - exercise of much dexterity and judgment. The broken, ravelled and - short fibres, which separate out in the hackling process, form tow, an - article of much inferior value to the spinner. A good deal of - hand-hackling is still practised, especially in Irish and continental - mills; and it has not been found practicable, in any case, to dispense - entirely with a rough preparation of the fibre by hand labour. In - hackling by hand, the hackler takes a handful or "strick" of rough - flax, winds the top end around his hands, and then, spreading out the - root end as broad and flat as possible, by a swinging motion dashes - the fibre into the hackle teeth or needles of the rougher or "ruffer." - The rougher is a board plated with tin, and studded with spikes or - teeth of steel about 7 in. in length, which taper to a fine sharp - point. The hackler draws his strick several times through this tool, - working gradually up from the roots to near his hand, till in his - judgment the fibres at the root end are sufficiently combed out and - smoothed. He then seizes the root end and similarly treats the top end - of the strick. The same process is again repeated on a similar tool, - the teeth of which are 5 in. long, and much more closely studded - together; and for the finer counts of yarn a third and a fourth hackle - may be used, of still increasing fineness and closeness of teeth. In - dealing with certain varieties of the fibre, for fine spinning - especially, the flax is, after roughing, broken or cut into three - lengths--the top, middle and root ends. Of these the middle cut is - most valuable, being uniform in length, strength and quality. The root - end is more woody and harsh, while the top, though fine in quality, is - uneven and variable in strength. From some flax of extra length it is - possible to take two short middle cuts; and, again, the fibre is - occasionally only broken into two cuts. Flax so prepared is known as - "cut line" in contradistinction to "long line" flax, which is the - fibre unbroken. The subsequent treatment of line, whether long or cut, - does not present sufficient variation to require further reference to - these distinctions. - - In the case of hackling by machinery, the flax is first roughed and - arranged in stricks, as above described under hand hackling. In the - construction of hackling machines, the general principles of those now - most commonly adopted are identical. The machines are known as - vertical sheet hackling machines, their essential features being a set - of endless leather bands or sheets revolving over a pair of rollers in - a vertical direction. These sheets are crossed by iron bars, to which - hackle stocks, furnished with teeth, are screwed. The hackle stocks on - each separate sheet are of one size and gauge, but each successive - sheet in the length of the machine is furnished with stocks of - increasing fineness, so that the hackling tool at the end where the - flax is entered is the coarsest, say about four pins per inch, while - that to which the fibre is last submitted has the smallest and most - closely set teeth. The finest tools may contain from 45 to 60 pins per - inch. Thus the whole of the endless vertical revolving sheet presents - a continuous series of hackle teeth, and the machines are furnished - with a double set of such sheets revolving face to face, so close - together that the pins of one set of sheets intersect those on the - opposite stocks. Overhead, and exactly centred between these revolving - sheets, is the head or holder channel, from which the flax hangs down - while it is undergoing the hackling process on both sides. The flax is - fastened in a holder consisting of two heavy flat plates of iron, - between which it is spread and tightly screwed up. The holder is 11 - in. in length, and the holder channel is fitted to contain a line of - six, eight or twelve such holders, according to the number of separate - bands of hackling stocks in the machine. The head or holder channel - has a falling and rising motion, by which it first presents the ends - and gradually more and more of the length of the fibre to the hackle - teeth, and, after dipping down the full length of the fibre exposed, - it slowly rises and lifts the flax clear of the hackle stocks. By a - reciprocal motion all the holders are then moved forward one length; - that at the last and finest set of stocks is thrown out, and place is - made for filling in an additional holder at the beginning of the - series. Thus with a six-tool hackle, or set of stocks, each holder - full of flax from beginning to end descends into and rises from the - hackle teeth six times in travelling from end to end of the machine. - The root ends being thus first hackled, the holders are shot back - along an inclined plane, the iron plates unclamped, the flax reversed, - and the top ends are then submitted to the same hackling operation. - The tow made during the hackling process is carried down by the pins - of the sheet, and is stripped from them by means of a circular brush - placed immediately under the bottom roller. The brush revolves in the - same direction as, but quicker than the sheet, consequently the tow is - withdrawn from the pins. The tow is then removed from the brush by a - doffer roller, from which it is finally removed by a doffing knife. - This material is then carded by a machine similar to, but finer than, - the one described under Jute (q.v.). The hackled flax, however, is - taken direct to the preparing department. - - _Preparing._--The various operations in this stage have for their - object the proper assortment of dressed line into qualities fit for - spinning, and the drawing out of the fibres to a perfectly level and - uniform continuous ribbon or sliver, containing throughout an equal - quantity of fibre in any given length. From the hackling the now - smooth, glossy and clean stricks are taken to the sorting room, where - they are assorted into different qualities by the "line sorter," who - judges by both eye and touch the quality and capabilities of the - fibre. So sorted, the material is passed to the spreading and drawing - frames, a series or system of machines all similar in construction and - effect. The essential features of the spreading frame are: (1) the - feeding cloth or creeping sheet, which delivers the flax to (2) a pair - of "feed and jockey" rollers, which pass it on (3) to the gill frame - or fallers. The gill frame consists of a series of narrow hackle bars, - with short closely studded teeth, which travel between the feed - rollers and the drawing or "boss and pressing" rollers to be - immediately attended to. They are, by an endless screw arrangement, - carried forward at approximately the same rate at which the flax is - delivered to them, and when they reach the end of their course they - fall under, and by a similar screw arrangement are brought back to the - starting-point; and thus they form an endless moving level toothed - platform for carrying away the flax from the feed rollers. This is the - machine in which the fibres are, for the first time, formed into a - continuous length termed a sliver. In order to form this continuous - sliver it is necessary that the short lengths of flax should overlap - each other on the spread sheet or creeping sheet. This sheet contains - four or six divisions, so that four or six lots of overlapped flax are - moving at the same time towards the first pair of rollers--the boss - rollers or retaining rollers. The fibre passes between these rollers - and is immediately caught by the rising gills which carry the fibre - towards the drawing rollers. The pins of the gills should pass through - the fibre so that they may have complete control over it, while their - speed should be a little greater than the surface speed of the - retaining rollers. The fibre is thus carried forward to the drawing - rollers, which have a surface speed of from 10 to 30 times that of the - retaining rollers. The great difference between the speeds of the - retaining and drawing rollers results in each sliver being drawn out - to a corresponding degree. Finally all the slivers are run into one - and in this state are passed between the delivery rollers into the - sliver cans. Each can should contain the same length of sliver, a - common length being 1000 yds. A bell is automatically rung by the - machine to warn the attendant that the desired length has been - deposited into the can. From the spreading frame the cans of sliver - pass to the drawing frames, where from four to twelve slivers combined - are passed through feed rollers over gills, and drawn out by drawing - rollers to the thickness of one. A third and fourth similar doubling - and drawing may be embraced in a preparing system, so that the number - of doublings the flax undergoes, before it arrives at the roving - frame, may amount to from one thousand to one hundred thousand, - according to the quality of yarn in progress. Thus, for example, the - doublings on one preparing system may be 6 X 12 X 12 X 12 X 8 = - 82,944. The slivers delivered by the last drawing frame are taken to - the roving frame, where they are singly passed through feed rollers - and over gills, and, after drafting to sufficient tenuity, they are - slightly twisted by flyers and wound on bobbins, in which condition - the material--termed "rove" or "rovings"--is ready for the spinning - frame.[2] - - _Spinning._--The spinning operation, which follows the roving, is - done in two principal ways, called respectively dry spinning and wet - spinning, the first being used for the lower counts or heavier yarns, - while the second is exclusively adopted in the preparation of fine - yarns. The spinning frame does not differ in principle from the - throstle spinning machine used in cotton manufacture. The bobbins of - flax rove are arranged in rows on each side of the frame (the spinning - frames being all double) on pins in an inclined plane. The rove passes - downwards through an eyelet or guide to a pair of nipping rollers - between which and the final drawing rollers, placed in the case of dry - spinning from 18 to 22 in. lower down, the fibre receives its final - draft while passing over and under cylinders and guide-plate, and - attains that degree of tenuity which the finished yarn must possess. - From the last rollers the now attenuated material, in passing to the - flyers receives the degree of twist which compacts the fibres into the - round hard cord which constitutes spun yarn; and from the flyers it is - wound on the more slowly rotating spool within the flyer arms, centred - on the top of the spindle. The amount of twist given to the thread at - the spinning frame varies from 1.5 to 2 times the square root of the - count. In wet spinning the general sequence of operations is the same, - but the rove, as unwound from its bobbin, first passes through a - trough of water heated to about 120 deg. Fahr.; and the interval - between the two pairs of rollers in which the drawing out of the rove - is accomplished is very much shorter. The influence of the hot water - on the flax fibre appears to be that it softens the gummy substance - which binds the separate cells together, and thereby allows the - elementary cells to a certain extent to be drawn out without breaking - the continuity of the fibre; and further it makes a finer, smoother - and more uniform strand than can be obtained by dry spinning. The - extent to which the original strick of flax as laid on the feeding - roller for (say) the production of a 50 lea yarn is, by doublings and - drawings, extended, when it reaches the spinning spindle, may be - stated thus: 35 times on spreading frame, 15 times on first drawing - frame, 15 times on second drawing frame, 14 times on third drawing - frame, 15 times on roving frame and 10 times on spinning frame, in all - 16,537,500 times its original length, with 8 X 12 X 16 = 1536 - doublings on the three drawing frames. That is to say, 1 yd. of - hackled line fed into the spreading frame is spread out, mixed with - other fibres, to a length of about 9400 m. of yarn, when the above - drafts obtain. The drafts are much shorter for the majority of yarns. - - The next operation is reeling from the bobbins into hanks. By act of - parliament, throughout the United Kingdom the standard measure of flax - yard is the "lea," called also in Scotland the "cut" of 300 yds. The - flax is wound or reeled on a reel having a circumference of 90 in. - (2(1/2) yds.) making "a thread," and one hundred and twenty such - threads form a lea. The grist or count of all fine yarns is estimated - by the number of leas in 1 lb.; thus "50 lea" indicates that there are - 50 leas or cuts of 300 yds. each in 1 lb. of the yard so denominated. - With the heavier yarns in Scotland the quality is indicated by their - weight per "spyndle" of 48 cuts or leas; thus "3 lb. tow yarn" is such - as weighs 3 lb. per spyndle, equivalent to "16 lea." - - The hanks of yarn from wet spinning are either dried in a loft with - artificial heat or exposed over ropes in the open air. When dry they - are twisted back and forward to take the wiry feeling out of the yarn, - and made up in bundles for the market as "grey yarn." English spinners - make up their yarns into "bundles" of 20 hanks, each hank containing - 10 leas; Irish spinners make hanks of 12 leas, 16(2/3) of which form a - bundle; Scottish manufacturers adhere to the spyndle containing 4 - hanks of 12 cuts or leas. - - Commercial qualities of yarn range from about 8 lb. tow yarns (6 lea) - up to 160 lea line yarn. Very much finer yarn up even to 400 lea may - be spun from the system of machines found in many mills; but these - higher counts are only used for fine thread for sewing and for the - making of lace. The highest counts of cut line flax are spun in Irish - mills for the manufacture of fine cambrics and lawns which are - characteristic features of the Ulster trade. Exceedingly high counts - have sometimes been spun by hand, and for the preparation of the - finest lace threads it is said the Belgian hand spinners must work in - damp cellars, where the spinner is guided by the sense of touch alone, - the filament being too fine to be seen by the eye. Such lace yarn is - said to have been sold for as much as L240 per lb. In the Great - Exhibition of 1851, yarn of 760 lea, equal to about 130 m. per lb., - was shown which had been spun by an Irish woman eighty-four years of - age. In the same exhibition there was shown by a Cambray manufacturing - firm hand-spun yarn equal to 1200 warp and 1600 weft or to more than - 204 and 272 m. per lb. respectively. - -_Bleaching._--A large proportion of the linen yarn of commerce undergoes -a more or less thorough bleaching before it is handed over to the -weaver. Linen yarns in the green condition contain such a large -proportion of gummy and resinous matter, removable by bleaching, that -cloths which might present a firm close texture in their natural -unbleached state would become thin and impoverished in a perfectly -bleached condition. Nevertheless, in many cases it is much more -satisfactory to weave the yarns in the green or natural colour, and to -perform all bleaching operations in the piece. Manufacturers allow about -20 to 25% of loss in weight of yarn in bleaching from the green to the -fully bleached stage; and the intermediate stages of boiled, improved, -duck, cream, half bleach and three-quarters bleach, all indicating a -certain degree of bleaching, have corresponding degrees of loss in -weight. The differences in colour resulting from different degrees of -bleaching are taken advantage of for producing patterns in certain -classes of linen fabrics. - -Linen thread is prepared from the various counts of fine bleached line -yarn by winding the hanks on large spools, and twisting the various -strands, two, three, four or six cord as the case may be, on a doubling -spindle similar in principle to the yarn spinning frame, excepting, of -course, the drawing rollers. A large trade in linen thread has been -created by its use in the machine manufacture of boots and shoes, -saddlery and other leather goods, and in heavy sewing-machine work -generally. The thread industry is largely developed at Lisburn near -Belfast, at Johnstone near Glasgow, Bridport, Dorsetshire, and at -Paterson, New Jersey, United States. Fine cords, net twine and ropes are -also twisted from flax. - -Weaving.--The difficulties in the way of power-loom linen weaving, -combined with the obstinate competition of hand-loom weavers, delayed -the introduction of factory weaving of linen fabrics for many years -after the system was fully applied to other textiles. The principal -difficulty arose through the hardness and inelasticity of the linen -yarns, owing to which the yarn frequently broke under the tension to -which it was subjected. Competition with the hand-loom against the -power-loom in certain classes of work is conceivable, although it is -absolutely impossible for the work of the spinning wheel to stand -against the rivalry of drawing, roving and spinning frames. To the -present day, in Ireland especially, a great deal of fine weaving is done -by hand-loom. Warden states that power was applied on a small scale to -the weaving of canvas in London about 1812; that in 1821 power-looms -were started for weaving linen at Kirkcaldy, Scotland; and that in 1824 -Maberly & Co. of Aberdeen had two hundred power-looms erected for linen -manufacture. The power-loom has been in uninterrupted use in the -Broadford factory, Aberdeen, which then belonged to Maberly & Co., down -to the present day, and that firm may be credited with being the -effective introducers of power-loom weaving in the linen trade. - -The various operations connected with linen weaving, such as winding, -warping, dressing, beaming and drawing-in, do not differ in essential -features from the like processes in the case of cotton weaving, &c., -neither is there any significant modification in the looms employed (see -WEAVING). Dressing is a matter of importance in the preparation of linen -warps for beaming. It consists in treating the spread yarn with flour or -farina paste, applied to it by flannel-covered rollers, the lowermost of -which revolves in a trough of paste. The paste is equalized on the yarn -by brushes, and dried by passing the web over steam-heated cylinders -before it is finally wound on the beam for weaving. - - - Fabrics. - - Linen fabrics are numerous in variety and widely different in their - qualities, appearance and applications, ranging from heavy sail-cloth - and rough sacking to the most delicate cambrics, lawns and scrims. The - heavier manufactures include as a principal item sail-cloth, with - canvas, tarpaulin, sacking and carpeting. The principal seats of the - manufacture of these linens are Dundee, Arbroath, Forfar, Kirkcaldy, - Aberdeen and Barnsley. The medium weight linens, which are used for a - great variety of purposes, such as tent-making, towelling, covers, - outer garments for men, linings, upholstery work, &c., include duck, - huckaback, crash, tick, dowlas, osnaburg, low sheetings and low brown - linens. Plain bleached linens form a class by themselves, and include - principally the materials for shirts and collars and for bed sheets. - Under the head of twilled linens are included drills, diapers and - dimity for household use; and damasks for table linen, of which two - kinds are distinguished--single or five-leaf damask, and double or - eight-leaf damask, the pattern being formed by the intersection of - warp and weft yarns at intervals of five and eight threads of yarn - respectively. The fine linens are cambrics, lawns and handkerchiefs; - and lastly, printed and dyed linen fabrics may be assigned to a - special though not important class. In a general way it may be said - regarding the British industry that the heavy linen trade centres in - Dundee; medium goods are made in most linen manufacturing districts; - damasks are chiefly produced in Belfast, Dunfermline and Perth; and - the fine linen manufactures have their seat in Belfast and the north - of Ireland. Leeds and Barnsley are the centres of the linen trade in - England. - - Linen fabrics have several advantages over cotton, resulting - principally from the microscopic structure and length of the flax - fibre. The cloth is much smoother and more lustrous than cotton cloth; - and, presenting a less "woolly" surface, it does not soil so readily, - nor absorb and retain moisture so freely, as the more spongy cotton; - and it is at once a cool, clean and healthful material for - bed-sheeting and clothing. Bleached linen, starched and dressed, - possesses that unequalled purity, gloss and smoothness which make it - alone the material suitable for shirt-fronts, collars and wristbands; - and the gossamer delicacy, yet strength, of the thread it may be spun - into fits it for the fine lace-making to which it is devoted. Flax is - a slightly heavier material than cotton, while its strength is about - double. - - As regards the actual number of spindles and power-looms engaged in - linen manufacture, the following particulars are taken from the report - of the Flax Supply Association for 1905:-- - - +------------------+------+----------+------+------------+ - | | | Number of| | Number of | - | Country. | Year.| Spindles | Year.| Power-looms| - | | | for Flax | | for Linen | - | | | Spinning.| | Weaving. | - |------------------+------+----------+------+------------+ - | Austria-Hungary | 1903 | 280,414 | 1895 | 3357 | - | Belgium | 1902 | 280,000 | 1900 | 3400 | - | England and Wales| 1905 | 49,941 | 1905 | 4424 | - | France | 1902 | 455,838 | 1891 | 18,083 | - | Germany | 1902 | 295,796 | 1895 | 7557 | - | Holland | 1896 | 8000 | 1891 | 1200 | - | Ireland | 1905 | 851,388 | 1905 | 34,498 | - | Italy | 1902 | 77,000 | 1902 | 3500 | - | Norway | .. | .. | 1880 | 120 | - | Russia | 1902 | 300,000 | 1889 | 7312 | - | Scotland | 1905 | 160,085 | 1905 | 17,185 | - | Spain | .. | .. | 1876 | 1000 | - | Sweden | .. | .. | 1884 | 286 | - +------------------+------+----------+------+------------+ - - _British Exports of Linen Yarn and Cloth._ - - +---------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ - | | 1891. | 1896. | 1901. | 1906. | - +---------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ - | Weight of linen yarn | | | | | - | in pounds | 14,859,900 | 18,462,300 | 12,971,100 | 14,978,200 | - | Length in yards of linen | | | | | - | piece goods, plain, | | | | | - | bleached or unbleached |144,416,700 |150,849,300 |137,521,000 |173,334,200 | - | Length in yards of linen | | | | | - | piece goods, checked, | | | | | - | dyed or printed, also | | | | | - | damask and diaper | 11,807,600 | 17,986,100 | 8,007,600 | 13,372,100 | - | Length in yards of sail- | | | | | - | cloth | 3,233,400 | 5,372,600 | 4,686,700 | 4,251,400 | - | Total length in yards of | | | | | - | all kinds of linen cloth|159,457,700 |174,208,000 |150,215,300 |190,957,700 | - | Weight in pounds of linen | | | | | - | thread for sewing | 2,474,100 | 2,240,300 | 1,721,000 | 2,181,100 | - +---------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ - - AUTHORITIES.