diff options
| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 13:04:02 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 13:04:02 -0800 |
| commit | 5ddd3971136c640ae20ede8a5e30907d06ac59a4 (patch) | |
| tree | 14fd9aca51708675d5edfcece5b1c11e0bd0a3a5 /41472-0.txt | |
| parent | 51770c60480f0044ef1fe607cf0fc11d8f81eee4 (diff) | |
Diffstat (limited to '41472-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 41472-0.txt | 17203 |
1 files changed, 17203 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/41472-0.txt b/41472-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c49515a --- /dev/null +++ b/41472-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17203 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41472 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE LIGHTHOUSE: "Examples of mercury floats are shown in figs. + 41, 42, 43 and Plate I., figs. 54 and 55." 'and' amended from 'an'. + + ARTICLE LIGHTHOUSE: "Electricity was substituted as an illuminant + for the then existing oil light at St Catherine's in 1888." + 'Electricity' amended from 'Elctricity'. + + ARTICLE LIGHTING: "They were, however, costly to install, so that + the flat flame burner retained its popularity in spite of the fact + that its duty was comparatively low ..." 'install' amended from + 'instal'. + + ARTICLE LIGHTING: "... the filament in the form of a lustrous and + dense deposit having an appearance like steel when seen under the + microscope." 'microscope' amended from 'miscroscope'. + + ARTICLE LIMB: "... or to the subordinate members of the Cinque + Ports, attached to one of the principal towns; Pevensey was thus a + 'limb' of Hastings." 'subordinate' amended from 'surbordinate'. + + ARTICLE LIMON: "Its chief towns, after Limon, are Reventazon and + Matina, both with fewer than 3000 inhabitants." 'fewer' amended + from 'fever'. + + ARTICLE LIMOUSIN: "Limousin takes its name from the Lemovices, a + Gallic tribe whose county was included by Augustus in the province + of Aquitania Magna." 'Aquitania' amended from 'Aquitanic'. + + ARTICLE LIPSIUS, JUSTUS: "He then returned to Louvain, but was soon + driven by the Civil War to take refuge in Antwerp, where he + received, in 1579, a call to the newly founded university of + Leiden, as professor of history." 'Louvain' amended from 'Louvian'. + + ARTICLE LIPSIUS, JUSTUS: "He died at Louvain on the 23rd of March + (some give 24th of April) 1606." 'Louvain' amended from 'Louvian'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XVI, SLICE VI + + Lightfoot, Joseph to Liquidation + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER LINDAU, PAUL + LIGHTHOUSE LINDAU + LIGHTING LINDEN + LIGHTNING LINDESAY, ROBERT + LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR LINDET, JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT + LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF LINDLEY, JOHN + LIGNE, CHARLES JOSEPH LINDLEY, NATHANIEL LINDLEY + LIGNITE LINDLEY, WILLIAM + LIGONIER, JOHN LIGONIER LINDO, MARK PRAGER + LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI LINDSAY (family) + LIGURES BAEBIANI LINDSAY (town of Canada) + LIGURIA LINDSEY, THEOPHILUS + LI HUNG CHANG LINDSTRÖM, GUSTAF + LILAC LINDUS + LILBURNE, JOHN LINE + LILIACEAE LINE ENGRAVING + LILIENCRON, DETLEV VON LINEN and LINEN MANUFACTURES + LILITH LINEN-PRESS + LILLE LINER + LILLEBONNE LING, PER HENRIK + LILLIBULLERO LING + LILLO, GEORGE LINGARD, JOHN + LILLY, WILLIAM LINGAYAT + LILOAN LINGAYEN + LILY LINGEN, RALPH ROBERT WHEELER LINGEN + LILYE, WILLIAM LINGEN + LIMA (Ohio, U.S.A.) LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI + LIMA (department of Peru) LINK + LIMA (capital of Peru) LINKÖPING + LIMAÇON LINLEY, THOMAS + LIMASOL LINLITHGOW, JOHN ADRIAN LOUIS HOPE + LIMB LINLITHGOW + LIMBACH LINLITHGOWSHIRE + LIMBER LINNAEUS + LIMBORCH, PHILIPP VAN LINNELL, JOHN + LIMBURG (feudal state) LINNET + LIMBURG (province of Belgium) LINSANG + LIMBURG (town of Germany) LINSEED + LIMBURG (province of Holland) LINSTOCK + LIMBURG CHRONICLE LINT + LIMBURGITE LINTEL + LIMBUS LINTH + LIME (exudation of holly-tree) LINTON, ELIZA LYNN + LIME (tree) LINTON, WILLIAM JAMES + LIMERICK (county of Ireland) LINTOT, BARNABY BERNARD + LIMERICK (city of Ireland) LINUS (Gregorian saint) + LIMERICK (form of verse) LINUS (Greek heroic figure) + LIMES GERMANICUS LINZ + LIMESTONE LION + LIMINA APOSTOLORUM LIONNE, HUGUES DE + LIMITATION, STATUTES OF LIOTARD, JEAN ETIENNE + LIMOGES LIP + LIMON LIPA + LIMONITE LIPAN + LIMOUSIN, LÉONARD LIPARI ISLANDS + LIMOUSIN LIPETSK + LIMPOPO LIPPE (river of Germany) + LINACRE, THOMAS LIPPE (principality of Germany) + LINARES (province of Chile) LIPPI + LINARES (town of Spain) LIPPSPRINGE + LINCOLN, EARLS OF LIPPSTADT + LINCOLN, ABRAHAM LIPSIUS, JUSTUS + LINCOLN (England) LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT + LINCOLN (Illinois, U.S.A.) LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHNSTONE + LINCOLN (Nebraska, U.S.A.) LIQUEURS + LINCOLN JUDGMENT, THE LIQUIDAMBAR + LINCOLNSHIRE LIQUIDATION + LIND, JENNY + + + + +LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER (1828-1889), English theologian and bishop of +Durham, was born at Liverpool on the 13th of April 1828. His father was +a Liverpool accountant. He was educated at King Edward's school, +Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, afterwards bishop of Manchester, and +had as contemporaries B. F. Westcott and E. W. Benson. In 1847 Lightfoot +went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, and there read for his degree +with Westcott. He graduated senior classic and 30th wrangler, and was +elected a fellow of his college. From 1854 to 1859 he edited the +_Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology_. In 1857 he became tutor and +his fame as a scholar grew rapidly. He was made Hulsean professor in +1861, and shortly afterwards chaplain to the Prince Consort and honorary +chaplain in ordinary to the queen. In 1866 he was Whitehall preacher, +and in 1871 he became canon of St Paul's. His sermons were not +remarkable for eloquence, but a certain solidity and balance of +judgment, an absence of partisanship, a sobriety of expression combined +with clearness and force of diction, attracted hearers and inspired them +with confidence. As was written of him in _The Times_ after his death, +"his personal character carried immense weight, but his great position +depended still more on the universally recognized fact that his belief +in Christian truth and his defence of it were supported by learning as +solid and comprehensive as could be found anywhere in Europe, and by a +temper not only of the utmost candour but of the highest scientific +capacity. The days in which his university influence was asserted were a +time of much shaking of old beliefs. The disintegrating speculations of +an influential school of criticism in Germany were making their way +among English men of culture just about the time, as is usually the +case, when the tide was turning against them in their own country. The +peculiar service which was rendered at this juncture by the 'Cambridge +School' was that, instead of opposing a mere dogmatic opposition to the +Tübingen critics, they met them frankly on their own ground; and instead +of arguing that their conclusions ought not to be and could not be true, +they simply proved that their facts and their premisses were wrong. It +was a characteristic of equal importance that Dr Lightfoot, like Dr +Westcott, never discussed these subjects in the mere spirit of +controversy. It was always patent that what he was chiefly concerned +with was the substance and the life of Christian truth, and that his +whole energies were employed in this inquiry because his whole heart was +engaged in the truths and facts which were at stake. He was not diverted +by controversy to side-issues; and his labour was devoted to the +positive elucidation of the sacred documents in which the Christian +truth is enshrined." + +In 1872 the anonymous publication of _Supernatural Religion_ created +considerable sensation. In a series of masterly papers in the +_Contemporary Review_, between December 1874 and May 1877, Lightfoot +successfully undertook the defence of the New Testament canon. The +articles were published in collected form in 1889. About the same time +he was engaged in contributions to W. Smith's _Dictionary of Christian +Biography_ and _Dictionary of the Bible_, and he also joined the +committee for revising the translation of the New Testament. In 1875 he +became Lady Margaret professor of divinity in succession to William +Selwyn. He had previously written his commentaries on the epistles to +the Galatians (1865), Philippians (1868) and Colossians (1875), the +notes to which were distinguished by sound judgment and enriched from +his large store of patristic and classical learning. These commentaries +may be described as to a certain extent a new departure in New Testament +exegesis. Before Lightfoot's time commentaries, especially on the +epistles, had not infrequently consisted either of short homilies on +particular portions of the text, or of endeavours to enforce foregone +conclusions, or of attempts to decide with infinite industry and +ingenuity between the interpretations of former commentators. Lightfoot, +on the contrary, endeavoured to make his author interpret himself, and +by considering the general drift of his argument to discover his meaning +where it appeared doubtful. Thus he was able often to recover the +meaning of a passage which had long been buried under a heap of +contradictory glosses, and he founded a school in which sobriety and +common sense were added to the industry and ingenuity of former +commentators. In 1879 Lightfoot was consecrated bishop of Durham in +succession to C. Baring. His moderation, good sense, wisdom, temper, +firmness and erudition made him as successful in this position as he had +been when professor of theology, and he speedily surrounded himself with +a band of scholarly young men. He endeavoured to combine his habits of +theological study with the practical work of administration. He +exercised a large liberality and did much to further the work of +temperance and purity organizations. He continued to work at his +editions of the _Apostolic Fathers_, and in 1885 published an edition of +the Epistles of Ignatius and Polycarp, collecting also a large store of +valuable materials for a second edition of Clement of Rome, which was +published after his death (1st ed., 1869). His defence of the +authenticity of the Epistles of Ignatius is one of the most important +contributions to that very difficult controversy. His unremitting +labours impaired his health and shortened his splendid career at Durham. +He was never married. He died at Bournemouth on the 21st of December +1889, and was succeeded in the episcopate by Westcott, his schoolfellow +and lifelong friend. + + Four volumes of his _Sermons_ were published in 1890. + + + + +LIGHTHOUSE, a form of building erected to carry a light for the purpose +of warning or guidance, especially at sea. + + +1. EARLY HISTORY.--The earliest lighthouses, of which records exist, +were the towers built by the Libyans and Cushites in Lower Egypt, beacon +fires being maintained in some of them by the priests. Lesches, a Greek +poet (c. 660 B.C.) mentions a lighthouse at Sigeum (now Cape +Incihisari) in the Troad. This appears to have been the first light +regularly maintained for the guidance of mariners. The famous Pharos[1] +of Alexandria, built by Sostratus of Cnidus in the reign of Ptolemy II. +(283-247 B.C.) was regarded as one of the wonders of the world. The +tower, which took its name from that of the small island on which it was +built, is said to have been 600 ft. in height, but the evidence in +support of this statement is doubtful. It was destroyed by an earthquake +in the 13th century, but remains are said to have been visible as late +as 1350. The name Pharos became the general term for all lighthouses, +and the term "pharology" has been used for the science of lighthouse +construction. + +The tower at Ostia was built by the emperor Claudius (A.D. 50). Other +famous Roman lighthouses were those at Ravenna, Pozzuoli and Messina. +The ancient Pharos at Dover and that at Boulogne, later known as _la +Tour d'Ordre_, were built by the Romans and were probably the earliest +lighthouses erected in western Europe. Both are now demolished. + +The light of Cordouan, on a rock in the sea at the mouth of the Gironde, +is the earliest example now existing of a wave-swept tower. Earlier +towers on the same rock are attributed the first to Louis le Debonnaire +(c. A.D. 805) and the second to Edward the Black Prince. The existing +structure was begun in 1584 during the reign of Henri II. of France and +completed in 1611. The upper part of the beautiful Renaissance building +was removed towards the end of the 18th century and replaced by a +loftier cylindrical structure rising to a height of 207 ft. above the +rock and with the focal plane of the light 196 ft. above high water +(fig. 1). Until the 18th century the light exhibited from the tower was +from an oak log fire, and subsequently a coal fire was in use for many +years. The ancient tower at Corunna, known as the Pillar of Hercules, is +supposed to have been a Roman Pharos. The Torre del Capo at Genoa +originally stood on the promontory of San Berrique. It was built in 1139 +and first used as a lighthouse in 1326. It was rebuilt on its present +site in 1643. This beautiful tower rises 236 ft. above the cliff, the +light being elevated 384 ft. above sea-level. A lens light was first +installed in 1841. The Pharos of Meloria was constructed by the Pisans +in 1154 and was several times rebuilt until finally destroyed in 1290. +On the abandonment of Meloria by the Pisans, they erected the still +existing tower at Leghorn in 1304. + +In the 17th and 18th centuries numerous towers, on which were erected +braziers or grates containing wood or coal fires, were established in +various positions on the coasts of Europe. Among such stations in the +United Kingdom were Tynemouth (c. 1608), the Isle of May (1636), St +Agnes (1680), St Bees (1718) and the Lizard (1751). The oldest +lighthouse in the United States is believed to be the Boston light +situated on Little Brewster Island on the south side of the main +entrance to Boston Harbour, Mass. It was established in 1716, the +present structure dating from 1859. During the American War of +Independence the lighthouse suffered many vicissitudes and was +successively destroyed and rebuilt three times by the American or +British forces. At the third rebuilding in 1783 a stone tower 68 ft. in +height was erected, the illuminant consisting of four oil lamps. Other +early lighthouse structures on the New England coast were those at +Beaver Tail, near the entrance to Newport Harbour (1740), and the Brant +at the entrance to Nantucket Harbour (1754). A watch-house and beacon +appear to have been erected on Beacon or Lighthouse Island as well as on +Point Allerton Hill near Boston, prior to 1673, but these structures +would seem to have been in the nature of look-out stations in time of +war rather than lighthouses for the guidance of mariners. + + +2. LIGHTHOUSE STRUCTURES.--The structures of lighthouses may be divided +into two classes, (a) those on rocks, shoals or in other situations +exposed to the force of the sea, and (b) the more numerous class of land +structures. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Cordouan Lighthouse.] + +_Wave-swept Towers._--In determining the design of a lighthouse tower to +be erected in a wave-swept position consideration must be given to the +physical features of the site and its surroundings. Towers of this +description are classified as follows: (1) Masonry and concrete +structures; (2) Openwork steel and iron-framed erections on pile or +other foundations; (3) Cast iron plated towers; (4) Structures erected +on cylinder foundations. + +(1) _Masonry Towers._--Masonry or concrete towers are generally +preferred for erection on wave-swept rocks affording good foundation, +and have also been constructed in other situations where adequate +foundations have been made by sinking caissons into a soft sea bed. +Smeaton's tower on the Eddystone Rock is the model upon which most later +designs of masonry towers have been based, although many improvements in +detail have since been made. In situations of great exposure the +following requirements in design should be observed: (a) The centre of +gravity of the tower structure should be as low as possible. (b) The +mass of the structure superimposed at any horizontal section must be +sufficient to prevent its displacement by the combined forces of wind +and waves without dependence on the adhesion at horizontal joint faces +or on the dovetailing of stones introduced as an additional safeguard. +(c) The structure should be circular in plan throughout, this form +affording the least resistance to wave stroke and wind pressure in any +direction. (d) The lower portion of the tower exposed to the direct +horizontal stroke of the waves should, for preference, be constructed +with vertical face. The upper portion to be either straight with uniform +batter or continuously curved in the vertical plane. External +projections from the face of the tower, except in the case of a gallery +under the lantern, should be avoided, the surface throughout being +smooth. (e) The height from sea-level to the top of the tower should be +sufficient to avoid the obscuration of the light by broken water or +dense spray driving over the lantern. (f) The foundation of the tower +should be carried well into the solid rock. (g) The materials of which +the tower is built should be of high density and of resistant nature. +(h) The stones used in the construction of the tower, at any rate those +on the outer face, should be dovetailed or joggled one to the other in +order to prevent their being dislodged by the sea during the process of +construction and as an additional safeguard of stability. Of late years, +cement concrete has been used to a considerable extent for maritime +structures, including lighthouses, either alone or faced with masonry. + +(2) _Openwork Structures._--Many examples of openwork steel and iron +lighthouses exist. Some typical examples are described hereafter. This +form of design is suitable for situations where the tower has to be +carried on a foundation of iron or steel piles driven or screwed into an +insecure or sandy bottom, such as on shoals, coral reefs and sand banks +or in places where other materials of construction are exceptionally +costly and where facility of erection is a desideratum. + +(3) _Cast iron Towers._--Cast iron plated towers have been erected in +many situations where the cost of stone or scarcity of labour would have +made the erection of a masonry tower excessively expensive. + +(4) _Caisson Foundations._--Cylinder or caisson foundations have been +used for lighthouse towers in numerous cases where such structures have +been erected on sand banks or shoals. A remarkable instance is the +Rothersand Tower. Two attempts have been made to sink a caisson in the +outer Diamond Shoal off Cape Hatteras on the Atlantic coast of the +United States, but these have proved futile. + + The following are brief descriptions of the more important wave-swept + towers in various parts of the world. + + _Eddystone_ (_Winstanley's Tower_).--The Eddystone rocks, which lie + about 14 m. off Plymouth, are fully exposed to south-west seas. The + reef is submerged at high water of spring tides. Four towers have been + constructed on the reef. The first lighthouse (fig. 2) was polygonal + in plan and highly ornamented with galleries and projections which + offered considerable resistance to the sea stroke. The work was begun + by Henry Winstanley, a gentleman of Essex, in 1695. In 1698 it was + finished to a height of 80 ft. to the wind vane and the light + exhibited, but in the following year, in consequence of damage by + storms, the tower was increased in diameter from 16 ft. to 24 ft. by + the addition of an outer ring of masonry and made solid to a height of + 20 ft. above the rock, the tower being raised to nearly 120 ft. The + work was completed in the year 1700. The lower part of the structure + appears to have been of stone, the upper part and lantern of timber. + During the great storm of the 20th of November 1703 the tower was + swept away, those in it at the time, including the builder, being + drowned. + + _Eddystone_ (_Rudyerd's Tower_, fig. 3).--This structure was begun in + 1706 and completed in 1709. It was a frustum of a cone 22 ft. 8 in. in + diameter at the base and 14 ft. 3 in. at the top. The tower was 92 ft. + in height to the top of the lantern. The work consisted principally of + oak timbers securely bolted and cramped together, the lower part being + filled in solid with stone to add weight to the structure. The + simplicity of the design and the absence of projections from the outer + face rendered the tower very suitable to withstand the onslaught of + the waves. The lighthouse was destroyed by fire in 1755. + + _Eddystone_ (_Smeaton's Tower_, fig. 4).--This famous work, which + consisted entirely of stone, was begun in 1756, the light being first + exhibited in 1759. John Smeaton was the first engineer to use + dovetailed joints for the stones in a lighthouse structure. The + stones, which averaged 1 ton in weight, were fastened to each other by + means of dovetailed vertical joint faces, oak key wedges, and by oak + tree-nails wedged top and bottom, extending vertically from every + course into the stones beneath it. During the 19th century the tower + was strengthened on two occasions by the addition of heavy wrought + iron ties, and the overhanging cornice was reduced in diameter to + prevent the waves from lifting the stones from their beds. In 1877, + owing partly to the undermining of the rock on which the tower was + built and the insufficient height of the structure, the Corporation + of Trinity House determined on the erection of a new lighthouse in + place of Smeaton's tower. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2. Winstanley 1699 + + FIG. 3. Rudyerd 1706 + + FIG. 4. Smeaton 1756 + + FIG. 5. Sir J. N. Douglass 1882 + + Lighthouses on the Eddystone.] + + _Eddystone, New Lighthouse (J. N. Douglass)._--The site selected for + the new tower is 120 ft. S.S.E. from Smeaton's lighthouse, where a + suitable foundation was found, although a considerable section of the + lower courses had to be laid below the level of low water. The + vertical base is 44 ft. in diameter and 22 ft. in height. The tower + (figs. 5 and 6) is a concave elliptic frustum, and is solid, with the + exception of a fresh-water tank, to a height of 25 ft. 6 in. above + high-water level. The walls above this level vary in thickness from 8 + ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. 3 in. under the gallery. All the stones are + dovetailed, both horizontally and vertically, on all joint faces, the + stones of the foundation course being secured to the rock by Muntz + metal bolts. The tower contains 62,133 cub. ft. of granite, weighing + 4668 tons. The height of the structure from low water ordinary spring + tides to the mean focal plane is 149 ft. and it stands 133 ft. above + high water. The lantern is a cylindrical helically framed structure + with domed roof. The astragals are of gun-metal and the pedestal of + cast iron. The optical apparatus consists of two superposed tiers of + refracting lens panels, 12 in each tier of 920 mm. focal distance. The + lenses subtend an angle of 92° vertically. The 12 lens panels are + arranged in groups of two, thus producing a group flashing light + showing 2 flashes of 1½ seconds' duration every half minute, the + apparatus revolving once in 3 minutes. The burners originally fitted + in the apparatus were of 6-wick pattern, but these were replaced in + 1904 by incandescent oil vapour burners. The intensity of the combined + beam of light from the two apparatus is 292,000 candles. At the time + of the completion of the lighthouse two bells, weighing 2 tons each + and struck by mechanical power, were installed for fog-signalling + purposes. Since that date an explosive gun-cotton fog signal has been + erected, the bells being removed. At a lower level in the tower are + installed 2 21-in. parabolic silvered reflectors with 2-wick burners, + throwing a fixed light of 8000 candle-power over a danger known as the + Hand Deeps. The work of preparing the foundation was begun on the 17th + of July 1878, the foundation stone being laid by the late duke of + Edinburgh on the 19th of August 1879. The last stone was laid on the + 1st of June 1881, and the light was exhibited for the first time on + the 18th of May 1882. The upper portion of Smeaton's tower, which was + removed on completion of the new lighthouse, was re-erected on + Plymouth Hoe, where it replaced the old Trinity House sea mark. One of + the principal features in the design of the new Eddystone lighthouse + tower is the solid vertical base. This construction was much + criticized at the time, but experience has proved that heavy seas + striking the massive cylindrical structure are immediately broken up + and rush round to the opposite side, spray alone ascending to the + height of the lantern gallery. On the other hand, the waves striking + the old tower at its foundation ran up the surface, which presented a + curved face to the waves, and, unimpeded by any projection until + arriving at the lantern gallery, were partially broken up by the + cornice and then spent themselves in heavy spray over the lantern. The + shock to which the cornice of the gallery was exposed was so great + that stones were sometimes lifted from their beds. The new Eddystone + tower presents another point of dissimilarity from Smeaton's + structure, in that the stones forming the floors consist of single + corbels built into the wall and constituting solid portions thereof. + In Smeaton's tower the floors consisted of stone arches, the thrust + being taken by the walls of the tower itself, which were strengthened + for the purpose by building in chains in the form of hoops (fig. 7). + The system of constructing corbelled stone floors was first adopted by + R. Stevenson in the Bell Rock lighthouse (fig. 8). + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Plan of Entrance Floor, Eddystone Lighthouse.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Floor, Smeaton's Eddystone Lighthouse.] + + _Bell Rock Lighthouse_ (fig. 9).--The Bell Rock, which lies 12 m. off + the coast of Forfarshire, is exposed to a considerable extent at low + water. The tower is submerged to a depth of about 16 ft. at high water + of spring tides. The rock is of hard sandstone. The lighthouse was + constructed by Robert Stevenson and is 100 ft. in height, the solid + portion being carried to a height of 21 ft. above high water. The work + of construction was begun in 1807, and finished in 1810, the light + being first exhibited in 1811. The total weight of the tower is 2076 + tons. A new lantern and dioptric apparatus were erected on the tower + in 1902. The focal plane of the light is elevated 93 ft. above high + water. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Floor, Stevenson's Bell Rock Lighthouse.] + + _Skerryvore Lighthouse_ (fig. 10).--The Skerryvore Rocks, 12 m. off + the island of Tyree in Argyllshire, are wholly open to the Atlantic. + The work, designed by Alan Stevenson, was begun in 1838 and finished + in 1844. The tower, the profile of which is a hyperbolic curve, is 138 + ft. high to the lantern base, 42 ft. diameter at the base, and 16 ft. + at the top. Its weight is 4308 tons. The structure contains 9 rooms in + addition to the lantern chamber. It is solid to a height of 26 ft. + above the base. + + _Heaux de Brehat Lighthouse._--The reef on which this tower is + constructed lies off the coast of Brittany, and is submerged at high + tide. The work was carried out in 1836-1839. The tower is circular in + plan with a gallery at a height of about 70 ft. above the base. The + tower is 156 ft. in height from base to lantern floor. + + _Haut Banc du Nord Lighthouse._--This tower is placed on a reef at the + north-west extremity of the Île de Ré, and was constructed in + 1849-1853. It is 86 ft. in height to the lantern floor. + + _Bishop Rock Lighthouse._--The lighthouse on the Bishop Rock, which is + the westernmost landfall rock of the Scilly Islands, occupies perhaps + a more exposed situation than any other in the world. The first + lighthouse erected there was begun in 1847 under the direction of N. + Douglass. The tower consisted of a cast and wrought iron openwork + structure having the columns deeply sunk into the rock. On the 5th of + February 1850, when the tower was ready for the erection of the + lantern and illuminating apparatus, a heavy storm swept away the whole + of the structure. This tower was designed for an elevation of 94 ft. + to the focal plane. In 1851 the erection of a granite tower, from the + designs of James Walker, was begun; the light was first exhibited in + 1858. The tower (fig. 11) had an elevation to the focal plane of 110 + ft., the lower 14 courses being arranged in steps, or offsets, to + break up the force of the waves. This structure also proved + insufficient to withstand the very heavy seas to which it was exposed. + Soon after its completion the 5-cwt. fog bell, fixed to the lantern + gallery 100 ft. above high-water mark, was washed away, together with + the flagstaff and ladder. The tower vibrated considerably during + storms, and it was found that some of the external blocks of granite + had been split by the excessive stress to which they had been exposed. + In 1874 the tower was strengthened by bolting continuous iron ties to + the internal surfaces of the walls. In 1881, when further signs of + damage appeared, it was determined to remove the upper storey or + service room of the lighthouse, and to case the structure from its + base upwards with granite blocks securely dovetailed to each other and + to the existing work. At the same time it was considered advisable to + increase the elevation of the light, and place the mean focal plane of + the new apparatus at an elevation of 146 ft. above high-water mark. + The work was begun in 1883, and the new apparatus was first + illuminated on the 25th of October 1887. During the operation of + heightening the tower it was necessary to install a temporary light, + consisting of a cylindrical lightship lantern with catoptric + apparatus; this was raised from time to time in advance of the + structure as the work proceeded. The additional masonry built into the + tower amounts approximately to 3220 tons. Profiting by the experience + gained after the construction of the new Eddystone tower, Sir J. N. + Douglass decided to build the lower portion of the improved Bishop + Rock tower in the form of a cylinder, but with considerably increased + elevation (figs. 12 and 13). The cylindrical base is 40 ft. in + diameter, and rises to 25 ft. above high-water mark. The lantern is + cylindrical and helically framed, 14 ft. in diameter, the glazing + being 15 ft. in height. The optical apparatus consists of two + superposed tiers of lenses of 1330 mm. focal distance, the lenses + subtending a horizontal angle of 36° and a vertical angle of 80°. The + apparatus consists of 5 groups of lenses each group producing a double + flashing light of one minute period, the whole apparatus revolving + once in five minutes. The maximum aggregate candle-power of the flash + is 622,000 candles. A gun-cotton explosive fog signal is attached to + the lantern. The cost of the various lighthouses on the Bishop Rock + has been as follows: + + 1. Cast iron lighthouse £12,500 0 0 + 2. Granite lighthouse 34,559 18 9 + 3. Improved granite lighthouse 64,889 0 0 + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Bell Rock. + + FIG. 10.--Skerryvore. + + FIG. 11.--Bishop Rock. + + FIG. 12.--Bishop Rock.] + + _The Smalls Lighthouse._--A lighthouse has existed on the Smalls rock, + 18½ m. off Milford Haven, since 1776, when an oak pile structure was + erected by Henry Whiteside. The existing structure, after the model of + the second lighthouse on the Bishop Rock, was erected in 1856-1861 by + the Trinity House and is 114 ft. in height from the foundation to the + lantern floor. A new optical apparatus was installed in 1907. + + _Minot's Ledge Lighthouse._--The tower, which is 89 ft. in height, is + built of granite upon a reef off Boston Harbor, Mass., and occupied + five years in construction, being completed in 1860 at a cost of + £62,500. The rock just bares at low water. The stones are dovetailed + vertically but not on their horizontal beds in the case of the lower + 40 ft. or solid portion of the tower, bonding bolts being substituted + for the horizontal dovetailed joints used in the case of the Wolf and + other English towers. The shape of the tower is a conical frustum. + + _Wolf Rock Lighthouse._--This much exposed rock lies midway between + the Scilly Isles and the Lizard Point, and is submerged to the depth + of about 6 ft. at high water. The tower was erected in 1862-1869 (fig. + 14). It is 116 ft. 6 in. high, 41 ft. 8 in. diameter at the base, + decreasing to 17 ft. at the top. The walls are 7 ft. 9½ in. thick, + decreasing to 2 ft. 3 in. The shaft is a concave elliptic frustum, and + contains 3296 tons. The lower part of the tower has projecting + scarcements in order to break up the sea. + + _Dhu Heartach Rock Lighthouse._--The Dhu Heartach Rock, 35 ft. above + high water, is 14 m. from the island of Mull, which is the nearest + shore. The maximum diameter of the tower (fig. 15), which is of + parabolic outline, is 36 ft., decreasing to 16 ft.; the shaft is solid + for 32 ft. above the rock; the masonry weighs 3115 tons, of which 1810 + are contained in the solid part. This tower occupied six years in + erection, and was completed in 1872. + + _Great Basses Lighthouse, Ceylon._--The Great Basses lighthouse lies 6 + m. from the nearest land. The cylindrical base is 32 ft. in diameter, + above which is a tower 67 ft. 5 in. high and 23 ft. in diameter. The + walls vary in thickness from 5 ft. to 2 ft. The tower, including the + base, contains about 2768 tons. The work was finished in three years, + 1870-1873. + + _Spectacle Reef Lighthouse, Lake Huron._--This is a structure similar + to that on Minot's ledge, standing on a limestone reef at the northern + end of the lake. The tower (fig. 16) was constructed with a view to + withstanding the effects of ice massing in solid fields thousands of + acres in extent and travelling at considerable velocity. The tower is + in shape the frustum of a cone, 32 ft. in diameter at the base and 93 + ft. in height to the coping of the gallery. The focal plane is at a + level of 97 ft. above the base. The lower 34 ft. of the tower is + solid. The work was completed in 1874, having occupied four years. The + cost amounted to approximately £78,000. + + _Chicken Rock Lighthouse._--The Chicken Rock lies 1 m. off the Calf of + Man. The curve of the tower, which is 123 ft. 4 in. high, is + hyperbolic, the diameter varying from 42 ft. to 16 ft. The tower is + submerged 5 ft. at high-water springs. The solid part is 32 ft. 6 in. + in height, weighing 2050 tons, the whole weight of the tower being + 3557 tons. The walls decrease from 9 ft. 3 in. to 2 ft. 3 in. in + thickness. The work was begun in 1869 and completed in 1874. + + _Ar'men Lighthouse._--The masonry tower, erected by the French + Lighthouse Service, on the Ar'men Rock off the western extremity of + the Île de Sein, Finistère, occupied fifteen years in construction + (1867-1881). The rock is of small area, barely uncovered at low water, + and it was therefore found impossible to construct a tower having a + base diameter greater than 24 ft. The focal plane of the light is 94 + ft. above high water (fig. 17). + + _St George's Reef Lighthouse, California._--This structure consists of + a square pyramidal stone tower rising from the easterly end of an oval + masonry pier, built on a rock to a height of 60 ft. above the water. + The focal plane is at an elevation of 146 ft. above high water. The + site is an exceedingly dangerous one, and the work, which was + completed in 1891, cost approximately £144,000. + + _Rattray Head Lighthouse._--This lighthouse was constructed between + the years 1892 and 1895 by the Northern Lighthouse Commissioners upon + the Ron Rock, lying about one-fifth of a mile off Rattray Head, + Aberdeenshire. The focal plane is 91 ft. above high water, the + building being approximately 113 ft. in height. In the tower there is + a fog-horn worked by compressed air. + + _Fastnet Lighthouse._--In the year 1895 it was reported to the Irish + Lights Commissioners that the then existing lighthouse on the Fastnet + Rock off the south-west coast of Ireland, which was completed in 1854 + and consisted of a circular cast iron tower 86 ft. in height on the + summit of the rock, was considerably undermined. It was subsequently + determined to proceed with the erection of a granite structure of + increased height and founded upon a sound ledge of rock on one side of + the higher, but now considerably undermined. portion of the reef. + This lighthouse tower has its foundation laid near high-water level. + The focal plane is at a level of 158 ft. above high-water mark. The + cost of the structure, which was commenced in 1899 and completed in + 1904, was £79,000. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Bishop Rock Lighthouse.] + + _Beachy Head Lighthouse._--A lighthouse has been erected upon the + foreshore at the foot of Beachy Head, near Eastbourne, to replace the + old structure on the cliff having an elevation of 284 ft. above + high-water mark. Experience proved that the light of the latter was + frequently obscured by banks of mist or fog, while at the lower level + the transparency of the atmosphere was considerably less impaired. The + Trinity House therefore decided in the year 1899 to proceed with the + construction of a granite tower upon the foreshore at a distance of + some 570 ft. from the base of the cliff (fig. 18). The foreshore at + this point consists of chalk, and the selected site just bares at low + water ordinary spring tides. The foundation course was laid at a depth + of 10 ft. below the surface, the area being excavated within a + coffer-dam. The tower, which is 47 ft. in diameter at the base, has an + elevation to the focal plane above high water of 103 ft., or a total + height from foundation course to gallery coping of 123 ft. 6 in. The + lower or solid portion of the tower has its face stones constructed in + vertical offsets or steps in a similar manner to that adopted at the + Wolf Rock and elsewhere. The tower is constructed with a facing of + granite, all the stones being dovetailed in the usual manner. The + hearting of the base is largely composed of concrete. The work was + completed in 1902 and cost £56,000. + + _Maplin Lighthouse._--The screw pile lighthouse erected on the Maplin + Sand in the estuary of the river Thames in 1838 is the earliest of its + kind and served as a model for numerous similar structures in various + parts of the world. The piles are nine in number, 5 in. diameter of + solid wrought iron with screws 4 ft. diameter (fig. 19). + + _Fowey Rocks Lighthouse, Florida._--This iron structure, which was + begun in 1875 and completed in 1878, stands on the extreme northern + point of the Florida reefs. The height of the tower, which is founded + on wrought iron piles driven 10 ft. into the coral rock, is 110 ft. + from high water to focal plane. The iron openwork pyramidal structure + encloses a plated iron dwelling for the accommodation of the keepers. + The cost of construction amounted to £32,600. + + _Alligator Reef Lighthouse, Florida._--This tower is one of the finest + iron sea-swept lighthouse structures in the world. It consists of a + pyramidal iron framework 135 ft. 6 in. in height, standing on the + Florida Reef in 5 ft. of water. The cost of the structure, which is + similar to the Fowey Rocks tower, was £37,000. + + _American Shoal Lighthouse, Florida._--This tower (fig. 20) is typical + of the openwork pile structures on the Florida reefs, and was + completed in 1880. The focal plane of the light is at an elevation of + 109 ft. above high water. + + _Wolf Trap Lighthouse._--This building was erected during the years + 1893 and 1894 on Wolf Trap Spit in Chesapeake Bay, near the site of + the old openwork structure which was swept away by ice early in 1893. + The new tower is formed upon a cast iron caisson 30 ft. in diameter + sunk 18 ft. into the sandy bottom. The depth of water on the shoal is + 16 ft. at low water. The caisson was filled with concrete, and is + surmounted by a brick superstructure 52 ft. in height from low water + to the focal plane of the light. A somewhat similar structure was + erected in 1885-1887 on the Fourteen Foot Bank in Delaware Bay, at a + cost of £24,700. The foundation in this case was, however, shifting + sand, and the caisson was carried to a greater depth. + + _Rothersand Lighthouse._--This lighthouse, off the entrance to the + river Weser (Germany), is a structure of great interest on account of + the difficulties met with in its construction. The tower had to be + founded on a bottom of shifting sand 20 ft. below low water and in a + very exposed situation. Work was begun in May 1881, when attempts were + made to sink an iron caisson under pneumatic pressure. Owing to the + enormous scour removing the sand from one side of the caisson it + tilted to an alarming angle, but eventually it was sunk to a level of + 70 ft. below low-water mark. In October of the same year the whole + structure collapsed. Another attempt, made in May 1883, to sink a + caisson of bi-convex shape in plan 47 ft. long, 37 ft. wide and 62 ft. + in height, met with success, and after many difficulties the structure + was sunk to a depth of 73 ft. below low water, the sides being raised + by the addition of iron plating as the caisson sank. The sand was + removed from the interior by suction. Around the caisson foundation + were placed 74,000 cub. yds. of mattress work and stones, the interior + being filled with concrete. Towards the end of 1885 the lighthouse was + completed, at a total cost, including the first attempt, of over + £65,000. The tower is an iron structure in the shape of a concave + elliptic frustum, its base being founded upon the caisson foundation + at about half-tide level (fig. 21). The light is electric, the current + being supplied by cable from the shore. The focal plane is 78 ft. + above high water or 109 ft. from the sand level. The total height from + the foundation of the caisson to the top of the vane is 185 ft. + + Other famous wave-swept towers are those at Haulbowline Rock + (Carlingford Lough, Ireland, 1823); Horsburgh (Singapore, 1851); Bayes + d'Olonne (Bay of Biscay, 1861); Hanois (Alderney, 1862); Daedalus + Reef, iron tower (Red Sea, 1863); Alguada Reef (Bay of Bengal, 1865); + Longships (Land's End, 1872); the Prongs (Bombay, 1874); Little Basses + (Ceylon, 1878); the Graves (Boston, U.S.A., 1905); Jument d'Ouessant + (France, 1907); and Roche Bonne (France, building 1910). + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Wolf Rock. + + FIG. 15.--Dhu Heartach. + + FIG. 16.--Spectacle Reef. + + FIG. 17.--Ar'men. + + FIG. 18.--Beachy Head.] + +_Jointing of Stones in Rock Towers._--Various methods of jointing the +stones in rock towers are shown in figs. 6 and 22. The great distinction +between the towers built by successive engineers to the Trinity House +and other rock lighthouses is that, in the former the stones of each +course are dovetailed together both laterally and vertically and are not +connected by metal or wooden pins and wedges and dowled as in most other +cases. This dovetail method was first adopted at the Hanois Rock at the +suggestion of Nicholas Douglass. On the upper face, one side and at one +end of each block is a dovetailed projection. On the under face and the +other side and end, corresponding dovetailed recesses are formed with +just sufficient clearance for the raised bands to enter in setting (fig. +23). The cement mortar in the joint formed between the faces so locks +the dovetails that the stones cannot be separated without breaking (fig. +24). + + TABLE I.--_Comparative Cost of Exposed Rock Towers_. + + +----------------------------------------------------------+--------------+--------+-----------+ + | | | | Cost per | + | Name of Structure. | Total Cost. |Cub. ft.|cub. ft. of| + | | | | Masonry. | + +----------------------------------------------------------+--------------+--------+-----------+ + | Eddystone, Smeaton (1759) |£40,000 0 0 | 13,343 | £2 9 11½ | + | Bell Rock, Firth of Forth (1811) | 55,619 12 1 | 28,530 | 1 19 0 | + | Skerryvore, west coast of Scotland (1844) | 72,200 11 6 | 58,580 | 1 4 7¾ | + | Bishop Rock, first granite tower (1858) | 34,559 18 9 | 35,209 | 0 19 7½ | + | Smalls, Bristol Channel (1861) | 50,124 11 8 | 46,386 | 1 1 7¼ | + | Hanois, Alderney (1862) | 25,296 0 0 | 24,542 | 1 0 7¼ | + | Wolf Rock, Land's End (1869) | 62,726 0 0 | 59,070 | 1 1 3 | + | Dhu Heartach, west coast of Scotland (1872) | 72,584 9 7 | 42,050 | 1 14 6 | + | Longships, Land's End (1872) | 43,869 8 11 | 47,610 | 0 18 5 | + | Eddystone, Douglass (1882) | 59,255 0 0 | 65,198 | 0 18 2 | + | Bishop Rock, strengthening and part reconstruction (1887)| 64,889 0 0 | 45,080 | 1 8 9 | + | Great Basses, Ceylon (1873) | 63,560 0 0 | 47,819 | 1 6 7 | + | Minot's Ledge, Boston, Mass. (1860) | 62,500 0 0 | 36,322 | 1 17 2 | + | Spectacle Reef, Lake Huron (1874) | 78,125 0 0 | 42,742 | 1 16 2 | + | Ar'men, France (1881) | 37,692 0 0 | 32,400 | 1 3 3 | + | Fastnet, Ireland (1904) | 79,000 0 0 | 62,600 | 1 5 5½ | + +----------------------------------------------------------+--------------+--------+-----------+ + +_Effect of Waves._--The wave stroke to which rock lighthouse towers are +exposed is often considerable. At the Dhu Heartach, during the erection +of the tower, 14 joggled stones, each of 2 tons weight, were washed away +after having been set in cement at a height of 37 ft. above high water, +and similar damage was done during the construction of the Bell Rock +tower. The effect of waves on the Bishop Rock and Eddystone towers has +been noted above. + +_Land Structures for Lighthouses._--The erection of lighthouse towers +and other buildings on land presents no difficulties of construction, +and such buildings are of ordinary architectural character. It will +therefore be unnecessary to refer to them in detail. Attention is +directed to the Phare d'Eckmühl at Penmarc'h (Finistère), completed in +1897. The cost of this magnificent structure, 207 ft. in height from the +ground, was largely defrayed by a bequest of £12,000 left by the marquis +de Blocqueville. It is constructed entirely of granite, and is octagonal +in plan. The total cost of the tower and other lighthouse buildings +amounted to £16,000. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Maplin Pile Lighthouse.] + +The tower at Île Vierge (Finistère), completed in 1902, has an elevation +of 247 ft. from the ground level to the focal plane, and is probably the +highest structure of its kind in the world. + +The brick tower, constructed at Spurn Point, at the entrance to the +Humber and completed in 1895, replaced an earlier structure erected by +Smeaton at the end of the 18th century. The existing tower is +constructed on a foundation consisting of concrete cylinders sunk in the +shingle beach. The focal plane of the light is elevated 120 ft. above +high water. + +Besides being built of stone or brick, land towers are frequently +constructed of cast iron plates or open steel-work with a view to +economy. Fine examples of the former are to be found in many British +colonies and elsewhere, that on Dassen Island (Cape of Good Hope), 105 +ft. in height to the focal plane, being typical (fig. 25). Many openwork +structures up to 200 ft. in height have been built. Recent examples are +the towers erected at Cape San Thomé (Brazil) in 1882, 148 ft. in height +(fig. 26), Mocha (Red Sea) in 1903, 180 ft. and Sanganeb Reef (Red Sea) +1906, 165 ft. in height to the focal plane. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--American Shoal Lighthouse, Florida.] + + +3. OPTICAL APPARATUS.--Optical apparatus in lighthouses is required for +one or other of three distinct purposes: (1) the concentration of the +rays derived from the light source into a belt of light distributed +evenly around the horizon, condensation in the vertical plane only being +employed; (2) the concentration of the rays both vertically and +horizontally into a pencil or cone of small angle directed towards the +horizon and caused to revolve about the light source as a centre, thus +producing a flashing light; and (3) the condensation of the light in the +vertical plane and also in the horizontal plane in such a manner as to +concentrate the rays over a limited azimuth only. + +Apparatus falling under the first category produce a fixed light, and +further distinction can be provided in this class by mechanical means of +occultation, resulting in the production of an occulting or intermittent +light. Apparatus included in the second class are usually employed to +produce flashing lights, but sometimes the dual condensation is taken +advantage of to produce a fixed pencil of rays thrown towards the +horizon for the purpose of marking an isolated danger or the limits of a +narrow channel. Such lights are best described by the French term _feux +de direction_. Catoptric apparatus, by which dual condensation is +produced, are moreover sometimes used for fixed lights, the light +pencils overlapping each other in azimuth. Apparatus of the third class +are employed for sector lights or those throwing a beam of light over a +wider azimuth than can be conveniently covered by an apparatus of the +second class, and for reinforcing the beam of light emergent from a +fixed apparatus in any required direction. + +The above classification of apparatus depends on the resultant effect of +the optical elements. Another classification divides the instruments +themselves into three classes: (a) catoptric, (b) dioptric and (c) +catadioptric. + +_Catoptric_ apparatus are those by which the light rays are reflected +only from the faces of incidence, such as silvered mirrors of plane, +spherical, parabolic or other profile. _Dioptric_ elements are those in +which the light rays pass through the optical glass, suffering +refraction at the incident and emergent faces (fig. 27). _Catadioptric_ +elements are combined of the two foregoing and consist of optical prisms +in which the light rays suffer refraction at the incident face, total +internal reflexion at a second face and again refraction on emergence at +the third face (fig. 28). + +The object of these several forms of optical apparatus is not only to +produce characteristics or distinctions in lights to enable them to be +readily recognized by mariners, but to utilize the light rays in +directions above and below the horizontal plane, and also, in the case +of revolving or flashing lights, in azimuths not requiring to be +illuminated for strengthening the beam in the direction of the mariner. +It will be seen that the effective condensation in flashing lights is +very much greater than in fixed belts, thus enabling higher intensities +to be obtained by the use of flashing lights than with fixed apparatus. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Rothersand Lighthouse.] + + _Catoptric System._--Parabolic reflectors, consisting of small facets + of silvered glass set in plaster of Paris, were first used about the + year 1763 in some of the Mersey lights by Mr Hutchinson, then dock + master at Liverpool (fig. 29). Spherical metallic reflectors were + introduced in France in 1781, followed by parabolic reflectors on + silvered copper in 1790 in England and France, and in Scotland in + 1803. The earlier lights were of fixed type, a number of reflectors + being arranged on a frame or stand in such a manner that the pencils + of emergent rays overlapped and thus illuminated the whole horizon + continuously. In 1783 the first revolving light was erected at + Marstrand in Sweden. Similar apparatus were installed at Cordouan + (1790), Flamborough Head (1806) and at the Bell Rock (1811). To + produce a revolving or flashing light the reflectors were fixed on a + revolving carriage having several faces. Three or more reflectors in a + face were set with their axes parallel. + + A type of parabolic reflector now in use is shown in fig. 30. The + sizes in general use vary from 21 in. to 24 in. diameter. These + instruments are still largely used for light-vessel illumination, and + a few important land lights are at the present time of catoptric type, + including those at St Agnes (Scilly Islands), Cromer and St Anthony + (Falmouth). + + _Dioptric System._--The first adaptation of dioptric lenses to + lighthouses is probably due to T. Rogers, who used lenses at one of + the Portland lighthouses between 1786 and 1790. Subsequently lenses by + the same maker were used at Howth, Waterford and the North Foreland. + Count Buffon had in 1748 proposed to grind out of a solid piece of + glass a lens in steps or concentric zones in order to reduce the + thickness to a minimum (fig. 31). Condorcet in 1773 and Sir D. + Brewster in 1811 designed built-up lenses consisting of stepped + annular rings. Neither of these proposals, however, was intended to + apply to lighthouse purposes. In 1822 Augustin Fresnel constructed a + built-up annular lens in which the centres of curvature of the + different rings receded from the axis according to their distances + from the centre, so as practically to eliminate spherical aberration; + the only spherical surface being the small central part or "bull's + eye" (fig. 32). These lenses were intended for revolving lights only. + Fresnel next produced his cylindric refractor or lens belt, consisting + of a zone of glass generated by the revolution round a vertical axis + of a medial section of the annular lens (fig. 33). The lens belt + condensed and parallelized the light rays in the vertical plane only, + while the annular lens does so in every plane. The first revolving + light constructed from Fresnel's designs was erected at the Cordouan + lighthouse in 1823. It consisted of 8 panels of annular lenses placed + round the lamp at a focal distance of 920 mm. To utilize the light, + which would otherwise escape above the lenses, Fresnel introduced a + series of 8 plain silvered mirrors, on which the light was thrown by a + system of lenses. At a subsequent period mirrors were also placed in + the lower part of the optic. The apparatus was revolved by clockwork. + This optic embodied the first combination of dioptric and catoptric + elements in one design (fig. 34). In the following year Fresnel + designed a dioptric lens with catoptric mirrors for fixed light, which + was the first of its kind installed in a lighthouse. It was erected at + the Chassiron lighthouse in 1827 (fig. 35). This combination is + geometrically perfect, but not so practically on account of the great + loss of light entailed by metallic reflection which is at least 25% + greater than the system described under. Before his death in 1827 + Fresnel devised his totally reflecting or catadioptric prisms to take + the place of the silvered reflectors previously used above and below + the lens elements (fig. 28). The ray Fi falling on the prismoidal ring + ABC is refracted in the direction i r and meeting the face AB at an + angle of incidence greater than the critical, is totally reflected in + the direction r e emerging after second refraction in a horizontal + direction. Fresnel devised these prisms for use in fixed light + apparatus, but the principle was, at a later date, also applied to + flashing lights, in the first instance by T. Stevenson. Both the + dioptric lens and catadioptric prism invented by Fresnel are still in + general use, the mathematical calculations of the great French + designer still forming the basis upon which lighthouse opticians work. + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Courses of various Lighthouse Towers.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Perspective drawing of Dovetailed Stone (Wolf + Rock).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Section of Dovetail.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Dassen Island Lighthouse (cast iron).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Cape San Thomé Lighthouse.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Dioptric Prism.] + + Fresnel also designed a form of fixed and flashing light in which the + distinction of a fixed light, varied by flashes, was produced by + placing panels of straight refracting prisms in a vertical position on + a revolving carriage outside the fixed light apparatus. The revolution + of the upright prisms periodically increased the power of the beam, by + condensation of the rays emergent from the fixed apparatus, in the + horizontal plane. + + The lens segments in Fresnel's early apparatus were of polygonal form + instead of cylindrical, but subsequently manufacturers succeeded in + grinding glass in cylindrical rings of the form now used. The first + apparatus of this description was made by Messrs Cookson of Newcastle + in 1836 at the suggestion of Alan Stevenson and erected at Inchkeith. + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Catadioptric or Reflecting Prism.] + + In 1825 the French Commission des Phares decided upon the exclusive + use of lenticular apparatus in its service. The Scottish Lighthouse + Board followed with the Inchkeith revolving apparatus in 1835 and the + Isle of May fixed optic in 1836. In the latter instrument Alan + Stevenson introduced helical frames for holding the glass prisms in + place, thus avoiding complete obstruction of the light rays in any + azimuth. The first dioptric light erected by the Trinity House was + that formerly at Start Point in Devonshire, constructed in 1836. + Catadioptric or reflecting prisms for revolving lights were not used + until 1850, when Alan Stevenson designed them for the North Ronaldshay + lighthouse. + + _Dioptric Mirror._--The next important improvement in lighthouse + optical work was the invention of the dioptric spherical mirror by Mr + (afterwards Sir) J. T. Chance in 1862. The zones or prisms are + generated round a vertical axis and divided into segments. This form + of mirror is still in general use (figs. 36 and 37). + + [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Early Reflector and Lamp (1763).] + + _Azimuthal Condensing Prisms._--Previous to 1850 all apparatus were + designed to emit light of equal power in every azimuth either + constantly or periodically. The only exception was where a light was + situated on a stretch of coast where a mirror could be placed behind + the flame to utilize the rays, which would otherwise pass landward, + and reflect them back, passing through the flame and lens in a seaward + direction. In order to increase the intensity of lights in certain + azimuths T. Stevenson devised his azimuthal condensing prisms which, + in various forms and methods of application, have been largely used + for the purpose of strengthening the light rays in required directions + as, for instance, where coloured sectors are provided. Applications of + this system will be referred to subsequently. + + [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Modern Parabolic Reflector.] + + _Optical Glass for Lighthouses._--In the early days of lens lights the + only glass used for the prisms was made in France at the St Gobain and + Premontré works, which have long been celebrated for the high quality + of optical glass produced. The early dioptric lights erected in the + United Kingdom, some 13 in all, were made by Messrs Cookson of South + Shields, who were instructed by Léonor Fresnel, the brother of + Augustin. At first they tried to mould the lens and then to grind it + out of one thick sheet of glass. The successors of the Cookson firm + abandoned the manufacture of lenses in 1845, and the firm of + Letourneau & Lepaute of Paris again became the monopolists. In 1850 + Messrs Chance Bros. & Co. of Birmingham began the manufacture of + optical glass, assisted by M. Tabouret, a French expert who had been a + colleague of Augustin Fresnel himself. The first light made by the + firm was shown at the Great Exhibition of 1851, since when numerous + dioptric apparatus have been constructed by Messrs Chance, who are, at + this time, the only manufacturers of lighthouse glass in the United + Kingdom. Most of the glass used for apparatus constructed in France is + manufactured at St Gobain. Some of the glass used by German + constructors is made at Rathenow in Prussia and Goslar in the Harz. + + The glass generally employed for lighthouse optics has for its + refractive index a mean value of µ = 1.51, the corresponding critical + angle being 41° 30'. Messrs Chance have used dense flint glass for the + upper and lower refracting rings of high angle lenses and for dioptric + mirrors in certain cases. This glass has a value of µ = l.62 with + critical angle 38° 5'. + + [Illustration: FIG. 31. Buffon's Lens.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 32. Fresnel's Annular Lens.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 33. Fresnel's Lens Belt.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Fresnel's Revolving Apparatus at Cordouan + Lighthouse.] + + _Occulting Lights._--During the last 25 years of the 19th century the + disadvantages of fixed lights became more and more apparent. At the + present day the practice of installing such, except occasionally in + the case of the smaller and less important of harbour or river lights, + has practically ceased. The necessity for providing a distinctive + characteristic for every light when possible has led to the conversion + of many of the fixed-light apparatus of earlier years into occulting + lights, and often to their supersession by more modern and powerful + flashing apparatus. An occulting apparatus in general use consists of + a cylindrical screen, fitting over the burner, rapidly lowered and + raised by means of a cam-wheel at stated intervals. The cam-wheel is + actuated by means of a weight or spring clock. Varying characteristics + may be procured by means of such a contrivance--single, double, triple + or other systems of occultation. The eclipses or periods of darkness + bear much the same relation to the times of illumination as do the + flashes to the eclipses in a revolving or flashing light. In the case + of a first-order fixed light the cost of conversion to an occulting + characteristic does not exceed £250 to £300. With apparatus + illuminated by gas the occultations may be produced by successively + raising and lowering the gas at stated intervals. Another form of + occulting mechanism employed consists of a series of vertical screens + mounted on a carriage and revolving round the burner. The carriage is + rotated on rollers or ball bearings or carried upon a small mercury + float. The usual driving mechanism employed is a spring clock. "Otter" + screens are used in cases when it is desired to produce different + periods of occultations in two or more positions in azimuth in order + to differentiate sectors marking shoals, &c. The screens are of sheet + metal blacked and arranged vertically, some what in the manner of the + laths of a venetian blind, and operated by mechanical means. + + _Leading Lights._--In the case of lights designed to act as a lead + through a narrow channel or as direction lights, it is undesirable to + employ a flashing apparatus. Fixed-light optics are employed to meet + such cases, and are generally fitted with occulting mechanism. A + typical apparatus of this description is that at Gage Roads, + Fremantle, West Australia (fig. 38). The occulting bright light covers + the fairway, and is flanked by sectors of occulting red and green + light marking dangers and intensified by vertical condensing prisms. A + good example of a holophotal direction light was exhibited at the 1900 + Paris Exhibition, and afterwards erected at Suzac lighthouse (France). + The light consists of an annular lens 500 mm. focal distance, of 180° + horizontal angle and 157° vertical, with a mirror of 180° at the back. + The lens throws a red beam of about 4½° amplitude in azimuth, and + 50,000 candle-power over a narrow channel. The illuminant is an + incandescent petroleum vapour burner. Holophotal direction lenses of + this type can only be applied where the sector to be marked is of + comparatively small angle. Silvered metallic mirrors of parabolic form + are also used for the purpose. The use of single direction lights + frequently renders the construction of separate towers for leading + lights unnecessary. + + If two distinct lights are employed to indicate the line of navigation + through a channel or between dangers they must be sufficiently far + apart to afford a good lead, the front or seaward light being situated + at a lower elevation than the rear or landward one. + + _Coloured Lights._--Colour is used as seldom as possible as a + distinction, entailing as it does a considerable reduction in the + power of the light. It is necessary in some instances for + differentiating sectors over dangers and for harbour lighting + purposes. The use of coloured lights as alternating flashes for + lighthouse lights is not to be commended, on account of the unequal + absorption of the coloured and bright rays by the atmosphere. When + such distinction has been employed, as in the Wolf Rock apparatus, the + red and white beams can be approximately equalized in initial + intensity by constructing the lens and prism panels for the red light + of larger angle than those for the white beams. Owing to the + absorption by the red colouring, the power of a red beam is only 40% + of the intensity of the corresponding white light. The corresponding + intensity of green light is 25%. When red or green sectors are + employed they should invariably be reinforced by mirrors, azimuthal + condensing prisms, or other means to raise the coloured beam to + approximately the same intensity as the white light. With the + introduction of group-flashing characteristics the necessity for using + colour as a means of distinction disappeared. + + [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Fixed Apparatus at Chassiron Lighthouse + (1827).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Vertical Section. Prism of Dioptric Spherical + Mirror.] + + _High-Angle Vertical Lenses._--Messrs Chance of Birmingham have + manufactured lenses having 97° of vertical amplitude, but this result + was only attained by using dense flint glass of high refractive index + for the upper and lower elements. It is doubtful, however, whether the + use of refracting elements for a greater angle than 80° vertically is + attended by any material corresponding advantage. + + [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Chance's Dioptric Spherical Mirror.] + + _Group Flashing Lights._--One of the most useful distinctions consists + in the grouping of two or more flashes separated by short intervals of + darkness, the group being succeeded by a longer eclipse. Thus two, + three or more flashes of, say, half second duration or less follow + each other at intervals of about 2 seconds and are succeeded by an + eclipse of, say, 10 seconds, the sequence being completed in a period + of, say, 15 seconds. In 1874 Dr John Hopkinson introduced the very + valuable improvement of dividing the lenses of a dioptric revolving + light with the panels of reflecting prisms above and below them, + setting them at an angle to produce the group-flashing characteristic. + The first apparatus of this type constructed were those now in use at + Tampico, Mexico and the Little Basses lighthouse, Ceylon (double + flashing). The Casquets apparatus (triple flashing) was installed in + 1877. A group-flashing catoptric light had, however, been exhibited + from the "Royal Sovereign" light-vessel in 1875. A sectional plan of + the quadruple-flashing first order apparatus at Pendeen in Cornwall + is shown in fig. 39; and fig. 55 (Plate 1.) illustrates a double + flashing first order light at Pachena Point in British Columbia. + Hopkinson's system has been very extensively used, most of the + group-flashing lights shown in the accompanying tables, being designed + upon the general lines he introduced. A modification of the system + consists in grouping two or more lenses together separated by equal + angles, and filling the remaining angle in azimuth by a reinforcing + mirror or screen. A group-flashing distinction was proposed for gas + lights by J. R. Wigham of Dublin, who obtained it in the case of a + revolving apparatus by alternately raising and lowering the flame. The + first apparatus in which this method was employed was erected at + Galley Head, Co. Cork (1878). At this lighthouse 4 of Wigham's large + gas burners with four tiers of first-order revolving lenses, eight in + each tier, were adopted. By successive lowering and raising of the gas + flame at the focus of each tier of lenses he produced the + group-flashing distinction. The light showed, instead of one prolonged + flash at intervals of one minute, as would be produced by the + apparatus in the absence of a gas occulter, a group of short flashes + varying in number between six and seven. The uncertainty, however, in + the number of flashes contained in each group is found to be an + objection to the arrangement. This device was adopted at other + gas-illuminated stations in Ireland at subsequent dates. The + quadriform apparatus and gas installation at Galley Head were + superseded in 1907 by a first order bi-form apparatus with + incandescent oil vapour burner showing five flashes every 20 seconds. + + [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Gage Roads Direction Light.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 39.--Pendeen Apparatus. Plan at Focal Plane.] + + _Flashing Lights indicating Numbers._--Captain F. A. Mahan, late + engineer secretary to the United States Lighthouse Board, devised for + that service a system of flashing lights to indicate certain numbers. + The apparatus installed at Minot's Ledge lighthouse near Boston + Harbour, Massachusetts, has a flash indicating the number 143, thus: - + ---- ---, the dashes indicating short flashes. Each group is separated + by a longer period of darkness than that between successive members of + a group. The flashes in a group indicating a figure are about 1½ + seconds apart, the groups being 3 seconds apart, an interval of 16 + seconds' darkness occurring between each repetition. Thus the number + is repeated every half minute. Two examples of this system were + exhibited by the United States Lighthouse Board at the Chicago + Exhibition in 1893, viz. the second-order apparatus just mentioned and + a similar light of the first order for Cape Charles on the Virginian + coast. The lenses are arranged in a somewhat similar manner to an + ordinary group-flashing light, the groups of lenses being placed on + one side of the optic, while the other is provided with a catadioptric + mirror. This system of numerical flashing for lighthouses has been + frequently proposed in various forms, notably by Lord Kelvin. The + installation of the lights described is, however, the first practical + application of the system to large and important coast lights. The + great cost involved in the alteration of the lights of any country to + comply with the requirements of a numerical system is one of the + objections to its general adoption. + + [Illustration: PLATE I. + + FIG. 54.--FASTNET LIGHTHOUSE--FIRST ORDER SINGLE-FLASHING BIFORM + APPARATUS. + + FIG. 55.--PACHENA POINT LIGHTHOUSE, B.C.--FIRST ORDER DOUBLE-FLASHING + APPARATUS.] + + [Illustration: PLATE II. + + FIG. 56.--OLD EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE. + + FIG. 57.--EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE. + + FIG. 58.--ILE VIERGE LIGHTHOUSE. + + FIG. 59.--MINOT'S LEDGE LIGHTHOUSE.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Sule Skerry Apparatus.] + + _Hyper-radial Apparatus._--In 1885 Messrs Barbier of Paris constructed + the first hyper-radial apparatus (1330 mm. focal distance) to the + design of Messrs D. and C. Stevenson. This had a height of 1812 mm. It + was tested during the South Foreland experiments in comparison with + other lenses, and found to give excellent results with burners of + large focal diameter. Apparatus of similar focal distance (1330 mm.) + were subsequently established at Round Island, Bishop Rock, and Spurn + Point in England, Fair Isle and Sule Skerry (fig. 40) in Scotland, + Bull Rock and Tory Island in Ireland, Cape d'Antifer in France, Pei + Yu-shan in China and a lighthouse in Brazil. + + The light erected in 1907 at Cape Race, Newfoundland, is a fine + example of a four-sided hyper-radial apparatus mounted on a mercury + float. The total weight of the revolving part of the light amounts to + 7 tons, while the motive clock weight required to rotate this large + mass at a speed of two complete revolutions a minute is only 8 cwt. + and the weight of mercury required for flotation 950 lb. A similar + apparatus was placed at Manora Point, Karachi, India, in 1908 (fig. + 41). + + The introduction of incandescent and other burners of focal + compactness and high intensity has rendered the use of optics of such + large dimensions as the above, intended for burners of great focal + diameter, unnecessary. It is now possible to obtain with a + second-order optic (or one of 700 mm. focal distance), having a + powerful incandescent petroleum burner in focus, a beam of equal + intensity to that which would be obtained from the apparatus having a + 10-wick oil burner or 108-jet gas burner at its focus. + + _Stephenson's Spherical Lenses and Equiangular Prisms._--Mr C. A. + Stephenson in 1888 designed a form of lens spherical in the horizontal + and vertical sections. This admitted of the construction of lenses of + long focal distance without the otherwise corresponding necessity of + increased diameter of lantern. A lens of this type and of 1330 mm. + focal distance was constructed in 1890 for Fair Isle lighthouse. The + spherical form loses in efficiency if carried beyond an angle + subtending 20° at the focus, and to obviate this loss Mr Stephenson + designed his equiangular prisms, which have an inclination outwards. + It is claimed by the designer that the use of equiangular prisms + results in less loss of light and less divergence than is the case + when either the spherical or Fresnel form is adopted. An example of + this design is seen (fig. 40) in the Sule Skerry apparatus (1895). + + _Fixed and Flashing Lights._--The use of these lights, which show a + fixed beam varied at intervals by more powerful flashes, is not to be + recommended, though a large number were constructed in the earlier + years of dioptric illumination and many are still in existence. The + distinction can be produced in one or other of three ways: (a) by the + revolution of detached panels of straight condensing lens prisms + placed vertically around a fixed light optic, (b) by utilizing + revolving lens panels in the middle portion of the optic to produce + the flashing light, the upper and lower sections of the apparatus + being fixed zones of catadioptric or reflecting elements emitting a + fixed belt of light, and (c) by interposing panels of fixed light + section between the flashing light panels of a revolving apparatus. In + certain conditions of the atmosphere it is possible for the fixed + light of low power to be entirely obscured while the flashes are + visible, thus vitiating the true characteristic of the light. Cases + have frequently occurred of such lights being mistaken for, and even + described in lists of light as, revolving or flashing lights. + + _"Cute" and Screens._--Screens of coloured glass, intended to + distinguish the light in particular azimuths, and of sheet iron, when + it is desired to "cut off" the light sharply on any angle, should be + fixed as far from the centre of the light as possible in order to + reduce the escape of light rays due to divergence. These screens are + usually attached to the lantern framing. + + _Divergence._--A dioptric apparatus designed to bend all incident rays + of light from the light source in a horizontal direction would, if the + flame could be a point, have the effect of projecting a horizontal + band or zone of light, in the case of a fixed apparatus, and a + cylinder of light rays, in the case of a flashing light, towards the + horizon. Thus the mariner in the near distance would receive no light, + the rays, visible only at or near the horizon, passing above the level + of his eye. In practice this does not occur, sufficient natural + divergence being produced ordinarily owing to the magnitude of the + flame. Where the electric arc is employed it is often necessary to + design the prisms so as to produce artificial divergence. The measure + of the natural divergence for any point of the lens is the angle whose + sine is the ratio of the diameter of the flame to the distance of the + point from centre of flame. + + In the case of vertical divergence the mean height of the flame must + be substituted for the diameter. The angle thus obtained is the total + divergence, that is, the sum of the angles above and below the + horizontal plane or to right and left of the medial section. In fixed + dioptric lights there is, of course, no divergence in the horizontal + plane. In flashing lights the horizontal divergence is a matter of + considerable importance, determining as it does the duration or length + of time the flash is visible to the mariner. + + _Feux-Éclairs or Quick Flashing Lights._--One of the most important + developments in the character of lighthouse illuminating apparatus + that has occurred in recent years has been in the direction of + reducing the length of flash. The initiative in this matter was taken + by the French lighthouse authorities, and in France alone forty lights + of this type were established between 1892 and 1901. The use of short + flash lights rapidly spread to other parts of the world. In England + the lighthouse at Pendeen (1900) exhibits a quadruple flash every 15 + seconds, the flashes being about ¼ second duration (fig. 39), while + the bivalve apparatus erected on Lundy Island (1897) shows 2 flashes + of 1/3 second duration in quick succession every 20 seconds. Since + 1900 many quick flashing lights have been erected on the coasts of the + United Kingdom and in other countries. The early _feux-éclairs_, + designed by the French engineers and others, had usually a flash of + (1/10)th to (1/3)rd of a second duration. As a result of experiments + carried out in France in 1903-1904, 3/10 second has been adopted by + the French authorities as the minimum duration for white flashing + lights. If shorter flashes are used it is found that the reduction in + duration is attended by a corresponding, but not proportionate, + diminution in effective intensity. In the case of many electric + flashing lights the duration is of necessity reduced, but the greater + initial intensity of the flash permits this loss without serious + detriment to efficiency. Red or green requires a considerably greater + duration than do white flashes. The intervals between the flashes in + lights of this character are also small, 2½ seconds to 7 seconds. In + group-flashing lights the intervals between the flashes are about 2 + seconds or even less, with periods of 7 to 10 or 15 seconds between + the groups. The flashes are arranged in single, double, triple or even + quadruple groups, as in the older forms of apparatus. The _feu-éclair_ + type of apparatus enables a far higher intensity of flash to be + obtained than was previously possible without any corresponding + increase in the luminous power of the burner or other source of light. + This result depends entirely upon the greater ratio of condensation of + light employed, panels of greater angular breadth than was customary + in the older forms of apparatus being used with a higher rotatory + velocity. It has been urged that short flashes are insufficient for + taking bearings, but the utility of a light in this respect does not + seem to depend so much upon the actual length of the flash as upon its + frequent recurrence at short intervals. At the Paris Exhibition of + 1900 was exhibited a fifth-order flashing light giving short flashes + at 1 second intervals; this represents the extreme to which the + movement towards the reduction of the period of flashing lights has + yet been carried. + + _Mercury Floats._--It has naturally been found impracticable to + revolve the optical apparatus of a light with its mountings, sometimes + weighing over 7 tons, at the high rate of speed required for + _feux-éclairs_ by means of the old system of roller carriages, though + for some small quick-revolving lights ball bearings have been + successfully adopted. It has therefore become almost the universal + practice to carry the rotating portions of the apparatus upon a + mercury float. This beautiful application of mercury rotation was the + invention of Bourdelles, and is now utilized not only for the + high-speed apparatus, but also generally for the few examples of the + older type still being constructed. The arrangement consists of an + annular cast iron bath or trough of such dimensions that a similar but + slightly smaller annular float immersed in the bath and surrounded by + mercury displaces a volume of the liquid metal whose weight is equal + to that of the apparatus supported. Thus a comparatively insignificant + quantity of mercury, say 2 cwt., serves to ensure the flotation of a + mass of over 3 tons. Certain differences exist between the type of + float usually constructed in France and those generally designed by + English engineers. In all cases provision is made for lowering the + mercury bath or raising the float and apparatus for examination. + Examples of mercury floats are shown in figs. 41, 42, 43 and Plate I., + figs. 54 and 55. + + [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Manora Point Apparatus and Lantern.] + + _Multiform Apparatus._--In order to double the power to be obtained + from a single apparatus at stations where lights of exceptionally high + intensity are desired, the expedient of placing one complete lens + apparatus above another has sometimes been adopted, as at the Bishop + Rock (fig. 13), and at the Fastnet lighthouse in Ireland (Plate I., + fig. 54). Triform and quadriform apparatus have also been erected in + Ireland; particulars of the Tory Island triform apparatus will be + found in table VII. The adoption of the multiform system involves the + use of lanterns of increased height. + + _Twin Apparatus._--Another method of doubling the power of a light is + by mounting two complete and distinct optics side by side on the same + revolving table, as I shown in fig. 43 of the Île Vierge apparatus. + Several such lights have been installed by the French Lighthouse + Service. + + _Port Lights._--Small self-contained lanterns and lights are in common + use for marking the entrances to harbours and in other similar + positions where neither high power nor long range is requisite. Many + such lights are unattended in the sense that they do not require the + attention of a keeper for days and even weeks together. These are + described in more detail in section 6 of this article. A typical port + light consists of a copper or brass lantern containing a lens of the + fourth order (250 mm. focal distance) or smaller, and a single wick or + 2-wick Argand capillary burner. Duplex burners are also used. The + apparatus may exhibit a fixed light or, more usually, an occulting + characteristic is produced by the revolution of screens actuated by + spring clockwork around the burner. The lantern may be placed at the + top of a column, or suspended from the head of a mast. Coal gas and + electricity are also used as illuminants for port lights when local + supplies are available. The optical apparatus used in connexion with + electric light is described below. + + _"Orders" of Apparatus._--Augustin Fresnel divided the dioptric + lenses, designed by him, into "orders" or sizes depending on their + local distance. This division is still used, although two additional + "orders," known as "small third order" and "hyper-radial" respectively + are in ordinary use. The following table gives the principal + dimensions of the several sizes in use:-- + + TABLE II. + + +-------------+---------+-------------------------------------+ + | | | Vertical Angles of Optics. | + | | | (Ordinary Dimensions.) | + | | Focal +-------------+-----------------------+ + | Order. |Distance,| | Holophotal Optics. | + | | mm. | Dioptric +-------+-------+-------+ + | | | Belt only. | Lower | Lens. | Upper | + | | | |Prisms.| |Prisms.| + +-------------+---------+-------------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Hyper-Radial| 1330 | 80° | 21° | 57° | 48° | + | 1st order | 920 |92°, 80°, 58°| 21° | 57° | 48° | + | 2nd " | 700 | 80° | 21° | 57° | 48° | + | 3rd " | 500 | 80° | 21° | 57° | 48° | + | Small 3rd | | | | | | + | order | 375 | 80° | 21° | 57° | 48° | + | 4th order | 250 | 80° | 21° | 57° | 48° | + | 5th " | 187.5 | 80° | 21° | 57° | 48° | + | 6th " | 150 | 80° | 21° | 57° | 48° | + +-------------+---------+-------------+-------+-------+-------+ + + Lenses of small focal distance are also made for buoy and beacon + lights. + + [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Cape Naturaliste Apparatus.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 43.--Île Vierge Apparatus.] + + _Light Intensities._--The powers of lighthouse lights in the British + Empire are expressed in terms of standard candles or in "lighthouse + units" (one lighthouse unit = 1000 standard candles). In France the + unit is the "Carcel" = .952 standard candle. The powers of burners and + optical apparatus, then in use in the United Kingdom, were carefully + determined by actual photometric measurement in 1892 by a committee + consisting of the engineers of the three general lighthouse boards, + and the values so obtained are used as the basis for calculating the + intensities of all British lights. It was found that the intensities + determined by photometric measurement were considerably less than the + values given by the theoretical calculations formerly employed. A + deduction of 20% was made from the mean experimental results obtained + to compensate for loss by absorption in the lantern glass, variations + in effects obtained by different men in working the burners and in the + illuminating quality of oils, &c. The resulting reduced values are + termed "service" intensities. + + As has been explained above, the effect of a dioptric apparatus is to + condense the light rays, and the measure of this condensation is the + ratio between the vertical divergence and the vertical angle of the + optic in the case of fixed lights. In flashing lights the ratio of + vertical condensation must be multiplied by the ratio between the + horizontal divergence and the horizontal angle of the panel. The loss + of light by absorption in passing through the glass and by refraction + varies from 10% to 15%. For apparatus containing catadioptric elements + a larger deduction must be made. + + The intensity of the flash emitted from a dioptric apparatus, showing + a white light, may be found approximately by the empirical formula I = + PCVH/vh, where I = intensity of resultant beam, P = service intensity + of flame, V = vertical angle of optic, v = angle of mean vertical + divergence, H = horizontal angle of panel, h = angle of mean + horizontal divergence, and C = constant varying between .9 and .75 + according to the description of apparatus. The factor H/h must be + eliminated in the case of fixed lights. Deduction must also be made in + the case of coloured lights. It should, however, be pointed out that + photometric measurements alone can be relied upon to give accurate + values for lighthouse intensities. The values obtained by the use of + Allard's formulae, which were largely used before the necessity for + actual photometric measurements came to be appreciated, are + considerably in excess of the true intensities. + + [Illustration: FIG. 43A.--Île Vierge Apparatus and Lantern. Plan at + focal plane.] + + _Optical Calculations._--The mathematical theory of optical apparatus + for lighthouses and formulae for the calculations of profiles will be + found in the works of the Stevensons, Chance, Allard, Reynaud, Ribière + and others. Particulars of typical lighthouse apparatus will be found + in tables VI. and VII. + + +4. ILLUMINANTS.--The earliest form of illuminant used for lighthouses +was a fire of coal or wood set in a brazier or grate erected on top of +the lighthouse tower. Until the end of the 18th and even into the 19th +century this primitive illuminant continued to be almost the only one in +use. The coal fire at the Isle of May light continued until 1810 and +that at St Bees lighthouse in Cumberland till 1823. Fires are stated to +have been used on the two towers of Nidingen, in the Kattegat, until +1846. Smeaton was the first to use any form of illuminant other than +coal fires; he placed within the lantern of his Eddystone lighthouse a +chandelier holding 24 tallow candles each of which weighed 2/5 of a +lb. and emitted a light of 2.8 candle power. The aggregate illuminating +power was 67.2 candles and the consumption at the rate of 3.4 lb. per +hour. + + _Oil._--Oil lamps with flat wicks were used in the Liverpool + lighthouses as early as 1763. Argand, between 1780 and 1783, perfected + his cylindrical wick lamp which provides a central current of air + through the burner, thus allowing the more perfect combustion of the + gas issuing from the wick. The contraction in the diameter of the + glass chimney used with wick lamps is due to Lange, and the principle + of the multiple wick burner was devised by Count Rumford. Fresnel + produced burners having two, three and four concentric wicks. Sperm + oil, costing 5s. to 8s. per gallon, was used in English lighthouses + until 1846, but about that year colza oil was employed generally at a + cost of 2s. 9d. per gallon. Olive oil, lard oil and coconut oil have + also been used for lighthouse purposes in various parts of the world. + + _Mineral Oil Burners._--The introduction of mineral oil, costing a + mere fraction of the expensive animal and vegetable oils, + revolutionized the illumination of lighthouses. It was not until 1868 + that a burner was devised which successfully consumed hydrocarbon + oils. This was a multiple wick burner invented by Captain Doty. The + invention was quickly taken advantage of by lighthouse authorities, + and the "Doty" burner, and other patterns involving the same + principle, remained practically the only oil burners in lighthouse use + until the last few years of the 19th century. + + The lamps used for supplying oil to the burner are of two general + types, viz. those in which the oil is maintained under pressure by + mechanical action and constant level lamps. In the case of single + wick, and some 2-wick burners, oil is supplied to the burner by the + capillary action of the wick alone. + + The mineral oils ordinarily in use are petroleum, which for lighthouse + purposes should have a specific gravity of from .820 to .830 at 60° F. + and flashing point of not less than 230° F. (Abel close test), and + Scottish shale oil or paraffin with a specific gravity of about .810 + at 60° F. and flash point of 140° to 165° F. Both these varieties may + be obtained in England at a cost of about 6½d. per gallon in bulk. + + _Coal Gas_ had been introduced in 1837 at the inner pier light of + Troon (Ayrshire) and in 1847 it was in use at the Heugh lighthouse + (West Hartlepool). In 1878 cannel coal gas was adopted for the Galley + Head lighthouse, with 108-jet Wigham burners. Sir James Douglass + introduced gas burners consisting of concentric rings, two to ten in + number, perforated on the upper edges. These give excellent results + and high intensity, 2600 candles in the case of the 10-ring burner + with a flame diameter at the focal plane of 5(5/8) in. They are still + in use at certain stations. The use of multiple ring and jet gas + burners is not being further extended. Gas for lighthouse purposes + generally requires to be specially made; the erection of gas works at + the station is thus necessitated and a considerable outlay entailed + which is avoided by the use of oil as an illuminant. + + _Incandescent Coal Gas Burners._--The invention of the Welsbach mantle + placed at the disposal of the lighthouse authorities the means of + producing a light of high intensity combined with great focal + compactness. For lighthouse purposes other gaseous illuminants than + coal gas are as a rule more convenient and economical, and give better + results with incandescent mantles. Mantles have, however, been used + with ordinary coal gas in many instances where a local supply is + available. + + [Illustration: FIG. 44.--"Chance" Incandescent Oil Burner, with 85 mm. + diameter mantle.] + + _Incandescent Mineral Oil Burners._--Incandescent lighting with + high-flash mineral oil was first introduced by the French Lighthouse + Service in 1898 at L'Île Penfret lighthouse. The burners employed are + all made on the same principle, but differ slightly in details + according to the type of lighting apparatus for which they are + intended. The principle consists in injecting the liquid petroleum in + the form of spray mixed with air into a vaporizer heated by the mantle + flame or by a subsidiary heating burner. A small reservoir of + compressed air is used--charged by means of a hand pump--for providing + the necessary pressure for injection. On first ignition the vaporizer + is heated by a spirit flame to the required temperature. A reservoir + air pressure of 125 lb. per sq. in. is employed, a reducing valve + supplying air to the oil at from 60 to 65 lb. per sq. in. Small + reservoirs containing liquefied carbon dioxide have also been employed + for supplying the requisite pressure to the oil vessel. + + The candle-power of apparatus in which ordinary multiple wick burners + were formerly employed is increased by over 300% by the substitution + of suitable incandescent oil burners. In 1902 incandescent oil burners + were adopted by the general lighthouse authorities in the United + Kingdom. The burners used in the Trinity House Service and some of + those made in France have the vaporizers placed over the flame. In + other forms, of which the "Chance" burner (fig. 44) is a type, the + vaporization is effected by means of a subsidiary burner placed under + the main flame. + + Particulars of the sizes of burner in ordinary use are given in the + following table. + + +--------------------+------------------+-------------------+ + | Diameter of Mantle.|Service Intensity.|Consumption of oil.| + | | | Pints per hour. | + +--------------------+------------------+-------------------+ + | 35 mm. | 600 candles. | .50 | + | 55 mm. | 1200 " | 1.00 | + | 85 mm. | 2150 " | 2.25 | + |Triple mantle 50 mm.| 3300 " | 3.00 | + +--------------------+------------------+-------------------+ + + The intrinsic brightness of incandescent burners generally may be + taken as being equivalent to from 30 candles to 40 candles per sq. cm. + of the vertical section of the incandescent mantle. + + In the case of wick burners, the intrinsic brightness varies, + according to the number of wicks and the type of burner from about 3.5 + candles to about 12 candles per sq. cm., the value being at its + maximum with the larger type of burner. The luminous intensity of a + beam from a dioptric apparatus is, _ceteris paribus_, proportional to + the intrinsic brightness of the luminous source of flame, and not of + the total luminous intensity. The intrinsic brightness of the flame of + oil burners increases only slightly with their focal diameter, + consequently while the consumption of oil increases the efficiency of + the burner for a given apparatus decreases. The illuminating power of + the condensed beam can only be improved to a slight extent, and, in + fact, is occasionally decreased, by increasing the number of wicks in + the burner. The same argument applies to the case of multiple ring and + multiple jet gas burners which, notwithstanding their large total + intensity, have comparatively small intrinsic brightness. The economy + of the new system is instanced by the case of the Eddystone bi-form + apparatus, which with the concentric 6-wick burner consuming 2500 + gals. of oil per annum, gave a total intensity of 79,250 candles. + Under the new régime the intensity is 292,000 candles, the oil + consumption being practically halved. + + _Incandescent Oil Gas Burners._--It has been mentioned that + incandescence with low-pressure coal gas produces flames of + comparatively small intrinsic brightness. Coal gas cannot be + compressed beyond a small extent without considerable injurious + condensation and other accompanying evils. Recourse has therefore been + had to compressed oil gas, which is capable of undergoing compression + to 10 or 12 atmospheres with little detriment, and can conveniently be + stored in portable reservoirs. The burner employed resembles the + ordinary Bunsen burner with incandescent mantle, and the rate of + consumption of gas is 27.5 cub. in. per hour per candle. A reducing + valve is used for supplying the gas to the burner at constant + pressure. The burners can be left unattended for considerable periods. + The system was first adopted in France, where it is installed at eight + lighthouses, among others the Ar'men Rock light, and has been extended + to other parts of the world including several stations in Scotland and + England. The mantles used in France are of 35 mm. diameter. The 35 mm. + mantle gives a candle-power of 400, with an intrinsic brightness of 20 + candles per sq. cm. + + The use of oil gas necessitates the erection of gas works at the + lighthouse or its periodical supply in portable reservoirs from a + neighbouring station. A complete gas works plant costs about £800. The + annual expenditure for gas lighting in France does not exceed £72 per + light where works are installed, or £32 where gas is supplied from + elsewhere. In the case of petroleum vapour lighting the annual cost of + oil amounts to about £26 per station. + + _Acetylene._--The high illuminating power and intrinsic brightness of + the flame of acetylene makes it a very suitable illuminant for + lighthouses and beacons, providing certain difficulties attending its + use can be overcome. At Grangemouth an unattended 21-day beacon has + been illuminated by an acetylene flame for some years with + considerable success, and a beacon light designed to run unattended + for six months was established on Bedout Island in Western Australia + in 1910. Acetylene has also been used in the United States, Germany, + the Argentine, China, Canada, &c., for lighthouse and beacon + illumination. Many buoys and beacons on the German and Dutch coasts + have been supplied with oil gas mixed with 20% of acetylene, thereby + obtaining an increase of over 100% in illuminating intensity. In + France an incandescent burner consuming acetylene gas mixed with air + has been installed at the Chassiron lighthouse (1902). The French + Lighthouse Service has perfected an incandescent acetylene burner with + a 55 mm. mantle having an intensity of over 2000 candle-power, with + intrinsic brightness of 60 candles per sq. cm. + + _Electricity._--The first installation of electric light for + lighthouse purposes in England took place in 1858 at the South + Foreland, where the Trinity House established a temporary plant for + experimental purposes. This installation was followed in 1862 by the + adoption of the illuminant at the Dungeness lighthouse, where it + remained in service until the year 1874 when oil was substituted for + electricity. The earliest of the permanent installations now existing + in England is that at Souter Point which was illuminated in 1871. + There are in England four important coast lights illuminated by + electricity, and one, viz. Isle of May, in Scotland. Of the former St + Catherine's, in the Isle of Wight, and the Lizard are the most + powerful. Electricity was substituted as an illuminant for the then + existing oil light at St Catherine's in 1888. The optical apparatus + consisted of a second-order 16-sided revolving lens, which was + transferred to the South Foreland station in 1904, and a new second + order (700 mm.) four-sided optic with a vertical angle of 139°, + exhibiting a flash of .21 second duration every 5 seconds substituted + for it. A fixed holophote is placed inside the optic in the dark or + landward arc, and at the focal plane of the lamp. This holophote + condenses the rays from the arc falling upon it into a pencil of small + angle, which is directed horizontally upon a series of reflecting + prisms which again bend the light and throw it downwards through an + aperture in the lantern floor on to another series of prisms, which + latter direct the rays seaward in the form of a sector of fixed red + light at a lower level in the tower. A somewhat similar arrangement + exists at Souter Point lighthouse. + + The apparatus installed at the Lizard in 1903 is similar to that at St + Catherine's, but has no arrangement for producing a subsidiary sector + light. The flash is of .13 seconds duration every 3 seconds. The + apparatus replaced the two fixed electric lights erected in 1878. + + [Illustration: FIG. 45.