--History of the trade, &c.: Warden's _Linen Trade, - Ancient and Modern_. Spinning: Peter Sharp, _Flax, Tow and Jute - Spinning_ (Dundee); H. R. Carter, _Spinning and Twisting of Long - Vegetable Fibres_ (London). Weaving: Woodhouse and Milne, _Jute and - Linen Weaving_, part i., Mechanism, part ii., Calculations and Cloth - Structure (Manchester); and Woodhouse and Milne, _Textile Design: Pure - and Applied_ (London). (T. Wo.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See Sir Arthur Mitchell's _The Past in the Present_ (Edinburgh, - 1880). - - [2] The preparation of tow for spinning differs in essential features - from the processes above described. Tow from different sources, such - as scutching tow, hackle tow, &c. differs considerably in quality and - value, some being very impure, filled with woody shives &c., while - other kinds are comparatively open and clean. A preliminary opening - and cleaning is necessary for the dirty much-matted tows, and in - general thereafter they are passed through two carding engines called - respectively the breaker and the finisher cards till the slivers from - their processes are ready for the drawing and roving frames. In the - case of fine clean tows, on the other hand, passing through a single - carding engine may be sufficient. The processes which follow the - carding do not differ materially from those followed in the - preparation of rove from line flax. - - - - -LINEN-PRESS, a contrivance, usually of oak, for pressing sheets, -table-napkins and other linen articles, resembling a modern office -copying-press. Linen presses were made chiefly in the 17th and 18th -centuries, and are now chiefly interesting as curiosities of antique -furniture. Usually quite plain, they were occasionally carved with -characteristic Jacobean designs. - - - - -LINER, or LINE OF BATTLE SHIP, the name formerly given to a vessel -considered large enough to take part in a naval battle. The practice of -distinguishing between vessels fit, and those not fit, to "lie in a line -of battle," arose towards the end of the 17th century. In the early 18th -century all vessels of 50 guns and upwards were considered fit to lie in -a line. After the Seven Years' War (1756-63) the 50-gun ships were -rejected as too small. When the great revolutionary wars broke out the -smallest line of battle ship was of 64 guns. These also came to be -considered as too small, and later the line of battle-ships began with -those of 74 guns. The term is now replaced by "battleship"; "liner" -being the colloquial name given to the great passenger ships used on the -main lines of sea transport. - - - - -LING, PER HENRIK (1776-1839), Swedish medical-gymnastic practitioner, -son of a minister, was born at Ljunga in the south of Sweden in 1776. He -studied divinity, and took his degree in 1797, but then went abroad for -some years, first to Copenhagen, where he taught modern languages, and -then to Germany, France and England. Pecuniary straits injured his -health, and he suffered much from rheumatism, but he had acquired -meanwhile considerable proficiency in gymnastics and fencing. In 1804 he -returned to Sweden, and established himself as a teacher in these arts -at Lund, being appointed in 1805 fencing-master to the university. He -found that his daily exercises had completely restored his bodily -health, and his thoughts now turned towards applying this experience for -the benefit of others. He attended the classes on anatomy and -physiology, and went through the entire curriculum for the training of a -doctor; he then elaborated a system of gymnastics, divided into four -branches, (1) pedagogical, (2) medical, (3) military, (4) aesthetic, -which carried out his theories. After several attempts to interest the -Swedish government, Ling at last in 1813 obtained their co-operation, -and the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute, for the training of gymnastic -instructors, was opened in Stockholm, with himself as principal. The -orthodox medical practitioners were naturally opposed to the larger -claims made by Ling and his pupils respecting the cure of diseases--so -far at least as anything more than the occasional benefit of some form -of skilfully applied "massage" was concerned; but the fact that in 1831 -Ling was elected a member of the Swedish General Medical Association -shows that in his own country at all events his methods were regarded as -consistent with professional recognition. Ling died in 1839, having -previously named as the repositories of his teaching his pupils Lars -Gabriel Branting (1799-1881), who succeeded him as principal of the -Institute, and Karl Augustus Georgii, who became sub-director; his son, -Hjalmar Ling (1820-1886), being for many years associated with them. All -these, together with Major Thure Brandt, who from about 1861 specialized -in the treatment of women (gynecological gymnastics), are regarded as -the pioneers of Swedish medical gymnastics. - -It may be convenient to summarize here the later history of Ling's -system of medical gymnastics. A _Gymnastic Orthopaedic Institute_ at -Stockholm was founded in 1822 by Dr Nils Akerman, and after 1827 -received a government grant; and Dr Gustaf Zander elaborated a -medico-mechanical system of gymnastics, known by his name, about 1857, -and started his Zander Institute at Stockholm in 1865. At the Stockholm -Gymnastic Central Institute qualified medical men have supervised the -medical department since 1864; the course is three years (one year for -qualified doctors). Broadly speaking, there have been two streams of -development in the Swedish gymnastics founded on Ling's -beginnings--either in a conservative direction, making certain forms of -gymnastic exercises subsidiary to the prescriptions of orthodox medical -science, or else in an extremely progressive direction, making these -exercises a substitute for any other treatment, and claiming them as a -cure for disease by themselves. Modern medical science recognizes fully -the importance of properly selected exercises in preserving the body -from many ailments; but the more extreme claim, which rules out the use -of drugs in disease altogether, has naturally not been admitted. Modern -professed disciples of Ling are divided, the representative of the more -extreme section being Henrik Kellgren (b. 1837), who has a special -school and following. - - Ling and his earlier assistants left no proper written account of - their treatment, and most of the literature on the subject is - repudiated by one set or other of the gymnastic practitioners. Dr - Anders Wide, M.D., of Stockholm, has published a _Handbook of Medical - Gymnastics_ (English edition, 1899), representing the more - conservative practice. Henrik Kellgren's system, which, though based - on Ling's, admittedly goes beyond it, is described in _The Elements of - Kellgren's Manual Treatment_ (1903), by Edgar F. Cyriax, who before - taking the M.D. degree at Edinburgh had passed out of the Stockholm - Institute as a "gymnastic director." See also the encyclopaedic work - on _Sweden: its People and Industry_ (1904), p. 348, edited by G. - Sundbarg for the Swedish government. - - - - - -LING[1] (_Molva vulgaris_), a fish of the family Gadidae, which is -readily recognized by its long body, two dorsal fins (of which the -anterior is much shorter than the posterior), single long anal fin, -separate caudal fin, a barbel on the chin and large teeth in the lower -jaw and on the palate. Its usual length is from 3 to 4 ft., but -individuals of 5 or 6 ft. in length, and some 70 lb. in weight, have -been taken. The ling is found in the North Atlantic, from Spitzbergen -and Iceland southwards to the coast of Portugal. Its proper home is the -North Sea, especially on the coasts of Norway, Denmark, Great Britain -and Ireland, it occurs in great abundance, generally at some distance -from the land, in depths varying between 50 and 100 fathoms. During the -winter months it approaches the shores, when great numbers are caught by -means of long lines. On the American side of the Atlantic it is less -common, although generally distributed along the south coast of -Greenland and on the banks of Newfoundland. Ling is one of the most -valuable species of the cod-fish family; a certain number are consumed -fresh, but by far the greater portion are prepared for exportation to -various countries (Germany, Spain, Italy). They are either salted and -sold as "salt-fish," or split from head to tail and dried, forming, with -similarly prepared cod and coal-fish, the article of which during Lent -immense quantities are consumed in Germany and elsewhere under the name -of "stock-fish." The oil is frequently extracted from the liver and used -by the poorer classes of the coast population for the lamp or as -medicine. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] As the name of the fish, "ling" is found in other Teut. - languages; cf. Dutch and Ger. _Leng_, Norw. _langa_, &c. It is - generally connected in origin with "long," from the length of its - body. As the name of the common heather, _Calluna vulgaris_ (see - HEATH) the word is Scandinavian; cf. Dutch and Dan. _lyng_, Swed. - _ljung_. - - - - -LINGARD, JOHN (1771-1851), English historian, was born on the 5th of -February 1771 at Winchester, where his father, of an ancient -Lincolnshire peasant stock, had established himself as a carpenter. The -boy's talents attracted attention, and in 1782 he was sent to the -English college at Douai, where he continued until shortly after the -declaration of war by England (1793). He then lived as tutor in the -family of Lord Stourton, but in October 1794 he settled along with seven -other former members of the old Douai college at Crook Hall near Durham, -where on the completion of his theological course he became -vice-president of the reorganized seminary. In 1795 he was ordained -priest, and soon afterwards undertook the charge of the chairs of -natural and moral philosophy. In 1808 he accompanied the community of -Crook Hall to the new college at Ushaw, Durham, but in 1811, after -declining the presidency of the college at Maynooth, he withdrew to the -secluded mission at Hornby in Lancashire, where for the rest of his life -he devoted himself to literary pursuits. In 1817 he visited Rome, where -he made researches in the Vatican Library. In 1821 Pope Pius VII. -created him doctor of divinity and of canon and civil law; and in 1825 -Leo XII. is said to have made him cardinal _in petto_. He died at Hornby -on the 17th of July 1851. - - Lingard wrote _The Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church_ (1806), of - which a third and greatly enlarged addition appeared in 1845 under the - title _The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church; - containing an account of its origin, government, doctrines, worship, - revenues, and clerical and monastic institutions_; but the work with - which his name is chiefly associated is _A History of England, from - the first invasion by the Romans to the commencement of the reign of - William III._, which appeared originally in 8 vols. at intervals - between 1819 and 1830. Three successive subsequent editions had the - benefit of extensive revision by the author; a fifth edition in 10 - vols. 8vo appeared in 1849, and a sixth, with life of the author by - Tierney prefixed to vol. x., in 1854-1855. Soon after its appearance - it was translated into French, German and Italian. It is a work of - ability and research; and, though Cardinal Wiseman's claim for its - author that he was "the only impartial historian of our country" may - be disregarded, the book remains interesting as representing the view - taken of certain events in English history by a devout, but able and - learned, Roman Catholic in the earlier part of the 19th century. - - - - -LINGAYAT (from _linga_, the emblem of Siva), the name of a peculiar sect -of Siva worshippers in southern India, who call themselves _Vira-Saivas_ -(see HINDUISM). They carry on the person a stone _linga_ (phallus) in a -silver casket. The founder of the sect is said to have been Basava, a -Brahman prime minister of a Jain king in the 12th century. The Lingayats -are specially numerous in the Kanarese country, and to them the Kanarese -language owes its cultivation as literature. Their priests are called -Jangamas. In 1901 the total number of Lingayats in all India was -returned as more than 2(1/2) millions, mostly in Mysore and the adjoining -districts of Bombay, Madras and Hyderabad. - - - - -LINGAYEN, a town and the capital of the province of Pangasinan, Luzon, -Philippine Islands, about 110 m. N. by W. of Manila, on the S. shore of -the Gulf of Lingayen, and on a low and fertile island in the delta of -the Agno river. Pop. (1903) 21,529. It has good government buildings, a -fine church and plaza, the provincial high school and a girls' school -conducted by Spanish Dominican friars. The climate is cool and healthy. -The chief industries are the cultivation of rice (the most important -crop of the surrounding country), fishing and the making of nipa-wine -from the juice of the nipa palm, which grows abundantly in the -neighbouring swamps. The principal language is Pangasinan; Ilocano is -also spoken. - - - - -LINGEN, RALPH ROBERT WHEELER LINGEN, BARON (1819-1905), English civil -servant, was born in February 1819 at Birmingham, where his father, who -came of an old Hertfordshire family, with Royalist traditions, was in -business. He became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1837; won -the Ireland (1838) and Hertford (1839) scholarships; and after taking a -first-class in _Literae Humaniores_ (1840), was elected a fellow of -Balliol (1841). He subsequently won the Chancellor's Latin Essay (1843) -and the Eldon Law scholarship (1846). After taking his degree in 1840, -he became a student of Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in 1847; -but instead of practising as a barrister, he accepted an appointment in -the Education Office, and after a short period was chosen in 1849 to -succeed Sir J. Kay Shuttleworth as its secretary or chief permanent -official. He retained this position till 1869. The Education Office of -that day had to administer a somewhat chaotic system of government -grants to local schools, and Lingen was conspicuous for his fearless -discrimination and rigid economy, qualities which characterized his -whole career. When Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) became, as -vice-president of the council, his parliamentary chief, Lingen worked -congenially with him in producing the Revised Code of 1862 which -incorporated "payment by results"; but the education department -encountered adverse criticism, and in 1864 the vote of censure in -parliament which caused Lowe's resignation, founded (but erroneously) on -an alleged "editing" of the school inspectors' reports, was inspired by -a certain antagonism to Lingen's as well as to Lowe's methods. Shortly -before the introduction of Forster's Education Act of 1870, he was -transferred to the post of permanent secretary of the treasury. In this -office, which he held till 1885, he proved a most efficient guardian of -the public purse, and he was a tower of strength to successive -chancellors of the exchequer. It used to be said that the best -recommendation for a secretary of the treasury was to be able to say -"No" so disagreeably that nobody would court a repetition. Lingen was at -all events a most successful resister of importunate claims, and his -undoubted talents as a financier were most prominently displayed in the -direction of parsimony. In 1885 he retired. He had been made a C.B. in -1869 and a K.C.B. in 1878, and on his retirement he was created Baron -Lingen. In 1889 he was made one of the first aldermen of the new London -County Council, but he resigned in 1892. He died on the 22nd of July -1905. He had married in 1852, but left no issue. - - - - -LINGEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, on the Ems canal, 43 -m. N.N.W. of Munster by rail. Pop. 7500. It has iron foundries, -machinery factories, railway workshops and a considerable trade in -cattle, and among its other industries are weaving and malting and the -manufacture of cloth. Lingen was the seat of a university from 1685 to -1819. - -The county of Lingen, of which this town was the capital, was united in -the middle ages with the county of Treklenburg. In 1508, however, it was -separated from this and was divided into an upper and a lower county, -but the two were united in 1541. A little, later Lingen was sold to the -emperor Charles V., from whom it passed to his son, Philip II. of Spain, -who ceded it in 1507 to Maurice, prince of Orange. After the death of -the English king, William III., in 1702, it passed to Frederick I., king -of Prussia, and in 1815 the lower county was transferred to Hanover, -only to be united again with Prussia in 1866. - - See Moller, _Geschichte der vormaligen Grafschaft Lingen_ (Lingen, - 1874); Herrmann, _Die Erwerbung der Stadt und Grafschaft Lingen durch - die Krone Preussen_ (Lingen, 1902); and Schriever, _Geschichte des - Kreiges Lingen_ (Lingen, 1905). - - - - -LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI (1736-1794), French journalist and -advocate, was born on the 14th of July 1736, at Reims, whither his -father, the assistant principal in the College de Beauvais of Paris, had -recently been exiled by _lettre de cachet_ for engaging in the Jansenist -controversy. He attended the College de Beauvais and won the three -highest prizes there in 1751. He accompanied the count palatine of -Zweibrucken to Poland, and on his return to Paris he devoted himself to -writing. He published partial French translations of Calderon and Lope -de Vega, and wrote parodies for the _Opera Comique_ and pamphlets in -favour of the Jesuits. Received at first in the ranks of the -_philosophes_, he soon went over to their opponents, possibly more from -contempt than from conviction, the immediate occasion for his change -being a quarrel with d'Alembert in 1762. Thenceforth he violently -attacked whatever was considered modern and enlightened, and while he -delighted society with his numerous sensational pamphlets, he aroused -the fear and hatred of his opponents by his stinging wit. He was -admitted to the bar in 1764, and soon became one of the most famous -pleaders of his century. But in spite of his brilliant ability and his -record of having lost but two cases, the bitter attacks which he -directed against his fellow advocates, especially against Gerbier -(1725-1788), caused his dismissal from the bar in 1775. He then turned -to journalism and began the _Journal de politique et de litterature_, -which he employed for two years in literary, philosophical and legal -criticisms. But a sarcastic article on the French Academy compelled him -to turn over the Journal to La Harpe and seek refuge abroad. Linguet, -however, continued his career of free lance, now attacking and now -supporting the government, in the _Annales politiques, civiles et -litteraires_, published from 1777 to 1792, first at London, then at -Brussels and finally at Paris. Attempting to return to France in 1780 he -was arrested for a caustic attack on the duc de Duras (1715-1789), an -academician and marshal of France, and imprisoned nearly two years in -the Bastille. He then went to London, and thence to Brussels, where, for -his support of the reforms of Joseph II., he was ennobled and granted an -honorarium of one thousand ducats. In 1786 he was permitted by Vergennes -to return to France as an Austrian counsellor of state, and to sue the -duc d'Aiguillon (1730-1798), the former minister of Louis XV., for fees -due him for legal services rendered some fifteen years earlier. He -obtained judgment to the amount of 24,000 livres. Linguet received the -support of Marie Antoinette; his fame at the time surpassed that of his -rival Beaumarchais, and almost excelled that of Voltaire. Shortly -afterwards he visited the emperor at Vienna to plead the case of Van der -Noot and the rebels of Brabant. During the early years of the Revolution -he issued several pamphlets against Mirabeau, who returned his ill-will -with interest, calling him "the ignorant and bombastic M. Linguet, -advocate of Neros, sultans and viziers." On his return to Paris in 1791 -he defended the rights of San Domingo before the National Assembly. His -last work was a defence of Louis XVI. He retired to Marnes near Ville -d'Avray to escape the Terror, but was sought out and summarily condemned -to death "for having flattered the despots of Vienna and London." He was -guillotined at Paris on the 27th of June 1794. - - Linguet was a prolific writer in many fields. Examples of his - attempted historical writing are _Histoire du siecle d'Alexandre le - Grand_ (Amsterdam, 1762), and _Histoire impartiale des Jesuites_ - (Madrid, 1768), the latter condemned to be burned. His opposition to - the _philosophes_ had its strongest expressions in _Fanatisme des - philosophes_ (Geneva and Paris, 1764) and _Histoire des revolutions - de l'empire romain_ (Paris, 1766-1768). His _Theorie des lois - civiles_ (London, 1767) is a vigorous defence of absolutism and attack - on the politics of Montesquieu. His best legal treatise is _Memoire - pour le comte de Morangies_ (Paris, 1772); Linguet's imprisonment in - the Bastille afforded him the opportunity of writing his _Memoires sur - la Bastille_, first published in London in 1789; it has been - translated into English (Dublin, 1783, and Edinburgh, 1884-1887), and - is the best of his works though untrustworthy. - - See A. Deverite, _Notice pour servir a