--Isle of May Apparatus.] + + The Isle of May lighthouse, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth, was + first illuminated by electricity in 1886. The optical apparatus + consists of a second-order fixed-light lens with reflecting prisms, + and is surrounded by a revolving system of vertical condensing prisms + which split up the vertically condensed beam of light into 8 separate + beams of 3° in azimuth. The prisms are so arranged that the apparatus, + making one complete revolution in the minute, produces a group + characteristic of 4 flashes in quick succession every 30 seconds (fig. + 45). The fixed light is not of the ordinary Fresnel section, the + refracting portion being confined to an angle of 10°, and the + remainder of the vertical section consisting of reflecting prisms. + + In France the old south lighthouse at La Hève was lit by electricity + in 1863. This installation was followed in 1865 by a similar one at + the north lighthouse. In 1910 there were thirteen important coast + lights in France illuminated by electricity. In other parts of the + world, Macquarie lighthouse, Sydney, was lit by electricity in 1883; + Tino, in the gulf of Spezia, in 1885; and Navesink lighthouse, near + the entrance to New York Bay, in 1898. Electric apparatus were also + installed at the lighthouse at Port Said in 1869, on the opening of + the canal; Odessa in 1871; and at the Rothersand, North Sea, in 1885. + There are several other lights in various parts of the world + illuminated by this agency. + + Incandescent electric lighting has been adopted for the illumination + of certain light-vessels in the United States, and a few small harbour + and port lights, beacons and buoys. + + Table VI. gives particulars of some of the more important electric + lighthouses of the world. + + _Electric Lighthouse Installations in France._--A list of the thirteen + lighthouses on the French coast equipped with electric light + installations will be found in table VI. It has been already mentioned + that the two lighthouses at La Hève were lit by electric light in 1863 + and 1865. These installations were followed within a few years by the + establishment of electricity as illuminant at Gris-Nez. In 1882 M. + Allard, the then director-general of the French Lighthouse Service, + prepared a scheme for the electric lighting of the French littoral by + means of 46 lights distributed more or less uniformly along the + coast-line. All the apparatus were to be of the same general type, the + optics consisting of a fixed belt of 300 mm. focal distance, around + the outside of which revolved a system of 24 faces of vertical lenses. + These vertical panels condensed the belt of fixed light into beams of + 3° amplitude in azimuth, producing flashes of about ¾ sec. duration. + To illuminate the near sea the vertical divergence of the lower prisms + of the fixed belt was artificially increased. These optics are very + similar to that in use at the Souter Point lighthouse, Sunderland. The + intensities obtained were 120,000 candles in the case of fixed lights + and 900,000 candles with flashing lights. As a result of a nautical + inquiry held in 1886, at which date the lights of Dunkerque, Calais, + Gris-Nez, La Canche, Baleines and Planier had been lighted, in + addition to the old apparatus at La Hève, it was decided to limit the + installation of electrical apparatus to important landfall lights--a + decision which the Trinity House had already arrived at in the case of + the English coast--and to establish new apparatus at six stations + only. These were Créac'h d'Ouessant (Ushant), Belle-Île, La Coubre at + the mouth of the river Gironde, Barfleur, Île d'Yeu and Penmarc'h. At + the same time it was determined to increase the powers of the existing + electric lights. The scheme as amended in 1886 was completed in + 1902.[2] + + All the electrically lit apparatus, in common with other optics + established in France since 1893, have been provided with mercury + rotation. The most recent electric lights have been constructed in the + form of twin apparatus, two complete and distinct optics being mounted + side by side upon the same revolving table and with corresponding + faces parallel. It is found that a far larger aggregate candle-power + is obtained from two lamps with 16 mm. to 23 mm. diameter carbons and + currents of 60 to 120 amperes than with carbons and currents of larger + dimensions in conjunction with single optics of greater focal + distance. A somewhat similar circumstance led to the choice of the + twin form for the two very powerful non-electric apparatus at Île + Vierge (figs. 43 and 43A) and Ailly, particulars of which will be seen + in table VII. + + Several of the de Meritens magneto-electric machines of 5.5 K.W., laid + down many years ago at French electric lighthouse stations, are still + in use. All these machines have five induction coils, which, upon the + installation of the twin optics, were separated into two distinct + circuits, each consisting of 2½ coils. This modification has enabled + the old plants to be used with success under the altered conditions of + lighting entailed by the use of two lamps. The generators adopted in + the French service for use at the later stations differ materially + from the old type of de Meritens machine. The Phare d'Eckmühl + (Penmarc'h) installation serves as a type of the more modern + machinery. The dynamos are alternating current two-phase machines, and + are installed in duplicate. The two lamps are supplied with current + from the same machine, the second dynamo being held in reserve. The + speed is 810 to 820 revolutions per minute. + + The lamp generally adopted is a combination of the Serrin and Berjot + principles, with certain modifications. Clockwork mechanism with a + regulating electromagnet moves the rods simultaneously and controls + the movements of the carbons so that they are displaced at the same + rate as they are consumed. It is usual to employ currents of varying + power with carbons of corresponding dimensions according to the + atmospheric conditions. In the French service two variations are used + in the case of twin apparatus produced by currents of 60 and 120 + amperes at 45 volts with carbons 14 mm. and 18 mm. diameter, while in + single optic apparatus currents of 25, 50 and 100 amperes are utilized + with carbon of 11 mm., 16 mm. and 23 mm. diameter. In England fluted + carbons of larger diameter are employed with correspondingly increased + current. Alternating currents have given the most successful results + in all respects. Attempts to utilize continuous current for lighthouse + arc lights have, up to the present, met with little success. + + The cost of a first-class electric lighthouse installation of the most + recent type in France, including optical apparatus, lantern, dynamos, + engines, air compressor, siren, &c., but not buildings, amounts + approximately to £5900. + + _Efficiency of the Electric Light._--In 1883 the lighthouse + authorities of Great Britain determined that an exhaustive series of + experiments should be carried out at the South Foreland with a view to + ascertaining the relative suitability of electricity, gas and oil as + lighthouse illuminants. The experiments extended over a period of more + than twelve months, and were attended by representatives of the chief + lighthouse authorities of the world. The results of the trials tended + to show that the rays of oil and gas lights suffered to about equal + extent by atmospheric absorption, but that oil had the advantage over + gas by reason of its greater economy in cost of maintenance and in + initial outlay on installation. The electric light was found to suffer + to a much larger extent than either oil or gas light per unit of power + by atmospheric absorption, but the infinitely greater total intensity + of the beam obtainable by its use, both by reason of the high luminous + intensity of the electric arc and its focal compactness, more than + outweighed the higher percentage of loss in fog. The final conclusion + of the committee on the relative merits of electricity, gas or oil as + lighthouse illuminants is given in the following words: "That for + ordinary necessities of lighthouse illumination, mineral oil is the + most suitable and economical illuminant, and that for salient + headlands, important landfalls, and places where a very powerful light + is required electricity offers the greater advantages." + + + 5. MISCELLANEOUS LIGHTHOUSE EQUIPMENT. _Lanterns._--Modern lighthouse + lanterns usually consist of a cast iron or steel pedestal, cylindrical + in plan, on which is erected the lantern glazing, surmounted by a + domed roof and ventilator (fig. 41). Adequate ventilation is of great + importance, and is provided by means of ventilators in the pedestal + and a large ventilating dome or cowl in the roof. The astragals + carrying the glazing are of wrought steel or gun-metal. The astragals + are frequently arranged helically or diagonally, thus causing a + minimum of obstruction to the light rays in any vertical section and + affording greater rigidity to the structure. The glazing is usually + ¼-in. thick plate-glass curved to the radius of the lantern. In + situations of great exposure the thickness is increased. Lantern roofs + are of sheet steel or copper secured to steel or cast-iron rafter + frames. In certain instances it is found necessary to erect a grille + or network outside the lantern to prevent the numerous sea birds, + attracted by the light, from breaking the glazing by impact. Lanterns + vary in diameter from 5 ft. to 16 ft. or more, according to the size + of the optical apparatus. For first order apparatus a diameter of 12 + ft. or 14 ft. is usual. + + _Lightning Conductors._--The lantern and principal metallic structures + in a lighthouse are usually connected to a lightning conductor carried + either to a point below low water or terminating in an earth plate + embedded in wet ground. Conductors may be of copper tape or + copper-wire rope. + + _Rotating Machinery._--Flashing-light apparatus are rotated by + clockwork mechanism actuated by weights. The clocks are fitted with + speed governors and electric warning apparatus to indicate variation + in speed and when rewinding is required. For occulting apparatus + either weight clocks or spring clocks are employed. + + _Accommodation for Keepers, &c._--At rock and other isolated stations, + accommodation for the keepers is usually provided in the towers. In + the case of land lighthouses, dwellings are provided in close + proximity to the tower. The service or watch room should be situated + immediately under the lantern floor. Oil is usually stored in + galvanized steel tanks. A force pump is sometimes used for pumping oil + from the storage tanks to a service tank in the watch-room or lantern. + + 6. UNATTENDED LIGHTS AND BEACONS.--Until recent years no unattended + lights were in existence. The introduction of Pintsch's gas system in + the early 'seventies provided a means of illumination for beacons and + buoys of which large use has been made. Other illuminants are also in + use to a considerable extent. + + _Unattended Electric Lights._--In 1884 an iron beacon lighted by an + incandescent lamp supplied with current from a secondary battery was + erected on a tidal rock near Cadiz. A 28-day clock was arranged for + eclipsing the light between sunrise and sunset and automatically + cutting off the current at intervals to produce an occulting + characteristic. Several small dioptric apparatus illuminated with + incandescent electric lamps have been made by the firm of Barbier + Bénard et Turenne of Paris, and supplied with current from batteries + of Daniell cells, with electric clockwork mechanism for occulting the + light. These apparatus have been fitted to beacons and buoys, and are + generally arranged to automatically switch off the current during the + day-time. They run unattended for periods up to two months. Two + separate lenses and lamps are usually provided, with lamp changer, + only one lamp being in circuit at a time. In the event of failure in + the upper lamp of the two the current automatically passes to the + lower lamp. + + [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Garvel Beacon.] + + _Oil-gas Beacons._--In 1881 a beacon automatically lighted by + Pintsch's compressed oil gas was erected on the river Clyde, and large + numbers of these structures have since been installed in all parts of + the world. The gas is contained in an iron or steel reservoir placed + within the beacon structure, refilled by means of a flexible hose on + the occasions of the periodical visits of the tender. The beacons, + which remain illuminated for periods up to three months are charged to + 7 atmospheres. Many lights are provided with occulting apparatus + actuated by the gas passing from the reservoir to the burner + automatically cutting off and turning on the supply. The Garvel beacon + (1899) on the Clyde is shown in fig. 46. The burner has 7 jets, and + the light is occulting. Since 1907 incandescent mantle burners for oil + gas have been largely used for beacon illumination, both for fixed and + occulting lights. + + Acetylene has also been used for the illumination of beacons and other + unattended lights. + + _Lindberg Lights._--In 1881-1882 several beacons lighted automatically + by volatile petroleum spirit on the Lindberg-Lyth and Lindberg-Trotter + systems were established in Sweden. Many lights of this type have + subsequently been placed in different parts of the world. The volatile + spirit lamp burns day and night. Occultations are produced by a screen + or series of screens rotated round the light by the ascending current + of heated air and gases from the lamp acting upon a horizontal fan. + The speed of rotation of the fan cannot be accurately adjusted, and + the times of occultation therefore are liable to slight variation. The + lights run unattended for periods up to twenty-one days. + + _Benson-Lee Lamps._--An improvement upon the foregoing is the + Benson-Lee lamp, in which a similar occulting arrangement is often + used, but the illuminant is paraffin consumed in a special burner + having carbon-tipped wicks which require no trimming. The flame + intensity of the light is greater than that of the burner consuming + light spirit. The introduction of paraffin also avoids the danger + attending the use of the more volatile spirit. Many of these lights + are in use on the Scottish coast. They are also used in other parts of + the United Kingdom, and in the United States, Canada and other + countries. + + _Permanent Wick Lights._--About 1891 the French Lighthouse Service + introduced petroleum lamps consuming ordinary high-flash lighthouse + oil, and burning without attention for periods of several months. The + burners are of special construction, provided with a very thick wick + which is in the first instance treated in such a manner as to cause + the formation of a deposit of carbonized tar on its exposed upper + surface. This crust prevents further charring of the wick after + ignition, the oil becoming vaporized from the under side of the crust. + Many fixed, occulting and flashing lights fitted with these burners + are established in France and other countries. In the case of the + occulting types a revolving screen is placed around the burner and + carried upon a miniature mercury float. The rotation is effected by + means of a small Gramme motor on a vertical axis, fitted with a speed + governor, and supplied with current from a battery of primary cells. + The oil reservoir is placed in the upper part of the lantern and + connected with the burner by a tube, to which is fitted a constant + level regulator for maintaining the burning level of the oil at a + fixed height. In the flashing or revolving light types the arrangement + is generally similar, the lenses being revolved upon a mercury float + which is rotated by the electric motor. The flashing apparatus + established at St Marcouf in 1901 has a beam intensity of 1000 + candle-power, and is capable of running unattended for three months. + The electric current employed for rotating the apparatus is supplied + by four Lalande and Chaperon primary cells, coupled in series, each + giving about 0.15 ampere at a voltage of 0.65. The power required to + work the apparatus is at the maximum about 0.165 ampere at 0.75 volt, + the large surplus of power which is provided for the sake of safety + being absorbed by a brake or governor connected with the motor. + + _Wigham Beacon Lights._--Wigham introduced an oil lamp for beacon and + buoy purposes consisting of a vertical container filled with ordinary + mineral oil or paraffin, and carrying a roller immediately under the + burner case over which a long flat wick passes. One end of the wick is + attached to a float which falls in the container as the oil is + consumed, automatically drawing a fresh portion of the wick over the + roller. The other end of the wick is attached to a free counterweight + which serves to keep it stretched. The oil burns from the convex + surface of the wick as it passes over the roller, a fresh portion + being constantly passed under the action of the flame. The light is + capable of burning without attention for thirty days. These lights are + also fitted with occulting screens on the Lindberg system. The + candle-power of the flame is small. + + + 7. LIGHT-VESSELS.--The earliest light-vessel placed in English waters + was that at the Nore in 1732. The early light-ships were of small size + and carried lanterns of primitive construction and small size + suspended from the yard-arms. Modern light-vessels are of steel, wood + or composite construction. Steel is now generally employed in new + ships. The wood and composite ships are sheathed with Muntz metal. The + dimensions of English light-vessels vary. The following may be taken + as the usual limits: + + Length 80 ft. to 114 ft. + Beam 20 ft. to 24 ft. + Depth moulded 13 ft. to 15 ft. 6 in. + Tonnage 155 to 280. + + The larger vessels are employed at outside and exposed stations, the + smaller ships being stationed in sheltered positions and in estuaries. + The moorings usually consist of 3-ton mushroom anchors and 1(5/8) open + link cables. The lanterns in common use are 8 ft. in diameter, + circular in form, with glazing 4 ft. in height. They are annular in + plan, surrounding the mast of the vessel upon which they are hoisted + for illumination, and are lowered to the deck level during the day. + Fixed lanterns mounted on hollow steel masts are now being used in + many services, and are gradually displacing the older type. The first + English light-vessel so equipped was constructed in 1904. Of the 87 + light-vessels in British waters, including unattended light-vessels, + eleven are in Ireland and six in Scotland. At the present time there + are over 750 light-vessels in service throughout the world. + + Until about 1895 the illuminating apparatus used in light-vessels was + exclusively of catoptric form, usually consisting of 21 in. or 24 in. + silvered parabolic reflectors, having 1, 2 or 3-wick mineral oil + burners in focus. The reflectors and lamps are hung in gimbals to + preserve the horizontal direction of the beams. + + The following table gives the intensity of beam obtained by means of a + type of reflector in general use: + + _21-in. Trinity House Parabolic Reflector_ + + Service Intensity + of Beam. + + Burners 1 wick "Douglass" 2715 candles + " 2 " (Catoptric) 4004 " + " 2 " (Dioptric) 6722 " + " 3 " 7528 " + + In revolving flashing lights two or more reflectors are arranged in + parallel in each face. Three, four or more faces or groups of + reflectors are arranged around the lantern in which they revolve, and + are carried upon a turn-table rotated by clockwork. The intensity of + the flashing beam is therefore equivalent to the combined intensities + of the beams emitted by the several reflectors in each face. The first + light-vessel with revolving light was placed at the Swin Middle at the + entrance to the Thames in 1837. Group-flashing characteristics can be + produced by special arrangements of the reflectors. Dioptric apparatus + is now being introduced in many new vessels, the first to be so fitted + in England being that stationed at the Swin Middle in 1905, the + apparatus of which is gas illuminated and gives a flash of 25,000 + candle-power. + + Fog signals, when provided on board light-vessels are generally in the + form of reed-horns or sirens, worked by compressed air. The + compressors are driven from steam or oil engines. The cost of a modern + type of English light-vessel, with power-driven compressed air siren, + is approximately £16,000. + + In the United States service, the more recently constructed vessels + have a displacement of 600 tons, each costing £18,000. They are + provided with self-propelling power and steam whistle fog signals. The + illuminating apparatus is usually in the form of small dioptric lens + lanterns suspended at the mast-head--3 or more to each mast, but a few + of the ships, built since 1907, are provided with fourth-order + revolving dioptric lights in fixed lanterns. There are 53 + light-vessels in service on the coasts of the United States with 13 + reserve ships. + + _Electrical Illumination._--An experimental installation of the + electric light placed on board a Mersey light-vessel in 1886 by the + Mersey Docks and Harbour Board proved unsuccessful. The United States + Lighthouse Board in 1892 constructed a light-vessel provided with a + powerful electric light, and moored her on the Cornfield Point station + in Long Island Sound. This vessel was subsequently placed off Sandy + Hook (1894) and transferred to the Ambrose Channel Station in 1907. + Five other light-vessels in the United States have since been provided + with incandescent electric lights--either with fixed or occulting + characteristics--including Nantucket Shoals (1896), Fire Island + (1897), Diamond Shoals (1898), Overfalls Shoal (1901) and San + Francisco (1902). + + _Gas Illumination._--In 1896 the French Lighthouse Service completed + the construction of a steel light-vessel (Talais), which was + ultimately placed at the mouth of the Gironde. The construction of + this vessel was the outcome of experiments carried out with a view to + produce an efficient light-vessel at moderate cost, lit by a dioptric + flashing light with incandescent oil-gas burner. The construction of + the Talais was followed by that of a second and larger vessel, the + Snouw, on similar lines, having a length of 65 ft. 6 in., beam 20 ft. + and a draught of 12 ft., with a displacement of 130 tons. The cost of + this vessel complete with optical apparatus and gasholders, with + accommodation for three men, was approximately £5000. The vessel was + built in 1898-1899.[3] A third vessel was constructed in 1901-1902 for + the Sandettié Bank on the general lines adopted for the preceding + examples of her class, but of the following increased dimensions: + length 115 ft.; width at water-line 20 ft. 6 in.; and draught 15 ft., + with a displacement of 342 tons (fig. 47). Accommodation is provided + for a crew of eight men. The optical apparatus (fig. 48) is dioptric, + consisting of 4 panels of 250 mm. focal distance, carried upon a + "Cardan" joint below the lens table, and counter-balanced by a heavy + pendulum weight. The apparatus is revolved by clockwork and + illuminated by compressed oil gas with incandescent mantle. The + candle-power of the beam is 35,000. The gas is contained in three + reservoirs placed in the hold. The apparatus is contained in a 6-ft. + lantern constructed at the head of a tubular mast 2 ft. 6 in. + diameter. A powerful siren is provided with steam engine and boiler + for working the air compressors. The total cost of the vessel, + including fog signal and optical apparatus, was £13,600. A vessel of + similar construction to the Talais was placed by the Trinity House in + 1905 on the Swin Middle station. The illuminant is oil gas. Gas + illuminated light-vessels have also been constructed for the German + and Chinese Lighthouse Service. + + _Unattended Light-vessels._--In 1881 an unattended light-vessel, + illuminated with Pintsch's oil gas, was constructed for the Clyde, and + is still in use at the Garvel Point. The light is occulting, and is + shown from a dioptric lens fitted at the head of a braced iron lattice + tower 30 ft. above water-level. The vessel is of iron, 40 ft. long, 12 + ft. beam and 8 ft. deep, and has a storeholder on board containing oil + gas under a pressure of six atmospheres capable of maintaining a light + for three months. A similar vessel is placed off Calshot Spit in + Southampton Water, and several have been constructed for the French + and other Lighthouse Services. The French boats are provided with deep + main and bilge keels similar to those adopted in the larger gas + illuminated vessels. In 1901 a light-vessel 60 ft. in length was + placed off the Otter Rock on the west coast of Scotland; it is + constructed of steel, 24 ft. beam, 12 ft. deep and draws 9 ft. of + water (fig. 49). The focal plane is elevated 25 ft. above the + water-line, and the lantern is 6 ft. in diameter. The optical + apparatus is of 500 mm. focal distance and hung in gimbals with a + pendulum balance and "Cardan" joint as in the Sandettié light-vessel. + The illuminant is oil gas, with an occulting characteristic. The + storeholder contains 10,500 cub. ft. of gas at eight atmospheres, + sufficient to supply the light for ninety days and nights. A bell is + provided, struck by clappers moved by the roll of the vessel. The cost + of the vessel complete was £2979. The Northern Lighthouse + Commissioners have four similar vessels in service, and others have + been stationed in the Hugli estuary, at Bombay, off the Chinese coasts + and elsewhere. In 1909 an unattended gas illuminated light-vessel + provided with a dioptric flashing apparatus was placed at the Lune + Deep in Morecambe Bay. It is also fitted with a fog bell struck + automatically by a gas operated mechanism. + + [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Sandettié Lightship.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 48.--Lantern of Sandettié Lightship.] + + _Electrical Communication of Light-vessels with the + Shore._--Experiments were instituted in 1886 at the Sunk light-vessel + off the Essex coast with the view to maintaining telephonic + communication with the shore by means of a submarine cable 9 m. in + length. Great difficulties were experienced in maintaining + communication during stormy weather, breakages in the cable being + frequent. These difficulties were subsequently partially overcome by + the employment of larger vessels and special moorings. Wireless + telegraphic installations have now (1910) superseded the cable + communications with light-vessels in English waters except in four + cases. Seven light-vessels, including the four off the Goodwin Sands, + are now fitted for wireless electrical communication with the shore. + + In addition many pile lighthouses and isolated rock and island + stations have been placed in electrical communication with the shore + by means of cables or wireless telegraphy. The Fastnet lighthouse was, + in 1894, electrically connected with the shore by means of a + non-continuous cable, it being found impossible to maintain a + continuous cable in shallow water near the rock owing to the heavy + wash of the sea. A copper conductor, carried down from the tower to + below low-water mark, was separated from the cable proper, laid on the + bed of the sea in a depth of 13 fathoms, by a distance of about 100 + ft. The lighthouse was similarly connected to earth on the opposite + side of the rock. The conductor terminated in a large copper plate, + and to the cable end was attached a copper mushroom. Weak currents + were induced in the lighthouse conductor by the main current in the + cable, and messages received in the tower by the help of electrical + relays. On the completion of the new tower on the Fastnet Rock in 1906 + this installation was superseded by a wireless telegraphic + installation. + + +8. DISTRIBUTION AND DISTINCTION OF LIGHTS, &c.--_Methods of +Distinction._--The following are the various light characteristics which +may be exhibited to the mariner:-- + +_Fixed._--Showing a continuous or steady light. Seldom used in modern +lighthouses and generally restricted to small port or harbour lights. A +fixed light is liable to be confused with lights of shipping or other +shore lights. + +_Flashing._[4]--Showing a single flash, the duration of darkness always +being greater than that of light. This characteristic or that +immediately following is generally adopted for important lights. The +French authorities have given the name _Feux-Eclair_ to flashing lights +of short duration. + +_Group-Flashing._--Showing groups of two or more flashes in quick +succession (not necessarily of the same colour) separated by eclipses +with a larger interval of darkness between the groups. + +_Fixed and Flashing._--Fixed light varied by a single white or coloured +flash, which may be preceded and followed by a short eclipse. This type +of light, in consequence of the unequal intensities of the beams, is +unreliable, and examples are now seldom installed although many are +still in service. + +_Fixed and Group-Flashing._--Similar to the preceding and open to the +same objections. + +_Revolving._--This term is still retained in the "Lists of Lights" +issued by the Admiralty and some other authorities to denote a light +gradually increasing to full effect, then decreasing to eclipse. At +short distances and in clear weather a faint continuous light may be +observed. There is no essential difference between revolving and +flashing lights, the distinction being merely due to the speed of +rotation, and the term might well be abandoned as in the United States +lighthouse list. + +_Occulting._--A continuous light with, at regular intervals, one sudden +and total eclipse, the duration of light always being equal to or +greater than that of darkness. This characteristic is usually exhibited +by fixed dioptric apparatus fitted with some form of occulting +mechanism. Many lights formerly of fixed characteristic have been +converted to occulting. + +_Group Occulting._--A continuous light with, at regular intervals, +groups of two or more sudden and total eclipses. + +_Alternating._--Lights of different colours (generally red and white) +alternately without any intervening eclipse. This characteristic is not +to be recommended for reasons which have already been referred to. Many +of the permanent and unwatched lights on the coasts of Norway and Sweden +are of this description. + +_Colour._--The colours usually adopted for lights are white, red and +green. White is to be preferred whenever possible, owing to the great +absorption of light by the use of red or green glass screens. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Otter Rock Light-vessel.] + +_Sectors._--Coloured lights are often requisite to distinguish cuts or +sectors, and should be shown from fixed or occulting light apparatus and +not from flashing apparatus. In marking the passage through a channel, +or between sandbanks or other dangers, coloured light sectors are +arranged to cover the dangers, white light being shown over the fairway +with sufficient margin of safety between the edges of the coloured +sectors next the fairway and the dangers. + + _Choice of Characteristic and Description of Apparatus._--In + determining the choice of characteristic for a light due regard must + be paid to existing lights in the vicinity. No light should be placed + on a coast line having a characteristic the same as, or similar to, + another in its neighbourhood unless one or more lights of dissimilar + characteristic, and at least as high power and range, intervene. In + the case of "landfall lights" the characteristic should differ from + any other within a range of 100 m. In narrow seas the distance between + lights of similar characteristic may be less. Landfall lights are, in + a sense, the most important of all and the most powerful apparatus + available should be installed at such stations. The distinctive + characteristic of a light should be such that it may be readily + determined by a mariner without the necessity of accurately timing the + period or duration of flashes. For landfall and other important coast + stations flashing dioptric apparatus of the first order (920 mm. focal + distance) with powerful burners are required. In countries where the + atmosphere is generally clear and fogs are less prevalent than on the + coasts of the United Kingdom, second or third order lights suffice for + landfalls having regard to the high intensities available by the use + of improved illuminants. Secondary coast lights may be of second, + third or fourth order of flashing character, and important harbour + lights of third or fourth order. Less important harbours and places + where considerable range is not required, as in estuaries and narrow + seas, may be lighted by flashing lights of fourth order or smaller + size. Where sectors are requisite, occulting apparatus should be + adopted for the main light; or subsidiary lights, fixed or occulting, + may be exhibited from the same tower as the main light but at a lower + level. In such cases the vertical distance between the high and the + low light must be sufficient to avoid commingling of the two beams at + any range at which both lights are visible. Such commingling or + blending is due to atmospheric aberration. + + _Range of Lights._--The range of a light depends first on its + elevation above sea-level and secondly on its intensity. Most + important lights are of sufficient power to render them visible at the + full geographical range in clear weather. On the other hand there are + many harbour and other lights which do not meet this condition. + + The distances given in lists of lights from which lights are + visible--except in the cases of lights of low power for the reason + given above--are usually calculated in nautical miles as seen from a + height of 15 ft. above sea-level, the elevation of the lights being + taken as above high water. Under certain atmospheric conditions, and + especially with the more powerful lights, the glare of the light may + be visible considerably beyond the calculated range. + + TABLE III.--_Distances at which Objects can be seen at Sea, + according to their Respective Elevations and the Elevation of the + Eye of the Observer._ (A. Stevenson.) + + +--------+------------+---------------------+ + | |Distances in| |Distances in| + |Heights |Geographical|Heights |Geographical| + |in Feet.|or Nautical |in Feet.|or Nautical | + | | Miles. | | Miles. | + +--------+------------+--------+------------+ + | 5 | 2.565 | 110 | 12.03 | + | 10 | 3.628 | 120 | 12.56 | + | 15 | 4.443 | 130 | 13.08 | + | 20 | 5.130 | 140 | 13.57 | + | 25 | 5.736 | 150 | 14.02 | + | 30 | 6.283 | 200 | 16.22 | + | 35 | 6.787 | 250 | 18.14 | + | 40 | 7.255 | 300 | 19.87 | + | 45 | 7.696 | 350 | 21.46 | + | 50 | 8.112 | 400 | 22.94 | + | 55 | 8.509 | 450 | 24.33 | + | 60 | 8.886 | 500 | 25.65 | + | 65 | 9.249 | 550 | 26.90 | + | 70 | 9.598 | 600 | 28.10 | + | 75 | 9.935 | 650 | 29.25 | + | 80 | 10.26 | 700 | 30.28 | + | 85 | 10.57 | 800 | 32.45 | + | 90 | 10.88 | 900 | 34.54 | + | 95 | 11.18 | 1000 | 36.28 | + | 100 | 11.47 | | | + +--------+------------+--------+------------+ + + EXAMPLE: A tower 200 ft. high will be visible 20.66 nautical miles + to an observer, whose eye is elevated 15 ft. above the water; thus, + from the table: + + 15 ft. elevation, distance visible 4.44 nautical miles + 200 " " 16.22 " + ----- + 20.66 " + + _Elevation of Lights._--The elevation of the light above sea-level + need not, in the case of landfall lights, exceed 200 ft., which is + sufficient to give a range of over 20 nautical miles. One hundred and + fifty feet is usually sufficient for coast lights. Lights placed on + high headlands are liable to be enveloped in banks of fog at times + when at a lower level the atmosphere is comparatively clear (e.g. + Beachy Head). No definite rule can, however, be laid down, and local + circumstances, such as configuration of the coast line, must be taken + into consideration in every case. + + _Choice of Site._--"Landfall" stations should receive first + consideration and the choice of location for such a light ought never + to be made subservient to the lighting of the approaches to a port. + Subsidiary lights are available for the latter purpose. Lights + installed to guard shoals, reefs or other dangers should, when + practicable, be placed seaward of the danger itself, as it is + desirable that seamen should be able to "make" the light with + confidence. Sectors marking dangers seaward of the light should not + be employed except when the danger is in the near vicinity of the + light. Outlying dangers require marking by a light placed on the + danger or by a floating light in its vicinity. + + [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Spar Gas Buoy.] + + + 9. ILLUMINATED BUOYS.--_Gas Buoys._ Pintsch's oil gas has been in use + for the illumination of buoys since 1878. In 1883 an automatic + occulter was perfected, worked by the gas passing from the reservoir + to the burner. The lights placed on these buoys burn continuously for + three or more months. The buoys and lanterns are made in various forms + and sizes. The spar buoy (fig. 50) may be adopted for situations where + strong tides or currents prevail. Oil gas lights are frequently fitted + to Courtenay whistling (fig. 51) and bell buoys. + + In the ordinary type of gas buoy lantern the burner employed is of the + multiple-jet, Argand ring, or incandescent type. Incandescent mantles + have been applied to buoy lights in France with successful results. + Since 1906, and more recently the same system of illumination has been + adopted in England and other countries. The lenses employed are of + cylindrical dioptric fixed-light form, usually 100 mm. to 300 mm. + diameter. Some of the largest types of gas-buoy in use on the French + coast have an elevation from water level to the focal plane of over 26 + ft. with a beam intensity of more than 1000 candles. A large gas-buoy + with an elevation of 34 ft. to the focal plane was placed at the + entrance to the Gironde in 1907. It has an incandescent burner and + exhibits a light of over 1500 candles. Oil gas forms the most + trustworthy and efficient illuminant for buoy purposes yet introduced, + and the system has been largely adopted by lighthouse and harbour + authorities. + + There are now over 2000 buoys fitted with oil gas apparatus, in + addition to 600 beacons, light-vessels and boats. + + _Electric Lit Buoys._--Buoys have been fitted with electric light, + both fixed and occulting. Six electrically lit spar-buoys were laid + down in the Gedney channel, New York lower bay, in 1888. These were + illuminated by 100 candle-power Swan lamps with continuous current + supplied by cable from a power station on shore. The wear and tear of + the cables caused considerable trouble and expense. In 1895 + alternating current was introduced. The installation was superseded by + gas lit buoys in 1904. + + _Acetylene and Oil Lighted Buoys._--Acetylene has been extensively + employed for the lighting of buoys in Canada and in the United States; + to a less extent it has also been adopted in other countries. Both the + low pressure system, by which the acetylene gas is produced by an + automatic generator, and the so-called high pressure system in which + purified acetylene is held in solution in a high pressure gasholder + filled with asbestos composition saturated with acetone, have been + employed for illuminating buoys and beacons. Wigham oil lamps are also + used to a limited extent for buoy lighting. + + _Bell Buoys._--One form of clapper actuated by the roll of the buoy + (shown in fig. 52) consists of a hardened steel ball placed in a + horizontal phosphor-bronze cylinder provided with rubber buffers. + Three of these cylinders are arranged around the mouth of the fixed + bell, which is struck by the balls rolling backwards and forwards as + the buoy moves. Another form of bell mechanism consists of a fixed + bell with three or more suspended clappers placed externally which + strike the bell when the buoy rolls. + + [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Courtenay's Automatic Whistling Buoy. + + A, Cylinder, 27 ft. 6 in. long. + B, Mooring shackle. + C, Rudder. + D, Buoy. + E, Diaphragm. + F, Ball valves. + G, Air inlet tubes. + H, Air (compressed outlet tube to whistle). + I, Compressed air inlet to buoy. + K, Manhole. + L, Steps. + N, Whistle.] + + + 10. FOG SIGNALS.--The introduction of coast fog signals is of + comparatively recent date. They were, until the middle of the 19th + century, practically unknown except so far as a few isolated bells and + guns were concerned. The increasing demands of navigation, and the + application of steam power to the propulsion of ships resulting in an + increase of their speed, drew attention to the necessity of providing + suitable signals as aids to navigation during fog and mist. In times + of fog the mariner can expect no certain assistance from even the + most efficient system of coast lighting, since the beams of light from + the most powerful electric lighthouse are frequently entirely + dispersed and absorbed by the particles of moisture, forming a sea fog + of even moderate density, at a distance of less than a ¼ m. from the + shore. The careful experiments and scientific research which have been + devoted to the subject of coast fog-signalling have produced much that + is useful and valuable to the mariner, but unfortunately the practical + results so far have not been so satisfactory as might be desired, + owing to (1) the very short range of the most powerful signals yet + produced under certain unfavourable acoustic conditions of the + atmosphere, (2) the difficulty experienced by the mariner in judging + at any time how far the atmospheric conditions are against him in + listening for the expected signal, and (3) the difficulty in locating + the position of a sound signal by phonic observations. + + [Illustration: FIG. 52.--Buoy Bell.] + + _Bells and Gongs_ are the oldest and, generally speaking, the least + efficient forms of fog signals. Under very favourable acoustic + conditions the sounds are audible at considerable ranges. On the other + hand, 2-ton bells have been inaudible at distances of a few hundred + yards. The 1893 United States trials showed that a bell weighing 4000 + lb. struck by a 450 lb. hammer was heard at a distance of 14 m. across + a gentle breeze and at over 9 m. against a 10-knot breeze. Bells are + frequently used for beacon and buoy signals, and in some cases at + isolated rock and other stations where there is insufficient + accommodation for sirens and horns, but their use is being gradually + discontinued in this country for situations where a powerful signal + is required. Gongs, usually of Chinese manufacture, were formerly in + use on board English light-ships and are still used to some extent + abroad. These are being superseded by more powerful sound instruments. + + _Explosive Signals._--Guns were long used at many lighthouse and + light-vessel stations in England, and are still in use in Ireland and + at some foreign stations. These are being gradually displaced by other + explosive or compressed air signals. No explosive signals are in use + on the coasts of the United States. In 1878 sound rockets charged with + gun-cotton were first used at Flamborough Head and were afterwards + supplied to many other stations.[5] The nitrated gun-cotton or tonite + signals now in general use are made up in 4 oz. charges. These are + hung at the end of an iron jib or pole attached to the lighthouse + lantern or other structure, and fired by means of a detonator and + electric battery. The discharge may take place within 12 ft. of a + structure without danger. The cartridges are stored for a considerable + period without deterioration and with safety. This form of signal is + now very generally adopted for rock and other stations in Great + Britain, Canada, Newfoundland, northern Europe and other parts of the + world. An example will be noticed in the illustration of the Bishop + Rock lighthouse, attached to the lantern (fig. 13). Automatic hoisting + and firing appliances are also in use. + + _Whistles._--Whistles, whether sounded by air or steam, are not used + in Great Britain, except in two instances of harbour signals under + local control. It has been objected that their sound has too great a + resemblance to steamers' whistles, and they are wasteful of power. In + the United States and Canada they are largely used. The whistle + usually employed consists of a metallic dome or bell against which the + high-pressure steam impinges. Rapid vibrations are set up both in the + metal of the bell and in the internal air, producing a shrill note. + The Courtenay buoy whistle, already referred to, is an American + invention and finds favour in the United States, France, Germany and + elsewhere. + + _Reed-Horns._--These instruments in their original form were the + invention of C. L. Daboll, an experimental horn of his manufacture + being tried in 1851 by the United States Lighthouse Board. In 1862 the + Trinity House adopted the instrument for seven land and light-vessel + stations. For compressing air for the reed-horns as well as sirens, + caloric, steam, gas and oil engines have been variously used, + according to local circumstances. The reed-horn was improved by + Professor Holmes, and many examples from his designs are now in use in + England and America. At the Trinity House experiments with fog signals + at St Catherine's (1901) several types of reed-horn were experimented + with. The Trinity House service horn uses air at 15 lb. pressure with + a consumption of .67 cub. ft. per second and 397 vibrations. A small + manual horn of the Trinity House type consumes .67 cub. ft. of air at + 5 lb. pressure. The trumpets of the latter are of brass. + + _Sirens._--The most powerful and efficient of all compressed air fog + signals is the siren. The principle of this instrument may be briefly + explained as follows:--It is well known that if the tympanic membrane + is struck periodically and with sufficient rapidity by air impulses or + waves a musical sound is produced. Robinson was the first to construct + an instrument by which successive puffs of air under pressure were + ejected from the mouth of a pipe. He obtained this effect by using a + stop-cock revolving at high speed in such a manner that 720 pulsations + per second were produced by the intermittent escape of air through the + valves or ports, a smooth musical note being given. Cagniard de la + Tour first gave such an instrument the name of siren, and constructed + it in the form of an air chamber with perforated lid or cover, the + perforations being successively closed and opened by means of a + similarly perforated disk fitted to the cover and revolving at high + speed. The perforations being cut at an angle, the disk was + self-rotated by the oblique pressure of the air in escaping through + the slots. H. W. Dove and Helmholtz introduced many improvements, and + Brown of New York patented, about 1870, a steam siren with two disks + having radial perforations or slots. The cylindrical form of the siren + now generally adopted is due to Slight, who used two concentric + cylinders, one revolving within the other, the sides being perforated + with vertical slots. To him is also due the centrifugal governor + largely used to regulate the speed of rotation of the siren. Over the + siren mouth is placed a conical trumpet to collect and direct the + sound in the desired direction. In the English service these trumpets + are generally of considerable length and placed vertically, with bent + top and bell mouth. Those at St Catherine's are of cast-iron with + copper bell mouth, and have a total axial length of 22 ft. They are 5 + in. in diameter at the siren mouth, the bell mouth being 6 ft. in + diameter. At St Catherine's the sirens are two in number, 5 in. in + diameter, being sounded simultaneously and in unison (fig. 53). Each + siren is provided with ports for producing a high note as well as a + low note, the two notes being sounded in quick succession once every + minute. The trumpet mouths are separated by an angle of 120° between + their axes. This double form has been adopted in certain instances + where the angle desired to be covered by the sound is comparatively + wide. In Scotland the cylindrical form is used generally, either + automatically or motor driven. By the latter means the admission of + air to the siren can be delayed until the cylinder is rotating at full + speed, and a much sharper sound is produced than in the case of the + automatic type. The Scottish trumpets are frequently constructed so + that the greater portion of the length is horizontal. The Girdleness + trumpet has an axial length of 16 ft., 11 ft. 6 in. being horizontal. + The trumpet is capable of being rotated through an angle as well as + dipped below the horizon. It is of cast-iron, no bell mouth is used, + and the conical mouth is 4 ft. in diameter. In France the sirens are + cylindrical and very similar to the English self-driven type. The + trumpets have a short axial length, 4 ft. 6 in., and are of brass, + with bent bell mouth. The Trinity House has in recent years + reintroduced the use of disk sirens, with which experiments are still + being carried out both in the United Kingdom and abroad. For + light-vessels and rock stations where it is desired to distribute the + sound equally in all directions the mushroom-head trumpet is + occasionally used. The Casquets trumpet of this type is 22 ft. in + length, of cast-iron, with a mushroom top 6 ft. in diameter. In cases + where neither the mushroom trumpet nor the twin siren is used the + single bent trumpet is arranged to rotate through a considerable + angle. Table IV. gives particulars of a few typical sirens of the most + recent form. + + [Illustration: FIG. 53.--St Catherine's Double-noted Siren.] + + + TABLE IV. + + +-----------------------+----------------------+----------+---------+----------------+--------------------+ + | | | |Sounding |Cub. ft. of air | | + | | |Vibrations|Pressure |used per sec. of| | + | Station. | Description. | per sec. |in lb per| blast reduced | Remarks. | + | | | | sq. in. | to atmospheric | | + | | | | | pressure. | | + +-----------------------+----------------------+-----+----+---------+-------+--------+--------------------+ + | | |High.|Low.| | High. | Low. | | + |St Catherine's (Trinity|Two 5-in. cylindrical,| 295 | 182| 25 | 32 | 16 |The air consumption | + | House) | automatically driven| | | | | | is for 2 sirens. | + | | sirens | | | | | | | + |Girdleness (N.L.C) |7-in. cylindrical | 234 | 100| 30 | 130 | 26 | | + | | siren, motor driven | | | | | | | + |Casquets (Trinity |7-in. disk siren, | .. | 98| 25 | .. | 36 | | + | House) | motor driven | | | | | | | + |French pattern siren |6-in. cylindrical | 326 | .. | 28 | 14 | .. |A uniform note of | + | | siren, automatically| | | | | | 326 vibrations per| + | | driven | | | | | | sec. has now been | + | | | | | | | | adopted generally | + | | | | | | | | in France. | + +-----------------------+----------------------+-----+----+---------+-------+--------+--------------------+ + + Since the first trial of the siren at the South Foreland in 1873 a + very large number of these instruments have been established both at + lighthouse stations and on board light-vessels. In all cases in Great + Britain and France they are now supplied with air compressed by steam + or other mechanical power. In the United States and some other + countries steam, as well as compressed air, sirens are in use. + + _Diaphones._--The diaphone is a modification of the siren, which has + been largely used in Canada since 1903 in place of the siren. It is + claimed that the instrument emits a note of more constant pitch than + does the siren. The distinction between the two instruments is that in + the siren a revolving drum or disk alternately opens and closes + elongated air apertures, while in the diaphone a piston pulsating at + high velocity serves to alternately cover and uncover air slots in a + cylinder. + + _The St Catherine's Experiments._--Extensive trials were carried out + during 1901 by the Trinity House at St Catherine's lighthouse, Isle of + Wight, with several types of sirens and reed-horns. Experiments were + also made with different pattern of trumpets, including forms having + elliptical sections, the long axis being placed vertically. The + conclusions of the committee may be briefly summarized as follows: (1) + When a large arc requires to be guarded two fixed trumpets suitably + placed are more effective than one large trumpet capable of being + rotated. (2) When the arc to be guarded is larger than that + effectively covered by two trumpets, the mushroom-head trumpet is a + satisfactory instrument for the purpose. (3) A siren rotated by a + separate motor yields better results than when self-driven. (4) No + advantage commensurate with the additional power required is obtained + by the use of air at a higher pressure than 25 lb. per sq. in. (5) The + number of vibrations per second produced by the siren or reed should + be in unison with the proper note of the associated trumpet. (6) When + two notes of different pitch are employed the difference between these + should, if possible, be an octave. (7) For calm weather a low note is + more suitable than a high note, but when sounding against the wind and + with a rough and noisy sea a high note has the greater range. (8) From + causes which cannot be determined at the time or predicted beforehand, + areas sometimes exist in which the sounds of fog signals may be + greatly enfeebled or even lost altogether. This effect was more + frequently observed during comparatively calm weather and at no great + distance from the signal station. (It has often been observed that the + sound of a signal may be entirely lost within a short distance of the + source, while heard distinctly at a greater distance and at the same + time.) (9) The siren was the most effective signal experimented with; + the reed-horn, although inferior in power, is suitable for situations + of secondary importance. (No explosive signals were under trial during + the experiments.) (10) A fog signal, owing to the uncertainty + attending its audibility, must be regarded only as an auxiliary aid to + navigation which cannot at all times be relied upon. + + _Submarine Bell Signals._--As early as 1841 J. D. Colladon conducted + experiments on the lake of Geneva to test the suitability of water as + a medium for transmission of sound signals and was able to convey + distinctly audible sounds through water for a distance of over 21 m., + but it was not until 1904 that any successful practical application of + this means of signalling was made in connexion with light-vessels. + There are at present (1910) over 120 submarine bells in service, + principally in connexion with light-vessels, off the coasts of the + United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Germany, France and other + countries. These bells are struck by clappers actuated by pneumatic or + electrical mechanism. Other submerged bells have been fitted to buoys + and beacon structures, or placed on the sea bed; in the former case + the bell is actuated by the motion of the buoy and in others by + electric current, transmitted by cable from the shore. In some cases, + when submarine bells are associated with gas buoys or beacons, the + compressed gas is employed to actuate the bell striking mechanism. To + take full advantage of the signals thus provided it is necessary for + ships approaching them to be fitted with special receiving mechanism + of telephonic character installed below the water line and in contact + with the hull plating. The signals are audible by the aid of ear + pieces similar to ordinary telephone receivers. Not only can the bell + signals be heard at considerable distances--frequently over 10 m.--and + in all conditions of weather, but the direction of the bell in + reference to the moving ship can be determined within narrow limits. + The system is likely to be widely extended and many merchant vessels + and war ships have been fitted with signal receiving mechanism. + + The following table (V.) gives the total numbers of fog signals of + each class in use on the 1st of January 1910 in certain countries. + + TABLE V. + + +----------------------------+-------+------+--------------+------+---------+-----+------+------+------+-------+ + | | | | Horns, | |Explosive| | | |Subm- | | + | |Sirens.| Diap-| Trumpets, &c.| Whis-| Signals |Guns.|Bells.|Gongs.|arine |Totals.| + | | | hone.+------+-------+ tles.| (tonite,| | | |Bells.| | + | | | |Power.|Manual.| | &c.). | | | | | | + +----------------------------+-------+------+------+-------+------+---------+-----+------+------+------+-------+ + | England and Channel Islands| 44 | .. | 27 | 31 | 2 | 15 | .. | 48 | 10 | 16 | 193 | + | Scotland and Isle of Man | 35 | .. | 6 | 2 | .. | 5 | .. | 16 | 3 | .. | 67 | + | Ireland | 12 | .. | 2 | 6 | .. | 11 | 3 | 11 | .. | 3 | 48 | + | France | 12 | .. | 7 | 1 | .. | 1 | .. | 25 | .. | 2 | 48 | + | United States (excluding | | | | | | | | | | | | + | inland lakes and rivers) | 43 | .. | 35 | 15 | 59 | .. | .. | 218 | 1 | 36 | 407 | + | British North America | | | | | | | | | | | | + | (excluding inland lakes | | | | | | | | | | | | + | and rivers) | 6 | 66 | 5 | 79 | 16 | 8 | .. | 24 | .. | 11 | 215 | + +----------------------------+-------+------+--------------+------+---------+-----+------+------+------+-------+ + + When two kinds of signal are employed at any one station, one being + subsidiary, the latter is omitted from the enumeration. Buoy and + unattended beacon bells and whistles are also omitted, but local port + and harbour signals not under the immediate jurisdiction of the + various lighthouse boards are included, more especially in Great + Britain. + + +11. LIGHTHOUSE ADMINISTRATION. The principal countries of the world +possess organized and central authorities responsible for the +installation and maintenance of coast lights and fog signals, buoys and +beacons. + + _United Kingdom._--In England the corporation of Trinity House, or + according to its original charter, "The Master Wardens, and Assistants + of the Guild Fraternity or Brotherhood of the most glorious and + undivided Trinity and of St Clement, in the Parish of Deptford Strond, + in the county of Kent," existed in the reign of Henry VII. as a + religious house with certain duties connected with pilotage, and was + incorporated during the reign of Henry VIII. In 1565 it was given + certain rights to maintain beacons, &c., but not until 1680 did it own + any lighthouses. Since that date it has gradually purchased most of + the ancient privately owned lighthouses and has erected many new ones. + The act of 1836 gave the corporation control of English coast lights + with certain supervisory powers over the numerous local lighting + authorities, including the Irish and Scottish Boards. The corporation + now consists of a Master, Deputy-master, and 22 Elder Brethren (10 of + whom are honorary), together with an unlimited number of Younger + Brethren, who, however, perform no executive duties. In Scotland and + the Isle of Man the lights are under the control of the Commissioners + of Northern Lighthouses constituted in 1786 and incorporated in 1798. + The lighting of the Irish coast is in the hands of the Commissioners + of Irish Lights formed in 1867 in succession to the old Dublin Ballast + Board. The principal local light boards in the United Kingdom are the + Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, and the Clyde Lighthouse Trustees. The + three general lighthouse boards of the United Kingdom, by the + provision of the Mercantile Marine Act of 1854, are subordinate to the + Board of Trade, which controls all finances. + + On the 1st of January 1910 the lights, fog signals and submarine bells + in service under the control of the several authorities in the United + Kingdom were as follows: + + +----------------------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+ + | |Light- | Light- | Fog |Submarine| + | |houses.|vessels.|Signals.| Bells. | + +----------------------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+ + | Trinity House | 116 | 51 | 97 | 12 | + | Northern Lighthouse Commissioners| 138 | 5 | 44 | .. | + | Irish Lights Commissioners | 93 | 11 | 35 | 3 | + | Mersey Docks and Harbour Board | 16 | 6 | 13 | 2 | + | Admiralty | 31 | 2 | 6 | .. | + | Clyde Lighthouse Trustees | 14 | 1 | 5 | .. | + | Other local lighting authorities | 809 | 11 | 89 | 2 | + | +-------+--------+--------+---------+ + | Totals | 1217 | 87 | 289 | 19 | + +----------------------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+ + + Some small harbour and river lights of subsidiary character are not + included in the above total. + + _United States._--The United States Lighthouse Board was constituted + by act of Congress in 1852. The Secretary of Commerce and Labor is the + ex-officio president. The board consists of two officers of the navy, + two engineer officers of the army, and two civilian scientific + members, with two secretaries, one a naval officer, the other an + officer of engineers in the army. The members are appointed by the + president of the United States. The coast-line of the states, with the + lakes and rivers and Porto Rico, is divided into 16 executive + districts for purposes of administration. + + The following table shows the distribution of lighthouses, + light-vessels, &c., maintained by the lighthouse board in the United + States in June 1909. In addition there are a few small lights and + buoys privately maintained. + + Lighthouses and beacon lights 1333 + Light-vessels in position 53 + Light-vessels for relief 13 + Gas lighted buoys in position 94 + Fog signals operated by steam or oil engines 228 + Fog signals operated by clockwork, &c. 205 + Submarine signals 43 + Post lights 2333 + Day or unlighted beacons 1157 + Bell buoys in position 169 + Whistling buoys in position 94 + Other buoys 5760 + Steam tenders 51 + Constructional Staff 318 + Light keepers; and light attendants 3137 + Officers and crews of light-vessels and tenders 1693 + + _France._--The lighthouse board of France is known as the Commission + des Phares, dating from 1792 and remodelled in 1811, and is under the + direction of the minister of public works. It consists of four + engineers, two naval officers and one member of the Institute, one + inspector-general of marine engineers, and one hydrographic engineer. + The chief executive officers are an Inspecteur Général des Ponts et + Chaussées, who is director of the board, and another engineer of the + same corps, who is engineer-in-chief and secretary. The board has + control of about 750 lights, including those of Corsica, Algeria, &c. + A similar system has been established in Spain. + + + TABLE VI.--_Electric Lighthouse Apparatus._ + + +--------------------------+-----------------+-----+----------+-----------+----------+-------------+-------+----+--------+--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+-------+---------------------------------------------------+ + | | | P | | | | | C | V | C | | | | | | | + | | | e | | | | Ratio of | u | o | a | | | | | | | + | | | r | | Candle- | Focal | Angular | r | l | r | | | |Elevation| Year | | + | Name. | Characteristic. | i | Duration | power | Distance | Breadth of | r | t | b | Electric | Lamps. |Engines.| above | Estab-| Remarks. | + | | | o | of Flash.| (Service | of Lens. | Panel to | e | a | o | Generators. | | | High |lished.| | + | | | d | |Intensity).| |Whole Circle.| n | g | n | | | | Water. | | | + | | | . | | | | | t | e | s | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | . | . | . | | | | | | | + +--------------------------+-----------------+-----+----------+-----------+----------+-------------+-------+----+--------+--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+-------+---------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | | Standard | | | | | | | | | | | | + |UNITED KINGDOM-- | |Secs.| Secs. | Candles. | mm. | | Amps. | | mm. | | | | Feet. | | | + | Souter Point | Single flash | 30 | 5 | | 500 | 1 : 8 | .. | 40 | 17 | Holmes machines, | Serrin | Steam | 150 | 1871 |Fixed light apparatus, with revolving vertical | + | (Durham) | | | |\ C n | | | | | | alternating (400 revs.) | | | | | condensing lenses in eight panels. | + | South Foreland | Single flash | 2.5| .35 || a o d | 700 | 1 : 16 | .. | 40 | 26 | do. | Serrin | Steam | 374 | 1904 |Lens elements only; 97° vertical angle. | + | (Kent) | | | || n t e | | | | | | | | | | | (This apparatus was in use at St Catherine's, | + | | | | || d t | | | | | | | | | | |1888 to 1904, and replaced the two fixed electric | + | | | | || l o e | | | | | | | | | | |lights established in 1872.) | + | Lizard | Single flash | 3 | .13 || e f r | 700 | 1 : 4 |145 for| 40 | 50 and | De Meritens alternators | Modified | Oil | 230 | 1903 | Mercury rotation; vertical angle, 139°. Replaced | + | (Cornwall) | | | | > - f m | | | 50 mm.| | 60 | (600 revs.) | Berjot- | engines| | | the two fixed electric lights erected in | + | | | | || p i i | | |carbons| | fluted | | Serrin | | | | 1878. | + | St Catherine's | Single flash | 5 | .21 || o c n | 700 | 1 : 4 |145 for| 40 | 50 and | do. | do. |2 Steam,| 136 | 1904 |Mercury rotation; vertical angle, 139°. | + | (Isle of Wight) | | | || w i e | | | 50 mm.| | 60 | | | each 50| | | | + | | | | || e a d | | |carbons| | fluted | | | h.p. | | | | + | Isle of May | 4 flash | 30 | .4 || r l . | 700 | 1 : 8 | 220 | 40 | 40 | do. | Berjot- | Steam | 240 | 1886 |Fixed light apparatus, with revolving vertical | + | (Firth of Forth) | | | || l | (Fixed | | | | | | Serrin | | | | condensing lenses. | + | | | | |/ y |apparatus)| | | | | | | | | | | + |FRANCE-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Dunkerque | 2 flash | 10 | .2 to .4 | 3,500,000 | 300 | 1 : 12 | 30 | 45 | 14 and |2 De Meritens alternators,| Improved | 2 Semi-| 193 | 1902 |Twelve panels in groups of two. | + | (Strait of Dover) | | | | to | | | and | | 18 | each of 5.5 k.w. | Serrin |portable| | | (This apparatus was in use at Barfleur, 1893 | + | | | | | 6,500,000 | | | 60 | | | (550 revs.) | | steam, | | |to 1902.) | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | each 30| | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | i.h.p. | | | | + | Calais | 4 flash | 15 | .75 | 900,000 | 300 | 1 : 24 | 60 | 45 | 18 | do. | French | do. | 190 | 1883 |Fixed light apparatus, with revolving vertical | + | (Strait of Dover) | | | | | | | | | | | Service | | | | condensing prisms. | + | [Les Baleines (1882) | | | | | | | | | | | pattern | | | | | + | similar] | | | | | | | | | | | (1902) | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Cap Gris-nez | Single flash | 5 |.10 to .14| 15,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 60 | 45 | 18 and | do. | do. | Steam | 233 | 1899 |Twin optic, mercury rotation. | + | (Strait of Dover) | | | | to | | | to | | 28 | | | | | | (This light superseded a triple-flashing electric| + | | | | | 30,000,000| | | 120 | | | | | | | |light, with intermediate red flash, of the Calais | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |type, established in 1885. The first installation | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |of the electric light at this station was in 1869.)| + | La Canche | 2 flash | 10 |.10 to .14| 15,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 30 | 45 | 14 and | do. | do. | do. | 174 | 1900 |Twin optic, mercury rotation. | + | (Strait of Dover) | | | | to | | | to | | 18 | | | | | | (This light superseded a fixed electric light | + | | | | | 30,000,000| | | 60 | | | | | | | |established in 1884.) | + | Cap de la Hève | Single flash | 5 |.10 to .14| 10,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 60 | 45 | 18 and | De Meritens alternators | Improved | do. | 397 | 1893 | Mercury rotation. | + | (Havre, English | | | | to | | | to | | 28 | (550 revs.) | Serrin | | | | (The first installation of electric light at this| + | Channel) | | | | 20,000,000| | | 120 | | | | | | | |lighthouse was in 1863.) | + | [Île d'Yeu in the Bay | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | of Biscay (1895) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | similar] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Créac'h d'Ouessant | 2 flash | 10 |.10 to .14| 15,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 60 | 45 | 18 and |2 De Meritens alternators,| French | do. | 225 | 1901 |Twin optic, mercury rotation. | + | (Ushant) | | | | to | | | to | | 28 | each of 5.5 k.w. | Service | | | | (This light superseded a double-flashing | + | [Barfleur (English | | | | 30,000,000| | | 120 | | | (550 revs.) | pattern | | | |electric light, similar to that now at Dunkerque, | + | Channel) 1903, La | | | | | | | | | | | (1902) | | | |established in 1888.) | + | Coubre (Bay of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Biscay) 1905, and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Belle Île (Bay | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | of Biscay) 1903, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | similar] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Penmarc'h (Phare | Single flash | 5 |.10 to .14| 15,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 30 | 45 | 14 and | Two-phase Labour alter- | do. | do. | 197 | 1897 |Twin optic, mercury rotation. | + | d'Eckmühl) | | | | to | | | and | | 18 |nators (810 to 820 revs.) | | | | | | + | (Finistère) | | | | 30,000,000| | | 60 | | | | | | | | | + | Planier | Single flash | 5 |.10 to .14| 15,000,000| 300 | 1 : 4 | 30 | 45 |14 to 18| De Meritens alternators | do. | do. | 207 | 1902 |Twin optic, mercury rotation. | + | (near Marseilles) | | | | to | | | to | | | (550 revs.) | | | | | (This light superseded an electric light estab- | + | | | | | 30,000,000| | | 60 | | | | | | | |lished in 1881, showing a group of three white | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |flashes separated by one red flash of the Calais | + |ITALY-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |type.) | + | Tino | 3 flash | 30 | 1.25 | Undeter- | 700 | 1 : 24 | 50 | 50 | 15 | do. | Berjot- | do. | 384 | 1885 |Eight panels of three lenses each, no mirror. | + | (Gulf of Spezia) | | | | mined. | | | 110 | | 25 | (830 revs.) | Serrin | | | | | + | | | | | | | | 200 | | 35 | | | | | | | + |AMERICA-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Navesink | Single flash | 5 | .08 | About | 700 | Nearly 1 : 2| Max. | 50 | 23 | Alternating dynamos | Modified | Oil, | 246 | 1898 |Mercury rotation. Bivalve of 165°. | + | (Entrance to New | | | | 60,000,000| | | 100 | | | (800 revs.) | Serrin | each | | | | + | York Bay) | | | | | | | | | | | (Ciolina)| 25 h.p.| | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + |AUSTRALIA-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Macquarie | Single flash | 60 | 8 | 5,000,000 | 920 | 1 : 16 | 55 | 50 | 15 | De Meritens alternators | Serrin | Gas | 345 | 1883 |16-panel revolving apparatus, with 180° fixed | + | (Sydney, N.S.W.) | | | | | | | 110 | | 25 | (600 revs.) | | | | | mirror. | + +--------------------------+-----------------+-----+----------+-----------+----------+-------------+-------+----+--------+--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+-------+---------------------------------------------------+ + + + TABLE VII.--_Typical Non-Electric Lighthouse Apparatus._ + + +----------------+-------------------+--------------+-------+--------+------------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------------+----------+-------+----------+-------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | | | Candle- | | Ratio of | | | | | | | + | | | | | | Power in | | Angular | | | Service | Height| | | + | Name. | Locality. | Character- |Period.|Duration| Standard | Focal | Breadth of | Illuminant. | Burner. | Candle- | above | Year | Remarks. | + | | | istic. | | of | Candles |Distance | Panel to | | | power | High | Estab- | | + | | | | |Flashes.| (Service |of Lens.|Whole Circle.| | |of Burner.| Water.| lished.* | | + | | | | | | Intensity).| | | | | | | | | + +----------------+-------------------+--------------+-------+--------+------------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------------+----------+-------+----------+-------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | Secs. | Secs. | | mm. | | | | | Feet. | | | + |Casquets | Channel Islands | 3 flash | 30 | 1.5 | 185,000 | 920 | 1 : 9 | Incandescent| "Matthews" 3-50 | 3300 | 120 | 1877 |Dioptric holophote, 126½° vertical angle; 3 sides of 3 | + | | | | | | | | | petroleum | mm. dia. mantles | | | | panels in each. | + | | | | | | | | | vapour | | | | | | + |Eddystone | South Devon | 2 flash | 30 | 1.5 | 292,000 | 920 | 1 : 12 | do. | do. | 3300 | 133 | 1882 |Biform apparatus, lens elements only, 92° vertical angle; | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 6 sides of 2 panels each. | + |Bishop Rock | Scilly Isles | 2 flash | 60 | 4.0 | 622,000 | 1330 | 1 : 10 | do. | do. | 3300 | 134 | 1886 |Biform apparatus, lens elements only, 80° vertical angle; | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 5 sides of 2 panels each. | + |Spurn Point | Yorkshire | Single flash | 20 | 1.5 | 519,000 | 1330 | 1 : 6 | do. | do. | 3300 | 120 | 1895 |Lens elements only, 80° vertical angle. | + |Lundy Island | Bristol Channel | 2 flash | 20 | .33 | 374,000 | 920 | Nearly 1 : 4| do. | do. | 3300 | 165 | 1897 |Mercury rotation, 4-panel bivalve. | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [St. Mary's Isle, Northumberland (1898), is similar.] | + |Pendeen | Cornwall | 4 flash | 15 | .25 | 190,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | do. | do. | 3300 | 195 | 1900 |80° vertical angle lens, 2 sides of 4 panels each, mercury | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | rotation. | + |Roker Pier | Sunderland | Single flash | 5 | .10 | 175,000 | 500 | Nearly 1 : 2| do. | "Chance" 55 mm. | 1200 | 83 | 1903 |Mercury rotation; univalve 164° in azimuth, with 164° | + | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | dioptric mirror in rear. | + |Bell Rock | Near Firth of Tay | Red and white| 60 | .50 | 392,000 | 920 and | White about | do. | "Chance" 55 mm. | 1200 | 93 | 1902 |Combined hyper-radial and first-order light with back | + | | |flashes alter-| | | | 1330 | 1 : 9 | | dia. mantle | | | | prisms in white and mirrors in red. Revolves in 60 | + | | |nately every | | | | | red about | | | | | | secs. | + | | | 30 secs. | | | | | 1 : 2.2 | | | | | |[Holy Island, 1905 (Lamlash), similar, flash every 15 secs.] | + |Kinnaird's Head | Aberdeenshire | Single flash | 15 | .50 | 881,000 | 920 and | 1 : 2.2 | do. | do. | 2150 | 120 | 1903 |Composite apparatus; panels of 1330 mm. and 920 mm. | + | | | | | | | 1330 | | | | | | | focal distance; 2 faces. | + |Tarbet Ness | Dornoch Firth | 6 flash | 30 | .50 | 89,000 | 700 | 1 : 12 | do. | "Chance" 55 mm. | 1200 | 175 | 1892 |6 panels (lens) of 30° with 180° mirror. | + | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | [Douglas Head (Isle of Man) similar.] | + |Sule Skerry | West of Orkneys | 3 flash | 30 | 1.0 | 378,000 | 1330 | 1 : 9 | do. | "Chance" 85 mm. | 2150 | 113 | 1895 |Equiangular lenses. | + | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | | + |Pladda | South end of Arran| 3 flash | 30 | .50 | 597,000 | 1330 | 1 : 6 | do. | do. | 2150 | 130 | 1901 |3 equiangular lens panels with mirror in rear; side panels | + | | Island | | | | | | | | | | | | eccentric. | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [Hyskin Rocks (1904) similar.] | + |Tory Island | Co. Donegal | 3 flash | 60 | 3.0 | 17,000 to | 1330 | 1 : 6 | Coal Gas | Wigham, 108 jets | 2300 | 130 | 1887 |Triform apparatus, vertical angle of lenses 65°; 6 sides, | + | | | | | | 326,000 | | | | (maximum) | (max.) | | | one revolution in 6 minutes. The single flash from | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | lens is divided by eclipsing burner into 3 flashes. | + |Fastnet | Co. Cork | Single flash | 5 | .17 | 750,000 | 920 | 1 : 4 | Incandescent| Irish pattern | 1200 | 160 | 1904 |Biform apparatus; 4 panels of 90° vertical angle and 90° | + | | | | | | | | | petroleum | 50 mm. mantle | | | | in azimuth; mercury rotation. | + | | | | | | | | | vapour | | | | | | + |Kinsale | do. | 2 flash | 10 | .25 | 460,000 | 920 | 1 : 6 | do. | do. | 1200 | 236 | 1907 |Biform apparatus, 3 sides each of 2 panels; vertical | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | angle 96°; mercury rotation. | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | |[St. John's Point, Co. Down (1908) similar, period 7.5 secs.]| + |Howth Bailey | Dublin Bay | Single flash | 30 | 1.0 | 950,000 | 920 | 13 : 32 | do. |Irish pattern 3-50| 3300 | 134 | 1902 |Bivalve apparatus; panels of 147° in azimuth and 122° | + | | | | | | | | | | mm. dia. mantles | | | | vertical angle; mercury rotation. | + | | | | | / 1.0 | 70,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | Oil | 6 wick | 480 | 164 | 1891 |\ | + | | | | || .50 | 180,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | Incandescent| / 30 mm. dia. | 400 | 164 | 1895 | |The old first-order apparatus has been utilized in all | + |Chassiron | Bay of Biscay | Single flash | 10 || | | | | oil gas | | mantle | | | | | cases. | + | | | | || .70 | 360,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | Incandescent| | 55 mm. dia. | 1300 | 164 | 1902 | | | + | | | | | \ | | | | acetylene | \ mantle | | | |/ | + |Cap d'Antifer | English Channel | Single flash | 20 | 1.0 | 400,000 | 1330 | 1 : 6 | Incandescent| French pattern | 2150 | 394 | 1894 |Mercury rotation, hyper-radial apparatus with reflecting | + | | | | | | | | | petroleum | 85 mm. mantle | | | | prisms. This is the only apparatus of this focal | + | | | | | | | | | vapour | | | | | distance on the French coast. | + |Île de Batz | Finistère | 4 flash | 25 | .37 | 200,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | do. | do. | 2150 | 223 | 1900 |Group-flashing apparatus; 4 panels of 45°, with 180° | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | mirror in rear; mercury rotation. | + |Ar'men | do. | 3 flash | 20 | .38 | 200,000 | 700 | 1 : 5 | do. | do. | 2150 | 94 | 1897 |Mercury rotation; 3 panels, mirror in rear. | + |Villefranche | Mediterranean | Single flash | 5 | .38 | 250,000 | 700 | 1 : 4 | do. | do. | 2150 | 229 | 1902 |Mercury rotation. | + |Île Vierge | Finistère | Single flash | 5 | .38 | 500,000 | 700 | 1 : 4 | do. | do. | 2150 | 252 | 1902 |Twin optic; mercury rotation. | + |Kennery Island | Bombay | 2 flash | 10 | .25 | 250,000 | 920 | Nearly 1:4 | do. |70 mm. dia. mantle| 1400 | 153 | 1902 |Mercury rotation; bivalve apparatus; 2 double-flashing | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 170° panels. | + |Cape Race | Newfoundland | Single flash | 7.5 | .30 | 1,100,000 | 1330 | 1 : 4 | do. | "Chance" 85 mm. | 2150 | 165 | 1907 |4 panels, vertical angle 121½°; mercury rotation. | + | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | [Manora Point, Karachi, 1909, similar.] | + |Pachena Point | British Columbia | 2 flash | 7.5 | .44 | 220,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | do. | do. | 2150 | .. | 1908 |Mercury rotation. 4 sides of 2 panels each. | + |Cape Hermes | Cape Colony | Single flash | 3 | .31 | 30,000 | 250 | 1 : 3 | do. | "Chance" 55 mm. | 1200 | 175 | 1904 |3 panels, vertical angle 150°; mercury rotation. | + | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | | + |Hood Point | do. | 4 flash | 40 | .58 | 200,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | do. | "Chance" 85 mm. | 2150 | 180 | 1895 |Mercury rotation; 4 panels of 45° in azimuth and 80° | + | | | | | | | | | | dia. mantle | | | | vertical angle, with catadioptric mirror in rear. | + |Cape Naturaliste| West Australia | 2 flash | 10 | .15 | 450,000 | 920 | About 1 : 3 | do. | do. | 2150 | 404 | 1904 |Mercury rotation; 2 lenses of 126½° in azimuth, with | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | mirror of 107°. | + |Point Cloates | do. | Single flash | 5 | .30 | 300,000 | 700 | 1 : 3 | do. | do. | 2150 | 190 | 1909 |Mercury rotation; 3 panels, each 120° in azimuth and | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 133½° vertical angle. | + |Pecks Ledge |Connecticut, U.S.A.| 2 flash | 30 | .50 | 10,000 | 250 | 1 : 4 | do. |34 mm. dia. mantle| 300 | 54 | 1906 |Rotated on ball bearings. 2 lenses of 90° each and | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | mirror. | + |Fire Island | New York, U.S.A. | Single flash | 60 | 4.0 | 250,000 | 920 | 1 : 8 | do. |55 mm. dia. mantle| 1000 | 167 | 1858 |Rotated on roller bearings. | + |Gray's Harbor |Washington, Pacific| Alternating | 5 | .20|White 10,000| 500 | .. | Oil | 3 wick | 160 | 122 | 1898 |Mercury rotation; one (red) lens of 170° in azimuth, re- | + | | Coast, U.S.A. | red and white| | | red 8,000 | | | | | | | | inforced by two 60° mirrors; one (white) lens of 60° in | + | | | flashes | | | | | | | | | | | azimuth. | + +----------------+-------------------+--------------+-------+--------+------------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------------+----------+-------+----------+-------------------------------------------------------------+ + + * The dates given are of the establishment of the optical apparatus. + In many cases incandescent burners have been installed at later + dates. + + + _English Colonies._--In Canada the coast lighting is in the hands of + the minister of marine, and in most other colonies the public works + departments have control of lighthouse matters. + + _Other Countries._--In Denmark, Austria, Holland, Russia, Sweden, + Norway and many other countries the minister of marine has charge of + the lighting and buoying of coasts; in Belgium the public works + department controls the service. + + In the Trinity House Service at shore lighthouse stations there are + usually two keepers, at rock stations three or four, one being ashore + on leave. When there is a fog signal at a station there is usually an + additional keeper, and at electric light stations a mechanical + engineer is also employed as principal keeper. The crews of + light-vessels as a rule consist of 11 men, three of them and the + master or mate going on shore in rotation. + + The average annual cost of maintenance of an English shore lighthouse, + with two keepers, is £275. For shore lighthouses with three keepers + and a siren fog signal the average cost is £444. The maintenance of a + rock lighthouse with four keepers and an explosive fog signal is about + £760, and an electric light station costs about £1100 annually to + maintain. + + A light-vessel of the ordinary type in use in the United Kingdom + entails an annual expenditure on maintenance of approximately £1320, + excluding the cost of periodical overhaul. + + AUTHORITIES.--Smeaton, _Eddystone Lighthouse_ (London, 1793); A. + Fresnel, _Mémoire sur un nouveau system d'éclairage des phares_ + (Paris, 1822); R. Stevenson, _Bell Rock Lighthouse_ (Edinburgh, 1824); + Alan Stevenson, _Skerryvore Lighthouse_ (1847); Renaud, _Mémoire sur + l'éclairage et le balisage des côtes de France_ (Paris, 1864); Allard, + _Mémoire sur l'intensité et la portée des phares_ (Paris, 1876); T. + Stevenson, _Lighthouse Construction and Illumination_ (London, 1881); + Allard, _Mémoire sur les phares électriques_ (Paris, 1881); Renaud, + _Les Phares_ (Paris, 1881); Edwards, _Our Sea Marks_ (London, 1884); + D. P. Heap, _Ancient and Modern Lighthouses_ (Boston, 1889); Allard, + _Les Phares_ (Paris, 1889); Rey, _Les Progrès d'éclairage des côtes_ + (Paris, 1898); Williams, _Life of Sir J. N. Douglass_ (London, 1900); + J. F. Chance, _The Lighthouse Work of Sir Jas. Chance_ (London, 1902); + de Rochemont and Deprez, _Cours des travaux maritimes_, vol. ii. + (Paris, 1902); Ribière, _Phares et Signaux maritimes_ (Paris, 1908); + Stevenson, "Isle of May Lighthouse," _Proc. Inst. Mech. Engineers_ + (1887); J. N. Douglass, "Beacon Lights and Fog Signals," _Proc. Roy. + Inst._ (1889); Ribière, "Propriétés optiques des appareils des + phares," _Annales des ponts et chaussées_ (1894); Preller, "Coast + Lighthouse Illumination in France," _Engineering_ (1896); "Lighthouse + Engineering at the Paris Exhibition," Engineer (1901-1902); N. G. + Gedye, "Coast Fog Signals," _Engineer_ (1902); _Trans. Int. Nav. + Congress_ (Paris, 1900, Milan, 1905); _Proc. Int. Eng. Congress_ + (Glasgow, 1901, St Louis, 1904); _Proc. Int. Maritime Congress_ + (London, 1893); J. T. Chance, "On Optical Apparatus used in + Lighthouses," _Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. xxvi.; J. N. Douglass, "The Wolf + Rock Lighthouse," ibid. vol. xxx.; W. Douglass, "Great Basses + Lighthouse," ibid. vol. xxxviii.; J. T. Chance, "Dioptric Apparatus in + Lighthouses," ibid. vol. lii.; J. N. Douglass, "Electric Light applied + to Lighthouse Illumination," ibid. vol. lvii.; W. T. Douglass, "The + New Eddystone Lighthouse," ibid. vol. lxxv.; Hopkinson, "Electric + Lighthouses at Macquarie and Tino," ibid. vol. lxxxvii.; Stevenson, + "Ailsa Craig Lighthouse and Fog Signals," ibid. vol. lxxxix.; W. T. + Douglass, "The Bishop Rock Lighthouses," ibid. vol. cviii.; Brebner, + "Lighthouse Lenses," ibid. vol. cxi.; Stevenson, "Lighthouse + Refractors," ibid. vol. cxvii.; Case, "Beachy Head Lighthouse," ibid. + vol. clix.; _Notice sur les appareils d'éclairage_ (French Lighthouse + Service exhibits at Chicago and Paris) (Paris, 1893 and 1900); _Report + on U.S. Lighthouse Board Exhibit at Chicago_ (Washington, 1894); + _Reports of the Lighthouse Board of the United States_ (Washington, + 1852, et seq.); British parliamentary reports, _Lighthouse + Illuminants_ (1883, et seq.), _Light Dues_ (1896), _Trinity House Fog + Signal Committee_ (1901), _Royal Commission on Lighthouse + Administration_ (1908); _Mémoires de la Société des Ingénieurs Civils + de France_, _Annales des ponts et chaussées_ (Paris); _Proc. Inst. C. + E._; _The Engineer_; _Engineering_ (_passim_). (W. T. D.; N. G. G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] A full account is given in Hermann Thiersch, _Pharos Antike, + Islam und Occident_ (1909). See also MINARET. + + [2] In 1901 one of the lights decided upon in 1886 and installed in + 1888--Créac'h d'Ouessant--was replaced by a still more powerful twin + apparatus exhibited at the 1900 Paris Exhibition. Subsequently + similar apparatus to that at Créac'h were installed at Gris-Nez, La + Canche, Planier, Barfleur, Belle-Île and La Coubre, and the old + Dunkerque optic has been replaced by that removed from Belle-Île. + + [3] Both the Talais and Snouw light-vessels have since been converted + into unattended light-vessels. + + [4] For the purposes of the mariner a light is classed as flashing or + occulting solely according to the duration of light and darkness and + without any reference to the apparatus employed. Thus, an occulting + apparatus, in which the period of darkness is greater than that of + light, is classed in the Admiralty "List of Lights" as a "flashing" + light. + + [5] The Flamborough Head rocket was superseded by a siren fog signal + in 1908. + + + + +LIGHTING. Artificial light is generally produced by raising some body to +a high temperature. If the temperature of a solid body be greater than +that of surrounding bodies it parts with some of its energy in the form +of radiation. Whilst the temperature is low these radiations are not of +a kind to which the eye is sensitive; they are exclusively radiations +less refrangible and of greater wave-length than red light, and may be +called infra-red. As the temperature is increased the infra-red +radiations increase, but presently there are added radiations which the +eye perceives as red light. As the temperature is further increased, the +red light increases, and yellow, green and blue rays are successively +thrown off. On raising the temperature to a still higher point, +radiations of a wave-length shorter even than violet light are produced, +to which the eye is insensitive, but which act strongly on certain +chemical substances; these may be called ultra-violet rays. Thus a very +hot body in general throws out rays of various wave-length; the hotter +the body the more of every kind of radiation will it throw out, but the +proportion of short waves to long waves becomes vastly greater as the +temperature is increased. Our eyes are only sensitive to certain of +these waves, viz. those not very long and not very short. The problem of +the artificial production of light with economy of energy is the same as +that of raising some body to such a temperature that it shall give as +large a proportion as possible of those rays which the eye is capable of +feeling. For practical purposes this temperature is the highest +temperature we can produce. As an illustration of the luminous effect of +the high temperature produced by converting other forms of energy into +heat within a small space, consider the following statements. If burned +in ordinary gas burners, 120 cub. ft. of 15 candle gas will give a light +of 360 standard candles for one hour. The heat produced by the +combustion is equivalent to about 60 million foot-pounds. If this gas be +burned in a modern gas-engine, about 8 million foot-pounds of useful +work will be done outside the engine, or about 4 horse-power for one +hour. If this be used to drive a dynamo for one hour, even if the +machine has an efficiency of only 80%, the energy of the current will be +about 6,400,000 foot-pounds per hour, about half of which, or only +3,200,000 foot-pounds, is converted into radiant energy in the electric +arc. But this electric arc will radiate a light of 2000 candles when +viewed horizontally, and two or three times as much when viewed from +below. Hence 3 million foot-pounds changed to heat in the electric arc +may be said roughly to affect our eyes six times as much as 60 million +foot-pounds changed to heat in an ordinary gas burner. + +Owing to the high temperature at which it remains solid, and to its +great emissive power, the radiant body used for artificial illumination +is usually some form of carbon. In an oil or ordinary coal-gas flame +this carbon is present in minute particles derived from the organic +substances with which the flame is supplied and heated to incandescence +by the heat liberated in their decomposition, while in the electric +light the incandescence is the effect of the heat developed by the +electric current passed through a resisting rod or filament of carbon. +In some cases, however, other substances replace carbon as the radiating +body; in the incandescent gas light certain earthy oxides are utilized, +and in metallic filament electric lamps such metals as tungsten or +tantalum. + + +1. OIL LIGHTING + + Vegetable and animal oils. + +From the earliest times the burning of oil has been a source of light, +but until the middle of the 19th century only oils of vegetable and +animal origin were employed in indoor lamps for this purpose. Although +many kinds were used locally, only colza and sperm oils had any very +extended use, and they have been practically supplanted by mineral oil, +which was introduced as an illuminant in 1853. Up to the latter half of +the 18th century the lamps were shallow vessels into which a short +length of wick dipped; the flame was smoky and discharged acrid vapours, +giving the minimum of light with the maximum of smell. The first notable +improvement was made by Ami Argand in 1784. His burner consisted of two +concentric tubes between which the tubular wick was placed; the open +inner tube led a current of air to play upon the inner surface of the +circular flame, whilst the combustion was materially improved by placing +around the flame a chimney which rested on a perforated gallery a short +distance below the burner. Argand's original burner is the parent form +of innumerable modifications, all more or less complex, such as the +Carcel and the moderator. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + A typical example of the Argand burner and chimney is represented in + fig. 1, in which the burner is composed of three tubes, d, f, g. The + tube g is soldered to the bottom of the tube d, just above o, and the + interval between the outer surface of the tube g and the inner surface + of the tube d is an annular cylindrical cavity closed at the bottom, + containing the cylindrical cotton wick immersed in oil. The wick is + fixed to the wick tube ki, which is capable of being moved spirally; + within the annular cavity is also the tube f, which can be moved + round, and serves to elevate and depress the wick. P is a cup that + screws on the bottom of the tube d, and receives the superfluous oil + that drops down from the wick along the inner surface of the tube g. + The air enters through the holes o, o, and passes up through the tube + g to maintain the combustion in the interior of the circular flame. + The air which maintains the combustion on the exterior part of the + wick enters through the holes m, with which rn is perforated. When the + air in the chimney is rarefied by the heat of the flame, the + surrounding heavier air, entering the lower part of the chimney, + passes upward with a rapid current, to restore the equilibrium. RG is + the cylindrical glass chimney with a shoulder or constriction at R, G. + The oil flows from a side reservoir, and occupies the cavity between + the tubes g and d. The part ki is a short tube, which receives the + circular wick, and slides spirally on the tube g, by means of a pin + working in the hollow spiral groove on the exterior surface of g. The + wick-tube has also a catch, which works in a perpendicular slit in the + tube f; and, by turning the tube f, the wick-tube will be raised or + lowered, for which purpose a ring, or gallery, rn, fits on the tube d, + and receives the glass chimney RG; a wire S is attached to the tube f, + and, bending over, descends along the outside of d. The part rn, that + supports the glass chimney, is connected by four other wires with the + ring q, which surrounds the tube d, and can be moved round. When rn is + turned round, it carries with it the ring q, the wire S, and the tube + f, thus raising or depressing the wick. + + A device in the form of a small metallic disk or button, known as the + Liverpool button from having been first adopted in the so-called + Liverpool lamp, effects for the current of air passing up the interior + of the Argand burner the same object as the constriction of the + chimney RG secures in the case of the external tube. The button fixed + on the end of a wire is placed right above the burner tube g, and + throws out equally all round against the flame the current of air + which passes up through g. The result of these expedients, when + properly applied, is the production of an exceedingly solid brilliant + white light, absolutely smokeless, this showing that the combustion of + the oil is perfectly accomplished. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of Reading Lamp.] + + The means by which a uniformly regulated supply of oil is brought to + the burner varies with the position of the oil reservoir. In some + lamps, not now in use, by ring-formed reservoirs and other expedients, + the whole of the oil was kept as nearly as possible at the level of + the burner. In what are termed fountain reading, or study lamps, the + principal reservoir is above the burner level, and various means are + adopted for maintaining a supply from them at the level of the burner. + But the most convenient position for the oil reservoir in lamps for + general use is directly under the burner, and in this case the stand + of the lamp itself is utilized as the oil vessel. In the case of fixed + oils, as the oils of animal and vegetable origin used to be called, it + is necessary with such lamps to introduce some appliance for forcing a + supply of oil to the burner, and many methods of effecting this were + devised, most of which were ultimately superseded by the moderator + lamp. The Carcel or pump lamp, invented by B. G. Carcel in 1800, is + still to some extent used in France. It consists of a double piston or + pump, forcing the oil through a tube to the burner, worked by + clockwork. + + A form of reading lamp still in use is seen in section in fig. 2. The + lamp is mounted on a standard on which it can be raised or lowered at + will, and fixed by a thumb screw. The oil reservoir is in two parts, + the upper ac being an inverted flask which fits into bb, from which + the burner is directly fed through the tube _d_; _h_ is an overflow + cup for any oil that escapes at the burner, and it is pierced with + air-holes for admitting the current of air to the centre tube of the + Argand burner. The lamp is filled with oil by withdrawing the flask + ac, filling it, and inverting it into its place. The under reservoir + _bb_ fills from it to the burner level ee, on a line with the mouth of + ac. So soon as that level falls below the mouth of _ac_, a bubble of + air gets access to the upper reservoir, and oil again fills up bb to + the level _ee_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Moderator Lamp.] + + The moderator lamp (fig. 3), invented by Franchot about 1836, from the + simplicity and efficiency of its arrangements rapidly superseded + almost all other forms of mechanical lamp for use with animal and + vegetable oils. The two essential features of the moderator lamp are + (1) the strong spiral spring which, acting on a piston within the + cylindrical reservoir of the lamp, serves to propel the oil to the + burner, and (2) the ascending tube C through which the oil passes + upwards to the burner. The latter consist of two sections, the lower + fixed to and passing through the piston A into the oil reservoir, and + the upper attached to the burner. The lower or piston section moves + within the upper, which forms a sheath enclosing nearly its whole + length when the spring is fully wound up. Down the centre of the upper + tube passes a wire, "the moderator," G, and it is by this wire that + the supply of oil to the burner is regulated. The spring exerts its + greatest force on the oil in the reservoir when it is fully wound up, + and in proportion as it expands and descends its power decreases. But + when the apparatus is wound up the wire passing down the upper tube + extends throughout the whole length of the lower and narrower piston + tube, obstructing to a certain extent the free flow of the oil. In + proportion as the spring uncoils, the length of the wire within the + lower tube is decreased; the upward flow of oil is facilitated in the + same ratio as the force urging it upwards is weakened. In all + mechanical lamps the flow is in excess of the consuming capacity of + the burner, and in the moderator the surplus oil, flowing over the + wick, falls back into the reservoir above the piston, whence along + with new supply oil it descends into the lower side by means of + leather valves a, a. B represents the rack which, with the pinion D, + winds up the spiral spring hard against E when the lamp is prepared + for use. The moderator wire is seen separately in GG; and FGC + illustrates the arrangement of the sheathing tubes, in the upper + section of which the moderator is fixed. + + + Mineral oils. + +As early as 1781 the idea was mooted of burning naphtha, obtained by the +distillation of coal at low temperatures, for illuminating purposes, and +in 1820, when coal gas was struggling into prominence, light oils +obtained by the distillation of coal tar were employed in the Holliday +lamp, which is still the chief factor in illuminating the street barrow +of the costermonger. In this lamp the coal naphtha is in a conical +reservoir, from the apex of which it flows slowly down through a long +metal capillary to a rose burner, which, heated up by the flame, +vaporizes the naphtha, and thus feeds the ring of small jets of flame +escaping from its circumference. + +It was in 1847 that James Young had his attention drawn to an exudation +of petroleum in the Riddings Colliery at Alfreton, in Derbyshire, and +found that he could by distillation obtain from it a lubricant of +considerable value. The commercial success of this material was +accompanied by a failure of the supply, and, rightly imagining that as +the oil had apparently come from the Coal Measures, it might be obtained +by distillation from material of the same character, Young began +investigations in this direction, and in 1850 started distilling oils +from a shale known as the "Bathgate mineral," in this way founding the +Scotch oil industry. At first little attention was paid to the fitness +of the oil for burning purposes, although in the early days at Alfreton +Young attempted to burn some of the lighter distillates in an Argand +lamp, and later in a lamp made many years before for the consumption of +turpentine. About 1853, however, it was noticed that the lighter +distillates were being shipped to Germany, where lamps fitted for the +consumption of the grades of oil now known as lamp oil were being made +by Stohwasser of Berlin; some of these lamps were imported, and similar +lamps were afterwards manufactured by Laidlaw in Edinburgh. + +In Pennsylvania in 1859 Colonel E. L. Drake's successful boring for +petroleum resulted in the flooding of the market with oil at prices +never before deemed possible, and led to the introduction of lamps from +Germany for its consumption. Although the first American patent for a +petroleum lamp is dated 1859, that year saw forty other applications, +and for the next twenty years they averaged about eighty a year. + +English lamp-makers were not behind in their attempts to improve on the +methods in use for producing the highest results from the various grades +of oil, and in 1865 Hinks introduced the duplex burner, while later +improvements made in various directions, by Hinks, Silber, and Defries +led to the high degree of perfection to be found in the lamps of to-day. +Mineral oil for lamps as used in England at the present time may be +defined as consisting of those portions of the distillate from shale oil +or crude petroleum which have their flash-point above 73° F., and which +are mobile enough to be fed by capillarity in sufficient quantity to the +flame. The oil placed in the lamp reservoir is drawn up by the +capillarity of the wick to the flame, and being there volatilized, is +converted by the heat of the burning flame into a gaseous mixture of +hydrogen and hydrocarbons, which is ultimately consumed by the oxygen of +the air and converted into carbon dioxide and water vapour, the products +of complete combustion. + + To secure high illuminating power, together with a smokeless flame and + only products of complete combustion, strict attention must be paid to + several important factors. In the first place, the wick must be so + arranged as to supply the right quantity of oil for gasification at + the burner-head--the flame must be neither starved nor overfed: if the + former is the case great loss of light is occasioned, while an excess + of oil, by providing more hydrocarbons than the air-supply to the + flame can completely burn, gives rise to smoke and products of + incomplete combustion. The action of the wick depending on the + capillary action of the microscopic tubes forming the cotton fibre, + nothing but long-staple cotton of good quality should be employed; + this should be spun into a coarse loose thread with as little twist in + it as possible, and from this the wick is built up. Having obtained a + wick of soft texture and loose plait, it should be well dried before + the fire, and when put in position in the lamp must fill the + wick-holder without being compressed. It should be of sufficient + length to reach to the bottom of the oil reservoir and leave an inch + or two on the bottom. Such a wick will suck up the oil in a regular + and uniform way, provided that the level of the oil is not allowed to + fall too low in the lamp, but it must be remembered that the wick acts + as a filter for the oil, and that if any sediment be present it will + be retained by and choke the capillaries upon which the action of the + wick depends, so that a wick should not be used for too long a time. A + good rule is that the wick should, when new, trail for 2 in. on the + bottom of the oil vessel, and should be discarded when these 2 in. + have been burnt off. + + When the lamp is lighted the oil burns with a heavy, smoky flame, + because it is not able to obtain sufficient oxygen to complete the + combustion, and not only are soot flakes produced, but products of + incomplete combustion, such as carbon monoxide and even petroleum + vapour, escape--the first named highly injurious to health, and the + second of an offensive odour. To supply the _necessary amount of air_ + to the flame, an artificial draught has to be created which shall + impinge upon the bottom of the flame and sweep upwards over its + surface, giving it rigidity, and by completing the combustion in a + shorter period of time than could be done otherwise, increasing the + calorific intensity and thus raising the carbon particles in the + flame to a far higher incandescence so as to secure a greater + illuminating power. This in practice has been done in two ways, first + by drawing in the air by the up-suck of the heated and expanded + products of combustion in a chimney fitted over the flame, and + secondly by creating a draught from a small clockwork fan in the base + of the lamp. It is necessary to break the initial rush of the draught: + this is mostly effected by disks of perforated metal in the base of + the burner, called _diffusers_, while the metal dome which surrounds + and rises slightly above the wick-holder serves to deflect the air on + to the flame, as in the Wanzer lamp. These arrangements also act to a + certain extent as regenerators, the air passing over the heated metal + surfaces being warmed before reaching the flame, whilst disks, cones, + buttons, perforated tubes, inner air-tubes, &c., have been introduced + to increase the illuminating power and complete the combustion. + + TABLE I. + + +---------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+ + | | | Grains of Oil | | + | | | per candle-power |Total Candle-power.| + | Type. | Name. | per hour. | | + | | +---------+--------+---------+---------+ + | | |American.|Russian.|American.| Russian.| + |---------------+------------------+---------+--------+---------+---------+ + | /| Veritas, 60-line | 64.5 | 112.5 | 122.5 | 78 | + | | | " 30-line | 42.5 | 50. | 60 | 60 | + | | | " 20-line | 43.75 | 58.5 | 40 | 35 | + |Circular wick| | Ariel, 12-line | | | | | + | | | center draught | 52.8 | 70.9 | 18 | 18 | + | | | Reading, 14-line | 97.9 | 85.4 | 12 | 12 | + | | | Kosmos, 10-line | 63.9 | 97.2 | 9 | 9 | + | \| Wizard, 15-line | 56.9 | 51.3 | 18 | 19 | + | /| Wanzer, no glass | 42.6 | 48.3 | 17 | 17 | + |Flat wick, | | Solid slip, gauze| | | | | + | single | | and cone | 84.4 | 84.4 | 8 | 8 | + | | | Old slip, fixed | | | | | + | \| gauze | 60.9 | 89.3 | 7 | 7 | + |Flat wick, /| Feeder wick | 56.2 | 55.7 | 20 | 22 | + | duplex \| Ordinary | 51.2 | 46.6 | 20 | 22 | + +---------------+------------------+---------+--------+---------+---------+ + + American oil--Sp. gr. 0.7904; flash-point, 110°F. Russian oil--Sp. + gr. 0.823; flash-point, 83° F. + + According to Sir Boverton Redwood, duplex burners which give a flame + of 28 candle-power have an average oil consumption of 50 grains per + candle per hour, while Argand flames of 38 candle-power consume about + 45 grains of oil per candle per hour. These figures were obtained from + lamps of the best types, and to obtain information as to the + efficiency of the lamps used in daily practice, a number of the most + popular types were examined, using both American and Russian oil. The + results obtained are embodied in Table 1. The first noteworthy point + in this table is the apparent superiority of the American over Russian + oil in the majority of the lamps employed, and there is no doubt that + the bulk of the lamps on the market are constructed to burn American + or shale oil. A second interesting point is that with the flat-flame + lamps the Russian oil is as good as the American. We have Redwood's + authority, moreover, for the fact that after prolonged burning the + Russian oil, even in lamps least suited to it, gives highly improved + results. Although the average consumption with these lamps is close + upon 60 grains per candle with American oil, yet some of the burners + are so manifestly wasteful that 50 grains per candle-power per hour is + the fairest basis to take for any calculation as to cost. + + The dangers of the mineral oil lamp, which were a grave drawback in + the past, have been very much reduced by improvements in construction + and quality, and if it were possible to abolish the cheap and + dangerous rubbish sold in poor neighbourhoods, and to prevent the use + of side-fillers and glass reservoirs in lamps of better quality, a + still larger reduction in the number of accidents would take place. In + the use of the lamp for domestic purposes only soft well-fitting wicks + should be employed, and the lamp should be filled with oil each day so + as never to allow it to burn too low and so leave a large space above + the surface of the oil in the reservoir. The lamp should never be + moved whilst alight, and it should only be put out by means of a + proper extinguisher or by blowing across the top instead of down the + chimney. By these means the risk of accident would be so reduced as to + compare favourably with other illuminants. + + Candles, oil and coal gas all emit the same products of complete + combustion, viz. carbon dioxide and water vapour. The quantities of + these compounds emitted from different illuminants for every candle of + light per hour will be seen from the following table: + + Cubic Feet per Candle + Illuminant. Carbon Dioxide. Water Vapour. + + Sperm candle 0.41 0.41 + Oil lamp 0.24 0.18 + Gas--Flat flame 0.26 0.67 + Argand 0.17 0.45 + Regenerative 0.07 0.19 + Incandescent 0.03 0.08 + + From these data it appears that if the sanitary condition of the air + of a dwelling-room be measured by the amount of carbon dioxide + present, as is usually done, candles are the most prejudicial to + health and comfort, oil lamps less so, and gas least, an assumption + which practical experience does not bear out. The explanation of this + is to be found in these facts: First, where we illuminate a room with + candles or oil we are contented with a less intense and more local + light than when we are using gas, and in a room of ordinary size would + be more likely to use a lamp or two candles than the far higher + illumination we should demand if gas were employed. Secondly, the + amount of water vapour given off during the combustion of gas is + greater than in the case of the other illuminants, and water vapour + absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas becomes heated, and, + diffusing itself about the room, causes great oppression. Also the + air, being highly charged with moisture, is unable to take up so + rapidly the water vapour which is always evaporating from the surface + of our skin, and in this way the functions of the body receive a + slight check, resulting in a feeling of depression. + + + Oil-spray lamps. + +A very successful type of oil lamp for use in engineering is represented +by the Lucigen, Doty, and Wells lights, in which the oil is forced from +a reservoir by air-pressure through a spiral heated by the flame of the +lamp, and the heated oil, being then ejected partly as vapour and partly +as spray, burns with a large and highly luminous flame. The great +drawback to these devices is that a certain proportion of the oil spray +escapes combustion and is deposited in the vicinity of the light. This +form of lamp is often used for heating as well as lighting; the rivets +needed for the Forth Bridge were heated in trays by lamps of this type +at the spot where they were required. The great advantage of these lamps +was that oils of little value could be employed, and the light obtained +approximated to 750 candles per gallon of oil consumed. They may to a +certain extent be looked upon as the forerunners of perhaps the most +successful form of incandescent oil-burner. + + + Oil applied to incandescent lighting. + +As early as 1885 Arthur Kitson attempted to make a burner for heating +purposes on the foregoing principle, i.e. by injecting oil under +pressure from a fine tube into a chamber where it would be heated by the +waste heat escaping from the flame below, the vapour so produced being +made to issue from a small jet under the pressure caused by the initial +air-pressure and the expansion in the gasifying tube. This jet of gas +was then led into what was practically an atmospheric burner, and drew +in with it sufficient air to cause its combustion with a non-luminous +blue flame of great heating power. At the time when this was first done +the Welsbach mantle had not yet reached the period of commercial +utility, and attempts were made to use this flame for the generation of +light by consuming it in a mantle of fine platinum gauze, which, +although giving a very fine illuminating effect during the first few +hours, very soon shared the fate of all platinum mantles--that is, +carbonization of the platinum surface took place, and destroyed its +power of light emissivity. It was not until 1893 that the perfecting of +the Welsbach mantle enabled this method of consuming the oil to be +employed. The Kitson lamp, and also the Empire lamp on a similar +principle, have given results which ought to ensure their future +success, the only drawback being that they need a certain amount of +intelligent care to keep them in good working order. + + + Incandescent table-lamps. + +Oil gas and oil vapours differ from coal gas merely in the larger +proportion and greater complexity of the hydrocarbon molecules present, +and to render the oil flame available for incandescent lighting it is +only necessary to cause the oil gas or vapour to become mixed with a +sufficient proportion of air before it arrives at the point of +combustion. But with gases so rich in hydrocarbons as those developed +from oil it is excessively difficult to get the necessary air intimately +and evenly mixed with the gas in sufficient proportion to bring about +the desired result. If even coal gas be taken and mixed with 2.27 +volumes of air, its luminosity is destroyed, but such a flame would be +useless with the incandescent mantle, as if the non-luminous flame be +superheated a certain proportion of its luminosity will reappear. When +such a flame is used with a mantle the superheating effect of the mantle +itself very quickly leads to the decomposition of the hydrocarbons and +blackening of the mantle, which not only robs it of its light-giving +powers, but also rapidly ends its life. If, however, the proportion of +air be increased, the appearance of the flame becomes considerably +altered, and the hydrocarbon molecules being burnt up before impact +with the heated surface of the mantle, all chance of blackening is +avoided. + + On the first attempts to construct a satisfactory oil lamp which could + be used with the incandescent mantle, this trouble showed itself to be + a most serious one, as although it was comparatively easy so to + regulate a circular-wicked flame fed by an excess of air as to make it + non-luminous, the moment the mantle was put upon this, blackening + quickly appeared, while when methods for obtaining a further air + supply were devised, the difficulty of producing a flame which would + burn for a considerable time without constant necessity for regulation + proved a serious drawback. This trouble has militated against most of + the incandescent oil lamps placed upon the market. + + It soon became evident that if a wick were employed the difficulty of + getting it perfectly symmetrical was a serious matter, and that it + could only be utilized in drawing the oil up to a heating chamber + where it could be volatilized to produce the oil gas, which on then + being mixed with air would give the non-luminous flame. In the earlier + forms of incandescent oil lamps the general idea was to suck the oil + up by the capillarity of a circular wick to a point a short distance + below the opening of the burner at which the flame was formed, and + here the oil was vaporized or gasified by the heat of the head of the + burner. An air supply was then drawn up through a tube passing through + the centre of the wick-tube, while a second air current was so + arranged as to discharge itself almost horizontally upon the burning + gas below the cap, in this way giving a non-luminous and very hot + flame, which if kept very carefully adjusted afforded excellent + results with an incandescent mantle. It was an arrangement somewhat of + this character that was introduced by the Welsbach Company. The lamps, + however, required such careful attention, and were moreover so + irregular in their performance, that they never proved very + successful. Many other forms have reached a certain degree of + perfection, but have not so far attained sufficient regularity of + action to make them commercial successes. One of the most successful + was devised by F. Altmann, in which an ingenious arrangement caused + the vaporization of oil and water by the heat of a little oil lamp in + a lower and separate chamber, and the mixture of oil gas and steam was + then burnt in a burner-head with a special arrangement of air supply, + heating a mantle suspended above the burner-head. + + The perfect petroleum incandescent lamp has not yet been made, but the + results thus obtained show that when the right system has been found a + very great increase in the amount of light developed from the + petroleum may be expected. In one lamp experimented with for some time + it was easy to obtain 3500 candle hours per gallon of oil, or three + times the amount of light obtainable from the oil when burnt under + ordinary conditions. + + + Air-gas. + +Before the manufacture of coal-gas had become so universal as it is at +present, a favourite illuminant for country mansions and even villages +where no coal-gas was available was a mixture of air with the vapour of +very volatile hydrocarbons, which is generally known as "air-gas." This +was produced by passing a current of dry air through or over petroleum +spirit or the light hydrocarbons distilled from tar, when sufficient of +the hydrocarbon was taken up to give a luminous flame in flat flame and +Argand burners in the same way as coal-gas, the trouble being that it +was difficult to regulate the amount of hydrocarbon held in suspension +by the air, as this varied very widely with the temperature. As coal-gas +spread to the smaller villages and electric lighting became utilized in +large houses, the use of air-gas died out, but with the general +introduction of the incandescent mantle it again came to the front. In +the earlier days of this revival, air-gas rich in hydrocarbon vapour was +made and was further aerated to give a non-luminous flame by burning it +in an atmospheric burner. + + One of the best illustrations of this system was the Aerogene gas + introduced by A. I. van Vriesland, which was utilized for lighting a + number of villages and railway stations on the continent of Europe. In + this arrangement a revolving coil of pipes continually dips into + petroleum spirit contained in a cylinder, and the air passed into the + cylinder through the coil of pipes becomes highly carburetted by the + time it reaches the outlet at the far end of the cylinder. The + resulting gas when burnt in an ordinary burner gives a luminous flame; + it can be used in atmospheric burners differing little from those of + the ordinary type. With an ordinary Welsbach "C" burner it gives a + duty of about 30 candles per foot of gas consumed, the high + illuminating power being due to the fact that the gas is under a + pressure of from 6 to 8 in. With such a gas, containing a considerable + percentage of hydrocarbon vapour, any leakage into the air of a room + would give rise to an explosive mixture, in the same way that coal-gas + would do, but inasmuch as mixtures of the vapour of petroleum spirit + and air are only explosive for a very short range, that is, from 1.25 + to 5.3%, some systems have been introduced in which by keeping the + amount of petroleum vapour at 2% and burning the gas under pressure in + a specially constructed non-aerating mantle burner, not only has it + been found possible to produce a very large volume of gas per gallon + of spirit employed, but the gas is itself non-explosive, increase in + the amount of air taking it farther away from the explosive limit. The + Hooker, De Laitte and several other systems have been based upon this + principle. + + +2. GAS LIGHTING + +In all measurements of illuminating value the standard of comparison +used in England is the light yielded by a sperm candle of the size known +as "sixes," i.e. six to the pound, consuming 120 grains of sperm per +hour, and although in photometric work slight inequalities in burning +have led to the candle being discarded in practice, the standard lamps +burning pentane vapour which have replaced them are arranged to yield a +light of ten candles, and the photometric results are expressed as +before in terms of candles. + +When William Murdoch first used coal-gas at his Redruth home in 1779, he +burnt the gas as it escaped from the open end of a small iron tube, but +soon realizing that this plan entailed very large consumption of gas and +gave a very small amount of light, he welded up the end of his tube and +bored three small holes in it, so arranged that they formed three +divergent jets of flame. From the shape of the flame so produced this +burner received the name of the "cockspur" burner, and it was the one +used by Murdoch when in 1807 he fitted up an installation of gas +lighting at Phillips & Lee's works in Manchester. This--the earliest +form of gas burner--gave an illuminating value of a little under one +candle per cubic foot of gas consumed, and this duty was slightly +increased when the burner was improved by flattening up the welded end +of the tube and making a series of small holes in line and close +together, the jets of flame from which gave the burner the name of the +"cockscomb." It did not need much inventive faculty to replace the line +of holes by a saw-cut, the gas issuing from which burnt in a sheet, the +shape of which led to the burner being called the "batswing." This was +followed in 1820 by the discovery of J. B. Neilson, of Glasgow, whose +name is remembered in connexion with the use of the hot-air blast in +iron-smelting, that, by allowing two flames to impinge upon one another +so as to form a flat flame, a slight increase in luminosity was +obtained, and after several preliminary stages the union jet or +"fishtail" burner was produced. In this form of burner two holes, bored +at the necessary angle in the same nipple, caused two streams of gas to +impinge upon each other so that they flattened themselves out into a +sheet of flame. The flames given by the batswing and fishtail burners +differed in shape, the former being wide and of but little height, +whilst the latter was much higher and more narrow. This factor ensured +for the fishtail a greater amount of popularity than the batswing burner +had obtained, as the flame was less affected by draughts and could be +used with a globe, although the illuminating efficiency of the two +burners differed little. + + + Regenerative burner. + +In a lecture at the Royal Institution on the 20th of May 1853, Sir +Edward Frankland showed a burner he had devised for utilizing the heat +of the flame to raise the temperature of the air supply necessary for +the combustion of the gas. The burner was an Argand of the type then in +use, consisting of a metal ring pierced with holes so as to give a +circle of small jets, the ring of flame being surrounded by a chimney. +But in addition to this chimney, Frankland added a second external one, +extending some distance below the first and closed at the bottom by a +glass plate fitted air-tight to the pillar carrying the burner. In this +way the air needed for the combustion of the gas had to pass down the +space between the two chimneys, and in so doing became highly heated, +partly by contact with the hot glass, and partly by radiation. Sir +Edward Frankland estimated that the temperature of the air reaching the +flame was about 500°F. In 1854 a very similar arrangement was brought +forward by the Rev. W. R. Bowditch, and, as a large amount of publicity +was given to it, the inception of the regenerative burner was generally +ascribed to Bowditch, although undoubtedly due to Frankland. + +The principle of regeneration was adopted in a number of lamps, the best +of which was brought out by Friedrich Siemens in 1879. Although +originally made for heating purposes, the light given by the burner was +so effective and superior to anything obtained up to that time that it +was with some slight alterations adapted for illuminating purposes. + +Improvements followed in the construction and design of the regenerative +lamp, and when used as an overhead burner it was found that not only was +an excellent duty obtained per cubic foot of gas consumed, but that the +lamp could be made a most efficient engine of ventilation, as an +enormous amount of vitiated air could be withdrawn from the upper part +of a room through a flue in the ceiling space. So marked was the +increase in light due to the regeneration that a considerable number of +burners working on this principle were introduced, some of them like the +Wenham and Cromartie coming into extensive use. They were, however, +costly to install, so that the flat flame burner retained its popularity +in spite of the fact that its duty was comparatively low, owing to the +flame being drawn out into a thin sheet and so exposed to the cooling +influence of the atmosphere. Almost at the same time that Murdoch was +introducing the cockscomb and cockspur burners, he also made rough forms +of Argand burner, consisting of two concentric pipes between which the +gas was led and burnt with a circular flame. This form was soon improved +by filling in the space between the tubes with a ring of metal, bored +with fine holes so close together that the jets coalesced in burning and +gave a more satisfactory flame, the air necessary to keep the flame +steady and ensure complete combustion being obtained by the draught +created by a chimney placed around it. When it began to be recognized +that the temperature of the flame had a great effect upon the amount of +light emitted, the iron tips, which had been universally employed, both +in flat flame and Argand burners, were replaced by steatite or other +non-conducting material of similar character, to prevent as far as +possible heat from being withdrawn from the flame by conduction. + +In 1880 the burners in use for coal-gas therefore consisted of flat +flame, Argand, and regenerative burners, and the duty given by them with +a 16-candle gas was as follows:-- + + Candle units + per cub. ft. + Burner. of gas. + Union jet flat flame, No. 0 0.59 + " " 1 0.85 + " " 2 1.22 + " " 3 1.63 + " " 4 1.74 + " " 5 1.87 + " " 6 2.15 + " " 7 2.44 + Ordinary Argand 2.90 + Standard Argand 3.20 + Regenerative 7 to 10 + +The luminosity of a coal-gas flame depends upon the number of carbon +particles liberated within it, and the temperature to which they can be +heated. Hence the light given by a flame of coal-gas can be augmented by +(1) increasing the number of the carbon particles, and (2) raising the +temperature to which they are exposed. The first process is carried out +by enrichment (see GAS: _Manufacture_), the second is best obtained by +regeneration, the action of which is limited by the power possessed by +the material of which burners are composed to withstand the +superheating. Although with a perfectly made regenerative burner it +might be possible for a short time to get a duty as high as 16 candles +per cubic foot from ordinary coal-gas, such a burner constructed of the +ordinary materials would last only a few hours, so that for practical +use and a reasonable life for the burner 10 candles per cubic foot was +about the highest commercial duty that could be reckoned on. This +limitation naturally caused inventors to search for methods by which the +emission of light could be obtained from coal-gas otherwise than by the +incandescence of the carbon particles contained within the flame +itself. A coal-gas flame consumed in an atmospheric burner under the +conditions necessary to develop its maximum heating power could be +utilized to raise to incandescence particles having a higher emissivity +for light than carbon. This led to the gradual evolution of incandescent +gas lighting. + + + Incandescent gas light. + +Long before the birth of the Welsbach mantle it had been known that when +certain unburnable refractory substances were heated to a high +temperature they emitted light, and Goldsworthy Gurney in 1826 showed +that a cylinder of lime could be brought to a state of dazzling +brilliancy by the flame of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, a fact which was +utilized by Thomas Drummond shortly afterwards in connexion with the +Ordnance Survey of Ireland. The mass of a lime cylinder is, however, +relatively very considerable, and consequently an excessive amount of +heat has to be brought to bear upon it, owing to radiation and +conduction tending to dissipate the heat. This is seen by holding in the +flame of an atmospheric burner a coil of thick platinum wire, the result +being that the wire is heated to a dull red only. With wire of medium +thickness a bright red heat is soon attained, and a thin wire glows with +a vivid incandescence, and will even melt in certain parts of the flame. +Attempts were accordingly made to reduce the mass of the material +heated, and this form of lighting was tried in the streets of Paris, +buttons of zirconia and magnesia being heated by an oxy-coal-gas flame, +but the attempt was soon abandoned owing to the high cost and constant +renewals needed. In 1835 W. H. Fox Talbot discovered that even the +feeble flame of a spirit lamp is sufficient to heat lime to +incandescence, provided the lime be in a sufficiently fine state of +division. This condition he fulfilled by soaking blotting-paper in a +solution of a calcium salt and then incinerating it. Up to 1848, when J. +P. Gillard introduced the intermittent process of making water-gas, the +spirit flame and oxy-hydrogen flame were alone free from carbon +particles. Desiring to use the water-gas for lighting as well as heating +purposes Gillard made a mantle of fine platinum gauze to fit over the +flame, and for a time obtained excellent results, but after a few days +the lighting value of the mantle fell away gradually until it became +useless, owing to the wire becoming eroded on the surface by the flame +gases. This idea has been revived at intervals, but the trouble of +erosion has always led to failure. + +The next important stage in the history of gas lighting was the +discovery by R. W. von Bunsen about 1855 of the atmospheric burner, in +which a non-luminous coal-gas flame is obtained by causing the coal-gas +before its combustion to mix with a certain amount of air. This simple +appliance has opened up for coal-gas a sphere of usefulness for heating +purposes as important as its use for lighting. After the introduction of +the atmospheric burner the idea of the incandescent mantle was revived +early in the eighties by the Clamond basket and a resuscitation of the +platinum mantle. The Clamond basket or mantle, as shown at the Crystal +Palace exhibition of 1882-1883, consisted of a cone of threads of +calcined magnesia. A mixture of magnesium hydrate and acetate, converted +into a paste or cream by means of water, was pressed through holes in a +plate so as to form threads, and these, after being moulded to the +required shape, were ignited. The heat decomposed the acetate to form a +luting material which glued the particles of magnesium oxide produced +into a solid mass, whilst the hydrate gave off water and became oxide. +The basket was supported with its apex downwards in a little platinum +wire cage, and a mixture of coal-gas and air was driven into it under +pressure from an inverted blowpipe burner above it. + +The Welsbach mantle was suggested by the fact that Auer von Welsbach had +been carrying out researches on the rare earths, with constant use of +the spectroscope. Desiring to obtain a better effect than that produced +by heating his material on a platinum wire, he immersed cotton in a +solution of the metallic salt, and after burning off the organic matter +found that a replica of the original thread, composed of the oxide of +the metal, was left, and that it glowed brightly in the flame. From this +he evolved the idea of utilizing a fabric of cotton soaked in a +solution of a metallic salt for lighting purposes, and in 1885 he +patented his first commercial mantle. The oxides used in these mantles +were zirconia, lanthania, and yttria, but these were so fragile as to be +practically useless, whilst the light they emitted was very poor. Later +he found that the oxide of thorium--thoria--in conjunction with other +rare earth oxides, not only increased the light-giving powers of the +mantle, but added considerably to its strength, and the use of this +oxide was protected by his 1886 patent. Even these mantles were very +unsatisfactory until it was found that the purity of the oxides had a +wonderful effect upon the amount of light, and finally came the great +discovery that it was a trace of ceria in admixture with the thoria that +gave the mantle the marvellous power of emitting light. + + Certain factors limit the number of oxides that can be used in the + manufacture of an incandescent mantle. Atmospheric influences must not + have any action upon them, and they must be sufficiently refractory + not to melt or even soften to any extent at the temperature of the + flame; they must also be non-volatile, whilst the shrinkage during the + process of "burning off" must not be excessive. The following table + gives the light-emissivity from pure and commercial samples of the + oxides which most nearly conform to the above requirements; the effect + of impurity upon the lighting power will be seen to be most marked. + + Pure. Commercial. + Metals-- + Zirconia 1.5 3.1 + Thoria 0.5 6.0 + Earth metals-- + Cerite earths--Ceria 0.4 0.9 + Lanthania 6.0 + Yttrite earths--Yttria 3.2 + Erbia 0.6 1.7 + Common earths--Chromium oxide 0.4 0.4 + Alumina 0.6 0.6 + Alkaline earth metals-- + Baryta 3.3 3.3 + Strontia 5.2 5.5 + Magnesia 5.0 5.0 + + Of these oxides thoria, when tested for shrinkage, duration and + strength, stands pre-eminent. It is also possible to employ zirconia + and alumina. Zirconia has the drawback that in the hottest part of the + flame it is liable not only to shrinkage and semi-fusion, but also to + slow volatilization, and the same objections hold good with respect to + alumina. With thoria the shrinkage is smaller than with any other + known substance, and it possesses very high refractory powers. + + The factor which gives thoria its pre-eminence as the basis of the + mantle is that in the conversion of thorium nitrate into thorium oxide + by heat, an enormous expansion takes place, the oxide occupying more + than ten times the volume of the nitrate. This means that the mass is + highly spongy, and contains an enormous number of little air-cells + which must render it an excellent non-conductor. A mantle made with + thoria alone gives practically no light. But the power of + light-emissivity is awakened by the addition of a small trace of + ceria; and careful experiment shows that as ceria is added to it + little by little, the light which the mantle emits grows greater and + greater, until the ratio of 99% of thoria and 1% of ceria is reached, + when the maximum illuminating effect is obtained. The further addition + of ceria causes gradual diminution of light, until, when with some 10% + of ceria has been added, the light given by the mantle is again almost + inappreciable. When cerium nitrate is converted by heat into cerium + oxide, the expansion which takes place is practically nil, the ceria + obtained from a gramme of the nitrate occupying about the same space + as the original nitrate. Thus, although by weight the ratio of ceria + to thoria is as 1:99, by volume it is only as 1:999. + + + Manufacture of mantles. + +The most successful form of mantle is made by taking a cylinder of +cotton net about 8 in. long, and soaking it in a solution of nitrates of +the requisite metals until the microscopic fibres of the cotton are +entirely filled with liquid. A longer soaking is not advantageous, as +the acid nature of the liquid employed tends to weaken the fabric and +render it more delicate to handle. The cotton is then wrung out to free +it from the excess of liquid, and one end is sewn together with an +asbestos thread, a loop of the same material or of thin platinum wire +being fixed across the constricted portion to provide a support by which +the mantle may be held by the carrying rod, which is either external to +the mantle, or (as is most often the case) fixed centrally in the burner +head. It is then ready for "burning off," a process in which the organic +matter is removed and the nitrates are converted into oxides. The flame +of an atmospheric burner is first applied to the constricted portion at +the top of the mantle, whereupon the cotton gradually burns downwards, +the shape of the mantle to a great extent depending on the regularity +with which the combustion takes place. A certain amount of carbon is +left behind after the flame has died out, and this is burnt off by the +judicious application of a flame from an atmospheric blast burner to the +interior. The action which takes place during the burning off is as +follows: The cellulose tubes of the fibre are filled with the +crystallized nitrates of the metals used, and as the cellulose burns the +nitrates decompose, giving up oxygen and forming fusible nitrites, which +in their semi-liquid condition are rendered coherent by the rapid +expansion as the oxide forms. As the action continues the nitrites +become oxides, losing their fusibility, so that by the time the organic +matter has disappeared a coherent thread of oxide is left in place of +the nitrate-laden thread of cotton. In the early days of incandescent +lighting the mantles had to be sent out unburnt, as no process was known +by which the burnt mantle could be rendered sufficiently strong to bear +carriage. As the success of a mantle depends upon its fitting the flame, +and as the burning off requires considerable skill, this was a great +difficulty. Moreover the acid nature of the nitrates in the fibres +rapidly rotted them, unless they had been subjected to the action of +ammonia gas, which neutralized any excess of acid. It was discovered, +however, that the burnt-off mantle could be temporarily strengthened by +dipping it in collodion, a solution of soluble gun-cotton in ether and +alcohol together with a little castor-oil or similar material to prevent +excessive shrinkage when drying. When the mantle was removed from the +solution a thin film of solid collodion was left on it, and this could +be burned away when required. + + After the Welsbach mantle had proved itself a commercial success many + attempts were made to evade the monopoly created under the patents, + and, although it was found impossible to get the same illuminating + power with anything but the mixture of 99% thoria and 1% ceria, many + ingenious processes were devised which resulted in at least one + improvement in mantle manufacture. One of the earliest attempts in + this direction was the "Sunlight" mantle, in which cotton was + saturated with the oxides of aluminium, chromium and zirconium, the + composition of the burnt-off mantle being:-- + + Alumina 86.88 + Chromium oxide 8.68 + Zirconia 4.44 + ------ + 100.00 + + The light given by these mantles was entirely dependent upon the + proportion of chromium oxides present, the alumina playing the part of + base in the same way that the thoria does in the Welsbach mantle, the + zirconia being added merely to strengthen the structure. These mantles + enjoyed considerable popularity owing to the yellowish pink light they + emitted, but, although they could give an initial illumination of 12 + to 15 candles per foot of gas consumed, they rapidly lost their + light-giving power owing to the slow volatilization of the oxides of + chromium and aluminium. + + Another method of making the mantle was first to produce a basis of + thoria, and, having got the fabric in thorium oxide, to coat it with a + mixture of 99% thoria and 1% ceria. This modification seems to give an + improvement in the initial amount of light given by the mantle. In the + Voelker mantle a basis of thoria was produced, and was then coated by + dipping in a substance termed by the patentee "Voelkerite," a body + made by fusing together a number of oxides in the electric furnace. + The fused mass was then dissolved in the strongest nitric acid, and + diluted with absolute alcohol to the necessary degree. A very good + mantle having great lasting power was thus produced. It was claimed + that the process of fusing the materials together in the electric + furnace altered the composition in some unexplained way, but the true + explanation is probably that all water of hydration was eliminated. + + The "Daylight" mantle consisted of a basis of thoria or thoria mixed + with zirconia, dipped in collodion containing a salt of cerium in + solution; on burning off the collodion the ceria was left in a finely + divided condition on the surface of the thoria. In this way a very + high initial illuminating power was obtained, which, however, rapidly + fell as the ceria slowly volatilized. + + Perhaps the most interesting development of the Welsbach process was + dependent upon the manufacture of filaments of soluble guncotton or + collodion as in the production of artificial silk. In general the + process consisted in forcing a thick solution of the nitrated + cellulose through capillary glass tubes, the bore of which was less + than the one-hundredth of a millimetre. Ten or twelve of the expressed + fibres were then twisted together and wound on a bobbin, the air of + the room being kept sufficiently heated to cause the drying of the + filaments a few inches from the orifice of the tube. The compound + thread was next denitrated to remove its extreme inflammability, and + for this purpose the skeins were dipped in a solution of (for + instance) ammonium sulphide, which converted them into ordinary + cellulose. After washing and drying the skeins were ready for the + weaving machines. In 1894 F. de Mare utilized collodion for the + manufacture of a mantle, adding the necessary salts to the collodion + before squeezing it into threads. O. Knöfler in 1895, and later on A. + Plaissetty, took out patents for the manufacture of mantles by a + similar process to De Mare's, the difference between the two being + that Knöfler used ammonium sulphide for the denitration of his fabric, + whilst Plaissetty employed calcium sulphide, the objection to which is + the trace of lime left in the material. Another method for making + artificial silk which has a considerable reputation is that known as + the Lehner process, which in its broad outlines somewhat resembles the + Chardonnet, but differs from it in that the excessively high pressures + used in the earlier method are done away with by using a solution of a + more liquid character, the thread being hardened by passing through + certain organic solutions. This form of silk lends itself perhaps + better to the carrying of the salts forming the incandescent oxides + than the previous solutions, and mantles made by this process, known + as Lehner mantles, showed promise of being a most important + development of De Mare's original idea. Mantles made by these + processes show that it is possible to obtain a very considerable + increase in life and light-emissivity, but mantles made on this + principle could not now be sold at a price which would enable them to + compete with mantles of the Welsbach type. + + The cause of the superiority of these mantles having been realized, + developments in the required direction were made. The structure of the + cotton mantle differed widely from that obtained by the various + collodion processes, and this alteration in structure was mainly + responsible for the increase in life. Whereas the average of a large + number of Welsbach mantles tested only showed a useful life of 700 to + 1000 hours, the collodion type would average about 1500 hours, some + mantles being burnt for an even longer period and still giving an + effective illumination. This being so, it was clear that one line of + advance would be found in obtaining some material which, whilst giving + a structure more nearly approaching that of the collodion mantle, + would be sufficiently cheap to compete with the Welsbach mantle, and + this was successfully done. + + By the aid of the microscope the structure of the mantle can be + clearly defined, and in examining the Welsbach mantle before and after + burning, it will be noticed that the cotton thread is a closely + twisted and plaited rope of myriads of minute fibres, whilst the + collodion mantle is a bundle of separate filaments without plait or + heavy twisting, the number of such filaments varying with the process + by which it was made. This latter factor experiment showed to have a + certain influence on the useful light-giving life of the mantle, as + whereas the Knöfler and Plaissetty mantles had an average life of + about 1500 hours, the Lehner fabric, which contained a larger number + of finer threads, could often be burnt continuously for over 3000 + hours, and at the end of that period gave a better light than most of + the Welsbach after as many hundred. + + It is well known that plaiting gave the cotton candle-wick that power + of bending over, when freed from the binding effect of the candle + material and influenced by heat, which brought the tip out from the + side of the flame. This, by enabling the air to get at it and burn it + away, removed the nuisance of having to snuff the candle, which for + many centuries has rendered it a tiresome method of lighting. In the + cotton mantle, the tight twisting of the fibre brings this torsion + into play. When the cotton fibres saturated with the nitrates of the + rare metals are burnt off, and the conversion into oxides takes place, + as the cotton begins to burn, not only does the shrinkage of the mass + throw a strain on the oxide skeleton, but the last struggle of torsion + in the burning of the fibre tends towards disintegration of the + fragile mass, and this all plays a part in making the cotton mantle + inferior to the collodion type. + + If ramie fibre be prepared in such a way as to remove from it all + traces of the glutinous coating, a silk-like fabric can be obtained + from it, and if still further prepared so as to improve its absorbent + powers, it can be formed into mantles having a life considerably + greater than is possessed by those of the cotton fabric. Ramie thus + seemed likely to yield a cheap competitor in length of endurance to + the collodion mantle, and results have justified this expectation. By + treating the fibre so as to remove the objections against its use for + mantle-making, and then making it into threads with the least possible + amount of twist, a mantle fabric can be made in every way superior to + that given by cotton. + + The Plaissetty mantles, which as now manufactured also show a + considerable advance in life and light over the original Welsbach + mantles, are made by impregnating stockings of either cotton or ramie + with the nitrates of thorium and cerium in the usual way, and, before + burning off, mercerizing the mantle by steeping in ammonia solution, + which converts the nitrates into hydrates, and gives greater density + and strength to the finished mantle. The manufacturers of the + Plaissetty mantle have also made a modification in the process by + which the saturated fabric can be so prepared as to be easily burnt + off by the consumer on the burner on which it is to be used, in this + way doing away with the initial cost of burning off, shaping, + hardening and collodionizing. + + + Intensifying systems. + +Since 1897 inventions have been patented for methods of intensifying the +light produced by burning gas under a mantle and increasing the light +generated per unit volume of gas. The systems have either been +self-intensifying or have depended on supplying the gas (or gas and air) +under an increased pressure. Of the self-intensifying systems those of +Lucas and Scott-Snell have been the most successful. A careful study has +been made by the inventor of the Lucas light of the influence of various +sizes and shapes of chimneys in the production of draught. The specially +formed chimney used exerts a suction on the gas flame and air, and the +burner and mantle are so constructed as to take full advantage of the +increased air supply, with the result that the candle power given by the +mantle is considerably augmented. With the Scott-Snell system the +results obtained are about the same as those given by the Lucas light, +but in this case the waste heat from the burner is caused to operate a +plunger working in the crown of the lamp which sucks and delivers gas to +the burner. Both these systems are widely used for public lighting in +many large towns of the United Kingdom and the continent of Europe. + +The other method of obtaining high light-power from incandescent gas +burners necessitates the use of some form of motive power in order to +place the gas, or both gas and air, under an increased pressure. The gas +compressor is worked by a water motor, hot air or gas engine; a low +pressure water motor may be efficiently driven by water from the main, +but with large installations it is more economical to drive the +compressor by a gas engine. To overcome the intermittent flow of gas +caused by the stroke of the engine, a regulator on the floating bell +principle is placed after the compressor; the pressure of gas in the +apparatus governs automatically the flow of gas to the engine. With the +Sugg apparatus for high power lighting the gas is brought from the +district pressure, which is equal to about 2½ in. of water, to an +average of 12 in. water pressure. The light obtained by this system when +the gas pressure is 9½ in. is 300 candle power with an hourly +consumption of 10 cub. ft. of gas, equivalent to 30 candles per cubic +foot, and with a gas pressure equal to 14 in. of water 400 candles are +obtained with an hourly consumption of 12½ cub. ft., which represents a +duty of 32 candles per cubic foot of gas consumed. High pressure +incandescent lighting makes it possible to burn a far larger volume of +gas in a given time under a mantle than is the case with low pressure +lighting, so as to create centres of high total illuminating value to +compete with arc lighting in the illumination of large spaces, and the +Lucas, Keith, Scott-Snell, Millennium, Selas, and many other pressure +systems answer most admirably for this purpose. + + + Inverted burners. + +The light given by the ordinary incandescent mantle burning in an +upright position tends rather to the upward direction, because owing to +the slightly conical shape of the mantle the maximum light is emitted at +an angle a little above the horizontal. Inasmuch as for working purposes +the surface that a mantle illuminates is at angles below 45° from the +horizontal, it is evident that a considerable loss of efficient lighting +is brought about, whilst directly under the light the burner and +fittings throw a strong shadow. To avoid this trouble attempts have from +time to time been made to produce inverted burners which should heat a +mantle suspended below the mouth of the burner. As early as 1882 Clamond +made what was practically an inverted gas and air blowpipe to use with +his incandescent basket, but it was not until 1900-1901 that the +inverted mantle became a possibility. Although there was a strong +prejudice against it at first, as soon as a really satisfactory burner +was introduced, its success was quickly placed beyond doubt. The +inverted mantle has now proved itself one of the chief factors in the +enormous success achieved by incandescent mantle lighting, as the +illumination given by it is far more efficient than with the upright +mantle, and it also lends itself well to ornamental treatment. + + + Burners. + +When the incandescent mantle was first introduced in 1886 an ordinary +laboratory Bunsen burner was experimentally employed, but unless a very +narrow mantle just fitting the top of the tube was used the flame could +not be got to fit the mantle, and it was only the extreme outer edge of +the flame which endowed the mantle fabric with the high incandescent. A +wide burner top was then placed on the Bunsen tube so as to spread the +flame, and a larger mantle became possible, but it was then found that +the slowing down of the rate of flow at the mouth of the burner owing to +its enlargement caused flashing or firing back, and to prevent this a +wire gauze covering was fitted to the burner head; and in this way the +1886-1887 commercial Welsbach burner was produced. The length of the +Bunsen tube, however, made an unsightly fitting, so it was shortened, +and the burner head made to slip over it, whilst an external lighting +back plate was added. The form of the "C" burner thus arrived at has +undergone no important further change. When later on it was desired to +make incandescent mantle burners that should not need the aid of a +chimney to increase the air supply, the long Bunsen tube was reverted +to, and the Kern, Bandsept, and other burners of this class all have a +greater total length than the ordinary burners. To secure proper mixing +of the air and gas, and to prevent flashing back, they all have heads +fitted with baffles, perforations, gauze, and other devices which oppose +considerable resistance to the flow of the stream of air and gas. + +In 1900, therefore, two classes of burner were in commercial existence +for incandescent lighting--(1) the short burner with chimney, and (2) +the long burner without chimney. Both classes had the burner mouth +closed with gauze or similar device, and both needed as an essential +that the mantle should fit closely to the burner head. + + Prior to 1900 attempts had been made to construct a burner in which an + incandescent mantle should be suspended head downwards. Inventors all + turned to the overhead regenerative gas lamps of the Wenham type, or + the inverted blowpipe used by Clamond, and in attempting to make an + inverted Bunsen employed either artificial pressure to the gas or the + air, or to both, or else enclosed the burner and mantle in a globe, + and by means of a long chimney created a strong draught. These burners + also were all regenerative and aimed at heating the air or gas or + mixture of the two, and they had the further drawback of being + complicated and costly. Regeneration is a valuable adjunct in ordinary + gas lighting as it increases the actions that liberate the carbon + particles upon which the luminosity of a flame is dependent, and also + increases the temperature; but with the mixture of air and gas in a + Bunsen regeneration is not a great gain when low and is a drawback + when intense, because incipient combination is induced between the + oxygen of the air and the coal-gas before the burner head is reached, + the proportions of air and gas are disturbed, and the flame instead of + being non-luminous shows slight luminosity and tends to blacken the + mantle. The only early attempt to burn a mantle in an inverted + position without regeneration or artificial pressure or draught was + made by H. A. Kent in 1897, and he used, not an inverted Bunsen, but + one with the top elongated and turned over to form a siphon, so that + the point of admixture of air and gas was below the level of the + burner head, and was therefore kept cool and away from the products of + combustion. + +In 1900 J. Bernt and E. Cérvenka set themselves to solve the problem of +making a Bunsen burner which should consume gas under ordinary gas +pressure in an inverted mantle. They took the short Bunsen burner, as +found in the most commonly used upright incandescent burners, and fitted +to it a long tube, preferably of non-conducting material, which they +called an isolator, and which is designed to keep the flame at a +distance from the Bunsen. They found that it burnt fairly well, and that +the tendency of the flame to burn or lap back was lessened, but that the +hot up-current of heated air and products of combustion streamed up to +the air holes of the Bunsen, and by contaminating the air supply caused +the flame to pulsate. They then fixed an inverted cone on the isolator +to throw the products of combustion outwards and away from the air +holes, and found that the addition of this "deflecting cone" steadied +the flame. Having obtained a satisfactory flame, they attacked the +problem of the burner head. Experiments showed that the burner head must +be not only open but also of the same size or smaller than the burner +tube, and that by projecting it downwards into the mantle and leaving a +space between the mantle and the burner head the maximum mantle surface +heated to incandescence was obtained. It was also found that the +distance which the burner head projects into the mantle is equivalent to +the same amount of extra water pressure on the gas, and with a long +mantle it was found useful under certain conditions to add a cylinder or +sleeve with perforated sides to carry the gas still lower into the +mantle. The principles thus set forth by Kent, Bernt and Cérvenka form +the basis of construction of all the types of inverted mantle burners +which so greatly increased the popularity of incandescent gas lighting +at the beginning of the 20th century, whilst improvements in the shape +of the mantle for inverted lighting and the methods of attachment to the +burner have added to the success achieved. + +The wonderful increase in the amount of light that can be obtained from +gas by the aid of the incandescent gas mantle is realized when one +compares the 1 to 3.2 candles per cubic foot given by the burners used +in the middle of the 19th century with the duty of incandescent burners, +as shown in the following table:-- + + _Light yielded per cubic foot of Gas._ + + Burner. Candle power. + Low pressure upright incandescent burners 15 to 20 candles + Inverted burners 14 to 21 " + Kern burners 20 to 24 " + High pressure burners 22 to 36 " + + (V. B. L.) + + +3. ELECTRIC LIGHTING. + +Electric lamps are of two varieties: (1) _Arc Lamps_ and (2) +_Incandescent_ or _Glow Lamps_. Under these headings we may briefly +consider the history, physical principles, and present practice of the +art of electric lighting. + +1. _Arc Lamps._--If a voltaic battery of a large number of cells has its +terminal wires provided with rods of electrically-conducting carbon, and +these are brought in contact and then slightly separated, a form of +electric discharge takes place between them called the _electric arc_. +It is not quite certain who first observed this effect of the electric +current. The statement that Sir Humphry Davy, in 1801, first produced +and studied the phenomenon is probably correct. In 1808 Davy had +provided for him at the Royal Institution a battery of 2000 cells, with +which he exhibited the electric arc on a large scale. + +The electric arc may be produced between any conducting materials +maintained at different potentials, provided that the source of electric +supply is able to furnish a sufficiently large current; but for +illuminating purposes pieces of hard graphitic carbon are most +convenient. If some source of continuous electric current is connected +to rods of such carbon, first brought into contact and then slightly +separated, the following facts may be noticed: With a low electromotive +force of about 50 or 60 volts no discharge takes place until the carbons +are in actual contact, unless the insulation of the air is broken down +by the passage of a small electric spark. When this occurs, the space +between the carbons is filled at once with a flame or luminous vapour, +and the carbons themselves become highly incandescent at their +extremities. If they are horizontal the flame takes the form of an arch +springing between their tips; hence the name _arc_. This varies somewhat +in appearance according to the nature of the current, whether continuous +or alternating, and according as it is formed in the open air or in an +enclosed space to which free access of oxygen is prevented. Electric +arcs between metal surfaces differ greatly in colour according to the +nature of the metal. When formed by an alternating current of high +electromotive force they resemble a lambent flame, flickering and +producing a somewhat shrill humming sound. + +Electric arcs may be classified into continuous or alternating current +arcs, and open or enclosed arcs, carbon arcs with pure or chemically +impregnated carbons, or so-called flame arcs, and arcs formed with +metallic or oxide electrodes, such as magnetite. A continuous current +arc is formed with an electric current flowing always in the same +direction; an alternating current arc is formed with a periodically +reversed current. An open arc is one in which the carbons or other +material forming the arc are freely exposed to the air; an enclosed arc +is one in which they are included in a glass vessel. If carbons +impregnated with various salts are used to colour or increase the light, +the arc is called a chemical or flame arc. The carbons or electrodes may +be arranged in line one above the other, or they may be inclined so as +to project the light downwards or more in one direction. In a carbon arc +if the current is continuous the positive carbon becomes much hotter at +the end than the negative, and in the open air it is worn away, partly +by combustion, becoming hollowed out at the extremity into a _crater_. +At the same time the negative carbon gradually becomes pointed, and also +wears away, though much less quickly than the positive. In the +continuous-current open arc the greater part of the light proceeds from +the highly incandescent positive crater. When the arc is examined +through dark glasses, or by the optical projection of its image upon a +screen, a violet band or stream of vapour is seen to extend between the +two carbons, surrounded by a nebulous golden flame or aureole. If the +carbons are maintained at the right distance apart the arc remains +steady and silent, but if the carbons are impure, or the distance +between them too great, the true electric arc rapidly changes its place, +flickering about and frequently becoming extinguished; when this happens +it can only be restored by bringing the carbons once more into contact. +If the current is alternating, then the arc is symmetrical, and both +carbons possess nearly the same appearance. If it is enclosed in a +vessel nearly air-tight, the rate at which the carbons are burnt away is +greatly reduced, and if the current is continuous the positive carbon is +no longer cratered out and the negative no longer so much pointed as in +the case of the open arc. + + + Carbons. + +Davy used for his first experiments rods of wood charcoal which had been +heated and plunged into mercury to make them better conductors. Not +until 1843 was it proposed by J. B. L. Foucault to employ pencils cut +from the hard graphitic carbon deposited in the interior of gas retorts. +In 1846 W. Greener and W. E. Staite patented a process for manufacturing +carbons for this purpose, but only after the invention of the Gramme +dynamo in 1870 any great demand arose for them. F. P. É. Carré in France +in 1876 began to manufacture arc lamp carbons of high quality from coke, +lampblack and syrup. Now they are made by taking some specially refined +form of finely divided carbon, such as the soot or lampblack formed by +cooling the smoke of burning paraffin or tar, or by the carbonization of +organic matter, and making it into a paste with gum or syrup. This +carbon paste is forced through dies by means of a hydraulic press, the +rods thus formed being subsequently baked with such precautions as to +preserve them perfectly straight. In some cases they are _cored_, that +is to say, have a longitudinal hole down them, filled in with a softer +carbon. Sometimes they are covered with a thin layer of copper by +electro-deposition. They are supplied for the market in sizes varying +from 4 or 5 to 30 or 40 millimetres in diameter, and from 8 to 16 in. in +length. The value of carbons for arc lighting greatly depends on their +purity and freedom from ash in burning, and on perfect uniformity of +structure. For ordinary purposes they are generally round in section, +but for certain special uses, such as lighthouse work, they are made +fluted or with a star-shaped section. The positive carbon is usually of +larger section than the negative. For continuous-current arcs a cored +carbon is generally used as a positive, and a smaller solid carbon as a +negative. For flame arc lamps the carbons are specially prepared by +impregnating them with salts of calcium, magnesium and sodium. The +calcium gives the best results. The rod is usually of a composite type. +The outer zone is pure carbon to give strength, the next zone contains +carbon mixed with the metallic salts, and the inner core is the same +but less compressed. In addition to the metallic salts a flux has to be +introduced to prevent the formation of a non-conducting ash, and this +renders it desirable to place the carbons in a downward pointing +direction to get rid of the slag so formed. Bremer first suggested in +1898 for this purpose the fluorides of calcium, strontium or barium. +When such carbons are used to form an electric arc the metallic salts +deflagrate and produce a flame round the arc which is strongly coloured, +the object being to produce a warm yellow glow, instead of the somewhat +violet and cold light of the pure carbon arc, as well as a greater +emission of light. As noxious vapours are however given off, flame arcs +can only be used out of doors. Countless researches have been made on +the subject of carbon manufacture, and the art has been brought to great +perfection. + + Special manuals must be consulted for further information (see + especially a treatise on _Carbon making for all electrical purposes_, + by F. Jehl, London, 1906). + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + + Physical phenomena. + +The physical phenomena of the electric arc are best examined by forming +a carbon arc between two carbon rods of the above description, held in +line in a special apparatus, and arranged so as to be capable of being +moved to or from each other with a slow and easily regulated motion. An +arrangement of this kind is called a _hand-regulated arc lamp_ (fig. 4). +If such an arc lamp is connected to a source of electric supply having +an electromotive force preferably of 100 volts, and if some resistance +is included in the circuit, say about 5 ohms, a steady and continuous +arc is formed when the carbons are brought together and then slightly +separated. Its appearance may be most conveniently examined by +projecting its image upon a screen of white paper by means of an +achromatic lens. A very little examination of the distribution of light +from the arc shows that the illuminating or candle-power is not the same +in different directions. If the carbons are vertical and the positive +carbon is the upper of the two, the illuminating power is greatest in a +direction at an angle inclined about 40 or 50 degrees below the horizon, +and at other directions has different values, which may be represented +by the lengths of radial lines drawn from a centre, the extremities of +which define a curve called the _illuminating curve_ of the arc lamp +(fig. 5). Considerable differences exist between the forms of the +illuminating-power curves of the continuous and alternating current and +the open or enclosed arcs. The chief portion of the emitted light +proceeds from the incandescent crater; hence the form of the +illuminating-power curve, as shown by A. P. Trotter in 1892, is due to +the apparent area of the crater surface which is visible to an eye +regarding the arc in that direction. The form of the illuminating-power +curve varies with the length of the arc and relative size of the +carbons. Leaving out of account for the moment the properties of the arc +as an illuminating agent, the variable factors with which we are +concerned are (i.) the current through the arc; (ii.) the potential +difference of the carbons; (iii.) the length of the arc; and (iv.) the +size of the carbons. Taking in the first place the typical +direct-current arc between solid carbons, and forming arcs of different +lengths and with carbons of different sizes, it will be found that, +beginning at the lowest current capable of forming a true arc, the +potential difference of the carbons (the arc P.D.) decreases as the +current increases. Up to a certain current strength the arc is silent, +but at a particular critical value P.D. suddenly drops about 10 volts, +the current at the same time rising 2 or 3 amperes. At that moment the +arc begins to _hiss_, and in this hissing condition, if the current is +still further increased, P.D. remains constant over wide limits. This +drop in voltage on hissing was first noticed by A. Niaudet (_La Lumière +électrique_, 1881, 3, p. 287). It has been shown by Mrs Ayrton (_Journ. +Inst. Elec. Eng._ 28, 1899, p. 400) that the hissing is mainly due to +the oxygen which gains access from the air to the crater, when the +latter becomes so large by reason of the increase of the current as to +overspread the end of the positive carbon. According to A. E. Blondel +and Hans Luggin, hissing takes place whenever the current density +becomes greater than about 0.3 or 0.5 ampere per square millimetre of +crater area. + + The relation between the current, the carbon P.D., and the length of + arc in the case of the direct-current arc has been investigated by + many observers with the object of giving it mathematical expression. + + Let V stand for the potential difference of the carbons in volts, A + for the current through the arc in amperes, L for the length of the + arc in millimetres, R for the resistance of the arc; and let a, b, c, + d, &c., be constants. Erik Edlund in 1867, and other workers after + him, considered that their experiments showed that the relation + between V and L could be expressed by a simple linear equation, + + V = a + bL. + + Later researches by Mrs Ayrton (Electrician, 1898, 41, p. 720), + however, showed that for a direct-current arc of given size with solid + carbons, the observed values of V can be better represented as a + function both of A and of L of the form + + c + dL + V = a + bL + ------. + A + + In the case of direct-current arcs formed with solid carbons, Edlund + and other observers agree that the arc resistance R may be expressed + by a simple straight line law, R = e + fL. If the arc is formed with + cored carbons, Mrs Ayrton demonstrated that the lines expressing + resistance as a function of arc length are no longer straight, but + that there is a rather sudden dip down when the length of the arc is + less than 3 mm. + + The constants in the above equation for the potential difference of + the carbons were determined by Mrs Ayrton in the case of solid carbons + to be-- + + 11.7 + 10.5L + V = 38.9 + 2.07L + ------------. + A + + There has been much debate as to the meaning to be given to the + constant a in the above equation, which has a value apparently not far + from forty volts for a direct-current arc with solid carbons. The + suggestion made in 1867 by Edlund (_Phil. Mag._, 1868, 36, p. 358), + that it implied the existence of a counter-electromotive force in the + arc, was opposed by Luggin in 1889 (_Wien. Ber._ 98, p. 1198), Ernst + Lecher in 1888 (_Wied. Ann._, 1888, 33, p. 609), and by Franz Stenger + in 1892 (_Id._ 45, p. 33); whereas Victor von Lang and L. M. Arons in + 1896 (_Id._ 30, p. 95), concluded that experiment indicated the + presence of a counter-electromotive force of 20 volts. A. E. Blondel + concludes, from experiments made by him in 1897 (_The Electrician_, + 1897, 39, p. 615), that there is no counter-electromotive force in the + arc greater than a fraction of a volt. Subsequently W. Duddëll (_Proc. + Roy. Soc._, 1901, 68, p. 512) described experiments tending to prove + the real existence of a counter-electromotive force in the arc, + probably having a thermo-electric origin, residing near the positive + electrode, and of an associated lesser adjuvant _e.m.f._ near the + negative carbon. + + This fall in voltage between the carbons and the arc is not uniformly + distributed. In 1898 Mrs Ayrton described the results of experiments + showing that if V1 is the potential difference between the positive + carbon and the arc, then + + 9 + 3.1L + V1 = 31.28 + --------; + A + + and if V2 is the potential difference between the arc and the negative + carbon, then + + 13.6 + V2 = 7.6 + ----, + A + + where A is the current through the arc in amperes and L is the length + of the arc in millimetres. + + The total potential difference between the carbons, minus the fall in + potential down the arc, is therefore equal to the sum of V1 + V2 = V3. + + 22.6 + 3.1L + Hence V3 = 38.88 + -----------. + A + + The difference between this value and the value of V, the total + potential difference between the carbons, gives the loss in potential + due to the true arc. These laws are simple consequences of + straight-line laws connecting the work spent in the arc at the two + electrodes with the other quantities. If W be the work spent in the + arc on either carbon, measured by the product of the current and the + potential drop in passing from the carbon to the arc, or vice versa, + then for the positive carbon W = a + bA, if the length of arc is + constant, W = c + dL, if the current through the arc is constant, and + for the negative carbon W = e + fA. + + In the above experiments the potential difference between the carbons + and the arc was measured by using a third exploring carbon as an + electrode immersed in the arc. This method, adopted by Lecher, F. + Uppenborn, S. P. Thompson, and J. A. Fleming, is open to the objection + that the introduction of the third carbon may to a considerable extent + disturb the distribution of potential. + + The total work spent in the continuous-current arc with solid carbons + may, according to Mrs Ayrton, be expressed by the equation + + W = 11.7 + 10.5L + (38.9 + 2.07L)A. + + It will thus be seen that the arc, considered as a conductor, has the + property that if the current through it is increased, the difference + of potential between the carbons is decreased, and in one sense, + therefore, the arc may be said to act as if it were a _negative + resistance_. Frith and Rodgers (_Electrician_, 1896, 38, p. 75) have + suggested that the resistance of the arc should be measured by the + ratio between a small increment of carbon potential difference and the + resulting small increment of current; in other words, by the equation + dV/dA, and not by the ratio simply of V:A. Considerable discussion has + taken place whether an electrical resistance can have a negative + value, belonging as it does to the class of scalar mathematical + quantities. Simply considered as an electrical conductor, the arc + resembles an intensely heated rod of magnesia or other refractory + oxide, the true resistance of which is decreased by rise of + temperature. Hence an increase of current through such a rod of + refractory oxide is accompanied by a decrease in the potential + difference of the ends. This, however, does not imply a negative + resistance, but merely the presence of a resistance with a negative + temperature coefficient. If we plot a curve such that the ordinates + are the difference of potential of the carbons and the abscissae the + current through the arc for constant length of arc, this curve is now + called a _characteristic curve_ of the arc and its slope at any point + the instantaneous resistance of the arc. + +Other physical investigations have been concerned with the intrinsic +brightness of the crater. It has been asserted by many observers, such +as Blondel, Sir W. de W. Abney, S. P. Thompson, Trotter, L. J. G. Violle +and others, that this is practically independent of the current passing, +but great differences of opinion exist as to its value. Abney's values +lie between 39 and 116, Trotter's between 80 and 170 candles per square +millimetre. Blondel in 1893 made careful determinations of the +brightness of the arc crater, and came to the conclusion that it was 160 +candles per square millimetre. Subsequently J. E. Petavel found a value +of 147 candles per square millimetre for current densities varying from +.06 to .26 amperes per square millimetre (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1899, 65, +p. 469). Violle also, in 1893, supported the opinion that the brightness +of the crater per square millimetre was independent of the current +density, and from certain experiments and assumptions as to the specific +heat of carbon, he asserted the temperature of the crater was about +3500° C. It has been concluded that this constancy of temperature, and +therefore of brightness, is due to the fact that the crater is at the +temperature of the boiling-point of carbon, and in that case its +temperature should be raised by increasing the pressure under which the +arc works. W. E. Wilson in 1895 attempted to measure the brightness of +the crater under various pressures, and found that under five +atmospheres the resistance of the arc appeared to increase and the +temperature of the crater to fall, until at a pressure of 20 atmospheres +the brightness of the crater had fallen to a dull red. In a later paper +Wilson and G. F. Fitzgerald stated that these preliminary experiments +were not confirmed, and their later researches throw considerable doubt +on the suggestion that it is the boiling-point of carbon which +determines the temperature of the crater. (See _Electrician_, 1895, 35, +p. 260, and 1897, 38, p. 343.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + + Alternating current arc. + +The study of the alternating-current arc has suggested a number of new +experimental problems for investigators. In this case all the factors, +namely, current, carbon P.D., resistance, and illuminating power, are +periodically varying; and as the electromotive force reverses itself +periodically, at certain instants the current through the arc is zero. +As the current can be interrupted for a moment without extinguishing +the arc, it is possible to work the electric arc from an alternating +current generator without apparent intermission in the light, provided +that the frequency is not much below 50. During the moment that the +current is zero the carbon continues to glow. Each carbon in turn +becomes, so to speak, the crater carbon, and the illuminating power is +therefore symmetrically distributed. The curve of illumination is as +shown in fig. 3. The nature of the variation of the current and arc P.D. +can be examined by one of two methods, or their modifications, +originally due to Jules Joubert and A. E. Blondel. Joubert's method, +which has been perfected by many observers, consists in attaching to the +shaft of the alternator a contact which closes a circuit at an assigned +instant during the phase. This contact is made to complete connexion +either with a voltmeter or with a galvanometer placed as a shunt across +the carbons or in series with the arc. By this arrangement these +instruments do not read, as usual, the root-mean-square value of the arc +P.D. or current, but give a constant indication determined by, and +indicating, the instantaneous values of these quantities at some +assigned instant. By progressive variation of the phase-instant at which +the contact is made, the successive instantaneous values of the electric +quantities can be measured and plotted out in the form of curves. This +method has been much employed by Blondel, Fleming, C. P. Steinmetz, +Tobey and Walbridge, Frith, H. Görges and many others. The second +method, due to Blondel, depends on the use of the _Oscillograph_, which +is a galvanometer having a needle or coil of very small periodic time of +vibration, say (1/2000)th part of a second or less, so that its +deflections can follow the variations of current passing through the +galvanometer. An improved form of oscillograph, devised by Duddell, +consists of two fine wires, which are strained transversely to the lines +of flux of a strong magnetic field (see OSCILLOGRAPH). The current to be +examined is made to pass up one wire and down the other, and these wires +are then slightly displaced in opposite directions. A small mirror +attached to the wires is thus deflected rapidly to and fro in +synchronism with the variations of the current. From the mirror a ray of +light is reflected which falls upon a photographic plate made to move +across the field with a uniform motion. In this manner a photographic +trace can be obtained of the wave form. By this method the variations of +electric quantities in an alternating-current arc can be watched. The +variation of illuminating power can be followed by examining and +measuring the light of the arc through slits in a revolving stroboscopic +disk, which is driven by a motor synchronously with the variation of +current through the arc. + +The general phenomena of the alternating-current arc are as follow:-- + + If the arc is supplied by an alternator of low inductance, and soft or + cored carbons are employed to produce a steady and silent arc, the + potential difference of the carbons periodically varies in a manner + not very different from that of the alternator on open circuit. If, + however, hard carbons are used, the alternating-current arc deforms + the shape of the alternator electromotive force curve; the carbon P.D. + curve may then have a very different form, and becomes, in general, + more rectangular in shape, usually having a high peak at the front. + The arc also impresses the deformation on the current curve. Blondel + in 1893 (_Electrician_, 32, p. 161) gave a number of potential and + current curves for alternating-current arcs, obtained by the Joubert + contact method, using two movable coil galvanometers of high + resistance to measure respectively potential difference and current. + Blondel's deductions were that the shape of the current and volt + curves is greatly affected by the nature of the carbons, and also by + the amount of inductance and resistance in the circuit of the + alternator. Blondel, W. E. Ayrton, W. E. Sumpner and Steinmetz have + all observed that the alternating-current arc, when hissing or when + formed with uncored carbons, acts like an inductive resistance, and + that there is a lag between the current curves and the potential + difference curves. Hence the _power-factor_, or ratio between the true + power and the product of the root-mean-square values of arc current + and carbon potential difference, in this case is less than unity. For + silent arcs Blondel found power-factors lying between 0.88 and 0.95, + and for hissing ones, values such as 0.70. Ayrton and Sumpner stated + that the power-factor may be as low as 0.5. Joubert, as far back as + 1881, noticed the deformation which the alternating-current arc + impresses upon the electromotive force curve of an alternator, giving + an open circuit a simple harmonic variation of electromotive force. + Tobey and Walbridge in 1890 gave the results of a number of + observations taken with commercial forms of alternating-current arc + lamps, in which the same deformation was apparent. Blondel in 1896 + came to the conclusion that with the same alternator we can produce + carbon P.D. curves of very varied character, according to the material + of the core, the length of the arc, and the inductance of the circuit. + Hard carbons gave a P.D. curve with a flat top even when worked on a + low inductance alternator. + + The periodic variation of light in the alternating-current arc has + also been the subject of inquiry. H. Görges in 1895 at Berlin applied + a stroboscopic method to steady the variations of illuminating power. + Fleming and Petavel employed a similar arrangement, driving the + stroboscopic disk by a synchronous motor (_Phil. Mag._, 1896, 41). The + light passing through slits of the disk was selected in one particular + period of the phase, and by means of a lens could be taken from any + desired portion of the arc or the incandescent carbons. The light so + selected was measured relatively to the mean value of the horizontal + light emitted by the arc, and accidental variations were thus + eliminated. They found that the light from any part is periodic, but + owing to the slow cooling of the carbons never quite zero, the minimum + value happening a little later than the zero value of the current. The + light emitted by a particular carbon when it is the negative, does not + reach such a large maximum value as when it is the positive. The same + observers made experiments which seemed to show that for a given + expenditure of power in the arc the alternating current arc in general + gives less mean spherical candle-power than the continuous current + one. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + The effect of the wave form on the efficiency of the + alternating-current arc has engaged the attention of many workers. + Rössler and Wedding in 1894 gave an account of experiments with + alternating-current arcs produced by alternators having electromotive + force curves of very different wave forms, and they stated that the + efficiency or mean spherical candle-power per watt expended in the arc + was greatest for the flattest of the three wave forms by nearly 50%. + Burnie in 1897 gave the results of experiments of the same kind. His + conclusion was, that since the light of the arc is a function of the + temperature, that wave form of current is most efficient which + maintains the temperature most uniformly throughout the half period. + Hence, generally, if the current rises to a high value soon after its + commencement, and is preserved at that value, or nearly at that value, + during the phase, the efficiency of the arc will be greater when the + current curve is more pointed or peaked. An important contribution to + our knowledge concerning alternating-current arc phenomena was made in + 1899 by W. Duddell and E. W. Marchant, in a paper containing valuable + results obtained with their improved oscillograph.[1] They studied the + behaviour of the alternating-current arc when formed both with solid + carbons, with cored carbons, and with carbon and metal rods. They + found that with solid carbons the arc P.D. curve is always + square-shouldered and begins with a peak, as shown in fig. 7 (a), but + with cored carbons it is more sinusoidal. Its shape depends on the + total resistance in the circuit, but is almost independent of the type + of alternator, whereas the current wave form is largely dependent on + the machine used, and on the nature and amount of the impedance in the + circuit; hence the importance of selecting a suitable alternator for + operating alternating-current arcs. The same observers drew attention + to the remarkable fact that if the arc is formed between a carbon and + metal rod, say a zinc rod, there is a complete interruption of the + current over half a period corresponding to that time during which the + carbon is positive; this suggests that the rapid cooling of the metal + facilitates the flow of the current from it, and resists the flow of + current to it. The dotted curve in fig. 7 (b) shows the current curve + form in the case of a copper rod. By the use of the oscillograph + Duddell and Marchant showed that the hissing continuous-current arc is + intermittent, and that the current is oscillatory and may have a + frequency of 1000 per second. They also showed that enclosing the arc + increases the arc reaction, the front peak of the potential curve + becoming more marked and the power-factor of the arc reduced. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Enclosed Arc Lamp.] + + + Enclosed arc lamps. + +If a continuous-current electric arc is formed in the open air with a +positive carbon having a diameter of about 15 millimetres, and a +negative carbon having a diameter of about 9 millimetres, and if a +current of 10 amperes is employed, the potential difference between the +carbons is generally from 40 to 50 volts. Such a lamp is therefore +called a 500-watt arc. Under these conditions the carbons each burn away +at the rate of about 1 in. per hour, actual combustion taking place in +the air which gains access to the highly-heated crater and negative tip; +hence the most obvious means of preventing this disappearance is to +enclose the arc in an air-tight glass vessel. Such a device was tried +very early in the history of arc lighting. The result of using a +completely air-tight globe, however, is that the contained oxygen is +removed by combustion with the carbon, and carbon vapour or hydrocarbon +compounds diffuse through the enclosed space and deposit themselves on +the cool sides of the glass, which is thereby obscured. It was, however, +shown by L. B. Marks (_Electrician_ 31, p. 502, and 38, p. 646) in 1893, +that if the arc is an arc formed with a small current and relatively +high voltage, namely, 80 to 85 volts, it is possible to admit air in +such small amount that though the rate of combustion of the carbons is +reduced, yet the air destroys by oxidation the carbon vapour escaping +from the arc. An arc lamp operated in this way is called an enclosed arc +lamp (fig. 8). The top of the enclosing bulb is closed by a gas check +plug which admits through a small hole a limited supply of air. The +peculiarity of an enclosed arc lamp operated with a continuous current +is that the carbons do not burn to a crater on the positive, and a sharp +tip or mushroom on the negative, but preserve nearly flat surfaces. This +feature affects the distribution of the light. The illuminating curve of +the enclosed arc, therefore, has not such a strongly marked maximum +value as that of the open arc, but on the other hand the true arc or +column of incandescent carbon vapour is less steady in position, +wandering round from place to place on the surface of the carbons. As a +compensation for this defect, the combustion of the carbons per hour in +commercial forms of enclosed arc lamps is about one-twentieth part of +that of an open arc lamp taking the same current. + +It was shown by Fleming in 1890 that the column of incandescent carbon +vapour constituting the true arc possesses a unilateral conductivity +(_Proc. Roy. Inst._ 13, p. 47). If a third carbon is dipped into the arc +so as to constitute a third pole, and if a small voltaic battery of a +few cells, with a galvanometer in circuit, is connected in between the +middle pole and the negative carbon, it is found that when the negative +pole of the battery is in connexion with the negative carbon the +galvanometer indicates a current, but does not when the positive pole of +the battery is in connexion with the negative carbon of the arc. + + + The arc as an illuminant. + +Turning next to the consideration of the electric arc as a source of +light, we have already noticed that the illuminating power in different +directions is not the same. If we imagine an electric arc, formed +between a pair of vertical carbons, to be placed in the centre of a +hollow sphere painted white on the interior, then it would be found that +the various zones of this sphere are unequally illuminated. If the +points in which the carbons when prolonged would intercept the sphere +are called the poles, and the line where the horizontal plane through +the arc would intercept the sphere is called the equator, we might +consider the sphere divided up by lines of latitude into zones, each of +which would be differently illuminated. The total quantity of light or +the total illumination of each zone is the product of the area of the +zone and the intensity of the light falling on the zone measured in +candle-power. We might regard the sphere as uniformly illuminated with +an intensity of light such that the product of this intensity and the +total surface of the sphere was numerically equal to the surface +integral obtained by summing up the products of the areas of all the +elementary zones and the intensity of the light falling on each. This +mean intensity is called the _mean spherical candle-power_ of the arc. +If the distribution of the illuminating power is known and given by an +illumination curve, the mean spherical candle-power can be at once +deduced (_La Lumière électrique_, 1890, 37, p. 415). + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + Let BMC (fig. 9) be a semicircle which by revolution round the + diameter BC sweeps out a sphere. Let an arc be situated at A, and let + the element of the circumference PQ = _ds_ sweep out a zone of the + sphere. Let the intensity of light falling on this zone be I. Then if + [theta] [asymp] the angle MAP and d[theta] the incremental angle PAQ, + and if R is the radius of the sphere, we have + + ds = R d[theta]; + + also, if we project the element PQ on the line DE we have + + ab = ds cos [theta], + + :. ab = R cos [theta] d[theta] + + and + + Iab = IR cos [theta] d[theta]. + + Let r denote the radius PT of the zone of the sphere, then + + r = R cos [theta]. + + Hence the area of the zone swept out by PQ is equal to + + 2[pi]R cos [theta] ds = 2[pi]R² cos [theta] d[theta] + + in the limit, and the total quantity of light falling on the zone is + equal to the product of the mean intensity or candle-power I in the + direction AP and the area of the zone, and therefore to + + 2[pi]IR² cos [theta] d[theta]. + + Let I0 stand for the mean spherical candle-power, that is, let I0 be + defined by the equation + + 4[pi]R²I0 = 2[pi]R[Sigma](Iab) + + where [Sigma](Iab) is the sum of all the light actually falling on + the sphere surface, then + + 1 + I0 = -- [Sigma](Iab) + 2R + + [Sigma](Iab) + = ------------ I_(max) + 2RI_(max) + + where I_(max) stands for the maximum candle-power of the arc. If, + then, we set off at b a line bH perpendicular to DE and in length + proportional to the candle-power of the arc in the direction AP, and + carry out the same construction for a number of different observed + candle-power readings at known angles above and below the horizon, the + summits of all ordinates such as bH will define a curve DHE. The mean + spherical candle-power of the arc is equal to the product of the + maximum candle-power (I_(max)), and a fraction equal to the ratio of + the area included by the curve DHE to its circumscribing rectangle + DFGE. The area of the curve DHE multiplied by 2[pi]/R gives us the + _total flux of light_ from the arc. + + Owing to the inequality in the distribution of light from an electric + arc, it is impossible to define the illuminating power by a single + number in any other way than by stating the mean spherical + candle-power. All such commonly used expressions as "an arc lamp of + 2000 candle-power" are, therefore, perfectly meaningless. + + + Photometry of arc. + +The photometry of arc lamps presents particular difficulties, owing to +the great difference in quality between the light radiated by the arc +and that given by any of the ordinarily used light standards. (For +standards of light and photometers, see PHOTOMETER.) All photometry +depends on the principle that if we illuminate two white surfaces +respectively and exclusively by two separate sources of light, we can by +moving the lights bring the two surfaces into such a condition that +their _illumination_ or _brightness_ is the same without regard to any +small colour difference. The quantitative measurement depends on the +fact that the illumination produced upon a surface by a source of light +is inversely as the square of the distance of the source. The trained +eye is capable of making a comparison between two surfaces illuminated +by different sources of light, and pronouncing upon their equality or +otherwise in respect of brightness, apart from a certain colour +difference; but for this to be done with accuracy the two illuminated +surfaces, the brightness of which is to be compared, must be absolutely +contiguous and not separated by any harsh line. The process of comparing +the light from the arc directly with that of a candle or other similar +flame standard is exceedingly difficult, owing to the much greater +proportion and intensity of the violet rays in the arc. The most +convenient practical working standard is an incandescent lamp run at a +high temperature, that is, at an efficiency of about 2½ watts per +candle. If it has a sufficiently large bulb, and has been _aged_ by +being worked for some time previously, it will at a constant voltage +preserve a constancy in illuminating power sufficiently long to make the +necessary photometric comparisons, and it can itself be compared at +intervals with another standard incandescent lamp, or with a flame +standard such as a Harcourt pentane lamp. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + In measuring the candle-power of arc lamps it is necessary to have + some arrangement by which the brightness of the rays proceeding from + the arc in different directions can be measured. For this purpose the + lamp may be suspended from a support, and a radial arm arranged to + carry three mirrors, so that in whatever position the arm may be + placed, it gathers light proceeding at one particular angle above or + below the horizon from the arc, and this light is reflected out + finally in a constant horizontal direction. An easily-arranged + experiment enables us to determine the constant loss of light by + reflection at all the mirrors, since that reflection always takes + place at 45°. The ray thrown out horizontally can then be compared + with that from any standard source of light by means of a fixed + photometer, and by sweeping round the radial arm the photometric or + illuminating curve of the arc lamp can be obtained. From this we can + at once determine the nature of the illumination which would be + produced on a horizontal surface if the arc lamp were suspended at a + given distance above it. Let A (fig. 10) be an arc lamp placed at a + height h( = AB) above a horizontal plane. Let ACD be the illuminating + power curve of the arc, and hence AC the candle-power in a direction + AP. The illumination (I) or brightness on the horizontal plane at P is + equal to + + AC cos APM/(AP)² = FC/(h² + x²), where x = BP. + + Hence if the candle-power curve of the arc and its height above the + surface are known, we can describe a curve BMN, whose ordinate PM will + denote the brightness on the horizontal surface at any point P. It is + easily seen that this ordinate must have a maximum value at some + point. This brightness is best expressed in _candle-feet_, taking the + unit of illumination to be that given by a standard candle on a white + surface at a distance of 1 ft. If any number of arc lamps are placed + above a horizontal plane, the brightness at any point can be + calculated by adding together the illuminations due to each + respectively. + + The process of delineating the photometric or polar curve of intensity + for an arc lamp is somewhat tedious, but the curve has the advantage + of showing exactly the distribution of light in different directions. + When only the mean spherical or mean hemispherical candle-power is + required the process can be shortened by employing an integrating + photometer such as that of C. P. Matthews (_Trans. Amer. Inst. Elec. + Eng._, 1903, 19, p. 1465), or the lumen-meter of A. E. Blondel which + enables us to determine at one observation the total flux of light + from the arc and therefore the mean spherical candle-power per watt. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + + Street arc lighting. + +In the use of arc lamps for street and public lighting, the question of +the distribution of light on the horizontal surface is all-important. In +order that street surfaces may be well lighted, the minimum illumination +should not fall below 0.1 candle-foot, and in general, in well-lighted +streets, the maximum illumination will be 1 candle-foot and upwards. By +means of an illumination photometer, such as that of W. H. Preece and A. +P. Trotter, it is easy to measure the illumination in candle-feet at any +point in a street surface, and to plot out a number of contour lines of +equal illumination. Experience has shown that to obtain satisfactory +results the lamps must be placed on a high mast 20 or 25 ft. above the +roadway surface. These posts are now generally made of cast iron in +various ornamental forms (fig. 11), the necessary conductors for +conveying the current up to the lamp being taken inside the iron mast. +(The pair of incandescent lamps halfway down the standard are for use in +the middle of the night, when the arc lamp would give more light than is +required; they are lighted by an automatic switch whenever the arc is +extinguished.) The lamp itself is generally enclosed in an opalescent +spherical globe, which is woven over with wire-netting so that in case +of fracture the pieces may not cause damage. The necessary trimming, +that is, the replacement of carbons, is effected either by lowering the +lamp or, preferably, by carrying round a portable ladder enabling the +trimmer to reach it. For the purpose of public illumination it is very +usual to employ a lamp taking 10 amperes, and therefore absorbing about +500 watts. Such a lamp is called a 500-watt arc lamp, and it is found +that a satisfactory illumination is given for most street purposes by +placing 500-watt arc lamps at distances varying from 40 to 100 yds., and +at a height of 20 to 25 ft. above the roadway. The maximum candle-power +of a 500-watt arc enclosed in a roughened or ground-glass globe will not +exceed 1500 candles, and that of a 6.8-ampere arc (continuous) about 900 +candles. If, however, the arc is an enclosed arc with double globes, the +absorption of light would reduce the effective maximum to about 200 c.p. +and 120 c.p. respectively. When arc lamps are placed in public +thoroughfares not less than 40 yds. apart, the illumination anywhere on +the street surface is practically determined by the two nearest ones. +Hence the total illumination at any point may be obtained by adding +together the illuminations due to each arc separately. Given the +photometric polar curves or illuminating-power curves of each arc taken +outside the shade or globe, we can therefore draw a curve representing +the resultant illumination on the horizontal surface. It is obvious that +the higher the lamps are placed, the more uniform is the street surface +illumination, but the less its average value; thus two 10-ampere arcs +placed on masts 20 ft. above the road surface and 100 ft. apart will +give a maximum illumination of about 1.1 and a minimum of about 0.15 +candle-feet in the interspace (fig 12). If the lamps are raised on +40-ft. posts the maximum illumination will fall to 0.3, and the minimum +will rise to 0.2. For this reason masts have been employed as high as 90 +ft. In docks and railway yards high masts (50 ft.) are an advantage, +because the strong contrasts due to shadows of trucks, carts, &c., then +become less marked, but for street illumination they should not exceed +30 to 35 ft. in height. Taking the case of 10-ampere and 6.8-ampere arc +lamps in ordinary opal shades, the following figures have been given by +Trotter as indicating the nature of the resultant horizontal +illumination:-- + + +-----------+------------+---------+------------------------+ + | | | | Horizontal Illumination| + |Arc Current|Height above| Distance| in Candle-Feet. | + | in | Road | apart +-----------+------------+ + | Amperes. | in Feet. | in Feet.| Maximum. | Minimum. | + +-----------+------------+---------+-----------+------------+ + | 10 | 20 | 120 | 1.85 | 0.12 | + | 10 | 25 | 120 | 1.17 | 0.15 | + | 10 | 40 | 120 | 0.5 | 0.28 | + | 6.8 | 20 | 90 | 1.1 | 0.21 | + | 6.8 | 40 | 120 | 0.3 | 0.17 | + +-----------+------------+---------+-----------+------------+ + + +As regards distance apart, a very usual practice is to place the lamps +at spaces equal to six to ten times their height above the road surface. +Blondel (_Electrician_, 35, p. 846) gives the following rule for the +height (h) of the arc to afford the maximum illumination at a distance +(d) from the foot of the lamp-post, the continuous current arc being +employed:-- + + For naked arc h = 0.95 d. + " arc in rough glass globe h = 0.85 d. + " " opaline glob h = " + " " opal globe h = 0.5 d. + " " holophane globe h = 0.5 d. + +These figures show that the distribution of light on the horizontal +surface is greatly affected by the nature of the enclosing globe. For +street illumination naked arcs, although sometimes employed in works and +factory yards, are entirely unsuitable, since the result produced on the +eye by the bright point of light is to paralyse a part of the retina and +contract the pupil, hence rendering the eye less sensitive when directed +on feebly illuminated surfaces. Accordingly, diffusing globes have to be +employed. It is usual to place the arc in the interior of a globe of +from 12 to 18 in. in diameter. This may be made of ground glass, opal +glass, or be a dioptric globe such as the holophane. The former two are +strongly absorptive, as may be seen from the results of experiments by +Guthrie and Redhead. The following table shows the astonishing loss of +light due to the use of opal globes:-- + + +--------------------------------------+-----+--------+-------+-------+ + | | | Arc | Arc in| Arc | + | |Naked|in Clear| Rough |in Opal| + | | Arc.| Globe. | Glass | Globe.| + | | | | Globe.| | + +--------------------------------------+-----+--------+-------+-------+ + | Mean spherical c.p. | 319 | 235 | 160 | 144 | + | Mean hemispherical c.p. | 450 | 326 | 215 | 138 | + | Percentage value of transmitted light| 100 | 53 | 23 | 19 | + | Percentage absorption | 0 | 47 | 77 | 81 | + +--------------------------------------+-----+--------+-------+-------+ + +By using Trotter's, Fredureau's or the holophane globe, the light may be +so diffused that the whole globe appears uniformly luminous, and yet not +more than 20% of the light is absorbed. Taking the absorption of an +ordinary opal globe into account, a 500-watt arc does not usually give +more than 500 c.p. as a maximum candle-power. Even with a naked 500-watt +arc the mean spherical candle-power is not generally more than 500 c.p., +or at the rate of 1 c.p. per watt. The maximum candle-power for a given +electrical power is, however, greatly dependent on the current density +in the carbon, and to obtain the highest current density the carbons +must be as thin as possible. (See T. Hesketh, "Notes on the Electric +Arc," _Electrician_, 39, p. 707.) + +For the efficiency of arcs of various kinds, expressed by the mean +hemispherical candle power per ampere and per watt expended in the arc, +the following figures were given by L. Andrews ("Long-flame Arc Lamps," +_Journal Inst. Elec. Eng.,_ 1906, 37, p. 4). + + Candle-power Candle-power + per ampere. per watt. + Ordinary open carbon arc 82 1.54 + Enclosed carbon arc 55 0.77 + Chemical carbon or flame arc 259 5.80 + High voltage inclined carbon arc 200 2.24 + +It will be seen that the flame arc lamp has an enormous advantage over +other types in the light yielded for a given electric power consumption. + + + Arc lamp mechanism. + +The practical employment of the electric arc as a means of illumination +is dependent upon mechanism for automatically keeping two suitable +carbon rods in the proper position, and moving them so as to enable a +steady arc to be maintained. Means must be provided for holding the +carbons in line, and when the lamp is not in operation they must fall +together, or come together when the current is switched on, so as to +start the arc. As soon as the current passes, they must be moved +slightly apart, and gripped in position immediately the current reaches +its right value, being moved farther apart if the current increases in +strength, and brought together if it decreases. Moreover, it must be +possible for a considerable length of carbon to be fed through the lamp +as required. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + + One early devised form of arc-lamp mechanism was a system of clockwork + driven by a spring or weight, which was started and stopped by the + action of an electromagnet; in modern lighthouse lamps a similar + mechanism is still employed. W. E. Staite (1847), J. B. L. Foucault + (1849), V. L. M. Serrin (1857), J. Duboscq (1858), and a host of later + inventors, devised numerous forms of mechanical and clockwork lamps. + The modern self-regulating type may be said to have been initiated in + 1878 by the differential lamp of F. von Hefner-Alteneck, and the + clutch lamp of C. F. Brush. The general principle of the former may be + explained as follows: There are two solenoids, placed one above the + other. The lower one, of thick wire, is in series with the two carbon + rods forming the arc, and is hence called the _series coil_. Above + this there is placed another solenoid of fine wire, which is called + the _shunt coil_. Suppose an iron rod to be placed so as to be partly + in one coil and partly in another; then when the coils are traversed + by currents, the iron core will be acted upon by forces tending to + pull it into these solenoids. If the iron core be attached to one end + of a lever, the other end of which carries the upper carbon, it will + be seen that if the carbons are in contact and the current is switched + on, the series coil alone will be traversed by the current, and its + magnetic action will draw down the iron core, and therefore pull the + carbons apart and strike the arc. The moment the carbons separate, + there will be a difference of potential between them, and the shunt + coil will then come into action, and will act on the core so as to + draw the carbons together. Hence the two solenoids act in opposition + to each other, one increasing and the other diminishing the length of + the arc, and maintaining the carbons in the proper position. In the + lamp of this type the upper carbon is in reality attached to a rod + having a side-rack gearing, with a train of wheels governed by a + pendulum. The action of the series coil on the mechanism is to first + lock or stop the train, and then lift it as a whole slightly. This + strikes the arc. When the arc is too long, the series coil lowers the + gear and finally releases the upper carbon, so that it can run down by + its own weight. The principle of a shunt and series coil operating on + an iron core in opposition is the basis of the mechanism of a number + of arc lamps. Thus the lamp invented by F. Krizik and L. Piette, + called from its place of origin the Pilsen lamp, comprises an iron + core made in the shape of a double cone or spindle (fig. 13), which is + so arranged in a brass tube that it can move into or out of a shunt + and series coil, wound the one with fine and the other with thick + insulated wire, and hence regulate the position of the carbon attached + to it. The movement of this core is made to feed the carbons directly + without the intervention of any clockwork, as in the case of the + Hefner-Alteneck lamp. In the clutch-lamp mechanism the lower carbon is + fixed, and the upper carbon rests upon it by its own weight and that + of its holder. The latter consists of a long rod passing through + guides, and is embraced somewhere by a ring capable of being tilted or + lifted by a finger attached to the armature of an electromagnet the + coils of which are in series with the arc. When the current passes + through the magnet it attracts the armature, and by tilting the ring + lifts the upper carbon-holder and hence strikes the arc. If the + current diminishes in value, the upper carbon drops a little by its + own weight, and the feed of the lamp is thus effected by a series of + small lifts and drops of the upper carbon (fig. 14). Another element + sometimes employed in arc-lamp mechanism is the brake-wheel regulator. + This is a feature of one form of the Brockie and of the + Crompton-Pochin lamps. In these the movement of the carbons is + effected by a cord or chain which passes over a wheel, or by a rack + geared with the brake wheel. When no current is passing through the + lamp, the wheel is free to move, and the carbons fall together; but + when the current is switched on, the chain or cord passing over the + brake wheel, or the brake wheel itself is gripped in some way, and at + the same time the brake wheel is lifted so that the arc is struck. + +Although countless forms of self-regulating device have been invented +for arc lamps, nothing has survived the test of time so well as the +typical mechanisms which work with carbon rods in one line, one or both +rods being moved by a controlling apparatus as required. The early forms +of semi-incandescent arc lamp, such as those of R. Werdermann and +others, have dropped out of existence. These were not really true arc +lamps, the light being produced by the incandescence of the extremity of +a thin carbon rod pressed against a larger rod or block. The once famous +Jablochkoff candle, invented in 1876, consisted of two carbon rods about +4 mm. in diameter, placed parallel to each other and separated by a +partition of kaolin, steatite or other refractory non-conductor. +Alternating currents were employed, and the candle was set in operation +by a match or starter of high-resistance carbon paste which connected +the tips of the rods. When this burned off, a true arc was formed +between the parallel carbons, the separator volatilizing as the carbons +burned away. Although much ingenuity was expended on this system of +lighting between 1877 and 1881, it no longer exists. One cause of its +disappearance was its relative inefficiency in light-giving power +compared with other forms of carbon arc taking the same amount of power, +and a second equally important reason was the waste in carbons. If the +arc of the electric candle was accidentally blown out, no means of +relighting existed; hence the great waste in half-burnt candles. H. +Wilde, J. C. Jamin, J. Rapieff and others endeavoured to provide a +remedy, but without success. + + It is impossible to give here detailed descriptions of a fraction of + the arc-lamp mechanisms devised, and it must suffice to indicate the + broad distinctions between various types. (1) Arc lamps may be either + _continuous-current_ or _alternating-current_ lamps. For outdoor + public illumination the former are greatly preferable, as owing to the + form of the illuminating power-curve they send the light down on the + road surface, provided the upper carbon is the positive one. For + indoor, public room or factory lighting, _inverted arc_ lamps are + sometimes employed. In this case the positive carbon is the lower one, + and the lamp is carried in an inverted metallic reflector shield, so + that the light is chiefly thrown up on the ceiling, whence it is + diffused all round. The alternating-current arc is not only less + efficient in mean spherical candle-power per watt of electric power + absorbed, but its distribution of light is disadvantageous for street + purposes. Hence when arc lamps have to be worked off an + alternating-current circuit for public lighting it is now usual to + make use of a _rectifier_, which rectifies the alternating current + into an unidirectional though pulsating current. (2.) Arc lamps may be + also classified, as above described, into _open_ or _enclosed arcs_. + The enclosed arc can be made to burn for 200 hours with one pair of + carbons, whereas open-arc lamps are usually only able to work, 8, 16 + or 32 hours without recarboning, even when fitted with double carbons. + (3) Arc lamps are further divided into _focussing_ and _non-focussing_ + lamps. In the former the lower carbon is made to move up as the upper + carbon moves down, and the arc is therefore maintained at the same + level. This is advisable for arcs included in a globe, and absolutely + necessary in the case of lighthouse lamps and lamps for optical + purposes. (4) Another subdivision is into _hand-regulated_ and + _self-regulating_ lamps. In the hand-regulated arcs the carbons are + moved by a screw attachment as required, as in some forms of + search-light lamp and lamps for optical lanterns. The carbons in large + search-light lamps are usually placed horizontally. The + self-regulating lamps may be classified into groups depending upon the + nature of the regulating appliances. In some cases the regulation is + controlled only by a _series coil_, and in others only by a _shunt + coil_. Examples of the former are the original Gülcher and Brush + clutch lamp, and some modern enclosed arc lamps; and of the latter, + the Siemens "band" lamp, and the Jackson-Mensing lamp. In series coil + lamps the variation of the current in the coil throws into or out of + action the carbon-moving mechanism; in shunt coil lamps the variation + in voltage between the carbons is caused to effect the same changes. + Other types of lamp involve the use both of shunt and series coils + acting against each other. A further classification of the + self-regulating lamps may be found in the nature of the carbon-moving + mechanism. This may be some modification of the Brush ring clutch, + hence called _clutch_ lamps; or some variety of _brake wheel_, as + employed in Brockie and Crompton lamps; or else some form of _electric + motor_ is thrown into or out of action and effects the necessary + changes. In many cases the arc-lamp mechanism is provided with a + _dash-pot_, or contrivance in which a piston moving nearly air-tight + in a cylinder prevents sudden jerks in the motion of the mechanism, + and thus does away with the "hunting" or rapid up-and-down movements + to which some varieties of clutch mechanism are liable. One very + efficient form is illustrated in the Thomson lamp and Brush-Vienna + lamp. In this mechanism a shunt and series coil are placed side by + side, and have iron cores suspended to the ends of a rocking arm held + partly within them. Hence, according as the magnetic action of the + shunt or series coil prevails, the rocking arm is tilted backwards or + forwards. When the series coil is not in action the _motion_ is free, + and the upper carbon-holder slides down, or the lower one slides up, + and starts the arc. The series coil comes into action to withdraw the + carbons, and at the same time locks the mechanism. The shunt coil then + operates against the series coil, and between them the carbon is fed + forwards as required. The control to be obtained is such that the arc + shall never become so long as to flicker and become extinguished, when + the carbons would come together again with a rush, but the feed should + be smooth and steady, the position of the carbons responding quickly + to each change in the current. + + The introduction of enclosed arc lamps was a great improvement, in + consequence of the economy effected in the consumption of carbon and + in the cost of labour for trimming. A well-known and widely used form + of enclosed arc lamp is the Jandus lamp, which in large current form + can be made to burn for two hundred hours without recarboning, and in + small or midget form to burn for forty hours, taking a current of two + amperes at 100 volts. Such lamps in many cases conveniently replace + large sizes of incandescent lamps, especially for shop lighting, as + they give a whiter light. Great improvements have also been made in + inclined carbon arc lamps. One reason for the relatively low + efficiency of the usual vertical rod arrangement is that the crater + can only radiate laterally, since owing to the position of the + negative carbon no crater light is thrown directly downwards. If, + however, the carbons are placed in a downwards slanting position at a + small angle like the letter V and the arc formed at the bottom tips, + then the crater can emit downwards all the light it produces. It is + found, however, that the arc is unsteady unless a suitable magnetic + field is employed to keep the arc in position at the carbon tips. This + method has been adopted in the Carbone arc, which, by the employment + of inclined carbons, and a suitable electromagnet to keep the true arc + steady at the ends of the carbons, has achieved considerable success. + One feature of the Carbone arc is the use of a relatively high voltage + between the carbons, their potential difference being as much as 85 + volts. + + + Arrangement. + +Arc lamps may be arranged either (i.) in series, (ii.) in parallel or +(iii.) in series parallel. In the first case a number, say 20, may be +traversed by the same current, in that case supplied at a pressure of +1000 volts. Each must have a magnetic cut-out, so that if the carbons +stick together or remain apart the current to the other lamps is not +interrupted, the function of such a cut-out being to close the main +circuit immediately any one lamp ceases to pass current. Arc lamps +worked in series are generally supplied with a current from a constant +current dynamo, which maintains an invariable current of, say 10 +amperes, independently of the number of lamps on the external circuit. +If the lamps, however, are worked in series off a constant potential +circuit, such as one supplying at the same time incandescent lamps, +provision must be made by which a resistance coil can be substituted for +any one lamp removed or short-circuited. When lamps are worked in +parallel, each lamp is independent, but it is then necessary to add a +resistance in series with the lamp. By special devices three lamps can +be worked in series of 100 volt circuits. Alternating-current arc lamps +can be worked off a high-tension circuit in parallel by providing each +lamp with a small transformer. In some cases the alternating +high-tension current is _rectified_ and supplied as a unidirectional +current to lamps in series. If single alternating-current lamps have to +be worked off a 100 volt alternating-circuit, each lamp must have in +series with it a choking coil or economy coil, to reduce the circuit +pressure to that required for one lamp. Alternating-current lamps take a +larger _effective_ current, and work with a less effective or virtual +carbon P.D., than continuous current arcs of the same wattage. + + + Cost. + +The cost of working public arc lamps is made up of several items. There +is first the cost of supplying the necessary electric energy, then the +cost of carbons and the labour of recarboning, and, lastly, an item due +to depreciation and repairs of the lamps. An ordinary type of open 10 +ampere arc lamp, burning carbons 15 and 9 mm. in diameter for the +positive and negative, and working every night of the year from dusk to +dawn, uses about 600 ft. of carbons per annum. If the positive carbon is +18 mm. and the negative 12 mm., the consumption of each size of carbon +is about 70 ft. per 1000 hours of burning. It may be roughly stated that +at the present prices of plain open arc-lamp carbons the cost is about +15s. per 1000 hours of burning; hence if such a lamp is burnt every +night from dusk to midnight the annual cost in that respect is about £1, +10s. The annual cost of labour per lamp for trimming is in Great Britain +from £2 to £3; hence, approximately speaking, the cost per annum of +maintenance of a public arc lamp burning every night from dusk to +midnight is about £4 to £5, or perhaps £6, per annum, depreciation and +repairs included. Since such a 10 ampere lamp uses half a Board of Trade +unit of electric energy every hour, it will take 1000 Board of Trade +units per annum, burning every night from dusk to midnight; and if this +energy is supplied, say at 1½d. per unit, the annual cost of energy will +be about £6, and the upkeep of the lamp, including carbons, labour for +trimming and repairs, will be about £10 to £11 per annum. The cost for +labour and carbons is considerably reduced by the employment of the +enclosed arc lamp, but owing to the absorption of light produced by the +inner enclosing globe, and the necessity for generally employing a +second outer globe, there is a lower resultant candle-power per watt +expended in the arc. Enclosed arc lamps are made to burn without +attention for 200 hours, singly on 100 volt circuits, or two in series +on 200 volt circuits, and in addition to the cost of carbons per hour +being only about one-twentieth of that of the open arc, they have +another advantage in the fact that there is a more uniform distribution +of light on the road surface, because a greater proportion of light is +thrown out horizontally. + +It has been found by experience that the ordinary type of open arc lamp +with vertical carbons included in an opalescent globe cannot compete in +point of cost with modern improvements in gas lighting as a means of +street illumination. The violet colour of the light and the sharp +shadows, and particularly the non-illuminated area just beneath the +lamp, are grave disadvantages. The high-pressure flame arc lamp with +inclined chemically treated carbons has, however, put a different +complexion on matters. Although the treated carbons cost more than the +plain carbons, yet there is a great increase of emitted light, and a +9-ampere flame arc lamp supplied with electric energy at 1½d. per unit +can be used for 1000 hours at an inclusive cost of about £s to £6, the +mean emitted illumination being at the rate of 4 c.p. per watt absorbed. +In the Carbone arc lamp, the carbons are worked at an angle of 15° or +20° to each other and the arc is formed at the lower ends. If the +potential difference of the carbons is low, say only 50-60 volts, the +crater forms between the tips of the carbons and is therefore more or +less hidden. If, however, the voltage is increased to 90-100 then the +true flame of the arc is longer and is curved, and the crater forms at +the exteme tip of the carbons and throws all its light downwards. Hence +results a far greater mean hemispherical candle power (M.H.S.C.P.), so +that whereas a 10-ampere 60 volt open arc gives at most 1200 M.H.S.C.P., +a Carbone 10-ampere 85 volt arc will give 2700 M.H.S.C.P. Better results +still can be obtained with impregnated carbons. But the flame arcs with +impregnated carbons cannot be enclosed, so the consumption of carbon is +greater, and the carbons themselves are more costly, and leave a greater +ash on burning; hence more trimming is required. They give a more +pleasing effect for street lighting, and their golden yellow globe of +light is more useful than an equally costly plain arc of the open type. +This improvement in efficiency is, however, accompanied by some +disadvantages. The flame arc is very sensitive to currents of air and +therefore has to be shielded from draughts by putting it under an +"economizer" or chamber of highly refractory material which surrounds +the upper carbon, or both carbon tips, if the arc is formed with +inclined carbons. (For additional information on flame arc lamps see a +paper by L. B. Marks and H. E. Clifford, _Electrician_, 1906, 57, p. +975.) + +2. _Incandescent Lamps._--Incandescent electric lighting, although not +the first, is yet in one sense the most obvious method of utilizing +electric energy for illumination. It was evolved from the early observed +fact that a conductor is heated when traversed by an electric current, +and that if it has a high resistance and a high melting-point it may be +rendered incandescent, and therefore become a source of light. Naturally +every inventor turned his attention to the employment of wires of +refractory metals, such as platinum or alloys of platinum-iridium, &c., +for the purpose of making an incandescent lamp. F. de Moleyns +experimented in 1841, E. A. King and J. W. Starr in 1845, J. J. W. +Watson in 1853, and W. E. Staite in 1848, but these inventors achieved +no satisfactory result. Part of their want of success is attributable to +the fact that the problem of the economical production of electric +current by the dynamo machine had not then been solved. In 1878 T. A. +Edison devised lamps in which a platinum wire was employed as the +light-giving agent, carbon being made to adhere round it by pressure. +Abandoning this, he next directed his attention to the construction of +an "electric candle," consisting of a thin cylinder or rod formed of +finely-divided metals, platinum, iridium, &c., mixed with refractory +oxides, such as magnesia, or zirconia, lime, &c. This refractory body +was placed in a closed vessel and heated by being traversed by an +electric current. In a further improvement he proposed to use a block of +refractory oxide, round which a bobbin of fine platinum or +platinum-iridium wire was coiled. Every other inventor who worked at the +problem of incandescent lighting seems to have followed nearly the same +path of invention. Long before this date, however, the notion of +employing carbon as a substance to be heated by the current had entered +the minds of inventors; even in 1845 King had employed a small rod of +plumbago as the substance to be heated. It was obvious, however, that +carbon could only be so heated when in a space destitute of oxygen, and +accordingly King placed his plumbago rod in a barometric vacuum. S. W. +Konn in 1872, and S. A. Kosloff in 1875, followed in the same direction. + + + Carbon filament lamp. + +No real success attended the efforts of inventors until it was finally +recognized, as the outcome of the work by J. W. Swan, T. A. Edison, and, +in a lesser degree, St. G. Lane Fox and W. E. Sawyer and A. Man, that +the conditions of success were as follow: First, the substance to be +heated must be carbon in the form of a thin wire rod or thread, +technically termed a _filament_; second, this must be supported and +enclosed in a vessel formed entirely of glass; third, the vessel must be +exhausted as perfectly as possible; and fourth, the current must be +conveyed into and out of the carbon filament by means of platinum wires +hermetically sealed through the glass. + + One great difficulty was the production of the carbon filament. King, + Sawyer, Man and others had attempted to cut out a suitably shaped + piece of carbon from a solid block; but Edison and Swan were the first + to show that the proper solution of the difficulty was to carbonize an + organic substance to which the necessary form had been previously + given. For this purpose cardboard, paper and ordinary thread were + originally employed, and even, according to Edison, a mixture of + lampblack and tar rolled out into a fine wire and bent into a spiral. + At one time Edison employed a filament of bamboo, carbonized after + being bent into a horse-shoe shape. Swan used a material formed by + treating ordinary crochet cotton-thread with dilute sulphuric acid, + the "parchmentized thread" thus produced being afterwards carbonized. + In the modern incandescent lamp the filament is generally constructed + by preparing first of all a form of soluble cellulose. Carefully + purified cotton-wool is dissolved in some solvent, such as a solution + of zinc chloride, and the viscous material so formed is forced by + hydraulic pressure through a die. The long thread thus obtained, when + hardened, is a semi-transparent substance resembling cat-gut, and when + carefully carbonized at a high temperature gives a very dense and + elastic form of carbon filament. It is cut into appropriate lengths, + which after being bent into horse-shoes, double-loops, or any other + shape desired, are tied or folded round carbon formers and immersed in + plumbago crucibles, packed in with finely divided plumbago. The + crucibles are then heated to a high temperature in an ordinary + combustion or electric furnace, whereby the organic matter is + destroyed, and a skeleton of carbon remains. The higher the + temperature at which this carbonization is conducted, the denser is + the resulting product. The filaments so prepared are sorted and + measured, and short leading-in wires of platinum are attached to their + ends by a carbon cement or by a carbon depositing process, carried out + by heating electrically the junction of the carbon and platinum under + the surface of a hydrocarbon liquid. They are then mounted in bulbs + of lead glass having the same coefficient of expansion as platinum, + through the walls of which, therefore, the platinum wires can be + hermetically sealed. The bulbs pass into the exhausting-room, where + they are exhausted by some form of mechanical or mercury pump. During + this process an electric current is sent through the filament to heat + it, in order to disengage the gases occluded in the carbon, and + exhaustion must be so perfect that no luminous glow appears within the + bulb when held in the hand and touched against one terminal of an + induction coil in operation. + + In the course of manufacture a process is generally applied to the + carbon which is technically termed "treating." The carbon filament is + placed in a vessel surrounded by an atmosphere of hydrocarbon, such as + coal gas or vapour of benzol. If current is then passed through the + filament the hydrocarbon vapour is decomposed, and carbon is thrown + down upon the filament in the form of a lustrous and dense deposit + having an appearance like steel when seen under the microscope. This + deposited carbon is not only much more dense than ordinary carbonized + organic material, but it has a much lower specific electric + resistance. An untreated carbon filament is generally termed the + primary carbon, and a deposited carbon the secondary carbon. In the + process of treating, the greatest amount of deposit is at any places + of high resistance in the primary carbon, and hence it tends to cover + up or remedy the defects which may exist. The bright steely surface of + a well-treated filament is a worse radiator than the rougher black + surface of an untreated one; hence it does not require the expenditure + of so much electric power to bring it to the same temperature, and + probably on account of its greater density it ages much less rapidly. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Incandescent Lamp Sockets.] + + Finally, the lamp is provided with a collar having two sole plates on + it, to which the terminal wires are attached, or else the terminal + wires are simply bent into two loops; in a third form, the Edison + screw terminal, it is provided with a central metal plate, to which + one end of the filament is connected, the other end being joined to a + screw collar. The collars and screws are formed of thin brass embedded + in plaster of Paris, or in some material like vitrite or black glass + (fig. 15). To put the lamp into connexion with the circuit supplying + the current, it has to be fitted into a socket or holder. Three of the + principal types of holder in use are the bottom contact (B.C.) or + Dornfeld socket, the Edison screw-collar socket and the Swan or loop + socket. In the socket of C. Dornfeld (fig. 16, a and a´) two spring + pistons, in contact with the two sides of the circuit, are fitted into + the bottom of a short metallic tube having bayonet joint slots cut in + the top. The brass collar on the lamp has two pins, by means of which + a bayonet connexion is made between it and the socket; and when this + is done, the spring pins are pressed against the sole plates on the + lamp. In the Edison socket (fig. 16, b) a short metal tube with an + insulating lining has on its interior a screw sleeve, which is in + connexion with one wire of the circuit; at the bottom of the tube, and + insulated from the screw sleeve, is a central metal button, which is + in connexion with the other side of the circuit. On screwing the lamp + into the socket, the screw collar of the lamp and the boss or plate at + the base of the lamp make contact with the corresponding parts of the + socket, and complete the connexion. In some cases a form of switch is + included in the socket, which is then termed the key-holder. For loop + lamps the socket consists of an insulated block, having on it two + little hooks, which engage with the eyes of the lamp. This insulating + block also carries some form of spiral spring or pair of spring loops, + by means of which the lamp is pressed away from the socket, and the + eyes kept tight by the hooks. This spring or Swan socket (fig. 16, c) + is found useful in places where the lamps are subject to vibration, + for in such cases the Edison screw collar cannot well be used, because + the vibration loosens the contact of the lamp in the socket. The + sockets may be fitted with appliances for holding ornamental shades or + conical reflectors. + + The incandescent filament being a very brilliant line of light, + various devices are adopted for moderating its brilliancy and + distributing the light. A simple method is to sand-blast the exterior + of the bulb, whereby it acquires an appearance similar to that of + ground glass, or the bare lamp may be enclosed in a suitable glass + shade. Such shades, however, if made of opalescent or semi-opaque + glass, absorb 40 to 60% of the light; hence various forms of dioptric + shade have been invented, consisting of clear glass ruled with + prismatic grooves in such a manner as to diffuse the light without any + very great absorption. Invention has been fertile in devising etched, + coloured, opalescent, frosted and ornamental shades for decorative + purposes, and in constructing special forms for use in situations, + such as mines and factories for explosives, where the globe containing + the lamp must be air-tight. High candle-power lamps, 500, 1000 and + upwards, are made by placing in one large glass bulb a number of + carbon filaments arranged in parallel between two rings, which are + connected with the main leading-in wires. When incandescent lamps are + used for optical purposes it is necessary to compress the filament + into a small space, so as to bring it into the focus of a lens or + mirror. The filament is then coiled or crumpled up into a spiral or + zigzag form. Such lamps are called _focus lamps_. + + + Classification of lamps. + +Incandescent lamps are technically divided into high and low voltage +lamps, high and low efficiency lamps, standard and fancy lamps. The +difference between high and low efficiency lamps is based upon the +relation of the power absorbed by the lamp to the candle-power emitted. +Every lamp when manufactured is marked with a certain figure, called the +_marked volts_. This is understood to be the electromotive force in +volts which must be applied to the lamp terminals to produce through the +filament a current of such magnitude that the lamp will have a +practically satisfactory life, and give in a horizontal direction a +certain candle-power, which is also marked upon the glass. The numerical +product of the current in amperes passing through the lamp, and the +difference in potential of the terminals measured in volts, gives the +total power taken up by the lamp in watts; and this number divided by +the candle-power of the lamp (taking generally a horizontal direction) +gives the _watts per candle-power_. This is an important figure, because +it is determined by the temperature; it therefore determines the quality +of the light emitted by the lamp, and also fixes the average duration of +the filament when rendered incandescent by a current. Even in a good +vacuum the filament is not permanent. Apart altogether from accidental +defects, the carbon is slowly volatilized, and carbon molecules are also +projected in straight lines from different portions of the filament. +This process not only causes a change in the nature of the surface of +the filament, but also a deposit of carbon on the interior of the bulb, +whereby the glass is blackened and the candle-power of the lamp reduced. +The volatilization increases very rapidly as the temperature rises. +Hence at points of high resistance in the filament, more heat being +generated, a higher temperature is attained, and the scattering of the +carbon becomes very rapid; in such cases the filament is sooner or later +cut through at the point of high resistance. In order that incandescent +lighting may be practically possible, it is essential that the lamps +shall have a certain _average life_, that is, duration; and this useful +duration is fixed not merely by the possibility of passing a current +through the lamp at all, but by the rate at which the candle-power +diminishes. The decay of candle-power is called the _ageing_ of the +lamp, and the useful life of the lamp may be said to be that period of +its existence before it has deteriorated to a point when it gives only +75% of its original candle-power. It is found that in practice carbon +filament lamps, as at present made, if worked at a higher efficiency +than 2½ watts per candle-power, exhibit a rapid deterioration in +candle-power and an abbreviated life. Hence lamp manufacturers classify +lamps into various classes, marked for use say at 2½, 3, 3½ and 4 watts +per candle. A 2½ watt per candle lamp would be called a _high-efficiency +lamp_, and a 4 watt per candle lamp would be called a _low-efficiency_ +lamp. In ordinary circumstances the low-efficiency lamp would probably +have a longer life, but its light would be less suitable for many +purposes of illumination in which colour discrimination is required. + +The possibility of employing high-efficiency lamps depends greatly on +the uniformity of the electric pressure of the supply. If the voltage is +exceedingly uniform, then high-efficiency lamps can be satisfactorily +employed; but they are not adapted for standing the variations in +pressure which are liable to occur with public supply-stations, since, +other things being equal, their filaments are less substantial. The +classification into high and low voltage lamps is based upon the watts +per candle-power corresponding to the marked volts. When incandescent +lamps were first introduced, the ordinary working voltage was 50 or 100, +but now a large number of public supply-stations furnish current to +consumers at a pressure of 200 or 250 volts. This increase was +necessitated by the enlarging area of supply in towns, and therefore the +necessity for conveying through the same subterranean copper cables a +large supply of electric energy without increasing the maximum current +value and the size of the cables. This can only be done by employing a +higher working electromotive force; hence arose a demand for +incandescent lamps having marked volts of 200 and upwards, technically +termed high-voltage lamps. The employment of higher pressures in public +supply-stations has necessitated greater care in the selection of the +lamp fittings, and in the manner of carrying out the wiring work. The +advantages, however, of higher supply pressures, from the point of view +of supply-stations, are undoubted. At the same time the consumer desired +a lamp of a higher efficiency than the ordinary carbon filament lamp. +The demand for this stimulated efforts to produce improved carbon lamps, +and it was found that if the filament were exposed to a very high +temperature, 3000° C. in an electric furnace, it became more refractory +and was capable of burning in a lamp at an efficiency of 2½ watts per +c.p. Inventors also turned their attention to substances other than +carbon which can be rendered incandescent by the electric current. + + + Oxide filaments. + +The luminous efficiency of any source of light, that is to say, the +percentage of rays emitted which affect the eye as light compared with +the total radiation, is dependent upon its temperature. In an ordinary +oil lamp the luminous rays do not form much more than 3% of the total +radiation. In the carbon-filament incandescent lamp, when worked at +about 3 watts per candle, the luminous efficiency is about 5%; and in +the arc lamp the radiation from the crater contains about 10 to 15% of +eye-affecting radiation. The temperature of a carbon filament working at +about 3 watts per candle is not far from the melting-point of platinum, +that is to say, is nearly 1775° C. If it is worked at a higher +efficiency, say 2.5 watts per candle-power, the temperature rises +rapidly, and at the same time the volatilization and molecular +scattering of the carbon is rapidly increased, so that the average +duration of the lamp is very much shortened. An improvement, therefore, +in the efficiency of the incandescent lamp can only be obtained by +finding some substance which will endure heating to a higher temperature +than the carbon filament. Inventors turned their attention many years +ago, with this aim, to the refractory oxides and similar substances. +Paul Jablochkoff in 1877 described and made a lamp consisting of a piece +of kaolin, which was brought to a state of incandescence first by +passing over it an electric spark, and afterwards maintained in a state +of incandescence by a current of lower electromotive force. Lane Fox and +Edison, in 1878, proposed to employ platinum wires covered with films of +lime, magnesia, steatite, or with the rarer oxides, zirconia, thoria, +&c.; and Lane Fox, in 1879, suggested as an incandescent substance a +mixture of particles of carbon with the earthy oxides. These earthy +oxides--magnesia, lime and the oxides of the rare earths, such as +thoria, zirconia, erbia, yttria, &c.--possess the peculiarity that at +ordinary temperatures they are practically non-conductors, but at very +high temperatures their resistance at a certain point rapidly falls, and +they become fairly good conductors. Hence if they can once be brought +into a state of incandescence a current can pass through them and +maintain them in that state. But at this temperature they give up oxygen +to carbon; hence no mixtures of earthy oxides with carbon are permanent +when heated, and failure has attended all attempts to use a carbon +filament covered with such substances as thoria, zirconia or other of +the rare oxides. + + + Nernst lamp. + +H. W. Nernst in 1897, however, patented an incandescent lamp in which +the incandescent body consists entirely of a slender rod or filament of +magnesia. If such a rod is heated by the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe to a high +temperature it becomes conductive, and can then be maintained in an +intensely luminous condition by passing a current through it after the +flame is withdrawn. Nernst found that by mixing together, in suitable +proportions, oxides of the rare earths, he was able to prepare a +material which can be formed into slender rods and threads, and which is +rendered sufficiently conductive to pass a current with an electromotive +force as low as 100 volts, merely by being heated for a few moments with +a spirit lamp, or even by the radiation from a neighbouring platinum +spiral brought to a state of incandescence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Nernst Lamp A Type.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Nernst Lamp, Burners for B Type. a, low +voltage; b, high voltage.] + + The Nernst lamp, therefore (fig. 17), consists of a slender rod of the + mixed oxides attached to platinum wires by an oxide paste. Oxide + filaments of this description are not enclosed in an exhausted glass + vessel, and they can be brought, without risk of destruction, to a + temperature considerably higher than a carbon filament; hence the lamp + has a higher luminous efficiency. The material now used for the oxide + rod or "glower" of Nernst lamps is a mixture of zirconia and yttria, + made into a paste and squirted or pressed into slender rods. This + material is non-conductive when cold, but when slightly heated it + becomes conductive and then falls considerably in resistance. The + glower, which is straight in some types of the lamp but curved in + others, is generally about 3 or 4 cm. long and 1 or 2 mm. in diameter. + It is held in suitable terminals, and close to it, or round it, but + not touching it, is a loose coil of platinum wire, also covered with + oxide and called the "heater" (fig. 18). In series with it is a spiral + of iron wire, enclosed in a bulb full of hydrogen, which is called the + "ballast resistance." The socket also contains a switch controlled by + an electromagnet. When the current is first switched on it passes + through the heater coil which, becoming incandescent, by radiation + heats the glower until it becomes conductive. The glower then takes + current, becoming itself brilliantly incandescent, and the + electromagnet becoming energized switches the heater coil out of + circuit. The iron ballast wire increases in resistance with increase + of current, and so operates to keep the total current through the + glower constant in spite of small variations of circuit voltage. The + disadvantages of the lamp are (1) that it does not light immediately + after the current is switched on and is therefore not convenient for + domestic use; (2) that it cannot be made in small light units such as + 5 c.p.; (3) that the socket and fixture are large and more complicated + than for the carbon filament lamp. But owing to the higher + temperature, the light is whiter than that of the carbon glow lamp, + and the efficiency or candle power per watt is greater. Since, + however, the lamp must be included in an opal globe, some considerable + part of this last advantage is lost. On the whole the lamp has found + its field of operation rather in external than in domestic lighting. + + + Metallic filament lamps. + +Great efforts were made in the latter part of the 19th century and the +first decade of the 20th to find a material for the filament of an +incandescent lamp which could replace carbon and yet not require a +preliminary heating like the oxide glowers. This resulted in the +production of refractory metallic filament lamps made of osmium, +tantalum, tungsten and other rare metals. Auer von Welsbach suggested +the use of osmium. This metal cannot be drawn into wire on account of +its brittleness, but it can be made into a filament by mixing the finely +divided metal with an organic binding material which is carbonized in +the usual way at a high temperature, the osmium particles then cohering. +The difficulty has hitherto been to construct in this way metallic +filament lamps of low candle power (16 c.p.) for 220 volt circuits, but +this is being overcome. When used on modern supply circuits of 220 volts +a number of lamps may be run in series, or a step-down transformer +employed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Tantalum Lamp.] + +The next great improvement came when W. von Bolton produced the tantalum +lamp in 1904. There are certain metals known to have a melting point +about 2000° C. or upwards, and of these tantalum is one. It can be +produced from the potassium tantalo-fluoride in a pulverulent form. By +carefully melting it _in vacuo_ it can then be converted into the +reguline form and drawn into wire. In this condition it has a density of +16.6 (water = 1), is harder than platinum and has greater tensile +strength than steel, viz. 95 kilograms per sq. mm., the value for good +steel being 70 to 80 kilograms per sq. mm. The electrical resistance at +15° C. is 0.146 ohms per metre with section of 1 sq. mm. after annealing +at 1900° C. _in vacuo_ and therefore about 6 times that of mercury; the +temperature coefficient is 0.3 per degree C. At the temperature assumed +in an incandescent lamp when working at 1.5 watts per c.p. the +resistance is 0.830 ohms per metre with a section of 1 sq. mm. The +specific heat is 0.0365. Bolton invented methods of producing tantalum +in the form of a long fine wire 0.05 mm. in diameter. To make a 25 c.p. +lamp 650 mm., or about 2 ft., of this wire are wound backwards and +forwards zigzag on metallic supports carried on a glass frame, which is +sealed into an exhausted glass bulb. The tantalum lamp so made (fig. +19), working on a 110 volt circuit takes 0.36 amperes or 39 watts, and +hence has an efficiency of about 1.6 watts per c.p. The useful life, +that is the time in which it loses 20% of its initial candle power, is +about 400-500 hours, but in general a life of 800-1000 hours can be +obtained. The bulb blackens little in use, but the life is said to be +shorter with alternating than with direct current. When worked on +alternating current circuits the filament after a time breaks up into +sections which become curiously sheared with respect to each other but +still maintain electrical contact. The resistance of tantalum increases +with the temperature; hence the temperature coefficient is positive, and +sudden rises in working voltage do not cause such variations in +candle-power as in the case of the carbon lamp. + +Patents have also been taken out for lamps made with filaments of such +infusible metals as tungsten and molybdenum, and Siemens and Halske, +Sanders and others, have protected methods for employing zirconium and +other rare metals. According to the patents of Sanders (German patents +Nos. 133701, 137568, 137569) zirconium filaments are manufactured from +the hydrogen or nitrogen compounds of the rare earths by the aid of some +organic binding material. H. Kuzel of Vienna (British Patent No. 28154 +of 1904) described methods of making metallic filaments from any metal. +He employs the metals in a colloidal condition, either as hydrosol, +organosol, gel, or colloidal suspension. The metals are thus obtained in +a gelatinous form, and can be squirted into filaments which are dried +and reduced to the metallic form by passing an electric current through +them (_Electrician_, 57, 894). This process has a wide field of +application, and enables the most refractory and infusible metals to be +obtained in a metallic wire form. The zirconium and tungsten wire lamps +are equal to or surpass the tantalum lamp in efficiency and are capable +of giving light, with a useful commercial life, at an efficiency of +about one watt per candle. Lamps called osram lamps, with filaments +composed of an alloy of osmium and tungsten (wolfram), can be used with +a life of 1000 hours when run at an efficiency of about 1.5 watts per +candle. + +Tungsten lamps are made by the processes of Just and Hanaman (German +patent No. 154262 of 1903) and of Kuzel, and at a useful life of 1000 +hours, with a falling off in light-giving power of only 10-15%, they +have been found to work at an efficiency of one to 1.25 watts per c.p. +Further collected information on modern metallic wire lamps and the +patent literature thereof will be found in an article in the _Engineer_ +for December 7, 1906. + +Mention should also be made of the Helion filament glow lamp in which +the glower is composed largely of silicon, a carbon filament being used +as a base. This filament is said to have a number of interesting +qualities and an efficiency of about 1 watt per candle (see the +_Electrician_, 1907, 58, p. 567). + + + Mercury vapour lamps. + +The mercury vapour lamps of P. Cooper-Hewitt, C. O. Bastian and others +have a certain field of usefulness. If a glass tube, highly exhausted, +contains mercury vapour and a mercury cathode and iron anode, a current +can be passed through it under high electromotive force and will then be +maintained when the voltage is reduced. The mercury vapour is rendered +incandescent and glows with a brilliant greenish light which is highly +actinic, but practically monochromatic, and is therefore not suitable +for general illumination because it does not reveal objects in their +daylight colours. It is, however, an exceedingly economical source of +light. A 3-ampere Cooper-Hewitt mercury lamp has an efficiency of 0.15 +to 0.33 watts per candle, or practically the same as an arc lamp, and +will burn for several thousand hours. A similar lamp with mercury vapour +included in a tube of _uviol_ glass specially transparent to +ultra-violet light (prepared by Schott & Co. of Jena) seems likely to +replace the Finsen arc lamp in the treatment of lupus. Many attempts +have been made to render the mercury vapour lamp polychromatic by the +use of amalgams of zinc, sodium and bismuth in place of pure mercury for +the negative electrode. + + + Photometry of glow lamps. + +An important matter in connexion with glow lamps is their photometry. +The arrangement most suitable for the photometry and testing of +incandescent lamps is a gallery or room large enough to be occupied by +several workers, the walls being painted dead black. The photometer, +preferably one of the Lummer-Brodhun form, is set up on a gallery or +bench. On one side of it must be fixed a working standard, which as +first suggested by Fleming is preferably a large bulb incandescent lamp +with a specially "aged" filament. Its candle-power can be compared, at +regular intervals and known voltages, with that of some accepted flame +standard, such as the 10 candle pentane lamp of Vernon Harcourt. In a +lamp factory or electrical laboratory it is convenient to have a number +of such large bulb standard lamps. This working standard should be +maintained at a fixed distance on one side of the photometer, such that +when worked at a standard voltage it creates an illumination of one +candle-foot on one side of the photometer disk. The incandescent lamp to +be examined is then placed on the other side of the photometer disk on a +travelling carriage, so that it can be moved to and fro. Arrangements +must be made to measure the current and the voltage of this lamp under +test, and this is most accurately accomplished by employing a +potentiometer (q.v.). The holder which carries the lamp should allow the +lamp to be held with its axis in any required position; in making normal +measurements the lamp should have its axis vertical, the filament being +so situated that none of the turns or loops overlies another as seen +from the photometer disk. Observations can then be made of the +candle-power corresponding to different currents and voltages. + + The candle-power of the lamp varies with the other variables in + accordance with exponential laws of the following kind:-- + + If A is the current in amperes through the lamp, V the voltage or + terminal potential difference, W the power absorbed in watts, _c.p._ + the maximum candle-power, and a, b, c, &c., constants, it has been + found that A and _c.p._ are connected by an exponential law such that + + c.p. = aA^x + + For carbon filament lamps x is a number lying between 5 and 6, + generally equal to 5.5 or 5.6. Also it has been found that c.p. = bW³ + very nearly, and that + + c.p. = cV^y nearly + + where c is some other constant, and for carbon filaments y is a number + nearly equal to 6. It is obvious that if the candle-power of the lamp + varies very nearly as the 6th power of the current and of the voltage, + the candle-power must vary as the cube of the wattage. + + Sir W. de W. Abney and E. R. Festing have also given a formula + connecting candle-power and watts equivalent to c.p. = (W - d)² where + d is a constant. + + In the case of the tantalum lamp the exponent x has a value near to 6, + but the exponent y is a number near to 4, and the same for the osmium + filament. Hence for these metallic glowers a certain percentage + variation of voltage does not create so great a variation in + candle-power as in the case of the carbon lamp. + + Curves delineating the relation of these variables for any + incandescent lamp are called its _characteristic-curves_. The life or + average duration is a function of W/c.p., or of the _watts per + candle-power_, and therefore of the voltage at which the lamp is + worked. It follows from the above relation that the watts per + candle-power vary inversely as the fourth power of the voltage. + + From limited observations it seems that the average life of a + carbon-filament lamp varies as the fifth or sixth power of the watts + per candle-power. If V is the voltage at which the lamp is worked and + L is its average life, then L varies roughly as the twenty-fifth power + of the reciprocal of the voltage, or + + L = aV^(-25). + + A closer approximation to experience is given by the formula + + V V² + log10L = 13.5 - -- - ------. + 10 20,000 + + (See J. A. Fleming, "Characteristic Curves of Incandescent Lamps," + _Phil. Mag._ May 1885). + + + Ageing of lamps. + +All forms of incandescent or glow lamps are found to deteriorate in +light-giving power with use. In the case of carbon filaments this is due +to two causes. As already explained, carbon is scattered from the +filament and deposited upon the glass, and changes also take place in +the filament which cause it to become reduced in temperature, even when +subjected to the same terminal voltage. In many lamps it is found that +the first effect of running the lamp is slightly to increase its +candle-power, even although the voltage be kept constant; this is the +result of a small decrease in the resistance of the filament. The +heating to which it is subjected slightly increases the density of the +carbon at the outset; this has the effect of making the filament lower +in resistance, and therefore it takes more current at a constant +voltage. The greater part, however, of the subsequent decay in +candle-power is due to the deposit of carbon upon the bulb, as shown by +the fact that if the filament is taken out of the bulb and put into a +new clean bulb the candle-power in the majority of cases returns to its +original value. For every lamp there is a certain point in its career +which may be called the "smashing-point," when the candle-power falls +below a certain percentage of the original value, and when it is +advantageous to replace it by a new one. Variations of pressure in the +electric supply exercise a prejudicial effect upon the light-giving +qualities of incandescent lamps. If glow lamps, nominally of 100 volts, +are supplied from a public lighting-station, in the mains of which the +pressure varies between 90 and 110 volts, their life will be greatly +abbreviated, and they will become blackened much sooner than would be +the case if the pressure were perfectly constant. Since the candle-power +of the lamp varies very nearly as the fifth or sixth power of the +voltage, it follows that a variation of 10% in the electromotive force +creates a variation of nearly 50% in the candle-power. Thus a 16 +candle-power glow lamp, marked for use at 100 volts, was found on test +to give the following candle-powers at voltages varying between 90 and +105: At 105 volts it gave 22.8 c.p.; at 100 volts, 16.7 c.p.; at 95 +volts, 12.2 c.p.; and at 90 volts, 8.7 c.p. Thus a variation of 25% in +the candle-power was caused by a variation in voltage of only 5%. The +same kind of variation in working voltage exercises also a marked effect +upon the average duration of the lamp. The following figures show the +results of some tests on typical 3.1 watt lamps run at voltages above +the normal, taking the average life when worked at the marked volts +(namely, 100) as 1000 hours: + + At 101 volts the life was 818 hours. + " 102 " " 681 " + " 103 " " 662 " + " 104 " " 452 " + " 105 " " 374 " + " 106 " " 310 " + + + Voltage regulators. + +Self-acting regulators have been devised by which the voltage at the +points of consumption is kept constant, even although it varies at the +point of generation. If, however, such a device is to be effective, it +must operate very quickly, as even the momentary effect of increased +pressure is felt by the lamp. It is only therefore where the working +pressure can be kept exceedingly constant that high-efficiency lamps can +be advantageously employed, otherwise the cost of lamp renewals more +than counterbalances the economy in the cost of power. The slow changes +that occur in the resistance of the filament make themselves evident by +an increase in the watts per candle-power. The following table shows +some typical figures indicating the results of ageing in a 16 +candle-power carbon-filament glow lamp:-- + + +----------+-------------+-------------+ + |Hours run.|Candle-Power.| Watts per | + | | |Candle-Power.| + +----------+-------------+-------------+ + | 0 | 16.0 | 3.16 | + | 100 | 15.8 | 3.26 | + | 200 | 15.86 | 3.13 | + | 300 | 15.68 | 3.37 | + | 400 | 15.41 | 3.53 | + | 500 | 15.17 | 3.51 | + | 600 | 14.96 | 3.54 | + | 700 | 14.74 | 3.74 | + +----------+-------------+-------------+ + +The gradual increase in watts per candle-power shown by this table does +not imply necessarily an increase in the total power taken by the lamp, +but is the consequence of the decay in candle-power produced by the +blackening of the lamp. Therefore, to estimate the value of an +incandescent lamp the user must take into account not merely the price +of the lamp and the initial watts per candle-power, but the rate of +decay of the lamp. + + + Edison effect. + +The scattering of carbon from the filament to the glass bulb produces +interesting physical effects, which have been studied by T. A. Edison, +W. H. Preece and J. A. Fleming. If into an ordinary carbon-filament glow +lamp a platinum plate is sealed, not connected to the filament but +attached to a third terminal, then it is found that when the lamp is +worked with continuous current a galvanometer connected in between the +middle plate and the positive terminal of the lamp indicates a current, +but not when connected in between the negative terminal of the lamp and +the middle plate. If the middle plate is placed between the legs of a +horse-shoe-shaped filament, it becomes blackened most quickly on the +side facing the negative leg. This effect, commonly called the _Edison +effect_, is connected with an electric discharge and convection of +carbon which takes place between the two extreme ends of the filament, +and, as experiment seems to show, consists in the conveyance of an +electric charge, either by carbon molecules or by bodies smaller than +molecules. There is, however, an electric discharge between the ends of +the filament, which rapidly increases with the temperature of the +filament and the terminal voltage; hence one of the difficulties of +manufacturing high-voltage glow lamps, that is to say, glow lamps for +use on circuits having an electromotive force of 200 volts and upwards, +is the discharge from one leg of the filament to the other. + + + Domestic use. + +A brief allusion may be made to the mode of use of incandescent lamps +for interior and private lighting. At the present time hardly any other +method of distribution is adopted than that of an arrangement _in +parallel_; that is to say, each lamp on the circuit has one terminal +connected to a wire which finally terminates at one pole of the +generator, and its other terminal connected to a wire leading to the +other pole. The lamp filaments are thus arranged between the conductors +like the rungs of a ladder. In series with each lamp is placed a switch +and a fuse or cut-out. The lamps themselves are attached to some variety +of ornamental fitting, or in many cases suspended by a simple pendant, +consisting of an insulated double flexible wire attached at its upper +end to a ceiling rose, and carrying at the lower end a shade and socket +in which the lamp is placed. Lamps thus hung head downwards are +disadvantageously used because their _end-on candle-power_ is not +generally more than 60% of their maximum candle-power. In interior +lighting one of the great objects to be attained is uniformity of +illumination with avoidance of harsh shadows. This can only be achieved +by a proper distribution of the lamps. It is impossible to give any hard +and fast rules as to what number must be employed in the illumination of +any room, as a great deal depends upon the nature of the reflecting +surfaces, such as the walls, ceilings, &c. As a rough guide, it may be +stated that for every 100 sq. ft. of floor surface one 16 candle-power +lamp placed about 8 ft. above the floor will give a dull illumination, +two will give a good illumination and four will give a brilliant +illumination. We generally judge of the nature of the illumination in a +room by our ability to read comfortably in any position. That this may +be done, the horizontal illumination on the book should not be less than +one candle-foot. The following table shows approximately the +illuminations in candle-feet, in various situations, derived from actual +experiments:-- + + In a well-lighted room on the floor or tables 1.0 to 3.0 c.f. + On a theatre stage 3.0 to 4.0 c.f. + On a railway platform .05 to .5 c.f. + In a picture gallery .65 to 3.5 c.f. + The mean daylight in May in the interior + of a room 30.0 to 40.0 c.f. + In full sunlight 7000 to 10,000 c.f. + In full moonlight 1/60th to 1/100th c.f. + +From an artistic point of view, one of the worst methods of lighting a +room is by pendant lamps, collected in single centres in large numbers. +The lights ought to be distributed in different portions of the room, +and so shaded that the light is received only by reflection from +surrounding objects. Ornamental effects are frequently produced by means +of candle lamps in which a small incandescent lamp, imitating the flame +of a candle, is placed upon a white porcelain tube as a holder, and +these small units are distributed and arranged in electroliers and +brackets. For details as to the various modes of placing conducting +wires in houses, and the various precautions for safe usage, the reader +is referred to the article ELECTRICITY SUPPLY. In the case of low +voltage metallic filament lamps when the supply is by alternating +current there is no difficulty in reducing the service voltage to any +lower value by means of a transformer. In the case of direct current the +only method available for working such low voltage lamps off higher +supply voltages is to arrange the lamps in series. + + Additional information on the subjects treated above may be found in + the following books and original papers:-- + + Mrs Ayrton, _The Electric Arc_ (London, 1900); Houston and Kennelly, + _Electric Arc Lighting and Electric Incandescent Lighting_; S. P. + Thompson, _The Arc Light_, Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts (1895); H. + Nakano, "The Efficiency of the Arc Lamp," _Proc. American Inst. Elec. + Eng._ (1889); A. Blondel, "Public and Street Lighting by Arc Lamps," + _Electrician_, vols. xxxv. and xxxvi. (1895); T. Heskett, "Notes on + the Electric Arc," _Electrician_, vol. xxxix. (1897); G. S. Ram, _The + Incandescent Lamp and its Manufacture_ (London, 1895); J. A. Fleming, + _Electric Lamps and Electric Lighting_ (London, 1899); J. A. Fleming, + "The Photometry of Electric Lamps," _Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng._ (1903), + 32, p. 1 (in this paper a copious bibliography of the subject of + photometry is given); J. Dredge, _Electric Illumination_ (2 vols., + London, 1882, 1885); A. P. Trotter, "The Distribution and Measurement + of Illumination," _Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. cx. (1892); E. L. Nichols, + "The Efficiency of Methods of Artificial Illumination," _Trans. + American Inst. Elec. Eng._ vol. vi. (1889); Sir W. de W. Abney, + _Photometry_, Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts (1894); A. Blondel, + "Photometric Magnitudes and Units," _Electrician_ (1894); J. E. + Petavel, "An Experimental Research on some Standards of Light," _Proc. + Roy. Soc._ lxv. 469 (1899); F. Jehl, _Carbon-Making for all Electrical + Purposes_ (London, 1906); G. B. Dyke, "On the Practical Determination + of the Mean Spherical Candle Power of Incandescent and Arc Lamps," + _Phil. Mag._ (1905); the _Preliminary Report of the Sub-Committee of + the American Institute of Electrical Engineers_ on "Standards of + Light"; Clifford C. Paterson, "Investigations on Light Standards and + the Present Condition of the High Voltage Glow Lamp," _Jour. Inst. + Elec. Eng._ (January 24, 1907); J. Swinburne, "New Incandescent + Lamps," _Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng._ (1907); L. Andrews, "Long Flame Arc + Lamps," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1906); W. von Bolton and O. Feuerlein, + "The Tantalum Lamp," _The Electrician_ (Jan. 27, 1905). Also the + current issues of _The Illuminating Engineer_. (J. A. F.) + + + Methods of charging. + +_Commercial Aspects._--The cost of supplying electricity depends more +upon the rate of supply than upon the quantity supplied; or, as John +Hopkinson put it, "the cost of supplying electricity for 1000 lamps for +ten hours is very much less than ten times the cost of supplying the +same number of lamps for one hour." Efforts have therefore been made to +devise a system of charge which shall in each case bear some relation to +the cost of the service. Consumers vary largely both in respect to the +quantity and to the period of their demands, but the cost of supplying +any one of them with a given amount of electricity is chiefly governed +by the amount of his maximum demand at any one time. The reason for this +is that it is not generally found expedient to store electricity in +large quantities. Electricity supply works generate the electricity for +the most part at the moment it is used by the consumer. Electric lamps +are normally in use on an average for only about four hours per day, and +therefore the plant and organization, if employed for a lighting load +only, are idle and unremunerative for about 20 hours out of the 24. It +is necessary to have in readiness machinery capable of supplying the +maximum possible requirements of all the consumers at any hour, and this +accounts for a very large proportion of the total cost. The cost of raw +material, viz. coal, water and stores consumed in the generation of +electricity sold, forms relatively only a small part of the total cost, +the major part of which is made up of the fixed charges attributable to +the time during which the works are unproductive. This makes it very +desirable to secure demands possessing high "load" and "diversity" +factors. The correct way to charge for electricity is to give liberal +rebates to those consumers who make prolonged and regular use of the +plant, that is to say, the lower the "peak" demand and the more +continuous the consumption, the better should be the discount. The +consumer must be discouraged from making sudden large demands on the +plant, and must be encouraged, while not reducing his total consumption, +to spread his use of the plant over a large number of hours during the +year. Mr Arthur Wright has devised a tariff which gives effect to this +principle. The system necessitates the use of a special indicator--not +to measure the quantity of electricity consumed, which is done by the +ordinary meter--but to show the maximum amount of current taken by the +consumer at any one time during the period for which he is to be +charged. In effect it shows the proportion of plant which has had to be +kept on hand for his use. If the indicator shows that say twenty lamps +is the greatest number which the consumer has turned on simultaneously, +then he gets a large discount on all the current which his ordinary +meter shows that he has taken beyond the equivalent of one hour's daily +use of those twenty lamps. Generally the rate charged under this system +is 7d. per unit for the equivalent of one hour's daily use of the +maximum demand and 1d. per unit for all surplus. It is on this principle +that it pays to supply current for tramway and other purposes at a price +which primâ facie is below the cost of production; it is only apparently +so in comparison with the cost of producing electricity for lighting +purposes. In the case of tramways the electricity is required for 15 or +16 hours per day. Electricity for a single lamp would cost on the basis +of this "maximum-demand-indicator" system for 15 hours per day only +1.86d. per unit. In some cases a system of further discounts to very +large consumers is combined with the Wright system. Some undertakers +have abandoned the Wright system in favour of average flat rates, but +this does not imply any failure of the Wright system; on the contrary, +the system, having served to establish the most economical consumption +of electricity, has demonstrated the average rate at which the +undertakers are able to give the supply at a fair profit, and the +proportion of possible new customers being small the undertakers find it +a simplification to dispense with the maximum demand indicator. But in +some cases a mistake has been made by offering the unprofitable +early-closing consumers the option of obtaining electricity at a flat +rate much lower than their load-factor would warrant and below cost +price. The effect of this is to nullify the Wright system of charging, +for a consumer will not elect to pay for his electricity on the Wright +system if he can obtain a lower rate by means of a flat rate system. +Thus the long-hour profitable consumer is made to pay a much higher +price than he need be charged, in order that the unprofitable short-hour +consumer may be retained and be made actually still more unprofitable. +It is not improbable that ultimately the supply will be charged for on +the basis of a rate determined by the size and character of the +consumer's premises, or the number and dimensions of the electrical +points, much in the same way as water is charged for by a water rate +determined by the rent of the consumer's house and the number of water +taps. + + + Wiring of houses. + +Most new houses within an electricity supply area are wired for +electricity during construction, but in several towns means have to be +taken to encourage small shopkeepers and tenants of small houses to use +electricity by removing the obstacle of the first outlay on wiring. The +cost of wiring may be taken at 15s. to £2 per lamp installed including +all necessary wire, switches, fuses, lamps, holders, casing, but not +electroliers or shades. Many undertakers carry out wiring on the easy +payment or hire-purchase system. Parliament has sanctioned the adoption +of these systems by some local authorities and even authorized them to +do the work by direct employment of labour. The usual arrangement is to +make an additional charge of ½d. per unit on all current used, with a +minimum payment of 1s. per 8 c.p. lamp, consumers having the option of +purchasing the installation at any time on specified conditions. The +consumer has to enter into an agreement, and if he is only a tenant the +landlord has to sign a memorandum to the effect that the wiring and +fittings belong to the supply undertakers. Several undertakers have +adopted a system of maintenance and renewal of lamps, and at least one +local authority undertakes to supply consumers with lamps free of +charge. + + + Consumption. + +There is still considerable scope for increasing the business of +electricity supply by judicious advertising and other methods. +Comparisons of the kilowatt hour consumption per capita in various towns +show that where an energetic policy has been pursued the profits have +improved by reason of additional output combined with increased load +factor. The average number of equivalent 8 c.p. lamps connected per +capita in the average of English towns is about 1.2. The average number +of units consumed per capita per annum is about 23, and the average +income per capita per annum is about 5s. In a number of American cities +20s. per capita per annum is obtained. In the United States a +co-operative electrical development association canvasses both the +general public and the electricity supply undertakers. Funds are +provided by the manufacturing companies acting in concert with the +supply authorities and contractors, and the spirit underlying the work +is to advertise the merits of electricity--not any particular company or +interest. Their efforts are directed to securing new consumers and +stimulating the increased and more varied use of electricity among +actual consumers. + +All supply undertakers are anxious to develop the consumption of +electricity for power purposes even more than for lighting, but the +first cost of installing electric motors is a deterrent to the adoption +of electricity in small factories and shops, and most undertakers are +therefore prepared to let out motors, &c., on hire or purchase on +varying terms according to circumstances. + +A board of trade unit will supply one 8 c.p. carbon lamp of 30 hours or +30 such lamps for one hour. In average use an incandescent lamp will +last about 800 hours, which is equal to about 12 months normal use; a +good lamp will frequently last more than double this time before it +breaks down. + +A large number of towns have adopted electricity for street lighting. +Frank Bailey has furnished particulars of photometric tests which he has +made on new and old street lamps in the city of London. From these tests +the following comparative figures are deduced:-- + + Average total Cost + Gas-- per c.p. per annum. + Double burner ordinary low pressure incandescent + (mean of six tests) 11.1d. + Single burner high-pressure gas 9.0 + Double burner high-pressure gas 11.7 + Arc lamp-- + Old type of lantern 8 + Flame arc 5 + +From these tests of candle-power the illumination at a distance of 100 +ft. from the source is estimated as follows:-- + + Candle Ft. Ratio. + Double ordinary incandescent gas lamp + illumination 0.013 = 1.0 + Single high pressure ordinary incandescent + gas lamp illumination 0.016 = 1.24 + Double high pressure ordinary incandescent + gas lamp illumination 0.027 = 2.10 + Ordinary arc lamp 0.060 = 4.50 + Flame arc lamp 0.120 = 9.00 + +The cost of electricity, light for light, is very much less than that of +gas. The following comparative figures relating to street lighting at +Croydon have been issued by the lighting committee of that +corporation:-- + + +----------------------+---------+------------+--------+------------+-------------+ + | Type of Lamp. | Number | Distance | Total |Average c.p.|Cost per c.p.| + | |of Lamps.|apart (yds.)| Cost. | per Mile. | per annum. | + +----------------------+---------+------------+--------+------------+-------------+ + | Incandescent gas | 2,137 | 80 | £7,062 | 839 | 15.86d. | + | Incandescent electric| 90 | 66 | 288 | 1,373 | 13.71 | + | Electric arcs | 428 | 65 | 7,212 | 10,537 | 11.32 | + +----------------------+---------+------------+--------+------------+-------------+ + +Apart from cheaper methods of generation there are two main sources of +economy in electric lighting. One is the improved arrangement and use of +electrical installations, and the other is the employment of lamps of +higher efficiency. As regards the first, increased attention has been +given to the position, candle-power and shading of electric lamps so as +to give the most effective illumination in varying circumstances and to +avoid excess of light. The ease with which electric lamps may be +switched on and off from a distance has lent itself to arrangements +whereby current may be saved by switching off lights not in use and by +controlling the number of lamps required to be alight at one time on an +electrolier. Appreciable economies are brought about by the scientific +disposition of lights and the avoidance of waste in use. As regards the +other source of economy, the Nernst, the tantalum, the osram, and the +metallized carbon filament lamp, although costing more in the first +instance than carbon lamps, have become popular owing to their economy +in current consumption. Where adopted largely they have had a distinct +effect in reducing the rate of increase of output from supply +undertakings, but their use has been generally encouraged as tending +towards the greater popularity of electric light and an ultimately wider +demand. Mercury vapour lamps for indoor and outdoor lighting have also +proved their high efficiency, and the use of flame arc lamps has greatly +increased the cheapness of outdoor electric lighting. + +The existence of a "daylight load" tends to reduce the all-round cost of +generating and distributing electricity. This daylight load is partly +supplied by power for industrial purposes and partly by the demand for +electricity in many domestic operations. The use of electric heating and +cooking apparatus (including radiators, ovens, grills, chafing dishes, +hot plates, kettles, flat-irons, curling irons, &c.) has greatly +developed, and provides a load which extends intermittently throughout +the greater part of the twenty-four hours. Electric fans for home +ventilation are also used, and in the domestic operations where a small +amount of power is required (as in driving sewing machines, boot +cleaners, washing machines, mangles, knife cleaners, "vacuum" cleaners, +&c.) the electric motor is being largely adopted. The trend of affairs +points to a time when the total demand from such domestic sources will +greatly exceed the demand for lighting only. The usual charges for +current to be used in domestic heating or power operations vary from 1d. +to 2d. per unit. As the demand increases the charges will undergo +reduction, and there will also be a reflex action in bringing down the +cost of electricity for lighting owing to the improved load factor +resulting from an increase in the day demand. In the cooking and heating +and motor departments also there has been improvement in the efficiency +of the apparatus, and its economy is enhanced by the fact that current +may be switched on and off as required. + + + Testing meters. + +The Board of Trade are now prepared to receive electric measuring +instruments for examination or testing at their electrical standardizing +laboratory, where they have a battery power admitting of a maximum +current of 7000 amperes to be dealt with. The London county council and +some other corporations are prepared upon requisition to appoint +inspectors to test meters on consumers' premises. + + + Wiring rules. + + All supply undertakers now issue rules and regulations for the + efficient wiring of electric installations. The rules and regulations + issued by the institution of electrical engineers have been accepted + by many local authorities and companies, and also by many of the fire + insurance companies. The Phoenix fire office rules were the first to + be drawn up, and are adopted by many of the fire offices, but some + other leading insurance offices have their own rules under which risks + are accepted without extra premium. In the opinion of the insurance + companies "the electric light is the safest of all illuminants and is + preferable to any others when the installation has been thoroughly + well put up." Regulations have also been issued by the London county + council in regard to theatres, &c., by the national board of fire + underwriters of America (known as the "National Electrical Code"), by + the fire underwriters association of Victoria (Commonwealth of + Australia), by the Calcutta fire insurance agents association and + under the Canadian Electric Light Inspection Act. In Germany rules + have been issued by the Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker and by the + union of private fire insurance companies of Germany, in Switzerland + by the Association Suisse des électriciens, in Austria by the + Elektrotechnischer Verein of Vienna, in France by ministerial decree + and by the syndicat professionel des industries électriques. (For + reprints of these regulations see _Electrical Trades Directory_.) + (E. Ga.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng._ 28, p. 1. The authors of this paper + give numerous instructive curves taken with the oscillograph, showing + the form of the arc P.D. and current curves for a great variety of + alternating-current arcs. + + + + +LIGHTNING, the visible flash that accompanies an electric discharge in +the sky. In certain electrical conditions of the atmosphere a cloud +becomes highly charged by the coalescence of drops of vapour. A large +drop formed by the fusion of many smaller ones contains the same amount +of electricity upon a smaller superficial area, and the electric +potential of each drop, and of the whole cloud, rises. When the cloud +passes near another cloud stratum or near a hilltop, tower or tree, a +discharge takes place from the cloud in the form of lightning. The +discharge sometimes takes place from the earth to the cloud, or from a +lower to a higher stratum, and sometimes from conductors silently. Rain +discharges the electricity quietly to earth, and lightning frequently +ceases with rain (see ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY). + + + + +LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR, or LIGHTNING ROD (Franklin), the name usually given +to apparatus designed to protect buildings or ships from the destructive +effects of lightning (Fr. _paratonnerre_, Ger. _Blitzableiter_). The +upper regions of the atmosphere being at a different electrical +potential from the earth, the thick dense clouds which are the usual +prelude to a thunder storm serve to conduct the electricity of the upper +air down towards the earth, and an electrical discharge takes place +across the air space when the pressure is sufficient. Lightning +discharges were distinguished by Sir Oliver Lodge into two distinct +types--the _A_ and the _B_ flashes. The _A_ flash is of the simple type +which arises when an electrically charged cloud approaches the earth +without an intermediate cloud intervening. In the second type _B_, where +another cloud intervenes between the cloud carrying the primary charge +and the earth, the two clouds practically form a condenser; and when a +discharge from the first takes place into the second the free charge on +the earth side of the lower cloud is suddenly relieved, and the +disruptive discharge from the latter to earth takes such an erratic +course that according to the Lightning Research Committee "no series of +lightning conductors of the hitherto recognized type suffice to protect +the building." In Germany two kinds of lightning stroke have been +recognized, one as "zündenden" (causing fire), analogous to the _B_ +flash, the other as "kalten" (not causing fire), the ordinary _A_ +discharge. The destructive effect of the former was noticed in 1884 by +A. Parnell, who quoted instances of damage due to mechanical force, +which he stated in many cases took place in a more or less upward +direction. + +The object of erecting a number of pointed rods to form a lightning +conductor is to produce a glow or brush discharge and thus neutralize or +relieve the tension of the thunder-cloud. This, if the latter is of the +_A_ type, can be successfully accomplished, but sometimes the lightning +flash takes place so suddenly that it cannot be prevented, however great +the number of points provided, there being such a store of energy in the +descending cloud that they are unable to ward off the shock. A _B_ flash +may ignore the points and strike some metal work in the vicinity; to +avoid damage to the structure this must also be connected to the +conductors. A single air terminal is of no more use than an inscribed +sign-board; besides multiplying the number of points, numerous paths, as +well as interconnexions between the conductors, must be arranged to lead +the discharge to the earth. The system of pipes and gutters on a roof +must be imitated; although a single rain-water pipe would be sufficient +to deal with a summer shower, in practice pipes are used in sufficient +number to carry off the greatest storm. + +_Protected Area._--According to Lodge "there is no space near a rod +which can be definitely styled an area of protection, for it is possible +to receive violent sparks and shocks from the conductor itself, not to +speak of the innumerable secondary discharges that are liable to occur +in the wake of the main flash." The report of the Lightning Research +Committee contains many examples of buildings struck in the so-called +"protected area." + +_Material for Conductors._--Franklin's original rods (1752) were made of +iron, and this metal is still employed throughout the continent of +Europe and in the United States. British architects, who objected to the +unsightliness of the rods, eventually specified copper tape, which is +generally run round the sharp angles of a building in such a manner as +to increase the chances of the lightning being diverted from the +conductor. The popular idea is that to secure the greatest protection a +rod of the largest area should be erected, whereas a single large +conductor is far inferior to a number of smaller ones and copper as a +material is not so suitable for the purpose as iron. A copper rod allows +the discharge to pass too quickly and produces a violent shock, whereas +iron offers more impedance and allows the flash to leak away by damping +down the oscillations. Thus there is less chance of a side flash from an +iron than from a copper conductor. + +_Causes of Failure._--A number of failures of conductors were noticed in +the 1905 report of the Lightning Research Committee. One cause was the +insufficient number of conductors and earth connexions; another was the +absence of any system for connecting the metallic portion of the +buildings to the conductors. In some cases the main stroke was received, +but damage occurred by side-flash to isolated parts of the roof. There +were several examples of large metallic surfaces being charged with +electricity, the greater part of which was safely discharged, but enough +followed unauthorized paths, such as a speaking-tube or electric bell +wires, to cause damage. In one instance a flash struck the building at +two points simultaneously; one portion followed the conductor, but the +other went to earth jumping from a small finial to a greenhouse 30 ft. +below. + +_Construction of Conductors._--The general conclusions of the Lightning +Research Committee agree with the independent reports of similar +investigators in Germany, Hungary and Holland. The following is a +summary of the suggestions made:-- + +The conductors may be of copper, or of soft iron protected by +galvanizing or coated with lead. A number of paths to earth must be +provided; well-jointed rain-water pipes may be utilized. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Holdfast.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Aigrette.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Holdfast on Roof.] + +Every chimney stack or other prominence should have an air terminal. +Conductors should run in the most direct manner from air to earth, and +be kept away from the walls by holdfasts (fig. 1), in the manner shown +by A (fig. 2); the usual method is seen in B (fig. 2), where the tape +follows the contour of the building and causes side flash. A building +with a long roof should also be fitted with a horizontal conductor along +the ridge, and to this aigrettes (fig. 3) should be attached; a simpler +method is to support the cable by holdfasts armed with a spike (fig. 4). +Joints must be held together mechanically as well as electrically, and +should be protected from the action of the air. At Westminster Abbey the +cables are spliced and inserted in a box which is filled with lead run +in when molten. + +[Illustration: _Fig_. 5.--Tubular Earth.] + +_Earth Connexion._--A copper plate not less than 3 sq. ft. in area may +be used as an earth connexion if buried in permanently damp ground. +Instead of a plate there are advantages in using the tubular earth shown +in fig. 5. The cable packed in carbon descends to the bottom of the +perforated tube which is driven into the ground, a connexion being made +to the nearest rain-water pipe to secure the necessary moisture. No +further attention is required. Plate earths should be tested every year. +The number of earths depends on the area of the building, but at least +two should be provided. Insulators on the conductor are of no advantage, +and it is useless to gild or otherwise protect the points of the +air-terminals. As heated air offers a good path for lightning (which is +the reason why the kitchen-chimney is often selected by the discharge), +a number of points should be fixed to high chimneys and there should be +at least two conductors to earth. All roof metals, such as finials, +flashings, rain-water gutters, ventilating pipes, cowls and stove pipes, +should be connected to the system of conductors. The efficiency of the +installation depends on the interconnexion of all metallic parts, also +on the quality of the earth connexions. In the case of magazines used +for explosives, it is questionable whether the usual plan of erecting +rods at the sides of the buildings is efficient. The only way to ensure +safety is to enclose the magazine in iron; the next best is to arrange +the conductors so that they surround it like a bird cage. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature, although extensive, contains so many + descriptions of ludicrous devices, that the student, after reading + Benjamin Franklin's _Experiments and Observations on Electricity made + at Philadelphia_ (1769), may turn to the _Report_ of the Lightning Rod + Conference of December 1881. In the latter work there are abstracts of + many valuable papers, especially the reports made to the French + Academy, among others by Coulomb, Laplace, Gay-Lussac, Fresnel, + Regnault, &c. In 1876 J. Clerk Maxwell read a paper before the British + Association in which he brought forward the idea (based on Faraday's + experiments) of protecting a building from the effects of lightning by + surrounding it with a sort of cage of rods or stout wire. It was not, + however, until the Bath meeting of the British Association in 1888 + that the subject was fully discussed by the physical and engineering + sections. Sir Oliver Lodge showed the futility of single conductors, + and advised the interconnexion of all the metal work on a building to + a number of conductors buried in the earth. The action of lightning + flashes was also demonstrated by him in lectures delivered before the + Society of Arts (1888). The Clerk Maxwell system was adopted to a + large extent in Germany, and in July 1901 a sub-committee of the + Berlin Electro-technical Association was formed, which published + rules. In 1900 a paper entitled "The Protection of Public Buildings + from Lightning," by Killingworth Hedges, led to the formation, by the + Royal Institute of British Architects and the Surveyors' Institution, + of the Lightning Research Committee, on which the Royal Society and + the Meteorological Society were represented. The _Report_, edited by + Sir Oliver Lodge, Sir John Gavey and Killingworth Hedges (Hon. Sec.), + was published in April 1905. An illustrated supplement, compiled by K. + Hedges and entitled _Modern Lightning Conductors_ (1905), contains + particulars of the independent reports of the German committee, the + Dutch Academy of Science, and the Royal Joseph university, Budapest. A + description is also given of the author's modified Clerk Maxwell + system, in which the metal work of the roofs of a building form the + upper part, the rain-water pipes taking the place of the usual + lightning-rods. See also Sir Oliver Lodge, _Lightning Conductors_ + (London, 1902). (K. H.) + + + + +LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF. + + Non-Christian religions. + +The ceremonial use of lights in the Christian Church, with which this +article is mainly concerned, probably has a double origin: in a very +natural symbolism, and in the adaptation of certain pagan and Jewish +rites and customs of which the symbolic meaning was Christianized. Light +is everywhere the symbol of joy and of life-giving power, as darkness is +of death and destruction. Fire, the most mysterious and impressive of +the elements, the giver of light and of all the good things of life, is +a thing sacred and adorable in primitive religions, and fire-worship +still has its place in two at least of the great religions of the world. +The Parsis adore fire as the visible expression of Ahura-Mazda, the +eternal principle of light and righteousness; the Brahmans worship it as +divine and omniscient.