l'histoire de la vie et des - ecrits de S. N. H. Linguet_ (Liege, 1782); Gardoz, _Essai historique - sur la vie et les ouvrages de Linguet_ (Lyon, 1808); J. F. Barriere, - _Memoire de Linguet et de Latude_ (Paris, 1884); Ch. Monselet, _Les - Oublies et les dedaignes_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 1-41; H. Monin "Notice - sur Linguet," in the 1889 edition of _Memoires sur la Bastille_; J. - Cruppi, _Un avocat journaliste au 18^e siecle, Linguet_ (Paris, - 1895); A. Philipp. _Linguet, ein Nationalokonom des XVIII Jahrhunderts - in seinen rechtlichen, socialen und volkswirtschaftlichen - Anschauungen_ (Zurich, 1896); A. Lichtenberger, _Le Socialisme - utopique_ (1898), pp. 77-131. - - - - -LINK. (1) (Of Scandinavian origin; cf. Swed. _lank_, Dan. _laenke_; -cognate with "flank," and Ger. _Gelenk_, joint), one of the loops of -which a chain is composed; used as a measure of length in surveying, -being (1/100)th part of a "chain." In Gunter's chain, a "link" = 7.92 -in.; the chain used by American engineers consists of 100 links of a -foot each in length (for "link work" and "link motions" see MECHANICS: S -_Applied_, and STEAM ENGINE). The term is also applied to anything used -for connecting or binding together, metaphorically or absolutely. (2) -(O. Eng. _hlinc_, possibly from the root which appears in "to lean"), a -bank or ridge of rising ground; in Scots dialect, in the plural, applied -to the ground bordering on the sea-shore, characterized by sand and -coarse grass; hence a course for playing golf. (3) A torch made of pitch -or tow formerly carried in the streets to light passengers, by men or -boys called "link-boys" who plied for hire with them. Iron link-stands -supporting a ring in which the link might be placed may still be seen at -the doorways of old London houses. The word is of doubtful origin. It -has been referred to a Med. Lat. _lichinus_, which occurs in the form -_linchinus_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_); this, according to a -15th-century glossary, meant a wick or match. It is an adaptation of Gr. -[Greek: luchnos], lamp. Another suggestion connects it with a supposed -derivation of "linstock," from "lint." _The New English Dictionary_ -thinks the likeliest suggestion is to identify the word with the "link" -of a chain. The tow and pitch may have been manufactured in lengths, and -then cut into sections or "links." - - - - - LINKOPING, a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, and chief town of - the district (_lan_) of Ostergotland. Pop. (1900) 14,552. It is - situated in a fertile plain 142 m. by rail S.W. of Stockholm, and - communicates with Lake Roxen (1/2 m. to the north) and the Gota and - Kinda canals by means of the navigable Stanga. The cathedral - (1150-1499), a Romanesque building with a beautiful south portal and a - Gothic choir, is, next to the cathedral of Upsala, the largest church - in Sweden. It contains an altarpiece by Martin Heemskerck (d. 1574), - which is said to have been bought by John II. for twelve hundred - measures of wheat. In the church of St Lars are some paintings by Per - Horberg (1746-1816), the Swedish peasant artist. Other buildings of - note are the massive episcopal palace (1470-1500), afterwards a royal - palace, and the old gymnasium founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1627, - which contains the valuable library of old books and manuscripts - belonging to the diocese and state college, and collection of coins - and antiquities. There is also the Ostergotland Museum, with an art - collection. The town has manufactures of tobacco, cloth and hosiery. - It is the headquarters of the second army division. - -Linkoping early became a place of mark, and was already a bishop's see -in 1082. It was at a council held in the town in 1153 that the payment -of Peter's pence was agreed to at the instigation of Nicholas -Breakspeare, afterwards Adrian IV. The coronation of Birger Jarlsson -Valdemar took place in the cathedral in 1251; and in the reign of -Gustavus Vasa several important diets were held in the town. At -Stangabro (Stanga Bridge), close by, an obelisk (1898) commemorates the -battle of Stangabro (1598), when Duke Charles (Protestant) defeated the -Roman Catholic Sigismund. A circle of stones in the Iron Market of -Linkoping marks the spot where Sigismund's adherents were beheaded in -1600. - - - - -LINLEY, THOMAS (1732-1795), English musician, was born at Wells, -Somerset, and studied music at Bath, where he settled as a -singing-master and conductor of the concerts. From 1774 he was engaged -in the management at Drury Lane theatre, London, composing or compiling -the music of many of the pieces produced there, besides songs and -madrigals, which rank high among English compositions. He died in London -on the 19th of November 1795. His eldest son THOMAS (1756-1778) was a -remarkable violinist, and also a composer, who assisted his father; and -he became a warm friend of Mozart. His works, with some of his father's, -were published in two volumes, and these contain some lovely madrigals -and songs. Another son, WILLIAM (1771-1835), who held a writership at -Madras, was devoted to literature and music and composed glees and -songs. Three daughters were similarly gifted, and were remarkable both -for singing and beauty; the eldest of them ELIZABETH ANN (1754-1792), -married Richard Brinsley Sheridan in 1773, and thus linked the fortunes -of her family with his career. - - - - -LINLITHGOW, JOHN ADRIAN LOUIS HOPE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1860-1908), British -administrator, was the son of the 6th earl of Hopetoun. The Hope family -traced their descent to John de Hope, who accompanied James V.'s queen -Madeleine of Valois from France to Scotland in 1537, and of whose -great-grandchildren Sir Thomas Hope (d. 1646), lord advocate of -Scotland, was ancestor of the earls of Hopetoun, while Henry Hope -settled in Amsterdam, and was the ancestor of the famous Dutch bankers -of that name, and of the later Hopes of Bedgebury, Kent. Sir Thomas's -son, Sir James Hope of Hopetoun (1614-1661), Scottish lord of session, -was grandfather of Charles, 1st earl of Hopetoun in the Scots peerage -(1681-1742), who was created earl in 1703; and his grandson, the 3rd -earl, was in 1809 made a baron of the United Kingdom. John, the 4th earl -(1765-1823), brother of the 3rd earl, was a distinguished soldier, who -for his services in the Peninsular War was created Baron Niddry in 1814 -before succeeding to the earldom. The marquessate of Linlithgow was -bestowed on the 7th earl of Hopetoun in 1902, in recognition of his -success as first governor (1900-1902) of the commonwealth of Australia; -he died on the 1st of March 1908, being succeeded as 2nd marquess by his -eldest son (b. 1887). - - An earldom of Linlithgow was in existence from 1600 to 1716, this - being held by the Livingstones, a Scottish family descended from Sir - William Livingstone. Sir William obtained the barony of Callendar in - 1346, and his descendant, Sir Alexander Livingstone (d. c. 1450), and - other members of this family were specially prominent during the - minority of King James II. Alexander Livingstone, 7th Lord Livingstone - (d. 1623), the eldest son of William, the 6th lord (d. c. 1580), a - supporter of Mary, queen of Scots, was a leading Scottish noble during - the reign of James VI. and was created earl of Linlithgow in 1600. - Alexander's grandson, George, 3rd earl of Linlithgow (1616-1690), and - the latter's son, George, the 4th earl (c. 1652-1695), were both - engaged against the Covenanters during the reign of Charles II. When - the 4th earl died without sons in August 1695 the earldom passed to - his nephew, James Livingstone, 4th earl of Callendar. James, who then - became the 5th earl of Linlithgow, joined the Stuart rising in 1715; - in 1716 he was attainted, being thus deprived of all his honours, and - he died without sons in Rome in April 1723. - - The earldom of Callendar, which was thus united with that of - Linlithgow, was bestowed in 1641 upon James Livingstone, the third son - of the 1st earl of Linlithgow. Having seen military service in Germany - and the Netherlands, James was created Lord Livingstone of Almond in - 1633 by Charles I., and eight years later the king wished to make him - lord high treasurer of Scotland. Before this, however, Almond had - acted with the Covenanters, and during the short war between England - and Scotland in 1640 he served under General Alexander Leslie, - afterwards earl of Leven. But the trust reposed in him by the - Covenanters did not prevent him in 1640 from signing the "band of - Cumbernauld," an association for defence against Argyll, or from being - in some way mixed up with the "Incident," a plot for the seizure of - the Covenanting leaders, Hamilton and Argyll. In 1641 Almond became an - earl, and, having declined the offer of a high position in the army - raised by Charles I., he led a division of the Scottish forces into - England in 1644 and helped Leven to capture Newcastle. In 1645 - Callendar, who often imagined himself slighted, left the army, and in - 1647 he was one of the promoters of the "engagement" for the release - of the king. In 1648, when the Scots marched into England, he served - as lieutenant-general under the duke of Hamilton, but the duke found - him as difficult to work with as Leven had done previously, and his - advice was mainly responsible for the defeat at Preston. After this - battle he escaped to Holland. In 1650 he was allowed to return to - Scotland, but in 1654 his estates were seized and he was imprisoned; - he came into prominence once more at the Restoration. Callendar died - on March 1674, leaving no children, and, according to a special - remainder, he was succeeded in the earldom by his nephew Alexander (d. - 1685), the second son of the 2nd earl of Linlithgow; and he again was - succeeded by his nephew Alexander (d. 1692), the second son of the 3rd - earl of Linlithgow. The 3rd earl's son, James, the 4th earl, then - became 5th earl of Linlithgow (see _supra_). - - - - -LINLITHGOW, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of -Linlithgowshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4279. It lies in a valley on the -south side of a loch, 17(1/2) m. W. of Edinburgh by the North British -railway. It long preserved an antique and picturesque appearance, with -gardens running down to the lake, or climbing the lower slopes of the -rising ground, but in the 19th century much of it was rebuilt. About 4 -m. S. by W. lies the old village of Torphichen (pop. 540), where the -Knights of St John of Jerusalem had their chief Scottish preceptory. The -parish kirk is built on the site of the nave of the church of the -establishment, but the ruins of the transept and of part of the choir -still exist. Linlithgow belongs to the Falkirk district group of -parliamentary burghs with Falkirk, Airdrie, Hamilton and Lanark. The -industries include shoe-making, tanning and currying, manufactures of -paper, glue and soap, and distilling. An old tower-like structure near -the railway station is traditionally regarded as a mansion of the -Knights Templar. Other public buildings are the first town house -(erected in 1668 and restored in 1848 after a fire); the town hall, -built in 1888; the county buildings and the burgh school, dating from -the pre-Reformation period. There are some fine fountains. The Cross -Well in front of the town house, a striking piece of grotesque work -carved in stone, originally built in the reign of James V., was rebuilt -in 1807. Another fountain is surmounted by the figure of St Michael, the -patron-saint of the burgh. Linlithgow Palace is perhaps the finest ruin -of its kind in Scotland. Heavy but effective, the sombre walls rise -above the green knolls of the promontory which divides the lake into two -nearly equal portions. In plan it is almost square (168 ft. by 174 ft.), -enclosing a court (91 ft. by 88 ft.), in the centre of which stands the -ruined fountain of which an exquisite copy was erected in front of -Holyrood Palace by the Prince Consort. At each corner there is a tower -with an internal spiral staircase, that of the north-west angle being -crowned by a little octagonal turret known as "Queen Margaret's Bower," -from the tradition that it was there that the consort of James IV. -watched and waited for his return from Flodden. The west side, whose -massive masonry, hardly broken by a single window, is supposed to date -in part from the time of James III., who later took refuge in one of its -vaults from his disloyal nobles; but the larger part of the south and -east side belongs to the period of James V., about 1535; and the north -side was rebuilt in 1619-1620 by James VI. Of James V.'s portion, -architecturally the richest, the main apartments are the Lyon chamber or -parliament hall and the chapel royal. The grand entrance, approached by -a drawbridge, was on the east side; above the gateway are still some -weather-worn remains of rich allegorical designs. The palace was reduced -to ruins by General Hawley's dragoons, who set fire to it in 1746. -Government grants have stayed further dilapidation. A few yards to the -south of the palace is the church of St Michael, a Gothic (Scottish -Decorated) building (180 ft. long internally excluding the apse, by 62 -ft. in breadth excluding the transepts), probably founded by David I. in -1242, but mainly built by George Crichton, bishop of Dunkeld -(1528-1536). The central west front steeple was till 1821 topped by a -crown like that of St Giles', Edinburgh. The chief features of the -church are the embattled and pinnacled tower, with the fine doorway -below, the nave, the north porch and the flamboyant window in the south -transept. The church contains some fine stained glass, including a -window to the memory of Sir Charles Wyville Thomson (1830-1882), the -naturalist, who was born in the parish. - -Linlithgow (wrongly identified with the Roman _Lindum_) was made a royal -burgh by David I. Edward I. encamped here the night before the battle of -Falkirk (1298), wintered here in 1301, and next year built "a pele -[castle] mekill and strong," which in 1313 was captured by the Scots -through the assistance of William Bunnock, or Binning, and his hay-cart. -In 1369 the customs of Linlithgow yielded more than those of any other -town in Scotland, except Edinburgh; and the burgh was taken with Lanark -to supply the place of Berwick and Roxburgh in the court of the Four -Burghs (1368). Robert II. granted it a charter of immunities in 1384. -The palace became a favourite residence of the kings of Scotland, and -often formed part of the marriage settlement of their consorts (Mary of -Guelders, 1449; Margaret of Denmark, 1468; Margaret of England, 1503). -James V. was born within its walls in 1512, and his daughter Mary on the -7th of December 1542. In 1570 the Regent Moray was assassinated in the -High Street by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh. The university of -Edinburgh took refuge at Linlithgow from the plague in 1645-1646; in the -same year the national parliament, which had often sat in the palace, -was held there for the last time. In 1661 the Covenant was publicly -burned here, and in 1745 Prince Charles Edward passed through the town. -In 1859 the burgh was deprived by the House of Lords of its claim to -levy bridge toll and custom from the railway company. - - - - -LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or WEST LOTHIAN, a south-eastern county of Scotland, -bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, E. and S.E. by Edinburghshire, S.W. by -Lanarkshire and N.W. by Stirlingshire. It has an area of 76,861 acres, -or 120 sq. m., and a coast line of 17 m. The surface rises very -gradually from the Firth to the hilly district in the south. A few miles -from the Forth a valley stretches from east to west. Between the county -town and Bathgate are several hills, the chief being Knock (1017 ft.), -Cairnpapple, or Cairnnaple (1000), Cocklerue (said to be a corruption of -Cuckold-le-Roi, 912), Riccarton Hills (832) terminating eastwards in -Binny Craig, a striking eminence similar to those of Stirling and -Edinburgh, Torphichen Hills (777) and Bowden (749). In the coast -district a few bold rocks are found, such as Dalmeny, Dundas (well -wooded and with a precipitous front), the Binns and a rounded eminence -of 559 ft. named Glower-o'er-'em or Bonnytoun, bearing on its summit a -monument to General Adrian Hope, who fell in the Indian Mutiny. The -river Almond, rising in Lanarkshire and pursuing a north-easterly -direction, enters the Firth at Cramond after a course of 24 m., during a -great part of which it forms the boundary between West and Mid Lothian. -Its right-hand tributary, Breich Water, constitutes another portion of -the line dividing the same counties. The Avon, rising in the detached -portion of Dumbartonshire, flows eastwards across south Stirlingshire -and then, following in the main a northerly direction, passes the county -town on the west and reaches the Firth about midway between Grangemouth -and Bo'ness, having served as the boundary of Stirlingshire, during -rather more than the latter half of its course. The only loch is -Linlithgow Lake (102 acres), immediately adjoining the county town on -the north, a favourite resort of curlers and skaters. It is 10 ft. deep -at the east end and 48 ft. at the west. Eels, perch and braise (a -species of roach) are abundant. - - _Geology._--The rocks of Linlithgowshire belong almost without - exception to the Carboniferous system. At the base is the Calciferous - Sandstone series, most of which lies between the Bathgate Hills and - the eastern boundary of the county. In this series are the Queensferry - limestone, the equivalent of the Burdiehouse limestone of Edinburgh, - and the Binny sandstone group with shales and clays and the Houston - coal bed. At more than one horizon in this series oil shales are - found. The Bathgate Hills are formed of basaltic lavas and tuffs--an - interbedded volcanic group possibly 2000 ft. thick in the Calciferous - Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone series. A peculiar serpentinous - variety of the prevailing rock is quarried at Blackburn for oven - floors; it is known as "lakestone." Binns Hill is the site of one of - the volcanic cones of the period. The Carboniferous Limestone series - consists of an upper and lower limestone group--including the - Petershill, Index, Dykeneuk and Craigenbuck limestones--and a middle - group of shales, ironstones and coals; the Smithy, Easter Main, Foul, - Red and Splint coals belong to this horizon. Above the Carboniferous - Limestone the Millstone grit series crops in a belt which may be - traced from the mouth of the Avon southwards to Whitburn. This is - followed by the true coal-measures with the Boghead or Torbanehill - coal, the Colinburn, Main, Ball, Mill and Upper Cannel or Shotts gas - coals of Armadale, Torbanehill and Fauldhouse. - - _Climate and Agriculture._--The average rainfall for the year is 29.9 - in., and the average temperature 47.5 deg. F. (January 38 deg. F.; - July 59.5 deg. F.). More than three-fourths of the county, the - agriculture of which is highly developed, is under cultivation. The - best land is found along the coast, as at Carriden and Dalmeny. The - farming is mostly arable, permanent pasture being practically - stationary (at about 22,000 acres). Oats is the principal grain crop, - but barley and wheat are also cultivated. Farms between 100 and 300 - acres are the most common. Turnips and potatoes are the leading green - crops. Much land has been reclaimed; the parish of Livingston, for - example, which in the beginning of the 18th century was covered with - heath and juniper, is now under rotation. In Torphichen and Bathgate, - however, patches of peat moss and swamp occur, and in the south there - are extensive moors at Fauldhouse and Polkemmet. Live stock does not - count for so much in West Lothian as in other Scottish counties, - though a considerable number of cattle are fattened and dairy farming - is followed successfully, the fresh butter and milk finding a market - in Edinburgh. There is some sheep-farming, and horses and pigs are - reared. The wooded land occurs principally in the parks and "policies" - surrounding the many noblemen's mansions and private estates. - - _Other Industries._--The shale-oil trade flourishes at Bathgate, - Broxburn, Armadale, Uphall, Winchburgh, Philpstoun and Dalmeny. There - are important iron-works with blast furnaces at Bo'ness, Kinneil, - Whitburn and Bathgate, and coal is also largely mined at these places. - Coal-mining is supposed to have been followed since Roman times, and - the earliest document extant regarding coalpits in Scotland is a - charter granted about the end of the 12th century to William Oldbridge - of Carriden. Fire-clay is extensively worked in connexion with the - coal, and ironstone employs many hands. Limestone, freestone and - whinstone are all quarried. Binny freestone was used for the Royal - Institution and the National Gallery in Edinburgh, and many important - buildings in Glasgow. Some fishing is carried on from Queensferry, and - Bo'ness is the principal port. - - _Communications._--The North British Railway Company's line from - Edinburgh to Glasgow runs across the north of the county, it controls - the approaches to the Forth Bridge, and serves the rich mineral - district around Airdrie and Coatbridge in Lanarkshire via Bathgate. - The Caledonian Railway Company's line from Glasgow to Edinburgh - touches the extreme south of the shire. The Union Canal, constructed - in 1818-1822 to connect Edinburgh with the Forth and Clyde Canal near - Camelon in Stirlingshire, crosses the county, roughly following the - N.B.R. line to Falkirk. The Union Canal, which is 31 m. long and - belongs to the North British railway, is carried across the Almond and - Avon on aqueducts designed by Thomas Telford, and near Falkirk is - conveyed through a tunnel 2100 ft. long. - -_Population and Administration._--In 1891 the population amounted to -52,808, and in 1901 to 65,708, showing an increase of 24.43% in the -decennial period, the highest of any Scottish county for that decade, -and a density of 547 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 five persons spoke -Gaelic only, and 575 Gaelic and English. The