[1] The Hindu festival of Dewali (Diyawali, from +_diya_, light), when temples and houses are illuminated with countless +lamps, is held every November to celebrate Lakhshmi, the goddess of +prosperity. In the ritual of the Jewish temple fire and light played a +conspicuous part. In the Holy of Holies was a "cloud of light" +(_shekinah_), symbolical of the presence of Yahweh, and before it stood +the candlestick with six branches, on each of which and on the central +stem was a lamp eternally burning; while in the forecourt was an altar +on which the sacred fire was never allowed to go out. Similarly the +Jewish synagogues have each their eternal lamp; while in the religion of +Islam lighted lamps mark things and places specially holy; thus the +Ka'ba at Mecca is illuminated by thousands of lamps hanging from the +gold and silver rods that connect the columns of the surrounding +colonnade. + + + Greece and Rome. + +The Greeks and Romans, too, had their sacred fire and their ceremonial +lights. In Greece the _Lampadedromia_ or _Lampadephoria_ (torch-race) +had its origin in ceremonies connected with the relighting of the sacred +fire. Pausanias (i. 26, § 6) mentions the golden lamp made by +Callimachus which burned night and day in the sanctuary of Athena Polias +on the Acropolis, and (vii. 22, §§ 2 and 3) tells of a statue of Hermes +Agoraios, in the market-place of Pharae in Achaea, before which lamps +were lighted. Among the Romans lighted candles and lamps formed part of +the cult of the domestic tutelary deities; on all festivals doors were +garlanded and lamps lighted (Juvenal, _Sat._ xii. 92; Tertullian, +_Apol._ xxxv.). In the cult of Isis lamps were lighted by day. In the +ordinary temples were candelabra, e.g. that in the temple of Apollo +Palatinus at Rome, originally taken by Alexander from Thebes, which was +in the form of a tree from the branches of which lights hung like fruit. +In comparing pagan with Christian usage it is important to remember that +the lamps in the pagan temples were not symbolical, but votive offerings +to the gods. Torches and lamps were also carried in religious +processions. + + + Funeral lamps. + +The pagan custom of burying lamps with the dead conveyed no such +symbolical meaning as was implied in the late Christian custom of +placing lights on and about the tombs of martyrs and saints. Its object +was to provide the dead with the means of obtaining light in the next +world, a wholly material conception; and the lamps were for the most +part unlighted. It was of Asiatic origin, traces of it having been +observed in Phoenicia and in the Punic colonies, but not in Egypt or +Greece. In Europe it was confined to the countries under the domination +of Rome.[2] + + + Christian symbolism of light. + +In Christianity, from the very first, fire and light are conceived as +symbols, if not as visible manifestations, of the divine nature and the +divine presence. Christ is "the true Light" (John i. 9), and at his +transfiguration "the fashion of his countenance was altered, and his +raiment was white and glistering" (Luke ix. 29); when the Holy Ghost +descended upon the apostles, "there appeared unto them cloven tongues of +fire, and it sat upon each of them" (Acts ii. 3); at the conversion of +St Paul "there shined round him a great light from heaven" (Acts ix. 3); +while the glorified Christ is represented as standing "in the midst of +seven candlesticks ... his head and hairs white like wool, as white as +snow; and his eyes as a flame of fire" (Rev. i. 14, 15). Christians are +"children of Light" at perpetual war with "the powers of darkness." + + + The early Church. + + Tertullian and Lactantius. + + 2nd and 3rd centuries. + +All this might very early, without the incentive of Jewish and pagan +example, have affected the symbolic ritual of the primitive Church. +There is, however, no evidence of any ceremonial use of lights in +Christian worship during the first two centuries. It is recorded, indeed +(Acts xx. 7, 8), that on the occasion of St Paul's preaching at +Alexandria in Troas "there were many lights in the upper chamber"; but +this was at night, and the most that can be hazarded is that a specially +large number were lighted as a festive illumination, as in modern Church +festivals (Martigny, _Dict. des antiqu. Chrét._). As to a purely +ceremonial use, such early evidence as exists is all the other way. A +single sentence of Tertullian (_Apol._ xxxv.) sufficiently illuminates +Christian practice during the 2nd century. "On days of rejoicing," he +says, "we do not shade our door-posts with laurels nor encroach upon the +day-light with lamps" (_die laeto non laureis postes obumbramus nec +lucernis diem infringimus_). Lactantius, writing early in the 4th +century, is even more sarcastic in his references to the heathen +practice. "They kindle lights," he says, "as though to one who is in +darkness. Can he be thought sane who offers the light of lamps and +candles to the Author and Giver of all light?" (_Div. Inst. vi. de vero +cultu_, cap. 2, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ vi. 637).[3] This is primarily an +attack on votive lights, and does not necessarily exclude their +ceremonial use in other ways. There is, indeed, evidence that they were +so used before Lactantius wrote. The 34th canon of the synod of Elvira +(305), which was contemporary with him, forbade candles to be lighted in +cemeteries during the day-time, which points to an established custom as +well as to an objection to it; and in the Roman catacombs lamps have +been found of the 2nd and 3rd centuries which seem to have been +ceremonial or symbolical.[4] Again, according to the _Acta_ of St +Cyprian (d. 258), his body was borne to the grave _praelucentibus +cereis_, and Prudentius, in his hymn on the martyrdom of St Lawrence +(_Peristeph._ ii. 71, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ lx. 300), says that in the +time of St Laurentius, i.e. the middle of the 3rd century, candles stood +in the churches of Rome on golden candelabra. The gift, mentioned by +Anastasius (_in Sylv._), made by Constantine to the Vatican basilica, of +a _pharum_ of gold, garnished with 500 dolphins each holding a lamp, to +burn before St Peter's tomb, points also to a custom well established +before Christianity became the state religion. + + + Jerome and Vigilantius. + +Whatever previous custom may have been--and for the earliest ages it is +difficult to determine absolutely owing to the fact that the Christians +held their services at night--by the close of the 4th century the +ceremonial use of lights had become firmly and universally established +in the Church. This is clear, to pass by much other evidence, from the +controversy of St Jerome with Vigilantius. + + Vigilantius, a presbyter of Barcelona, still occupied the position of + Tertullian and Lactantius in this matter. "We see," he wrote, "a rite + peculiar to the pagans introduced into the churches on pretext of + religion, and, while the sun is still shining, a mass of wax tapers + lighted.... A great honour to the blessed martyrs, whom they think to + illustrate with contemptible little candles (_de vilissimis + cereolis_)!" Jerome, the most influential theologian of the day, took + up the cudgels against Vigilantius (he "ought to be called + Dormitantius"), who, in spite of his fatherly admonition, had dared + again "to open his foul mouth and send forth a filthy stink against + the relics of the holy martyrs" (_Hier. Ep._ cix. al. 53--_ad + Ripuarium Presbyt._, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ p. 906). If candles are + lit before their tombs, are these the ensigns of idolatry? In his + treatise _contra Vigilantium_ (_Patr. lat._ t. xxiii.) he answers the + question with much common sense. There can be no harm if ignorant and + simple people, or religious women, light candles in honour of the + martyrs. "We are not born, but reborn, Christians," and that which + when done for idols was detestable is acceptable when done for the + martyrs. As in the case of the woman with the precious box of + ointment, it is not the gift that merits reward, but the faith that + inspires it. As for lights in the churches, he adds that "in all the + churches of the East, whenever the gospel is to be read, lights are + lit, though the sun be rising (_jam sole rutilante_), not in order to + disperse the darkness, but as a visible sign of gladness (_ad signum + laetitiae demonstrandum_)." Taken in connexion with a statement which + almost immediately precedes this--"Cereos autem non clara luce + accendimus, sicut frustra calumniaris: sed ut noctis tenebras hoc + solatio temperemus" (§ 7)--this seems to point to the fact that the + ritual use of lights in the church services, so far as already + established, arose from the same conservative habit as determined the + development of liturgical vestments, i.e. the lights which had been + necessary at the nocturnal meetings were retained, after the hours of + service had been altered, and invested with a symbolical meaning. + + + Practice in the 4th century. + + Eastern Church. + +Already they were used at most of the conspicuous functions of the +Church. Paulinus, bishop of Nola (d. 431), describes the altar at the +eucharist as "crowned with crowded lights,"[5] and even mentions the +"eternal lamp."[6] For their use at baptisms we have, among much other +evidence, that of Zeno of Verona for the West,[7] and that of Gregory of +Nazianzus for the East.[8] Their use at funerals is illustrated by +Eusebius's description of the burial of Constantine,[9] and Jerome's +account of that of St Paula.[10] At ordinations they were used, as is +shown by the 6th canon of the council of Carthage (398), which decrees +that the acolyte is to hand to the newly ordained deacon _ceroferarium +cum cereo_. As to the blessing of candles, according to the _Liber +pontificalis_ Pope Zosimus in 417 ordered these to be blessed,[11] and +the Gallican and Mozarabic rituals also provided for this ceremony.[12] +The Feast of the Purification of the Virgin, known as Candlemas (q.v.), +because on this day the candles for the whole year are blessed, was +established--according to some authorities--by Pope Gelasius I. about +492. As to the question of "altar lights," however, it must be borne in +mind that these were not placed upon the altar, or on a retable behind +it, until the 12th century. These were originally the candles carried by +the deacons, according to the _Ordo Romanus_ (i. 8; ii. 5; iii. 7) seven +in number, which were set down either on the steps of the altar, or, +later, behind it. In the Eastern Church, to this day, there are no +lights on the high altar; the lighted candles stand on a small altar +beside it, and at various parts of the service are carried by the +lectors or acolytes before the officiating priest or deacon. The "crowd +of lights" described by Paulinus as crowning the altar were either +grouped round it or suspended in front of it; they are represented by +the sanctuary lamps of the Latin Church and by the crown of lights +suspended in front of the altar in the Greek. + + + Development of the use. + +To trace the gradual elaboration of the symbolism and use of ceremonial +lights in the Church, until its full development and systematization in +the middle ages, would be impossible here. It must suffice to note a few +stages in the process. The burning of lights before the tombs of martyrs +led naturally to their being burned also before relics and lastly before +images and pictures. This latter practice, hotly denounced as idolatry +during the iconoclastic controversy (see ICONOCLASM), was finally +established as orthodox by the second general council of Nicaea (787), +which restored the worship of images. A later development, however, by +which certain lights themselves came to be regarded as objects of +worship and to have other lights burned before _them_, was condemned as +idolatrous by the synod of Noyon in 1344.[13] The passion for symbolism +extracted ever new meanings out of the candles and their use. Early in +the 6th century Ennodius, bishop of Pavia, pointed out the three-fold +elements of a wax-candle (_Opusc._ ix. and x.), each of which would make +it an offering acceptable to God; the rush-wick is the product of pure +water, the wax is the offspring of virgin bees,[14] the flame is sent +from heaven.[15] Clearly, wax was a symbol of the Blessed Virgin and the +holy humanity of Christ. The later middle ages developed the idea. +Durandus, in his _Rationale_, interprets the wax as the body of Christ, +the wick as his soul, the flame as his divine nature; and the consuming +candle as symbolizing his passion and death. + + + In the Roman Catholic Church. + + Dedication of a church. + + At Mass and choir services. + + Sanctuary lamps. + + Symbol of the Real Presence. + + In the completed ritual system of the medieval Church, as still + preserved in the Roman Catholic communion, the use of ceremonial + lights falls under three heads. (1) They may be symbolical of the + light of God's presence, of Christ as "Light of Light," or of "the + children of Light" in conflict with the powers of darkness; they may + even be no more than expressions of joy on the occasion of great + festivals. (2) They may be votive, i.e. offered as an act of worship + (_latria_) to God. (3) They are, in virtue of their benediction by the + Church, _sacramentalia_, i.e. efficacious for the good of men's souls + and bodies, and for the confusion of the powers of darkness.[16] With + one or more of these implications, they are employed in all the public + functions of the Church. At the consecration of a church twelve lights + are placed round the walls at the twelve spots where these are + anointed by the bishop with holy oil, and on every anniversary these + are relighted; at the dedication of an altar tapers are lighted and + censed at each place where the table is anointed (_Pontificale Rom._ + p. ii. _De eccl. dedicat. seu consecrat._). At every liturgical + service, and especially at Mass and at choir services, there must be + at least two lighted tapers on the altar,[17] as symbols of the + presence of God and tributes of adoration. For the Mass the rule is + that there are six lights at High Mass, four at a _missa cantata_, and + two at private masses. At a Pontifical High Mass (i.e. when the bishop + celebrates) the lights are seven, because seven golden candlesticks + surround the risen Saviour, the chief bishop of the Church (see Rev. + i. 12). At most pontifical functions, moreover, the bishop--as the + representative of Christ--is preceded by an acolyte with a burning + candle (_bugia_) on a candlestick. The _Ceremoniale Episcoporum_ (i. + 12) further orders that a burning lamp is to hang at all times before + each altar, three in front of the high altar, and five before the + reserved Sacrament, as symbols of the eternal Presence. In practice, + however, it is usual to have only one lamp lighted before the + tabernacle in which the Host is reserved. The special symbol of the + real presence of Christ is the _Sanctus_ candle, which is lighted at + the moment of consecration and kept burning until the communion. The + same symbolism is intended by the lighted tapers which must accompany + the Host whenever it is carried in procession, or to the sick and + dying. + + As symbols of light and joy a candle is held on each side of the + deacon when reading the Gospel at Mass; and the same symbolism + underlies the multiplication of lights on festivals, their number + varying with the importance of the occasion. As to the number of these + latter no rule is laid down. They differ from liturgical lights in + that, whereas these must be tapers of pure beeswax or lamps fed with + pure olive oil (except by special dispensation under certain + circumstances), those used merely to add splendour to the celebration + may be of any material; the only exception being, that in the + decoration of the altar gas-lights are forbidden. + + + Tenebrae. + + In general the ceremonial use of lights in the Roman Catholic Church + is conceived as a dramatic representation in fire of the life of + Christ and of the whole scheme of salvation. On Easter Eve the new + fire, symbol of the light of the newly risen Christ, is produced, and + from this are kindled all the lights used throughout the Christian + year until, in the gathering darkness (_tenebrae_) of the Passion, + they are gradually extinguished. This quenching of the light of the + world is symbolized at the service of _Tenebrae_ in Holy Week by the + placing on a stand before the altar of thirteen lighted tapers + arranged pyramidally, the rest of the church being in darkness. The + penitential psalms are sung, and at the end of each a candle is + extinguished. When only the central one is left it is taken down and + carried behind the altar, thus symbolizing the betrayal and the death + and burial of Christ. This ceremony can be traced to the 8th century + at Rome. + + + The Paschal Candle. + + On Easter Eve new fire is made[18] with a flint and steel, and + blessed; from this three candles are lighted, the _lumen Christi_, and + from these again the Paschal Candle.[19] This is the symbol of the + risen and victorious Christ, and burns at every solemn service until + Ascension Day, when it is extinguished and removed after the reading + of the Gospel at High Mass. This, of course, symbolizes the Ascension; + but meanwhile the other lamps in the church have received their light + from the Paschal Candle, and so symbolize throughout the year the + continued presence of the light of Christ. + + + Baptism. + + Ordination, etc. + + Funeral lights. + + At the consecration of the baptismal water the burning Paschal Candle + is dipped into the font "so that the power of the Holy Ghost may + descend into it and make it an effective instrument of regeneration." + This is the symbol of baptism as rebirth as children of Light. Lighted + tapers are also placed in the hands of the newly-baptized, or of their + god-parents, with the admonition "to preserve their baptism inviolate, + so that they may go to meet the Lord when he comes to the wedding." + Thus, too, as "children of Light," candidates for ordination and + novices about to take the vows carry lights when they come before the + bishop; and the same idea underlies the custom of carrying lights at + weddings, at the first communion, and by priests going to their first + mass, though none of these are liturgically prescribed. Finally, + lights are placed round the bodies of the dead and carried beside them + to the grave, partly as symbols that they still live in the light of + Christ, partly to frighten away the powers of darkness. + + + Excommunication. + + Conversely, the extinction of lights is part of the ceremony of + excommunication (_Pontificale Rom._ pars iii.). Regino, abbot of Prum, + describes the ceremony as it was carried out in his day, when its + terrors were yet unabated (_De eccles. disciplina_, ii. 409). "Twelve + priests should stand about the bishop, holding in their hands lighted + torches, which at the conclusion of the anathema or excommunication + they should cast down and trample under foot." When the + excommunication is removed, the symbol of reconciliation is the + handing to the penitent of a burning taper. + + + Protestant Churches. + +As a result of the Reformation the use of ceremonial lights was either +greatly modified, or totally abolished in the Protestant Churches. In +the Reformed (Calvinistic) Churches altar lights were, with the rest, +done away with entirely as popish and superstitious. In the Lutheran +Churches they were retained, and in Evangelical Germany have even +survived most of the other medieval rites and ceremonies (e.g. the use +of vestments) which were not abolished at the Reformation itself. + + + Church of England. + + The "Lincoln Judgment." + +In the Church of England the practice has been less consistent. The +first Prayer-book of Edward VI. directed two lights to be placed on the +altar. This direction was omitted in the second Prayer-book; but the +"Ornaments Rubric" of Queen Elizabeth's Prayer-book seemed again to make +them obligatory. The question of how far this did so is a much-disputed +one and is connected with the whole problem of the meaning and scope of +the rubric (see VESTMENTS). An equal uncertainty reigns with regard to +the actual usage of the Church of England from the Reformation onwards. +Lighted candles certainly continued to decorate the holy table in Queen +Elizabeth's chapel, to the scandal of Protestant zealots. They also seem +to have been retained, at least for a while, in certain cathedral and +collegiate churches. There is, however, no mention of ceremonial candles +in the detailed account of the services of the Church of England given +by William Harrison (_Description of England_, 1570); and the attitude +of the Church towards their use, until the ritualistic movement of the +17th century, would seem to be authoritatively expressed in the _Third +Part of the Sermon against Peril of Idolatry_, which quotes with +approval the views of Lactantius and compares "our Candle Religion" +with the "Gentiles Idolators." This pronouncement, indeed, though it +certainly condemns the use of ceremonial lights in most of its later +developments, and especially the conception of them as votive offerings +whether to God or to the saints, does not necessarily exclude, though it +undoubtedly discourages, their purely symbolical use.[20] In this +connexion it is worth pointing out that the homily against idolatry was +reprinted, without alteration and by the king's authority, long after +altar lights had been restored under the influence of the high church +party supreme at court. Illegal under the Act of Uniformity they seem +never to have been. The use of "wax lights and tapers" formed one of the +indictments brought by P. Smart, a Puritan prebendary of Durham, against +Dr Burgoyne, Cosin and others for setting up "superstitious ceremonies" +in the cathedral "contrary to the Act of Uniformity." The indictments +were dismissed in 1628 by Sir James Whitelocke, chief justice of Chester +and a judge of the King's Bench, and in 1629 by Sir Henry Yelverton, a +judge of Common Pleas and himself a strong Puritan (see _Hierurgia +Anglicana_, ii pp. 230 seq.). The use of ceremonial lights was among the +indictments in the impeachment of Laud and other bishops by the House of +Commons, but these were not based on the Act of Uniformity. From the +Restoration onwards the use of ceremonial lights, though far from +universal, was not unusual in cathedrals and collegiate churches.[21] It +was not, however, till the ritual revival of the 19th century that their +use was at all widely extended in parish churches. The growing custom +met with fierce opposition; the law was appealed to, and in 1872 the +Privy Council declared altar lights to be illegal (_Martin_ v. +_Mackonochie_). This judgment, founded as was afterwards admitted on +insufficient knowledge, produced no effect; and, in the absence of any +authoritative pronouncement, advantage was taken of the ambiguous +language of the Ornaments Rubric to introduce into many churches +practically the whole ceremonial use of lights as practised in the +pre-Reformation Church. The matter was again raised in the case of _Read +and others_ v. _the Bishop of Lincoln_ (see LINCOLN JUDGMENT), one of +the counts of the indictment being that the bishop had, during the +celebration of Holy Communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a +shelf or retable behind the communion table when they were not necessary +for giving light. The archbishop of Canterbury, in whose court the case +was heard (1889), decided that the mere presence of two candles on the +table, burning during the service but lit before it began, was lawful +under the first Prayer-Book of Edward VI. and had never been made +unlawful. On the case being appealed to the Privy Council, this +particular indictment was dismissed on the ground that the vicar, not +the bishop, was responsible for the presence of the lights, the general +question of the legality of altar lights being discreetly left open. + +The custom of placing lighted candles round the bodies of the dead, +especially when "lying in state," has never wholly died out in +Protestant countries, though their significance has long been lost sight +of.[22] In the 18th century, moreover, it was still customary in England +to accompany a funeral with lighted tapers. Picart (_op. cit._ 1737) +gives a plate representing a funeral cortège preceded and accompanied by +boys, each carrying four lighted candles in a branched candlestick. +There seems to be no record of candles having been carried in other +processions in England since the Reformation. The usage in this respect +in some "ritualistic" churches is a revival of pre-Reformation +ceremonial. + + See the article "Lucerna," by J. Toutain in Daremberg and Saglio's + _Dict. des antiquités grecques et romaines_ (Paris, 1904); J. + Marquardt, "Römische Privatalterthümer" (vol. v. of Becker's _Röm. + Alterthümer_), ii. 238-301; article "Cièrges et lampes," in the Abbé + J. A. Martigny's _Dict. des Antiquités Chrétiennes_ (Paris, 1865); the + articles "Lichter" and "Koimetarien" (pp. 834 seq.) in Herzog-Hauck's + _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed., Leipzig. 1901); the article "Licht" in + Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_ (Freiburg-i.-B., 1882-1901), an + excellent exposition of the symbolism from the Catholic point of view, + also "Kerze" and "Lichter"; W. Smith and S. Cheetham, _Dict. of Chr. + Antiquities_ (London, 1875-1880), i. 939 seq.; in all these numerous + further references will be found. See also Mühlbauer, _Gesch. u. + Bedeutung der Wachslichter bei den kirchlichen Funktionen_ (Augsburg, + 1874); V. Thalhofer, _Handbuch der Katholischen Liturgik_ + (Freiburg-i.-B., 1887), i. 666 seq.; and, for the post-Reformation use + in the Church of England, _Hierurgia Anglicana_, new ed. by Vernon + Staley (London, 1903). (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "O Fire, thou knowest all things!" See A. Bourquin, + "Brahma-karma, ou rites sacrés des Brahmans," in the _Annales du + Musée Guimet_ (Paris, 1884, t. vii.). + + [2] J. Toutain, in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire, s.v._ + "Lucerna." + + [3] This is quoted with approval by Bishop Jewel in the homily + _Against Peril of Idolatry_ (see below). + + [4] This symbolism--whatever it was--was not pagan, i.e. the lamps + were not placed in the graves as part of the furniture of the + dead--in the Catacombs they are found only in the niches of the + galleries and the arcosolia--nor can they have been votive in the + sense popularized later. + + [5] "Clara coronantur densis altaria lychnis" (_Poem. De S. Felice + natalitium_, xiv. 99, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ lxi. 467). + + [6] "Continuum scyphus est argenteus aptus ad usum." + + [7] "Sal, ignis et oleum" (Lib. i. Tract. xiv. 4, in Migne, xi. 358). + + [8] _In sanct. Pasch._ c. 2; Migne, _Patr. graeca_, xxxvi. 624. + + [9] [Greek: phôta t' ephapsantes kyklô epi skeuôn chrysôn, thaumaston + theama tois horôsi pareichon] (_Vita Constantini_, iv. 66). + + [10] "Cum alii Pontifices lampadàs cereosque proferrent, alii choras + psallentium ducerent" (Ep. cviii. _ad Eustochium virginem_, in + Migne). + + [11] This may be the paschal candle only. In some codices the text + runs: "Per parochias concessit licentiam benedicendi Cereum + Paschalem" (Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Cereum Paschale"). In the + three variants of the notice of Zosimus given in Duchesne's edition + of the _Lib. pontif._ (1886-1892) the word _cera_ is, however, alone + used. Nor does the text imply that he gave to the suburbican churches + a privilege hitherto exercised by the metropolitan church. The + passage runs: "Hic constituit ut diaconi leva tecta haberent de + palleis linostimis per parrochias et ut cera benedicatur," &c. _Per + parrochias_ here obviously refers to the head-gear of the deacons, + not to the candles. + + [12] See also the _Peregrinatio Sylviae_ (386), 86, &c., for the use + of lights at Jerusalem, and Isidore of Seville (_Etym._ vii. 12; xx. + 10) for the usage in the West. That even in the 7th century the + blessing of candles was by no means universal is proved by the 9th + canon of the council of Toledo (671), "De benedicendo cereo et + lucerna in privilegiis Paschae." This canon states that candles and + lamps are not blessed in some churches, and that inquiries have been + made why _we_ do it. In reply, the council decides that it should be + done to celebrate the mystery of Christ's resurrection. See Isidore + of Seville, _Conc._, in Migne, _Pat. lat._ lxxxiv. 369. + + [13] Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Candela." + + [14] Bees were believed, like fish, to be sexless. + + [15] "Venerandis compactam elementis facem tibi, Domine, mancipamus: + in qua trium copula munerum primum de impari numero complacebit: quae + quod gratis Deo veniat auctoribus, non habetur incertum: unum quod de + fetibus fluminum accedunt nutrimenta flammarum: aliud quod apum + tribuit intemerata fecunditas, in quarum partibus nulla partitur + damna virginitas: ignis etiam coelo infusus adhibetur" (_Opusc._ x. + in Migne, _Patr. lat._ t. lxiii.). + + [16] All three conceptions are brought out in the prayers for the + blessing of candles on the Feast of the Purification of the B.V.M. + (Candlemas, q.v.). (1) "O holy Lord, ... who ... by the command didst + cause this liquid to come by the labour of bees to the perfection of + wax, ... we beseech thee ... to bless and sanctify these candles for + the use of men, and the health of bodies and souls...." (2) "... + these candles, which we thy servants desire to carry lighted to + magnify thy name; that by offering them to thee, being worthily + inflamed with the holy fire of thy most sweet charity, we may + deserve," &c. (3) "O Lord Jesus Christ, the true light, ... + mercifully grant, that as these lights enkindled with visible fire + dispel nocturnal darkness, so our hearts illumined by invisible + fire," &c. (_Missale Rom._). In the form for the blessing of candles + _extra diem Purificationis B. Mariae Virg._ the virtue of the + consecrated candles in discomfiting demons is specially brought out: + "that in whatever places they may be lighted, or placed, the princes + of darkness may depart, and tremble, and may fly terror-stricken with + all their ministers from those habitations, nor presume further to + disquiet and molest those who serve thee, Almighty God" (_Rituale + Rom._). + + [17] Altar candlesticks consist of five parts: the foot, stem, knob + in the centre, bowl to catch the drippings, and pricket (a sharp + point on which the candle is fixed). It is permissible to use a long + tube, pointed to imitate a candle, in which is a small taper forced + to the top by a spring (_Cong. Rit._, 11th May 1878). + + [18] This is common to the Eastern Church also. Pilgrims from all + parts of the East flock to Jerusalem to obtain the "new fire" on + Easter Eve at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Here the fire is + supposed to be miraculously sent from heaven. The rush of the + pilgrims to kindle their lights at it is so great, that order is + maintained with difficulty by Mahommedan soldiers. + + [19] The origin of the Paschal Candle is lost in the mists of + antiquity. According to the abbé Châtelain (quoted in Diderot's + _Encyclopédie, s.v._ "Cièrge") the Paschal Candle was not originally + a candle at all, but a wax column on which the dates of the movable + feasts were inscribed. These were later written on paper and fixed to + the Paschal Candle, a custom which in his day survived in the Cluniac + churches. + + [20] This homily, written by Bishop Jewel, is largely founded on + Bullinger's _De origine erroris in Divinorum et sacrorum cultu_ + (1528, 1539). + + [21] A copper-plate in Bernard Picart's _Ceremonies and Religious + Customs of the Various Nations_ (Eng. trans., London, 1737), vi. pt. + 1, p. 78, illustrating an Anglican Communion service at St Paul's, + shows two lighted candles on the holy table. + + [22] In some parts of Scotland it is still customary to place two + lighted candles on a table beside a corpse on the day of burial. + + + + +LIGNE, CHARLES JOSEPH, PRINCE DE (1735-1814), soldier and writer, came +of a princely family of Hainaut, and was born at Brussels in 1735. As an +Austrian subject he entered the imperial army at an early age. He +distinguished himself by his valour in the Seven Years' War, notably at +Breslau, Leuthen, Hochkirch and Maxen, and after the war rose rapidly to +the rank of lieutenant field marshal. He became the intimate friend and +counsellor of the emperor Joseph II., and, inheriting his father's vast +estates, lived in the greatest splendour and luxury till the War of the +Bavarian Succession brought him again into active service. This war was +short and uneventful, and the prince then travelled in England, Germany, +Italy, Switzerland and France, devoting himself impartially to the +courts, the camps, the salons and the learned assemblies of philosophers +and scientists in each country. In 1784 he was again employed in +military work, and was promoted to Feldzeugmeister. In 1787 he was with +Catherine II. in Russia, accompanied her in her journey to the Crimea, +and was made a Russian field marshal by the empress. In 1788 he was +present at the siege of Belgrade. Shortly after this he was invited to +place himself at the head of the Belgian revolutionary movement, in +which one of his sons and many of his relatives were prominent, but +declined with great courtesy, saying that "he never revolted in the +winter." Though suspected by Joseph of collusion with the rebels, the +two friends were not long estranged, and after the death of the emperor +the prince remained in Vienna. His Brabant estates were overrun by the +French in 1792-1793, and his eldest son killed in action at La +Croix-du-Bois in the Argonne (September 14, 1792). He was given the rank +of field marshal (1809) and an honorary command at court, living in +spite of the loss of his estates in comparative luxury and devoting +himself to literary work. He lived long enough to characterize the +proceedings of the congress of Vienna with the famous _mot_: "Le Congrès +danse mais ne marche pas." He died at Vienna on the 13th of December +1814. His grandson, Eugene Lamoral de Ligne (1804-1880), was a +distinguished Belgian statesman. + + His collected works appeared in thirty-four volumes at Vienna during + the last years of his life (_Mélanges militaires_, _littéraires_, + _sentimentaires_), and he bequeathed his manuscripts to the emperor's + Trabant Guard, of which he was captain (_Oeuvres posthumes_, Dresden + and Vienna, 1817). Selections were published in French and German + (_Oeuvres choisies de M. le prince de Ligne_ (Paris, 1809); _Lettres + et pensées du Maréchal Prince de Ligne_, ed. by Madame de Staël + (1809); _Oeuvres historiques, littéraires ... correspondance et + poésies diverses_ (Brussels, 1859); _Des Prinzen Karl von Ligne + militärische Werke_, ed. Count Pappenheim (Sulzbach, 1814). The most + important of his numerous works on all military subjects is the + _Fantaisies et préjugés militaires_, which originally appeared in + 1780. A modern edition is that published by J. Dumaine (Paris, 1879). + A German version (_Militärische Vorurtheile und Phantasien_, &c.) + appeared as early as 1783. This work, though it deals lightly and + cavalierly with the most important subjects (the prince even proposes + to found an international academy of the art of war, wherein the + reputation of generals could be impartially weighed), is a military + classic, and indispensable to the students of the post-Frederician + period. On the whole, it may be said that the prince adhered to the + school of Guibert (q.v.), and a full discussion will be found in Max + Jähns' _Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften_, iii. 2091 et seq. Another + very celebrated work by the prince is the mock autobiography of Prince + Eugene (1809). + + See _Revue de Bruxelles_ (October 1839); Reiffenberg, "Le Feldmaréchal + Prince Charles Joseph de Ligne," _Mémoires de l'académie de + Bruxelles_, vol. xix.; Peetermans, _Le Prince de Ligne, ou un écrivain + grand seigneur_ (Liége, 1857), _Études et notices historiques + concernant l'histoire des Pays Bas_, vol. iii. (Brussels, 1890); + _Mémoires et publications de la Société des Sciences, &c. du + Hainault_, vol. iii., 5th series; Dublet _Le Prince de Ligne et ses + contemporains_ (Paris, 1889), Wurzbach, _Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserth. + Österr_. (Vienna, 1858); Hirtenfeld, _Der + Militär-Maria-Theresien-Orden_, vol. i. (Vienna, 1857), Ritter von + Rettersberg, _Biogr. d. ausgezeichnetsten Feldherren_ (Prague, 1829); + Schweigerd, _Österr. Helden_, vol. iii. (Vienna, 1854); Thürheim, _F. + M. Karl Joseph Fürst de Ligne_ (Vienna, 1877). + + + + +LIGNITE (Lat. _lignum_, wood), an imperfectly formed coal, usually +brownish in colour, and always showing the structure of the wood from +which it was derived (see COAL). + + + + +LIGONIER, JOHN (JEAN LOUIS) LIGONIER, EARL (1680-1770), British Field +Marshal, came of a Huguenot family of Castres in the south of France, +members of which emigrated to England at the close of the 17th century. +He entered the army as a volunteer under Marlborough. From 1702 to 1710 +he was engaged, with distinction, in nearly every important battle and +siege of the war. He was one of the first to mount the breach at the +siege of Liége, commanded a company at the Schellenberg and at Blenheim, +and was present at Menin (where he led the storming of the covered way), +Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet (where he received twenty-three +bullets through his clothing and remained unhurt). In 1712 he became +governor of Fort St Philip, Minorca, and in 1718 was adjutant-general of +the troops employed in the Vigo expedition, where he led the stormers of +Fort Marin. Two years later he became colonel of the "Black Horse" (now +7th Dragoon Guards), a command which he retained for 29 years. His +regiment soon attained an extraordinary degree of efficiency. He was +made brigadier-general in 1735, major-general in 1739, and accompanied +Lord Stair in the Rhine Campaign of 1742-1743. George II. made him a +Knight of the Bath on the field of Dettingen. At Fontenoy Ligonier +commanded the British foot, and acted throughout the battle as adviser +to the duke of Cumberland. During the "Forty-Five" he was called home to +command the British army in the Midlands, but in January 1746 was placed +at the head of the British and British-paid contingents of the Allied +army in the Low Countries. He was present at Roucoux (11th Oct. 1746), +and, as general of horse, at Val (1st July 1747), where he led the last +charge of the British cavalry. In this encounter his horse was killed, +and he was taken prisoner, but was exchanged in a few days. With the +close of the campaign ended Ligonier's active career, but (with a brief +interval in 1756-1757) he occupied various high civil and military posts +to the close of his life. In 1757 he was made, in rapid succession, +commander-in-chief, colonel of the 1st Foot Guards (now Grenadier +Guards), and a peer of Ireland under the title of Viscount Ligonier of +Enniskillen, a title changed in 1762 for that of Clonmell. From 1759 to +1762 he was master-general of the Ordnance, and in 1763 he became Baron, +and in 1766 Earl, in the English peerage. In the latter year he became +field marshal. He died in 1770. His younger brother, Francis, was also a +distinguished soldier; and his son succeeded to the Irish peerage of +Lord Ligonier. + + See Combes, _J. L. Ligonier, une étude_ (Castres, 1866), and the + histories of the 7th Dragoon Guards and Grenadier Guards. + + + + +LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI (1696-1787), saint and doctor of the Church +of Rome, was born at Marianella, near Naples, on the 27th of September +1696, being the son of Giuseppe dei Liguori, a Neapolitan noble. He +began life at the bar, where he obtained considerable practice; but the +loss of an important suit, in which he was counsel for a Neapolitan +noble against the grand duke of Tuscany, and in which he had entirely +mistaken the force of a leading document, so mortified him that he +withdrew from the legal world. In 1726 he entered the Congregation of +Missions as a novice, and became a priest in 1726. In 1732 he founded +the "Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer" at Scala, near Salerno; the +headquarters of the Order were afterwards transferred to Nocera dei +Pagani. Its members, popularly called Liguorians or Redemptorists, +devote themselves to the religious instruction of the poor, more +especially in country districts; Liguori specially forbade them to +undertake secular educational work. In 1750 appeared his celebrated +devotional book on the _Glories of Mary_; three years later came his +still more celebrated treatise on moral theology. In 1755 this was much +enlarged and translated into Latin under the title of _Homo +Apostolicus_. In 1762, at the express desire of the pope, he accepted +the bishopric of Sant' Agata dei Goti, a small town in the province of +Benevent; though he had previously refused the archbishopric of Palermo. +Here he worked diligently at practical reforms, being specially anxious +to raise the standard of clerical life and work. In 1775 he resigned his +bishopric on the plea of enfeebled health; he retired to his +Redemptorists at Nocera, and died there in 1787. In 1796 Pius VI. +declared him "venerable"; he was beatified by Pius VII. in 1816, +canonized by Gregory XVI. in 1839, and finally declared one of the +nineteen "Doctors of the Church" by Pius IX. in 1871. + +Liguori is the chief representative of a school of casuistry and +devotional theology still abundantly represented within the Roman Church. +Not that he was in any sense its founder. He was simply a fair +representative of the Italian piety of his day--amiable, ascetic in his +personal habits, indefatigable in many forms of activity, and of more +than respectable abilities; though the emotional side of his character +had the predominance over his intellect. He was learned, as learning was +understood among the Italian clergy of the 18th century; but he was +destitute of critical faculty, and the inaccuracy of his quotations is +proverbial. In his casuistical works he was a diligent compiler, whose +avowed design was to take a middle course between the two current +extremes of severity and laxity. In practice, he leant constantly towards +laxity. Eighteenth-century Italy looked on religion with apathetic +indifference, and Liguori convinced himself that only the gentlest and +most lenient treatment could win back the alienated laity; hence he was +always willing to excuse errors on the side of laxity as due to an excess +of zeal in winning over penitents. Severity, on the other hand, seemed to +him not only inexpedient, but positively wrong. By making religion hard +it made it odious, and thus prepared the way for unbelief. Like all +casuists, he took for granted that morality was a recondite science, +beyond the reach of all but the learned. When a layman found himself in +doubt, his duty was not to consult his conscience, but to take the advice +of his confessor; while the confessor himself was bound to follow the +rules laid down by the casuistical experts, who delivered themselves of a +kind of "counsel's opinion" on all knotty points of practical morality. +But experts proverbially differ: what was to be done when they disagreed? +Suppose, for instance, that some casuists held it wrong to dance on +Sunday, while others held it perfectly lawful. In Liguori's time there +were four ways of answering the question. Strict moralists--called +rigorists, or "tutiorists"--maintained that the austerer opinion ought +always to be followed; dancing on Sundays was certainly wrong, if any +good authorities had declared it to be so. Probabiliorists maintained +that the more general opinion ought to prevail, irrespectively of whether +it was the stricter or the laxer; dancing on Sunday was perfectly lawful, +if the majority of casuists approved it. Probabilists argued that any +opinion might be followed, if it could show good authority on its side, +even if there was still better authority against it; dancing on Sunday +must be innocent, if it could show a fair sprinkling of eminent names in +its favour. The fourth and last school--the "laxists"--carried this +principle a step farther, and held that a practice must be +unobjectionable, if it could prove that any one "grave Doctor" had +defended it; even if dancing on Sunday had hitherto lain under the ban of +the church, a single casuist could legitimate it by one stroke of his +pen. Liguori's great achievement lay in steering a middle course between +these various extremes. The gist of his system, which is known as +"equi-probabilism," is that the more indulgent opinion may always be +followed, whenever the authorities in its favour are as good, or nearly +as good, as those on the other side. In this way he claimed that he had +secured liberty in its rights without allowing it to degenerate into +licence. However much they might personally disapprove, zealous priests +could not forbid their parishioners to dance on Sunday, if the practice +had won widespread toleration; on the other hand, they could not relax +the usual discipline of the church on the strength of a few unguarded +opinions of too indulgent casuists. Thus the Liguorian system surpassed +all its predecessors in securing uniformity in the confessional on a +basis of established usage, two advantages amply sufficient to ensure its +speedy general adoption within the Church of Rome. + + _Lives_ by A. M. Tannoja, a pupil of Liguori's (3 vols., Naples, + 1798-1802); new ed., Turin, 1857; French trans., Paris, 1842; P. v. A. + Giattini (Rome, 1815: Ger. trans., Vienna, 1835); F. W. Faber (4 + vols., London, 1848-1849); M. A. Hugues (Münster, 1857); O. Gisler + (Einsiedeln, 1887); K. Dilgskron (2 vols., Regensburg, 1887), perhaps + the best; A. Capecelatro (2 vols., Rome, 1893); A. des Retours (Paris, + 1903); A. C. Berthe (St Louis, 1906). + + _Works_ (a) Collected editions. Italian: (Monza, 1819, 1828; Venice, + 1830; Naples, 1840 ff.; Turin, 1887, ff.). French: (Tournai, 1855 ff., + new ed., 1895 ff.) German: (Regensburg, 1842-1847). English: (22 + vols., New York, 1887-1895). Editions of the _Theologia Moralis_ and + other separate works are very numerous. (b) _Letters_: (2 vols., + Monza, 1831; 3 vols., Rome, 1887 ff.). See also Meyrick, _Moral and + Devotional Theology of the Church of Rome, according to the Teaching + of S. Alfonso de Liguori_ (London, 1857), and art. CASUISTRY. + (St. C.) + + + + +LIGURES BAEBIANI, in ancient geography, a settlement of Ligurians in +Samnium, Italy. The towns of Taurasia and Cisauna in Samnium had been +captured in 298 B.C. by the consul L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, and the +territory of the former remained Roman state domain. In 180 B.C. 47,000 +Ligurians from the neighbourhood of Luna (Ligures Apuani), with women +and children, were transferred to this district, and two settlements +were formed taking their names from the consuls of 181 B.C., the Ligures +Baebiani and the Ligures Corneliani. The site of the former town lies 15 +m. N. of Beneventum, on the road to Saepinum and Aesernia. In its ruins +several inscriptions have been found, notably a large bronze tablet +discovered in a public building in the Forum bearing the date A.D. 101, +and relating to the alimentary institution founded by Trajan here (see +VELEIA). A sum of money was lent to landed proprietors of the district +(whose names and estates are specified in the inscription), and the +interest which it produced formed the income of the institution, which, +on the model of that of Veleia, would have served to support a little +over one hundred children. The capital was 401,800 sesterces, and the +annual interest probably at 5%, i.e. 20,090 sesterces (£4018 and £201 +respectively). The site of the other settlement--that of the Ligures +Corneliani--is unknown. + + See T. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ ix. (Berlin, 1883), 125 sqq. + (T. As.) + + + + +LIGURIA, a modern territorial division of Italy, lying between the +Ligurian Alps and the Apennines on the N., and the Mediterranean on the +S. and extending from the frontier of France on the W. to the Gulf of +Spezia on the E. Its northern limits touch Piedmont and Lombardy, while +Emilia and Tuscany fringe its eastern borders, the dividing line +following as a rule the summits of the mountains. Its area is 2037 sq. +m. The railway from Pisa skirts the entire coast of the territory, +throwing off lines to Parma from Sarzana and Spezia, to Milan and Turin +from Genoa, and to Turin from Savona, and there is a line from +Ventimiglia to Cuneo and Turin by the Col di Tenda. Liguria embraces the +two provinces of Genoa and Porto Maurizio (Imperia), which once formed +the republic of Genoa. Its sparsely-peopled mountains slope gently +northward towards the Po, descending, however, abruptly into the sea at +several points; the narrow coast district, famous under the name of the +Riviera (q.v.), is divided at Genoa into the Riviera di Ponente towards +France, and the Riviera di Levante towards the east. Its principal +products are wheat, maize, wine, oranges, lemons, fruits, olives and +potatoes, though the olive groves are being rapidly supplanted by +flower-gardens, which grow flowers for export. Copper and iron pyrites +are mined. The principal industries are iron-works, foundries, iron +shipbuilding, engineering, and boiler works (Genoa, Spezia, +Sampierdarena, Sestri Ponente, &c.), the production of cocoons, and the +manufacture of cottons and woollens. Owing to the sheltered situation +and the mildness of their climate, many of the coast towns are chosen by +thousands of foreigners for winter residence, while the Italians +frequent them in summer for sea-bathing. The inhabitants have always +been adventurous seamen--Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci were +Genoese,--and the coast has several good harbours, Genoa, Spezia and +Savona being the best. In educational and general development, Liguria +stands high among the regions of Italy. The populations of the +respective provinces and their chief towns are, according to the census +of 1901 (_popolazione residente_ or _legale_)--province of Genoa, pop. +931,156; number of communes 197; chief towns--Genoa (219,507), Spezia +(66,263), Savona (38,648), Sampierdarena (34,084), Sestri Ponente +(17,225). Province of Porto Maurizio, pop. 144,604, number of communes +106; chief towns--Porto Maurizio (7207), S. Remo (20,027), Ventimiglia +(11,468), Oneglia (8252). Total for Liguria, 1,075,760. + +The Ligurian coast became gradually subject to the Romans, and the road +along it must have been correspondingly prolonged: up to the end of the +Hannibalic war the regular starting-point for Spain by sea was Pisae, in +195 B.C. it was the harbour of Luna (Gulf of Spezia),[1] though Genua +must have become Roman a little before this time, while, in 137 B.C., C. +Hostilius Mancinus marched as far as Portus Herculis (Villafranca), and +in 121 B.C. the province of Gallia Narbonensis was formed and the +coast-road prolonged to the Pyrenees. In 14 B.C. Augustus restored the +whole road from Placentia to Dertona (Via Postumia), and thence to Vada +Sabatia (Via Aemilia²) and the River Varus (Var), so that it thenceforth +took the name of Via Julia Augusta (see AEMILIA, VIA²). The other chief +roads of Liguria were the portion of the Via Postumia from Dertona to +Genua, a road from above Vada through Augusta Bagiennorum and Pollentia +to Augusta Taurinorum, and another from Augusta Taurinorum to Hasta and +Valentia. The names of the villages--Quarto, Quinto, &c.--on the +south-east side and Pontedecimo on the north of Genoa allude to their +distance along the Roman roads. The Roman Liguria, forming the ninth +region of Augustus, was thus far more extensive than the modern, +including the country on the north slopes of the Apennines and Maritime +Alps between the Trebia and the Po, and extending a little beyond +Albintimilium. On the west Augustus formed the provinces of the Alpes +Maritimae and the Alpes Cottiae. Towns of importance were few, owing to +the nature of the country. Dertona was the only colony, and Alba +Pompeia, Augusta Bagiennorum, Pollentia, Hasta, Aquae Statiellae, and +Genua may also be mentioned; but the Ligurians dwelt entirely in +villages, and were organized as tribes. The mountainous character of +Liguria made the spread of culture difficult; it remained a forest +district, producing timber, cattle, ponies, mules, sheep, &c. Oil and +wine had to be imported, and when the cultivation of the olive began is +not known. + +The arrangement made by Augustus lasted until the time of Diocletian, +when the two Alpine provinces were abolished, and the watershed became +the boundary between Italy and Gaul. At this time we find the name +Liguria extended as far as Milan, while in the 6th century the old +Liguria was separated from it, and under the Lombards formed the fifth +Italian province under the name of Alpes Cottiae. In the middle ages the +ancient Liguria north of the Apennines fell to Piedmont and Lombardy, +while that to the south, with the coast strip, belonged to the republic +of Genoa. (T. As.) + +_Archaeology and Philology._--It is clear that in earlier times the +Ligurians occupied a much more extensive area than the Augustan region; +for instance Strabo (i. 2, 92; iv. 1, 7) gives earlier authorities for +their possession of the land on which the Greek colony of Massalia +(Marseilles) was founded; and Thucydides (vi. 2) speaks of a settlement +of Ligurians in Spain who expelled the Sicani thence. Southward their +domain extended as far as Pisa on the coast of Etruria and Arretium +inland in the time of Polybius (ii. 6), and a somewhat vague reference +in Lycophron (line 1351) to the Ligurians as enemies of the founders of +Agylla (i.e. Caere) suggests that they once occupied even a larger tract +to the south. Seneca (_Cons. ad Helv._ vii. 9), states that the +population of Corsica was partly Ligurian. By combining traditions +recorded by Dionysius (i. 22; xiv. 37) and others (e.g. Serv. _ad. Aen._ +xi. 317) as having been held by Cato the Censor and by Philistus of +Syracuse (385 B.C.) respectively, Professor Ridgeway (_Who were the +Romans?_ London, 1908, p. 3) decides in favour of identifying the +Ligurians with a tribe called the Aborigines who occupy a large place in +the early traditions of Italy (see Dionysius i. cc. 10 ff.); and who may +at all events be regarded with reasonable certainty as constituting an +early pre-Roman and pre-Tuscan stratum in the population of Central +Italy (see LATIUM). For a discussion of this question see VOLSCI. +Ridgeway holds that the language of the Ligurians, as well as their +antiquities, was identical with that of the early Latins, and with that +of the Plebeians of Rome (as contrasted with that of the Patrician or +Sabine element), see ROME: _History_ (_ad. init._). The archaeological +side of this important question is difficult. Although great progress +has been made with the study of the different strata of remains in +prehistoric Italy and of those of Liguria itself (see for instance the +excellent _Introduction à l'histoire romaine_ by Basile Modestov (Paris, +1907, p. 122 ff.) and W. Ridgeway's _Early Age of Greece_, p. 240 ff.) +no general agreement has been reached among archaeologists as to the +particular races who are to be identified as the authors of the early +strata, earlier, that is, than that stratum which represents the +Etruscans. + +On the linguistic side some fairly certain conclusions have been +reached. D'Arbois de Jubainville (_Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe_, +ed. 2, Paris, 1880-1894) pointed out the great frequency of the suffix +-_asco_- (and -_usco_-) both in ancient and in modern Ligurian +districts, and as far north as _Caranusca_ near Metz, and also in the +eastern Alps and in Spain. He pointed out also, what can scarcely be +doubted, that the great mass of the Ligurian proper names (e.g. the +streams _Vinelasca_, _Porcobera_, _Comberanea_; _mons Tuledo_; +_Venascum_), have a definite Indo-European character. Farther Karl +Müllenhof in vol. iii. of his _Deutsche Alterthumskunde_ (Berlin, 1898) +made a careful collection of the proper names reserved in Latin +inscriptions of the Ligurian districts, such as the _Tabula Genuatium_ +(_C.I.L._ i. 99) of 117 B.C. A complete collection of all Ligurian place +and personal names known has been made by S. Elizabeth Jackson, B.A., +and the collection is to be combined with the inscriptional remains of +the district in _The Pre-Italic Dialects_, edited by R. S. Conway (see +_The Proceedings of the British Academy_). Following Kretschmer _Kuhn's +Zeitschrift_ (xxxviii. 97), who discussed several inscriptions found +near Ornavasso (Lago Maggiore) and concluded that they showed an +Indo-European language, Conway, though holding that the inscriptions are +more Celtic than Ligurian, pointed out strong evidence in the ancient +place names of Liguria that the language spoken there in the period +which preceded the Roman conquest was Indo-European, and belonged to a +definite group, namely, languages which preserved the original _q_ as +Latin did, and did not convert it into _p_ as did the Umbro-Safine +tribes. The same is probably true of Venetia (see VENETI), and of an +Indo-European language preserved on inscriptions found at Coligny and +commonly referred to the Sequani (see _Comptes Rendus de l'Ac. d'Insc._, +Paris, 1897, 703; E. B. Nicholson, _Sequanian_, London, 1898; +Thurneysen, _Zeitschr. f. Kelt. Phil._, 1899, 523). Typically Ligurian +names are _Quiamelius_, which contains the characteristic Ligurian word +_melo_- "stone" as in _mons Blustiemelus_ (_C.I.L._ v. 7749), +_Intimelium_ and the modern _Vintimiglia_. The tribal names _Soliceli_, +_Stoniceli_, clearly contain the same element as Lat. _aequi-coli_ +(dwellers on the plain), _sati-cola_, &c., namely _quel_-, cf. Lat. +_in-quil-inus_, _colo_, Gr. [Greek: polein, tellesthai]. And it should +be added that the Ligurian ethnica show the prevailing use of the two +suffixes -_co_- and -_ati_-, which there is reason to refer to the +pre-Roman stratum of population in Italy (see VOLSCI). + + Besides the authorities already cited the student may be referred to + C. Pauli, _Altitalische Studien_, vol. i., especially for the alphabet + of the insc.; W. Ridgeway, _Who were the Romans?_ (followed by the + abstract of a paper by the present writer) in _The Proceedings of the + British Academy_, vol. iii. p. 42; and to W. H. Hall's, _The Romans on + the Riviera and the Rhône_ (London, 1898); Issel's _La Liguria + geologica e preistorica_ (Genoa, 1892). A further batch of + Celto-Ligurian inscriptions from Giubiasco near Bellinzona (Canton + Ticino) is published by G. Herbig, in the _Anzeiger f. Schweizer. + Altertumskunde_, vii. (1905-1906), p. 187; and one of the same class + by Elia Lattes, _Di un' Iscriz. ante-Romana trovata a Carcegna sul + Lago d' Orta_ (_Atti d. r. Accad. d. Scienze di Torino_, xxxix., Feb. + 1904). (R. S. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The dividing line between Liguria and Etruria was the lower + course of the river Macra (Magra), so that, while the harbour of Luna + was in the former, Luna itself was in the latter. + + + + +LI HUNG CHANG (1823-1901), Chinese statesman, was born on the 16th of +February 1823 at Hofei, in Ngan-hui. From his earliest youth he showed +marked ability, and when quite young he took his bachelor degree. In +1847 he became a Tsin-shi, or graduate of the highest order, and two +years later was admitted into the imperial Hanlin college. Shortly after +this the central provinces of the empire were invaded by the Taiping +rebels, and in defence of his native district he raised a regiment of +militia, with which he did such good service to the imperial cause that +he attracted the attention of Tsêng Kuo-fan, the generalissimo in +command. In 1859 he was transferred to the province of Fu-kien, where he +was given the rank of taotai, or intendant of circuit. But Tsêng had not +forgotten him, and at his request Li was recalled to take part against +the rebels. He found his cause supported by the "Ever Victorious Army," +which, after having been raised by an American named Ward, was finally +placed under the command of Charles George Gordon. With this support Li +gained numerous victories leading to the surrender of Suchow and the +capture of Nanking. For these exploits he was made governor of Kiangsu, +was decorated with a yellow jacket, and was created an earl. An incident +connected with the surrender of Suchow, however, left a lasting stain +upon his character. By an arrangement with Gordon the rebel wangs, or +princes, yielded Nanking on condition that their lives should be spared. +In spite of the assurance given them by Gordon, Li ordered their instant +execution. This breach of faith so aroused Gordon's indignation that he +seized a rifle, intending to shoot the falsifier of his word, and would +have done so had not Li saved himself by flight. On the suppression of +the rebellion (1864) Li took up his duties as governor, but was not long +allowed to remain in civil life. On the outbreak of the rebellion of the +Nienfei, a remnant of the Taipings, in Ho-nan and Shan-tung (1866) he +was ordered again to take the field, and after some misadventures he +succeeded in suppressing the movement. A year later he was appointed +viceroy of Hukwang, where he remained until 1870, when the Tientsin +massacre necessitated his transfer to the scene of the outrage. He was, +as a natural consequence, appointed to the viceroyalty of the +metropolitan province of Chihli, and justified his appointment by the +energy with which he suppressed all attempts to keep alive the +anti-foreign sentiment among the people. For his services he was made +imperial tutor and member of the grand council of the empire, and was +decorated with many-eyed peacocks' feathers. + +To his duties as viceroy were added those of the superintendent of +trade, and from that time until his death, with a few intervals of +retirement, he practically conducted the foreign policy of China. He +concluded the Chifu convention with Sir Thomas Wade (1876), and thus +ended the difficulty caused by the murder of Mr Margary in Yunnan; he +arranged treaties with Peru and Japan, and he actively directed the +Chinese policy in Korea. On the death of the emperor T'ungchi in 1875 +he, by suddenly introducing a large armed force into the capital, +effected a _coup d'état_ by which the emperor Kwang Sü was put on the +throne under the tutelage of the two dowager empresses; and in 1886, on +the conclusion of the Franco-Chinese war, he arranged a treaty with +France. Li was always strongly impressed with the necessity of +strengthening the empire, and when viceroy of Chihli he raised a large +well-drilled and well-armed force, and spent vast sums both in +fortifying Port Arthur and the Taku forts and in increasing the navy. +For years he had watched the successful reforms effected in Japan and +had a well-founded dread of coming into conflict with that empire. But +in 1894 events forced his hand, and in consequence of a dispute as to +the relative influence of China and Japan in Korea, war broke out. The +result proved the wisdom of Li's fears. Both on land and at sea the +Chinese forces were ignominiously routed, and in 1895, on the fall of +Wei-hai-wei, the emperor sued for peace. With characteristic subterfuge +his advisers suggested as peace envoys persons whom the mikado very +properly and promptly refused to accept, and finally Li was sent to +represent his imperial master at the council assembled at Shimonoseki. +With great diplomatic skill Li pleaded the cause of his country, but +finally had to agree to the cession of Formosa, the Pescadores, and the +Liaotung peninsula to the conquerors, and to the payment of an indemnity +of 200,000,000 taels. By a subsequent arrangement the Liaotung peninsula +was restored to China, in exchange for an increased indemnity. During +the peace discussions at Shimonoseki, as Li was being borne through the +narrow streets of the town, a would-be assassin fired a pistol +point-blank in his face. The wound inflicted was not serious, and after +a few days' rest Li was able to take up again the suspended +negotiations. In 1896 he represented the emperor at the coronation of +the tsar, and visited Germany, Belgium, France, England, and the United +States of America. For some time after his return to China his services +were demanded at Peking, where he was virtually constituted minister for +foreign affairs; but in 1900 he was transferred to Canton as viceroy of +the two Kwangs. The Boxer movement, however, induced the emperor to +recall him to the capital, and it was mainly owing to his exertions +that, at the conclusion of the outbreak, a protocol of peace was signed +in September 1901. For many months his health had been failing, and he +died on the 7th of November 1901. He left three sons and one daughter. + (R. K. D.) + + + + +LILAC,[1] or PIPE TREE (_Syringa vulgaris_), a tree of the olive family, +Oleaceae. The genus contains about ten species of ornamental hardy +deciduous shrubs native in eastern Europe and temperate Asia. They have +opposite, generally entire leaves and large panicles of small regular +flowers, with a bell-shaped calyx and a 4-lobed cylindrical corolla, +with the two stamens characteristic of the order attached at the mouth +of the tube. The common lilac is said to have come from Persia in the +16th century, but is doubtfully indigenous in Hungary, the borders of +Moldavia, &c. Two kinds of _Syringa_, viz. _alba_ and _caerulea_, are +figured and described by Gerard (_Herball_, 1597), which he calls the +white and the blue pipe privets. The former is the common privet, +_Ligustrum vulgare_, which, and the ash tree, _Fraxinus excelsior_, are +the only members of the family native in Great Britain. The latter is +the lilac, as both figure and description agree accurately with it. It +was carried by the European colonists to north-east America, and is +still grown in gardens of the northern and middle states. + + There are many fine varieties of lilac, both with single and double + flowers; they are among the commonest and most beautiful of + spring-flowering shrubs. The so-called Persian lilac of gardens (_S. + dubia_, _S. chinensis_ var. _Rothomagensis_), also known as the + Chinese or Rouen lilac, a small shrub 4 to 6 ft. high with intense + violet flowers appearing in May and June, is considered to be a hybrid + between _S. vulgaris_ and _S. persica_--the true Persian lilac, a + native of Persia and Afghanistan, a shrub 4 to 7 ft. high with + bluish-purple or white flowers. Of other species, _S. Josikaea_, from + Transylvania, has scentless bluish-purple flowers; _S. Emodi_, a + native of the Himalayas, is a handsome shrub with large ovate leaves + and dense panicles of purple or white strongly scented flowers. Lilacs + grow freely and flower profusely in almost any soil and situation, but + when neglected are apt to become choked with suckers which shoot up in + great numbers from the base. They are readily propagated by means of + these suckers. + + Syringa is also a common name for the mock-orange _Philadelphus + coronarius_ (nat. ord. _Saxifragaceae_), a handsome shrub 2 to 10 ft. + high, with smooth ovate leaves and clusters of white flowers which + have a strong orange-like scent. It is a native of western Asia, and + perhaps some parts of southern Europe. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Span. _lilac_, Fr. _lilac_, mod. lilas, are adapted from + Arab. _lilak_, Pers. _lilak_, variant of _milak_, of a blue color, + _mil_, blue, the indigo-plant. + + + + +LILBURNE, JOHN (c. 1614-1657), English political agitator, was the +younger son of a gentleman of good family in the county of Durham. At +the age of twelve he was apprenticed to a clothier in London, but he +appears to have early addicted himself to the "contention, novelties, +opposition of government, and violent and bitter expressions" for which +he afterwards became so conspicuous as to provoke the saying of Harry +Marten (the regicide) that, "if the world was emptied of all but John +Lilburn, Lilburn would quarrel with John, and John with Lilburn." He +appears at one time to have been law-clerk to William Prynne. In +February 1638, for the part he had taken in importing and circulating +_The Litany_ and other publications of John Bastwick and Prynne, +offensive to the bishops, he was sentenced by the Star Chamber to be +publicly whipped from the Fleet prison to Palace Yard, Westminster, +there to stand for two hours in the pillory, and afterwards to be kept +in gaol until a fine of £500 had been paid. He devoted his enforced +leisure to his favourite form of literary activity, and did not regain +his liberty until November 1640, one of the earliest recorded speeches +of Oliver Cromwell being made in support of his petition to the House of +Commons (Nov. 9, 1640). In 1641 he received an indemnity of £3000. He +now entered the army, and in 1642 was taken prisoner at Brentford and +tried for his life; sentence would no doubt have been executed had not +the parliament by threatening reprisals forced his exchange. He soon +rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, but in April 1645, having become +dissatisfied with the predominance of Presbyterianism, and refusing to +take the covenant, he resigned his commission, presenting at the same +time to the Commons a petition for considerable arrears of pay. His +violent language in Westminster Hall about the speaker and other public +men led in the following July to his arrest and committal to Newgate, +whence he was discharged, however, without trial, by order of the House, +in October. In January 1647 he was committed to the Tower for +accusations against Cromwell, but was again set at liberty in time to +become a disappointed spectator of the failure of the "Levellers" or +ultrademocratic party in the army at the Ware rendezvous in the +following November. The scene produced a deep impression on his mind, +and in February 1649 he along with other petitioners presented to the +House of Commons a paper entitled _The Serious Apprehensions of a part +of the People on behalf of the Commonwealth_, which he followed up with +a pamphlet, _England's New Chains Discovered_, criticizing Ireton, and +another exposing the conduct of Cromwell, Ireton and other leaders of +the army since June 1647 (_The Hunting of the Foxes from Newmarket and +Triploe Heath to Whitehall by Five Small Beagles_, the "beagles" being +Lilburne, Richard Overton, William Walwyn, Prince and another). Finally, +the _Second Part of England's New Chains Discovered_, a violent outburst +against "the dominion of a council of state, and a constitution of a new +and unexperienced nature," became the subject of discussion in the +House, and led anew to the imprisonment of its author in the Tower on +the 11th of April. His trial in the following October, on a charge of +seditious and scandalous practices against the state, resulted in his +unanimous acquittal, followed by his release in November. In 1650 he was +advocating the release of trade from the restrictions of chartered +companies and monopolists. + +In January 1652, for printing and publishing a petition against Sir +Arthur Hesilrige and the Haberdashers' Hall for what he conceived to +have been an injury done to his uncle George Lilburne in 1649, he was +sentenced to pay fines amounting to £7000, and to be banished the +Commonwealth, with prohibition of return under the pain of death. In +June 1653 he nevertheless came back from the Low Countries, where he had +busied himself in pamphleteering and such other agitation as was +possible, and was immediately arrested; the trial, which was protracted +from the 13th of July to the 20th of August, issued in his acquittal, to +the great joy of London, but it was nevertheless thought proper to keep +him in captivity for "the peace of the nation." He was detained +successively in the Tower, in Jersey, in Guernsey and in Dover Castle. +At Dover he came under Quaker influence, and signified his readiness at +last to be done with "carnal sword fightings and fleshly bustlings and +contests"; and in 1655, on giving security for his good behaviour, he +was set free. He now settled at Eltham in Kent, frequently preaching at +Quaker meetings in the neighbourhood during the brief remainder of his +troubled life. He died on the 29th of August 1657. + +His brother, Colonel Robert Lilburne, was among those who signed the +death-warrant of Charles I. In 1656 he was M.P. for the East Riding of +Yorkshire, and at the restoration was sentenced to lifelong +imprisonment. + + See D. Masson, _Life of Milton_ (iv. 120); Clement Walker (_History of + Independency_, ii. 247); W. Godwin (_Commonwealth_, iii. 163-177), and + Robert Bisset (_Omitted Chapters of the History of England_, 191-251). + + + + +LILIACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Monocotyledons belonging to the +series Liliiflorae, and generally regarded as representing the typical +order of Monocotyledons. The plants are generally perennial herbs +growing from a bulb or rhizome, sometimes shrubby as in butcher's broom +(_Ruscus_) or tree-like as in species of _Dracaena, Yucca_ or _Aloe_. +The flowers are with few exceptions hermaphrodite, and regular with +parts in threes (fig. 5), the perianth which is generally petaloid +occupying the two outer whorls, followed by two whorls of stamens, with +a superior ovary of three carpels in the centre of the flower; the ovary +is generally three-chambered and contains an indefinite number of +anatropous ovules on axile placentas (see fig. 2). The fruit is a +capsule splitting along the septa (septicidal) (fig. 1), or between them +(loculicidal), or a berry (fig. 6, 3); the seeds contain a small embryo +in a copious fleshy or cartilaginous endosperm. Liliaceae is one of the +larger orders of flowering plants containing about 2500 species in 200 +genera; it is of world-wide distribution. The plants show great +diversity in vegetative structure, which together with the character and +mode of dehiscence of the fruit afford a basis for the subdivision of +the order into tribes, eleven of which are recognized. The following are +the most important tribes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Fruit or Capsule of Meadow Saffron (_Colchicum +autumnale_) dehiscing along the septa.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Same cut across showing the three chambers with +the seeds attached along the middle line--axile placentation.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Corm of Meadow Saffron (_Colchicum autumnale_). +a, Old corm shrivelling; b, young corm produced laterally from the old +one.] + + _Melanthoideae._--The plants have a rhizome or corm, and the fruit is + a capsule. It contains 36 genera, many of which are north temperate + and three are represented in Britain, viz. _Tofieldia_, an arctic and + alpine genus of small herbs with a slender scape springing from a tuft + of narrow ensiform leaves and bearing a raceme of small green flowers; + _Narthecium_ (bog-asphodel), herbs with a habit similar to + _Tofieldia_, but with larger golden-yellow flowers; and _Colchicum_, a + genus with about 30 species including the meadow saffron or autumn + crocus (_C. autumnale_). _Colchicum_ illustrates the corm-development + which is rare in Liliaceae though common in the allied order + Iridaceae; a corm is formed by swelling at the base of the axis (figs. + 3, 4) and persists after the flowers and leaves, bearing next season's + plant as a lateral shoot in the axil of a scale-leaf at its base. + _Gloriosa_, well known in cultivation, climbs by means of its + tendril-like leaf-tips; it has handsome flowers with decurved + orange-red or yellow petals; it is a native of tropical Asia and + Africa. _Veratrum_ is an alpine genus of the north temperate zone. + + _Asphodeloideae._--The plants generally have a rhizome bearing radical + leaves, as in asphodel, rarely a stem with a tuft of leaves as in + _Aloe_, very rarely a tuber (_Eriospermum_) or bulb (_Bowiea_). The + flowers are borne in a terminal raceme, the anthers open introrsely + and the fruit is a capsule, very rarely, as in _Dianella_, a berry. It + contains 64 genera. _Asphodelus_ (asphodel) is a Mediterranean genus; + _Simethis_, a slender herb with grassy radical leaves, is a native of + west and southern Europe extending into south Ireland. _Anthericum_ + and _Chlorophytum_, herbs with radical often grass-like leaves and + scapes bearing a more or less branched inflorescence of small + generally white flowers, are widely spread in the tropics. Other + genera are _Funkia_, native of China and Japan, cultivated in the open + air in Britain; _Hemerocallis_, a small genus of central Europe and + temperate Asia--_H. flava_ is known in gardens as the day lily; + _Phormium_, a New Zealand genus to which belongs New Zealand flax, _P. + tenax_, a useful fibre-plant; _Kniphofia_, South and East Africa, + several species of which are cultivated; and _Aloe_. A small group of + Australian genera closely approach the order Juncaceae in having small + crowded flowers with a scarious or membranous perianth; they include + _Xanthorrhoea_ (grass-tree or black-boy) and _Kingia_, arborescent + plants with an erect woody stem crowned with a tuft of long stiff + narrow leaves, from the centre of which rises a tall dense + flower-spike or a number of stalked flower-heads; this group has been + included in Juncaceae, from which it is doubtfully distinguished only + by the absence of the long twisted stigmas which characterize the true + rushes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Corm of _Colchicum autumnale_ in autumn when + the plant is in flower. + + k, Present corm. + h, h, Brown scales covering it. + w, Its roots. + st, Its withered flowering stem. + k´, Younger corm produced from k. + wh, Roots from k´, which grows at expense of k. + s, s´, s´´, Sheathing leaves. + l´, l´´, Foliage leaves. + b, b´, Flowers. + k´´, Young corm produced from + k´, in autumn, which in succeeding autumn will produce flowers.] + + _Allioideae._--The plants grow from a bulb or short rhizome; the + inflorescence is an apparent umbel formed of several shortened + monochasial cymes and subtended by a pair of large bracts. It contains + 22 genera, the largest of which _Allium_ has about 250 species--7 are + British; _Agapanthus_ or African lily is a well-known garden plant; in + _Gagea_, a genus of small bulbous herbs found in most parts of Europe, + the inflorescence is reduced to a few flowers or a single flower; _G. + lutea_ is a local and rare British plant. + + _Lilioideae._--Bulbous plants with a terminal racemose inflorescence; + the anthers open introrsely and the capsule is loculicidal. It + contains 28 genera, several being represented in Britain. The typical + genus _Lilium_ and _Fritillaria_ are widely distributed in the + temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; _F. meleagris_, snake's + head, is found in moist meadows in some of the southern and central + English counties; _Tulipa_ contains more than 50 species in Europe and + temperate Asia, and is specially abundant in the dry districts of + central Asia; _Lloydia_, a small slender alpine plant, widely + distributed in the northern hemisphere, occurs on Snowdon in Wales; + _Scilla_ (squill) is a large genus, chiefly in Europe and Asia--_S. + nutans_ is the bluebell or wild hyacinth; _Ornithogalum_ (Europe, + Africa and west Asia) is closely allied to _Scilla_--_O. umbellatum_, + star of Bethlehem, is naturalized in Britain; _Hyacinthus_ and + _Muscari_ are chiefly Mediterranean; _M. racemosum_, grape hyacinth, + occurs in sandy pastures in the eastern counties of England. To this + group belong a number of tropical and especially South African genera + such as _Albuca_, _Urginea_, _Drimia_, _Lachenalia_ and others. + + _Dracaenoideae._--The plants generally have an erect stem with a crown + of leaves which are often leathery; the anthers open introrsely and + the fruit is a berry or capsule. It contains 9 genera, several of + which, such as _Yucca_ (fig. 5), _Dracaena_ and _Cordyline_ include + arborescent species in which the stem increases in thickness + continually by a centrifugal formation of new tissue; an extreme case + is afforded by _Dracaena Draco_, the dragon-tree of Teneriffe. _Yucca_ + and several allied genera are natives of the dry country of the + southern and western United States and of Central America. _Dracaena_ + and the allied genus _Cordyline_ occur in the warmer regions of the + Old World. There is a close relation between the pollination of many + yuccas and the life of a moth (_Pronuba yuccasella_); the flowers are + open and scented at night when the female moth becomes active, first + collecting a load of pollen and then depositing her eggs, generally in + a different flower from that which has supplied the pollen. The eggs + are deposited in the ovary-wall, usually just below an ovule; after + each deposition the moth runs to the top of the pistil and thrusts + some pollen into the opening of the stigma. Development of larva and + seed go on together, a few of the seeds serving as food for the + insect, which when mature eats through the pericarp and drops to the + ground, remaining dormant in its cocoon until the next season of + flowering when it emerges as a moth. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Yucca gloriosa._ Plant much reduced. 1, + Floral diagram. 2, Flower.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Twig of Butcher's Broom, _Ruscus aculeatus_, + slightly enlarged. 1, Male flower, 2, female flower, both enlarged; 3, + berry, slightly reduced.] + + [Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by + permission of Gustav Fischer. + + FIG. 7.--Rhizome of _Polygonatum multiflorum_. + + a, Bud of next year's aerial shoot. + b, Scar of this year's, and c, d, e, scars of three preceding years' + aerial shoots. + w, Roots.] + + _Asparagoideae._--Plants growing from a rhizome; fruit a berry. + _Asparagus_ contains about 100 species in the dryer warmer parts of + the Old World; it has a short creeping rhizome, from which springs a + slender, herbaceous or woody, often very much branched, erect or + climbing stem, the ultimate branches of which are flattened or + needle-like leaf-like structures (_cladodes_), the true leaves being + reduced to scales or, in the climbers, forming short, hard more or + less recurved spines. _Ruscus aculeatus_ (fig. 6) is butcher's broom, + an evergreen shrub with flattened leaf-like cladodes, native in the + southerly portion of England and Wales; the small flowers are + unisexual and borne on the face of the cladode; the male contains + three stamens, the filaments of which are united to form a short + stout column on which are seated the diverging cells of the anthers; + in the female the ovary is enveloped by a fleshy staminal tube on + which are borne three barren anthers. _Polygonatum_ and _Maianthemum_ + are allied genera with a herbaceous leafy stem and, in the former + axillary flowers, in the latter flowers in a terminal raceme; both + occur rarely in woods in Britain; _P. multiflorum_ is the well-known + Solomon's seal of gardens (fig. 7), so called from the seal-like scars + on the rhizome of stems of previous seasons, the hanging flowers of + which contain no honey, but are visited by bees for the pollen. + _Convallaria_ is lily of the valley; _Aspidistra_, native of the + Himalayas, China and Japan, is a well-known pot plant; its flowers + depart from the normal arrangement of the order in having the parts in + fours (tetramerous). Paris, including the British Herb _Paris_ (_P. + quadrifolia_), has solitary tetra- to poly-merous flowers terminating + the short annual shoot which bears a whorl of four or more leaves + below the flower; in this and in some species of the nearly allied + genus _Trillium_ (chiefly temperate North America) the flowers have a + fetid smell, which together with the dark purple of the ovary and + stigmas and frequently also of the stamens and petals, attracts + carrion-loving flies, which alight on the stigma and then climb the + anthers and become dusted with pollen; the pollen is then carried to + the stigmas of another flower. + + _Luzuriagoideae_ are shrubs or undershrubs with erect or climbing + branches and fruit a berry. _Lapageria_, a native of Chile, is a + favourite greenhouse climber with fine bell-shaped flowers. + + _Smilacoideae_ are climbing shrubs with broad net-veined leaves and + small dioecious flowers in umbels springing from the leaf-axils; the + fruit is a berry. They climb by means of tendrils, which are stipular + structures arising from the leaf-sheath. _Smilax_ is a characteristic + tropical genus containing about 200 species; the dried roots of some + species are the drug sarsaparilla. + + The two tribes _Ophiopogonoideae_ and _Aletroideae_ are often included + in a distinct order, Haemodoraceae. The plants have a short rhizome + and narrow or lanceolate basal leaves; and they are characterized by + the ovary being often half-inferior. They contain a few genera chiefly + old world tropical and subtropical. The leaves of species of + _Sansevieria_ yield a valuable fibre. + +Liliaceae may be regarded as the typical order of the series +Liliiflorae. It resembles Juncaceae in the general plan of the flower, +which, however, has become much more elaborate and varied in the form +and colour of its perianth in association with transmission of pollen by +insect agency; a link between the two orders is found in the group of +Australian genera referred to above under Asphodeloideae. The tribe +Ophiopogonoideae, with its tendency to an inferior ovary, suggests an +affinity with the Amaryllidaceae which resemble Liliaceae in habit and +in the horizontal plan of the flower, but have an inferior ovary. The +tribe Smilacoideae, shrubby climbers with net-veined leaves and small +unisexual flowers, bears much the same relationship to the order as a +whole as does the order Dioscoreaceae, which have a similar habit, but +flowers with an inferior ovary, to the Amaryllidaceae. + + + + +LILIENCRON, DETLEV VON (1844-1909), German poet and novelist, was born +at Kiel on the 3rd of June 1844. He entered the army and took part in +the campaigns of 1866 and 1870-71, in both of which he was wounded. He +retired with the rank of captain and spent some time in America, +afterwards settling at Kellinghusen in Holstein, where he remained till +1887. After some time at Munich, he settled in Altona and then at +Altrahistedt, near Hamburg. He died in July 1909. He first attracted +attention by the volume of poems, _Adjutantenritte und andere Gedichte_ +(1883), which was followed by several unsuccessful dramas, a volume of +short stories, _Eine Sommerschlacht_ (1886), and a novel _Breide +Hummelsbüttel_ (1887). Other collections of short stories appeared under +the titles _Unter flatternden Fahnen_ (1888). _Der Mäcen_ (1889), _Krieg +und Frieden_ (1891); of lyric poetry in 1889, 1890 (_Der Heidegänger +und andere Gedichte_), 1893, and 1903 (_Bunte Beute_). Interesting, too, +is the humorous epic _Poggfred_ (1896; 2nd ed. 1904). Liliencron is one +of the most eminent of recent German lyric poets; his _Adjutantenritte_, +with its fresh original note, broke with the well-worn literary +conventions which had been handed down from the middle of the century. +Liliencron's work is, however, somewhat unequal, and he lacks the +sustained power which makes the successful prose writer. + + Liliencron's _Sämtliche Werke_ have been published in 14 vols. + (1904-1905); his _Gedichte_ having been previously collected in four + volumes under the titles _Kampf und Spiele, Kämpfe und Ziele, Nebel + und Sonne_ and _Bunte Beute_ (1897-1903). See O. J. Bierbaum, _D. von + Liliencron_ (1892); H. Greinz, _Liliencron, eine literarhistorische + Würdigung_ (1896); F. Oppenheimer, _D. von Liliencron_ (1898). + + + + +LILITH (Heb. _lilâtu_, "night"; hence "night-monster"), a female demon +of Jewish folk-lore, equivalent to the English vampire. The personality +and name are derived from a Babylonian-Assyrian demon Lilit or Lilu. +Lilith was believed to have a special power for evil over children. The +superstition was extended to a cult surviving among some Jews even as +late as the 7th century A.D. In the Rabbinical literature Lilith becomes +the first wife of Adam, but flies away from him and becomes a demon. + + + + +LILLE, a city of northern France, capital of the department of Nord, 154 +m. N. by E. of Paris on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 196,624. Lille +is situated in a low fertile plain on the right bank of the Deûle in a +rich agricultural and industrial region of which it is the centre. It is +a first-class fortress and headquarters of the I. army corps, and has an +enceinte and a pentagonal citadel, one of Vauban's finest works, +situated to the west of the town, from which it is divided by the Deûle. +The modern fortifications comprise over twenty detached forts and +batteries, the perimeter of the defences being about 20 m. Before 1858 +the town, fortified by Vauban about 1668, occupied an elliptical area of +about 2500 yds. by 1300, with the church of Notre-Dame de la Treille in +the centre, but the ramparts on the south side have been demolished and +the ditches filled up, their place being now occupied by the great +Boulevard de la Liberté, which extends in a straight line from the goods +station of the railway to the citadel. At the S.E. end of this boulevard +are grouped the majority of the numerous educational establishments of +the city. The new enceinte encloses the old communes of Esquermes, +Wazemmes and Moulins-Lille, the area of the town being thus more than +doubled. In the new quarters fine boulevards and handsome squares, such +as the Place de la République, have been laid out in pleasant contrast +with the sombre aspect of the old town. The district of St André to the +north, the only elegant part of the old town, is the residence of the +aristocracy. Outside the enceinte populous suburbs surround the city on +every side. The demolition of the fortifications on the north and east +of the city, which is continued in those directions by the great suburbs +of La Madeleine, St Maurice and Fives, must accelerate its expansion +towards Roubaix and Tourcoing. At the demolition of the southern +fortifications, the Paris gate, a triumphal arch erected in 1682 in +honour of Louis XIV., after the conquest of Flanders, was preserved. On +the east the Ghent and Roubaix gates, built in the Renaissance style, +with bricks of different colours, date from 1617 and 1622, the time of +the Spanish domination. On the same side the Noble-Tour is a relic of +the medieval ramparts. The present enceinte is pierced by numerous +gates, including water gates for the canal of the Deûle and for the +Arbonnoise, which extends into a marsh in the south-west corner of the +town. The citadel, which contains the barracks and arsenal, is +surrounded by public gardens. The more interesting buildings are in the +old town, where, in the Grande Place and Rue Faidherbe, its animation is +concentrated. St Maurice, a church in the late Gothic style, dates in +its oldest portions from the 15th century, and was restored in 1872; Ste +Cathérine belongs to the 15th, 16th and 18th centuries, St André to the +first years of the 18th century, and Ste Madeleine to the last half of +the 17th century; all possess valuable pictures, but St Maurice alone, +with nave and double aisles, and elegant modern spire, is +architecturally notable. Notre-Dame de la Treille, begun in 1855, in the +style of the 15th century, possesses an ancient statue of the Virgin +which is the object of a well-known pilgrimage. Of the civil buildings +the Bourse (17th century) built round a courtyard in which stands a +bronze statue of Napoleon I., the Hôtel d'Aigremont, the Hôtel Gentil +and other houses are in the Flemish style; the Hôtel de Ville, dating in +the main from the middle of the 19th century, preserves a portion of a +palace built by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in the 15th century. +The prefecture, the Palais des Beaux-Arts, the law-courts, the school of +arts and crafts, and the Lycée Faidherbe are imposing modern buildings. +In the middle of the Grande Place stands a column, erected in 1848, +commemorating the defence of the town in 1792 (see below), and there are +also statues to Generals L. L. C. Faidherbe and F. O. de Négrier, and +busts of Louis Pasteur and the popular poet and singer A. Desrousseaux. +The Palais des Beaux-Arts contains a museum and picture galleries, among +the richest in France, as well as a unique collection of original +designs of the great masters bequeathed to Lille by J. B. Wicar, and +including a celebrated wax model of a girl's head usually attributed to +some Italian artist of the 16th century. The city also possesses a +commercial and colonial museum, an industrial museum, a fine collection +of departmental and municipal archives, the museum of the Institute of +Natural Sciences and a library containing many valuable manuscripts, +housed at the Hôtel de Ville. The large military hospital, once a Jesuit +college, is one of several similar institutions. + +Lille is the seat of a prefect and has tribunals of first instance and +of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a +branch of the Bank of France. It is the centre of an académie +(educational division) and has a university with faculties of laws, +letters, science and medicine and pharmacy, together with a Catholic +institute comprising faculties of theology, law, medicine and pharmacy, +letters, science, a technical school, and a department of social and +political science. Secondary education is given at the Lycée Faidherbe, +and the Lycée Fénelon (for girls), a higher school of commerce, a +national technical school and other establishments; to these must be +added schools of music and fine arts, and the Industrial and Pasteur +Institutes. + +The industries, which are carried on in the new quarters of the town and +in the suburbs, are of great variety and importance. In the first rank +comes the spinning of flax and the weaving of cloth, table-linen, +damask, ticking and flax velvet. The spinning of flax thread for sewing +and lace-making is specially connected with Lille. The manufacture of +woollen fabrics and cotton-spinning and the making of cotton-twist of +fine quality are also carried on. There are important printing +establishments, state factories for the manufacture of tobacco and the +refining of saltpetre and very numerous breweries, while chemical, oil, +white lead and sugar-works, distilleries, bleaching-grounds, dye-works, +machinery and boiler works and cabinet-making occupy many thousands of +workmen. Plant for sugar-works and distilleries, military stores, +steam-engines, locomotives, and bridges of all kinds are produced by the +company of Fives-Lille. Lille is one of the most important junctions of +the Northern railway, and the Deûle canal affords communication with +neighbouring ports and with Belgium. Trade is chiefly in the raw +material and machinery for its industries, in the products thereof, and +in the wheat and other agricultural products of the surrounding +district. + +Lille (l'Île) is said to date its origin from the time of Count Baldwin +IV. of Flanders, who in 1030 surrounded with walls a little town which +had arisen around the castle of Buc. In the first half of the 13th +century, the town, which had developed rapidly, obtained communal +privileges. Destroyed by Philip Augustus in 1213, it was rebuilt by +Joanna of Constantinople, countess of Flanders, but besieged and retaken +by Philip the Fair in 1297. After having taken part with the Flemings +against the king of France, it was ceded to the latter in 1312. In 1369 +Charles V., king of France, gave it to Louis de Male, who transmitted +his rights to his daughter Margaret, wife of Philip the Bold, duke of +Burgundy. Under the Burgundian rule Lille enjoyed great prosperity; its +merchants were at the head of the London Hansa. Philip the Good made it +his residence, and within its walls held the first chapters of the order +of the Golden Fleece. With the rest of Flanders it passed from the dukes +of Burgundy to Austria and then to Spain. After the death of Philip IV. +of Spain, Louis XIV. reclaimed the territory and besieged Lille in 1667. +He forced it to capitulate, but preserved all its laws, customs, +privileges and liberties. In 1708, after an heroic resistance, it +surrendered to Prince Eugène and the duke of Marlborough. The treaty of +Utrecht restored it to France. In 1792 the Austrians bombarded it for +nine days and nights without intermission, but had ultimately to raise +the siege. + + See É. Vanhende, _Lille et ses institutions communales de 620 à 1804_ + (Lille, 1888). + + + + +LILLEBONNE, a town of France in the department of Seine-Inférieure, 3½ +m. N. of the Seine and 24 m. E. of Havre by the Western railway. Pop. +(1906) 5370. It lies in the valley of the Bolbec at the foot of wooded +hills. The church of Notre-Dame, partly modern, preserves a Gothic +portal of the 16th century and a graceful tower of the same period. The +park contains a fine cylindrical donjon and other remains of a castle +founded by William the Conqueror and rebuilt in the 13th century. The +principal industries are cotton-spinning and the manufacture of calico +and candles. + +Lillebonne under the Romans, _Juliobona_, was the capital of the +Caletes, or inhabitants of the Pays de Caux, in the time of Caesar, by +whom it was destroyed. It was afterwards rebuilt by Augustus, and before +it was again ruined by the barbarian invasions it had become an +important centre whence Roman roads branched out in all directions. The +remains of ancient baths and of a theatre capable of holding 3000 +persons have been brought to light. Many Roman and Gallic relics, +notably a bronze statue of a woman and two fine mosaics, have been found +and transported to the museum at Rouen. In the middle ages the +fortifications of the town were constructed out of materials supplied by +the theatre. The town recovered some of its old importance under William +the Conqueror. + + + + +LILLIBULLERO, or LILLIBURLERO, the name of a song popular at the end of +the 17th century, especially among the army and supporters of William +III. in the war in Ireland during the revolution of 1688. The tune +appears to have been much older, and was sung to an Irish nursery song +at the beginning of the 17th century, and the attribution of Henry +Purcell is based on the very slight ground that it was published in +_Music's Handmaid_, 1689, as "A new Irish Tune" by Henry Purcell. It was +also a marching tune familiar to soldiers. The doggerel verses have +generally been assigned to Thomas Wharton, and deal with the +administration of Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel, appointed by James as his +lieutenant in Ireland in 1687. The refrain of the song _lilliburllero +bullen a la_ gave the title of the song. Macaulay says of the song "The +verses and the tune caught the fancy of the nation. From one end of +England to the other all classes were singing this idle rhyme." Though +Wharton claimed he had "sung a king out of three kingdoms" and Burnet +says "perhaps never had so slight a thing so great an