chief towns, with -populations in 1901, are Bathgate (7549), Borrowstounness (9306), -Broxburn (7099) and Linlithgow (4279). The shire returns one member to -parliament. Linlithgowshire is part of the sheriffdom of the Lothians -and Peebles, and a resident sheriff-substitute sits at Linlithgow and -Bathgate. The county is under school-board jurisdiction, and there are -academies at Linlithgow, Bathgate and Bo'ness. The local authorities -entrust the bulk of the "residue" grant to the County Secondary -Education Committee, which subsidizes elementary technical classes -(cookery, laundry and dairy) and science and art and technological -classes, including their equipment. - -_History._--Traces of the Pictish inhabitants still exist. Near -Inveravon is an accumulation of shells--mostly oysters, which have long -ceased to be found so far up the Forth--considered by geologists to be a -natural bed, but pronounced by antiquaries to be a kitchen midden. Stone -cists have been discovered at Carlowrie, Dalmeny, Newliston and -elsewhere; on Cairnnaple is a circular structure of remote but unknown -date; and at Kipps is a cromlech that was once surrounded by stones. The -wall of Antoninus lies for several miles in the shire. The discovery of -a fine legionary tablet at Bridgeness in 1868 is held by some to be -conclusive evidence that the great rampart terminated at that point and -not at Carriden. Roman camps can be distinguished at several spots. On -the hill of Bowden is an earthwork, which J. Stuart Glennie and others -connect with the struggle of the ancient Britons against the Saxons of -Northumbria. The historical associations of the county mainly cluster -round the town of Linlithgow (q.v.). Kingscavil (pop. 629) disputes with -Stonehouse in Lanarkshire the honour of being the birthplace of Patrick -Hamilton, the martyr (1504-1528). - - See Sir R. Sibbald, _History of the Sheriffdoms of Linlithgow and - Stirlingshire_ (Edinburgh, 1710); G. Waldie, _Walks along the Northern - Roman Wall_ (Linlithgow, 1883); R. J. H. Cunningham, _Geology of the - Lothians_ (Edinburgh, 1838). - - - - -LINNAEUS, the name usually given to CARL VON LINNE (1707-1778), Swedish -botanist, who was born on the 13th of May, O.S. (May 23, N.S.) 1707 at -Rashult, in the province of Smaland, Sweden, and was the eldest child of -Nils Linnaeus the comminister, afterwards pastor, of the parish, and -Christina Brodersonia, the daughter of the previous incumbent. In 1717 -he was sent to the primary school at Wexio, and in 1724 he passed to the -gymnasium. His interests were centred on botany, and his progress in the -studies considered necessary for admission to holy orders, for which he -was intended, was so slight that in 1726 his father was recommended to -apprentice him to a tailor or shoemaker. He was saved from this fate -through Dr Rothman, a physician in the town, who expressed the belief -that he would yet distinguish himself in medicine and natural history, -and who further instructed him in physiology. In 1727 he entered the -university of Lund, but removed in the following year to that of Upsala. -There, through lack of means, he had a hard struggle until, in 1729, he -made the acquaintance of Dr Olaf Celsius (1670-1756), professor of -theology, at that time working at his _Hierobotanicon_, which saw the -light nearly twenty years later. Celsius, impressed with Linnaeus's -knowledge and botanical collections, and finding him necessitous, -offered him board and lodging. - -During this period, he came upon a critique which ultimately led to the -establishment of his artificial system of plant classification. This was -a review of Sebastien Vaillant's _Sermo de Structura Florum_ (Leiden, -1718), a thin quarto in French and Latin; it set him upon examining the -stamens and pistils of flowers, and, becoming convinced of the paramount -importance of these organs, he formed the idea of basing a system of -arrangement upon them. Another work by Wallin, [Greek: Gamos phyton], -_sive Nuptiae Arborum Dissertatio_ (Upsala, 1729), having fallen into -his hands, he drew up a short treatise on the sexes of plants, which was -placed in the hands of the younger Olaf Rudbeck (1660-1740), the -professor of botany in the university. In the following year Rudbeck, -whose advanced age compelled him to lecture by deputy, appointed -Linnaeus his adjunctus; in the spring of 1730, therefore, the latter -began his lectures. The academic garden was entirely remodelled under -his auspices, and furnished with many rare species. In the preceding -year he had solicited appointment to the vacant post of gardener, which -was refused him on the ground of his capacity for better things. - -In 1732 he undertook to explore Lapland, at the cost of the Academy of -Sciences of Upsala; he traversed upwards of 4600 m., and the cost of the -journey is given at 530 copper dollars, or about L25 sterling. His own -account was published in English by Sir J. E. Smith, under the title -_Lachesis Lapponica_, in 1811; the scientific results were published in -his _Flora Lapponica_ (Amsterdam, 1737). In 1733 Linnaeus was engaged at -Upsala in teaching the methods of assaying ores, but was prevented from -delivering lectures on botany for academic reasons. At this juncture the -governor of Dalecarlia invited him to travel through his province, as he -had done through Lapland. Whilst on this journey, he lectured at Fahlun -to large audiences; and J. Browallius (1707-1755), the chaplain there, -afterwards bishop of Abo, strongly urged him to go abroad and take his -degree of M.D. at a foreign university, by which means he could -afterwards settle where he pleased. Accordingly he left Sweden in 1735. -Travelling by Lubeck and Hamburg, he proceeded to Harderwijk, where he -went through the requisite examinations, and defended his thesis on the -cause of intermittent fever. His scanty funds were now nearly spent, but -he passed on through Haarlem to Leiden; there he called on Jan Fredrik -Gronovius (1600-1762), who, returning the visit, was shown the _Systema -naturae_ in MS., and was so greatly astonished at it that he sent it to -press at his own expense. This famous system, which, artificial as it -was, substituted order for confusion, largely made its way on account of -the lucid and admirable laws, and comments on them, which were issued -almost at the same time (see BOTANY). H. Boerhaave, whom Linnaeus saw -after waiting eight days for admission, recommended him to J. Burman -(1707-1780), the professor of botany at Amsterdam, with whom he stayed a -twelvemonth. While there he issued his _Fundamenta Botanica_, an -unassuming small octavo, which exercised immense influence. For some -time also he lived with the wealthy banker, G. Clifford (1685-1750), who -had a magnificent garden at Hartecamp, near Haarlem. - -In 1736 Linnaeus visited England. He was warmly recommended by Boerhaave -to Sir Hans Sloane, who seems to have received him coldly. At Oxford Dr -Thomas Shaw welcomed him cordially; J. J. Dillenius, the professor of -botany, was cold at first, but afterwards changed completely, kept him a -month, and even offered to share the emoluments of the chair with him. -He saw Philip Miller (1691-1771), the _Hortulanorum Princeps_, at -Chelsea Physic Garden, and took some plants thence to Clifford; but -certain other stories which are current about his visit to England are -of very doubtful authenticity. - -On his return to the Netherlands he completed the printing of his -_Genera Plantarum_, a volume which must be considered the starting-point -of modern systematic botany. During the same year, 1737, he finished -arranging Clifford's collection of plants, living and dried, described -in the _Hortus Cliffortianus_. During the compilation he used to "amuse" -himself with drawing up the _Critica Botanica_, also printed in the -Netherlands. But this strenuous and unremitting labour told upon him; -the atmosphere of the Low Countries seemed to oppress him beyond -endurance; and, resisting all Clifford's entreaties to remain with him, -he started homewards, yet on the way he remained a year at Leiden, and -published his _Classes Plantarum_ (1738). He then visited Paris, where -he saw Antoine and Bernard de Jussieu, and finally sailed for Sweden -from Rouen. In September 1738 he established himself as a physician in -Stockholm, but, being unknown as a medical man, no one at first cared to -consult him; by degrees, however, he found patients, was appointed naval -physician at Stockholm, with minor appointments, and in June 1730 -married Sara Moraea. In 1741 he was appointed to the chair of medicine at -Upsala, but soon exchanged it for that of botany. In the same year, -previous to this exchange, he travelled through Oland and Gothland, by -command of the state, publishing his results in _Olandska och -Gothlandska Resa_ (1745). The index to this volume shows the first -employment of specific names in nomenclature. - -Henceforward his time was taken up by teaching and the preparation of -other works. In 1745 he issued his _Flora Suecica_ and _Fauna Suecica_, -the latter having occupied his attention during fifteen years; -afterwards, two volumes of observations made during journeys in Sweden, -_Wastgota Resa_ (Stockholm, 1747), and _Skanska Resa_ (Stockholm, 1751). -In 1748 he brought out his _Hortus Upsaliensis_, showing that he had -added eleven hundred species to those formerly in cultivation in that -garden. In 1750 his _Philosophia Botanica_ was given to the world; it -consists of a commentary on the various axioms he had published in 1735 -in his _Fundamenta Botanica_, and was dictated to his pupil P. Lofling -(1720-1756), while the professor was confined to his bed by an attack of -gout. But the most important work of this period was his _Species -Plantarum_ (Stockholm, 1753), in which the specific names are fully set -forth. In the same year he was created knight of the Polar Star, the -first time a scientific man had been raised to that honour in Sweden. In -1755 he was invited by the king of Spain to settle in that country, with -a liberal salary, and full liberty of conscience, but he declined on the -ground that whatever merits he possessed should be devoted to his -country's service, and Lofling was sent instead. He was enabled now to -purchase the estates of Safja and Hammarby; at the latter he built his -museum of stone, to guard against loss by fire. His lectures at the -university drew men from all parts of the world; the normal number of -students at Upsala was five hundred, but while he occupied the chair of -botany there it rose to fifteen hundred. In 1761 he was granted a patent -of nobility, antedated to 1757, from which time he was styled Carl von -Linne. To his great delight the tea-plant was introduced alive into -Europe in 1763; in the same year his surviving son Carl (1741-1783) was -allowed to assist his father in his professorial duties, and to be -trained as his successor. At the age of sixty his memory began to fail; -an apoplectic attack in 1774 greatly weakened him; two years after he -lost the use of his right side; and he died on the 10th of January 1778 -at Upsala, in the cathedral of which he was buried. - - With Linnaeus arrangement seems to have been a passion; he delighted - in devising classifications, and not only did he systematize the three - kingdoms of nature, but even drew up a treatise on the _Genera - Morborum_. When he appeared upon the scene, new plants and animals - were in course of daily discovery in increasing numbers, due to the - increase of trading facilities; he devised schemes of arrangement by - which these acquisitions might be sorted provisionally, until their - natural affinities should have become clearer. He made many mistakes; - but the honour due to him for having first enunciated the principles - for defining genera and species, and his uniform use of specific - names, is enduring. His style is terse and laconic; he methodically - treated of each organ in its proper turn, and had a special term for - each, the meaning of which did not vary. The reader cannot doubt the - author's intention; his sentences are business-like and to the point. - The omission of the verb in his descriptions was an innovation, and - gave an abruptness to his language which was foreign to the writing of - his time; but it probably by its succinctness added to the popularity - of his works. - - No modern naturalist has impressed his own character with greater - force upon his pupils than did Linnaeus. He imbued them with his own - intense acquisitiveness, reared them in an atmosphere of enthusiasm, - trained them to close and accurate observation, and then despatched - them to various parts of the globe. - - His published works amount to more than one hundred and eighty, - including the _Amoenitates Academicae_, for which he provided the - material, revising them also for press; corrections in his handwriting - may be seen in the Banksian and Linnean Society's libraries. Many of - his works were not published during his lifetime; those which were are - enumerated by Dr Richard Pulteney in his _General View of the Writings - of Linnaeus_ (1781). His widow sold his collections and books to Sir - J. E. Smith, the first president of the Linnean Society of London. - When Smith died in 1828, a subscription was raised to purchase the - herbarium and library for the Society, whose property they became. The - manuscripts of many of Linnaeus's publications, and the letters he - received from his contemporaries, also came into the possession of the - Society. (B. D. J.) - - - - -LINNELL, JOHN (1792-1882), English painter, was born in London on the -16th of June 1792. His father being a carver and gilder, Linnell was -early brought into contact with artists, and when he was ten years old -he was drawing and selling his portraits in chalk and pencil. His first -artistic instruction was received from Benjamin West, and he spent a -year in the house of John Varley the water-colour painter, where he had -William Hunt and Mulready as fellow-pupils, and made the acquaintance of -Shelley, Godwin and other men of mark. In 1805 he was admitted a student -of the Royal Academy, where he obtained medals for drawing, modelling -and sculpture. He was also trained as an engraver, and executed a -transcript of Varley's "Burial of Saul." In after life he frequently -occupied himself with the burin, publishing, in 1834, a series of -outlines from Michelangelo's frescoes in the Sistine chapel, and, in -1840, superintending the issue of a selection of plates from the -pictures in Buckingham Palace, one of them, a Titian landscape, being -mezzotinted by himself. At first he supported himself mainly by -miniature painting, and by the execution of larger portraits, such as -the likenesses of Mulready, Whately, Peel and Carlyle. Several of his -portraits he engraved with his own hand in line and mezzotint. He also -painted many subjects like the "St John Preaching," the "Covenant of -Abraham," and the "Journey to Emmaus," in which, while the landscape is -usually prominent the figures are yet of sufficient importance to supply -the title of the work. But it is mainly in connexion with his paintings -of pure landscape that his name is known. His works commonly deal with -some scene of typical uneventful English landscape, which is made -impressive by a gorgeous effect of sunrise or sunset. They are full of -true poetic feeling, and are rich and glowing in colour. Linnell was -able to command very large prices for his pictures, and about 1850 he -purchased a property at Redhill, Surrey, where he resided till his death -on the 20th of January 1882, painting with unabated power till within -the last few years of his life. His leisure was greatly occupied with a -study of the Scriptures in the original, and he published several -pamphlets and larger treatises of Biblical criticism. Linnell was one of -the best friends and kindest patrons of William Blake. He gave him the -two largest commissions he ever received for single series of -designs--L150 for drawings and engravings of _The Inventions to the Book -of Job_, and a like sum for those illustrative of Dante. - - - - -LINNET, O. Eng. _Linete_ and _Linet-wige_, whence seems to have been -corrupted the old Scottish "Lintquhit," and the modern northern English -"Lintwhite"--originally a somewhat generalized bird's name, but latterly -specialized for the _Fringilla cannabina_ of Linnaeus, the _Linota -cannabina_ of recent ornithologists. This is a common song-bird, -frequenting almost the whole of Europe south of lat. 64 deg., and in -Asia extending to Turkestan. It is known as a winter visitant to Egypt -and Abyssinia, and is abundant at all seasons in Barbary, as well as in -the Canaries and Madeira. Though the fondness of this species for the -seeds of flax (_Linum_) and hemp (_Cannabis_) has given it its common -name in so many European languages,[1] it feeds largely, if not chiefly -in Britain on the seeds of plants of the order _Compositae_, especially -those growing on heaths and commons. As these waste places have been -gradually brought under the plough, in England and Scotland -particularly, the haunts and means of subsistence of the linnet have -been curtailed, and hence its numbers have undergone a very visible -diminution throughout Great Britain. According to its sex, or the season -of the year, it is known as the red, grey or brown linnet, and by the -earlier English writers on birds, as well as in many localities at the -present time, these names have been held to distinguish at least two -species; but there is now no question among ornithologists on this -point, though the conditions under which the bright crimson-red -colouring of the breast and crown of the cock's spring and summer -plumage is donned and doffed may still be open to discussion. Its -intensity seems due, however, in some degree at least, to the weathering -of the brown fringes of the feathers which hide the more brilliant hue, -and in the Atlantic islands examples are said to retain their gay tints -all the year round, while throughout Europe there is scarcely a trace of -them visible in autumn and winter; but, beginning to appear in spring, -they reach their greatest brilliancy towards midsummer; they are never -assumed by examples in confinement. The linnet begins to breed in April, -the nest being generally placed in a bush at no great distance from the -ground. It is nearly always a neat structure composed of fine twigs, -roots or bents, and lined with wool or hair. The eggs, often six in -number, are of a very pale blue marked with reddish or purplish brown. -Two broods seem to be common in the course of the season, and towards -the end of summer the birds--the young greatly preponderating in -number--collect in large flocks and move to the sea-coast, whence a -large proportion depart for more southern latitudes. Of these emigrants -some return the following spring, and are recognizable by the more -advanced state of their plumage, the effect presumably of having -wintered in countries enjoying a brighter and hotter sun. - -Nearly allied to the foregoing species is the twite, so named from its -ordinary call-note, or mountain-linnet, the _Linota flavirostris_, or -_L. montium_ of ornithologists, which can be distinguished by its yellow -bill, longer tail and reddish-tawny throat. This bird never assumes any -crimson on the crown or breast, but the male has the rump at all times -tinged more or less with that colour. In Great Britain in the -breeding-season it seems to affect exclusively hilly and moorland -districts from Herefordshire northward, in which it partly or wholly -replaces the common linnet, but is very much more local in its -distribution, and, except in the British Islands and some parts of -Scandinavia, it only appears as an irregular visitant in winter. At that -season it may, however, be found in large flocks in the low-lying -countries, and as regards England even on the sea-shore. In Asia it -seems to be represented by a kindred form _L. brevirostris_. - -The redpolls form a little group placed by many authorities in the genus -_Linota_, to which they are unquestionably closely allied, and, as -stated elsewhere (see FINCH), the linnets seem to be related to the -birds of the genus _Leucosticte_, the species of which inhabit the -northern parts of North-West America and of Asia. _L. tephrocotis_ is -generally of a chocolate colour, tinged on some parts with pale crimson -or pink, and has the crown of the head silvery-grey. Another species, -_L. arctoa_, was formerly said to have occurred in North America, but -its proper home is in the Kurile Islands or Kamchatka. This has no red -in its plumage. The birds of the genus _Leucosticte_ seem to be more -terrestrial in their habit than those of _Linota_, perhaps from their -having been chiefly observed where trees are scarce; but it is possible -that the mutual relationship of the two groups is more apparent than -real. Allied to _Leucosticte_ is _Montifringilla_, to which belongs the -snow-finch of the Alps, _M. nivalis_, often mistaken by travellers for -the snow-bunting, _Plectrophanes nivalis_. (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] E.g. Fr. _Linotte_, Ger. _Hanfling_, Swed. _Hampling_. - - - - -LINSANG, the native name of one of the members of the viverrine genus -_Linsanga_. There are four species of the genus, from the Indo-Malay -countries. Linsangs are civet-like creatures, with the body and tail -greatly elongated; and the ground colour fulvous marked with bold black -patches, which in one species (_L. pardicolor_) are oblong. In West -Africa the group is represented by the smaller and spotted _Poiana -richardsoni_ which has a genet-like hind-foot. (See CARNIVORA.) - - - - -LINSEED, the seed of the common flax (q.v.) or lint, _Linum -usitatissimum_. These seeds, the linseed of commerce, are of a lustrous -brown colour externally, and a compressed and elongated oval form, with -a slight beak or projection at one extremity. The brown testa contains, -in the outer of the four coats into which it is microscopically -distinguishable, an abundant secretion of mucilaginous matter; and it -has within it a thin layer of albumen, enclosing a pair of large oily -cotyledons. The seeds when placed in water for some time become coated -with glutinous matter from the exudation of the mucilage in the external -layer of the epidermis; and by boiling in sixteen parts of water they -exude sufficient mucilage to form with the water a thick pasty -decoction. The cotyledons contain the valuable linseed oil referred to -below. Linseed grown in tropical countries is much larger and more plump -than that obtained in temperate climes, but the seed from the colder -countries yields a finer quality of oil. - -Linseed formed an article of food among the Greeks and Romans, and it is -said that the Abyssinians at the present day eat it roasted. The oil is -to some extent used as food in Russia and in parts of Poland and -Hungary. The still prevalent use of linseed in poultices for open wounds -is entirely to be reprobated. It has now been abandoned by -practitioners. The principal objections to this use of linseed is that -it specially favours the growth of micro-organisms. There are numerous -clean and efficient substitutes which have all its supposed advantages -and none of its disadvantages. There are now no medicinal uses of this -substance. Linseed cake, the marc left after the expression of the oil, -is a most valuable feeding substance for cattle. - -Linseed is subject to extensive and detrimental adulterations, resulting -not only from careless harvesting and cleaning, whereby seeds of the -flax dodder, and other weeds and grasses are mixed with it, but also -from the direct admixture of cheaper and inferior oil-seeds, such as -wild rape, mustard, sesame, poppy, &c., the latter adulterations being -known in trade under the generic name of "buffum." In 1864, owing to the -serious aspect of the prevalent adulteration, a union of traders was -formed under the name of the "Linseed Association." This body samples -all linseed oil arriving in England and reports on its value. - - _Linseed oil_, the most valuable drying oil, is obtained by expression - from the seeds, with or without the aid of heat. Preliminary to the - operation of pressing, the seeds are crushed and ground to a fine - meal. Cold pressing of the seeds yields a golden-yellow oil, which is - often used as an edible oil. Larger quantities are obtained by heating - the crushed seeds to 160 deg. F. (71 deg. C.), and then expressing the - oil. So obtained, it is somewhat turbid and yellowish-brown in colour. - On storing, moisture and mucilaginous matter gradually settle out. - After storing several years it is known commercially as "tanked oil," - and has a high value in varnish-making. The delay attendant on this - method of purification is avoided by treating the crude oil with 1 to - 2% of a somewhat strong sulphuric acid, which chars and carries down - the bulk of the impurities. For the preparation of "artist's oil," the - finest form of linseed oil, the refined oil is placed in shallow trays - covered with glass, and exposed to the action of the sun's rays. - Numerous other methods of purification, some based on the oxidizing - action of ozone, have been suggested. The yield of oil from different - classes of seed varies, but from 23 to 28% of the weight of the seed - operated on should be obtained. A good average quality of seed - weighing about 392 lb. per quarter has been found in practice to give - out 109 lb. of oil. - - Commercial linseed oil has a peculiar, rather disagreeable sharp taste - and smell; its specific gravity is given as varying from 0.928 to - 0.953, and it solidifies at about -27 deg. By saponification it yields - a number of fatty acids--palmitic, myristic, oleic, linolic, linolenic - and isolinolenic. Exposed to the air in thin films, linseed oil - absorbs oxygen and forms "linoxyn," a resinous semi-elastic, - caoutchouc-like mass, of uncertain composition. The oil, when boiled - with small proportions of litharge and minium, undergoes the process - of resinification in the air with greatly increased rapidity. - - Its most important use is in the preparation of oil paints and - varnishes. By painters both raw and boiled oil are used, the latter - forming the principal medium in oil painting, and also serving - separately as the basis of all oil varnishes. Boiled oil is prepared - in a variety of ways--that most common being by heating the raw oil in - an iron or copper boiler, which, to allow for frothing, must only be - about three-fourths filled. The boiler is heated by a furnace, and the - oil is brought gradually to the point of ebullition, at which it is - maintained for two hours, during which time moisture is driven off, - and the scum and froth which accumulate on the surface are ladled out. - Then by slow degrees a proportion of "dryers" is added--usually equal - weights of litharge and minium being used to the extent of 3% of the - charge of oil; and with these a small proportion of umber is generally - thrown in. After the addition of the dryers the boiling is continued - two or three hours; the fire is then suddenly withdrawn, and the oil - is left covered up in the boiler for ten hours or more. Before sending - out, it is usually stored in settling tanks for a few weeks, during - which time the uncombined dryers settle at the bottom as "foots." - Besides the dryers already mentioned, lead acetate, manganese borate, - manganese dioxide, zinc sulphate and other bodies are used. - - Linseed oil is also the principal ingredient in printing and - lithographic inks. The oil for ink-making is prepared by heating it in - an iron pot up to the point where it either takes fire spontaneously - or can be ignited with any flaming substance. After the oil has been - allowed to burn for some time according to the consistence of the - varnish desired, the pot is covered over, and the product when cooled - forms a viscid tenacious substance which in its most concentrated form - may be drawn into threads. By boiling this varnish with dilute nitric - acid vapours of acrolein are given off, and the substance gradually - becomes a solid non-adhesive mass the same as the ultimate oxidation - product of both raw and boiled oil. - - Linseed oil is subject to various falsifications, chiefly through the - addition of cotton-seed, niger-seed and hemp-seed oils; and rosin oil - and mineral oils also are not infrequently added. Except by smell, by - change of specific gravity, and by deterioration of drying properties, - these adulterations are difficult to detect. - - - - -LINSTOCK (adapted from the Dutch _lontstok_, i.e. "matchstick," from -_lont_, a match, _stok_, a stick; the word is sometimes erroneously -spelled "lintstock" from a supposed derivation from "lint" in the sense -of tinder), a kind of torch made of a stout stick a yard in length, with -a fork at one end to hold a lighted match, and a point at the other to -stick in the ground. "Linstocks" were used for discharging cannon in the -early days of artillery. - - - - -LINT (in M. Eng. _linnet_, probably through Fr. _linette_, from _lin_, -the flax-plant; cf. "line"), properly the flax-plant, now only in Scots -dialect; hence the application of such expressions as "lint-haired," -"lint white locks" to flaxen hair. It is also the term applied to the -flax when prepared for spinning, and to the waste material left over -which was used for tinder. "Lint" is still the name given to a specially -prepared material for dressing wounds, made soft and fluffy by scraping -or ravelling linen cloth. - - - - -LINTEL (O. Fr. _lintel_, mod. _linteau_, from Late Lat. _limitellum_, -_limes_, boundary, confused in sense with _limen_, threshold; the Latin -name is _supercilium_, Ital. _soprasogli_, and Ger. _Sturz_), in -architecture, a horizontal piece of stone or timber over a doorway or -opening, provided to carry the superstructure. In order to relieve the -lintel from too great a pressure a "discharging arch" is generally built -over it. - - - - -LINTH, or LIMMAT, a river of Switzerland, one of the tributaries of the -Aar. It rises in the glaciers of the Todi range, and has cut out a deep -bed which forms the Grossthal that comprises the greater portion of the -canton of Glarus. A little below the town of Glarus the river, keeping -its northerly direction, runs through the alluvial plain which it has -formed, towards the Walensee and the Lake of Zurich. But between the -Lake of Zurich and the Walensee the huge desolate alluvial plain grew -ever in size, while great damage was done by the river, which overflowed -its bed and the dykes built to protect the region near it. The Swiss -diet decided in 1804 to undertake the "correction" of this turbulent -stream. The necessary works were begun in 1807 under the supervision of -Hans Conrad Escher of Zurich (1767-1823). The first portion of the -undertaking was completed in 1811, and received the name of the "Escher -canal," the river being thus diverted into the Walensee. The second -portion, known as the "Linth canal," regulated the course of the river -between the Walensee and the Lake of Zurich and was completed in 1816. -Many improvements and extra protective works were carried out after -1816, and it was estimated that the total cost of this great engineering -undertaking from 1807 to 1902 amounted to about L200,000, the date for -the completion of the work being 1911. To commemorate the efforts of -Escher, the Swiss diet in 1823 (after his death) decided that his male -descendants should bear the name of "Escher von der Linth." On issuing -from the Lake of Zurich the Linth alters its name to that of "Limmat," -it does not appear wherefore, and, keeping the north-westerly direction -it had taken from the Walensee, joins the Aar a little way below Brugg, -and just below the junction of the Reuss with the Aar. (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LINTON, ELIZA LYNN (1822-1898), English novelist, daughter of the Rev. -J. Lynn, vicar of Crosthwaite, in Cumberland, was born at Keswick on the -10th of February 1822. She early manifested great independence of -character, and in great measure educated herself from the stores of her -father's library. Coming to London about 1845 with a large stock of -miscellaneous erudition, she turned this to account in her first novels, -_Azeth the Egyptian_ (1846) and _Amymone_ (1848), a romance of the days -of Pericles. Her next story, _Realities_, a tale of modern life (1851), -was not successful, and for several years she seemed to have abandoned -fiction. When, in 1865, she reappeared with _Grasp your Nettle_, it was -as an expert in a new style of novel-writing--stirring, fluent, -ably-constructed stories, retaining the attention throughout, but -affording little to reflect upon or to remember. Measured by their -immediate success, they gave her an honourable position among the -writers of her day, and secure of an audience, she continued to write -with vigour nearly until her death. _Lizzie Lorton of Greyrigg_ (1866), -_Patricia Kemball_ (1874), _The Atonement of Leam Dundas_ (1877) are -among the best examples of this more mechanical side of her talent, to -which there were notable exceptions in _Joshua Davidson_ (1872), a bold -but not irreverent adaptation of the story of the Carpenter of Nazareth -to that of the French Commune; and _Christopher Kirkland_, a veiled -autobiography (1885). Mrs Linton was a practised and constant writer in -the journals of the day; her articles on the "Girl of the Period" in the -_Saturday Review_ produced a great sensation, and she was a constant -contributor to the _St James's Gazette_, the _Daily News_ and other -leading newspapers. Many of her detached essays have been collected. In -1858 she married W. J. Linton, the engraver, but the union was soon -terminated by mutual consent; she nevertheless brought up one of Mr -Linton's daughters by a former marriage. A few years before her death -she retired to Malvern. She died in London on the 14th of July 1898. - - Her reminiscences appeared after her death under the title of _My - Literary Life_ (1899) and her life has been written by G. S. Layard - (1901). - - - - -LINTON, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1897), English wood-engraver, republican and -author, was born in London. He was educated at Stratford, and in his -sixteenth year was apprenticed to the wood-engraver G. W. Bonner. His -earliest known work is to be found in Martin and Westall's _Pictorial -Illustrations of the Bible_ (1833). He rapidly rose to a place amongst -the foremost wood-engravers of the time. After working as a journeyman -engraver with two or three firms, losing his money over a cheap -political library called the "National," and writing a life of Thomas -Paine, he went into partnership (1842) with John Orrin Smith. The firm -was immediately employed on the _Illustrated London News_, just then -projected. The following year Orrin Smith died, and Linton, who had -married a sister of Thomas Wade, editor of _Bell's Weekly Messenger_, -found himself in sole charge of a business upon which two families were -dependent. For years he had concerned himself with the social and -European political problems of the time, and was now actively engaged in -the republican propaganda. In 1844 he took a prominent part in exposing -the violation by the English post-office of Mazzini's correspondence. -This led to a friendship with the Italian revolutionist, and Linton -threw himself with ardour into European politics. He carried the first -congratulatory address of English workmen to the French Provisional -Government in 1848. He edited a twopenny weekly paper, _The Cause of the -People_, published in the Isle of Man, and he wrote political verses for -the Dublin _Nation_, signed "Spartacus." He helped to found the -"International League" of patriots, and, in 1850, with G. H. Lewes and -Thornton Hunt, started _The Leader_, an organ which, however, did not -satisfy his advanced republicanism, and from which he soon withdrew. The -same year he wrote a series of articles propounding the views of Mazzini -in _The Red Republican_. In 1852 he took up his residence at Brantwood, -which he afterwards sold to John Ruskin, and from there issued _The -English Republic_, first in the form of weekly tracts and afterwards as -a monthly magazine--"a useful exponent of republican principles, a -faithful record of republican progress throughout the world; an organ of -propagandism and a medium of communication for the active republicans in -England." Most of the paper, which never paid its way and was abandoned -in 1855, was written by himself. In 1852 he also printed for private -circulation an anonymous volume of poems entitled _The Plaint of -Freedom_. After the failure of his paper he returned to his proper work -of wood-engraving. In 1857 his wife died, and in the following year he -married Eliza Lynn (afterwards known as Mrs Lynn Linton) and returned to -London. In 1864 he retired to Brantwood, his wife remaining in London. -In 1867, pressed by financial difficulties, he determined to try his -fortune in America, and finally separated from his wife, with whom, -however, he always corresponded affectionately. With his children he -settled at Appledore, New Haven, Connecticut, where he set up a -printing-press. Here he wrote _Practical Hints on Wood-Engraving_ -(1879), _James Watson, a Memoir of Chartist Times_ (1879), _A History of -Wood-Engraving in America_ (1882), _Wood-Engraving, a Manual of -Instruction_ (1884), _The Masters of Wood-Engraving_, for which he made -two journeys to England (1890), _The Life of Whittier_ (1893), and -_Memories_, an autobiography (1895). He died at New Haven on the 29th of -December 1897. Linton was a singularly gifted man, who, in the words of -his wife, if he had not bitten the Dead Sea apple of impracticable -politics, would have risen higher in the world of both art and letters. -As an engraver on wood he reached the highest point of execution in his -own line. He carried on the tradition of Bewick, fought for intelligent -as against merely manipulative excellence in the use of the graver, and -championed the use of the "white line" as well as of the black, -believing with Ruskin that the former was the truer and more telling -basis of aesthetic expression in the wood-block printed upon paper. - - See W. J. Linton, _Memories_; F. G. Kitton, article on "Linton" in - _English Illustrated Magazine_ (April 1891); G. S. Layard, _Life of - Mrs Lynn Linton_ (1901). (G. S. L.) - - - - -LINTOT, BARNABY BERNARD (1675-1736), English publisher, was born at -Southwater, Sussex, on the 1st of December 1675, and started business as -a publisher in London about 1698. He published for many of the leading -writers of the day, notably Vanbrugh, Steele, Gay and Pope. The latter's -_Rape of the Lock_ in its original form was first published in _Lintot's -Miscellany_, and Lintot subsequently issued Pope's translation of the -_Iliad_ and the joint translation of the _Odyssey_ by Pope, Fenton and -Broome. Pope quarrelled with Lintot with regard to the supply of free -copies of the latter translation to the author's subscribers, and in -1728 satirized the publisher in the _Dunciad_, and in 1735 in the -_Prologue to the Satires_, though he does not appear to have had any -serious grievance. Lintot died on the 3rd of February 1736. - - - - -LINUS, one of the saints of the Gregorian canon, whose festival is -celebrated on the 23rd of September. All that can be said with certainty -about him is that his name appears at the head of all the lists of the -bishops of Rome. Irenaeus (_Adv. Haer._ iii. 3. 3) identifies him with -the Linus mentioned by St Paul in 2 Tim. iv. 21. According to the _Liber -Pontificalis_, Linus suffered martyrdom, and was buried in the Vatican. -In the 17th century an inscription was found near the confession of St -Peter, which was believed to contain the name Linus; but it is not -certain that this epitaph has been read correctly or completely. The -apocryphal Latin account of the death of the apostles Peter and Paul is -falsely attributed to Linus. - - See _Acta Sanctorum_, Septembris, vi. 539-545; C. de Smedt, - _Dissertatione selectae in primam aetatem hist. eccl._ pp. 300-312 - (Ghent, 1876); L. Duchesne's edition of the _Liber Pontificalis_, i. - 121 (Paris, 1886); R. A. Lipsius, _Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten_, - ii. 85-96 (Brunswick, 1883-1890); J. B. de Rossi, _Bullettino di - archeologia cristiana_, p. 50 (1864). (H. De.) - - - - -LINUS, one of a numerous class of heroic figures in Greek legend, of -which other examples are found in Hyacinthus and Adonis. The connected -legend is always of the same character: a beautiful youth, fond of -hunting and rural life, the favourite of some god or goddess, suddenly -perishes by a terrible death. In many cases the religious background of -the legend is preserved by the annual ceremonial that commemorated it. -At Argos this religious character of the Linus myth was best preserved: -the secret child of Psamathe by the god Apollo, Linus is exposed, nursed -by sheep and torn in pieces by sheep-dogs. Every year at the festival -Arnis or Cynophontis, the women of Argos mourned for Linus and -propitiated Apollo, who in revenge for his child's death had sent a -female monster (Poine), which tore the children from their mothers' -arms. Lambs were sacrificed, all dogs found running loose were killed, -and women and children raised a lament for Linus and Psamathe (Pausanias -i. 43. 7; Conon, _Narrat._ 19). In the Theban version, Linus, the son of -Amphimarus and the muse Urania, was a famous musician, inventor of the -Linus song, who was said to have been slain by Apollo, because he had -challenged him to a contest (Pausanias ix. 29. 6). A later story makes -him the teacher of Heracles, by whom he was killed because he had -rebuked his pupil for stupidity (Apollodorus ii. 4. 