effect" the +success of the song was "the effect, and not the cause of that excited +state of public feeling which produced the revolution" (Macaulay, _Hist. +of Eng._ chap. ix.). + + + + +LILLO, GEORGE (1693-1739), English dramatist, son of a Dutch jeweller, +was born in London on the 4th of February 1693. He was brought up to his +father's trade and was for many years a partner in the business. His +first piece, _Silvia, or the Country Burial_, was a ballad opera +produced at Lincoln's Inn Fields in November 1730. On the 22nd of June +1731 his domestic tragedy, _The Merchant_, renamed later _The London +Merchant, or the History of George Barnwell_, was produced by Theophilus +Cibber and his company at Drury Lane. The piece is written in prose, +which is not free from passages which are really blank verse, and is +founded on "An excellent ballad of George Barnwell, an apprentice of +London who ... thrice robbed his master, and murdered his uncle in +Ludlow." In breaking through the tradition that the characters of every +tragedy must necessarily be drawn from people of high rank and fortune +he went back to the Elizabethan domestic drama of passion of which the +_Yorkshire Tragedy_ is a type. The obtrusively moral purpose of this +play places it in the same literary category as the novels of +Richardson. Scoffing critics called it, with reason, a "Newgate +tragedy," but it proved extremely popular on the stage. It was regularly +acted for many years at holiday seasons for the moral benefit of the +apprentices. The last act contained a scene, generally omitted on the +London stage, in which the gallows actually figured. In 1734 Lillo +celebrated the marriage of the Princess Anne with William IV. of Orange +in _Britannia and Batavia_, a masque. A second tragedy, _The Christian +Hero_, was produced at Drury Lane on the 13th of January 1735. It is +based on the story of Scanderbeg, the Albanian chieftain, a life of whom +is printed with the play. Thomas Whincop (d. 1730) wrote a piece on the +same subject, printed posthumously in 1747. Both Lillo and William +Havard, who also wrote a dramatic version of the story, were accused of +plagiarizing Whincop's _Scanderbeg_. Another murder-drama, _Fatal +Curiosity_, in which an old couple murder an unknown guest, who proves +to be their own son, was based on a tragedy at Bohelland Farm near +Penryn in 1618. It was produced by Henry Fielding at the Little Theatre +in the Haymarket in 1736, but with small success. In the next year +Fielding tacked it on to his own _Historical Register for 1736_, and it +was received more kindly. It was revised by George Colman the elder in +1782, by Henry Mackenzie in 1784, &c. Lillo also wrote an adaptation of +the Shakespearean play of _Pericles, Prince of Tyre_, with the title +_Marina_ (Covent Garden, August 1st, 1738); and a tragedy, _Elmerick, or +Justice Triumphant_ (produced posthumously, Drury Lane, February 23rd, +1740). The statement made in the prologue to this play that Lillo died +in poverty seems unfounded. His death took place on the 3rd of September +1739. He left an unfinished version of _Arden of Feversham_, which was +completed by Dr John Hoadly and produced in 1759. Lillo's reputation +proved short-lived. He has nevertheless a certain cosmopolitan +importance, for the influence of _George Barnwell_ can be traced in the +sentimental drama of both France and Germany. + + See _Lillo's Dramatic Works with Memoirs of the Author by Thomas + Davies_ (reprint by Lowndes, 1810); Cibber's _Lives of the Poets_, v.; + Genest, _Some Account of the English Stage_; Alois Brandl, "Zu Lillo's + Kaufmann in London," in _Vierteljahrschrift für Literaturgeschichte_ + (Weimar, 1890, vol. iii.); Leopold Hoffmann, _George Lillo_ (Marburg, + 1888); Paul von Hofmann-Wellenhof, _Shakspere's Pericles und George + Lillo's Marina_ (Vienna, 1885). There is a novel founded on Lillo's + play, _Barnwell_ (1807), by T. S. Surr, and in "George de Barnwell" + (_Novels by Eminent Hands_) Thackeray parodies Bulwer-Lytton's _Eugene + Aram_. + + + + +LILLY, WILLIAM (1602-1681), English astrologer, was born in 1602 at +Diseworth in Leicestershire, his family having been settled as yeomen in +the place for "many ages." He received a tolerably good classical +education at the school of Ashby-de-la-Zouche, but he naïvely tells us +what may perhaps have some significance in reference to his after +career, that his master "never taught logic." In his eighteenth year, +his father having fallen into great poverty, he went to London and was +employed in attendance on an old citizen and his wife. His master, at +his death in 1627, left him an annuity of £20; and, Lilly having soon +afterwards married the widow, she, dying in 1633, left him property to +the value of about £1000. He now began to dabble in astrology, reading +all the books on the subject he could fall in with, and occasionally +trying his hand at unravelling mysteries by means of his art. The years +1642 and 1643 were devoted to a careful revision of all his previous +reading, and in particular having lighted on Valentine Naibod's +_Commentary on Alchabitius_, he "seriously studied him and found him to +be the profoundest author he ever met with." About the same time he +tells us that he "did carefully take notice of every grand action +betwixt king and parliament, and did first then incline to believe that +as all sublunary affairs depend on superior causes, so there was a +possibility of discovering them by the configurations of the superior +bodies." And, having thereupon "made some essays," he "found +encouragement to proceed further, and ultimately framed to himself that +method which he ever afterwards followed." He then began to issue his +prophetical almanacs and other works, which met with serious attention +from some of the most prominent members of the Long Parliament. If we +may believe himself, Lilly lived on friendly and almost intimate terms +with Bulstrode Whitlock, Lenthall the speaker, Sir Philip Stapleton, +Elias Ashmole and others. Even Selden seems to have given him some +countenance, and probably the chief difference between him and the mass +of the community at the time was that, while others believed in the +general truth of astrology, he ventured to specify the future events to +which its calculations pointed. Even from his own account of himself, +however, it is evident that he did not trust implicitly to the +indications given by the aspects of the heavens, but like more vulgar +fortune-tellers kept his eyes and ears open for any information which +might make his predictions safe. It appears that he had correspondents +both at home and in foreign parts to keep him conversant with the +probable current of affairs. Not a few of his exploits indicate rather +the quality of a clever police detective than of a profound astrologer. +After the Restoration he very quickly fell into disrepute. His sympathy +with the parliament, which his predictions had generally shown, was not +calculated to bring him into royal favour. He came under the lash of +Butler, who, making allowance for some satiric exaggeration, has given +in the character of Sidrophel a probably not very incorrect picture of +the man; and, having by this time amassed a tolerable fortune, he bought +a small estate at Hersham in Surrey, to which he retired, and where he +diverted the exercise of his peculiar talents to the practice of +medicine. He died in 1681. + + Lilly's life of himself, published after his death, is still worth + looking into as a remarkable record of credulity. So lately as 1852 a + prominent London publisher put forth a new edition of Lilly's + _Introduction to Astrology_, "with numerous emendations adapted to the + improved state of the science." + + + + +LILOAN, a town of the province of Cebú, Philippine Islands, on the E. +coast, 10 m. N.E. of Cebú, the capital of the province. Pop. (1903), +after the annexation of Compostela, 15,626. There are seventeen villages +or _barrios_ in the town, and eight of them had in 1903 a population +exceeding 1000. The language is Visayan. Fishing is the principal +industry. Liloan has one of the principal coal beds on the island; and +rice, Indian corn, sugar-cane and coffee are cultivated. Coconuts and +other tropical fruits are important products. + + + + +LILY, _Lilium_, the typical genus of the botanical order Liliaceae, +embracing nearly eighty species, all confined to the northern +hemisphere, and widely distributed throughout the north temperate zone. +The earliest in cultivation were described in 1597 by Gerard (_Herball_, +p. 146), who figures eight kinds of true lilies, which include _L. +album_ (_L. candidum_) and a variety, _bizantinum_, two umbellate forms +of the type _L. bulbiferum_, named _L. aureum_ and _L. cruentum +latifolium_, and three with pendulous flowers, apparently forms of the +martagon lily. Parkinson, in his _Paradisus_ (1629), described five +varieties of martagon, six of umbellate kinds--two white ones, and _L. +pomponium_, _L. chalcedonicum_, _L. carniolicum_ and _L. +pyrenaicum_--together with one American, _L. canadense_, which had been +introduced in 1629. For the ancient and medieval history of the lily, +see M. de Cannart d'Hamale's _Monographie historique et littéraire des +lis_ (Malines, 1870). Since that period many new species have been +added. The latest authorities for description and classification of the +genus are J. G. Baker ("Revision of the Genera and Species of Tulipeae," +_Journ. of Linn. Soc._ xiv. p. 211, 1874), and J. H. Elwes (_Monograph +of the Genus_ Lilium, 1880), who first tested all the species under +cultivation, and has published every one beautifully figured by W. H. +Fitch, and some hybrids. With respect to the production of hybrids, the +genus is remarkable for its power of resisting the influence of foreign +pollen, for the seedlings of any species, when crossed, generally +resemble that which bears them. A good account of the new species and +principal varieties discovered since 1880, with much information on the +cultivation of lilies and the diseases to which they are subject, will +be found in the report of the Conference on Lilies, in the _Journal of +the Royal Horticultural Society_, 1901. The new species include a number +discovered in central and western China by Dr Augustine Henry and other +collectors; also several from Japan and California. + +The structure of the flower represents the simple type of +monocotyledons, consisting of two whorls of petals, of three free parts +each, six free stamens, and a consolidated pistil of three carpels, +ripening into a three-valved capsule containing many winged seeds. In +form, the flower assumes three types: trumpet-shaped, with a more or +less elongated tube, e.g. _L. longiflorum_ and _L. candidum_; an open +form with spreading perianth leaves, e.g. _L. auratum_; or assuming a +pendulous habit, with the tips strongly reflexed, e.g. the martagon +type. All have scaly bulbs, which in three west American species, as _L. +Humboldti_, are remarkable for being somewhat intermediate between a +bulb and a creeping rhizome. _L. bulbiferum_ and its allies produce +aerial reproductive bulbils in the axils of the leaves. The bulbs of +several species are eaten, such as of _L. avenaceum_ in Kamchatka, of +_L. Martagon_ by the Cossacks, and of _L. tigrinum_, the "tiger lily," +in China and Japan. Medicinal uses were ascribed to the species, but +none appear to have any marked properties in this respect. + +[Illustration: Madonna or White Lily (_Lilium candidum_). About ¼ nat. +size.] + + The white lily, _L. candidum_, the [Greek: leirion] of the Greeks, was + one of the commonest garden flowers of antiquity, appearing in the + poets from Homer downwards side by side with the rose and the violet. + According to Hehn, roses and lilies entered Greece from the east by + way of Phrygia, Thrace and Macedonia (_Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere_, + 3rd ed., p. 217). The word [Greek: leirion] itself, from which + _lilium_ is derived by assimilation of consonants, appears to be + Eranian (Ibid. p. 527), and according to ancient etymologists + (Lagarde, _Ges. Abh._ p. 227) the town of Susa was connected with the + Persian name of the lily _sûsan_ (Gr. [Greek: souson], Heb. + _shôshan_). Mythologically the white lily, _Rosa Junonis_, was fabled + to have sprung from the milk of Hera. As the plant of purity it was + contrasted with the rose of Aphrodite. The word [Greek: krinon], on + the other hand, included red and purple lilies, Plin. _H.N._ xxi. 5 + (11, 12), the red lily being best known in Syria and Judaea + (Phaselis). This perhaps is the "red lily of Constantinople" of + Gerard, _L. chalcedonicum_. The lily of the Old Testament (shôshan) + may be conjectured to be a red lily from the simile in Cant. v. 13, + unless the allusion is to the fragrance rather than the colour of the + lips, in which case the white lily must be thought of. The "lilies of + the field," Matt. vi. 28, are [Greek: krina], and the comparison of + their beauty with royal robes suggests their identification with the + red Syrian lily of Pliny. Lilies, however, are not a conspicuous + feature in the flora of Palestine, and the red anemone (_Anemone + coronaria_), with which all the hill-sides of Galilee are dotted in + the spring, is perhaps more likely to have suggested the figure. For + the lily in the pharmacopoeia of the ancients see Adams's _Paul. + Aegineta_, iii. 196. It was used in unguents and against the bites of + snakes, &c. In the middle ages the flower continued to be common and + was taken as the symbol of heavenly purity. The three golden lilies of + France are said to have been originally three lance-heads. + + Lily of the valley, _Convallaria majalis_, belongs to a different + tribe (_Asparagoideae_) of the same order. It grows wild in woods in + some parts of England, and in Europe, northern Asia and the Alleghany + Mountains of North America. The leaves and flower-scapes spring from + an underground creeping stem. The small pendulous bell-shaped flowers + contain no honey but are visited by bees for the pollen. + + The word "lily" is loosely used in connexion with many plants which + are not really liliums at all, but belong to genera which are quite + distinct botanically. Thus, the Lent lily is _Narcissus + Pseudo-narcissus_; the African lily is _Agapanthus umbellatus_; the + Belladonna lily is _Amaryllis Belladonna_ (q.v.); the Jacobaea lily is + _Sprekelia formosissima_; the Mariposa lily is _Calochortus_; the lily + of the Incas is _Alstroemeria pelegrina_; St Bernard's lily is + _Anthericum Liliago_; St Bruno's lily is _Anthericum_ (or _Paradisia_) + _Liliastrum_; the water lily is _Nymphaea alba_; the Arum lily is + _Richardia africana_; and there are many others. + + [Illustration: Lily of the Valley (_Convallaria majalis_). About ¼ + nat. size.] + + The true lilies are so numerous and varied that no general cultural + instructions will be alike suitable to all. Some species, as _L. + Martagon_, _candidum_, _chalcedonicum_, _Szovitzianum_ (or + _colchicum_), _bulbiferum_, _croceum_, _Henryi_, _pomponium_--the + "Turk's cap lily," and others, will grow in almost any good garden + soil, and succeed admirably in loam of a rather heavy character, and + dislike too much peat. But a compost of peat, loam and leaf-soil suits + _L. auratum_, _Brownii_, _concolor_, _elegans_, _giganteum_, + _japonicum_, _longiflorum_, _monadelphum_, _pardalinum_, _speciosum_, + and the tiger lily (_L. tigrinum_) well, and a larger proportion of + peat is indispensable for the beautiful American _L. superbum_ and + _canadense_. The margin of rhododendron beds, where there are + sheltered recesses amongst the plants, suits many of the more delicate + species well, partial shade and shelter of some kind being essential. + The bulbs should be planted from 6 to 10 in. (according to size) below + the surface, which should at once be mulched over with half-decayed + leaves or coconut fibre to keep out frost. + + The noble _L. auratum_, with its large white flowers, having a yellow + band and numerous red or purple spots, is a magnificent plant when + grown to perfection; and so are the varieties called _rubro-vittatum_ + and _cruentum_, which have the central band crimson instead of yellow; + and the broad-petalled _platyphyllum_, and its almost pure white + sub-variety called _virginale_. Of _L. speciosum_ (well known to most + gardeners as _lancifolium_), the true typical form and the red-spotted + and white varieties are grand plants for late summer blooming in the + conservatory. The tiger lily, _L. tigrinum_, and its varieties + _Fortunei_, _splendidum_ and _flore-pleno_, are amongst the best + species for the flower garden; _L. Thunbergianum_ and its many + varieties being also good border flowers. The pretty _L. Leichtlinii_ + and _L. colchicum_ (or _Szovitsianum_) with drooping yellow flowers + and the scarlet drooping-flowered _L. tenuifolium_ make up, with those + already mentioned, a series of the finest hardy flowers of the summer + garden. The Indian _L. giganteum_ is perfectly distinct in character, + having broad heart-shaped leaves, and a noble stem 10 to 14 ft. high, + bearing a dozen or more large deflexed, funnel-shaped, white, + purple-stained flowers; _L. cordifolium_ (China and Japan) is similar + in character, but dwarfer in habit. + + For pot culture, the soil should consist of three parts turfy loam to + one of leaf-mould and thoroughly rotted manure, adding enough pure + grit to keep the compost porous. If leaf-mould is not at hand, turfy + peat may be substituted for it. The plants should be potted in + October. The pots should be plunged in a cold frame and protected from + frost, and about May may be removed to a sheltered and moderately + shady place out-doors to remain till they flower, when they may be + removed to the greenhouse. This treatment suits the gorgeous _L. + auratum_, the splendid varieties of _L. speciosum_ (_lancifolium_) and + also the chaste-flowering trumpet-tubed _L. longiflorum_ and its + varieties. Thousands of bulbs of such lilies as _longiflorum_ and + _speciosum_ are now retarded in refrigerators and taken out in batches + for greenhouse work as required. + + _Diseases._--Lilies are, under certain conditions favourable to the + development of the disease, liable to the attacks of three parasitic + fungi. The most destructive is _Botrytis cinerea_ which forms + orange-brown or buff specks on the stems, pedicels, leaves and + flower-buds, which increase in size and become covered with a delicate + grey mould, completely destroying or disfiguring the parts attacked. + The spores formed on the delicate grey mould are carried during the + summer from one plant to another, thus spreading the disease, and also + germinate in the soil where the fungus may remain passive during the + winter producing a new crop of spores next spring, or sometimes + attacking the scales of the bulbs forming small black hard bodies + embedded in the flesh. For prevention, the surface soil covering bulbs + should be removed every autumn and replaced by soil mixed with kainit; + manure for mulching should also be mixed with kainit, which acts as a + steriliser. If the fungus appears on the foliage spray with potassium + sulphide solution (2 oz. in 3 gallons of water). _Uromyces + Erythronii_, a rust, sometimes causes considerable injury to the + foliage of species of _Lilium_ and other bulbous plants, forming large + discoloured blotches on the leaves. The diseased stems should be + removed and burned before the leaves fall; as the bulb is not attacked + the plant will start growth next season free from disease. _Rhizopus + necans_ is sometimes the cause of extensive destruction of bulbs. The + fungus attacks injured roots and afterwards passes into the bulb which + becomes brown and finally rots. The fungus hibernates in the soil and + enters through broken or injured roots, hence care should be taken + when removing the bulbs that the roots are injured as little as + possible. An excellent packing material for dormant buds is coarsely + crushed wood-charcoal to which has been added a sprinkling of flowers + of sulphur. This prevents infection from outside and also destroys any + spores or fungus mycelium that may have been packed away along with + the bulbs. + + When cultivated in greenhouses liliums are subject to attack from + aphides (green fly) in the early stages of growth. These pests can be + kept in check by syringing with nicotine, soft-soap and quassia + solutions, or by "vaporising" two or three evenings in succession, + afterwards syringing the plants with clear tepid water. + + + + +LILYE, or LILY, WILLIAM (c. 1468-1522), English scholar, was born at +Odiham in Hampshire. He entered the university of Oxford in 1486, and +after graduating in arts went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On his +return he put in at Rhodes, which was still occupied by the knights of +St John, under whose protection many Greeks had taken refuge after the +capture of Constantinople by the Turks. He then went on to Italy, where +he attended the lectures of Sulpitius Verulanus and Pomponius Laetus at +Rome, and of Egnatius at Venice. After his return he settled in London +(where he became intimate with Thomas More) as a private teacher of +grammar, and is believed to have been the first who taught Greek in that +city. In 1510 Colet, dean of St Paul's, who was then founding the school +which afterwards became famous, appointed Lilye the first high master. +He died of the plague on the 25th of February 1522. + + Lilye is famous not only as one of the pioneers of Greek learning, but + as one of the joint-authors of a book, familiar to many generations of + students during the 19th century, the old Eton Latin grammar. The + _Brevissima Institutio_, a sketch by Colet, corrected by Erasmus and + worked upon by Lilye, contains two portions, the author of which is + indisputably Lilye. These are the lines on the genders of nouns, + beginning _Propria quae maribus_, and those on the conjugation of + verbs beginning _As in praesenti_. The _Carmen de Moribus_ bears + Lilye's name in the early editions; but Hearne asserts that it was + written by Leland, who was one of his scholars, and that Lilye only + adapted it. Besides the _Brevissima Institutio_, Lilye wrote a variety + of Latin pieces both in prose and Verse. Some of the latter are + printed along with the Latin verses of Sir Thomas More in + _Progymnasmata Thomae Mori et Gulielmi Lylii Sodalium_ (1518). Another + volume of Latin verse (_Antibossicon ad Gulielmum Hormannum_, 1521) is + directed against a rival schoolmaster and grammarian, Robert + Whittington, who had "under the feigned name of Bossus, much provoked + Lilye with scoffs and biting verses." + + See the sketch of Lilye's life by his son George, canon of St Paul's, + written for Paulus Jovius, who was collecting for his history the + lives of the learned men of Great Britain; and the article by J. H. + Lupton, formerly sur-master of St Paul's School, in the _Dictionary of + National Biography_. + + + + +LIMA, a city and the county-seat of Allen county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the +Ottawa river, about 70 m. S.S.W. of Toledo, Pop. (1890) 15,981; (1900) +21,723, of whom 1457 were foreign-born and 731 were negroes; (1910 +census) 30,508. It is served by the Pennsylvania (Pittsburgh, Ft. Wayne +& Chicago division), the Erie, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the +Lake Erie & Western, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton railways, and by six +interurban electric lines. Immediately N. of the city is a state asylum +for the insane. Lima has a Carnegie library, a city hospital and a +public park of 100 acres. Among the principal buildings are the county +court house, a masonic temple, an Elks' home and a soldiers' and +sailors' memorial building. Lima College was conducted here from 1893 to +1908. Lima is situated in the centre of the great north-western +oil-field (Trenton limestone of the Ordovician system) of Ohio, which +was first developed in 1885; the product of the Lima district was +20,575,138 barrels in 1896, 15,877,730 barrels in 1902 and 6,748,676 +barrels in 1908. The city is a headquarters of the Standard Oil Company, +and the refining of petroleum is one of the principal industries. The +total value of the factory product in 1905 was $8,155,586, an increase +of 31.1% over that in 1900. Lima contains railway shops of the +Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton and the Lake Erie & Western railways. The +city has a large wholesale and jobbing trade. The municipality owns and +operates the water-works. Lima was laid out in 1831, and was first +organized as a city under a general state law in 1842. + + + + +LIMA, a coast department of central Peru, bounded N. by Ancachs, E. by +Junin and Huancavelica, S. by Ica and W. by the Pacific Ocean. Pop. +(1906 estimate) 250,000; area 13,314 sq. m. The eastern boundary follows +the crests of the Western Cordillera, which gives to the department the +western slopes of this chain with the drainage basins of the rivers +Huaura, Chancay, Chillon, Rimac, Lurin, Mala and Cañete. Although the +department forms part of the rainless region, these rivers, fed from the +snows of the high Andes, provide water for the irrigation of large areas +devoted to the raising of cotton, sugar, sorghum, Indian corn, alfalfa, +potatoes, grapes and olives. The sugar estates of the Cañete are among +the best in Peru and are served by a narrow gauge railway terminating at +the small port of Cerro Azul. Indian corn is grown in Chancay and other +northern valleys, and is chiefly used, together with alfalfa and barley, +in fattening swine for lard. The mineral resources are not important, +though gold washings in the Cañete valley have been worked since early +colonial times. One of the most important industrial establishments in +the republic is the smelting works at Casapalca, on the Oroya railway, +in the Rimac valley, which receives ores from neighbouring mines of the +district of Huarochiri. The department is crossed from S.W. to N.E. by +the Oroya railway, and several short lines run from the city of Lima to +neighbouring towns. Besides Lima (q.v.) the principal towns are Huacho, +Cañete (port), Canta, Yauyos, Chorrillos, Miraflores and Barranco--the +last three being summer resorts for the people of the capital, with +variable populations of 15,000, 6000 and 5000 respectively. About 15 m. +S. of Lima, near the mouth of the Lurin, are the celebrated ruins of +Pachacamac, which are believed to antedate the occupation of this region +by the Incas. + + + + +LIMA, the principal city and the capital of Peru and of the department +and province of Lima, on the left bank of the river Rimac, 7½ m. above +its mouth and the same distance E. by N. of its seaport Callao, in 12° +2´ 34´´ S., 77° 7´ 36´´ W. Pop. (1906 estimate) 140,000, of whom a large +proportion is of negro descent, and a considerable number of foreign +birth. The city is about 480 ft. above sea-level, and stands on an arid +plain, which rises gently toward the S., and occupies an angle between +the Cerros de San Jeronimo (2493 ft.) and San Cristobal (1411 ft.) on +the N. and a short range of low hills, called the Cerros de San +Bartolomé, on the E. The surrounding region is arid, like all this part +of the Pacific coast, but through irrigation large areas have been +brought under cultivation, especially along the watercourses. The Rimac +has its source about 105 m. N.E. of Lima and is fed by the melting snows +of the higher Andes. It is an insignificant stream in winter and a +raging torrent in summer. Its tributaries are all of the same character, +except the Rio Surco, which rises near Chorrillos and flowing northward +joins the Rimac a few miles above the city. These, with the Rio Lurin, +which enters the Pacific a short distance S. of Chorrillos, provide +water for irrigating the districts near Lima. The climate varies +somewhat from that of the arid coast in general, in having a winter of +four months characterized by cloudy skies, dense fogs and sometimes a +drizzling rain. The air in this season is raw and chilly. For the rest +of the year the sky is clear and the air dry. The mean temperature for +the year is 66° F., the winter minimum being 59° and the summer maximum +78°. + +The older part of Lima was laid out and built with mathematical +regularity, the streets crossing each other at right angles and +enclosing square areas, called _manzanas_, of nearly uniform size. Later +extensions, however, did not follow this plan strictly, and there is +some variation from the straight line in the streets and also in the +size and shape of the manzanas. The streets are roughly paved with +cobble stones and lighted with gas or electricity. A broad boulevard of +modern construction partly encircles the city, occupying the site of the +old brick walls (18 to 20 ft. high, 10 to 12 ft. thick at the base and 9 +ft. at the top) which were constructed in 1585 by a Fleming named Pedro +Ramon, and were razed by Henry Meiggs during the administration of +President Balta. The water-supply is derived from the Rimac and +filtered, and the drainage, once carried on the surface, now passes into +a system of subterranean sewers. The streets and suburbs of Lima are +served by tramways, mostly worked by electric traction. The suburban +lines include two to Callao, one to Magdalena, and one to Miraflores and +Chorrillos. On the north side of the river is the suburb or district of +San Lazaro, shut in by the encircling hills and occupied in great part +by the poorer classes. The principal squares are the Plaza Mayor, Plaza +Bolívar (formerly P. de la Inquisicion and P. de la Independencia), +Plaza de la Exposicion, and Plaza del Acho, on the north side of the +river, the site of the bull-ring. The public gardens, connected with the +Exposition palace on the S. side of the city, and the Paseo Colon are +popular among the Limeños as pleasure resorts. The long Paseo Colon, +with its parallel drives and paths, is ornamented with trees, shrubbery +and statues, notably the Columbus statue, a group in marble designed by +the sculptor Salvatore Revelli. It is the favourite fashionable resort. +A part of the old wagon road from Lima to Callao, which was paved and +improved with walks and trees by viceroy O'Higgins, is also much +frequented. The avenue (3 m. long) leading from the city to Magdalena +was beautified by the planting of four rows of palms during the Pierola +administration. Among other public resorts are the Botanical garden, the +Grau and Bolognesi avenues (parts of the Boulevard), the Acho avenue on +the right bank of the Rimac, and the celebrated avenue of the Descalzos, +on the N. side of the river, bordered with statuary. The noteworthy +monuments of the city are the bronze equestrian statue of Bolívar in the +plaza of that name, the Columbus statue already mentioned, the Bolognesi +statue in the small square of that name, and the San Martin statue in +the Plaza de la Exposicion. The 22nd of May monument, a marble shaft +crowned by a golden bronze figure of Victory, stands where the Callao +road crosses the Boulevard. Most conspicuous among the public buildings +of Lima is the cathedral, whose twin towers and broad façade look down +upon the Plaza Mayor. Its foundation stone was laid in 1535 but the +cathedral was not consecrated until 1625. The great earthquake of 1746 +reduced it to a mass of ruins, but it was reconstructed by 1758, +practically, as it now stands. It has double aisles and ten +richly-decorated chapels, in one of which rest the remains of Francisco +Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru. Also facing the same square are the +archiepiscopal and government palaces; the latter formerly the palace of +the viceroys. The interesting _casa_ of the Inquisition, whose tribunals +rivalled those of Madrid in cruelty, faces upon Plaza Bolívar, as also +the old University of San Marcos, which dates from 1551 and has +faculties of theology, law, medicine, philosophy and literature, +mathematics, and administrative and political economy. The churches and +convents of Lima are richly endowed as a rule, and some of the churches +represent a very large expenditure of money. The convent of San +Francisco, near the Plaza Mayor, is the largest monastic establishment +in Lima and contains some very fine carvings. Its church is the finest +in the city after the cathedral. Other noteworthy churches are those of +the convents of Santo Domingo, La Merced and San Augustine. There are a +number of conventual establishments (for both sexes), which, with their +chapels, and with the smaller churches, retreats, sanctuaries, &c., make +up a total of 66 institutions devoted to religious observances. An +attractive, and perhaps the most popular public building in Lima is the +Exposition palace on the plaza and in the public gardens of the same +name, on the south side of the city. It dates from 1872; its halls are +used for important public assemblies, and its upper floor is occupied by +the National Historical Institute, its museum and the gallery of +historical paintings. Other noteworthy edifices and institutions are the +National Library, the Lima Geographical Society, founded in 1888; the +Mint, which dates from 1565 and is considered to be one of the best in +South America; the great bull-ring of the Plaza del Acho, which dates +from 1768 and can seat 8000 spectators; the Concepcion market; a modern +penitentiary; and various charitable institutions. In addition to the +old university on the Plaza Bolívar, which has been modernized and +greatly improved, Lima has a school of engineers and mines (founded +1876), the old college of San Carlos, a normal school (founded 1905), a +school of agriculture (situated outside the city limits and founded in +1902), two schools for girls under the direction of religious sisters, +an episcopal seminary called the Seminario Conciliar de Santo Toribio, +and a school of arts and trades in which elementary technical +instruction is given. Under the old régime, primary instruction was +almost wholly neglected, but the 20th century brought about important +changes in this respect. In addition to the primary schools, the +government maintains free night schools for workmen. + +The residences of the city are for the most part of one storey and have +mud walls supported by a wooden framework which enclose open spaces, +called _patios_, around which the living rooms are ranged. The better +class of dwellings have two floors and are sometimes built of brick. A +projecting, lattice-enclosed window for the use of women is a prominent +feature of the larger houses and gives a picturesque effect to the +streets. + +Manufacturing has had some considerable development since the closing +years of the 19th century; the most important manufactories are +established outside the city limits; they produce cotton and woollen +textiles, the products of the sugar estates, chocolate, cocaine, cigars +and cigarettes, beer, artificial liquors, cotton-seed oil, hats, +macaroni, matches, paper, soap and candles. The commercial interests of +the city are important, a large part of the interior being supplied from +this point. With its port Callao the city is connected by two steam +railways, one of which was built as early as 1848; one railway runs +northward to Ancon, and another, the famous Oroya line, runs inland 130 +m., crossing the Western Cordillera at an elevation of 15,645 ft. above +sea-level, with branches to Cerro de Pasco and Huari. The export trade +properly belongs to Callao, though often credited to Lima. The Limeños +are an intelligent, hospitable, pleasure-loving people, and the many +attractive features of their city make it a favourite place of residence +for foreigners. + +Lima was founded on the 18th of January 1535 by Francisco Pizarro, who +named it Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings) in honour of the +emperor Charles V. and Doña Juana his mother, or, according to some +authorities, in commemoration of the Feast of the Epiphany (6th January) +when its site is said to have been selected. The name soon after gave +place to that of Lima, a Spanish corruption of the Quichua word Rimac. +In 1541 Lima was made an episcopal see, which in 1545 was raised to a +metropolitan see. Under Spanish rule, Lima was the principal city of +South America, and for a time was the entrepôt for all the Pacific coast +colonies south of Panama. It became very prosperous during this period, +though often visited by destructive earthquakes, the most disastrous of +which was that of the 28th of October 1746, when the cathedral and the +greater part of the city were reduced to ruins, many lives were lost, +and the port of Callao was destroyed. Lima was not materially affected +by the military operations of the war of independence until 1821, when a +small army of Argentines and Chileans under General San Martin invested +the city, and took possession of it on the 12th of July upon the +withdrawal of the Spanish forces. San Martin was proclaimed the +protector of Peru as a free state on the 28th of July, but resigned that +office on the 20th of September 1822 to avoid a fratricidal struggle +with Bolívar. In March 1828 Lima was again visited by a destructive +earthquake, and in 1854-1855 an epidemic of yellow fever carried off a +great number of its inhabitants. In November 1864, when a hostile +Spanish fleet was on the coast, a congress of South American +plenipotentiaries was held here to concert measures of mutual defence. +Lima has been the principal sufferer in the many revolutions and +disorders which have convulsed Peru under the republic, and many of them +originated in the city itself. During the earlier part of this period +the capital twice fell into the hands of foreigners, once in 1836 when +the Bolivian general Santa Cruz made himself the chief of a +Bolivian-Peruvian confederation, and again in 1837 when an invading +force of Chileans and Peruvian refugees landed at Ancon and defeated the +Peruvian forces under President Orbegoso. The city prospered greatly +under the two administrations of President Ramon Castilla, who gave Peru +its first taste of peace and good government, and under those of +Presidents Balta and Pardo, during which many important public +improvements were made. The greatest calamity in the history of Lima was +its occupation by a Chilean army under the command of General Baquedano +after the bloody defeat of the Peruvians at Miraflores on the 15th of +January 1881. Chorrillos and Miraflores with their handsome country +residences had already been sacked and burned and their helpless +residents murdered. Lima escaped this fate, thanks to the intervention +of foreign powers, but during the two years and nine months of this +occupation the Chileans systematically pillaged the public edifices, +turned the old university of San Marcos into barracks, destroyed the +public library, and carried away the valuable contents of the Exposition +palace, the models and apparatus of the medical school and other +educational institutions, and many of the monuments and art treasures +with which the city had been enriched. A forced contribution of +$1,000,000 a month was imposed upon the population in addition to the +revenues of the custom house. When the Chilean garrison under Captain +Lynch was withdrawn on the 22nd of October 1883, it took 3000 wagons to +carry away the plunder which had not already been shipped. Of the +government palace and other public buildings nothing remained but the +bare walls. The buoyant character of the people, and the sympathy and +assistance generously offered by many civilized nations, contributed to +a remarkably speedy recovery from so great a misfortune. Under the +direction of its keeper, Don Ricardo Palma, 8315 volumes of the public +library were recovered, to which were added valuable contributions from +other countries. The portraits of the Spanish viceroys were also +recovered, except five, and are now in the portrait gallery of the +Exposition palace. The poverty of the country after the war made +recovery difficult, but years of peace have assisted it. + + See Mariano F. Paz Soldan, _Diccionario geográfico-estadistico del + Perú_ (Lima, 1877); Mateo Paz Soldan and M. F. Paz Soldan, _Geografia + del Perú_ (Paris, 1862); Manuel A. Fuentes, _Lima, or Sketches of the + Capital of Peru_ (London, 1866); C. R. Markham, _Cuzo and Lima_ + (London, 1856), and _History of Peru_ (Chicago, 1892); Alexandre + Garland, _Peru in 1906_ (Lima, 1907); and C. R. Enock, _Peru_ (London, + 1908). For earlier descriptions see works referred to under PERU. + (A. J. L.) + + + + +LIMAÇON (from the Lat. _limax_, a slug), a curve invented by Blaise +Pascal and further investigated and named by Gilles Personne de +Roberval. It is generated by the extremities of a rod which is +constrained to move so that its middle point traces out a circle, the +rod always passing through a fixed point on the circumference. The polar +equation is r = a+b cos [theta], where 2a = length of the rod, and b = +diameter of the circle. The curve may be regarded as an epitrochoid (see +EPICYCLOID) in which the rolling and fixed circles have equal radii. It +is the inverse of a central conic for the focus, and the first positive +pedal of a circle for any point. The form of the limaçon depends on the +ratio of the two constants; if a be greater than b, the curve lies +entirely outside the circle; if a equals b, it is known as a cardioid +(q.v.); if a is less than b, the curve has a node within the circle; the +particular case when b = 2a is known as the trisectrix (q.v.). In the +figure (1) is a limaçon, (2) the cardioid, (3) the trisectrix. + +[Illustration] + +Properties of the limaçon may be deduced from its mechanical +construction; thus the length of a focal chord is constant and the +normals at the extremities of a focal chord intersect on a fixed circle. +The area is (b² + a²/2)[pi], and the length is expressible as an +elliptic integral. + + + + +LIMASOL, a seaport of Cyprus, on Akrotiri Bay of the south coast. Pop. +(1901) 8298. Excepting a fort attributed to the close of the 12th +century the town is without antiquities of interest, but in the +neighbourhood are the ancient sites of Amathus and Curium. Limasol has a +considerable trade in wine and carobs. The town was the scene of the +marriage of Richard I., king of England, with Berengaria, in 1191. + + + + +LIMB. (1) (In O. Eng. _lim_, cognate with the O. Nor. and Icel. _limr_, +Swed. and Dan. _lem_; probably the word is to be referred to a root +_li_- seen in an obsolete English word "lith," a limb, and in the Ger. +_Glied_), originally any portion or member of the body, but now +restricted in meaning to the external members of the body of an animal +apart from the head and trunk, the legs and arms, or, in a bird, the +wings. It is sometimes used of the lower limbs only, and is synonymous +with "leg." The word is also used of the main branches of a tree, of the +projecting spurs of a range of mountains, of the arms of a cross, &c. As +a translation of the Lat. _membrum_, and with special reference to the +church as the "body of Christ," "limb" was frequently used by +ecclesiastical writers of the 16th and 17th centuries of a person as +being a component part of the church; cf. such expressions as "limb of +Satan," "limb of the law," &c. From the use of _membrum_ in medieval +Latin for an estate dependent on another, the name "limb" is given to an +outlying portion of another, or to the subordinate members of the Cinque +Ports, attached to one of the principal towns; Pevensey was thus a +"limb" of Hastings. (2) An edge or border, frequently used in scientific +language for the boundary of a surface. It is thus used of the edge of +the disk of the sun or moon, of the expanded part of a petal or sepal in +botany, &c. This word is a shortened form of "limbo" or "limbus," Lat. +for an edge, for the theological use of which see LIMBUS. + + + + +LIMBACH, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, in the manufacturing district +of Chemnitz, 6 m. N.W. of that city. Pop. (1905) 13,723. It has a public +park and a monument to the composer Pache. Its industries include the +making of worsteds, cloth, silk and sewing-machines, and dyeing and +bleaching. + + + + +LIMBER, an homonymous word, having three meanings. (1) A two-wheeled +carriage forming a detachable part of the equipment of all guns on +travelling carriages and having on it a framework to contain ammunition +boxes, and, in most cases, seats for two or three gunners. The French +equivalent is _avant-train_, the Ger. _Protz_ (see ARTILLERY and +ORDNANCE). (2) An adjective meaning pliant or flexible and so used with +reference to a person's mental or bodily qualities, quick, nimble, +adroit. (3) A nautical term for the holes cut in the flooring in a ship +above the keelson, to allow water to drain to the pumps. + + The etymology of these words is obscure. According to the _New English + Dictionary_ the origin of (1) is to be found in the Fr. _limonière_, a + derivative of _limon_, the shaft of a vehicle, a meaning which appears + in English from the 15th century but is now obsolete, except + apparently among the miners of the north of England. The earlier + English forms of the word are _lymor_ or _limmer_. Skeat suggests that + (2) is connected with "limp," which he refers to a Teutonic base + _lap_-, meaning to hang down. The _New English Dictionary_ points out + that while "limp" does not occur till the beginning of the 18th + century, "limber" in this sense is found as early as the 16th. In + Thomas Cooper's (1517?-1594) _Thesaurus Linguae Romanae et + Britannicae_ (1565), it appears as the English equivalent of the Latin + _lentus_. A possible derivation connects it with "limb." + + + + +LIMBORCH, PHILIPP VAN (1633-1712), Dutch Remonstrant theologian, was +born on the 19th of June 1633, at Amsterdam, where his father was a +lawyer. He received his education at Utrecht, at Leiden, in his native +city, and finally at Utrecht University, which he entered in 1652. In +1657 he became a Remonstrant pastor at Gouda, and in 1667 he was +transferred to Amsterdam, where, in the following year, the office of +professor of theology in the Remonstrant seminary was added to his +pastoral charge. He was a friend of John Locke. He died at Amsterdam on +the 30th of April 1712. + + His most important work, _Institutiones theologiae christianae, ad + praxin pietatis et promotionem pacis christianae unice directae_ + (Amsterdam, 1686, 5th ed., 1735), is a full and clear exposition of + the system of Simon Episcopius and Stephan Curcellaeus. The fourth + edition (1715) included a posthumous "Relatio historica de origine et + progressu controversiarum in foederato Belgio de praedestinatione." + Limborch also wrote _De veritate religionis Christianae amica collatio + cum erudito Judaeo_ (Gouda, 1687); _Historia Inquisitionis_ (1692), in + four books prefixed to the "Liber Sententiarum Inquisitionis + Tolosanae" (1307-1323); and _Commentarius in Acta Apostolorum et in + Epistolas ad Romanos et ad Hebraeos_ (Rotterdam, 1711). His editorial + labours included the publication of various works of his predecessors, + and of _Epistolae ecclesiasticae praestantium ac eruditorum virorum_ + (Amsterdam, 1684), chiefly by Jakobus Arminius, Joannes Uytenbogardus, + Konrad Vorstius (1569-1622), Gerhard Vossius (1577-1649), Hugo + Grotius, Simon Episcopius (his grand-uncle) and Gaspar Barlaeus; they + are of great value for the history of Arminianism. An English + translation of the Theologia was published in 1702 by William Jones + (_A Complete System or Body of Divinity, both Speculative and + Practical, founded on Scripture and Reason_, London, 1702); and a + translation of the _Historia Inquisitionis_, by Samuel Chandler, with + "a large introduction concerning the rise and progress of persecution + and the real and pretended causes of it" prefixed, appeared in 1731. + See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_. + + + + +LIMBURG, one of the many small feudal states into which the duchy of +Lower Lorraine was split up in the second half of the 11th century. The +first count, Walram of Arlon, married Judith the daughter of Frederick +of Luxemburg, duke of Lower Lorraine (d. 1065), who bestowed upon him a +portion of his possessions lying upon both sides of the river Meuse. It +received its name from the strong castle built by Count Walram on the +river Vesdre, where the town of Limburg now stands. Henry, Walram's son +(d. 1119), was turbulent and ambitious. On the death of Godfrey of +Bouillon (1089) he forced the emperor Henry IV. to recognize him as duke +of Lower Lorraine. He was afterwards deposed and imprisoned by Count +Godfrey of Louvain on whom the ducal title had been bestowed by the +emperor Henry V. (1106). For three generations the possession of the +ducal title was disputed between the rival houses of Limburg and +Louvain. At length a reconciliation took place (1155); the name of duke +of Lower Lorraine henceforth disappears, the rulers of the territory on +the Meuse become dukes of Limburg, those of the larger territory to the +west dukes of Brabant. With the death of Duke Walram IV. (1280) the +succession passed to his daughter, Irmingardis, who was married to +Reinald I., count of Guelders. Irmingardis died without issue (1282), +and her cousin, Count Adolph of Berg, laid claim to the duchy. His +rights were disputed by Reinald, who was in possession and was +recognized by the emperor. Too weak to assert his claim by force of arms +Adolph sold his rights (1283) to John, duke of Brabant (q.v.). This led +to a long and desolating war for five years, at the end of which (1288), +finding the power of Brabant superior to his own Reinald in his turn +sold his rights to count Henry III. of Luxemburg. Henry and Reinald, +supported by the archbishop of Cologne and other allies, now raised a +great army. The rival forces met at Woeringen (5th of June 1288) and +John of Brabant (q.v.) gained a complete victory. It proved decisive, +the duchies of Limburg and Brabant passing under the rule of a common +sovereign. The duchy comprised during this period the bailiwicks of +Hervé, Montzen, Baelen, Sprimont and Wallhorn, and the counties of +Rolduc, Daelhem and Falkenberg, to which was added in 1530 the town of +Maastricht. The provisions and privileges of the famous Charter of +Brabant, the _Joyeuse Entrée_ (q.v.), were from the 15th century +extended to Limburg and remained in force until the French Revolution. +By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the duchy was divided into two +portions, the counties of Daelhem and Falkenberg with the town of +Maastricht being ceded by Spain to the United Provinces, where they +formed what was known as a "Generality-Land." At the peace of Rastatt +(1714) the southern portion passed under the dominion of the Austrian +Habsburgs and formed part of the Austrian Netherlands until the French +conquest in 1794. During the period of French rule (1794-1814) Limburg +was included in the two French departments of Ourthe and Meuse +Inférieure. In 1814 the old name of Limburg was restored to one of the +provinces of the newly created kingdom of the Netherlands, but the new +Limburg comprised besides the ancient duchy, a piece of Gelderland and +the county of Looz. At the revolution of 1830 Limburg, with the +exception of Maastricht, threw in its lot with the Belgians, and during +the nine years that King William refused to recognize the existence of +the kingdom of Belgium the Limburgers sent representatives to the +legislature at Brussels and were treated as Belgians. When in 1839 the +Dutch king suddenly announced his intention of accepting the terms of +the settlement proposed by the treaty of London, as drawn up by +representatives of the great powers in 1831, Belgium found herself +compelled to relinquish portions of Limburg and Luxemburg. The part of +Limburg that lay on the right bank of the Meuse, together with the town +of Maastricht and a number of communes--Weert, Haelen, Kepel, Horst, +&c.--on the left bank of the river, became a sovereign duchy under the +rule of the king of Holland. In exchange for the cession of the rights +of the Germanic confederation over the portion of Luxemburg, which was +annexed by the treaty to Belgium, the duchy of Limburg (excepting the +communes of Maastricht and Venloo) was declared to belong to the +Germanic confederation. This somewhat unsatisfactory condition of +affairs continued until 1866, when at a conference of the great powers, +held in London to consider the Luxemburg question (see LUXEMBURG), it +was agreed that Limburg should be freed from every political tie with +Germany. Limburg became henceforth an integral part of Dutch territory. + + See P. S. Ernst, _Histoire du Limbourg_ (7 vols., Liége, 1837-1852); + C. J. Luzac, _De Landen van Overmuze in Zonderheid 1662_ (Leiden, + 1888); M. J. de Poully, _Histoire de Maastricht et de ses environs_ + (1850); _Diplomaticke bescheiden betreffends de Limburg-Luxemburgsche + aangelegenheden 1866-1867_ (The Hague, 1868); and R. Fruin, _Geschied. + der Staats-Instellingen in Nederland_ (The Hague, 1901). (G. E.) + + + + +LIMBURG, or LIMBOURG, the smallest of the nine provinces of Belgium, +occupying the north-east corner of the kingdom. It represents only a +portion of the ancient duchy of Limburg (see above). The part east of +the Meuse was transferred to Holland by the London conference, and a +further portion was attached to the province of Liége including the old +capital now called Dolhain. Much of the province is represented by the +wild heath district called the Campine, recently discovered to form an +extensive coal-field. The operations for working it were only begun in +1906. North-west of Hasselt is Beverloo, where all the Belgian troops go +through a course of instruction annually. Among the towns are Hasselt, +the capital, St Trond and Looz. From the last named is derived the title +of the family known as the dukes of Looz, whose antiquity equals that of +the extinct reigning family of Limburg itself. The title of duc de Looz +is one of the four existing ducal titles in the Netherlands, the other +three being d'Arenberg, Croy and d'Ursel. Limburg contains 603,085 acres +or 942 sq. m. In 1904 the population was 255,359, giving an average of +271 per sq. m. + + + + +LIMBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on +the Lahn, here crossed by a bridge dating from 1315, and on the main +line of railway from Coblenz to Lollar and Cassel, with a branch to +Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 9917. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic +bishop. The small seven-towered cathedral, dedicated to St George the +martyr, is picturesquely situated on a rocky site overhanging the +river. This was founded by Conrad Kurzbold, count of Niederlahngau, +early in the 10th century, and was consecrated in 1235. It was restored +in 1872-1878. Limburg has a castle, a new town hall and a seminary for +the education of priests; its industries include the manufacture of +cloth, tobacco, soap, machinery, pottery and leather. Limburg, which was +a flourishing place during the middle ages, had its own line of counts +until 1414, when it was purchased by the elector of Trier. It passed to +Nassau in 1803. In September 1796 it was the scene of a victory gained +by the Austrians under the archduke Charles over the French. + + See Hillebrand, _Limburg an der Lahn unter Pfandherrschaft 1344-1624_ + (Wiesbaden, 1899). + + + + +LIMBURG, the south-easternmost and smallest province of Holland, bounded +N. by Gelderland, N.W. by North Brabant, S.W. by the Belgian province of +Limburg, and S. by that of Liége, and E. by Germany. Its area is 850 sq. +m., and its population in 1900 was 281,934. It is watered by the Meuse +(Maas) which forms part of its south-western boundary (with Belgium) and +then flows through its northern portion, and by such tributaries as the +Geul and Roer (Ruhr). Its capital is Maastricht, which gives name to one +of the two administrative districts into which it is divided, the other +being Roermond. + + + + +LIMBURG CHRONICLE, or FESTI LIMPURGENSES, the name of a German chronicle +written most probably by Tileman Elhen von Wolfhagen after 1402. It is a +source for the history of the Rhineland between 1336 and 1398, but is +perhaps more valuable for the information about German manners and +customs, and the old German folk-songs and stories which it contains. It +has also a certain philological interest. + + The chronicle was first published by J. F. Faust in 1617, and has been + edited by A. Wyss for the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Deutsche + Chroniken_, Band iv. (Hanover, 1883). See A. Wyss, _Die Limburger + Chronik untersucht_ (Marburg, 1875). + + + + +LIMBURGITE, in petrology, a dark-coloured volcanic rock resembling +basalt in appearance, but containing normally no felspar. The name is +taken from Limburg (Germany), where they occur in the well-known rock of +the Kaiserstuhl. They consist essentially of olivine and augite with a +brownish glassy ground mass. The augite may be green, but more commonly +is brown or violet; the olivine is usually pale green or colourless, but +is sometimes yellow (hyalosiderite). In the ground mass a second +generation of small eumorphic augites frequently occurs; more rarely +olivine is present also as an ingredient of the matrix. The principal +accessory minerals are titaniferous iron oxides and apatite. Felspar +though sometimes present is never abundant, and nepheline also is +unusual. In some limburgites large phenocysts of dark brown hornblende +and biotite are found, mostly with irregular borders blackened by +resorption; in others there are large crystals of soda orthoclase or +anorthoclase. Hauyne is an ingredient of some of the limburgites of the +Cape Verde Islands. Rocks of this group occur in considerable numbers in +Germany (Rhine district) and in Bohemia, also in Scotland, Auvergne, +Spain, Africa (Kilimanjaro), Brazil, &c. They are associated principally +with basalts, nepheline and leucite basalts and monchiquites. From the +last-named rocks the limburgites are not easily separated as the two +classes bear a very close resemblance in structure and in mineral +composition, though many authorities believe that the ground mass of the +monchiquites is not a glass but crystalline analcite. Limburgites may +occur as flows, as sills or dykes, and are sometimes highly vesicular. +Closely allied to them are the _augitites_, which are distinguished only +by the absence of olivine; examples are known from Bohemia, Auvergne, +the Canary Islands, Ireland, &c. + + + + +LIMBUS (Lat. for "edge," "fringe," e.g. of a garment), a theological +term denoting the border of hell, where dwell those who, while not +condemned to torture, yet are deprived of the joy of heaven. The more +common form in English is "limbo," which is used both in the technical +theological sense and derivatively in the sense of "prison," or for the +condition of being lost, deserted, obsolete. In theology there are (1) +the _Limbus Infantum_, and (2) the _Limbus Patrum_. + +1. The _Limbus Infantum_ or _Puerorum_ is the abode to which human +beings dying without actual sin, but with their original sin unwashed +away by baptism, were held to be consigned; the category included, not +unbaptized infants merely, but also idiots, cretins and the like. The +word "limbus," in the theological application, occurs first in the +_Summa_ of Thomas Aquinas; for its extensive currency it is perhaps most +indebted to the _Commedia_ of Dante (_Inf._ c. 4). The question as to +the destiny of infants dying unbaptized presented itself to theologians +at a comparatively early period. Generally speaking it may be said that +the Greek fathers inclined to a cheerful and the Latin fathers to a +gloomy view. Thus Gregory of Nazianzus (_Orat._ 40) says "that such +children as die unbaptized without their own fault shall neither be +glorified nor punished by the righteous Judge, as having done no +wickedness, though they die unbaptized, and as rather suffering loss +than being the authors of it." Similar opinions were expressed by +Gregory of Nyssa, Severus of Antioch and others--opinions which it is +almost impossible to distinguish from the Pelagian view that children +dying unbaptized might be admitted to eternal life, though not to the +kingdom of God. In his recoil from Pelagian heresy, Augustine was +compelled to sharpen the antithesis between the state of the saved and +that of the lost, and taught that there are only two alternatives--to be +with Christ or with the devil, to be with Him or against Him. Following +up, as he thought, his master's teaching, Fulgentius declared that it is +to be believed as an indubitable truth that, "not only men who have come +to the use of reason, but infants dying, whether in their mother's womb +or after birth, without baptism in the name of the Father, Son and Holy +Ghost, are punished with everlasting punishment in eternal fire." Later +theologians and schoolmen followed Augustine in rejecting the notion of +any final position intermediate between heaven and hell, but otherwise +inclined to take the mildest possible view of the destiny of the +irresponsible and unbaptized. Thus the proposition of Innocent III. that +"the punishment of original sin is deprivation of the vision of God" is +practically repeated by Aquinas, Scotus, and all the other great +theologians of the scholastic period, the only outstanding exception +being that of Gregory of Rimini, who on this account was afterwards +called "tortor infantum." The first authoritative declaration of the +Latin Church upon this subject was that made by the second council of +Lyons (1274), and confirmed by the council of Florence (1439), with the +concurrence of the representatives of the Greek Church, to the effect +that "the souls of those who die in mortal sin or in original sin only +forthwith descend into hell, but to be punished with unequal +punishments." Perrone remarks (_Prael. Theol._ pt. iii. chap. 6, art. 4) +that the damnation of infants and also the comparative lightness of the +punishment involved in this are thus _de fide_; but nothing is +determined as to the place which they occupy in hell, as to what +constitutes the disparity of their punishment, or as to their condition +after the day of judgment. In the council of Trent there was +considerable difference of opinion as to what was implied in deprivation +of the vision of God, and no definition was attempted, the Dominicans +maintaining the severer view that the "limbus infantum" was a dark +subterranean fireless chamber, while the Franciscans placed it in a +region of light above the earth. Some theologians continue to maintain +with Bellarmine that the infants "in limbo" are affected with some +degree of sadness on account of a felt privation; others, following the +_Nodus praedestinationis_ of Celestine Sfrondati (1649-1696), hold that +they enjoy every kind of natural felicity, as regards their souls now, +and as regards their bodies after the resurrection, just as if Adam had +not sinned. In the condemnation (1794) of the synod of Pistoia (1786), +the twenty-sixth article declares it to be false, rash and injurious to +treat as Pelagian the doctrine that those dying in original sin are not +punished with fire, as if that meant that there is an intermediate +place, free from fault and punishment, between the kingdom of God and +everlasting damnation. + +2. The _Limbus Patrum_, _Limbus Inferni_ or _Sinus Abrahae_ ("Abraham's +Bosom"), is defined in Roman Catholic theology as the place in the +underworld where the saints of the Old Testament were confined until +liberated by Christ on his "descent into hell." Regarding the locality +and its pleasantness or painfulness nothing has been taught as _de +fide_. It is sometimes regarded as having been closed and empty since +Christ's descent, but other authors do not think of it as separate in +place from the _limbus infantum_. The whole idea, in the Latin Church, +has been justly described as the mere _caput mortuum_ of the old +catholic doctrine of Hades, which was gradually superseded in the West +by that of purgatory. + + + + +LIME (O. Eng. _lim_, Lat. _limus_, mud, from _linere_, to smear), the +name given to a viscous exudation of the holly-tree, used for snaring +birds and known as "bird-lime." In chemistry, it is the popular name of +calcium oxide, CaO, a substance employed in very early times as a +component of mortars and cementing materials. It is prepared by the +burning of limestone (a process described by Dioscorides and Pliny) in +kilns similar to those described under CEMENT. The value and subsequent +treatment of the product depend on the purity of the limestone; a pure +stone yields a "fat" lime which readily slakes; an impure stone, +especially if magnesia be present, yields an almost unslakable "poor" +lime. See CEMENT, CONCRETE and MORTAR, for details. + +Pure calcium oxide "quick-lime," obtained by heating the pure carbonate, +is a white amorphous substance, which can be readily melted and boiled +in the electric furnace, cubic and acicular crystals being deposited on +cooling the vapour. It combines with water, evolving much heat and +crumbling to pieces; this operation is termed "slaking" and the +resulting product "slaked lime"; it is chemically equivalent to the +conversion of the oxide into hydrate. A solution of the hydrate in +water, known as lime-water, has a weakly alkaline reaction; it is +employed in the detection of carbonic acid. "Milk of lime" consists of a +cream of the hydrate and water. Dry lime has no action upon chlorine, +carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide, although in the presence of water +combination ensues. + +In medicine lime-water, applied externally, is an astringent and +desiccative, and it enters into the preparation of linamentum calcis and +carron oil which are employed to heal burns, eczema, &c. Applied +internally, lime-water is an antacid; it prevents the curdling of milk +in large lumps (hence its prescription for infants); it also acts as a +gastric sedative. Calcium phosphate is much employed in treating +rickets, and calcium chloride in haemoptysis and haemophylia. It is an +antidote for mineral and oxalic acid poisoning. + + + + +LIME,[1] or LINDEN. The lime trees, species of _Tilia_, are familiar +timber trees with sweet-scented, honeyed flowers, which are borne on a +common peduncle proceeding from the middle of a long bract. The genus, +which gives the name to the natural order Tiliaceae, contains about ten +species of trees, natives of the north temperate zone. The general name +_Tilia europaea_, the name given by Linnaeus to the European lime, +includes several well-marked sub-species, often regarded as distinct +species. These are: (1) the small-leaved lime, _T. parvifolia_ (or _T. +cordata_), probably wild in woods in England and also wild throughout +Europe, except in the extreme south-east, and Russian Asia. (2) _T. +intermedia_, the common lime, which is widely planted in Britain but not +wild there, has a less northerly distribution than _T. cordata_, from +which it differs in its somewhat larger leaves and downy fruit. (3) The +large-leaved lime, _T. platyphyllos_ (or _T. grandifolia_), occurs only +as an introduction in Britain, and is wild in Europe south of Denmark. +It differs from the other two limes in its larger leaves, often 4 in. +across, which are downy beneath, its downy twigs and its prominently +ribbed fruit. The lime sometimes acquires a great size; one is recorded +in Norfolk as being 16 yds. in circumference, and Ray mentions one of +the same girth. The famous linden tree which gave the town of Neuenstadt +in Württemberg the name of "_Neuenstadt an der grossen Linden_" was 9 +ft. in diameter. + +The lime is a very favourite tree. It is an object of beauty in the +spring when the delicately transparent green leaves are bursting from +the protection of the pink and white stipules, which have formed the +bud-scales, and retains its fresh green during early summer. Later, the +fragrance of its flowers, rich in honey, attracts innumerable bees; in +the autumn the foliage becomes a clear yellow but soon falls. Among the +many famous avenues of limes may be mentioned that which gave the name +to one of the best-known ways in Berlin, "Unter den Linden," and the +avenue at Trinity College, Cambridge. + + The economic value of the tree chiefly lies in the inner bark or liber + (Lat. for bark), called bast, and the wood. The former was used for + paper and mats and for tying garlands by the ancients (_Od._ i. 38; + Pliny xvi. 14. 25, xxiv. 8. 33). Bast mats are now made chiefly in + Russia, the bark being cut in long strips, when the liber is easily + separable from the corky superficial layer. It is then plaited into + mats about 2 yds. square; 14,000,000 come to Britain annually, chiefly + from Archangel. The wood is used by carvers, being soft and light, and + by architects in framing the models of buildings. Turners use it for + light bowls, &c. _T. americana_ (bass-wood) is one of the most common + trees in the forests of Canada and extends into the eastern and + southern United States. It is sawn into lumber and under the name of + white-wood used in the manufacture of wooden ware, cheap furniture, + &c., and also for paper pulp (C. S. Sargent, _Silva of North + America_). It was cultivated by Philip Miller at Chelsea in 1752. + + The common lime was well known to the ancients. Theophrastus says the + leaves are sweet and used for fodder for most kinds of cattle. Pliny + alludes to the use of the liber and wood, and describes the tree as + growing in the mountain-valleys of Italy (xvi. 30). See also Virg. + _Geo._ i. 173, &c.; Ov. _Met._ viii. 621, x. 92. Allusion to the + lightness of the wood is made in Aristoph. _Birds_, 1378. + + For the sweet lime (_Citrus Limetta_ or _Citrus acida_) and + lime-juice, see LEMON. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This is an altered form of O. Eng. and M. Eng. _lind_; cf. Ger. + _Linde_, cognate with Gr. [Greek: elatê], the silver fir. "Linden" in + English means properly "made of lime--or lind--wood," and the + transference to the tree is due to the Ger. _Lindenbaum_. + + + + +LIMERICK, a western county of Ireland, in the province of Munster, +bounded N. by the estuary of the Shannon and the counties of Clare and +Tipperary, E. by Tipperary, S. by Cork and W. by Kerry. The area is +680,842 acres, or about 1064 sq. m. The greater part of the county is +comparatively level, but in the south-east the picturesque Galtees, +which extend into Tipperary, attain in Galtymore a height of 3015 ft., +and on the west, stretching into Kerry, there is a circular amphitheatre +of less elevated mountains. The Shannon is navigable for large vessels +to Limerick, above which are the rapids of Doonas and Castleroy, and a +canal. The Shannon is widely famous as a sporting river, and +Castleconnell is a well-known centre. The Maigne, which rises in the +Galtees and flows into the Shannon, is navigable as far as the town of +Adare. + + This is mainly a Carboniferous Limestone county, with fairly level + land, broken by ridges of Old Red Sandstone. On the north-east, the + latter rock rises on Slievefelim, round a Silurian core, to 1523 ft. + In the south, Old Red Sandstone rises above an enclosed area of + Silurian shales at Ballylanders, the opposite scarp of Old Red + Sandstone forming the Ballyhoura Hills on the Cork border. Volcanic + ashes, andesites, basalts and intrusive sheets of basic rock, mark an + eruptive episode in the Carboniferous Limestone. These are well seen + under Carrigogunnell Castle, and in a ring of hills round Ballybrood. + At Ballybrood, Upper Carboniferous beds occur, as an outlier of a + large area that links the west of the county with the north of Kerry. + The coals in the west are not of commercial value. Lead-ore has been + worked in places in the limestone. + + Limerick includes the greater part of the Golden Vale, the most + fertile district of Ireland, which stretches from Cashel in Tipperary + nearly to the town of Limerick. Along the banks of the Shannon there + are large tracts of flat meadow land formed of deposits of calcareous + and peaty matter, exceedingly fertile. The soil in the mountainous + districts is for the most part thin and poor, and incapable of + improvement. The large farms occupy the low grounds, and are almost + wholly devoted to grazing. The acreage under tillage decreases, the + proportion to pasturage being as one to nearly three. All the crops + (of which oats and potatoes are the principal) show a decrease, but + there is a growing acreage of meadow land. The numbers of live stock, + on the other hand, are on the whole well maintained, and cattle, + sheep, pigs, goats and poultry are all extensively reared. The + inhabitants are employed chiefly in agriculture, but coarse woollens + are manufactured, and also paper, and there are many meal and flour + mills. Formerly there were flax-spinning and weaving mills, but the + industry is now practically extinct. Limerick is the headquarters of + an important salmon-fishery on the Shannon. The railway communications + are entirely included in the Great Southern and Western system, whose + main line crosses the south-eastern corner of the county, with two + branches to the city of Limerick from Limerick Junction and from + Charleville, and lines from Limerick south-westward to Tralee in + county Kerry, and to Foynes on the Shannon estuary. Limerick is also + served by a line from the north through county Tipperary. The port of + Limerick, at the head of the estuary, is the most important on the + west coast. + + The county includes 14 baronies. The number of members returned to the + Irish parliament was eight, two being returned for each of the + boroughs of Askeaton and Kilmallock, in addition to two returned for + the county, and two for the county of the city of Limerick. The + present county parliamentary divisions are the east and west, each + returning one member. The population (158,912 in 1891, 146,098 in + 1901) shows a decrease somewhat under the average of the Irish + counties generally, emigration being, however, extensive; of the total + about 94% are Roman Catholics, and about 73% are rural. The chief + towns are Limerick (pop. 38,151), Rathkeale (1749) and Newcastle or + Newcastle West (2599). The city of Limerick constitutes a county in + itself. Assizes are held at Limerick, and quarter-sessions at Bruff, + Limerick, Newcastle and Rathkeale. The county is divided between the + Protestant dioceses of Cashel, Killaloe and Limerick; and between the + Roman Catholic dioceses of the same names. + +Limerick was included in the kingdom of Thomond. Afterwards it had a +separate existence under the name of Aine-Cliach. From the 8th to the +11th century it was partly occupied by the Danes (see LIMERICK, City). +As a county, Limerick is one of the twelve generally considered to owe +their formation to King John. By Henry II. it was granted to Henry +Fitzherbert, but his claim was afterwards resigned, and subsequently +various Anglo-Norman settlements were made. About 100,000 acres of the +estates of the earl of Desmond, which were forfeited in 1586, were +situated in the county, and other extensive confiscations took place +after the Cromwellian wars. In 1709 a German colony from the Palatinate +was settled by Lord Southwell near Bruff, Rathkeale and Adare. + +There are only slight remains of the round tower at Ardpatrick, but that +at Dysert is much better preserved; another at Kilmallock is in great +part a reconstruction. There are important remains of stone circles, +pillar stones and altars at Loch Gur. In several places there are +remains of old moats and tumuli. Besides the monasteries in the city of +Limerick, the most important monastic ruins are those of Adare abbey, +Askeaton abbey, Galbally friary, Kilflin monastery, Kilmallock and +Monaster-Nenagh abbey. + + + + +LIMERICK, a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough, port and the +chief town of Co. Limerick, Ireland, occupying both banks and an island +(King's Island) of the river Shannon, at the head of its estuary, 129 m. +W.S.W. of Dublin by the Great Southern and Western railway. Pop. (1901) +38,151. The situation is striking, for the Shannon is here a broad and +noble stream, and the immediately surrounding country consists of the +rich lowlands of its valley, while beyond rise the hills of the counties +Clare and Tipperary. The city is divided into English Town (on King's +Island), Irish Town and Newtown Pery, the first including the ancient +nucleus of the city, and the last the principal modern streets. The main +stream of the Shannon is crossed by Thomond Bridge and Sarsfield or +Wellesley Bridge. The first is commanded by King John's Castle, on +King's Island, a fine Norman fortress fronting the river, and used as +barracks. At the west end of the bridge is preserved the Treaty Stone, +on which the Treaty of Limerick was signed in 1691. The cathedral of St +Mary, also on King's Island, was originally built in 1142-1180, and +exhibits some Early English work, though largely altered at dates +subsequent to that period. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St John is a +modern building (1860) in early pointed style. The churches of St +Munchin (to whom is attributed the foundation of the see in the 6th +century) and St John, Whitamore's Castle and a Dominican priory, are +other remains of antiquarian interest; while the principal city and +county buildings are a chamber of commerce, a custom house commanding +the river, and court house, town hall and barracks. A picturesque public +park adjoins the railway station in Newtown Pery. + +The port is the most important on the west coast, and accommodates +vessels of 3000 tons in a floating dock; there is also a graving dock. +Communication with the Atlantic is open and secure, while a vast network +of inland navigation is opened up by a canal avoiding the rapids above +the city. Quays extend for about 1600 yds. on each side of the river, +and vessels of 600 tons can moor alongside at spring tides. The +principal imports are grain, sugar, timber and coal. The exports consist +mainly of agricultural produce. The principal industrial establishments +include flour-mills (Limerick supplying most of the west of Ireland with +flour), factories for bacon-curing and for condensed milk and +creameries. Some brewing, distilling and tanning are carried on, and the +manufacture of very beautiful lace is maintained at the Convent of the +Good Shepherd; but a formerly important textile industry has lapsed. The +salmon fisheries of the Shannon, for which Limerick is the headquarters +of a district, are the most valuable in Ireland. The city is governed by +a corporation, and the parliamentary borough returns one member. + +Limerick is said to have been the _Regia_ of Ptolemy and the +_Rosse-de-Nailleagh_ of the Annals of Multifernan. There is a tradition +that it was visited by St Patrick in the 5th century, but it is first +authentically known as a settlement of the Danes, who sacked it in 812 +and afterwards made it the principal town of their kingdom of Limerick, +but were expelled from it towards the close of the 10th century by Brian +Boroimhe. From 1106 till its conquest by the English in 1174 it was the +seat of the kings of Thomond or North Munster, and, although in 1179 the +kingdom of Limerick was given by Henry II. to Herbert Fitzherbert, the +city was frequently in the possession of the Irish chieftains till 1195. +Richard I. granted it a charter in 1197. By King John it was committed +to the care of William de Burgo, who founded English Town, and for its +defence erected a strong castle. The city was frequently besieged in the +13th and 14th centuries. In the 15th century its fortifications were +extended to include Irish Town, and until their demolition in 1760 it +was one of the strongest fortresses of the kingdom. In 1651 it was taken +by General Ireton, and after an unsuccessful siege by William III. in +1690 its resistance was terminated on the 3rd of October of the +following year by the treaty of Limerick. The dismantling of its +fortifications began in 1760, but fragments of the old walls remain. The +original municipal rights of the city had been confirmed and extended by +a succession of sovereigns, and in 1609 it received a charter +constituting it a county of a city, and also incorporating a society of +merchants of the staple, with the same privileges as the merchants of +the staple of Dublin and Waterford. The powers of the corporation were +remodelled by the Limerick Regulation Act of 1823. The prosperity of the +city dates chiefly from the foundation of Newtown Pery in 1769 by Edmund +Sexton Pery (d. 1806), speaker of the Irish House of Commons, whose +family subsequently received the title of the earldom of Limerick. Under +the Local Government Act of 1898 Limerick became one of the six county +boroughs having a separate county council. + + + + +LIMERICK, a name which has been adopted to distinguish a certain form of +verse which began to be cultivated in the middle of the 19th century. A +limerick is a kind of burlesque epigram, written in five lines. In its +earlier form it had two rhymes, the word which closed the first or +second line being usually employed at the end of the fifth, but in later +varieties different rhyming words are employed. There is much +uncertainty as to the meaning of the name, and as to the time when it +became attached to a particular species of nonsense verses. According to +the _New Eng. Dict._ "a song has existed in Ireland for a very +considerable time, the construction of the verse of which is identical +with that of Lear's" (see below), and in which the invitation is +repeated, "Will you come up to Limerick?" Unfortunately, the specimen +quoted in the _New Eng. Dict._ is not only not identical with, but does +not resemble Lear's. Whatever be the derivation of the name, however, it +is now universally used to describe a set of verses formed on this +model, with the variations in rhyme noted above:-- + + "There was an old man who said 'Hush! + I perceive a young bird in that bush!' + When they said, 'Is it small?' + He replied, 'Not at all! + It is five times the size of the bush.'" + +The invention, or at least the earliest general use of this form, is +attributed to Edward Lear, who, when a tutor in the family of the earl +of Derby at Knowsley, composed, about 1834, a large number of +nonsense-limericks to amuse the little grandchildren of the house. Many +of these he published, with illustrations, in 1846, and they enjoyed and +still enjoy an extreme popularity. Lear preferred to give a geographical +colour to his absurdities, as in:-- + + "There was an old person of Tartary + Who cut through his jugular artery, + When up came his wife, + And exclaimed, 'O my Life, + How your loss will be felt through all Tartary!'" + +but this is by no means essential. The neatness of the form has led to a +very extensive use of the limerick for all sorts of mock-serious +purposes, political, social and sarcastic, and a good many specimens +have achieved a popularity which has been all the wider because they +have, perforce, been confined to verbal transmission. In recent years +competitions of the "missing word" type have had considerable vogue, the +competitor, for instance, having to supply the last line of the +limerick. + + + + +LIMES GERMANICUS. The Latin noun _limes_ denoted generally a path, +sometimes a boundary path (possibly its original sense) or boundary, and +hence it was utilized by Latin writers occasionally to denote frontiers +definitely delimited and marked in some distinct fashion. This latter +sense has been adapted and extended by modern historians concerned with +the frontiers of the Roman Empire. Thus the Wall of Hadrian in north +England (see BRITAIN: _Roman_) is now sometimes styled the _Limes +Britannicus_, the frontier of the Roman province of Arabia facing the +desert the _Limes Arabicus_ and so forth. In particular the remarkable +frontier lines which bounded the Roman provinces of Upper (southern) +Germany and Raetia, and which at their greatest development stretched +from near Bonn on the Rhine to near Regensburg on the Danube, are often +called the _Limes Germanicus_. The history of these lines is the subject +of the following paragraphs. They have in the last fifteen years become +much better known through systematic excavations financed by the German +empire and through other researches connected therewith, and though many +important details are still doubtful, their general development can be +traced. + +From the death of Augustus (A.D. 14) till after A.D. 70 Rome accepted as +her German frontier the water-boundary of the Rhine and upper Danube. +Beyond these rivers she held only the fertile plain of Frankfort, +opposite the Roman border fortress of Moguntiacum (Mainz), the +southernmost slopes of the Black Forest and a few scattered +têtes-du-pont. The northern section of this frontier, where the Rhine is +deep and broad, remained the Roman boundary till the empire fell. The +southern part was different. The upper Rhine and upper Danube are easily +crossed. The frontier which they form is inconveniently long, enclosing +an acute-angled wedge of foreign territory--the modern Baden and +Württemberg. The German populations of these lands seem in Roman times +to have been scanty, and Roman subjects from the modern Alsace and +Lorraine had drifted across the river eastwards. The motives alike of +geographical convenience and of the advantages to be gained by +recognizing these movements of Roman subjects combined to urge a forward +policy at Rome, and when the vigorous Vespasian had succeeded the +fool-criminal Nero, a series of advances began which gradually closed up +the acute angle, or at least rendered it obtuse. + +The first advance came about 74, when what is now Baden was invaded and +in part annexed and a road carried from the Roman base on the upper +Rhine, Strassburg, to the Danube just above Ulm. The point of the angle +was broken off. The second advance was made by Domitian about A.D. 83. +He pushed out from Moguntiacum, extended the Roman territory east of it +and enclosed the whole within a systematically delimited and defended +frontier with numerous blockhouses along it and larger forts in the +rear. Among the blockhouses was one which by various enlargements and +refoundations grew into the well-known Saalburg fort on the Taunus near +Homburg. This advance necessitated a third movement, the construction +of a frontier connecting the annexations of A.D. 74 and 83. We know the +line of this frontier which ran from the Main across the upland Odenwald +to the upper waters of the Neckar and was defended by a chain of forts. +We do not, however, know its date, save that, if not Domitian's work, it +was carried out soon after his death, and the whole frontier thus +constituted was reorganized, probably by Hadrian, with a continuous +wooden palisade reaching from Rhine to Danube. The angle between the +rivers was now almost full. But there remained further advance and +further fortification. Either Hadrian or, more probably, his successor +Pius pushed out from the Odenwald and the Danube, and marked out a new +frontier roughly parallel to but in advance of these two lines, though +sometimes, as on the Taunus, coinciding with the older line. This is the +frontier which is now visible and visited by the curious. It consists, +as we see it to-day, of two distinct frontier works, one, known as the +Pfahlgraben, is an earthen mound and ditch, best seen in the +neighbourhood of the Saalburg but once extending from the Rhine +southwards into southern Germany. The other, which begins where the +earthwork stops, is a wall, though not a very formidable wall, of stone, +the Teufelsmauer; it runs roughly east and west parallel to the Danube, +which it finally joins at Heinheim near Regensburg. The Pfahlgraben is +remarkable for the extraordinary directness of its southern part, which +for over 50 m. runs mathematically straight and points almost absolutely +true for the Polar star. It is a clear case of an ancient frontier laid +out in American fashion. This frontier remained for about 100 years, and +no doubt in that long period much was done to it to which we cannot +affix precise dates. We cannot even be absolutely certain when the +frontier laid out by Pius was equipped with the Pfahlgraben and +Teufelsmauer. But we know that the pressure of the barbarians began to +be felt seriously in the later part of the 2nd century, and after long +struggles the whole or almost the whole district east of Rhine and north +of Danube was lost--seemingly all within one short period--about A.D. +250. + + The best English account will be found in H. F. Pelham's essay in + _Trans. of the Royal Hist. Soc._ vol. 20, reprinted in his _Collected + Papers_, pp. 178-211 (Oxford, 1910), where the German authorities are + fully cited. (F. J. H.) + + + + +LIMESTONE, in petrography, a rock consisting essentially of carbonate of +lime. The group includes many varieties, some of which are very +distinct; but the whole group has certain properties in common, arising +from the chemical composition and mineral character of its members. All +limestones dissolve readily in cold dilute acids, giving off bubbles of +carbonic acid. Citric or acetic acid will effect this change, though the +mineral acids are more commonly employed. Limestones, when pure, are +soft rocks readily scratched with a knife-blade or the edge of a coin, +their hardness being 3; but unless they are earthy or incoherent, like +chalk or sinter, they do not disintegrate by pressure with the fingers +and cannot be scratched with the finger nail. When free from impurities +limestones are white, but they generally contain small quantities of +other minerals than calcite which affect their colour. Many limestones +are yellowish or creamy, especially those which contain a little iron +oxide, iron carbonate or clay. Others are bluish from the presence of +iron sulphide, or pyrites or marcasite; or grey and black from admixture +with carbonaceous or bituminous substances. Red limestones usually +contain haematite; in green limestones there may be glauconite or +chlorite. In crystalline limestones or marbles many silicates may occur +producing varied colours, e.g. epidote, chlorite, augite (green); +vesuvianite and garnet (brown and red); graphite, spinels (black and +grey); epidote, chondrodite (yellow). The specific gravity of limestones +ranges from 2.6 to 2.8 in typical examples. + +When seen in the field, limestones are often recognizable by their +method of weathering. If very pure, they may have smooth rounded +surfaces, or may be covered with narrow runnels cut out by the rain. In +such cases there is very little soil, and plants are found growing only +in fissures or crevices where the insoluble impurities of the limestone +have been deposited by the rain. The less pure rocks have often eroded +or pitted surfaces, showing bands or patches rendered more resistant to +the action of the weather by the presence of insoluble materials such as +sand, clay or chert. These surfaces are often known from the crust of +hydrous oxides of iron produced by the action of the atmosphere on any +ferriferous ingredients of the rock; they are sometimes black when the +limestone is carbonaceous; a thin layer of gritty sand grains may be +left on the surface of limestones which are slightly arenaceous. Most +limestones which contain fossils show these most clearly on weathered +surfaces, and the appearance of fragments of corals, crinoids and shells +on the exposed parts of a rock indicate a strong probability that that +rock is a limestone. The interior usually shows the organic structures +very imperfectly or not at all. + +Another characteristic of pure limestones, where they occur in large +masses occupying considerable areas, is the frequency with which they +produce bare rocky ground, especially at high elevations, or yield only +a thin scanty soil covered with short grass. In mountainous districts +limestones are often recognizable by these peculiarities. The chalk +downs are celebrated for the close green sward which they furnish. More +impure limestones, like those of the Lias and Oolites, contain enough +insoluble mineral matter to yield soils of great thickness and value, +e.g. the Cornbrash. In limestone regions all waters tend to be hard, on +account of the abundant carbonate of lime dissolved by percolating +waters, and caves, swallow holes, sinks, pot-holes and underground +rivers may occur in abundance. Some elevated tracts of limestone are +very barren (e.g. the Causses), because the rain which falls in them +sinks at once into the earth and passes underground. To a large extent +this is true of the chalk downs, where surface waters are notably +scarce, though at considerable depths the rocks hold large supplies of +water. + + The great majority of limestones are of organic formation, consisting + of the debris of the skeletons of animals. Some are foraminiferal, + others are crinoidal, shelly or coral limestones according to the + nature of the creatures whose remains they contain. Of foraminiferal + limestones chalk is probably the best known; it is fine, white and + rather soft, and is very largely made up of the shells of globigerina + and other foraminifera (see CHALK). Almost equally important are the + nummulitic limestones so well developed in Mediterranean countries + (Spain, France, the Alps, Greece, Algeria, Egypt, Asia Minor, &c.). + The pyramids of Egypt are built mainly of nummulitic limestone. + Nummulites are large cone-shaped foraminifera with many chambers + arranged in spiral order. In Britain the small globular shells of + _Saccamina_ are important constituents of some Carboniferous + limestones; but the upper portion of that formation in Russia, eastern + Asia and North America is characterized by the occurrence of + limestones filled with the spindle-shaped shells of _Fusulina_, a + genus of foraminifera now extinct. + + Coral limestones are being formed at the present day over a large + extent of the tropical seas; many existing coral reefs must be of + great thickness. The same process has been going on actively since a + very early period of the earth's history, for similar rocks are found + in great abundance in many geological formations. Some Silurian + limestones are rich in corals; in the Devonian there are deposits + which have been described as coral reefs (Devonshire, Germany). The + Carboniferous limestone, or mountain limestones of England and North + America, is sometimes nearly entirely coralline, and the great + dolomite masses of the Trias in the eastern Alps are believed by many + to be merely altered coral reefs. A special feature of coral + limestones is that, although they may be to a considerable extent + dolomitized, they are generally very free from silt and mechanical + impurities. + + Crinoidal limestones, though abundant among the older rocks, are not + in course of formation on any great scale at the present time, as + crinoids, formerly abundant, are now rare. Many Carboniferous and + Silurian limestones consist mainly of the little cylindrical joints of + these animals. They are easily recognized by their shape, and by the + fact that many of them show a tube along their axes, which is often + filled up by carbonate of lime; under the microscope they have a + punctate or fenestrate structure and each joint behaves as a simple + crystalline plate with uniform optical properties in polarized light. + Remains of other echinoderms (starfishes and sea urchins) are often + found in plenty in Secondary and Tertiary limestones, but very seldom + make up the greater part of the rock. Shelly limestones may consist of + mollusca or of brachiopoda, the former being common in limestones of + all ages while the latter attained their principal development in the + Palaeozoic epoch. The shells are often broken and may have been + reduced to shell sand before the rock consolidated. Many rocks of this + class are impure and pass into marls and shelly sandstones which were + deposited in shallow waters, where land-derived sediment mingled with + remains of the creatures which inhabited the water. Fresh-water + limestones are mostly of this class and contain shells of those + varieties of mollusca which inhabit lakes. Brackish water limestones + also are usually shelly. Corallines (bryozoa, polyzoa, &c.), + cephalopods (e.g. ammonites, belemnites), crustaceans and sponges + occur frequently in limestones. It should be understood that it is not + usual for a rock to be built up entirely of one kind of organism + though it is classified according to its most abundant or most + conspicuous ingredients. + + In the organic limestones there usually occurs much finely granular + calcareous matter which has been described as limestone mud or + limestone paste. It is the finely ground substance which results from + the breaking down of shells, &c., by the waves and currents, and by + the decay which takes place in the sea bottom before the fragments are + compacted into hard rock. The skeletal parts of marine animals are not + always converted into limestone in the place where they were formed. + In shallow waters, such as are the favourite haunts of mollusca, + corals, &c., the tides and storms are frequently sufficiently powerful + to shift the loose material on the sea bottom. A large part of a coral + reef consists of broken coral rock dislodged from the growing mass and + carried upwards to the beach or into the lagoon. Large fragments also + fall over the steep outward slopes of the reef and build up a talus at + their base. Coral muds and coral sands produced by the waves acting in + these detached blocks, are believed to cover two and a half millions + of square miles of the ocean floor. Owing to the fragile nature of the + shells of foraminifera they readily become disintegrated, especially + at considerable depths, largely by the solvent action of carbonic acid + in sea water as they sink to the bottom. The chalk in very great part + consists not of entire shells but of debris of foraminifera, and + mollusca (such as _Inoceramus_, &c.). The Globigerina ooze is the most + widespread of modern calcareous formations. It occupies nearly fifty + millions of square miles of the sea bottom, at an average depth of two + thousand fathoms. Pteropod ooze, consisting mainly of the shells of + pteropods (mollusca) also has a wide distribution, especially in + northern latitudes. + + Consolidation may to a considerable extent be produced by pressure, + but more commonly cementation and crystallization play a large part in + the process. Recent shell sands on beaches and in dunes are not + unfrequently converted into a soft, semi-coherent rock by rain water + filtering downwards, dissolving and redepositing carbonate of lime + between the sand grains. In coral reefs also the mass soon has its + cavities more or less obliterated by a deposit of calcite from + solution. The fine interstitial mud or paste presents a large surface + to the solvents, and is more readily attacked than the larger and more + compact shell fragments. In fresh-water marls considerable masses of + crystalline calcite may be produced in this way, enclosing + well-preserved molluscan shells. Many calcareous fragments consist of + aragonite, wholly or principally, and this mineral tends to be + replaced by calcite. The aragonite, as seen in sections under the + microscope, is usually fibrous or prismatic, the calcite is more + commonly granular with a well-marked network of rhombohedral cleavage + cracks. The replacement of aragonite by calcite goes on even in shells + lying on modern sea shores, and is often very complete in rocks + belonging to the older geological periods. By the recrystallization of + the finer paste and the introduction of calcite in solution the + interior of shells, corals, foraminifera, &c., becomes occupied by + crystalline calcite, sometimes in comparatively large grains, while + the original organic structures may be very well-preserved. + + Some limestones are exceedingly pure, e.g. the chalk and some + varieties of mountain limestone, and these are especially suited for + making lime. The majority, however, contain admixture of other + substances, of which the commonest are clay and sand. Clayey or + argillaceous limestones frequently occur in thin or thick beds + alternating with shales, as in the Lias of England (the marlstone + series). Friable argillaceous fresh-water limestones are called + "marls," and are used in many districts for top dressing soils, but + the name "marl" is loosely applied and is often given to beds which + are not of this nature (e.g. the red marls of the Trias). The "cement + stones" of the Lothians in Scotland are argillaceous limestones of + Lower Carboniferous age, which when burnt yield cement. The gault + (Upper Cretaceous) is a calcareous clay, often containing + well-preserved fossils, which lies below the chalk and attains + considerable importance in the south-east of England. Arenaceous + limestones pass by gradual transitions into shelly sandstones; in the + latter the shells are often dissolved leaving cavities, which may be + occupied by casts. Some of the Old Red Sandstone is calcareous. In + other cases the calcareous matter has recrystallized in large plates + which have shining cleavage surfaces dotted over with grains of sand + (Lincolnshire limestone). The Fontainebleau sandstone has large + calcite rhombohedra filled with sand grains. Limestones sometimes + contain much plant matter which has been converted into a dark coaly + substance, in which the original woody structures may be preserved or + may not. The calcareous petrified plants of Fifeshire occur in such a + limestone, and much has been learned from a microscopic study of them + regarding the anatomy of the plants of the Carboniferous period. + Volcanic ashes occur in some limestones, a good example being the + calcareous schalsteins or tuffs of Devonshire, which are usually much + crushed by earth movements. In the Globigerina ooze of the present day + there is always a slight admixture of volcanic materials derived + either from wind-blown dust, from submarine eruptions or from floating + pieces of pumice. Other limestones contain organic matter in the shape + of asphalt, bitumen or petroleum, presumably derived from plant + remains. The well-known _Val de Travers_ is a bituminous limestone of + lower Neocomian age found in the valley of that name near Neuchâtel. + Some of the oil beds of North America are porous limestones, in the + cavities of which the oil is stored up. Siliceous limestones, where + their silica is original and of organic origin, have contained + skeletons of sponges or radiolaria. In the chalk the silica has + usually been dissolved and redeposited as flint nodules, and in the + Carboniferous limestone as chert bands. It may also be deposited in + the corals and other organic remains, silicifying them, with + preservation of the original structures (e.g. some Jurassic and + Carboniferous limestones). + + The oolitic limestones form a special group distinguished by their + consisting of small rounded or elliptical grains resembling fish roe; + when coarse they are called pisolites. Many of them are very pure and + highly fossiliferous. The oolitic grains in section may have a + nucleus, e.g. a fragment of a shell, quartz grain, &c., around which + concentric layers have been deposited. In many cases there is also a + radiating structure. They consist of calcite or aragonite, and between + the grains there is usually a cementing material of limestone mud or + granular calcite crystals. Deposits of silica, carbonate of iron or + small rhombohedra of dolomite are often found in the interior of the + spheroids, and oolites may be entirely silicified (Pennsylvania, + Cambrian rocks of Scotland). Oolitic ironstones are very abundant in + the Cleveland district of Yorkshire and form an important iron ore. + They are often impure, and their iron may be present as haematite or + as chalybite. Oolitic limestones are known from many geological + formations, e.g. the Cambrian and Silurian of Scotland and Wales, + Carboniferous limestone (Bristol), Jurassic, Tertiary and Recent + limestones. They are forming at the present day in some coral reefs + and in certain petrifying springs like those of Carlsbad. Their chief + development in England is in the Jurassic rocks where they occur in + large masses excellently adapted for building purposes, and yield the + well-known freestones of Portland and Bath. Some hold that they are + chemical precipitates and that the concentric oolitic structure is + produced by successive layers of calcareous deposit laid down on + fragments of shells, &c., in highly calcareous waters. An alternative + hypothesis is that minute cellular plants (_Girvanella_, &c.), have + extracted the carbonate of lime from the water, and have been the + principal agents in producing the successive calcareous crusts. Such + plants can live even in hot waters, and there seems much reason for + regarding them as of importance in this connexion. + + Another group of limestones is of inorganic or chemical origin, having + been deposited from solution in water without the intervention of + living organisms. A good example of these is the "stalactite" which + forms pendent masses on the roofs of caves in limestone districts, the + calcareous waters exposed to evaporation in the air of the cave laying + down successive layers of stalactite in the places from which they + drip. At the same time and in the same way "stalagmite" gathers on the + floor below, and often accumulates in thick masses which contain bones + of animals and the weapons of primitive cave-dwelling man. Calc + sinters are porous limestones deposited by the evaporation of + calcareous springs; travertine is a well-known Italian rock of this + kind. At Carlsbad oolitic limestones are forming, but it seems + probable that minute algae assist in this process. Chemical deposits + of carbonate of lime may be produced by the evaporation of sea water + in some upraised coral lagoons and similar situations, but it is + unlikely that this takes place to any extent in the open sea, as sea + water contains very little carbonate of lime, apparently because + marine organisms so readily abstract it; still some writers believe + that a considerable part of the chalk is really a chemical + precipitate. Onyx marbles are banded limestones of chemical origin + with variegated colours such as white, yellow, green and red. They are + used for ornamental work and are obtained in Persia, France, the + United States, Mexico, &c. + + Limestones are exceedingly susceptible to chemical changes of a + metasomatic kind. They are readily dissolved by carbonated waters and + acid solutions, and their place may then be occupied by deposits of a + different kind. The silification of oolites and coral rocks and their + replacement by iron ores above mentioned are examples of this process. + Many extensive hematite deposits are in this way formed in limestone + districts. Phosphatization sometimes takes place, amorphous phosphate + of lime being substituted for carbonate of lime, and these replacement + products often have great value as sources of natural fertilizers. On + ocean rocks in dry climates the droppings of birds (guano) which + contain much phosphate, percolating into the underlying limestones + change them into a hard white or yellow phosphate rock (e.g. Sombrero, + Christmas Island, &c.), sometimes known as rock-guano or mineral + guano. In the north of France beds of phosphate are found in the + chalk; they occur also in England on a smaller scale. All limestones, + especially those laid down in deep waters contain some lime phosphate, + derived from shells of certain brachiopods, fish bones, teeth, whale + bones, &c. and this may pass into solution and be redeposited in + certain horizons, a process resembling the formation of flints. On the + sea bottom at the present day phosphatic nodules are found which have + gathered round the dead bodies of fishes and other animals. As in + flint the organic structures of the original limestone may be well + preserved though the whole mass is phosphatized. + + Where uprising heated waters carrying mineral solutions are proceeding + from deep seated masses of igneous rocks they often deposit a portion + of their contents in limestone beds. At Leadville, in Colorado, for + example, great quantities of rich silver lead ore, which have yielded + not a little gold, have been obtained from the limestones, while other + rocks, though apparently equally favourably situated, are barren. The + lead and fluorspar deposits of the north of England (Alston Moor, + Derbyshire) occur in limestone. In the Malay States the limestones + have been impregnated with tin oxide. Zinc ores are very frequently + associated with beds of limestone, as at Vieille Montagne in Belgium, + and copper ores are found in great quantity in Arizona in rocks of + this kind. Apart from ore deposits of economic value a great number of + different minerals, often well crystallized, have been observed in + limestones. + + When limestones occur among metamorphic schists or in the vicinity of + intrusive plutonic masses (such as granite), they are usually + recrystallized and have lost their organic structures. They are then + known as crystalline limestones or marbles (q.v.). (J. S. F.) + + + + +LIMINA APOSTOLORUM, an ecclesiastical term used to denote Rome, and +especially the church of St Peter and St Paul. A _Visitatio Liminum_ +might be undertaken _ex voto_ or _ex lege_. The former, visits paid in +accordance with a vow, were very frequent in the middle ages, and were +under the special protection of the pope, who put the ban upon any who +should molest pilgrims "who go to Rome for God's sake." The question of +granting dispensations from such a vow gave rise to much canonical +legislation, in which the papacy had finally to give in to the bishops. +The visits demanded by law were of more importance. In 743 a Roman synod +decreed that all bishops subject to the metropolitan see of Rome should +meet personally every year in that city to give an account of the state +of their dioceses. Gregory VII. included in the order all metropolitans +of the Western Church, and Sixtus V. (by the bull _Romanus Pontifex_, +Dec. 20, 1584) ordered the bishops of Italy, Dalmatia and Greece to +visit Rome every three years; those of France, Germany, Spain and +Portugal, Belgium, Hungary, Bohemia and the British Isles every four +years; those from the rest of Europe every five years; and bishops from +other continents every ten years. Benedict XIV. in 1740 extended the +summons to all abbots, provosts and others who held territorial +jurisdiction. + + + + +LIMITATION, STATUTES OF, the name given to acts of parliament by which +rights of action are limited in the United Kingdom to a fixed period +after the occurrence of the events giving rise to the cause of action. +This is one of the devices by which lapse of time is employed to settle +disputed claims. There are mainly two modes by which this may be +effected. We may say that the active enjoyment of a right--or +possession--for a determined period shall be a good title against all +the world. That is the method known generally as Prescription (q.v.). It +looks to the length of time during which the defendant in a disputed +claim has been in possession or enjoyment of the matter in dispute. But +the principle of the statutes of limitation is to look to the length of +time during which the plaintiff has been out of possession. The point of +time at which he might first have brought his action having been +ascertained, the lapse of the limited period after that time bars him +for ever from bringing his action. In both cases the policy of the law +is expressed by the maxim _Interest reipublicae ut sit finis litium_. + +The principle of limitation was first adopted in English law in +connexion with real actions, i.e. actions for the recovery of real +property. At first a fixed date was taken, and no action could be +brought of which the cause had arisen before that date. By the Statute +of Westminster the First (3 Edward I. c. 39), the beginning of the reign +of Richard I. was fixed as the date of limitation for such actions. This +is the well-known "period of legal memory" recognized by the judges in a +different class of cases to which a rule of prescription was applied. +Possession of rights in _alieno solo_ from time immemorial was held to +be an indefeasible title, and the courts held time immemorial to begin +with the first year of Richard I. + +A period absolutely fixed became in time useless for the purposes of +limitation, and the method of counting back a certain number of years +from the date of the writs was adopted in the Statute 32 Henry VIII. c. +2, which fixed periods of thirty, fifty and sixty years for various +classes of actions named therein. A large number of statutes since that +time have established periods of limitation for different kinds of +actions. Of those now in force the most important are the Limitation Act +1623 for personal actions in general, and the Real Property Limitation +Act 1833 relating to actions for the recovery of land. The latter +statute has been repealed and virtually re-enacted by the Real Property +Limitation Act 1874, which reduced the period of limitation from twenty +years to twelve, for all actions brought after the 1st January 1879. The +principal section of the act of 1833 will show the _modus operandi_: +"After the 31st December 1833, no person shall make an entry or +distress, or bring an action to recover any land or rent _but within +twenty years next after the time_ at which the right to make such entry +or distress or to bring such action shall have first accrued to some +person through whom he claims, or shall have first accrued to the person +making or bringing the same." Another section defines the times at which +the right of action or entry shall be deemed to have accrued in +particular cases; e.g. when the estate claimed shall have been an estate +or interest in reversion, such right shall be deemed to have first +accrued at the time at which such estate or interest became an estate or +interest in possession. Thus suppose lands to be let by A to B from 1830 +for a period of fifty years, and that a portion of such lands is +occupied by C from 1831 without any colour of title from B or A--C's +long possession would be of no avail against an action brought by A for +the recovery of the land after the determination of B's lease. A would +have twelve years after the determination of the lease within which to +bring his action, and might thus, by an action brought in 1891, +disestablish a person who had been in quiet possession since 1831. What +the law looks to is not the length of time during which C has enjoyed +the property, but the length of time which A has suffered to elapse +since he might first have brought his action. It is to be observed, +however, that the Real Property Limitation Act does more than bar the +remedy. It extinguishes the right, differing in this respect from the +other Limitation Acts, which, while barring the remedy, preserve the +right, so that it may possibly become available in some other way than +by action. + +By section 14 of the act of 1833, when any acknowledgment of the title +of the person entitled shall have been given to him or his agent in +writing signed by the person in possession, or in receipt of the profits +or rent, then the right of the person (to whom such acknowledgment shall +have been given) to make an entry or distress or bring an action shall +be deemed to have first accrued at the time at which such +acknowledgment, or the last of such acknowledgments, was given. By +section 15, persons under the disability of infancy, lunacy or +coverture, or beyond seas, and their representatives, are to be allowed +ten years from the termination of this disability, or death (which shall +have first happened), notwithstanding that the ordinary period of +limitation shall have expired. + +By the act of 1623 actions of trespass, detinue, trover, replevin or +account, actions on the case (except for slander), actions of debt +arising out of a simple contract and actions for arrears of rent not due +upon specialty shall be limited to six years from the date of the cause +of action. Actions for assault, menace, battery, wounds and imprisonment +are limited to four years, and actions for slander to two years. Persons +labouring under the disabilities of infancy, lunacy or unsoundness of +mind are allowed the same time after the removal of the disability. When +the defendant was "beyond seas" (i.e. outside the United Kingdom and the +adjacent islands) an extension of time was allowed, but by the Real +Property Limitation Act of 1874 such an allowance is excluded as to real +property, and as to other matters by the Mercantile Law Amendment Act +1856. + +An acknowledgment, whether by payment on account or by mere spoken +words, was formerly sufficient to take the case out of the statute. The +Act 9 Geo. IV. c. 14 (Lord Tenterden's act) requires any promise or +admission of liability to be in writing and signed by the party to be +charged, otherwise it will not bar the statute. + +Contracts under seal are governed as to limitation by the act of 1883, +which provides that actions for rent upon any indenture of demise, or of +covenant, or debt or any bond or other specialty, and on recognizances, +must be brought within twenty years after cause of action. Actions of +debt on an award (the submission being not under seal), or for a +copyhold fine, or for money levied on a writ of _fieri facias_, must be +brought within six years. With regard to the rights of the crown, the +principle obtains that _nullum tempus occurrit regi_, so that no statute +of limitation affects the crown without express mention. But by the +Crown Suits Act 1769, as amended by the Crown Suits Act 1861, in suits +relating to land, the claims of the crown to recover are barred after +the lapse of sixty years. For the prosecution of criminal offences +generally there is no period of limitation, except where they are +punishable on summary conviction. In such case the period is six months +by the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1848. But there are various +miscellaneous limitations fixed by various acts, of which the following +may be noticed. Suits and indictments under penal statutes are limited +to two years if the forfeiture is to the crown, to one year if the +forfeiture is to the common informer. Penal actions by persons aggrieved +are limited to two years by the act of 1833. Prosecutions under the Riot +Act can only be sued upon within twelve months after the offence has +been committed, and offences against the Customs Acts within three +years. By the Public Authorities Protection Act 1893, a prosecution +against any person acting in execution of statutory or other public duty +must be commenced within six months. Prosecutions under the Criminal Law +Amendment Act, as amended by the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act +1904, must be commenced within six months after the commission of the +offence. + +Trustees are expressly empowered to plead statutes of limitation by the +Trustees Act 1888; indeed, a defence under the statutes of limitations +must in general be specially pleaded. Limitation is regarded strictly as +a law of procedure. The English courts will therefore apply their own +rules to all actions, although the cause of action may have arisen in a +country in which different rules of limitation exist. This is also a +recognized principle of private international law (see J. A. Foote, +_Private International Law_, 3rd ed., 1904, p. 516 seq.). + +_United States._--The principle of the statute of limitations has passed +with some modification into the statute-books of every state in the +Union except Louisiana, whose laws of limitation are essentially the +prescriptions of the civil law drawn from the _Partidas_, or "Spanish +Code." As to personal actions, it is generally provided that they shall +be brought within a certain specified time--usually six years or +less--from the time when the cause of action accrues, and not after, +while for land the "general if not universal limitation of the right to +bring action or to make entry is to twenty years after the right to +enter or to bring the action accrues" (Bouvier's _Law Dictionary_, art. +"Limitations"). The constitutional provision prohibiting states from +passing laws impairing the obligation of contracts is not infringed by a +law of limitations, unless it bars a right of action already accrued +without giving a reasonable term within which to bring the action. + + See Darby and Bosanquet, _Statutes of Limitations_ (1899); Hewitt, + _Statutes of Limitations_ (1893). + + + + +LIMOGES, a town of west-central France, capital of the department of +Haute-Vienne, formerly capital of the old province of Limousin, 176 m. +S. by W. of Orleans on the railway to Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, +75,906; commune, 88,597. The station is a junction for Poitiers, +Angoulême, Périgueux and Clermont-Ferrand. The town occupies a hill on +the right bank of the Vienne, and comprises two parts originally +distinct, the _Cité_ with narrow streets and old houses occupying the +lower slope, and the town proper the summit. In the latter a street +known as the Rue de la Boucherie is occupied by a powerful and ancient +corporation of butchers. The site of the fortifications which formerly +surrounded both quarters is occupied by boulevards, outside which are +suburbs with wide streets and spacious squares. The cathedral, the most +remarkable building in the Limousin, was begun in 1273. In 1327 the +choir was completed, and before the middle of the 16th century the +transept, with its fine north portal and the first two bays of the nave; +from 1875 to 1890 the construction of the nave was continued, and it was +united with the west tower (203 ft. high), the base of which belongs to +a previous Romanesque church. In the interior there are a magnificent +rood loft of the Renaissance, and the tombs of Jean de Langeac (d. 1541) +and other bishops. Of the other churches of Limoges, St Michel des Lions +(14th and 15th centuries) and St Pierre du Queyroix (12th and 13th +centuries) both contain interesting stained glass. The principal modern +buildings are the town hall and the law-courts. The Vienne is crossed by +a railway viaduct and four bridges, two of which, the Pont St Étienne +and the Pont St Martial, date from the 13th century. Among the chief +squares are the Place d'Orsay on the site of a Roman amphitheatre, the +Place Jourdan with the statue of Marshal J. B. Jourdan, born at Limoges, +and the Place d'Aine with the statue of J. L. Gay-Lussac. President +Carnot and Denis Dussoubs, both of whom have statues, were also natives +of the town. The museum has a rich ceramic collection and art, +numismatic and natural history collections. + +Limoges is the headquarters of the XII. army corps and the seat of a +bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and a court of assizes, and has +tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade +arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. +The educational institutions include a _lycée_ for boys, a preparatory +school of medicine and pharmacy, a higher theological seminary, a +training college, a national school of decorative art and a commercial +and industrial school. The manufacture and decoration of porcelain give +employment to about 13,000 persons in the town and its vicinity. +Shoe-making and the manufacture of clogs occupy over 2000. Other +industries are liqueur-distilling, the spinning of wool and +cloth-weaving, printing and the manufacture of paper from straw. +Enamelling, which flourished at Limoges in the middle ages and during +the Renaissance (see ENAMEL), but subsequently died out, was revived at +the end of the 19th century. There is an extensive trade in wine and +spirits, cattle, cereals and wood. The Vienne is navigable for rafts +above Limoges, and the logs brought down by the current are stopped at +the entrance of the town by the inhabitants of the Naveix quarter, who +form a special gild for this purpose. + +Limoges was a place of importance at the time of the Roman conquest, and +sent a large force to the defence of Alesia. In 11 B.C. it took the name +of Augustus (_Augustoritum_); but in the 4th century it was anew called +by the name of the _Lemovices_, whose capital it was. It then contained +palaces and baths, had its own senate and the right of coinage. +Christianity was introduced by St Martial. In the 5th century Limoges +was devastated by the Vandals and the Visigoths, and afterwards suffered +in the wars between the Franks and Aquitanians and in the invasions of +the Normans. Under the Merovingian kings Limoges was celebrated for its +mints and its goldsmiths' work. In the middle ages the town was divided +into two distinct parts, each surrounded by walls, forming separate +fiefs with a separate system of administration, an arrangement which +survived till 1792. Of these the more important, known as the _Château_, +which grew up round the tomb of St Martial in the 9th century, and was +surrounded with walls in the 10th and again in the 12th, was under the +jurisdiction of the viscounts of Limoges, and contained their castle and +the monastery of St Martial; the other, the _Cité_, which was under the +jurisdiction of the bishop, had but a sparse population, the habitable +ground being practically covered by the cathedral, the episcopal palace +and other churches and religious buildings. In the Hundred Years' War +the bishops sided with the French, while the viscounts were unwilling +vassals of the English. In 1370 the _Cité_, which had opened its gates +to the French, was taken by the Black Prince and given over to fire and +sword. + +The religious wars, pestilence and famine desolated Limoges in turn, and +the plague of 1630-1631 carried off more than 20,000 persons. The wise +administrations of Henri d'Aguesseau, father of the chancellor, and of +Turgot enabled Limoges to recover its former prosperity. There have been +several great fires, destroying whole quarters of the city, built, as it +then was, of wood. That of 1790 lasted for two months, and destroyed 192 +houses; and that of 1864 laid under ashes a large area. Limoges +celebrates every seven years a curious religious festival (Fête +d'Ostension), during which the relics of St Martial are exposed for +seven weeks, attracting large numbers of visitors. It dates from the +10th century, and commemorates a pestilence (mal des ardents) which, +after destroying 40,000 persons, is believed to have been stayed by the +intercession of the saint. + +Limoges was the scene of two ecclesiastical councils, in 1029 and 1031. +The first proclaimed the title of St Martial as "apostle of Aquitaine"; +the second insisted on the observance of the "truce of God." In 1095 +Pope Urban II. held a synod of bishops here in connexion with his +efforts to organize a crusade, and on this occasion consecrated the +basilica of St Martial (pulled down after 1794). + + See Célestin Poré, _Limoges_, in Joanne's guides, _De Paris à Ager_ + (1867); Ducourtieux, _Limoges d'après ses anciens plans_ (1884) and + _Limoges et ses environs_ (3rd ed., 1894). A very full list of works + on Limoges, the town, viscounty, bishopric, &c., is given by U. + Chevalier in _Répertoire des sources hist. du moyen âge. + Topo-bibliogr._ (Mont Céliard, 1903), t. ii. s.v. + + + + +LIMON, or PORT LIMON, the chief Atlantic port of Costa Rica, Central +America, and the capital of a district also named Limon, on a bay of the +Caribbean Sea, 103 m. E. by N. of San José. Pop. (1904) 3171. Limon was +founded in 1871, and is the terminus of the transcontinental railway to +Puntarenas which was begun in the same year. The swamps behind the town, +and the shallow coral lagoon in front of it, have been filled in. The +harbour is protected by a sea-wall built along the low-water line, and +an iron pier affords accommodation for large vessels. A breakwater from +the harbour to the island of Uvita, about 1200 yds. E. would render +Limon a first-class port. There is an excellent water-supply from the +hills above the harbour. Almost the entire coffee and banana crops of +Costa Rica are sent by rail for shipment at Limon to Europe and the +United States. The district (_comarca_) of Limon comprises the whole +Atlantic littoral, thus including the Talamanca country inhabited by +uncivilized Indians; the richest banana-growing territories in the +country; and the valuable forests of the San Juan valley. It is annually +visited by Indians from the Mosquito coast of Nicaragua, who come in +canoes to fish for turtle. Its chief towns, after Limon, are Reventazon +and Matina, both with fewer than 3000 inhabitants. + + + + +LIMONITE, or BROWN IRON ORE, a natural ferric hydrate named from the Gr. +[Greek: leimôn] (meadow), in allusion to its occurrence as "bog-ore" in +meadows and marshes. It is never crystallized, but may have a fibrous or +microcrystalline structure, and commonly occurs in concretionary forms +or in compact and earthy masses; sometimes mammillated, botryoidal, +reniform or stalactitic. The colour presents various shades of brown and +yellow, and the streak is always brownish, a character which +distinguishes it from haematite with a red, or from magnetite with a +black streak. It is sometimes called brown haematite. + +Limonite is a ferric hydrate, conforming typically with the formula +Fe4O3(OH)6, or 2Fe2O3·3H2O. Its hardness is rather above 5, and its +specific gravity varies from 3.5 to 4. In many cases it has been formed +from other iron oxides, like haematite and magnetite, or by the +alteration of pyrites or chalybite. + + By the operation of meteoric agencies, iron pyrites readily pass into + limonite often with retention of external form; and the masses of + "gozzan" or "gossan" on the outcrop of certain mineral-veins consist + of rusty iron ore formed in this way, and associated with cellular + quartz. Many deposits of limonite have been found, on being worked, to + pass downwards into ferrous carbonate; and crystals of chalybite + converted superficially into limonite are well known. Minerals, like + glauconite, which contain ferrous silicate, may in like manner yield + limonite, on weathering. The ferric hydrate is also readily deposited + from ferruginous waters, often by means of organic agencies. Deposits + of brown iron ore of great economic value occur in many sedimentary + rocks, such as the Lias, Oolites and Lower Greensand of various parts + of England. They appear in some cases to be altered limestones and in + others altered glauconitic sandstones. An oolitic structure is + sometimes present, and the ores are generally phosphatic, and may + contain perhaps 30% of iron. The oolitic brown ores of Lorraine and + Luxemburg are known as "minette," a diminutive of the French _mine_ + (ore), in allusion to their low content of metal. Granular and + concretionary limonite accumulates by organic action on the floor of + certain lakes in Sweden, forming the curious "lake ore." Larger + concretions formed under other conditions are known as "bean ore." + Limonite often forms a cementing medium in ferruginous sands and + gravels, forming "pan"; and in like manner it is the agglutinating + agent in many conglomerates, like the South African "banket," where it + is auriferous. In iron-shot sands the limonite may form hollow + concretions, known in some cases as "boxes." The "eagle stones" of + older writers were generally concretions of this kind, containing some + substance, like sand, which rattled when the hollow nodule was shaken. + Bog iron ore is an impure limonite, usually formed by the influence of + micro-organisms, and containing silica, phosphoric acid and organic + matter, sometimes with manganese. The various kinds of brown and + yellow ochre are mixtures of limonite with clay and other impurities; + whilst in umber much manganese oxide is present. Argillaceous brown + iron ore is often known in Germany as _Thoneisenstein_; but the + corresponding term in English (clay iron stone) is applied to nodular + forms of impure chalybite. J. C. Ullmann's name of stilpnosiderite, + from the Greek [Greek: stilpnos] (shining) is sometimes applied to + such kinds of limonite as have a pitchy lustre. Deposits of limonite + in cavities may have a rounded surface or even a stalactitic form, and + may present a brilliant lustre, of blackish colour, forming what is + called in Germany _Glaskopf_ (glass head). It often happens that + analyses of brown iron ores reveal a larger proportion of water than + required by the typical formula of limonite, and hence new species + have been recognized. Thus the yellowish brown ore called by E. + Schmidt xanthosiderite, from [Greek: zanthos] (yellow) and [Greek: + sidêros] (iron), contains Fe2O(OH)4, or Fe2O3·2H2O; whilst the bog ore + known as limnite, from [Greek: limnê] (marsh) has the formula Fe(OH)3, + or Fe2O3·3H2O. On the other hand there are certain forms of ferric + hydrate containing less water than limonite and approaching to + haematite in their red colour and streak: such is the mineral which + was called hydrohaematite by A. Breithaupt, and is now generally known + under R. Hermann's name of turgite, from the mines of Turginsk, near + Bogoslovsk in the Ural Mountains. This has the formula Fe4O5(OH)2, or + 2Fe2O3·H2O. It probably represents the partial dehydration of + limonite, and by further loss of water may pass into haematite or red + iron ore. When limonite is dehydrated and deoxidized in the presence + of carbonic acid, it may give rise to chalybite. + + + + +LIMOUSIN (or LIMOSIN), LÉONARD (c. 1505-c. 1577), French painter, the +most famous of a family of seven Limoges enamel painters, was the son of +a Limoges innkeeper. He is supposed to have studied under Nardon +Pénicaud. He was certainly at the beginning of his career influenced by +the German school--indeed, his earliest authenticated work, signed L. L. +and dated 1532, is a series of eighteen plaques of the "Passion of the +Lord," after Albrecht Dürer, but this influence was counter-balanced by +that of the Italian masters of the school of Fontainebleau, Primaticcio, +Rosso, Giulio Romano and Solario, from whom he acquired his taste for +arabesque ornament and for mythological subjects. Nevertheless the +French tradition was sufficiently ingrained in him to save him from +becoming an imitator and from losing his personal style. In 1530 he +entered the service of Francis I. as painter and _varlet de chambre_, a +position which he retained under Henry II. For both these monarchs he +executed many portraits in enamel--among them quite a number of plaques +depicting Diane de Poitiers in various characters,--plates, vases, +ewers, and cups, besides decorative works for the royal palaces, for, +though he is best known as an enameller distinguished for rich colour, +and for graceful designs in grisaille on black or bright blue +backgrounds, he also enjoyed a great reputation as an oil-painter. His +last signed works bear the date 1574, but the date of his death is +uncertain, though it could not have been later than the beginning of +1577. It is on record that he executed close upon two thousand enamels. +He is best represented at the Louvre, which owns his two famous votive +tablets for the Sainte Chapelle, each consisting of twenty-three +plaques, signed L. L. and dated 1553; "La Chasse," depicting Henry II. +on a white horse, Diane de Poitiers behind him on horseback; and many +portraits, including the kings by whom he was employed, Marguerite de +Valois, the duc de Guise, and the cardinal de Lorraine. Other +representative examples are at the Cluny and Limoges museums. In +England some magnificent examples of his work are to be found at the +Victoria and Albert Museum, the British Museum, and the Wallace +Collection. In the collection of Signor Rocchi, in Rome, is an +exceptionally interesting plaque representing Frances I. consulting a +fortune-teller. + + See _Léonard Limousin: peintre de portraits_ (_L'Oeuvre des peintres + émailleurs_), by L. Boudery and E. Lachenaud (Paris, 1897)--a careful + study, with an elaborate catalogue of the known existing examples of + the artist's work. The book deals almost exclusively with the + portraits illustrated. See also Alleaume and Duplessis, _Les Douze + Apôtres--émaux de Léonard Limousin_, &c. (Paris, 1865); L. Boudery, + _Exposition retrospective de Limoges en 1886_ (Limoges, 1886); L. + Boudery, _Léonard Limousin et son oeuvre_ (Limoges, 1895); _Limoges et + le Limousin_ (Limoges, 1865); A. Meyer, _L'Art de l'émail de Limoges, + ancien et moderne_ (Paris, 1896); Émile Molinier, _L'Émaillerie_ + (Paris, 1891). + + + + +LIMOUSIN (Lat. _Pagus Lemovicinus, ager Lemovicensis, regio Lemovicum, +Lemozinum, Limosinium_, &c.), a former province of France. In the time +of Julius Caesar the _pagus Lemovicinus_ covered the county now +comprised in the departments of Haute-Vienne, Corrèze and Creuse, with +the _arrondissements_ of Confolens in Charente and Nontron in Dordogne. +These limits it retained until the 10th century, and they survived in +those of the diocese of Limoges (except a small part cut off in 1317 to +form that of Tulle) until 1790. The break-up into great fiefs in the +10th century, however, tended rapidly to disintegrate the province, +until at the close of the 12th century Limousin embraced only the +viscounties of Limoges, Turenne and Comborn, with a few ecclesiastical +lordships, corresponding roughly to the present _arrondissements_ of +Limoges and Saint Yrien in Haute-Vienne and part of the +_arrondissements_ of Brive, Tulle and Ussel in Corrèze. In the 17th +century Limousin, thus constituted, had become no more than a small +_gouvernement_. + +Limousin takes its name from the _Lemovices_, a Gallic tribe whose +county was included by Augustus in the province of _Aquitania Magna_. +Politically its history has little of separate interest; it shared in +general the vicissitudes of Aquitaine, whose dukes from 918 onwards were +its over-lords at least till 1264, after which it was sometimes under +them, sometimes under the counts of Poitiers, until the French kings +succeeded in asserting their direct over-lordship. It was, however, +until the 14th century, the centre of a civilization of which the +enamelling industry (see ENAMEL) was only one expression. The Limousin +dialect, now a mere _patois_, was regarded by the troubadours as the +purest form of Provençal. + + See A. Leroeux, _Géographie et histoire du Limousin_ (Limoges, 1892). + Detailed bibliography in Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources. + Topo-bibliogr._ (Montbéliard, 1902), t. ii. s.v. + + + + +LIMPOPO, or CROCODILE, a river of S.E. Africa over 1000 m. in length, +next to the Zambezi the largest river of Africa entering the Indian +Ocean. Its head streams rise on the northern slopes of the Witwatersrand +less than 300 m. due W. of the sea, but the river makes a great +semicircular sweep across the high plateau first N.W., then N.E. and +finally S.E. It is joined early in its course by the Marico and Notwani, +streams which rise along the westward continuation of the Witwatersrand, +the ridge forming the water-parting between the Vaal and the Limpopo +basins. For a great part of its course the Limpopo forms the north-west +and north frontiers of the Transvaal. Its banks are well wooded and +present many picturesque views. In descending the escarpment of the +plateau the river passes through rocky ravines, piercing the +Zoutpansberg near the north-east corner of the Transvaal at the Toli +Azimé Falls. In the low country it receives its chief affluent, the +Olifants river (450 m. long), which, rising in the high veld of the +Transvaal east of the sources of the Limpopo, takes a more direct N.E. +course than the main stream. The Limpopo enters the ocean in 25° 15´ S. +The mouth, about 1000 ft. wide, is obstructed by sandbanks. In the rainy +season the Limpopo loses a good deal of its water in the swampy region +along its lower course. High-water level is 24 ft. above low-water +level, when the depth in the shallowest part does not exceed 3 ft. The +river is navigable all the year round by shallow-draught vessels from +its mouth for about 100 m., to a spot known as Gungunyana's Ford. In +flood time there is water communication south with the river Komati +(q.v.). At this season stretches of the Limpopo above Gungunyana's Ford +are navigable. The river valley is generally unhealthy. + + The basin of the Limpopo includes the northern part of the Transvaal, + the eastern portion of Bechuanaland, southern Matabeleland and a large + area of Portuguese territory north of Delagoa Bay. Its chief + tributary, the Olifants, has been mentioned. Of its many other + affluents, the Macloutsie, the Shashi and the Tuli are the most + distant north-west feeders. In this direction the Matoppos and other + hills of Matabeleland separate the Limpopo basin from the valley of + the Zambezi. A little above the Tuli confluence is Rhodes's Drift, the + usual crossing-place from the northern Transvaal into Matabeleland. + Among the streams which, flowing north through the Transvaal, join the + Limpopo is the Nylstroom, so named by Boers trekking from the south in + the belief that they had reached the river Nile. In the coast region + the river has one considerable affluent from the north, the Chengane, + which is navigable for some distance. + + The Limpopo is a river of many names. In its upper course called the + Crocodile that name is also applied to the whole river, which figures + on old Portuguese maps as the Oori (or Oira) and Bembe. Though + claiming the territory through which it ran the Portuguese made no + attempt to trace the river. This was first done by Captain J. F. + Elton, who in 1870 travelling from the Tati goldfields sought to open + a road to the sea via the Limpopo. He voyaged down the river from the + Shashi confluence to the Toli Azimé Falls, which he discovered, + following the stream thence on foot to the low country. The lower + course of the river had been explored 1868-1869 by another British + traveller--St Vincent Whitshed Erskine. It was first navigated by a + sea-going craft in 1884, when G. A. Chaddock of the British mercantile + service succeeded in crossing the bar, while its lower course was + accurately surveyed by Portuguese officers in 1895-1896. At the + junction of the Lotsani, one of the Bechuanaland affluents, with the + Limpopo, are ruins of the period of the Zimbabwes. + + + + +LINACRE (or LYNAKER), THOMAS (c. 1460-1524), English humanist and +physician, was probably born at Canterbury. Of his parentage or descent +nothing certain is known. He received his early education at the +cathedral school of Canterbury, then under the direction of William +Celling (William Tilly of Selling), who became prior of Canterbury in +1472. Celling was an ardent scholar, and one of the earliest in England +who cultivated Greek learning. From him Linacre must have received his +first incentive to this study. Linacre entered Oxford about the year +1480, and in 1484 was elected a fellow of All Souls' College. Shortly +afterwards he visited Italy in the train of Celling, who was sent by +Henry VIII. as an envoy to the papal court, and he accompanied his +patron as far as Bologna. There he became the pupil of Angelo Poliziano, +and afterwards shared the instruction which that great scholar imparted +at Florence to the sons of Lorenzo de' Medici. The younger of these +princes became Pope Leo X., and was in after years mindful of his old +companionship with Linacre. Among his other teachers and friends in +Italy were Demetrius Chalcondylas, Hermolaus Barbaras, Aldus Romanus the +printer of Venice, and Nicolaus Leonicenus of Vicenza. Linacre took the +degree of doctor of medicine with great distinction at Padua. On his +return to Oxford, full of the learning and imbued with the spirit of the +Italian Renaissance, he formed one of the brilliant circle of Oxford +scholars, including John Colet, William Grocyn and William Latimer, who +are mentioned with so much warm eulogy in the letters of Erasmus. + +Linacre does not appear to have practised or taught medicine in Oxford. +About the year 1501 he was called to court as tutor of the young prince +Arthur. On the accession of Henry VIII. he was appointed the king's +physician, an office at that time of considerable influence and +importance, and practised medicine in London, having among his patients +most of the great statesmen and prelates of the time, as Cardinal +Wolsey, Archbishop Warham and Bishop Fox. + +After some years of professional activity, and when in advanced life, +Linacre received priest's orders in 1520, though he had for some years +previously held several clerical benefices. There is no doubt that his +ordination was connected with his retirement from active life. Literary +labours, and the cares of the foundation which owed its existence +chiefly to him, the Royal College of Physicians, occupied Linacre's +remaining years till his death on the 20th of October 1524. + +Linacre was more of a scholar than a man of letters, and rather a man of +learning than a scientific investigator. It is difficult now to judge of +his practical skill in his profession, but it was evidently highly +esteemed in his own day. He took no part in political or theological +questions, and died too soon to have to declare himself on either side in +the formidable controversies which were even in his lifetime beginning to +arise. But his career as a scholar was one eminently characteristic of +the critical period in the history of learning through which he lived. He +was one of the first Englishmen who studied Greek in Italy, whence he +brought back to his native country and his own university the lessons of +the "New Learning." His teachers were some of the greatest scholars of +the day. Among his pupils was one--Erasmus--whose name alone would +suffice to preserve the memory of his instructor in Greek, and others of +note in letters and politics, such as Sir Thomas More, Prince Arthur and +Queen Mary. Colet, Grocyn, William Lilye and other eminent scholars were +his intimate friends, and he was esteemed by a still wider circle of +literary correspondents in all parts of Europe. + + Linacre's literary activity was displayed in two directions, in pure + scholarship and in translation from the Greek. In the domain of + scholarship he was known by the rudiments of (Latin) grammar + (_Progymnasmata Grammatices vulgaria_), composed in English, a revised + version of which was made for the use of the Princess Mary, and + afterwards translated into Latin by Robert Buchanan. He also wrote a + work on Latin composition, _De emendata structura Latini sermonis_, + which was published in London in 1524 and many times reprinted on the + continent of Europe. + + Linacre's only medical works were his translations. He desired to make + the works of Galen (and indeed those of Aristotle also) accessible to + all readers of Latin. What he effected in the case of the first, + though not trifling in itself, is inconsiderable as compared with the + whole mass of Galen's writings; and of his translations from + Aristotle, some of which are known to have been completed, nothing has + survived. The following are the works of Galen translated by Linacre: + (1) _De sanitate tuenda_, printed at Paris in 1517; (2) _Methodus + medendi_ (Paris, 1519); (3) _De temperamentis et de Inaequali + Intemperie_ (Cambridge, 1521); (4) _De naturalibus facultatibus_ + (London, 1523); (5) _De symptomatum differentiis et causis_ (London, + 1524); (6) _De pulsuum Usu_ (London, without date). He also translated + for the use of Prince Arthur an astronomical treatise of Proclus, _De + sphaera_, which was printed at Venice by Aldus in 1499. The accuracy + of these translations and their elegance of style were universally + admitted. They have been generally accepted as the standard versions + of those parts of Galen's writings, and frequently reprinted, either + as a part of the collected works or separately. + + But the most important service which Linacre conferred upon his own + profession and science was not by his writings. To him was chiefly + owing the foundation by royal charter of the College of Physicians in + London, and he was the first president of the new college, which he + further aided by conveying to it his own house, and by the gift of his + library. Shortly before his death Linacre obtained from the king + letters patent for the establishment of readerships in medicine at + Oxford and Cambridge, and placed valuable estates in the hands of + trustees for their endowment. Two readerships were founded in Merton + College, Oxford, and one in St John's College, Cambridge, but owing to + neglect and bad management of the funds, they fell into uselessness + and obscurity. The Oxford foundation was revived by the university + commissioners in 1856 in the form of the Linacre professorship of + anatomy. Posterity has done justice to the generosity and public + spirit which prompted these foundations; and it is impossible not to + recognize a strong constructive genius in the scheme of the College of + Physicians, by which Linacre not only first organized the medical + profession in England, but impressed upon it for some centuries the + stamp of his own individuality. + + The intellectual fastidiousness of Linacre, and his habits of minute + accuracy were, as Erasmus suggests, the chief cause why he left no + more permanent literary memorials. It will be found, perhaps, + difficult to justify by any extant work the extremely high reputation + which he enjoyed among the scholars of his time. His Latin style was + so much admired that, according to the flattering eulogium of Erasmus, + Galen spoke better Latin in the version of Linacre than he had before + spoken Greek; and even Aristotle displayed a grace which he hardly + attained to in his native tongue. Erasmus praises also Linacre's + critical judgment ("vir non exacti tantum sed severi judicii"). + According to others it was hard to say whether he were more + distinguished as a grammarian or a rhetorician. Of Greek he was + regarded as a consummate master; and he was equally eminent as a + "philosopher," that is, as learned in the works of the ancient + philosophers and naturalists. In this there may have been some + exaggeration; but all have acknowledged the elevation of Linacre's + character, and the fine moral qualities summed up in the epitaph + written by John Caius: "Fraudes dolosque mire perosus; fidus amicis; + omnibus ordinibus juxta carus." + + The materials for Linacre's biography are to a large extent contained + in the older biographical collections of George Lilly (in Paulus + Jovius, _Descriptio Britanniae_), Bale, Leland and Pits, in Wood's + _Athenae Oxonienses_ and in the _Biographia Britannica_; but all are + completely collected in the _Life of Thomas Linacre_, by Dr Noble + Johnson (London, 1835). Reference may also be made to Dr Munk's _Roll + of the Royal College of Physicians_ (2nd ed., London, 1878); and the + Introduction, by Dr J. F. Payne, to a facsimile reproduction of + Linacre's version of _Galen de temperamentis_ (Cambridge, 1881). With + the exception of this treatise, none of Linacre's works or + translations has been reprinted in modern times. + + + + +LINARES, an inland province of central Chile, between Talca on the N. +and Nuble on the S., bounded E. by Argentina and W. by the province of +Maule. Pop. (1895) 101,858; area, 3942 sq. m. The river Maule forms its +northern boundary and drains its northern and north-eastern regions. The +province belongs partly to the great central valley of Chile and partly +to the western slopes of the Andes, the S. Pedro volcano rising to a +height of 11,800 ft. not far from the sources of the Maule. The northern +part is fertile, as are the valleys of the Andean foothills, but arid +conditions prevail throughout the central districts, and irrigation is +necessary for the production of crops. The vine is cultivated to some +extent, and good pasturage is found on the Andean slopes. The province +is traversed from N. to S. by the Chilean Central railway, and the river +Maule gives access to the small port of Constitucion, at its mouth. From +Parral, near the southern boundary, a branch railway extends westward to +Cauquenes, the capital of Maule. The capital, Linares, is centrally +situated, on an open plain, about 20 m. S. of the river Maule. It had a +population of 7331 in 1895 (which an official estimate of 1902 reduced +to 7256). Parral (pop. 8586 in 1895; est. 10,219 in 1902) is a railway +junction and manufacturing town. + + + + +LINARES, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Jaen, among the +southern foothills of the Sierra Morena, 1375 ft. above sea-level and 3 +m. N.W. of the river Guadalimar. Pop. (1900) 38,245. It is connected by +four branch railways with the important argentiferous lead mines on the +north-west, and with the main railways from Madrid to Seville, Granada +and the principal ports on the south coast. The town was greatly +improved in the second half of the 19th century, when the town hall, +bull-ring, theatre and many other handsome buildings were erected; it +contains little of antiquarian interest save a fine fountain of Roman +origin. Its population is chiefly engaged in the lead-mines, and in such +allied industries as the manufacture of gunpowder, dynamite, match for +blasting purposes, rope and the like. The mining plant is entirely +imported, principally from England; and smelting, desilverizing and the +manufacture of lead sheets, pipes, &c., are carried on by British firms, +which also purchase most of the ore raised. Linares lead is unsurpassed +in quality, but the output tends to decrease. There is a thriving local +trade in grain, wine and oil. About 2 m. S. is the village of Cazlona, +which shows some remains of the ancient _Castulo_. The ancient mines +some 5 m. N., which are now known as Los Pozos de Anibal, may possibly +date from the 3rd century B.C., when this part of Spain was ruled by the +Carthaginians. + + + + +LINCOLN, EARLS OF. The first earl of Lincoln was probably William de +Roumare (c. 1095-c. 1155), who was created earl about 1140, although it +is possible that William de Albini, earl of Arundel, had previously held +the earldom. Roumare's grandson, another William de Roumare (c. 1150-c. +1198), is sometimes called earl of Lincoln, but he was never recognized +as such, and about 1148 King Stephen granted the earldom to one of his +supporters, Gilbert de Gand (d. 1156), who was related to the former +earl. After Gilbert's death the earldom was dormant for about sixty +years; then in 1216 it was given to another Gilbert de Gand, and later +it was claimed by the great earl of Chester, Ranulf, or Randulph, de +Blundevill (d. 1232). From Ranulf the title to the earldom passed +through his sister Hawise to the family of Lacy, John de Lacy (d. 1240) +being made earl of Lincoln in 1232. He was son of Roger de Lacy (d. +1212), justiciar of England and constable of Chester. It was held by +the Lacys until the death of Henry, the 3rd earl. Henry served Edward I. +in Wales, France and Scotland, both as a soldier and a diplomatist. He +went to France with Edmund, earl of Lancaster, in 1296, and when Edmund +died in June of this year, succeeded him as commander of the English +forces in Gascony; but he did not experience any great success in this +capacity and returned to England early in 1298. The earl fought at the +battle of Falkirk in July 1298, and took some part in the subsequent +conquest of Scotland. He was then employed by Edward to negotiate +successively with popes Boniface VIII. and Clement V., and also with +Philip IV. of France; and was present at the death of the English king +in July 1307. For a short time Lincoln was friendly with the new king, +Edward II., and his favourite, Piers Gaveston; but quickly changing his +attitude, he joined earl Thomas of Lancaster and the baronial party, was +one of the "ordainers" appointed in 1310 and was regent of the kingdom +during the king's absence in Scotland in the same year. He died in +London on the 5th of February 1311, and was buried in St Paul's +Cathedral. He married Margaret (d. 1309), granddaughter and heiress of +William Longsword, 2nd earl of Salisbury, and his only surviving child, +Alice (1283-1348), became the wife of Thomas, earl of Lancaster, who +thus inherited his father-in-law's earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury. +Lincoln's Inn in London gets its name from the earl, whose London +residence occupied this site. He founded Whalley Abbey in Lancashire, +and built Denbigh Castle. + +In 1349 Henry Plantagenet, earl (afterwards duke) of Lancaster, a nephew +of Earl Thomas, was created earl of Lincoln; and when his grandson Henry +became king of England as Henry IV. in 1399 the title merged in the +crown. In 1467 John de la Pole (c. 1464-1487), a nephew of Edward IV., +was made earl of Lincoln, and the same dignity was conferred in 1525 +upon Henry Brandon (1516-1545), son of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk. +Both died without sons, and the next family to hold the earldom was that +of Clinton. + +EDWARD FIENNES CLINTON, 9th Lord Clinton (1512-1585), lord high admiral +and the husband of Henry VIII.'s mistress, Elizabeth Blount, was created +earl of Lincoln in 1572. Before his elevation he had rendered very +valuable services both on sea and land to Edward VI., to Mary and to +Elizabeth, and he was in the confidence of the leading men of these +reigns, including William Cecil, Lord Burghley. From 1572 until the +present day the title has been held by Clinton's descendants. In 1768 +Henry Clinton, the 9th earl (1720-1794), succeeded his uncle Thomas +Pelham as 2nd duke of Newcastle-under-Lyne, and since this date the +title of earl of Lincoln has been the courtesy title of the eldest son +of the duke of Newcastle. + + See G. E. C.(okayne), _Complete Peerage_, vol. v. (1893). + + + + +LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (1809-1865), sixteenth president of the United States +of America, was born on "Rock Spring" farm, 3 m. from Hodgenville, in +Hardin (now Larue) county, Kentucky, on the 12th of February 1809.[1] +His grandfather,[2] Abraham Lincoln, settled in Kentucky about 1780 and +was killed by Indians in 1784. His father, Thomas (1778-1851), was born +in Rockingham (then Augusta) county, Virginia; he was hospitable, +shiftless, restless and unsuccessful, working now as a carpenter and now +as a farmer, and could not read or write before his marriage, in +Washington county, Kentucky, on the 12th of June 1806, to Nancy Hanks +(1783-1818), who was, like him, a native of Virginia, but had much more +strength of character and native ability, and seemed to have been, in +intellect and character, distinctly above the social class in which she +was born. The Lincolns had removed from Elizabethtown, Hardin county, +their first home, to the Rock Spring farm, only a short time before +Abraham's birth; about 1813 they removed to a farm of 238 acres on Knob +Creek, about 6 m. from Hodgenville; and in 1816 they crossed the Ohio +river and settled on a quarter-section, 1½ m. E. of the present village +of Gentryville, in Spencer county, Indiana. There Abraham's mother died +on the 5th of October 1818. In December 1819 his father married, at his +old home, Elizabethtown, Mrs Sarah (Bush) Johnston (d. 1869), whom he +had courted years before, whose thrift greatly improved conditions in +the home, and who exerted a great influence over her stepson. Spencer +county was still a wilderness, and the boy grew up in pioneer +surroundings, living in a rude log-cabin, enduring many hardships and +knowing only the primitive manners, conversation and ambitions of +sparsely settled backwoods communities. Schools were rare, and teachers +qualified only to impart the merest rudiments. "Of course when I came of +age I did not know much," wrote he years afterward, "still somehow I +could read, write and cipher to the rule of three, but that was all. I +have not been to school since. The little advance I now have upon this +store of education I have picked up from time to time under the pressure +of necessity." His entire schooling, in five different schools, amounted +to less than a twelvemonth; but he became a good speller and an +excellent penman. His own mother taught him to read, and his stepmother +urged him to study. He read and re-read in early boyhood the Bible, +Aesop, _Robinson Crusoe_, _Pilgrim's Progress_, Weems's _Life of +Washington_ and a history of the United States; and later read every +book he could borrow from the neighbours, Burns and Shakespeare becoming +favourites. He wrote rude, coarse satires, crude verse, and compositions +on the American government, temperance, &c. At the age of seventeen he +had attained his full height, and began to be known as a wrestler, +runner and lifter of great weights. When nineteen he made a journey as a +hired hand on a flatboat to New Orleans. + +In March 1830 his father emigrated to Macon county, Illinois (near the +present Decatur), and soon afterward removed to Coles county. Being now +twenty-one years of age, Abraham hired himself to Denton Offutt, a +migratory trader and storekeeper then of Sangamon county, and he helped +Offutt to build a flatboat and float it down the Sangamon, Illinois and +Mississippi rivers to New Orleans. In 1831 Offutt made him clerk of his +country store at New Salem, a small and unsuccessful settlement in +Menard county; this gave him moments of leisure to devote to +self-education. He borrowed a grammar and other books, sought +explanations from the village schoolmaster and began to read law. In +this frontier community law and politics claimed a large proportion of +the stronger and the more ambitious men; the law early appealed to +Lincoln and his general popularity encouraged him as early as 1832 to +enter politics. In this year Offutt failed and Lincoln was thus left +without employment. He became a candidate for the Illinois House of +Representatives; and on the 9th of March 1832 issued an address "To the +people of Sangamon county" which betokens talent and education far +beyond mere ability to "read, write and cipher," though in its +preparation he seems to have had the help of a friend. Before the +election the Black Hawk Indian War broke out; Lincoln volunteered in one +of the Sangamon county companies on the 21st of April and was elected +captain by the members of the company. It is said that the oath of +allegiance was administered to Lincoln at this time by Lieut. Jefferson +Davis. The company, a part of the 4th Illinois, was mustered out after +the five weeks' service for which it volunteered, and Lincoln +re-enlisted as a private on the 29th of May, and was finally mustered +out on the 16th of June by Lieut. Robert Anderson, who in 1861 commanded +the Union troops at Fort Sumter. As captain Lincoln was twice in +disgrace, once for firing a pistol near camp and again because nearly +his entire company was intoxicated. He was in no battle, and always +spoke lightly of his military record. He was defeated in his campaign +for the legislature in 1832, partly because of his unpopular adherence +to Clay and the American system, but in his own election precinct, he +received nearly all the votes cast. With a friend, William Berry, he +then bought a small country store, which soon failed chiefly because of +the drunken habits of Berry and because Lincoln preferred to read and to +tell stories--he early gained local celebrity as a story-teller--rather +than sell; about this time he got hold of a set of Blackstone. In the +spring of 1833 the store's stock was sold to satisfy its creditors, and +Lincoln assumed the firm's debts, which he did not fully pay off for +fifteen years. In May 1833, local friendship, disregarding politics, +procured his appointment as postmaster of New Salem, but this paid him +very little, and in the same year the county surveyor of Sangamon county +opportunely offered to make him one of his deputies. He hastily +qualified himself by study, and entered upon the practical duties of +surveying farm lines, roads and town sites. "This," to use his own +words, "procured bread, and kept body and soul together." + +In 1834 Lincoln was elected (second of four successful candidates, with +only 14 fewer votes than the first) a member of the Illinois House of +Representatives, to which he was re-elected in 1836, 1838 and 1840, +serving until 1842. In his announcement of his candidacy in 1836 he +promised to vote for Hugh L. White of Tennessee (a vigorous opponent of +Andrew Jackson in Tennessee politics) for president, and said: "I go for +all sharing the privileges of the government who assist in bearing its +burdens. Consequently, I go for admitting all whites to the right of +suffrage, who pay taxes or bear arms (by no means excluding females)"--a +sentiment frequently quoted to prove Lincoln a believer in woman's +suffrage. In this election he led the poll in Sangamon county. In the +legislature, like the other representatives of that county, who were +called the "Long Nine," because of their stature, he worked for internal +improvements, for which lavish appropriations were made, and for the +division of Sangamon county and the choice of Springfield as the state +capital, instead of Vandalia. He and his party colleagues followed +Stephen A. Douglas in adopting the convention system, to which Lincoln +had been strongly opposed. In 1837 with one other representative from +Sangamon county, named Dan Stone, he protested against a series of +resolutions, adopted by the Illinois General Assembly, expressing +disapproval of the formation of abolition societies and asserting, among +other things, that "the right of property in slaves is sacred to the +slave holding states under the Federal Constitution"; and Lincoln and +Stone put out a paper in which they expressed their belief "that the +institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but +that the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase +than abate its evils," "that the Congress of the United States has no +power under the Constitution to interfere with the institution of +slavery in the different states," "that the Congress of the United +States has the power, under the Constitution, to abolish slavery in the +District of Columbia, but that the power ought not to be exercised +unless at the request of the people of the District." Lincoln was very +popular among his fellow legislators, and in 1838 and in 1840 he +received the complimentary vote of his minority colleagues for the +speakership of the state House of Representatives. In 1842 he declined a +renomination to the state legislature and attempted unsuccessfully to +secure a nomination to Congress. In the same year he became interested +in the Washingtonian temperance movement. + +In 1846 he was elected a member of the National House of Representatives +by a majority of 1511 over his Democratic opponent, Peter Cartwright, +the Methodist preacher. Lincoln was the only Whig member of Congress +elected in Illinois in 1846. In the House of Representatives on the 22nd +of December 1847 he introduced the "Spot Resolutions," which quoted +statements in the president's messages of the 11th of May 1846 and the +7th and 8th of December that Mexican troops had invaded the territory of +the United States, and asked the president to tell the precise "spot" of +invasion; he made a speech on these resolutions in the House on the 12th +of January 1848. His attitude toward the war and especially his vote for +George Ashmun's amendment to the supply bill at this session, declaring +that the Mexican War was "unnecessarily and unconstitutionally commenced +by the President," greatly displeased his constituents. He later +introduced a bill regarding slavery in the District of Columbia, which +(in accordance with his statement of 1837) was to be submitted to the +vote of the District for approval, and which provided for compensated +emancipation, forbade the bringing of slaves into the District of +Columbia, except by government officials from slave states, and the +selling of slaves away from the District, and arranged for the +emancipation after a period of apprenticeship of all slave children born +after the 1st of January 1850. While he was in Congress he voted +repeatedly for the principle of the Wilmot Proviso. At the close of his +term in 1848 he declined an appointment as governor of the newly +organized Territory of Oregon and for a time worked, without success, +for an appointment as Commissioner of the General Land Office. During +the presidential campaign he made speeches in Illinois, and in +Massachusetts he spoke before the Whig State Convention at Worcester on +the 12th of September, and in the next ten days at Lowell, Dedham, +Roxbury, Chelsea, Cambridge and Boston. He had become an eloquent and +influential public speaker, and in 1840 and 1844 was a candidate on the +Whig ticket for presidential elector. + +In 1834 his political friend and colleague John Todd Stuart (1807-1885), +a lawyer in full practice, had urged him to fit himself for the bar, and +had lent him text-books; and Lincoln, working diligently, was admitted +to the bar in September 1836. In April 1837 he quitted New Salem, and +removed to Springfield, which was the county-seat and was soon to become +the capital of the state, to begin practice in a partnership with +Stuart, which was terminated in April 1841; from that time until +September 1843 he was junior partner to Stephen Trigg Logan (1800-1880), +and from 1843 until his death he was senior partner of William Henry +Herndon (1818-1891). Between 1849 and 1854 he took little part in +politics, devoted himself to the law and became one of the leaders of +the Illinois bar. His small fees--he once charged $3.50 for collecting +an account of nearly $600.00--his frequent refusals to take cases which +he did not think right and his attempts to prevent unnecessary +litigation have become proverbial. Judge David Davis, who knew Lincoln +on the Illinois circuit and whom Lincoln made in October 1862 an +associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, said that +he was "great both at _nisi prius_ and before an appellate tribunal." He +was an excellent cross-examiner, whose candid friendliness of manner +often succeeded in eliciting important testimony from unwilling +witnesses. Among Lincoln's most famous cases were: one (_Bailey_ v. +_Cromwell_, 4 Ill. 71; frequently cited) before the Illinois Supreme +Court in July 1841 in which he argued against the validity of a note in +payment for a negro girl, adducing the Ordinance of 1787 and other +authorities; a case (tried in Chicago in September 1857) for the Rock +Island railway, sued for damages by the owners of a steamboat sunk after +collision with a railway bridge, a trial in which Lincoln brought to the +service of his client a surveyor's knowledge of mathematics and a +riverman's acquaintance with currents and channels, and argued that +crossing a stream by bridge was as truly a common right as navigating it +by boat, thus contributing to the success of Chicago and railway +commerce in the contest against St Louis and river transportation; the +defence (at Beardstown in May 1858) on the charge of murder of William +("Duff") Armstrong, son of one of Lincoln's New Salem friends, whom +Lincoln freed by controverting with the help of an almanac the testimony +of a crucial witness that between 10 and 11 o'clock at night he had seen +by moonlight the defendant strike the murderous blow--this dramatic +incident is described in Edward Eggleston's novel, _The Graysons_; and +the defence on the charge of murder (committed in August 1859) of +"Peachy" Harrison, a grandson of Peter Cartwright, whose testimony was +used with great effect. + +From law, however, Lincoln was soon drawn irresistibly back into +politics. The slavery question, in one form or another, had become the +great overshadowing issue in national, and even in state politics; the +abolition movement, begun in earnest by W. L. Garrison in 1831, had +stirred the conscience of the North, and had had its influence even upon +many who strongly deprecated its extreme radicalism; the Compromise of +1850 had failed to silence sectional controversy, and the Fugitive Slave +Law, which was one of the compromise measures, had throughout the North +been bitterly assailed and to a considerable extent had been nullified +by state legislation; and finally in 1854 the slavery agitation was +fomented by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which repealed the +Missouri Compromise and gave legislative sanction to the principle of +"popular sovereignty"--the principle that the inhabitants of each +Territory as well as of each state were to be left free to decide for +themselves whether or not slavery was to be permitted therein. In +enacting this measure Congress had been dominated largely by one +man--Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois--then probably the most powerful +figure in national politics. Lincoln had early put himself on record as +opposed to slavery, but he was never technically an abolitionist; he +allied himself rather with those who believed that slavery should be +fought within the Constitution, that, though it could not be +constitutionally interfered with in individual states, it should be +excluded from territory over which the national government had +jurisdiction. In this, as in other things, he was eminently +clear-sighted and practical. Already he had shown his capacity as a +forcible and able debater; aroused to new activity upon the passage of +the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which he regarded as a gross breach of +political faith, he now entered upon public discussion with an +earnestness and force that by common consent gave him leadership in +Illinois of the opposition, which in 1854 elected a majority of the +legislature; and it gradually became clear that he was the only man who +could be opposed in debate to the powerful and adroit Douglas. He was +elected to the state House of Representatives, from which he immediately +resigned to become a candidate for United States senator from Illinois, +to succeed James Shields, a Democrat; but five opposition members, of +Democratic antecedents, refused to vote for Lincoln (on the second +ballot he received 47 votes--50 being necessary to elect) and he turned +the votes which he controlled over to Lyman Trumbull, who was opposed to +the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and thus secured the defeat of Joel Aldrich +Matteson (1808-1883), who favoured this act and who on the eighth ballot +had received 47 votes to 35 for Trumbull and 15 for Lincoln. The various +anti-Nebraska elements came together, in Illinois as elsewhere, to form +a new party at a time when the old parties were disintegrating; and in +1856 the Republican party was formally organized in the state. Lincoln +before the state convention at Bloomington of "all opponents of +anti-Nebraska legislation" (the first Republican state convention in +Illinois) made on the 29th of May a notable address known as the "Lost +Speech." The National Convention of the Republican Party in 1856 cast +110 votes for Lincoln as its vice-presidential candidate on the ticket +with Fremont, and he was on the Republican electoral ticket of this +year, and made effective campaign speeches in the interest of the new +party. The campaign in the state resulted substantially in a drawn +battle, the Democrats gaining a majority in the state for president, +while the Republicans elected the governor and state officers. In 1858 +the term of Douglas in the United States Senate was expiring, and he +sought re-election. On the 16th of June 1858 by unanimous resolution of +the Republican state convention Lincoln was declared "the first and only +choice of the Republicans of Illinois for the United States Senate as +the successor of Stephen A. Douglas," who was the choice of his own +party to succeed himself. Lincoln, addressing the convention which +nominated him, gave expression to the following bold prophecy:-- + + "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this + Government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do + not expect the Union to be dissolved--I do not expect the house to + fall--but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all + one thing or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will + arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind + shall rest in the belief that it is in course of ultimate extinction; + or its advocates will push it forward, till it shall become alike + lawful in all the states, old as well as new--North as well as South." + +In this speech, delivered in the state House of Representatives, Lincoln +charged Pierce, Buchanan, Taney and Douglas with conspiracy to secure +the Dred Scott decision. Yielding to the wish of his party friends, on +the 24th of July, Lincoln challenged Douglas to a joint public +discussion.[3] The antagonists met in debate at seven designated places +in the state. The first meeting was at Ottawa, La Salle County, about 90 +m. south-west of Chicago, on the 21st of August. At Freeport, on the +Wisconsin boundary, on the 27th of August, Lincoln answered questions +put to him by Douglas, and by his questions forced Douglas to "betray +the South" by his enunciation of the "Freeport heresy," that, no matter +what the character of Congressional legislation or the Supreme Court's +decision "slavery cannot exist a day or an hour anywhere unless it is +supported by local police regulations." This adroit attempt to reconcile +the principle of popular sovereignty with the Dred Scott decision, +though it undoubtedly helped Douglas in the immediate fight for the +senatorship, necessarily alienated his Southern supporters and assured +his defeat, as Lincoln foresaw it must, in the presidential campaign of +1860. The other debates were: at Jonesboro, in the southern part of the +state, on the 15th of September; at Charleston, 150 m. N.E. of +Jonesboro, on the 18th of September; and, in the western part of the +state, at Galesburg (Oct. 7), Quincy (Oct. 13) and Alton (Oct. 15). In +these debates Douglas, the champion of his party, was over-matched in +clearness and force of reasoning, and lacked the great moral earnestness +of his opponent; but he dexterously extricated himself time and again +from difficult argumentative positions, and retained sufficient support +to win the immediate prize. At the November election the Republican vote +was 126,084, the Douglas Democratic vote was 121,940 and the Lecompton +(or Buchanan) Democratic vote was 5091; but the Democrats, through a +favourable apportionment of representative districts, secured a majority +of the legislature (Senate: 14 Democrats, 11 Republicans; House: 40 +Democrats, 35 Republicans), which re-elected Douglas. Lincoln's speeches +in this campaign won him a national fame. In 1859 he made two speeches +in Ohio--one at Columbus on the 16th of September criticising Douglas's +paper in the September _Harper's Magazine_, and one at Cincinnati on the +17th of September, which was addressed to Kentuckians,--and he spent a +few days in Kansas, speaking in Elwood, Troy, Doniphan, Atchison and +Leavenworth, in the first week of December. On the 27th of February 1860 +in Cooper Union, New York City, he made a speech (much the same as that +delivered in Elwood, Kansas, on the 1st of December) which made him +known favourably to the leaders of the Republican party in the East and +which was a careful historical study criticising the statement of +Douglas in one of his speeches in Ohio that "our fathers when they +framed the government under which we live understood this question +[slavery] just as well and even better than we do now," and Douglas's +contention that "the fathers" made the country (and intended that it +should remain) part slave. Lincoln pointed out that the majority of the +members of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 opposed slavery and +that they did not think that Congress had no power to control slavery in +the Territories. He spoke at Concord, Manchester, Exeter and Dover in +New Hampshire, at Hartford (5th March), New Haven (6th March), +Woonsocket (8th March) and Norwich (9th March). The Illinois State +Convention of the Republican party, held at Decatur on the 9th and 10th +of May 1860, amid great enthusiasm declared Abraham Lincoln its first +choice for the presidential nomination, and instructed the delegation to +the National Convention to cast the vote of the state as a unit for him. + +The Republican national convention, which made "No Extension of Slavery" +the essential part of the party platform, met at Chicago on the 16th of +May 1860. At this time William H. Seward was the most conspicuous +Republican in national politics, and Salmon P. Chase had long been in +the fore-front of the political contest against slavery. Both had won +greater national fame than had Lincoln, and, before the convention met, +each hoped to be nominated for president. Chase, however, had little +chance, and the contest was virtually between Seward and Lincoln, who by +many was considered more "available," because it was thought that he +could (and Seward could not) secure the vote of certain doubtful states. +Lincoln's name was presented by Illinois and seconded by Indiana. At +first Seward had the strongest support. On the first ballot Lincoln +received only 102 votes to 173½ for Seward. On the second ballot Lincoln +received 181 votes to Seward's 184½. On the third ballot the 50½ votes +formerly given to Simon Cameron[4] were given to Lincoln, who received +231½ votes to 180 for Seward, and without taking another ballot enough +votes were changed to make Lincoln's total 354 (233 being necessary for +a choice) and the nomination was then made unanimous. Hannibal Hamlin, +of Maine, was nominated for the vice-presidency. The convention was +singularly tumultuous and noisy; large claques were hired by both +Lincoln's and Seward's managers. During the campaign Lincoln remained in +Springfield, making few speeches and writing practically no letters for +publication. The campaign was unusually animated--only the Whig campaign +for William Henry Harrison in 1840 is comparable to it: there were great +torchlight processions of "wide-awake" clubs, which did "rail-fence," or +zigzag, marches, and carried rails in honour of their candidate, the +"rail-splitter." Lincoln was elected by a popular vote of 1,866,452 to +1,375,157 for Douglas, 847,953 for Breckinridge and 590,631 for Bell--as +the combined vote of his opponents was so much greater than his own he +was often called "the minority president"; the electoral vote was: +Lincoln, 180; John C. Breckinridge, 72; John Bell, 39; Stephen A. +Douglas, 12. On the 4th of March 1861 Lincoln was inaugurated as +president. (For an account of his administration see UNITED STATES: +_History_.) + +During the campaign radical leaders in the South frequently asserted +that the success of the Republicans at the polls would mean that the +rights of the slave-holding states under the Federal constitution, as +interpreted by them, would no longer be respected by the North, and +that, if Lincoln were elected, it would be the duty of these +slave-holding states to secede from the Union. There was much opposition +in these states to such a course, but the secessionists triumphed, and +by the time President Lincoln was inaugurated, South Carolina, Georgia, +Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas had formally +withdrawn from the Union. A provisional government under the designation +"The Confederate States of America," with Jefferson Davis as president, +was organized by the seceding states, which seized by force nearly all +the forts, arsenals and public buildings within their limits. Great +division of sentiment existed in the North, whether in this emergency +acquiescence or coercion was the preferable policy. Lincoln's inaugural +address declared the Union perpetual and acts of secession void, and +announced the determination of the government to defend its authority, +and to hold forts and places yet in its possession. He disclaimed any +intention to invade, subjugate or oppress the seceding states. "You can +have no conflict," he said, "without being yourselves the aggressors." +Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbour, had been besieged by the +secessionists since January; and, it being now on the point of surrender +through starvation, Lincoln sent the besiegers official notice on the +8th of April that a fleet was on its way to carry provisions to the +fort, but that he would not attempt to reinforce it unless this effort +were resisted. The Confederates, however, immediately ordered its +reduction, and after a thirty-four hours' bombardment the garrison +capitulated on the 13th of April 1861. (For the military history of the +war, see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR.) + +With civil war thus provoked, Lincoln, on the 15th of April, by +proclamation called 75,000 three months' militia under arms, and on the +4th of May ordered the further enlistment of 64,748 soldiers and 18,000 +seamen for three years' service. He instituted by proclamation of the +19th of April a blockade of the Southern ports, took effective steps to +extemporize a navy, convened Congress in special session (on the 4th of +July), and asked for legislation and authority to make the war "short, +sharp and decisive." The country responded with enthusiasm to his +summons and suggestions; and the South on its side was not less active. + +The slavery question presented vexatious difficulties in conducting the +war. Congress in August 1861 passed an act (approved August 6th) +confiscating rights of slave-owners to slaves employed in hostile +service against the Union. On the 30th of August General Fremont by +military order declared martial law and confiscation against active +enemies, with freedom to their slaves, in the State of Missouri. +Believing that under existing conditions such a step was both +detrimental in present policy and unauthorized in law, President Lincoln +directed him (2nd September) to modify the order to make it conform to +the Confiscation Act of Congress, and on the 11th of September annulled +the parts of the order which conflicted with this act. Strong political +factions were instantly formed for and against military emancipation, +and the government was hotly beset by antagonistic counsel. The +Unionists of the border slave states were greatly alarmed, but Lincoln +by his moderate conservatism held them to the military support of the +government.[5] Meanwhile he sagaciously prepared the way for the supreme +act of statesmanship which the gathering national crisis already dimly +foreshadowed. On the 6th of March 1862, he sent a special message to +Congress recommending the passage of a resolution offering pecuniary aid +from the general government to induce states to adopt gradual +abolishment of slavery. Promptly passed by Congress, the resolution +produced no immediate result except in its influence on public opinion. +A practical step, however, soon followed. In April Congress passed and +the president approved (6th April) an act emancipating the slaves in the +District of Columbia, with compensation to owners--a measure which +Lincoln had proposed when in Congress. Meanwhile slaves of loyal masters +were constantly escaping to military camps. Some commanders excluded +them altogether; others surrendered them on demand; while still others +sheltered and protected them against their owners. Lincoln tolerated +this latitude as falling properly within the military discretion +pertaining to local army operations. A new case, however, soon demanded +his official interference. On the 9th of May 1862 General David Hunter, +commanding in the limited areas gained along the southern coast, issued +a short order declaring his department under martial law, and +adding--"Slavery and martial law in a free country are altogether +incompatible. The persons in these three States--Georgia, Florida and +South Carolina--heretofore held as slaves are, therefore, declared for +ever free." As soon as this order, by the slow method of communication +by sea, reached the newspapers, Lincoln (May 19) published a +proclamation declaring it void; adding further, "Whether it be competent +for me as commander-in-chief of the army and navy to declare the slaves +of any state or states free, and whether at any time or in any case it +shall have become a necessity indispensable to the maintenance of the +government to exercise such supposed power, are questions which under my +responsibility I reserve to myself, and which I cannot feel justified in +leaving to the decision of commanders in the field. These are totally +different questions from those of police regulations in armies or +camps." But in the same proclamation Lincoln recalled to the public his +own proposal and the assent of Congress to compensate states which would +adopt voluntary and gradual abolishment. "To the people of these states +now," he added, "I must earnestly appeal. I do not argue. I beseech you +to make the argument for yourselves. You cannot, if you would, be blind +to the signs of the times." Meanwhile the anti-slavery sentiment of the +North constantly increased. Congress by express act (approved on the +19th of June) prohibited the existence of slavery in all territories +outside of states. On July the 12th the president called the +representatives of the border slave states to the executive mansion, and +once more urged upon them his proposal of compensated emancipation. "If +the war continues long," he said, "as it must if the object be not +sooner attained, the institution in your states will be extinguished by +mere friction and abrasion--by the mere incidents of the war. It will be +gone, and you will have nothing valuable in lieu of it." Although +Lincoln's appeal brought the border states to no practical decision--the +representatives of these states almost without exception opposed the +plan--it served to prepare public opinion for his final act. During the +month of July his own mind reached the virtual determination to give +slavery its _coup de grâce_; on the 17th he approved a new Confiscation +Act, much broader than that of the 6th of August 1861 (which freed only +those slaves in military service against the Union) and giving to the +president power to employ persons of African descent for the suppression +of the rebellion; and on the 22nd he submitted to his cabinet the draft +of an emancipation proclamation substantially as afterward issued. +Serious military reverses constrained him for the present to withhold +it, while on the other hand they served to increase the pressure upon +him from anti-slavery men. Horace Greeley having addressed a public +letter to him complaining of "the policy you seem to be pursuing with +regard to the slaves of the rebels," the president replied on the 22nd +of August, saying, "My paramount object is to save the Union, and not +either to save or destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without +freeing any slave, I would do it; if I could save it by freeing all the +slaves, I would do it; and, if I could do it by freeing some and leaving +others alone, I would also do that." Thus still holding back violent +reformers with one hand, and leading up halting conservatives with the +other, he on the 13th of September replied among other things to an +address from a delegation: "I do not want to issue a document that the +whole world will see must necessarily be inoperative like the pope's +bull against the comet.... I view this matter as a practical war +measure, to be decided on according to the advantages or disadvantages +it may offer to the suppression of the rebellion.... I have not decided +against a proclamation of liberty to the slaves, but hold the matter +under advisement." + +The year 1862 had opened with important Union victories. Admiral A. H. +Foote captured Fort Henry on the 6th of February, and Gen. U. S. Grant +captured Fort Donelson on the 16th of February, and won the battle of +Shiloh on the 6th and 7th of April. Gen. A. E. Burnside took possession +of Roanoke island on the North Carolina coast (7th February). The famous +contest between the new ironclads "Monitor" and "Merrimac" (9th April), +though indecisive, effectually stopped the career of the Confederate +vessel, which was later destroyed by the Confederates themselves. (See +HAMPTON ROADS.) Farragut, with a wooden fleet, ran past the twin forts +St Philip and Jackson, compelled the surrender of New Orleans (26th +April), and gained control of the lower Mississippi. The succeeding +three months brought disaster and discouragement to the Union army. +M'Clellan's campaign against Richmond was made abortive by his timorous +generalship, and compelled the withdrawal of his army. Pope's army, +advancing against the same city by another line, was beaten back upon +Washington in defeat. The tide of war, however, once more turned in the +defeat of Lee's invading army at South Mountain and Antietam in Maryland +on the 14th and on the 16th and 17th of September, compelling him to +retreat. + +With public opinion thus ripened by alternate defeat and victory, +President Lincoln, on the 22nd of September 1862, issued his preliminary +proclamation of emancipation, giving notice that on the 1st of January +1863, "all persons held as slaves within any state or designated part of +a state the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United +States shall be then, thenceforward and for ever free." In his message +to Congress on the 1st of December following, he again urged his plan of +gradual, compensated emancipation (to be completed on the 1st of +December 1900) "as a means, not in exclusion of, but additional to, all +others for restoring and preserving the national authority throughout +the Union." On the 1st day of January 1863 the final proclamation of +emancipation was duly issued, designating the States of Arkansas, Texas, +Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, +and certain portions of Louisiana and Virginia, as "this day in +rebellion against the United States," and proclaiming that, in virtue of +his authority as commander-in-chief, and as a necessary war measure for +suppressing rebellion, "I do order and declare that all persons held as +slaves within said designated states and parts of states are and +henceforward shall be free," and pledging the executive and military +power of the government to maintain such freedom. The legal validity of +these proclamations was never pronounced upon by the national courts; +but their decrees gradually enforced by the march of armies were soon +recognized by public opinion to be practically irreversible.