9). On Mount Helicon -there was a grotto containing his statue, to which sacrifice was offered -every year before the sacrifices to the Muses. From being the inventor -of musical methods, he was finally transformed by later writers into a -composer of prophecies and legends. He was also said to have adapted the -Phoenician letters introduced by Cadmus to the Greek language. It is -generally agreed that Linus and Ailinus are of Semitic origin, derived -from the words _ai lanu_ (woe to us), which formed the burden of the -Adonis and similar songs popular in the East. The Linus song is -mentioned in Homer; the tragedians often use the word [Greek: ailinos] -as the refrain in mournful songs, and Euripides calls the custom a -Phrygian one. Linus, originally the personification of the song of -lamentation, becomes, like Adonis, Maneros, Narcissus, the -representative of the tender life of nature and of the vegetation -destroyed by the fiery heat of the dog-star. - - The chief work on the subject is H. Brugsch, _Die Adonisklage und das - Linoslied_ (1852); see also article in Roscher's _Lexikon der - Mythologie_; J. G. Frazer, _Golden Bough_ (ii. 224, 253), where, the - identity of Linus with Adonis (possibly a corn-spirit) being assumed, - the lament is explained as the lamentation of the reapers over the - dead corn-spirit; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldculte_, ii. 281. - - - - -LINZ, capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland of Upper Austria, and -see of a bishop, 117 m. W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 58,778. It -lies on the right bank of the Danube and is connected by an iron bridge, -308 yds. long, with the market-town of Urfahr (pop. 12,827) on the -opposite bank. Linz possesses two cathedrals, one built in 1669-1682 in -rococo style, and another in early Gothic style, begun in 1862. In the -Capuchin church is the tomb of Count Raimondo Montecucculi, who died at -Linz in 1680. The museum Francisco-Carolinum, founded in 1833 and -reconstructed in 1895, contains several important collections relating -to the history of Upper Austria. In the Franz Josef-Platz stands a -marble monument, known as Trinity Column, erected by the emperor Charles -VI. in 1723, commemorating the triple deliverance of Linz from war, -fire, and pestilence. The principal manufactories are of tobacco, -boat-building, agricultural implements, foundries and cloth factories. -Being an important railway junction and a port of the Danube, Linz has a -very active transit trade. - -Linz is believed to stand on the site of the Roman station _Lentia_. The -name of Linz appears in documents for the first time in 799 and it -received municipal rights in 1324. In 1490 it became the capital of the -province above the Enns. It successfully resisted the attacks of the -insurgent peasants under Stephen Fadinger on the 21st and 22nd of July -1626, but its suburbs were laid in ashes. During the siege of Vienna in -1683, the castle of Linz was the residence of Leopold I. In 1741, during -the War of the Austrian Succession, Linz was taken by the Bavarians, but -was recovered by the Austrians in the following year. The bishopric was -established in 1784. - - See F. Krackowitzer, _Die Donaustadt Linz_ (Linz, 1901). - - - - -LION (Lat. _leo_, _leonis_; Gr. [Greek: leon]). From the earliest -historic times few animals have been better known to man than the lion. -Its habitat made it familiar to all the races among whom human -civilization took its origin. The literature of the ancient Hebrews -abounds in allusions to the lion; and the almost incredible numbers -stated to have been provided for exhibition and destruction in the Roman -amphitheatres (as many as six hundred on a single occasion by Pompey, -for example) show how abundant these animals must have been within -accessible distance of Rome. - -Even within the historic period the geographical range of the lion -covered the whole of Africa, the south of Asia, including Syria, Arabia, -Asia Minor, Persia and the greater part of northern and central India. -Professor A. B. Meyer, director of the zoological museum at Dresden, has -published an article on the alleged existence of the lion in historical -times in Greece, a translation of which appears in the _Report_ of the -Smithsonian Institution for 1905. Meyer is of opinion that the writer of -the _Iliad_ was probably acquainted with the lion, but this does not -prove its former existence in Greece. The accounts given by Herodotus -and Aristotle merely go to show that about 500 B.C. lions existed in -some part of eastern Europe. The Greek name for the lion is very -ancient, and this suggests, although by no means demonstrates, that it -refers to an animal indigenous to the country. Although the evidence is -not decisive, it seems probable that lions did exist in Greece at the -time of Herodotus; and it is quite possible that the representation of a -lion-chase incised on a Mycenean dagger may have been taken from life. -In prehistoric times the lion was spread over the greater part of -Europe; and if, as is very probable, the so-called _Felis atrox_ be -inseparable, its range also included the greater part of North America. - -At the present day the lion is found throughout Africa (save in places -where it has been exterminated by man) and in Mesopotamia, Persia, and -some parts of north-west India. According to Dr W. T. Blanford, lions -are still numerous in the reedy swamps, bordering the Tigris and -Euphrates, and also occur on the west flanks of the Zagros mountains and -the oak-clad ranges near Shiraz, to which they are attracted by the -herds of swine which feed on the acorns. The lion nowhere exists in the -table-land of Persia, nor is it found in Baluchistan. In India it is -confined to the province of Kathiawar in Gujerat, though within the 19th -century it extended through the north-west parts of Hindustan, from -Bahawalpur and Sind to at least the Jumna (about Delhi) southward as far -as Khandesh, and in central India through the Sagur and Narbuda -territories, Bundelkund, and as far east as Palamau. It was extirpated -in Hariana about 1824. One was killed at Rhyli, in the Dumaoh district, -Sagur and Narbuda territories, so late as in the cold season of -1847-1848; and about the same time a few still remained in the valley of -the Sind river in Kotah, central India. - -[Illustration: After a Drawing by Woll in Elliot's Monograph of the -_Felidae_. - -FIG. 1.--Lion and Lioness (_Felis leo_).] - -The variations in external characters which lions present, especially in -the colour and the amount of mane, as well as in the general colour of -the fur, indicate local races, to which special names have been given; -the Indian lion being _F. leo gujratensis_. It is noteworthy, however, -that, according to Mr F. C. Selous, in South Africa the black-maned lion -and others with yellow scanty manes are found, not only in the same -locality, but even among individuals of the same parentage. - -The lion belongs to the genus _Felis_ of Linnaeus (for the characters -and position of which see CARNIVORA), and differs from the tiger and -leopard in its uniform colouring, and from all the other _Felidae_ in -the hair of the top of the head, chin and neck, as far back as the -shoulder, being not only much longer, but also differently disposed from -the hair elsewhere, being erect or directed forwards, and so -constituting the characteristic ornament called the mane. There is also -a tuft of elongated hairs at the end of the tail, one upon each elbow, -and in most lions a copious fringe along the middle line of the under -surface of the body, wanting, however, in some examples. These -characters are, however, peculiar to the adults of the male sex; and -even as regards coloration young lions show indications of the darker -stripes and mottlings so characteristic of the greater number of the -members of the genus. The usual colour of the adult is yellowish-brown, -but it may vary from a deep red or chestnut brown to an almost silvery -grey. The mane, as well as the long hair of the other parts of the body, -sometimes scarcely differs from the general colour, but is usually -darker and not unfrequently nearly black. The mane begins to grow when -the animal is about three years old, and is fully developed at five or -six. - -In size the lion is only equalled or exceeded by the tiger among -existing _Felidae_; and though both species present great variations, -the largest specimens of the latter appear to surpass the largest lions. -A full-sized South African lion, according to Selous, measures slightly -less than 10 ft. from nose to tip of tail, following the curves of the -body. Sir Cornwallis Harris gives 10 ft. 6 in., of which the tail -occupies 3 ft. The lioness is about a foot less. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Front View of Skull of Lion.] - - The internal structure of the lion, except in slight details, - resembles that of other _Felidae_, the whole organization being that - of an animal adapted for an active, predaceous existence. The teeth - especially exemplify the carnivorous type in its highest condition of - development. The most important function they have to perform, that of - seizing and holding firmly animals of considerable size and strength, - violently struggling for life, is provided for by the great, - sharp-pointed and sharp-edged canines, placed wide apart at the angles - of the mouth, the incisors between them being greatly reduced in size - and kept back nearly to the same level, so as not to interfere with - their action. The jaws are short and strong, and the width of the - zygomatic arches, and great development of the bony ridges on the - skull, give ample space for the attachment of the powerful muscles by - which they are closed. In the cheek-teeth the sectorial or - scissor-like cutting function is developed at the expense of the - tubercular or grinding, there being only one rudimentary tooth of the - latter form in the upper jaw, and none in the lower. They are, - however, sufficiently strong to break bones of large size. The tongue - is long and flat, and remarkable for the development of the papillae - of the anterior part of the dorsal surface, which (except near the - edge) are modified so as to resemble long, compressed, recurved, horny - spines or claws, which, near the middle line, attain the length of - one-fifth of an inch. They give the part of the tongue on which they - occur the appearance and feel of a coarse rasp. The feet are furnished - with round soft pads or cushions covered with thick, naked skin, one - on the under surface of each of the principal toes, and one larger one - of trilobed form, behind these, under the lower ends of the metacarpal - and metatarsal bones, which are placed nearly vertically in ordinary - progression. The claws are large, strongly compressed, sharp, and - exhibit the retractile condition in the highest degree, being drawn - backwards and upwards into a sheath by the action of an elastic - ligament so long as the foot is in a state of repose, but exerted by - muscular action when the animal strikes its prey. - -The lion lives chiefly in sandy plains and rocky places interspersed -with dense thorn-thickets, or frequents the low bushes and tall rank -grass and reeds that grow along the sides of streams and near the -springs where it lies in wait for the larger herbivorous animals on -which it feeds. Although occasionally seen abroad during the day, -especially in wild and desolate regions, where it is subject to little -molestation, the night is, as in the case of so many other predaceous -animals, the period of its greatest activity. It is then that its -characteristic roar is chiefly heard, as thus graphically described by -Gordon-Cumming:-- - - "One of the most striking things connected with the lion is his voice, - which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It consists at times - of a low deep moaning, repeated five or six times, ending in faintly - audible sighs; at other times he startles the forest with loud, - deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated in quick succession, each - increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his voice dies - away in five or six low muffled sounds very much resembling distant - thunder. At times, and not unfrequently, a troop may be heard, roaring - in concert, one assuming the lead, and two, three or four more - regularly taking up their parts, like persons singing a catch. Like - our Scottish stags at the rutting season, they roar loudest in cold - frosty nights; but on no occasions are their voices to be heard in - such perfection, or so intensely powerful, as when two or three troops - of strange lions approach a fountain to drink at the same time. When - this occurs, every member of each troop sounds a bold roar of defiance - at the opposite parties; and when one roars, all roar together, and - each seems to vie with his comrades in the intensity and power of his - voice. The power and grandeur of these nocturnal concerts is - inconceivably striking and pleasing to the hunter's ear." - -"The usual pace of a lion," C. J. Andersson says, "is a walk, and, -though apparently rather slow, yet, from the great length of his body, -he is able to get over a good deal of ground in a short time. -Occasionally he trots, when his speed is not inconsiderable. His -gallop--or rather succession of bounds--is, for a short distance, very -fast--nearly or quite equal to that of a horse." - -"The lion, as with other members of the feline family," the same writer -says, "seldom attacks his prey openly, unless compelled by extreme -hunger. For the most part he steals upon it in the manner of a cat, or -ambushes himself near to the water or a pathway frequented by game. At -such times he lies crouched upon his belly in a thicket until the animal -approaches sufficiently near, when, with one prodigious bound, he pounces -upon it. In most cases he is successful, but should his intended victim -escape, as at times happens, from his having miscalculated the distance, -he may make a second or even a third bound, which, however, usually prove -fruitless, or he returns disconcerted to his hiding-place, there to wait -for another opportunity." His food consists of all the larger herbivorous -animals of the country in which he resides--buffaloes, antelopes, zebras, -giraffes or even young elephants or rhinoceroses. In cultivated districts -cattle, sheep, and even human inhabitants are never safe from his -nocturnal ravages. He appears, however, as a general rule, only to kill -when hungry or attacked, and not for the mere pleasure of killing, as -with some other carnivorous animals. He, moreover, by no means limits -himself to animals of his own killing, but, according to Selous, often -prefers eating game that has been killed by man, even when not very -fresh, to taking the trouble to catch an animal himself. - -The lion appears to be monogamous, a single male and female continuing -attached to each other irrespectively of the pairing season. At all -events the lion remains with the lioness while the cubs are young and -helpless, and assists in providing her and them with food, and in -educating them in the art of providing for themselves. The number of -cubs at a birth is from two to four, usually three. They are said to -remain with their parents till they are about three years old. - -Though not strictly gregarious, lions appear to be sociable towards -their own species, and often are found in small troops sometimes -consisting of a pair of old ones with their nearly full-grown cubs, but -occasionally of adults of the same sex; and there seems to be evidence -that several lions will associate for the purpose of hunting upon a -preconcerted plan. Their natural ferocity and powerful armature are -sometimes turned upon one another; combats, often mortal, occur among -male lions under the influence of jealousy; and Andersson relates an -instance of a quarrel between a hungry lion and lioness over the carcase -of an antelope which they had just killed, and which did not seem -sufficient for the appetite of both, ending in the lion not only -killing, but devouring his mate. Old lions, whose teeth have become -injured with constant wear, become "man-eaters," finding their easiest -means of obtaining a subsistence in lurking in the neighbourhood of -villages, and dashing into the tents at night and carrying off one of -the sleeping inmates. Lions never climb. - -With regard to the character of the lion, those who have had -opportunities of observing it in its native haunts differ greatly. The -accounts of early writers as to its courage, nobility and magnanimity -have led to a reaction, causing some modern authors to accuse it of -cowardice and meanness. Livingstone goes so far as to say, "nothing that -I ever learned of the lion could lead me to attribute to it either the -ferocious or noble character ascribed to it elsewhere," and he adds that -its roar is not distinguishable from that of the ostrich. These different -estimates depend to a great extent upon the particular standard of the -writer, and also upon the circumstance that lions, like other animals, -show considerable individual differences in character, and behave -differently under varying circumstances. (W. H. F.; R. L.*) - - - - -LIONNE, HUGUES DE (1611-1671), French statesman, was born at Grenoble on -the 11th of October 1611, of an old family of Dauphine. Early trained -for diplomacy, his remarkable abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal -Mazarin, who sent him as secretary of the French embassy to the congress -of Munster, and, in 1642, on a mission to the pope. In 1646 he became -secretary to the queen regent; in 1653 obtained high office in the -king's household; and in 1654 was ambassador extraordinary at the -election of Pope Alexander VII. He was instrumental in forming the -league of the Rhine, by which Austria was cut off from the Spanish -Netherlands, and, as minister of state, was associated with Mazarin in -the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), which secured the marriage of Louis -XIV. to the infanta Maria Theresa. At the cardinal's dying request he -was appointed his successor in foreign affairs, and, for the next ten -years, continued to direct French foreign policy. Among his most -important diplomatic successes were the treaty of Breda (1667), the -treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) and the sale of Dunkirk. He died in -Paris on the 1st of September 1671, leaving memoirs. He was a man of -pleasure, but his natural indolence gave place to an unflagging energy -when the occasion demanded it; and, in an age of great ministers, his -consummate statesmanship placed him in the front rank. - - See Ulysse Chevalier, _Lettres inedites de Hugues de Lionne ... - precedees d'une notice historique sur la famille de Lionne_ (Valence, - 1879); J. Valfrey, _La diplomatie francaise au XVIII^e siecle: - Hugues de Lionne, ses ambassadeurs_ (2 vols., Paris, 1877-1881). For - further works see Rochas, _Biogr. du Dauphine_ (Paris, 1860), tome ii. - p. 87. - - - - -LIOTARD, JEAN ETIENNE (1702-1789), French painter, was born at Geneva. -He began his studies under Professor Gardelle and Petitot, whose enamels -and miniatures he copied with considerable skill. He went to Paris in -1725, studying under J. B. Masse and F. le Moyne, on whose -recommendation he was taken to Naples by the Marquis Puysieux. In 1735 -he was in Rome, painting the portraits of Pope Clement XII. and several -cardinals. Three years later he accompanied Lord Duncannon to -Constantinople, whence he went to Vienna in 1742 to paint the portraits -of the imperial family. His eccentric adoption of oriental costume -secured him the nickname of "the Turkish painter." Still under -distinguished patronage he returned to Paris in 1744, visited England, -where he painted the princess of Wales in 1753, and went to Holland in -1756, where, in the following year, he married Marie Fargues. Another -visit to England followed in 1772, and in the next two years his name -figures among the Royal Academy exhibitors. He returned to his native -town in 1776 and died at Geneva in 1789. - -Liotard was an artist of great versatility, and though his fame depends -largely on his graceful and delicate pastel drawings, of which "La -Liseuse," the "Chocolate Girl," and "La Belle Lyonnaise" at the Dresden -Gallery are delightful examples, he achieved distinction by his enamels, -copper-plate engravings and glass painting. He also wrote a _Treatise on -the Art of Painting_, and was an expert collector of paintings by the -old masters. Many of the masterpieces he had acquired were sold by him -at high prices on his second visit to England. The museums of Amsterdam, -Berne, and Geneva are particularly rich in examples of his paintings and -pastel drawings. A picture of a Turk seated is at the Victoria and -Albert Museum, while the British Museum owns two of his drawings. The -Louvre has, besides twenty-two drawings, a portrait of General Herault -and a portrait of the artist is to be found at the Sala dei pittori, in -the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. - - See _La Vie et les oeuvres de Jean Etienne Liotard (1702-1789), etude - biographique et iconographique_, by E. Humbert, A. Revilliod, and J. - W. R. Tilanus (Amsterdam, 1897). - - - - -LIP (a word common in various forms, to Teutonic languages, cf Ger. -_Lippe_, Dan. _laebe_; Lat. _labium_ is cognate), one of the two fleshy -protuberant edges of the mouth in man and other animals, hence -transferred to such objects as resemble a lip, the edge of a circular or -other opening, as of a shell, or of a wound, or of any fissure in -anatomy and zoology; in this last usage the Latin _labium_ is more -usually employed. It is also used of any projecting edge, as in -coal-mining, &c. Many figurative uses are derived from the connexion -with the mouth as the organ of speech. In architecture "lip moulding" is -a term given to a moulding employed in the Perpendicular period, from -its resemblance to an overhanging lip. It is often found in base -mouldings, and is not confined to England, there being similar examples -in France and Italy. - - - - -LIPA, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, -about 90 m. S. by E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 37,934. Lipa is on high -ground at the intersection of old military roads, is noted for its cool -and healthy climate, and is one of the largest and wealthiest inland -towns of the archipelago. Many of its houses have two storeys above the -ground-floor, and its church and convent together form a very large -building. The surrounding country is very fertile, producing sugar-cane, -Indian corn, cacao, tobacco and indigo. The cultivation of coffee was -begun here on a large scale about the middle of the 19th century and was -increased gradually until 1889-1890 when an insect pest destroyed the -trees. The language of Lipa is Tagalog. - - - - -LIPAN, a tribe of North American Indians of Athabascan stock. Their -former range was central Texas. Later they were driven into Mexico. They -were pure nomads, lived entirely by hunting, and were perhaps the most -daring of the Texas Indians. A few survivors were brought back from -Mexico in 1905 and placed on a reservation in New Mexico. - - - - -LIPARI ISLANDS (anc. [Greek: Aiolou nesoi], or _Aeoliae Insulae_), a -group of volcanic islands N. of the eastern portion of Sicily. They are -seven in number--Lipari (_Lipara_, pop. in 1901, 15,290), Stromboli -(_Strongyle_), Salina (_Didyme_, pop. in 1901, 4934), Filicuri -(_Phoenicusa_), Alicuri (_Ericusa_), Vulcano (_Hiera_, _Therasia_ or -_Thermissa_), the mythical abode of Hephaestus, and Panaria -(_Euonymus_). The island of Aiolie, the home of Aiolos, lord of the -winds, which Ulysses twice visited in his wanderings, has generally been -identified with one of this group. A colony of Cnidians and Rhodians was -established on Lipara in 580-577 B.C.[1] The inhabitants were allied -with the Syracusans, and were attacked by the Athenian fleet in 427 -B.C., and by the Carthaginians in 397 B.C., while Agathocles plundered a -temple on Lipara in 301 B.C. During the Punic wars the islands were a -Carthaginian naval station of some importance until the Romans took -possession of them in 252 B.C. Sextus Pompeius also used them as a naval -base. Under the Empire the islands served as a place of banishment for -political prisoners. In the middle ages they frequently changed hands. -The island of Lipari contains the chief town (population in 1901, 5855), -which bears the same name and had municipal rights in Roman times. It is -the seat of a bishop. It is fertile and contains sulphur springs and -vapour baths, which were known and used in ancient times. Pumicestone is -exported. - -Stromboli, 22 m. N.E. of Lipari, is a constantly active volcano, -ejecting gas and lava at brief intervals, and always visible at night. -Salina, 3 m. N.W. of Lipari, consisting of the cones of two extinct -volcanoes, that on the S.E., Monte Salvatore (3155 ft.), being the -highest point in the islands, is the most fertile of the whole group and -produces good Malmsey wine: it takes its name from the salt-works on the -south coast. Vulcano, 1/2 m. S. of Lipari, contains a still smoking -crater. Sulphur works were started in 1874, have since been abandoned. - - See Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria, _Die Liparischen Inseln_, 8 - vols. (for private circulation) (Prague, 1893 seqq.). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Greek coins of the Lipari Islands are preserved in the museum at - Cefalu. - - - - -LIPETSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, 108 m. by rail -W. of the city of Tambov, on the right bank of the river Voronezh. Pop. -(1897) 16,353. The town is built of wood and the streets are unpaved. -There are sugar, tallow, and leather works, and distilleries, and an -active trade in horses, cattle, tallow, skins, honey and timber. The -Lipetsk mineral springs (chalybeate) came into repute in the time of -Peter the Great and attract a good many visitors. - - - - -LIPPE, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. It rises -near Lippspringe under the western declivity of the Teutoburger Wald, -and, after being joined by the Alme, the Pader and the Ahse on the left, -and by the Stever on the right, flows into the Rhine near Wesel, after a -course of 154 m. It is navigable downwards from Lippstadt, for boats and -barges, by the aid of twelve locks, drawing less than 4 ft. of water. -The river is important for the transport facilities it affords to the -rich agricultural districts of Westphalia. - - - - -LIPPE, a principality of Germany and constituent state of the German -empire, bounded N.W., W. and S. by the Prussian province of Westphalia -and N.E. and E. by the Prussian provinces of Hanover and Hesse-Nassau -and the principality of Waldeck-Pyrmont. It also possesses three small -enclaves--Kappel and Lipperode in Westphalia and Grevenhagen near -Hoxter. The area is 469 sq. m., and the population (1905) 145,610, -showing a density of 125 to the sq. m. The greater part of the surface -is hilly, and in the S. and W., where the Teutoburger Wald practically -forms its physical boundary, mountainous. The chief rivers are the -Weser, which crosses the north extremity of the principality, and its -affluents, the Werre, Exter, Kalle and Emmer. The Lippe, which gives its -name to the country, is a purely Westphalian river and does not touch -the principality at any point. The forests of Lippe, among the finest in -Germany, produce abundance of excellent timber. They occupy 28% of the -whole area, and consist mostly of deciduous trees, beech preponderating. -The valleys contain a considerable amount of good arable land, the -tillage of which employs the greater part of the inhabitants. Small -farms, the larger proportion of which are under 2(1/2) acres, are -numerous, and their yield shows a high degree of prosperity among the -peasant farmers. The principal crops are potatoes, beetroot (for sugar), -hay, rye, oats, wheat and barley. Cattle, sheep and swine are also -reared, and the "Senner" breed of horses, in the stud farm at Lopshorn, -is celebrated. The industries are small and consist mainly in the -manufacture of starch, paper, sugar, tobacco, and in weaving and -brewing. Lemgo is famous for its meerschaum pipes and Salzuflen for its -brine-springs, producing annually about 1500 tons of salt, which is -mostly exported. Each year, in spring, about 15,000 brickmakers leave -the principality and journey to other countries, Hungary, Sweden and -Russia, to return home in the late autumn. - -The roads are well laid and kept in good repair. A railway intersects -the country from Herford (on the Cologne-Hanover main line) to -Altenbeken; and another from Bielefeld to Hameln traverses it from W. to -E. More than 95% of the population in 1905 were Protestants. Education -is provided for by two gymnasia and numerous other efficient schools. -The principality contains seven small towns, the chief of which are -Detmold, the seat of government, Lemgo, Horn and Blomberg. The present -constitution was granted in 1836, but it was altered in 1867 and again -in 1876. It provides for a representative chamber of twenty-one members, -whose functions are mainly consultative. For electoral purposes the -population is divided into three classes, rated according to taxation, -each of which returns seven members. The courts of law are centred at -Detmold, whence an appeal lies to the court of appeal at Celle in the -Prussian province of Hanover. The estimated revenue in 1909 was L113,000 -and the expenditure L116,000. The public debt in 1908 was L64,000. Lippe -has one vote in the German Reichstag, and also one vote in the -Bundesrat, or federal council. Its military forces form a battalion of -the 6th Westphalian infantry. - -_History._--The present principality of Lippe was inhabited in early -times by the Cherusii, whose leader Arminius (Hermann) annihilated in -A.D. 9 the legions of Varus in the Teutoburger Wald. It was afterwards -occupied by the Saxons and was subdued by Charlemagne. The founder of -the present reigning family, one of the most ancient in Germany, was -Bernard I. (1113-1144), who received a grant of the territory from the -emperor Lothair, and assumed the title of lord of Lippe (_edler Herr von -Lippe_). He was descended from a certain Hoold who flourished about 950. -Bernard's successors inherited or obtained several counties, and one of -them, Simon III. (d. 1410), introduced the principles of primogeniture. -Under Simon V. (d. 1536), who was the first to style himself count, the -Reformation was introduced into the country. His grandson, Simon VI. -(1555-1613), is the ancestor of both lines of the princes of Lippe. In -1613 the country, as it then existed, was divided among his three sons, -the lines founded by two of whom still exist, while the third (Brake) -became extinct in 1709. Lippe proper was the patrimony of the eldest -son, Simon VII. (1587-1627), upon whose descendant Frederick William -Leopold (d. 1802) the title of prince of the empire was bestowed in -1789, a dignity already conferred, though not confirmed, in 1720. -Philip, the youngest son of Simon VI., received but a scanty part of his -father's possessions, but in 1640 he inherited a large part of the -countship of Schaumburg, including Buckeburg, and adopted the title of -count of Schaumburg-Lippe. The ruler of this territory became a -sovereign prince in 1807. Simon VII. had a younger son, Jobst Hermann -(d. 1678), who founded the line of counts of Lippe-Biesterfeld, and a -cadet branch of this family were the counts of Lippe-Weissenfeld. In -1762 these two counties--Biesterfeld and Weissenfeld--passed by -arrangement into the possession of the senior and ruling branch of the -family. Under the prudent government of the princess Pauline (from 1802 -to 1820), widow of Frederick William Leopold, the little state enjoyed -great prosperity. In 1807 it joined the Confederation of the Rhine and -in 1813 the German Confederation. Pauline's son, Paul Alexander Leopold, -who reigned from 1820 to 1851, also ruled in a wise and liberal spirit, -and in 1836 granted the charter of rights upon which the constitution is -based. In 1842 Lippe entered the German Customs Union (_Zollverein_), -and in 1866 threw in its lot with Prussia and joined the North German -Confederation. - - - The Lippe succession dispute. - -The line of rulers in Lippe dates back, as already mentioned, to Simon -VI. But besides this, the senior line, the two collateral lines of -counts, Lippe-Biesterfeld and Lippe-Weissenfeld and the princely line of -Schaumburg-Lippe, also trace their descent to the same ancestor, and -these three lines stand in the above order as regards their rights to -the Lippe succession, the counts being descended from Simon's eldest son -and the princes from his youngest son. These facts were not in dispute -when in March 1895 the death of Prince Woldemar, who had reigned since -1875, raised a dispute as to the succession. Woldemar's brother -Alexander, the last of the senior line, was hopelessly insane and had -been declared incapable of ruling. On the death of Woldemar, Prince -Adolph of Schaumburg-Lippe, fourth son of Prince Adolph George of that -country and brother-in-law of the German emperor, took over the regency -by virtue of a decree issued by Prince Woldemar, but which had until the -latter's death been kept secret. The Lippe house of representatives -consequently passed a special law confirming the regency in the person -of Prince Adolph, but with the proviso that the regency should be at an -end as soon as the disputes touching the succession were adjusted; and -with a further proviso that, should this dispute not have been settled -before the death of Prince Alexander, then, if a competent court of law -had been secured before that event happened, the regency of Prince -Adolph should continue until such court had given its decision. The -dispute in question had arisen because the heads of the two collateral -countly lines had entered a _caveat_. In order to adjust matters the -Lippe government moved the _Bundesrat_, on the 5th of July 1895, to pass -an imperial law declaring the _Reichsgericht_ (the supreme tribunal of -the empire) a competent court to adjudicate upon the claims of the rival -lines to the succession. In consequence the Bundesrat passed a -resolution on the 1st of February 1896, requesting the chancellor of the -empire to bring about a compromise for the appointment of a court of -arbitration between the parties. Owing to the mediation of the -chancellor a compact was on the 3rd of July 1896 concluded between the -heads of the three collateral lines of the whole house of Lippe, binding -"both on themselves and on the lines of which they were the heads." By -clause 2 of this compact, a court of arbitration was to be appointed, -consisting of the king of Saxony and six members selected by him from -among the members of the supreme court of law of the empire. This court -was duly constituted, and on the 22nd of June 1897 delivered judgment to -the effect that Count Ernest of Lippe-Biesterfeld, head of the line of -Lippe-Biesterfeld, was entitled to succeed to the throne of Lippe on the -death of Prince Alexander. In consequence of this judgment Prince Adolph -resigned the regency and Count Ernest became regent in his stead. On the -26th of September 1904 Count Ernest died and his eldest son, Count -Leopold, succeeded to the regency; but the question of the succession -was again raised by the prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, who urged that the -marriage of Count William Ernest, father of Count Ernest, with Modeste -von Unruh, and that of the count regent Ernest himself with Countess -Carline von Wartensleben were not _ebenburtig_ (equal birth), and that -the issue of these marriages were therefore excluded from the -succession. Prince George of Schaumburg-Lippe and the count regent, -Leopold, thereupon entered into a compact, again referring the matter to -the Bundesrat, which requested the chancellor of the empire to agree to -the appointment of a court of arbitration consisting of two civil -senates of the supreme court, sitting at Leipzig, to decide finally the -matter in dispute. It was further provided in the compact that Leopold -should remain as regent, even after the death of Alexander, until the -decision of the court had been given. Prince Alexander died on the 13th -of January 1905; Count Leopold remained as regent, and on the 25th of -October the court of arbitration issued its award, declaring the -marriages in question (which were, as proved by document, contracted -with the consent of the head of the house in each case) _ebenburtig_, -and that in pursuance of the award of the king of Saxony the family of -Lippe-Biesterfeld, together with the collateral lines sprung from Count -William Ernest (father of the regent, Count Ernest) were in the order of -nearest agnates called to the succession. Leopold (b. 1871) thus became -prince of Lippe. - - See A. Falkmann, _Beitrage zur Geschichte des Furstenthums Lippe_ - (Detmold, 1857-1892; 6 vols.); Schwanold, _Das Furstentum Lippe, das - Land und seine Bewohner_ (Detmold, 1899); Piderit, _Die lippischen - Edelherrn im Mittelalter_ (Detmold, 1876); A. Falkmann and O. Preuss, - _Lippische Regenten_ (Detmold, 1860-1868); H. Triepel, _Der Streit um - die Thronfolge im Furstentum Lippe_ (Leipzig, 1903); and P. Laband, - _Die Thronfolge im Furstentum Lippe_ (Freiburg, 1891); and - _Schiedsspruch in dem Rechtstreit uber die Thronfolge im Furstentum - Lippe vom 25 Okt. 1905_ (Leipzig, 1906). - - - - -LIPPI, the name of three celebrated Italian painters. - -I. FRA FILIPPO LIPPI (1406-1469), commonly called Lippo Lippi, one of -the most renowned painters of the Italian quattrocento, was born in -Florence--his father, Tommaso, being a butcher. His mother died in his -childhood, and his father survived his wife only two years. His aunt, a -poor woman named Monna Lapaccia, then took charge of the boy; and in -1420, when fourteen years of age, he was registered in the community of -the Carmelite friars of the Carmine in Florence. Here he remained till -1432, and his early faculty for fine arts was probably developed by -studying the works of Masaccio in the neighbouring chapel of the -Brancacci. Between 1430 and 1432 he executed some works in the -monastery, which were destroyed by a fire in 1771; they are specified by -Vasari, and one of them was particularly marked by its resemblance to -Masaccio's style. Eventually Fra Filippo quitted his convent, but it -appears that he was not relieved from some sort of religious vow; in a -letter dated in 1439 he speaks of himself as the poorest friar of -Florence, and says he is charged with the maintenance of six -marriageable nieces. In 1452 he was appointed chaplain to the convent of -S. Giovannino in Florence, and in 1457 rector (_Rettore Commendatario_) -of S. Quirico at Legania, and his gains were considerable and uncommonly -large from time to time; but his poverty seems to have been chronic, the -money being spent, according to one account, in frequently recurring -amours. - -Vasari relates some curious and romantic adventures of Fra Filippo, -which modern biographers are not inclined to believe. Except through -Vasari, nothing is known of his visits to Ancona and Naples, and his -intermediate capture by Barbary pirates and enslavement in Barbary, -whence his skill in portrait-sketching availed to release him. This -relates to a period, 1431-1437, when his career is not otherwise clearly -accounted for. The doubts thrown upon his semi-marital relations with a -Florentine lady appear, however, to be somewhat arbitrary; Vasari's -account is circumstantial, and in itself not greatly improbable. Towards -June 1456 Fra Filippo was settled in Prato (near Florence) for the -purpose of fulfilling a commission to paint frescoes in the choir of the -cathedral. Before actually undertaking this work he set about painting, -in 1458, a picture for the convent chapel of S. Margherita of Prato, and -there saw Lucrezia Buti, the beautiful daughter of a Florentine, -Francesco Buti; she was either a novice or a young lady placed under the -nuns' guardianship. Lippi asked that she might be permitted to sit to -him for the figure of the Madonna (or it might rather appear of S. -Margherita); he made passionate love to her, abducted her to his own -house, and kept her there spite of the utmost efforts the nuns could -make to reclaim her. The fruit of their loves was a boy, who became the -painter, not less celebrated than his father, Filippino Lippi (noticed -below). Such is substantially Vasari's narrative, published less than a -century after the alleged events; it is not refuted by saying, more than -three centuries later, that perhaps Lippo had nothing to do with any -such Lucrezia, and perhaps Lippino was his adopted son, or only an -ordinary relative and scholar. The argument that two reputed portraits -of Lucrezia in paintings by Lippo are not alike, one as a Madonna in a -very fine picture in the Pitti gallery, and the other in the same -character in a Nativity in the Louvre, comes to very little; and it is -reduced to nothing when the disputant adds that the Louvre painting is -probably not done by Lippi at all. Besides, it appears more likely that -not the Madonna in the Louvre but a S. Margaret in a picture now in the -Gallery of Prato is the original portrait (according to the tradition) -of Lucrezia Buti. - -The frescoes in the choir of Prato cathedral, being the stories of the -Baptist and of St Stephen, represented on the two opposite wall spaces, -are the most important and monumental works which Fra Filippo has left, -more especially the figure of Salome dancing, and the last of the -series, showing the ceremonial mourning over Stephen's corpse. This -contains a portrait of the painter, but which is the proper figure is a -question that has raised some diversity of opinion. At the end wall of -the choir are S. Giovanni Gualberto and S. Alberto, and on the ceiling -the four evangelists. - -The close of Lippi's life was spent at Spoleto, where he had been -commissioned to paint, for the apse of the cathedral, some scenes from -the life of the Virgin. In the semidome of the apse is Christ crowning -the Madonna, with angels, sibyls and prophets. This series, which is not -wholly equal to the one at Prato, was completed by Fra Diamante after -Lippi's death. That Lippi died in Spoleto, on or about the 8th of -October 1469, is an undoubted fact; the mode of his death is again a -matter of dispute. It has been said that the pope granted Lippi a -dispensation for marrying Lucrezia, but that, before the permission -arrived, he had been poisoned by the indignant relatives either of -Lucrezia herself, or of some lady who had replaced her in the inconstant -painter's affections. This is now generally regarded as a fable; and -indeed a vendetta upon a man aged sixty-three for a seduction committed -at the already mature age of fifty-two seems hardly plausible. Fra -Filippo lies buried in Spoleto, with a monument erected to him by -Lorenzo the Magnificent; he had always been zealously patronized by the -Medici family, beginning with Cosimo, Pater Patriae. Francesco di -Pesello (called Pesellino) and Sandro Botticelli were among his most -distinguished pupils. - - In 1441 Lippi painted an altarpiece for the nuns of S. Ambrogio which - is now a prominent attraction in the Academy of Florence, and has been - celebrated in Browning's well-known poem. It represents the coronation - of the Virgin among angels and saints, of whom many are Bernardine - monks. One of these, placed to the right, is a half-length portrait of - Lippo, pointed out by an inscription upon an angel's scroll "Is - perfecit opus." The price paid for this work in 1447 was 1200 - Florentine lire, which seems surprisingly large. For Germiniano - Inghirami of Prato he painted the "Death of St Bernard," a fine - specimen still extant. His principal altarpiece in this city is a - Nativity in the refectory of S. Domenico--the Infant on the ground - adored by the Virgin and Joseph, between Sts George and Dominic, in a - rocky landscape, with the shepherds playing and six angels in the sky. - In the Uffizi is a fine Virgin adoring the infant Christ, who is held - by two angels; in the National Gallery, London, a "Vision of St - Bernard." The picture of the "Virgin and Infant with an Angel," in - this same gallery, also ascribed to Lippi, is disputable. - - Few pictures are so thoroughly enjoyable as those of Lippo Lippi; they - show the naivete of a strong, rich nature, redundant in lively and - somewhat whimsical observation. He approaches religious art from its - human side, and is not pietistic though true to a phase of Catholic - devotion. He was perhaps the greatest colourist and technical adept of - his time, with good draughtsmanship--a naturalist, with less vulgar - realism than some of his contemporaries, and with much genuine - episodical animation, including semi-humorous incidents and low - characters. He made little effort after perspective and none for - foreshortenings, was fond of ornamenting pilasters and other - architectural features. Vasari says that Lippi was wont to hide the - extremities in drapery to evade difficulties. His career was one of - continual development, without fundamental variation in style or in - colouring. In his great works the proportions are larger than life. - - Along with Vasari's interesting and amusing, and possibly not very - unauthentic, account of Lippo Lippi, the work of Crowe and - Cavalcaselle should be consulted. Also: E. C. Strutt, _Fra Lippo - Lippi_ (1901); C. M. Phillimore, _Early Florentine Painters_ (1881); - B. Supino, _Fra Filippo Lippi_ (illustrated) (1902). It should be - observed that Crowe and Cavalcaselle give 1412 as the date of the - painter's birth, and this would make a considerable difference in - estimating details of his after career. We have preferred to follow - the more usual account. The self-portrait dated 1441 looks like a man - much older than twenty-nine. - -II. FILIPPINO, or LIPPINO LIPPI (1460-1505), was the natural son of Fra -Lippo Lippi and Lucrezia Buti, born in Florence and educated at Prato. -Losing his father before he had completed his tenth year, the boy took -up his avocation as a painter, studying under Sandro Botticelli and -probably under Fra Diamante. The style which he formed was to a great -extent original, but it bears clear traces of the manner both of Lippo -and of Botticelli--more ornamental than the first, more realistic and -less poetical than the second. His powers developed early; for we find -him an accomplished artist by 1480, when he painted an altarpiece, the -"Vision of St Bernard," now in the Badia of Florence; it is in tempera, -with almost the same force as oil painting. Soon afterwards, probably -from 1482 to 1490, he began to work upon the frescoes which completed -the decoration of the Brancacci chapel in the Carmine, commenced by -Masolino and Masaccio many years before. He finished Masaccio's -"Resurrection of the King's Son," and was the sole author of "Paul's -Interview with Peter in Prison," the "Liberation of Peter," the "Two -Saints before the Proconsul" and the "Crucifixion of Peter." These works -are sufficient to prove that Lippino stood in the front rank of the -artists of his time. The dignified and expressive figure of St Paul in -the second-named subject has always been particularly admired, and -appears to have furnished a suggestion to Raphael for his "Paul at -Athens." Portraits of Luigi Pulci, Antonio Pollajuolo, Lippino himself -and various others are in this series. In 1485 he executed the great -altarpiece of the "Virgin and Saints," with several other figures, now -in the Uffizi Gallery. Another of his leading works is the altarpiece -for the Nerli chapel in S. Spirito--the "Virgin Enthroned," with -splendidly living portraits of Nerli and his wife, and a thronged -distance. In 1489 Lippino was in Rome, painting in the church of the -Minerva, having first passed through Spoleto to design the monument for -his father in the cathedral of that city. Some of his principal frescoes -in the Minerva are still extant, the subjects being in celebration of St -Thomas Aquinas. In one picture the saint is miraculously commended by a -crucifix; in another, triumphing over heretics. In 1496 Lippino painted -the "Adoration of the Magi" now in the Uffizi, a very striking picture, -with numerous figures. This was succeeded by his last important -undertaking, the frescoes in the Strozzi chapel, in the church of S. -Maria Novella in Florence--"Drusiana Restored to Life by St John, the -Evangelist," "St John in the Cauldron of Boiling Oil" and two subjects -from the legend of St Philip. These are conspicuous and attractive -works, yet somewhat grotesque and exaggerated--full of ornate -architecture, showy colour and the distinctive peculiarities of the -master. Filippino, who had married in 1497, died in 1505. The best -reputed of his scholars was Raffaellino del Garbo. - - Like his father, Filippino had a most marked original genius for - painting, and he was hardly less a chief among the artists of his time - than Fra Filippo had been in his; it may be said that in all the - annals of the art a rival instance is not to be found of a father and - son each of whom had such pre-eminent natural gifts and leadership. - The father displayed more of sentiment and candid sweetness of motive; - the son more of richness, variety and lively pictorial combination. He - was admirable in all matters of decorative adjunct and presentment, - such as draperies, landscape backgrounds and accessories; and he was - the first Florentine to introduce a taste for antique details of - costume, &c. He formed a large collection of objects of this kind, and - left his designs of them to his son. In his later works there is a - tendency to a mannered development of the extremities, and generally - to facile overdoing. The National Gallery, London, possesses a good - and characteristic though not exactly a first-rate specimen of - Lippino, the "Virgin and Child between Sts Jerome and Dominic"; also - an "Adoration of the Magi," of which recent criticism contests the - authenticity. Crowe and Cavalcaselle, supplemented by the writings of - Berenson, should be consulted as to this painter. An album of his - works is in Newnes' Art-library. - -III. LORENZO LIPPI (1606-1664), painter and poet, was born in Florence. -He studied painting under Matteo Rosselli, the influence of whose style, -and more especially of that of Santi di Tito, is to be traced in Lippi's -works, which are marked by taste, delicacy and a strong turn for -portrait-like naturalism. His maxim was "to poetize as he spoke, and to -paint as he saw." After exercising his art for some time in Florence, -and having married at the age of forty the daughter of a rich sculptor -named Susini, Lippi went as court painter to Innsbruck, where he has -left many excellent portraits. There he wrote his humorous poem named -_Malmantile Racquistato_, which was published under the anagrammatic -pseudonym of "Perlone Zipoli." Lippi was somewhat self-sufficient, and, -when visiting Parma, would not look at the famous Correggios there, -saying that they could teach him nothing. He died of pleurisy in 1664, -in Florence. - - The most esteemed works of Lippi as a painter are a "Crucifixion" in - the Uffizi gallery at Florence, and a "Triumph of David" which he - executed for the saloon of Angiolo Galli, introducing into it - portraits of the seventeen children of the owner. The _Malmantile - Racquistato_ is a burlesque romance, mostly compounded out of a - variety of popular tales; its principal subject-matter is an - expedition for the recovery of a fortress and territory whose queen - had been expelled by a female usurper. It is full of graceful or racy - Florentine idioms, and is counted by Italians as a "testo di lingua." - Lippi is more generally or more advantageously remembered by this poem - than by anything which he has left in the art of painting. It was not - published until 1688, several years after his death. Lanzi as to - Lorenzo Lippi's pictorial work, and Tiraboschi and other literary - historians as to his writings, are among the best authorities. - (W. M. R.) - - - - -LIPPSPRINGE, a town and watering-place in the Prussian province of -Westphalia, lying under the western slope of the Teutoburger Wald, 5 m. -N. of Paderborn. Pop. (1905) 3100. The springs, the Arminius Quelle and -the Liborius Quelle, for which it is famous, are saline waters of a -temperature of 70 deg. F., and are utilized both for bathing and -drinking in cases of pulmonary consumption and chronic diseases of the -respiratory organs. The annual number of visitors amounts to about 6000. -Lippspringe is mentioned in chronicles as early as the 9th century, and -here in the 13th century the order of the Templars established a -stronghold. It received civic rights about 1400. - - See Dammann, _Der Kurort Lippspringe_ (Paderborn, 1900); Koniger, - _Lippspringe_ (Berlin, 1893); and Frey, _Lippspringe, Kurort fur - Lungenkranke_ (Paderborn, 1899). - - - - -LIPPSTADT, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the river -Lippe, 20 m. by rail W. by S. of Paderborn, on the main line to -Dusseldorf. Pop. (1905) 15,436. The Marien Kirche is a large edifice in -the Transitional style, dating from the 13th century. It has several -schools, among them being one which was originally founded as a nunnery -in 1185. The manufactures include cigar-making, distilling, -carriage-building and metal-working. - -Lippstadt was founded in 1168 by the lords of Lippe, the rights over one -half of the town passing subsequently by purchase to the counts of the -Mark, which in 1614 was incorporated with Brandenburg. In 1850 the -prince of Lippe-Detmold sold his share to Prussia when this joint -lordship ceased. In 1620 Lippstadt was occupied by the Spaniards and in -1757 by the French. - - See Chalybaus, _Lippstadt, ein Beitrag zur deutschen Stadtegeschichte_ - (Lippstadt, 1876). - - - - -LIPSIUS, JUSTUS (1547-1606), the Latinized name of Joest (Juste or -Josse) Lips, Belgian scholar, born on the 18th of October (15th of -November, according to Amiel) 1547 at Overyssche, a small village in -Brabant, near Brussels. Sent early to the Jesuit college in Cologne, he -was removed at the age of sixteen to the university of Louvain by his -parents, who feared that he might be induced to become a member of the -Society of Jesus. The publication of his _Variarum Lectionum Libri Tres_ -(1567), dedicated to Cardinal Granvella, procured him an appointment as -Latin secretary and a visit to Rome in the retinue of the cardinal. Here -Lipsius remained two years, devoting his spare time to the study of the -Latin classics, collecting inscriptions and examining MSS. in the -Vatican. A second volume of miscellaneous criticism (_Antiquarum -Lectionum Libri Quinque_, 1575), published after his return from Rome, -compared with the _Variae Lectiones_ of eight years earlier, shows that -he had advanced from the notion of purely conjectural emendation to that -of emending by collation. In 1570 he wandered over Burgundy, Germany, -Austria, Bohemia, and was engaged for more than a year as teacher in the -university of Jena, a position which implied an outward conformity to -the Lutheran Church. On his way back to Louvain, he stopped some time at -Cologne, where he must have comported himself as a Catholic. He then -returned to Louvain, but was soon driven by the Civil War to take refuge -in Antwerp, where he received, in 1579, a call to the newly founded -university of Leiden, as professor of history. At Leiden, where he must -have passed as a Calvinist, Lipsius remained eleven years, the period of -his greatest productivity. It was now that he prepared his _Seneca_, -perfected, in successive editions, his _Tacitus_ and brought out a -series of works, some of pure scholarship, others collections from -classical authors, others again of general interest. Of this latter -class was a treatise on politics (_Politicorum Libri Sex_, 1589), in -which he showed that, though a public teacher in a country which -professed toleration, he had not departed from the state maxims of Alva -and Philip II. He lays it down that a government should recognize only -one religion, and that dissent should be extirpated by fire and sword. -From the attacks to which this avowal exposed him, he was saved by the -prudence of the authorities of Leiden, who prevailed upon him to publish -a declaration that his expression, _Ure, seca_, was a metaphor for a -vigorous treatment. In the spring of 1590, leaving Leiden under pretext -of taking the waters at Spa, he went to Mainz, where he was reconciled -to the Roman Catholic Church. The event deeply interested the Catholic -world, and invitations poured in on Lipsius from the courts and -universities of Italy, Austria and Spain. But he preferred to remain in -his own country, and finally settled at Louvain, as professor of Latin -in the Collegium Buslidianum. He was not expected to teach, and his -trifling stipend was eked out by the appointments of privy councillor -and historiographer to the king of Spain. He continued to publish -dissertations as before, the chief being his _De militia romana_ -(Antwerp, 1595) and _Lovanium_ (Antwerp, 1605; 4th ed., Wesel, 1671), -intended as an introduction to a general history of Brabant. He died at -Louvain on the 23rd of March (some give 24th of April) 1606. - -Lipsius's knowledge of classical antiquity was extremely limited. He had -but slight acquaintance with Greek, and in Latin literature the poets -and Cicero lay outside his range. His greatest work was his edition of -Tacitus. This author he had so completely made his own that he could -repeat the whole, and offered to be tested in any part of the text, with -a poniard held to his breast, to be used against him if he should fail. -His _Tacitus_ first appeared in 1575, and was five times revised and -corrected--the last time in 1606, shortly before his death. His _Opera -Omnia_ appeared in 8 vols. at Antwerp (1585, 2nd ed., 1637). - - A full list of his publications will be found in van der Aa, - _Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden_ (1865), and in - _Bibliographie Lipsienne_ (Ghent, 1886-1888). In addition to the - biography by A. le Mire (Aubertus Miraeus) (1609), the only original - account of his life, see M. E. C. Nisard, _Le Triumvirat litteraire au - XVI^e siecle_ (1852); A. Rass, _Die Convertiten seit der - Reformation_ (1867); P. Bergman's _Autobiographie de J. Lipse_ (1889); - L. Galesloot, _Particularites sur la vie de J. Lipse_ (1877); E. - Amiel, _Un Publiciste du XVI^e siecle. Juste Lipse_ (1884); and L. - Muller, _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden_. - The articles by J. J. Thonissen of Louvain in the _Nouvelle Biographie - generale_, and L. Roersch in _Biographie nationale de Belgique_, may - also be consulted. - - - - -LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT (1830-1892), German Protestant theologian, son -of K. H. A. Lipsius (d. 1861), who was rector of the school of St Thomas -at Leipzig, was born at Gera on the 14th of February 1830. He studied at -Leipzig, and eventually (1871) settled at Jena as professor ordinarius. -He helped to found the "Evangelical Protestant Missionary Union" and the -"Evangelical Alliance," and from 1874 took an active part in their -management. He died at Jena on the 19th of August 1892. Lipsius wrote -principally on dogmatics and the history of early Christianity from a -liberal and critical standpoint. A Neo-Kantian, he was to some extent an -opponent of Albrecht Ritschl, demanding "a connected and consistent -theory of the universe, which shall comprehend the entire realm of our -experience as a whole. He rejects the doctrine of dualism in a truth, -one division of which would be confined to 'judgments of value,' and be -unconnected with our theoretical knowledge of the external world. The -possibility of combining the results of our scientific knowledge with -the declarations of our ethico-religious experience, so as to form a -consistent philosophy, is based, according to Lipsius, upon the unity of -the personal ego, which on the one hand knows the world scientifically, -and on the other regards it as the means of realizing the -ethico-religious object of its life" (Otto Pfleiderer). This, in part, -is his attitude in _Philosophie und Religion_ (1885). In his _Lehrbuch -der evang.-prot. Dogmatik_ (1876; 3rd ed., 1893) he deals in detail with -the doctrines of "God," "Christ," "Justification" and the "Church." From -1875 he assisted K. Hase, O. Pfleiderer and E. Schrader in editing the -_Jahrbucher fur prot. Theologie_, and from 1885 till 1891 he edited the -_Theol. Jahresbericht_. - - His other works include _Die Pilatusakten_ (1871, new ed., 1886), - _Dogmatische Beitrage_ (1878), _Die Quellen der altesten - Ketzergeschichte_ (1875), _Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten_ - (1883-1890), _Hauptpunkte der christl. Glaubenslehre im Umriss - dargestellt_ (1889), and commentaries on the Epistles to the - Galatians, Romans and Philippians in H. J. Holtzmann's _Handkommentar - zum Neuen Testament_ (1891-1892). - - - - -LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHNSTONE, BART. (1850- ), British merchant, was -born at Glasgow in 1850, of Irish parents. At a very early age he was -employed as errand boy to a Glasgow stationer; at fifteen he emigrated -to America, where at first he worked in a grocery store, and afterwards -as a tram-car driver in New Orleans, as a traveller for a portrait firm, -and on a plantation in South Carolina. Eventually, having saved some -money, he returned to Glasgow and opened a small provision shop. -Business gradually increased, and by degrees Lipton had provision shops -first all over Scotland and then all over the United Kingdom. To supply -his retail shops on the most favourable terms, he purchased extensive -tea, coffee and cocoa plantations in Ceylon, and provided his own -packing-house for hogs in Chicago, and fruit farms, jam factories, -bakeries and bacon-curing establishments in England. In 1898 his -business was converted into a limited liability company. At Queen -Victoria's diamond jubilee in 1897 he gave L20,000 for providing dinners -for a large number of the London poor. In 1898 he was knighted, and in -1902 was made a baronet. In the world of yacht-racing he became well -known from his repeated attempts to win the America Cup. - - - - -LIQUEURS, the general term applied to perfumed or flavoured potable -spirits, sweetened by the addition of sugar. The term "liqueur" is also -used for certain wines and unsweetened spirits of very superior quality, -or remarkable for their bouquet, such as tokay or fine old brandy or -whisky. The basis of all the "liqueurs" proper consists of (a) -relatively strong alcohol or spirit, which must be as pure and neutral -as possible; (b) sugar or syrup; and (c) flavouring matters. There are -three distinct main methods of manufacturing liqueurs. The first, by -which liqueurs of the highest class are prepared, is the "distillation" -or "alcoholate" process. This consists in macerating various aromatic -substances such as seeds, leaves, roots and barks of plants, &c., with -strong spirit and subsequently distilling the infusion so obtained -generally in the presence of a whole or a part of the solid matter. The -mixture of spirit, water and flavouring matters which distils over is -termed the "alcoholate." To this is added a solution of sugar or syrup, -and frequently colouring matter in the shape of harmless vegetable -extracts or burnt sugar, and a further quantity of flavouring matter in -the shape of essential oils or clear spirituous vegetable extracts. The -second method of making liqueurs is that known as the "essence" process. -It is employed, as a rule, for cheap and inferior articles; the process -resolving itself into the addition of various essential oils, either -natural or artificially prepared, and of spirituous extracts to strong -spirit, filtering and adding the saccharine matter to the clear -filtrate. The third method of manufacturing liqueurs is the "infusion" -process, in which alcohol and sugar are added to various fresh fruit -juices. Liqueurs prepared by this method are frequently called -"cordials." It has been suggested that "cordials" are articles of home -manufacture, and that liqueurs are necessarily of foreign origin, but it -is at least doubtful whether this is entirely correct. The French, who -excel in the preparation of liqueurs, grade their products, according to -their sweetness and alcoholic strength, into _cremes_, _huiles_ or -_baumes_, which have a thick, oily consistency; and _eaux_, _extraits_ -or _elixirs_, which, being less sweetened, are relatively limpid. -Liqueurs are also classed, according to their commercial quality and -composition, as _ordinaires_, _demi-fines_, _fines_ and _sur-fines_. -Certain liqueurs, containing only a single flavouring ingredient, or -having a prevailing flavour of a particular substance, are named after -that body, for instance, _creme de vanille_, _anisette_, _kummel_, -_creme de menthe_, &c. On the other hand, many well-known liqueurs are -compounded of very numerous aromatic principles. The nature and -quantities of the flavouring agents employed in the preparation of -liqueurs of this kind are kept strictly secret, but numerous "recipes" -are given in works dealing with this subject. Among the substances -frequently used as flavouring agents are aniseed, coriander, fennel, -wormwood, gentian, sassafras, amber, hyssop, mint, thyme, angelica, -citron, lemon and orange peel, peppermint, cinnamon, cloves, iris, -caraway, tea, coffee and so on. The alcoholic strength of liqueurs -ranges from close on 80% of alcohol by volume in some kinds of absinthe, -to 27% in anisette. The liqueur industry is a very considerable one, -there being in France some 25,000 factories. Most of these are small, -but some 600,000 gallons are annually exported from France alone. For -absinthe, benedictine, chartreuse, curacoa, kirsch and vermouth see -under separate headings. Among other well-known trade liqueurs may be -mentioned maraschino, which takes its name from a variety of cherry--the -marasca--grown in Dalmatia, the centre of the trade being at Zara; -kummel, the flavour of which is largely due to caraway seeds; allasch, -which is a rich variety of kummel; and cherry and other "fruit" brandies -and whiskies, the latter being perhaps more properly termed cordials. - - See Duplais, _La Fabrication des liqueurs_; and Rocques, _Les - Eaux-de-vie et liqueurs_. - - - - -LIQUIDAMBAR, LIQUID AMBER or SWEET GUM, a product of _Liquidambar -styraciflua_ (order Hamamelideae), a deciduous tree of from 80 to 140 -ft. high, with a straight trunk 4 or 5 ft. in diameter, a native of the -United States, Mexico and Central America. It bears palmately-lobed -leaves, somewhat resembling those of the maple, but larger. The male and -female inflorescences are on different branches of the same tree, the -globular heads of fruit resembling those of the plane. This species is -nearly allied to _L. orientalis_, a native of a very restricted portion -of the south-west coast of Asia Minor, where it forms forests. The -earliest record of the tree appears to be in a Spanish work by F. -Hernandez, published in 1651, in which he describes it as a large tree -producing a fragrant gum resembling liquid amber, whence the name (_Nov. -Plant._, &c., p. 56). In Ray's _Historia Plantarum_ (1686) it is called -_Styrax liquida_. It was introduced into Europe in 1681 by John -Banister, the missionary collector sent out by Bishop Compton, who -planted it in the palace gardens at Fulham. The wood is very compact and -fine-grained--the heart-wood being reddish, and, when cut into planks, -marked transversely with blackish belts. It is employed for veneering in -America. Being readily dyed black, it is sometimes used instead of ebony -for picture frames, balusters, &c.; but it is too liable to decay for -outdoor work. - - The gum resin yielded by this tree has no special medicinal virtues, - being inferior in therapeutic properties to many others of its class. - Mixed with tobacco, the gum was used for smoking at the court of the - Mexican emperors (Humboldt iv. 10). It has long been used in France as - a perfume for gloves, &c. It is mainly produced in Mexico, little - being obtained from trees growing in higher latitudes of North - America, or in England. - - - - -LIQUIDATION (i.e. making "liquid" or clear), in law, the clearing off or -settling of a debt. The word was more especially used in bankruptcy law -to define the method by which, under the Bankruptcy Act 1869, the -affairs of an insolvent debtor were arranged and a composition accepted -by his creditors without actual bankruptcy. It was abolished by the -Bankruptcy Act 1883 (see BANKRUPTCY). In a general sense, liquidation is -used for the act of adjusting debts, as the Egyptian Law of Liquidation, -July 1880, for a general settlement of the liabilities of Egypt. In -company law, liquidation is the winding up and dissolving a company. The -winding up may be either voluntary or compulsory, and an officer, termed -a liquidator, is appointed, who takes into his custody all the property -of the company and performs such duties as are necessary on its behalf -(see COMPANY). - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 6, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 41472.txt or 41472.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/4/7/41472/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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