[6] Such +dissatisfaction as they caused in the border slave states died out in +the stress of war. The systematic enlistment of negroes and their +incorporation into the army by regiments, hitherto only tried as +exceptional experiments, were now pushed with vigour, and, being +followed by several conspicuous instances of their gallantry on the +battlefield, added another strong impulse to the sweeping change of +popular sentiment. To put the finality of emancipation beyond all +question, Lincoln in the winter session of 1863-1864 strongly supported +a movement in Congress to abolish slavery by constitutional amendment, +but the necessary two-thirds vote of the House of Representatives could +not then be obtained. In his annual message of the 6th of December 1864, +he urged the immediate passage of the measure. Congress now acted +promptly: on the 31st of January 1865, that body by joint resolution +proposed to the states the 13th amendment of the Federal Constitution, +providing that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a +punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, +shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their +jurisdiction." Before the end of that year twenty-seven out of the +thirty-six states of the Union (being the required three-fourths) had +ratified the amendment, and official proclamation made by President +Johnson on the 18th of December 1865, declared it duly adopted. + +The foreign policy of President Lincoln, while subordinate in importance +to the great questions of the Civil War, nevertheless presented several +difficult and critical problems for his decision. The arrest (8th of +November 1861) by Captain Charles Wilkes of two Confederate envoys +proceeding to Europe in the British steamer "Trent" seriously threatened +peace with England. Public opinion in America almost unanimously +sustained the act; but Lincoln, convinced that the rights of Great +Britain as a neutral had been violated, promptly, upon the demand of +England, ordered the liberation of the prisoners (26th of December). +Later friendly relations between the United States and Great Britain, +where, among the upper classes, there was a strong sentiment in favour +of the Confederacy, were seriously threatened by the fitting out of +Confederate privateers in British ports, and the Administration owed +much to the skilful diplomacy of the American minister in London, +Charles Francis Adams. A still broader foreign question grew out of +Mexican affairs, when events culminating in the setting up of Maximilian +of Austria as emperor under protection of French troops demanded the +constant watchfulness of the United States. Lincoln's course was one of +prudent moderation. France voluntarily declared that she sought in +Mexico only to satisfy injuries done her and not to overthrow or +establish local government or to appropriate territory. The United +States Government replied that, relying on these assurances, it would +maintain strict non-intervention, at the same time openly avowing the +general sympathy of its people with a Mexican republic, and that "their +own safety and the cheerful destiny to which they aspire are intimately +dependent on the continuance of free republican institutions throughout +America." In the early part of 1863 the French Government proposed a +mediation between the North and the South. This offer President Lincoln +(on the 6th of February) declined to consider, Seward replying for him +that it would only be entering into diplomatic discussion with the +rebels whether the authority of the government should be renounced, and +the country delivered over to disunion and anarchy. + +The Civil War gradually grew to dimensions beyond all expectation. By +January 1863 the Union armies numbered near a million men, and were kept +up to this strength till the end of the struggle. The Federal war debt +eventually reached the sum of $2,700,000,000. The fortunes of battle +were somewhat fluctuating during the first half of 1863, but the +beginning of July brought the Union forces decisive victories. The +reduction of Vicksburg (4th of July) and Port Hudson (9th of July), with +other operations, restored complete control of the Mississippi, severing +the Southern Confederacy. In the east Lee had the second time marched +his army into Pennsylvania to suffer a disastrous defeat at Gettysburg, +on the 1st, 2nd and 3rd of July, though he was able to withdraw his +shattered forces south of the Potomac. At the dedication of this +battlefield as a soldiers' cemetery in November, President Lincoln made +the following oration, which has taken permanent place as a classic in +American literature:-- + + "Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this + continent a new nation conceived in liberty and dedicated to the + proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a + great civil war testing whether that nation, or any nation so + conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great + battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that + field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives + that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that + we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we + cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living + and dead, who struggled here have consecrated it far above our poor + power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember + what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is + for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work + which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is + rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before + us--that from these honoured dead we take increased devotion to that + cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion--that we + here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that + this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, and that + government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not + perish from the earth." + +In the unexpected prolongation of the war, volunteer enlistments became +too slow to replenish the waste of armies, and in 1863 the government +was forced to resort to a draft. The enforcement of the conscription +created much opposition in various parts of the country, and led to a +serious riot in the city of New York on the 13th-16th of July. President +Lincoln executed the draft with all possible justice and forbearance, +but refused every importunity to postpone it. It was made a special +subject of criticism by the Democratic party of the North, which was now +organizing itself on the basis of a discontinuance of the war, to +endeavour to win the presidential election of the following year. +Clement L. Vallandigham of Ohio, having made a violent public speech at +Mt. Vernon, Ohio, on the 1st of May against the war and military +proceedings, was arrested on the 5th of May by General Burnside, tried +by military commission, and sentenced on the 16th to imprisonment; a +writ of _habeas corpus_ had been refused, and the sentence was changed +by the president to transportation beyond the military lines. By way of +political defiance the Democrats of Ohio nominated Vallandigham for +governor on the 11th of June. Prominent Democrats and a committee of the +Convention having appealed for his release, Lincoln wrote two long +letters in reply discussing the constitutional question, and declaring +that in his judgment the president as commander-in-chief in time of +rebellion or invasion holds the power and responsibility of suspending +the privilege of the writ of _habeas corpus_, but offering to release +Vallandigham if the committee would sign a declaration that rebellion +exists, that an army and navy are constitutional means to suppress it, +and that each of them would use his personal power and influence to +prosecute the war. This liberal offer and their refusal to accept it +counteracted all the political capital they hoped to make out of the +case; and public opinion was still more powerfully influenced in behalf +of the president's action, by the pathos of the query which he +propounded in one of his letters: "Must I shoot the simple-minded +soldier boy who deserts, while I must not touch a hair of a wily +agitator who induces him to desert?" When the election took place in +Ohio, Vallandigham was defeated by a majority of more than a hundred +thousand. + +Many unfounded rumours of a willingness on the part of the Confederate +States to make peace were circulated to weaken the Union war spirit. To +all such suggestions, up to the time of issuing his emancipation +proclamation, Lincoln announced his readiness to stop fighting and grant +amnesty, whenever they would submit to and maintain the national +authority under the Constitution of the United States. Certain agents in +Canada having in 1864 intimated that they were empowered to treat for +peace, Lincoln, through Greeley, tendered them safe conduct to +Washington. They were by this forced to confess that they possessed no +authority to negotiate. The president thereupon sent them, and made +public, the following standing offer:-- + + "To whom it may concern: + + "Any proposition which embraces the restoration of peace, the + integrity of the whole Union, and the abandonment of slavery, and + which comes by and with an authority that can control the armies now + at war against the United States, will be received and considered by + the Executive Government of the United States, and will be met by + liberal terms on substantial and collateral points, and the bearer or + bearers thereof shall have safe conduct both ways. + + "July 18, 1864." + + "ABRAHAM LINCOLN." + +A noteworthy conference on this question took place near the close of +the Civil War, when the strength of the Confederacy was almost +exhausted. F. P. Blair, senior, a personal friend of Jefferson Davis, +acting solely on his own responsibility, was permitted to go from +Washington to Richmond, where, on the 12th of January 1865, after a +private and unofficial interview, Davis in writing declared his +willingness to enter a conference "to secure peace to the two +countries." Report being duly made to President Lincoln, he wrote a note +(dated 18th January) consenting to receive any agent sent informally +"with the view of securing peace to the people of our common country." +Upon the basis of this latter proposition three Confederate +commissioners (A. H. Stevens, J. A. C. Campbell and R. M. T. Hunter) +finally came to Hampton Roads, where President Lincoln and Secretary +Seward met them on the U.S. steam transport "River Queen," and on the +3rd of February 1865 an informal conference of four hours' duration was +held. Private reports of the interview agree substantially in the +statement that the Confederates proposed a cessation of the Civil War, +and postponement of its issues for future adjustment, while for the +present the belligerents should unite in a campaign to expel the French +from Mexico, and to enforce the Monroe doctrine. President Lincoln, +however, although he offered to use his influence to secure compensation +by the Federal government to slave-owners for their slaves, if there +should be "voluntary abolition of slavery by the states," a liberal and +generous administration of the Confiscation Act, and the immediate +representation of the southern states in Congress, refused to consider +any alliance against the French in Mexico, and adhered to the +instructions he had given Seward before deciding to personally accompany +him. These formulated three indispensable conditions to adjustment: +first, the restoration of the national authority throughout all the +states; second, no receding by the executive of the United States on the +slavery question; third, no cessation of hostilities short of an end of +the war, and the disbanding of all forces hostile to the government. +These terms the commissioners were not authorized to accept, and the +interview ended without result. + +As Lincoln's first presidential term of four years neared its end, the +Democratic party gathered itself for a supreme effort to regain the +ascendancy lost in 1860. The slow progress of the war, the severe +sacrifice of life in campaign and battle, the enormous accumulation of +public debt, arbitrary arrests and suspension of _habeas corpus_, the +rigour of the draft, and the proclamation of military emancipation +furnished ample subjects of bitter and vindictive campaign oratory. A +partisan coterie which surrounded M'Clellan loudly charged the failure +of his Richmond campaign to official interference in his plans. +Vallandigham had returned to his home in defiance of his banishment +beyond military lines, and was leniently suffered to remain. The +aggressive spirit of the party, however, pushed it to a fatal extreme. +The Democratic National Convention adopted (August 29, 1864) a +resolution (drafted by Vallandigham) declaring the war a failure, and +demanding a cessation of hostilities; it nominated M'Clellan for +president, and instead of adjourning _sine die_ as usual, remained +organized, and subject to be convened at any time and place by the +executive national committee. This threatening attitude, in conjunction +with alarming indications of a conspiracy to resist the draft, had the +effect to thoroughly consolidate the war party, which had on the 8th of +June unanimously renominated Lincoln, and had nominated Andrew Johnson +of Tennessee for the vice-presidency. At the election held on the 8th of +November 1864, Lincoln received 2,216,076 of the popular votes, and +M'Clellan (who had openly disapproved of the resolution declaring the +war a failure) but 1,808,725; while of the presidential electors 212 +voted for Lincoln and 21 for M'Clellan. Lincoln's second term of office +began on the 4th of March 1865. + +While this political contest was going on the Civil War was being +brought to a decisive close. Grant, at the head of the Army of the +Potomac, followed Lee to Richmond and Petersburg, and held him in siege +to within a few days of final surrender. General W. T. Sherman, +commanding the bulk of the Union forces in the Mississippi Valley, swept +in a victorious march through the heart of the Confederacy to Savannah +on the coast, and thence northward to North Carolina. Lee evacuated +Richmond on the 2nd of April, and was overtaken by Grant and compelled +to surrender his entire army on the 9th of April 1865. Sherman pushed +Johnston to a surrender on the 26th of April. This ended the war. + +Lincoln being at the time on a visit to the army, entered Richmond the +day after its surrender. Returning to Washington, he made his last +public address on the evening of the 11th of April, devoted mainly to +the question of reconstructing loyal governments in the conquered +states. On the evening of the 14th of April he attended Ford's theatre +in Washington. While seated with his family and friends absorbed in the +play, John Wilkes Booth, an actor, who with others had prepared a plot +to assassinate the several heads of government, went into the little +corridor leading to the upper stage-box, and secured it against ingress +by a wooden bar. Then stealthily entering the box, he discharged a +pistol at the head of the president from behind, the ball penetrating +the brain. Brandishing a huge knife, with which he wounded Colonel +Rathbone who attempted to hold him, the assassin rushed through the +stage-box to the front and leaped down upon the stage, escaping behind +the scenes and from the rear of the building, but was pursued, and +twelve days afterwards shot in a barn where he had concealed himself. +The wounded president was borne to a house across the street, where he +breathed his last at 7 A.M. on the 15th of April 1865. + + President Lincoln was of unusual stature, 6 ft. 4 in., and of spare + but muscular build; he had been in youth remarkably strong and skilful + in the athletic games of the frontier, where, however, his popularity + and recognized impartiality oftener made him an umpire than a + champion. He had regular and prepossessing features, dark complexion, + broad high forehead, prominent cheek bones, grey deep-set eyes, and + bushy black hair, turning to grey at the time of his death. Abstemious + in his habits, he possessed great physical endurance. He was almost as + tender-hearted as a woman. "I have not willingly planted a thorn in + any man's bosom," he was able to say. His patience was inexhaustible. + He had naturally a most cheerful and sunny temper, was highly social + and sympathetic, loved pleasant conversation, wit, anecdote and + laughter. Beneath this, however, ran an undercurrent of sadness; he + was occasionally subject to hours of deep silence and introspection + that approached a condition of trance. In manner he was simple, + direct, void of the least affectation, and entirely free from + awkwardness, oddity or eccentricity. His mental qualities were--a + quick analytic perception, strong logical powers, a tenacious memory, + a liberal estimate and tolerance of the opinions of others, ready + intuition of human nature; and perhaps his most valuable faculty was + rare ability to divest himself of all feeling or passion in weighing + motives of persons or problems of state. His speech and diction were + plain, terse, forcible. Relating anecdotes with appreciative humour + and fascinating dramatic skill, he used them freely and effectively in + conversation and argument. He loved manliness, truth and justice. He + despised all trickery and selfish greed. In arguments at the bar he + was so fair to his opponent that he frequently appeared to concede + away his client's case. He was ever ready to take blame on himself and + bestow praise on others. "I claim not to have controlled events," he + said, "but confess plainly that events have controlled me." The + Declaration of Independence was his political chart and inspiration. + He acknowledged a universal equality of human rights. "Certainly the + negro is not our equal in colour," he said, "perhaps not in many other + respects; still, in the right to put into his mouth the bread that his + own hands have earned, he is the equal of every other man white or + black." He had unchanging faith in self-government. "The people," he + said, "are the rightful masters of both congresses and courts, not to + overthrow the constitution, but to overthrow the men who pervert the + constitution." Yielding and accommodating in non-essentials, he was + inflexibly firm in a principle or position deliberately taken. "Let us + have faith that right makes might," he said, "and in that faith let us + to the end dare to do our duty as we understand it." The emancipation + proclamation once issued, he reiterated his purpose never to retract + or modify it. "There have been men base enough," he said, "to propose + to me to return to slavery our black warriors of Port Hudson and + Olustee, and thus win the respect of the masters they fought. Should I + do so I should deserve to be damned in time and eternity. Come what + will, I will keep my faith with friend and foe." Benevolence and + forgiveness were the very basis of his character; his world-wide + humanity is aptly embodied in a phrase of his second inaugural: "With + malice toward none, with charity for all." His nature was deeply + religious, but he belonged to no denomination. + +Lincoln married in Springfield on the 4th of November 1842, Mary Todd +(1818-1882), also a native of Kentucky, who bore him four sons, of whom +the only one to grow up was the eldest, Robert Todd Lincoln (b. 1843), +who graduated at Harvard in 1864, served as a captain on the staff of +General Grant in 1865, was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1867, was +secretary of war in the cabinets of Presidents Garfield and Arthur in +1881-1885, and United States Minister to Great Britain in 1889-1893, and +was prominently connected with many large corporations, becoming in 1897 +president of the Pullman Co. + +Of the many statues of President Lincoln in American cities, the best +known is that, in Chicago, by St Gaudens. Among the others are two by +Thomas Ball, one in statuary hall in the Capitol at Washington, and one +in Boston; two--one in Rochester, N.Y., and one in Springfield, Ill.--by +Leonard W. Volk, who made a life-mask and a bust of Lincoln in 1860; and +one by J. Q. A. Ward, in Lincoln Park, Washington. Francis B. Carpenter +painted in 1864 "Lincoln signing the Emancipation Proclamation," now in +the Capitol at Washington. + + See _The Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln_ (12 vols., New York, + 1906-1907; enlarged from the 2-volume edition of 1894 by John G. + Nicolay and John Hay). There are various editions of the + Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858; perhaps the best is that edited by E. + E. Sparks (1908). There are numerous biographies, and biographical + studies, including: John G. Nicolay and John Hay, _Abraham Lincoln: A + History_ (10 vols., New York, 1890), a monumental work by his private + secretaries who treat primarily his official life; John G. Nicolay, _A + Short Life of Abraham Lincoln_ (New York, 1904), condensed from the + preceding; John T. Morse, Jr., _Abraham Lincoln_ (2 vols., Boston, + 1896), in the "American Statesmen" series, an excellent brief + biography, dealing chiefly with Lincoln's political career; Ida M. + Tarbell, _The Early Life of Lincoln_ (New York, 1896) and _Life of + Abraham Lincoln_ (2 vols., New York, 1900), containing new material to + which too great prominence and credence is sometimes given; Carl + Schurz, _Abraham Lincoln: An Essay_ (Boston, 1891), a remarkably able + estimate; Ward H. Lamon, _The Life of Abraham Lincoln from his Birth + to his Inauguration as President_ (Boston, 1872), supplemented by + _Recollections of Abraham Lincoln 1847-1865_ (Chicago, 1895), compiled + by Dorothy Lamon, valuable for some personal recollections, but + tactless, uncritical, and marred by the effort of the writer, who as + marshal of the District of Columbia, knew Lincoln intimately, to prove + that Lincoln's melancholy was due to his lack of religious belief of + the orthodox sort; William H. Herndon and Jesse W. Weik, _Abraham + Lincoln, the True Story of a Great Life_ (3 vols., Chicago, 1889; + revised, 2 vols., New York, 1892), an intimate and ill-proportioned + biography by Lincoln's law partner who exaggerates the importance of + the petty incidents of his youth and young manhood; Isaac N. Arnold, + _History of Abraham Lincoln and the Overthrow of Slavery_ (Chicago, + 1867), revised and enlarged as _Life of Abraham Lincoln_ (Chicago, + 1885), valuable for personal reminiscences; Gideon Welles, _Lincoln + and Seward_ (New York, 1874), the reply of Lincoln's secretary of the + navy to Charles Francis Adams's eulogy (delivered in Albany in April + 1873) on Lincoln's secretary of state, W. H. Seward, in which Adams + claimed that Seward was the premier of Lincoln's administration; F. B. + Carpenter, _Six Months in the White House_ (New York, 1866), an + excellent account of Lincoln's daily life while president; Robert T. + Hill, _Lincoln the Lawyer_ (New York, 1906); A. Rothschild, _Lincoln, + the Master of Men_ (Boston, 1906); J. Eaton and E. O. Mason, _Grant, + Lincoln, and the Freedmen_ (New York, 1907); R. W. Gilder, _Lincoln, + the Leader, and Lincoln's Genius for Expression_ (New York, 1909); M. + L. Learned, _Abraham Lincoln: An American Migration_ (Philadelphia, + 1909), a careful study of the Lincoln family in America; W. P. + Pickett, _The Negro Problem: Abraham Lincoln's Solution_ (New York, + 1909); James H. Lea and J. R. Hutchinson, _The Ancestry of Abraham + Lincoln_ (Boston, 1909), a careful genealogical monograph; and C. H. + McCarthy, _Lincoln's Plan of Reconstruction_ (New York, 1901). For an + excellent account of Lincoln as president see J. F. Rhodes, _History + of the United States from the Compromise of 1850_ (7 vols., + 1893-1906). (J. G. N.; C. C. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Lincoln's birthday is a legal holiday in California, Colorado, + Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, + Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North + Dakota, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, West Virginia + and Wyoming. + + [2] Samuel Lincoln (c. 1619-1690), the president's first American + ancestor, son of Edward Lincoln, gent., of Hingham, Norfolk, + emigrated to Massachusetts in 1637 as apprentice to a weaver and + settled with two older brothers in Hingham, Mass. His son and + grandson were iron founders; the grandson Mordecai (1686-1736) moved + to Chester county, Pennsylvania. Mordecai's son John (1711-c. 1773), + a weaver, settled in what is now Rockingham county, Va., and was the + president's great-grandfather. + + [3] Douglas and Lincoln first met in public debate (four on a side) + in Springfield in December 1839. They met repeatedly in the campaign + of 1840. In 1852 Lincoln attempted with little success to reply to a + speech made by Douglas in Richmond. On the 4th of October 1854 in + Springfield, in reply to a speech on the Nebraska question by Douglas + delivered the day before, Lincoln made a remarkable speech four hours + long, to which Douglas replied on the next day; and in the fortnight + immediately following Lincoln attacked Douglas's record again at + Bloomington and at Peoria. On the 26th of June 1857 Lincoln in a + speech at Springfield answered Douglas's speech of the 12th in which + he made over his doctrine of popular sovereignty to suit the Dred + Scott decision. Before the actual debate in 1858 Douglas made a + speech in Chicago on the 9th of July, to which Lincoln replied the + next day; Douglas spoke at Bloomington on the 16th of July and + Lincoln answered him in Springfield on the 17th. + + [4] Without Lincoln's knowledge or consent, the managers of his + candidacy before the convention bargained for Cameron's votes by + promising to Cameron a place in Lincoln's cabinet, should Lincoln be + elected. Cameron became Lincoln's first secretary of war. + + [5] In November 1861 the president drafted a bill providing (1) that + all slaves more than thirty-five years old in the state of Delaware + should immediately become free; (2) that all children of slave + parentage born after the passage of the act should be free; (3) that + all others should be free on attaining the age of thirty-five or + after the 1st of January 1893, except for terms of apprenticeship; + and (4) that the national government should pay to the state of + Delaware $23,200 a year for twenty-one years. But this bill, which + Lincoln had hoped would introduce a system of "compensated + emancipation," was not approved by the legislature of Delaware, which + considered it in February 1862. + + [6] It is to be noted that slavery in the border slave states was not + affected by the proclamation. The parts of Virginia and Louisiana not + affected were those then considered to be under Federal jurisdiction; + in Virginia 55 counties were excepted (including the 48 which became + the separate state of West Virginia), and in Louisiana 13 parishes + (including the parish of Orleans). As the Federal Government did not, + at the time, actually have jurisdiction over the rest of the + territory of the Confederate States, that really affected, some + writers have questioned whether the proclamation really emancipated + any slaves when it was issued. The proclamation had the most + important political effect in the North of rallying more than ever to + the support of the administration the large anti-slavery element. The + adoption of the 13th amendment to the Federal Constitution in 1865 + rendered unnecessary any decision of the U.S. Supreme Court upon the + validity of the proclamation. + + + + +LINCOLN, a city and county of a city, municipal, county and +parliamentary borough, and the county town of Lincolnshire, England. +Pop. (1901) 48,784. It is picturesquely situated on the summit and south +slope of the limestone ridge of the Cliff range of hills, which rises +from the north bank of the river Witham, at its confluence with the Foss +Dyke, to an altitude of 200 ft. above the river. The cathedral rises +majestically from the crown of the hill, and is a landmark for many +miles. Lincoln is 130 m. N. by W. from London by the Great Northern +railway; it is also served by branches of the Great Eastern, Great +Central and Midland railways. + +Lincoln is one of the most interesting cities in England. The ancient +British town occupied the crown of the hill beyond the Newport or North +Gate. The Roman town consisted of two parallelograms of unequal length, +the first extending west from the Newport gate to a point a little west +of the castle keep. The second parallelogram, added as the town +increased in size and importance, extended due south from this point +down the hill towards the Witham as far as Newland, and thence in a +direction due east as far as Broad Street. Returning thence due north, +it joined the south-east corner of the first and oldest parallelogram in +what was afterwards known as the Minster yard, and terminated its east +side upon its junction with the north wall in a line with the Newport +gate. This is the oldest part of the town, and is named "above hill." +After the departure of the Romans, the city walls were extended still +farther in a south direction across the Witham as far as the great bar +gate, the south entrance to the High Street of the city; the junction of +these walls with the later Roman one was effected immediately behind +Broad Street. The "above hill" portion of the city consists of narrow +irregular streets, some of which are too steep to admit of being +ascended by carriages. The south portion, which is named "below hill," +is much more commodious, and contains the principal business premises. +Here also are the railway stations. + +The glory of Lincoln is the noble cathedral of the Blessed Virgin Mary, +commonly known as the Minster. As a study to the architect and antiquary +this stands unrivalled, not only as embodying the earliest purely Gothic +work extant, but as containing within its compass every variety of style +from the simple massive Norman of the central west front, and the later +and more ornate examples of that style in the west doorways and towers; +onward through all the Gothic styles, of each of which both early and +late examples appear. The building material is the oolite and calcareous +stone of Lincoln Heath and Haydor, which has the peculiarity of becoming +hardened on the surface when tooled. Formerly the cathedral had three +spires, all of wood or leaded timber. The spire on the central tower, +which would appear to have been the highest in the world, was blown down +in 1547. Those on the two western towers were removed in 1808. + + The ground plan of the first church, adopted from that of Rouen, was + laid by Bishop Remigius in 1086, and the church was consecrated three + days after his death, on the 6th of May 1092. The west front consists + of an Early English screen (c. 1225) thrown over the Norman front, the + west towers rising behind it. The earliest Norman work is part of that + of Remigius; the great portals and the west towers up to the third + storey are Norman c. 1148. The upper parts of them date from 1365. + Perpendicular windows (c. 1450) are inserted. The nave and aisles were + completed c. 1220. The transepts mainly built between 1186 and 1235 + have two fine rose windows, that in the N. is Early English, and that + in the S. Decorated. The first has beautiful contemporary stained + glass. These are called respectively the Dean's Eye and Bishop's Eye. + A Galilee of rich Early English work forms the entrance of the S. + transept. Of the choir the western portion known as St Hugh's + (1186-1204) is the famous first example of pointed work; the eastern, + called the Angel Choir, is a magnificently ornate work completed in + 1280. Fine Perpendicular canopied stalls fill the western part. The + great east window, 57 ft. in height, is an example of transition from + Early English to Decorated c. 1288. Other noteworthy features of the + interior are the Easter sepulchre (c. 1300), the foliage ornamentation + of which is beautifully natural; and the organ screen of a somewhat + earlier date. The great central tower is Early English as far as the + first storey, the continuation dates from 1307. The total height is + 271 ft.; and the tower contains the bell, Great Tom of Lincoln, + weighing over 5 tons. The dimensions of the cathedral internally + are--nave, 252 × 79.6 × 80 ft.; choir, 158 × 82 × 72 ft.; angel choir, + which includes presbytery and lady chapel, 166 × 44 × 72 ft.; main + transept, 220 × 63 × 74 ft.; choir transept, 166 × 44 × 72 ft. The + west towers are 206 ft. high. + + The buildings of the close that call for notice are the chapter-house + of ten sides, 60 ft. diameter, 42 ft. high, with a fine vestibule of + the same height, built c. 1225, and therefore the earliest of English + polygonal chapter-houses, and the library, a building of 1675, which + contains a small museum. The picturesque episcopal palace contains + work of the date of St Hugh, and the great hall is mainly Early + English. There is some Decorated work, and much Perpendicular, + including the gateway. It fell into disuse after the Reformation, but + by extensive restoration was brought back to its proper use at the end + of the 19th century. Among the most famous bishops were St Hugh of + Avalon (1186-1200); Robert Grosseteste (1235-1253); Richard Flemming + (1420-1431), founder of Lincoln College, Oxford; William Smith + (1495-1514), founder of Brasenose College, Oxford; William Wake + (1705-1716); and Edmund Gibson (1716-1723). Every stall has produced a + prelate or cardinal. The see covers almost the whole of the county, + with very small portions of Norfolk and Yorkshire, and it included + Nottinghamshire until the formation of the bishopric of Southwell in + 1884. At its earliest formation, when Remigius, almoner of the abbey + of Fécamp, removed the seat of the bishopric here from Dorchester in + Oxfordshire shortly after the Conquest, it extended from the Humber to + the Thames, eastward beyond Cambridge, and westward beyond Leicester. + It was reduced, however, by the formation of the sees of Ely, + Peterborough and Oxford, and by the rearrangement of diocesan + boundaries in 1837. + +The remains of Roman Lincoln are of the highest interest. The Newport +Arch or northern gate of _Lindum_ is one of the most perfect specimens +of Roman architecture in England. It consists of a great arch flanked by +two smaller arches, of which one remains. The Roman Ermine Street runs +through it, leading northward almost in a straight line to the Humber. +Fragments of the town wall remain at various points; a large quantity of +coins and other relics have been discovered; and remains of a +burial-place and buildings unearthed. Of these last the most important +is the series of column-bases, probably belonging to a Basilica, beneath +a house in the street called Bail Gate, adjacent to the Newport Arch. A +villa in Greetwell; a tesselated pavement, a milestone and other relics +in the cloister; an altar unearthed at the church of St Swithin, are +among many other discoveries. Among churches, apart from the minster, +two of outstanding interest are those of St Mary-le-Wigford and St +Peter-at-Gowts (i.e. sluice-gates), both in the lower part of High +Street. Their towers, closely similar, are fine examples of perhaps very +early Norman work, though they actually possess the characteristics of +pre-Conquest workmanship. Bracebridge church shows similar early work; +but as a whole the churches of Lincoln show plainly the results of the +siege of 1644, and such buildings as St Botolph's, St Peter's-at-Arches +and St Martin's are of the period 1720-1740. Several churches are modern +buildings on ancient sites. There were formerly three small priories, +five friaries and four hospitals in or near Lincoln. The preponderance +of friaries over priories of monks is explained by the fact that the +cathedral was served by secular canons. Bishop Grosseteste was the +devoted patron of the friars, particularly the Franciscans, who were +always in their day the town missionaries. The Greyfriars, near St +Swithin's church, is a picturesque two-storied building of the 13th +century. Lincoln is rich in early domestic architecture. The building +known as John of Gaunt's stables, actually St Mary's Guild Hall, is of +two storeys, with rich Norman doorway and moulding. The Jews' House is +another fine example of 12th-century building; and Norman remains appear +in several other houses, such as Deloraine Court and the House of Aaron +the Jew. Lincoln Castle, lying W. of the cathedral, was newly founded by +William the Conqueror when Remigius decided to found his minster under +its protection. The site, with its artificial mounds, is of much +earlier, probably British, date. There are Norman remains in the Gateway +Tower; parts of the walls are of this period, and the keep dates from +the middle of the 12th century. Among medieval gateways, the Exchequer +Gate, serving as the finance-office of the chapter, is a fine specimen +of 13th-century work. Pottergate is of the 14th century, and Stonebow in +High Street of the 15th, with the Guildhall above it. St Dunstan's Lock +is the name, corrupted from Dunestall, now applied to the entrance to +the street where a Jewish quarter was situated; here lived the Christian +boy afterwards known as "little St Hugh," who was asserted to have been +crucified by the Jews in 1255. His shrine remains in the S. choir aisle +of the minster. Other antiquities are the Perpendicular conduit of St +Mary in High Street and the High Bridge, carrying High Street over the +Witham, which is almost unique in England as retaining some of the old +houses upon it. + +Among modern public buildings are the county hall, old and new corn +exchanges and public library. Educational establishments include a +grammar school, a girls' high school, a science and art school and a +theological college. The arboretum in Monks Road is the principal +pleasure-ground; and there is a race-course. The principal industry is +the manufacture of agricultural machinery and implements; there are also +iron foundries and maltings, and a large trade in corn and agricultural +produce. The parliamentary borough, returning one member, falls between +the Gainsborough division of the county on the N., and that of Sleaford +on the S. Area, 3755 acres. + +_History._--The British Lindun, which, according to the geography of +Claudius Ptolemaeus, was the chief town of the Coritani, was probably +the nucleus of the Roman town of Lindum. This was at first a Roman +legionary fortress, and on the removal of the troops northward was +converted into a municipality with the title of _colonia_. Such +important structural remains as have been described attest the rank and +importance of the place, which, however, did not attain a very great +size. Its bishop attended the council of Arles in 314, and Lincoln +(_Lindocolina_, _Lincolle_, _Nicole_) is mentioned in the Itinerary of +Antoninus written about 320. Although said to have been captured by +Hengest in 475 and recovered by Ambrosius in the following year, the +next authentic mention of the city is Bede's record that Paulinus +preached in Lindsey in 628 and built a stone church at Lincoln in which +he consecrated Honorius archbishop of Canterbury. During their inroads +into Mercia, the Danes in 877 established themselves at Lincoln, which +was one of the five boroughs recovered by King Edmund in 941. A mint +established here in the reign of Alfred was maintained until the reign +of Edward I. (Mint Street turning from High Street near the Stonebow +recalls its existence.) At the time of the Domesday Survey Lincoln was +governed by twelve Lawmen, relics of Danish rule, each with hereditable +franchises of sac and soc. Whereas it had rendered £20 annually to King +Edward, and £10 to the earl, it then rendered £100. There had been 1150 +houses, but 240 had been destroyed since the time of King Edward. Of +these 166 had suffered by the raising of the castle by William I. in +1068 partly on the site of the Roman camp. The strength of the position +of the castle brought much fighting on Lincoln. In 1141 King Stephen +regained both castle and city from the empress Maud, but was attacked +and captured in the same year at the "Joust of Lincoln." In 1144 he +besieged the castle, held by the earl of Chester, and recovered it as a +pledge in 1146. In 1101 it was held by Gerard de Camville for Prince +John and was besieged by William Longchamp, Richard's chancellor, in +vain; in 1210 it stood a siege by the partisans of the French prince +Louis, who were defeated at the battle called Lincoln Fair on the 19th +of May 1217. Granted by Henry III. to William Longepée, earl of +Salisbury, in 1224, the castle descended by the marriage of his +descendant Alice to Thomas Plantagenet, and became part of the duchy of +Lancaster. + +In 1157 Henry II. gave the citizens their first charter, granting them +the city at a fee-farm rent and all the liberties which they had had +under William II., with their gild merchant for themselves and the men +of the county as they had then. In 1200 the citizens obtained release +from all but pleas of the Crown without the walls, and pleas of external +tenure, and were given the pleas of the Crown within the city according +to the customs of the city of London, on which those of Lincoln were +modelled. The charter also gave them quittance of toll and lastage +throughout the kingdom, and of certain other dues. In 1210 the citizens +owed the exchequer £100 for the privilege of having a mayor, but the +office was abolished by Henry III. and by Edward I. in 1290, though +restored by the charter of 1300. In 1275 the citizens claimed the return +of writs, assize of bread and ale and other royal rights, and in 1301 +Edward I., when confirming the previous charters, gave them quittance of +murage, pannage, pontage and other dues. The mayor and citizens were +given criminal jurisdiction in 1327, when the burghmanmot held weekly in +the gildhall since 1272 by the mayor and bailiffs was ordered to hear +all local pleas which led to friction with the judges of assize. The +city became a separate county by charter of 1409, when it was decreed +that the bailiffs should henceforth be sheriffs and the mayor the king's +escheator, and the mayor and sheriffs with four others justices of the +peace with defined jurisdiction. As the result of numerous complaints of +inability to pay the fee-farm rent of £180 Edward IV. enlarged the +bounds of the city in 1466, while Henry VIII. in 1546 gave the citizens +four advowsons, and possibly also in consequence of declining trade the +city markets were made free of tolls in 1554. Incorporated by Charles I. +in 1628 under a common council with 13 aldermen, 4 coroners and other +officers, Lincoln surrendered its charters in 1684, but the first +charter was restored after the Revolution, and was in force till 1834. + +Parliaments were held at Lincoln in 1301, 1316 and 1327, and the city +returned two burgesses from 1295 to 1885, when it lost one member. After +the 13th century the chief interests of Lincoln were ecclesiastical and +commercial. As early as 1103 Odericus declared that a rich citizen of +Lincoln kept the treasure of King Magnus of Norway, supplying him with +all he required, and there is other evidence of intercourse with +Scandinavia. There was an important Jewish colony, Aaron of Lincoln +being one of the most influential financiers in the kingdom between 1166 +and 1186. It was probably jealousy of their wealth that brought the +charge of the crucifixion of "little St Hugh" in 1255 upon the Jewish +community. Made a staple of wool, leather and skins in 1291, famous for +its scarlet cloth in the 13th century, Lincoln had a few years of great +prosperity, but with the transference of the staple to Boston early in +the reign of Edward III., its trade began to decrease. The craft gilds +remained important until after the Reformation, a pageant still being +held in 1566. The fair now held during the last whole week of April +would seem to be identical with that granted by Charles II. in 1684. +Edward III. authorized a fair from St Botolph's day to the feast of SS +Peter and Paul in 1327, and William III. gave one for the first +Wednesday in September in 1696, while the present November fair is, +perhaps, a survival of that granted by Henry IV. in 1409 for fifteen +days before the feast of the Deposition of St Hugh. + + See _Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report_, xiv., appendix pt. 8; + John Ross, _Civitas Lincolina, from its municipal and other Records_ + (London, 1870); J. G. Williams, "Lincoln Civic Insignia," + _Lincolnshire Notes and Queries_, vols. vi.-viii. (Horncastle, + 1901-1905); _Victoria County History, Lincolnshire_. + + + + +LINCOLN, a city and the county-seat of Logan county, Illinois, U.S.A., +in the N. central part of the state, 156 m. S.W. of Chicago, and about +28 m. N.E. of Springfield. Pop. (1900) 8962, of whom 940 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,892. It is served by the Illinois Central +and the Chicago & Alton railways and by the Illinois Traction Interurban +Electric line. The city is the seat of the state asylum for +feeble-minded children (established at Jacksonville in 1865 and removed +to Lincoln in 1878), and of Lincoln College (Presbyterian) founded in +1865. There are also an orphans' home, supported by the Independent +Order of Odd Fellows, and a Carnegie library. The old court-house in +which Abraham Lincoln often practised is still standing. Lincoln is +situated in a productive grain region, and has valuable coal mines. The +value of the factory products increased from $375,167 in 1900 to +$784,248 in 1905, or 109%. The first settlement on the site of Lincoln +was made in 1835, and the city was first chartered in 1857. + + + + +LINCOLN, a city of S.E. Nebraska, U.S.A., county-seat of Lancaster +county and capital of the state. Pop. (1900) 40,169 (5297 being +foreign-born); (1910 census) 43,973. It is served by the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union +Pacific, the Missouri Pacific and the Chicago & North-Western railways. +Lincoln is one of the most attractive residential cities of the Middle +West. Salt Creek, an affluent of the Platte river, skirts the city. On +this side the city has repeatedly suffered from floods. The principal +buildings include a state capitol (built 1883-1889); a city-hall, +formerly the U.S. government building (1874-1879); a county court-house; +a federal building (1904-1906); a Carnegie library (1902); a hospital +for crippled children (1905) and a home for the friendless, both +supported by the state; a state penitentiary and asylum for the insane, +both in the suburbs; and the university of Nebraska. In the suburbs +there are three denominational schools, the Nebraska Wesleyan University +(Methodist Episcopal, 1888) at University Place; Union College (Seventh +Day Adventists, 1891) at College View; and Cotner University (Disciples +of Christ, 1889, incorporated as the Nebraska Christian University) at +Bethany. Just outside the city limits are the state fair grounds, where +a state fair is held annually. Lincoln is the see of a Roman Catholic +bishopric. The surrounding country is a beautiful farming region, but +its immediate W. environs are predominantly bare and desolate +salt-basins. Lincoln's "factory" product increased from $2,763,484 in +1900 to $5,222,620 in 1905, or 89%, the product for 1905 being 3.4% of +the total for the state. The municipality owns and operates its +electric-lighting plant and water-works. + +The salt-springs attracted the first permanent settlers to the site of +Lincoln in 1856, and settlers and freighters came long distances to +reduce the brine or to scrape up the dry-weather surface deposits. In +1886-1887 the state sank a test-well 2463 ft. deep, which discredited +any hope of a great underground flow or deposit. Scarcely any use is +made of the salt waters locally. Lancaster county was organized +extra-legally in 1859, and under legislative act in 1864; Lancaster +village was platted and became the county-seat in 1864 (never being +incorporated); and in 1867, when it contained five or six houses, its +site was selected for the state capital after a hard-fought struggle +between different sections of the state (see NEBRASKA).[1] The new city +was incorporated as Lincoln (and formally declared the county-seat by +the legislature) in 1869, and was chartered for the first time as a city +of the second class in 1871; since then its charter has been repeatedly +altered. After 1887 it was a city of the first class, and after 1889 the +only member of the highest subdivision in that class. After a "reform" +political campaign, the ousting in 1887 of a corrupt police judge by the +mayor and city council, in defiance of an injunction of a federal court, +led to a decision of the U.S. Supreme Court, favourable to the city +authorities and important in questions of American municipal government. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Lincoln was about equally distant from Pawnee City and the Kansas + border, the leading Missouri river towns, and the important towns of + Fremont and Columbus on the N. side of the Platte. + + + + +LINCOLN JUDGMENT, THE. In this celebrated English ecclesiastical suit, +the bishop of Lincoln (Edward King, q.v.) was cited before his +metropolitan, the archbishop of Canterbury (Dr Benson), to answer +charges of various ritual offences committed at the administration of +Holy Communion in the church of St Peter at Gowts, in the diocese of +Lincoln, on the 4th of December 1887, and in Lincoln cathedral on the +10th of December 1887. The promoters were Ernest de Lacy Read, William +Brown, Felix Thomas Wilson and John Marshall, all inhabitants of the +diocese of Lincoln, and the last two parishioners of St Peter at Gowts. +The case has a permanent importance in two respects. First, certain +disputed questions of ritual were legally decided. Secondly, the +jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury alone to try one of his +suffragan bishops for alleged ecclesiastical offences was considered and +judicially declared to be well founded both by the judicial committee of +privy council and by the archbishop of Canterbury with the concurrence +of his assessors. The proceedings were begun on the 2nd of June 1888 by +a petition presented by the promoters to the archbishop, praying that a +citation to the bishop of Lincoln might issue calling on him to answer +certain ritual charges. On the 26th of June 1888 the archbishop, by +letter, declined to issue citation, on the ground that until instructed +by a competent court as to his jurisdiction, he was not clear that he +had it. The promoters appealed to the judicial committee of the privy +council, to which an appeal lies under 25 Henry VIII. c. 19 for "lack of +justice" in the archbishop's court. The matter was heard on the 20th of +July 1888, and on the 8th of August 1888 the committee decided (i.) that +an appeal lay from the refusal of the archbishop to the judicial +committee, and (ii.) that the archbishop had jurisdiction to issue a +citation to the bishop of Lincoln and to hear the promoters' complaint, +but they abstained from expressing an opinion as to whether the +archbishop had a discretion to refuse citation--whether, in fact, he had +any power of "veto" over the prosecution. The case being thus remitted +to the archbishop, he decided to entertain it, and on the 4th of January +1889 issued a citation to the bishop of Lincoln. + +On the 12th of February 1889 the archbishop of Canterbury sat in Lambeth +Palace Library, accompanied by the bishops of London (Dr Temple), +Winchester (Dr Harold Browne), Oxford (Dr Stubbs) and Salisbury (Dr +Wordsworth), and the vicar-general (Sir J. Parker Deane) as assessors. +The bishop of Lincoln appeared in person and read a "Protest" to the +archbishop's jurisdiction to try him except in a court composed of the +archbishop and all the bishops of the province as judges. The court +adjourned in order that the question of jurisdiction might be argued. On +the 11th of May the archbishop gave judgment to the effect that whether +sitting alone or with assessors he had jurisdiction to entertain the +charge. On the 23rd and 24th of July 1889 a further preliminary +objection raised by the bishop of Lincoln's counsel was argued. The +offences alleged against the bishop of Lincoln were largely breaches of +various rubrics in the communion service of the Prayer Book which give +directions to the "minister." These rubrics are by the Acts of +Uniformity (1 Elizabeth c. 2, and 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 4) made legally +binding. But it was argued that a bishop is not a "minister" so as to be +bound by the rubrics. The archbishop, however, held otherwise, and the +assessors (except the bishop of Salisbury, who dissented) concurred in +this decision. At this and subsequent hearings the bishop of Hereford +(Dr Atlay) took the place of the bishop of Winchester as an assessor, +and the bishop of Rochester (Dr Thorold), originally appointed an +assessor, but absent from England at the outset, was present. + + + Charges and decisions. + +The case was heard on its merits in February 1890, before the archbishop +and all the assessors, and the archbishop delivered his judgment on the +21st of November 1890. The alleged offences were eight in number. No +facts were in dispute, but only the legality of the various matters +complained of. I. The bishop was charged with having mixed water with +wine in the chalice during the communion service, and II. with having +administered the chalice so mixed to the communicants. It was decided +that the mixing of the water with the wine during service was illegal, +because an additional ceremony not enjoined in the Prayer Book, but that +the administration of the mixed chalice, the mixing having been effected +before service, was in accordance with primitive practice and not +forbidden in the Church of England. III. The bishop was charged with the +ceremonial washing of the vessels used for the holy communion, and with +drinking the water used for these ablutions. It was decided that the +bishop had committed no offence, and that what he had done was a +reasonable compliance with the requirement of the rubric that any of the +consecrated elements left over at the end of the celebration should be +then and there consumed. IV. The bishop was charged with taking the +eastward position (i.e. standing at the west side of the holy table with +his face to the east and his back to the congregation) during the +ante-communion service (i.e. the part of the communion service prior to +the consecration prayer). The rubric requires the celebrant to stand at +the north side of the table. A vast amount of research convinced the +archbishop that this is an intentionally ambiguous phrase which may with +equal accuracy be applied to the north end of the table as now arranged +in churches, and to the long side of the table, which, in Edward VI.'s +reign, was often placed lengthwise down the church, so that the long +sides would face north and south. It was therefore decided (one of the +assessors dissenting) that both positions are legal, and that the bishop +had not offended in adopting the eastward position. V. The bishop was +charged with so standing during the consecration prayer that the "Manual +Acts" of consecration were invisible to the people gathered round. It +should be stated that the courts (see _Ridsdale_ v. _Clifton_, L.R. 1 +P.D. 316; 2 P.D. 276) had already decided that the eastward position +during the consecration prayer was legal, but that it must not be so +used by the celebrant as to conceal the "Manual Acts." The archbishop +held that the bishop of Lincoln had transgressed the law in this +particular. VI. The bishop was charged with having, during the +celebration of holy communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a +shelf or retable behind the altar when they were not necessary for +giving light. The archbishop decided that the mere presence of two altar +candles burning during the service, but lit before it began, was lawful +under the First Prayer Book of Edward VI., and has never been made +unlawful, and, therefore, that the bishop was justified in what he had +done. VII. The bishop was charged with having permitted the hymn known +as _Agnus Dei_ to be sung immediately after the consecration of the +elements at a celebration of the holy communion. The archbishop decided +that the use of hymns in divine service was too firmly established to be +legally questioned, and that there was nothing to differentiate the use +of this particular hymn at this point of the service from the use of +other hymns on other occasions in public worship. VIII. The bishop was +charged with making the sign of the Cross in the air with his hand in +the benediction and at other times during divine service. The archbishop +held that these crossings were ceremonies not enjoined and, therefore, +illegal. The judgment confined itself to the legal declarations here +summarized, and pronounced no monition or other sentence on the bishop +of Lincoln in respect of the matters in which he appeared to have +committed breaches of the ecclesiastical law. + +The promoters appealed to the judicial committee. The bishop did not +appear on the appeal, which was therefore argued on the side of the +promoters only. The appeal was heard in June and July 1891, before Lords +Halsbury, Hobhouse, Esher, Herschell, Hannen and Shand and Sir Richard +Couch, with the bishop of Chichester (Dr Durnford), the bishop of St +Davids (Dr Basil Jones) and the bishop of Lichfield (Dr Maclagan) as +episcopal assessors. The points appealed were those above numbered II., +III., IV., VI., VII. Judgment was given on the 2nd of August 1892, and +the appeal failed on all points. As to II., III., IV., and VII. the +Committee agreed with the archbishop. As to VI. (altar lights) they held +that, as it was not shown that the bishop was responsible for the +presence of lighted candles, the charge could not be sustained against +him, and so dismissed it without considering the general question of the +lawfulness of altar lights. They also held that the archbishop was +within his right in pronouncing no sentence against the bishop, who, it +should be added, conformed his practice to the judgment from the date of +its delivery. (L. T. D.) + + + + +LINCOLNSHIRE, an eastern county of England, bounded N. by the Humber, E. +by the German Ocean and the Wash, S.E. for 3 m. by Norfolk, S. by +Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire, S.W. by Rutland, W. by +Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire and N.W. by Yorkshire. The area is +2646 sq. m., the county being second to Yorkshire of the English +counties in size. + +The coast-line, about 110 m. in length, including the Humber shore, is +generally low and marshy, and artificial banks for guarding against the +inroads of the sea are to be found, in places, all along the coast. From +Grimsby to Skegness traces of a submarine forest are visible; but while +the sea is encroaching upon some parts of the coast it is receding from +others, as shown by Holbeach, which is now 6 m. from the sea. Several +thousand acres have been reclaimed from this part of the Wash, and round +the mouth of the Nene on the south-east. The deep bay between the coasts +of Lincolnshire and Norfolk, called the Wash, is full of dangerous +sandbanks and silt; the navigable portion off the Lincolnshire coast is +known as the Boston Deeps. The rapidity of the tides in this inlet, and +the lowness of its shores, which are generally indistinct on account of +mist from a moderate offing, render this the most difficult portion of +the navigation of the east coast of England. On some parts of the coast +there are fine stretches of sand, and Cleethorpes, Skegness, Mablethorpe +and Sutton-on-Sea are favourite resorts for visitors. + +The surface of Lincolnshire is generally a large plain, small portions +of which are slightly below the level of the sea. The south-east parts +are perfectly flat; and about one-third of the county consists of fens +and marshes, intersected in all directions by artificial drains, called +locally dykes, delphs, drains, becks, leams and eaux. This flat surface +is broken by two ranges of calcareous hills running north and south +through the county, and known as the Lincoln Edge or Heights, or the +Cliff, and the Wolds. The former range, on the west, runs nearly due +north from Grantham to Lincoln, and thence to the Humber, traversing the +Heaths of Lincolnshire, which were formerly open moors, rabbit warrens +and sheep walks, but are now enclosed and brought into high cultivation. +The Wolds form a ridge of bold hills extending from Spilsby to +Barton-on-Humber for about 40 m., with an average breadth of about 8 m. +The Humber separates Lincolnshire from Yorkshire. Its ports on the +Lincolnshire side are the small ferry-ports of Barton and New Holland, +and the important harbour of Grimsby. The Trent forms part of the +boundary with Nottinghamshire, divides the Isle of Axholme (q.v.) from +the district of Lindsey, and falls into the Humber about 30 m. below +Gainsborough. The Witham rises on the S.W. border of the county, flows +north past Grantham to Lincoln, and thence E. and S.E. to Boston, after +a course of about 80 m. The Welland rises in north-west +Northamptonshire, enters the county at Stamford, and, after receiving +the Glen, flows through an artificial channel into the Fosdyke Wash. The +Nene on the south-east has but a small portion of its course in +Lincolnshire; it flows due north through an artificial outfall, called +the Wisbech Cut. Between the Wolds and the sea lie the Marshes, a level +tract of rich alluvial soil extending from Barton-on-Humber to +Wainfleet, varying in breadth from 5 to 10 m. Between the Welland and +the Nene in the south-east of the county are Gedney Marsh, Holbeach +Marsh, Moulton Marsh and Sutton Marsh. + +The Fens (q.v.), the soil of which has been formed partly by tidal +action and partly by the decay of forests, occupy the Isle of Axholme on +the north-west, the vale of Ancholme on the north, and most of the +country south-east of Lincoln. The chief of these are the Holland, +Wildmore, West and East Fens draining into the Witham; and the Deeping, +Bourn, Great Porsand, and Whaplode Fens draining into the Welland. + +The low lands adjoining the tidal reaches of the Trent and Humber, and +part of those around the Wash have been raised above the natural level +and enriched by the process of warping, which consists in letting the +tide run over the land, and retaining it there a sufficient time to +permit the deposit of the sand and mud held in solution by the waters. + + _Geology._--The geological formations for the most part extend in + parallel belts, nearly in the line of the length of the county, from + north to south, and succeed one another in ascending order from west + to east. The lowest is the Triassic Keuper found in the Isle of + Axholme and the valley of the Trent in the form of marls, sandstone + and gypsum. Fish scales and teeth, with bones and footprints of the + _Labyrinthodon_, are met with in the sandstone. The red clay is + frequently dug for brick-making. The beds dip gently towards the east. + At the junction between the Trias and Lias are series of beds termed + Rhaetics, which seem to mark a transition from one to the other. These + belts are in part exposed in pits near Newark, and extend north by + Gainsborough to where the Trent flows into the Humber, passing thence + into Yorkshire. The characteristic shells are found at Lea, 2 m. south + of Gainsborough, with a thin bone-bed full of fish teeth and scales. + The Lower Lias comes next in order, with a valuable bed of ironstone + now largely worked. This bed is about 27 ft. in thickness, and crops + out at Scunthorpe and Frodingham, where the workings are open and + shallow. The Middle Lias, which enters the county near Woolsthorpe, is + about 20 or 30 ft. thick, and is very variable both in thickness and + mineralogical character; the iron ores of Denton and Caythorpe belong + to this horizon. The Upper Lias enters the county at Stainby, passing + by Grantham and Lincoln where it is worked for bricks. The Lias thus + occupies a vale about 8 or 10 m. in width in the south, narrowing + until on the Humber it is about a mile in width. To this succeed the + Oolite formations. The Inferior Oolite, somewhat narrower than the + Lias, extends from the boundary with Rutland due north past Lincoln to + the vicinity of the Humber; it forms the Cliff of Lincolnshire with a + strong escarpment facing westward. At Lincoln the ridge is notched by + the river Witham. The principal member of the Inferior Oolite is the + Lincolnshire limestone, which is an important water-bearing bed and is + quarried at Lincoln, Ponton, Ancaster, and Kirton Lindsey for building + stone. Eastward of the Inferior Oolite lie the narrow outcrops of the + Great Oolite and Cornbrash. The Middle Oolite, Oxford clay and + Corallian is very narrow in the south near Wilsthorpe, widening + gradually about Sleaford. It then proceeds north from Lincoln with + decreasing width to the vicinity of the Humber. The Upper Oolite, + Kimeridge clay, starts from the vicinity of Stamford, and after + attaining its greatest width near Horncastle, runs north-north-west to + the Humber. The Kimeridge clay is succeeded by the Spilsby sandstone, + Tealby limestone, Claxby ironstone, and carstone which represent the + highest Jurassic and lowest Cretaceous rocks. In the Cretaceous system + of the Wolds, the Lower Greensand runs nearly parallel with the Upper + Oolite past South Willingham to the Humber. The Upper Greensand and + Gault, represented in Lincolnshire by the Red Chalk, run north-west + from Irby, widening out as far as Kelstern on the east, and cross the + Humber. The Chalk formation, about equal in breadth to the three + preceding, extends from Burgh across the Humber. The rest of the + county, comprising all its south-east portions between the Middle + Oolite belt and the sea, all its north-east portions between the chalk + belt and the sea, and a narrow tract up the course of the Ancholme + river, consists of alluvial deposits or of reclaimed marsh. In the + northern part boulder clay and glacial sands cover considerable tracts + of the older rocks. Bunter, Permian, and Coal Measure strata have been + revealed by boring to underlie the Keuper near Haxey. + + Gypsum is dug in the Isle of Axholme, whiting is made from the chalk + near the shores of the Humber, and lime is made on the Wolds. + Freestone is quarried around Ancaster, and good oolite building stone + is quarried near Lincoln and other places. Ironstone is worked at + several places and there are some blast furnaces. + + At Woodhall Spa on the Horncastle branch railway there is a + much-frequented bromine and iodine spring. + + _Climate, Soil and Agriculture._--The climate of the higher grounds is + healthy, and meteorological observation does not justify the + reputation for cold and damp often given to the county as a whole. The + soils vary considerably, according to the geological formations; ten + or twelve different kinds may be found in going across the country + from east to west. A good sandy loam is common in the Heath division; + a sandy loam with chalk, or a flinty loam on chalk marl, abounds on + portions of the Wolds; an argillaceous sand, merging into rich loam, + lies on other portions of the Wolds; a black loam and a rich vegetable + mould cover most of the Isle of Axholme on the north-west; a + well-reclaimed marine marsh, a rich brown loam, and a stiff cold clay + variously occupy the low tracts along the Humber, and between the + north Wolds and the sea; a peat earth, a deep sandy loam, and a rich + soapy blue clay occupy most of the east and south Fens; and an + artificial soil, obtained by "warping," occupies considerable low + strips of land along the tidal reaches of the rivers. + + Lincolnshire is one of the principal agricultural, especially + grain-producing, counties in England. Nearly nine-tenths of the total + area is under cultivation. The wide grazing lands have long been + famous, and the arable lands are specially adapted for the growth of + wheat and beans. The largest individual grain-crop, however, is + barley. Both cattle and sheep are bred in great numbers. The cattle + raised are the Shorthorns and improved Lincolnshire breeds. The dairy, + except in the vicinity of large towns, receives little attention. The + sheep are chiefly of the Lincolnshire and large Leicestershire breeds, + and go to the markets of Yorkshire and London. Lincolnshire has long + been famous for a fine breed of horses both for the saddle and + draught. Horse fairs are held every year at Horncastle and Lincoln. + Large flocks of geese were formerly kept in the Fens, but their number + has been diminished since the drainage of these parts. Where a large + number of them were bred, nests were constructed for them one above + another; they were daily taken down by the gooseherd, driven to the + water, and then reinstated in their nests, without a single bird being + misplaced. Decoys were once numerous in the undrained state of the + Fens. + + _Industries and Communications._--Manufactures are few and, relatively + to the agricultural industry, small. The mineral industries, however, + are of value, and there are considerable agricultural machine and + implement factories at Lincoln, Boston, Gainsborough, Grantham and + Louth. At Little Bytham a very hard brick, called adamantine clinker, + is made of the siliceous clay that the Romans used for similar works. + Bone-crushing, tanning, the manufacture of oil-cake for cattle, and + rope-making are carried on in various places. Grimsby is an important + port both for continental traffic and especially for fisheries; Boston + is second to it in the county; and Gainsborough has a considerable + traffic on the Trent. Sutton Bridge is a lesser port on the Wash. + + The principal railway is the Great Northern, its main line touching + the county in the S.W. and serving Grantham. Its principal branches + are from Peterborough to Spalding, Boston, Louth and Grimsby; and from + Grantham to Sleaford and Boston, and to Lincoln, and Boston to + Lincoln. This company works jointly with the Great Eastern the line + from March to Spalding, Lincoln, Gainsborough and Doncaster, and with + the Midland that from Saxby to Bourn, Spalding, Holbeach, Sutton + Bridge and King's Lynn. The Midland company has a branch from Newark + to Lincoln, and the Lancashire, Derbyshire, and East Coast line + terminates at Lincoln. The Great Central railway connects the west, + Sheffield and Doncaster with Grimsby, and with Hull by ferry from New + Holland. Canals connect Louth with the Humber, Sleaford with the + Witham, and Grantham with the Trent near Nottingham; but the greater + rivers and many of the drainage cuts are navigable, being artificially + deepened and embanked. + + _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is + 1,693,550 acres, with a population in 1891 of 472,878 and in 1901 of + 498,847. The primary divisions are three trithings or Ridings (q.v.). + The north division is called the Parts of Lindsey, the south-west the + Parts of Kesteven, and the south-east the Parts of Holland. Each of + these divisions had in early times its own reeve or gerefa. Each + constitutes an administrative county, the Parts of Lindsey having an + area of 967,689 acres; Kesteven, 465,877 acres; and Holland, 262,766 + acres. The Parts of Lindsey contain 17 wapentakes; Kesteven, exclusive + of the soke and borough of Grantham and the borough of Stamford, 9 + wapentakes; and Holland, 3 wapentakes. The municipal boroughs and + urban districts are as follows:-- + + 1. PARTS OF LINDSEY.--Municipal boroughs--Grimsby, a county borough + (pop. 63,138), Lincoln, a city and county borough and the county town + (48,784), Louth (9518). Urban districts--Alford (2478), + Barton-upon-Humber (5671), Brigg (3137), Broughton (1300), Brumby and + Frodingham (2273), Cleethorpes with Thrunscoe (12,578), Crowle (2769), + Gainsborough (17,660), Horncastle (4038), Mablethorpe (934), Market + Rasen (2188), Roxby-cum-Risby (389), Scunthorpe (6750), Skegness + (2140), Winterton (1361), Woodhall Spa (988). + + 2. PARTS OF KESTEVEN.--Municipal boroughs--Grantham (17,593), Stamford + (8229). Urban districts--Bourne (4361), Bracebridge (1752), Ruskington + (1196), Sleaford (5468). + + 3. PARTS OF HOLLAND.--Municipal borough--Boston (15,667). Urban + districts--Holbeach (4755), Long Sutton (2524), Spalding (9385), + Sutton Bridge (2105). In the Parts of Holland the borough of Boston + has a separate commission of the peace and there are two petty + sessional divisions. Lincolnshire is in the Midland circuit. In the + Parts of Kesteven the boroughs of Grantham and Stamford have each a + separate commission of the peace and separate courts of quarter + sessions, and there are 4 petty sessional divisions. In the Parts of + Lindsey the county boroughs of Grimsby and Lincoln have each a + separate commission of the peace and a separate court of quarter + sessions, while the municipal borough of Louth has a separate + commission of the peace, and there are 14 petty sessional divisions. + The three administrative counties and the county boroughs contain + together 761 civil parishes. The ancient county contains 580 + ecclesiastical parishes and districts, wholly or in part. It is mostly + in the diocese of Lincoln, but in part also in the dioceses of + Southwell and York. For parliamentary purposes the county is divided + into seven divisions, namely, West Lindsey or Gainsborough, North + Lindsey or Brigg, East Lindsey or Louth, South Lindsey or Horncastle, + North Kesteven or Sleaford, South Kesteven or Stamford, and Holland or + Spalding, and the parliamentary boroughs of Boston, Grantham, Grimsby + and Lincoln, each returning one member. + +_History._--Of the details of the English conquest of the district which +is now Lincolnshire little is known, but at some time in the 6th century +Engle and Frisian invaders appear to have settled in the country north +of the Witham, where they became known as the Lindiswaras, the southern +districts from Boston to the Trent basin being at this time dense +woodland. In the 7th century the supremacy over Lindsey alternated +between Mercia and Northumbria, but few historical references to the +district are extant until the time of Alfred, whose marriage with +Ealswitha was celebrated at Gainsborough three years before his +accession. At this period the Danish inroads upon the coast of Lindsey +had already begun, and in 873 Healfdene wintered at Torksey, while in +878 Lincoln and Stamford were included among the five Danish boroughs, +and the organization of the districts dependent upon them probably +resulted about this time in the grouping of Lindsey, Kesteven and +Holland to form the shire of Lincoln. The extent and permanence of the +Danish influence in Lincolnshire is still observable in the names of its +towns and villages and in the local dialect, and, though about 918 the +confederate boroughs were recaptured by Edward the Elder, in 993 a +Viking fleet again entered the Humber and ravaged Lindsey, and in 1013 +the district of the five boroughs acknowledged the supremacy of Sweyn. +The county offered no active resistance to the Conqueror, and though +Hereward appears in the Domesday Survey as a dispossessed under-tenant +of the abbot of Peterborough at Witham-on-the-Hill, the legends +surrounding his name do not belong to this county. In his northward +march in 1068 the Conqueror built a castle at Lincoln, and portioned out +the principal estates among his Norman followers, but the Domesday +Survey shows that the county on the whole was leniently treated, and a +considerable number of Englishmen retained their lands as subtenants. + +The origin of the three main divisions of Lincolnshire is anterior to +that of the county itself, and the outcome of purely natural conditions, +Lindsey being in Roman times practically an island bounded by the swamps +of the Trent and the Witham on the west and south and on the east by the +North Sea, while Kesteven and Holland were respectively the regions of +forest and of fen. Lindsey in Norman times was divided into three +ridings--North, West and South--comprising respectively five, five and +seven wapentakes; while, apart from their division into wapentakes, the +Domesday Survey exhibits a unique planning out of the ridings into +approximately equal numbers of 12-carucate hundreds, the term hundred +possessing here no administrative or local significance, but serving +merely as a unit of area for purposes of assessment. The Norman division +of Holland into the three wapentakes of Elloe, Kirton and Skirbeck has +remained unchanged to the present day. In Kesteven the wapentakes of +Aswardhurn, Aveland, Beltisloe, Haxwell, Langoe, Loveden, Ness, +Winnibriggs, and Grantham Soke have been practically unchanged, but the +Domesday wapentakes of Boothby and Graffo now form the wapentake of +Boothby Graffo. In Northriding Bradley and Haverstoe have been combined +to form Bradley Haverstoe wapentake, and the Domesday wapentake of +Epworth in Westriding has been absorbed in that of Manley. Wall +wapentake in Westriding was a liberty of the bishop of Lincoln, and as +late as 1515 the dean and chapter of Lincoln claimed delivery and return +of writs in the manor and hundred of Navenby. In the 13th century +Baldwin Wake claimed return of writs and a market in Aveland. William de +Vesci claimed liberties and exemptions in Caythorpe, of which he was +summoned to render account at the sheriff's tourn at Halton. The abbot +of Peterborough, the abbot of Tupholme, the abbot of Bardney, the prior +of Catleigh, the prior of Sixhills, the abbot of St Mary's, York, the +prioress of Stixwould and several lay owners claimed liberties and +jurisdiction in their Lincolnshire estates in the 13th century. + +The shire court for Lincolnshire was held at Lincoln every forty days, +the lords of the manor attending with their stewards, or in their +absence the reeve and four men of the vill. The ridings were each +presided over by a riding-reeve, and wapentake courts were held in the +reign of Henry I. twelve times a year, and in the reign of Henry III. +every three weeks, while twice a year all the freemen of the wapentake +were summoned to the view of frankpledge or tourn held by the sheriff. +The boundaries between Kesteven and Holland were a matter of dispute as +early as 1389 and were not finally settled until 1816. + +Lincolnshire was originally included in the Mercian diocese of +Lichfield, but, on the subdivision of the latter by Theodore in 680, the +fen-district was included in the diocese of Lichfield, while the see for +the northern parts of the county was placed at "Sidnacester," generally +identified with Stow. Subsequently both dioceses were merged in the vast +West-Saxon bishopric of Dorchester, the see of which was afterwards +transferred to Winchester, and by Bishop Remigius in 1072 to Lincoln. +The archdeaconry of Lincoln was among those instituted by Remigius, and +the division into rural deaneries also dates from this period. Stow +archdeaconry is first mentioned in 1138, and in 1291 included four +deaneries, while the archdeaconry of Lincoln included twenty-three. In +1536 the additional deaneries of Hill, Holland, Loveden and Graffoe had +been formed within the archdeaconry of Lincoln, and the only deaneries +created since that date are East and West Elloe and North and South +Grantham in Lincoln archdeaconry. The deaneries of Gartree, Grimsby, +Hill, Horncastle, Louthesk, Ludborough, Walshcroft, Wraggoe and +Yarborough have been transferred from the archdeaconry of Lincoln to +that of Stow. Benedictine foundations existed at Ikanho, Barrow, +Bardney, Partney and Crowland as early as the 7th century, but all were +destroyed in the Danish wars, and only Bardney and Crowland were ever +rebuilt. The revival of monasticism after the Conquest resulted in the +erection of ten Benedictine monasteries, and a Benedictine nunnery at +Stainfield. The Cistercian abbeys at Kirkstead, Louth Park, Revesby, +Vaudey and Swineshead, and the Cistercian nunnery at Stixwould were +founded in the reign of Stephen, and at the time of the Dissolution +there were upwards of a hundred religious houses in the county. + +In the struggles of the reign of Stephen, castles at Newark and Sleaford +were raised by Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, against the king, while +Ranulf "Gernons," earl of Chester, in 1140 garrisoned Lincoln for the +empress. The seizure of Lincoln by Stephen in 1141 was accompanied with +fearful butchery and devastation, and by an accord at Stamford William +of Roumare received Kirton in Lindsey, and his tenure of Gainsborough +Castle was confirmed. In the baronial outbreak of 1173 Roger Mowbray, +who had inherited the Isle of Axholme from Nigel d'Albini, garrisoned +Ferry East, or Kinnard's Ferry, and Axholme against the king, and, after +the destruction of their more northern fortresses in this campaign, +Epworth in Axholme became the principal seat of the Mowbrays. In the +struggles between John and his barons Lincoln in 1216 made peace with +the king by surrendering hostages for the payment of a fine of 1000 +marks, but after the landing of Louis the city was captured by Gilbert +de Gant, then earl of Lincoln. After his disastrous march to Swineshead +Abbey, John journeyed through Sleaford to Newark, where he died, and in +the battle of Lincoln in 1217 Gilbert de Gant was captured and the city +sacked. At the time of the Wars of the Roses the county, owing to +territorial influence, was mainly Lancastrian, and in 1461 the Yorkist +strongholds of Grantham and Stamford were sacked to such effect that the +latter never recovered. The Lincolnshire rising of 1470 was crushed by +the defeat of the rebels in the skirmish known as "Losecoat Field" near +Stamford. In the Civil War of the 17th century, Lindsey for the most +part declared for the king, and the Royalist cause was warmly supported +by the earl of Lindsey, Viscount Newark, Sir Peregrine Bertie and the +families of Dymoke, Heneage and Thorold. Lord Willoughby of Parham was a +prominent Parliamentary leader, and the Isle of Axholme and the Puritan +yeomanry of Holland declared for the parliament. In 1643 Cromwell won a +small victory near Grantham, and the Royalist garrisons at Lynn and +Lincoln surrendered to Manchester. In 1644, however, Newark, +Gainsborough, Lincoln, Sleaford and Crowland were all in Royalist hands, +and Newark only surrendered in 1646. Among other historic families +connected with Lincolnshire were the Wakes of Bourne and the +d'Eyncourts, who flourished at Blankney from the Conquest to the reign +of Henry VI.; Belvoir Castle was founded by the Toenis, from whom it +passed by the Daubeneys, then to the Barons Ros and later to the +Manners, earls of Rutland. In the Lindsey Survey of 1115-1118 the name +of Roger Marmion, ancestor of the Marmion family, who had inherited the +fief of Robert Despenser, appears for the first time. + +At the time of the Domesday Survey there were between 400 and 500 mills +in Lincolnshire; 2111 fisheries producing large quantities of eels; 361 +salt-works; and iron forges at Stow, St Mary and at Bytham. Lincoln and +Stamford were flourishing centres of industry, and markets existed at +Kirton-in-Lindsey, Louth, Old Bolingbroke, Spalding, Barton and Partney. +The early manufactures of the county are all connected with the woollen +trade, Lincoln being noted for its scarlet cloth in the 13th century, +while an important export trade in the raw material sprang up at Boston. +The disafforesting of Kesteven in 1230 brought large areas under +cultivation, and the same period is marked by the growth of the maritime +and fishing towns, especially Boston (which had a famous fish-market), +Grimsby, Barton, Saltfleet, Wainfleet and Wrangle. The Lincolnshire +towns suffered from the general decay of trade in the eastern counties +which marked the 15th century, but agriculture was steadily improving, +and with the gradual drainage of the fen-districts culminating in the +vast operations of the 17th century, over 330,000 acres in the county +were brought under cultivation, including more than two-thirds of +Holland. The fen-drainage resulted in the extinction of many local +industries, such as the trade in goose-feathers and the export of wild +fowl to the London markets, a 17th-century writer terming this county +"the aviary of England, 3000 mallards with other birds having been +caught sometimes in August at one draught." Other historic industries of +Lincolnshire are the breeding of horses and dogs and rabbit-snaring; the +Witham was noted for its pike; and ironstone was worked in the south, +now chiefly in the north and west. + +As early as 1295 two knights were returned to parliament for the shire +of Lincoln, and two burgesses each for Lincoln, Grimsby and Stamford. In +the 14th century Lincoln and Stamford were several times the +meeting-places of parliament or important councils, the most notable +being the Lincoln Parliament of 1301, while at Stamford in 1309 a truce +was concluded between the barons, Piers Gaveston and the king. Stamford +discontinued representation for some 150 years after the reign of Edward +II.; Grantham was enfranchised in 1463 and Boston in 1552. Under the act +of 1832 the county was divided into a northern and southern division, +returning each two members, and Great Grimsby lost one member. Under +the act of 1868 the county returned six members in three divisions and +Stamford lost one member. Under the act of 1885 the county returned +seven members in seven divisions; Lincoln, Boston and Grantham lost one +member each and Stamford was disfranchised. + + _Antiquities._--At the time of the suppression of the monasteries in + the reign of Henry VIII. there were upwards of one hundred religious + houses; and among the Fens rose some of the finest abbeys held by the + Benedictines. The Gilbertines were a purely English order which took + its rise in Lincolnshire, the canons following the Austin rule, the + nuns and lay brothers that of the Cistercians. They generally lived in + separate houses, but formed a community having a common church in + which the sexes were divided by a longitudinal wall. These houses were + at Alvingham, Catley, Holland Brigg, Lincoln, before the gate of which + the first Eleanor Cross was erected by Edward I. to his wife, Newstead + in Lindsey, Sempringham, the chief house of the order, founded by St + Gilbert of Gaunt in 1139, of which the Norman nave of the church is in + use, Stamford (a college for students) and Wellow. There were + nunneries of the order at Haverholme, Nun Ormsby and Tunstal. + + The following are a few of the most famous abbeys. Barlings + (Premonstratensian), N.E. of Lincoln, was founded 1154, for fourteen + canons. The tower, Decorated, with arcading pierced with windows, and + the east wall of the south wing remain. The Benedictine Mitred Abbey + of Crowland (q.v.) was founded 716, and refounded in 948. Part of the + church is still in use. Thornton Abbey (Black Canons) in the north + near the Humber was founded in 1139. There remain a fragment of the + south wing of the transept, two sides of the decagonal chapter-house + (1282) and the beautiful west gate-house, Early Perpendicular + (1332-1388), with an oriel window on the east. Kirkstead Abbey + (Cistercian) was founded in 1139. Little remains beyond an Early + English chapel of singular beauty. + + In the Parts of Lindsey several churches present curious early + features, particularly the well-known towers of St Peter, + Barton-on-Humber, St Mary-le-Wigford and St Peter at Gowts, Lincoln, + which exhibit work of a pre-Conquest type. Stow church for Norman of + various dates, Bottesford and St James, Grimsby, for Early English, + Tattershall and Theddlethorpe for Perpendicular are fine examples of + various styles. + + In the Parts of Kesteven the churches are built of excellent stone + which abounds at Ancaster and near Sleaford. The church of St Andrew, + Heckington, is the best example of Decorated architecture in the + county; it is famed for its Easter sepulchre and fine sedilia. The + noble church of St Wulfram, Grantham, with one of the finest spires in + England, is also principally Decorated; this style in fact is + particularly well displayed in Kesteven, as in the churches of + Caythorpe, Claypole, Navenby and Ewerby. At Stamford (q.v.) there are + five churches of various styles. + + It is principally in the Parts of Holland that the finest churches in + the county are found; they are not surpassed by those of any other + district in the kingdom, which is the more remarkable as the district + is composed wholly of marsh land and is without stone of any kind. It + is highly probable that the churches of the south part of this + district owe their origin to the munificence of the abbeys of Crowland + and Spalding. The church of Long Sutton, besides its fine Norman nave, + possesses an Early English tower and spire which is comparable with + the very early specimen at Oxford cathedral. Whaplode church is + another noteworthy example of Norman work; for Early English work the + churches of Kirtop-in-Holland, Pinchbeck and Weston may be noticed; + for Decorated those at Donington and Spalding; and for Perpendicular, + Gedney, together with parts of Kirton church. Of the two later styles, + however, by far the most splendid example is the famous church of St + Botolph, Boston (q.v.), with its magnificent lantern-crowned tower or + "stump." + + There are few remains of medieval castles, although the sites of a + considerable number are traceable. Those of Lincoln and Tattershall (a + fine Perpendicular building in brick) are the most noteworthy, and + there are also fragments at Boston and Sleaford, Country seats worthy + of note (chiefly modern) are Aswarby Hall, Belton House, Brocklesby, + Casewick, Denton Manor, Easton Hall, Grimsthorpe (of the 16th and 18th + centuries, with earlier remains), Haverholm Priory, Nocton Hall, + Panton Hall, Riby Grove, Somerby Hall, Syston Park and Uffington. The + city of Lincoln is remarkably rich in remains of domestic architecture + from the Norman period onward, and there are similar examples at + Stamford and elsewhere. In this connexion the remarkable triangular + bridge at Crowland of the 14th century (see BRIDGES) should be + mentioned. + + See _Victoria County History, Lincolnshire_; Thomas Allen, _The + History of the County of Lincoln_ (2 vols., London, 1834); C. G. + Smith, _A Translation of that portion of the Domesday Book which + relates to Lincolnshire and Rutlandshire_ (London, 1870); G. S. + Streatfield, _Lincolnshire and the Danes_ (London, 1884); _Chronicle + of the Rebellion in Lincolnshire, 1470_, ed. J. E. Nicholls, Camden + Society, _Camden Miscellany_, vol. i. (London, 1847); _The + Lincolnshire Survey, temp. Henry I._, ed. James Greenstreet (London, + 1884); _Lincolnshire Notes and Queries_ (Horncastle, 1888); + _Lincolnshire Record Society_ (Horncastle, 1891). + + + + +LIND, JENNY (1820-1887), the famous Swedish singer, was born at +Stockholm on the 6th of October 1820, the daughter of a lace +manufacturer. Mlle Lundberg, an opera-dancer, first discovered her +musical gift, and induced the child's mother to have her educated for +the stage; during the six or seven years in which she was what was +called an "actress pupil," she occasionally appeared on the stage, but +in plays, not operas, until 1836, when she made a first attempt in an +opera by A. F. Lindblad. She was regularly engaged at the opera-house In +1837. Her first great success was as Agathe, in Weber's _Der +Freischütz_, in 1838, and by 1841, when she started for Paris, she had +already become identified with nearly all the parts in which she +afterwards became famous. But her celebrity in Sweden was due in great +part to her histrionic ability, and there is comparatively little said +about her wonderful vocal art, which was only attained after a year's +hard study under Manuel Garcia, who had to remedy many faults that had +caused exhaustion in the vocal organs. On the completion of her studies +she sang before G. Meyerbeer, in private, in the Paris Opera-house, and +two years afterwards was engaged by him for Berlin, to sing in his +_Feldlager in Schlesien_ (afterwards remodelled as _L' Étoile du nord_); +but the part intended for her was taken by another singer, and her first +appearance took place in _Norma_ on the 15th of December 1844. She +appeared also in Weber's _Euryanthe_ and Bellini's _La Sonnambula_, and +while she was at Berlin the English manager, Alfred Bunn, induced her to +sign a contract (which she broke) to appear in London in the following +season. In December 1845 she appeared at a Gewandhaus concert at +Leipzig, and made the acquaintance of Mendelssohn, as well as of Joachim +and many other distinguished German musicians. In her second Berlin +season she added the parts of Donna Anna (Mozart's _Don Giovanni_), +Julia (Spontini's _Vestalin_) and Valentine (Meyerbeer's _Les +Huguenots_) to her repertory. She sang in operas or concerts at +Aix-la-Chapelle, Hanover, Hamburg, Vienna, Darmstadt and Munich during +the next year, and took up two Donizetti rôles, those of Lucia and "la +Figlia del Reggimento," in which she was afterwards famous. At last +Lumley, the manager of Her Majesty's Theatre, succeeded in inducing Mlle +Lind to visit England, in spite of her dread of the penalties threatened +by Bunn on her breach of the contract with him, and she appeared on the +4th of May 1847 as Alice in Meyerbeer's _Robert le Diable_. Her début +had been so much discussed that the _furore_ she created was a foregone +conclusion. Nevertheless it exceeded everything of the kind that had +taken place in London or anywhere else; the sufferings and struggles of +her well-dressed admirers, who had to stand for hours to get into the +pit, have become historic. She sang in several of her favourite +characters, and in that of Susanna in Mozart's _Figaro_, besides +creating the part of Amalia in Verdi's _I Masnadieri_, written for +England and performed on the 22nd of July. In the autumn she appeared in +operas in Manchester and Liverpool, and in concerts at Brighton, +Birmingham, Hull, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, Norwich, Bristol, Bath and +Exeter. At Norwich began her acquaintance with the bishop, Edward +Stanley (1779-1849), which was said to have led to her final +determination to give up the stage as a career. After four more +appearances in Berlin, and a short visit to Stockholm, she appeared in +London in the season of 1848, when she sang in Donizetti's _L'Elisire +d'amore_ and Bellini's _I Puritani_, in addition to her older parts. In +the same year she organized a memorable performance of _Elijah_, with +the receipts of which the Mendelssohn scholarship was founded, and sang +at a great number of charity and benefit concerts. At the beginning of +the season of 1849 she intended to give up operatic singing, but a +compromise was effected by which she was to sing the music of six +operas, performed without action, at Her Majesty's Theatre; but the +first, a concert performance of Mozart's _Il Flauto magico_, was so +coldly received that she felt bound, for the sake of the manager and the +public, to give five more regular representations, and her last +performance on the stage was on the 10th of May 1849, in _Robert le +Diable_. Her decision was not even revoked when the king of Sweden +urged her to reappear in opera at her old home. She paid visits to +Germany and Sweden again before her departure for America in 1850. Just +before sailing she appeared at Liverpool, for the first time in England, +in an oratorio of Handel, singing the soprano music in _The Messiah_ +with superb art. She remained in America for nearly two years, being for +a great part of the time engaged by P. T. Barnum. In Boston, on the 5th +of February 1852, she married Otto Goldschmidt (1829-1907), whom she had +met at Lübeck in 1850. For some years after her return to England, her +home for the rest of her life, she appeared in oratorios and concerts, +and her dramatic instincts were as strongly and perhaps as +advantageously displayed in these surroundings as they had been on the +stage, for the grandeur of her conceptions in such passages as the +"Sanctus" of _Elijah_, the intensity of conviction which she threw into +the scene of the widow in the same work, or the religious fervour of "I +know that my Redeemer liveth," could not have found a place in opera. In +her later years she took an active interest in the Bach Choir, conducted +by her husband, and not only sang herself in the chorus, but gave the +benefit of her training to the ladies of the society. For some years she +was professor of singing at the Royal College of Music. Her last public +appearance was at Düsseldorf on the 20th of January 1870 when she sang +in _Ruth_, an oratorio composed by her husband. She died at Malvern on +the 2nd of November 1887. The supreme position she held so long in the +operatic world was due not only to the glory of her voice, and the +complete musicianship which distinguished her above all her +contemporaries, but also to the naïve simplicity of her acting in her +favourite parts, such as Amina, Alice or Agathe. In these and others she +had the precious quality of conviction, and identified herself with the +characters she represented with a thoroughness rare in her day. Unharmed +by the perils of a stage career, she was a model of rectitude, +generosity and straightforwardness, carrying the last quality into a +certain blunt directness of manner that was sometimes rather startling. + (J. A. F. M.) + + + + +LINDAU, PAUL (1839- ), German dramatist and novelist, the son of a +Protestant pastor, was born at Magdeburg on the 3rd of June 1839. He was +educated at the gymnasium in Halle and subsequently in Leipzig and +Berlin. He spent five years in Paris to further his studies, acting +meanwhile as foreign correspondent to German papers. After his return to +Germany in 1863 he was engaged in journalism in Düsseldorf and +Elberfeld. In 1870 he founded _Das neue Blatt_ at Leipzig; from 1872 to +1881 he edited the Berlin weekly, _Die Gegenwart_; and in 1878 he +founded the well-known monthly, _Nord und Süd_, which he continued to +edit until 1904. Two books of travel, _Aus Venetien_ (Düsseldorf, 1864) +and _Aus Paris_ (Stuttgart, 1865). were followed by some volumes of +critical studies, written in a light, satirical vein, which at once made +him famous. These were _Harmlose Briefe eines deutschen Kleinstädters_ +(Leipzig, 2 vols., 1870), _Moderne Märchen für grosse Kinder_ (Leipzig, +1870) and _Literarische Rücksichtslosigkeiten_ (Leipzig, 1871). He was +appointed intendant of the court theatre at Meiningen in 1895, but +removed to Berlin in 1899, where he became manager of the Berliner +Theater, and subsequently, until 1905, of the Deutsches Theater. He had +begun his dramatic career in 1868 with _Marion_, the first of a long +series of plays in which he displayed a remarkable talent for stage +effect and a command of witty and lively dialogue. Among the more famous +were _Maria und Magdalena_ (1872), _Tante Therese_ (1876), _Gräfin Lea_ +(1879), _Die Erste_ (1895), _Der Abend_ (1896), _Der Herr im Hause_ +(1899), _So ich dir_ (1903), and he adapted many plays by Dumas, Augier +and Sardou for the German stage. Five volumes of his plays have been +published (Berlin, 1873-1888). Some of his volumes of short stories +acquired great popularity, notably _Herr und Frau Bewer_ (Breslau, 1882) +and T_oggenburg und andere Geschichten_ (Breslau, 1883). A +novel-sequence entitled _Berlin_ included _Der Zug nach dem Westen_ +(Stuttgart, 1886, 10th ed. 1903), _Arme Mädchen_ (1887, 9th ed. 1905) +and _Spitzen_ (1888, 8th ed. 1904). Later novels were _Die Gehilfin_ +(Breslau, 1894), _Die Brüder_, (Dresden, 1895), _Der König von Sidon_ +(Breslau, 1898). His earlier books on _Molière_ (Leipzig, 1871) and +_Alfred de Musset_ (Berlin, 1877) were followed by some volumes of +dramatic and literary criticism, _Gesammelte Aufsätze_ (Berlin, 1875), +_Dramaturgische Blätter_ (Stuttgart, 2 vols., 1875; new series, Breslau, +1878, 2 vols.), _Vorspiele auf dem Theater_ (Breslau, 1895). + +His brother, RUDOLF LINDAU (b. 1829), was a well-known diplomatist and +author. His novels and tales were collected in 1893 (Berlin, 6 vols.). +The most attractive, such as _Reisegefährten_ and _Der lange Holländer_, +deal with the life of European residents in the Far East. + + See Hadlich, _Paul Lindau als dramatischer Dichter_ (2nd ed., Berlin, + 1876). + + + + +LINDAU, a town and pleasure resort in the kingdom of Bavaria, and the +central point of the transit trade between that country and Switzerland, +situated on two islands off the north-eastern shore of Lake Constance. +Pop. (1905) 6531. The town is a terminus of the Vorarlberg railway, and +of the Munich-Lindau line of the Bavarian state railways, and is +connected with the mainland both by a wooden bridge and by a railway +enbankment erected in 1853. There are a royal palace and an old and a +new town-hall (the older one having been built in 1422 and restored in +1886-1888), a museum and a municipal library with interesting +manuscripts and a collection of Bibles, also classical, commercial and +industrial schools. The harbour is much frequented by steamers from +Constance and other places on the lake. There are also some Roman +remains, the Heidenmauer, and a fine modern fountain, the Reichsbrunnen. +Opposite the custom-house is a bronze statue of the Bavarian king +Maximilian II., erected in 1856. + +On the site now occupied by the town there was a Roman camp, the +_castrum Tiberii_, and the authentic records of Lindau date back to the +end of the 9th century, when it was known as Lintowa. In 1274, or +earlier, it became a free imperial town; in 1331 it joined the Swabian +league, and in 1531 became a member of the league of Schmalkalden, +having just previously accepted the reformed doctrines. In 1647 it was +ineffectually besieged by the Swedes. In 1804 it lost its imperial +privileges and passed to Austria, being transferred to Bavaria in 1805. + + See Boulan, _Lindau, vor altem und jetzt_ (Lindau, 1872); and + Stettners, _Führer durch Lindau und Umgebungen_ (Lindau, 1900). + + + + +LINDEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, 3 m. S.W. by rail +from the city of that name, of which it practically forms a suburb, and +from which it is separated by the Ihme. Pop. (1905) 57,941. It has a +fine modern town-hall, and a classical and other schools. Chief among +its industries are machine building, weaving, iron and steel works and +the manufacture of chemicals, india-rubber goods and carpets. + + + + +LINDESAY, ROBERT, of Pitscottie (c. 1530-c. 1590), Scottish historian, +of the family of the Lindesays of the Byres, was born at Pitscottie, in +the parish of Ceres, Fifeshire, which he held in lease at a later +period. His _Historie and Cronicles of Scotland_, the only work by which +he is remembered, is described as a continuation of that of Hector +Boece, translated by John Bellenden. It covers the period from 1437 to +1565, and, though it sometimes degenerates into a mere chronicle of +short entries, is not without passages of great picturesqueness. Sir +Walter Scott made use of it in _Marmion_; and, in spite of its +inaccuracy in details, it is useful for the social history of the +period. Lindesay's share in the _Cronicles_ was generally supposed to +end with 1565; but Dr Aeneas Mackay considers that the frank account of +the events connected with Mary Stuart between 1565 and 1575 contained in +one of the MSS. is by his hand and was only suppressed because it was +too faithful in its record of contemporary affairs. + + The _Historie and Cronicles_ was first published in 1728. A complete + edition of the text (2 vols.), based on the Laing MS. No. 218 in the + university of Edinburgh, was published by the Scottish Text Society in + 1899 under the editorship of Aeneas J. G. Mackay. The MS., formerly in + the possession of John Scott of Halkshill, is fuller, and, though in a + later hand, is, on the whole, a better representative of Lindesay's + text. + + + + +LINDET, JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT (1749-1825), French revolutionist, was +born at Bernay (Eure). Before the Revolution he was an _avocat_ at +Bernay. He acted as _procureur-syndic_ of the district of Bernay during +the session of the Constituent Assembly. Appointed deputy to the +Legislative Assembly and subsequently to the Convention, he attained +considerable prominence. He was very hostile to the king, furnished a +_Rapport sur les crimes imputés à Louis Capet_ (10th of December 1792), +and voted for the death of Louis without appeal or respite. He was +instrumental in the establishment of the Revolutionary Tribunal and +contributed to the downfall of the Girondists. As member of the +Committee of Public Safety, he devoted himself particularly to the +question of food-supplies, and it was only by dint of dogged +perseverance and great administrative talent that he was successful in +coping with this difficult problem. He had meanwhile been sent to +suppress revolts in the districts of Rhône, Eure, Calvados and +Finistère, where he had been able to pursue a conciliatory policy. +Without being formally opposed to Robespierre, he did not support him, +and he was the only member of the Committee of Public Safety who did not +sign the order for the execution of Danton and his party. In a like +spirit of moderation he opposed the Thermidorian reaction, and defended +Barère, Billaud-Varenne the Collot d'Herbois from the accusations +launched against them on the 22nd of March 1795. Himself denounced on +the 20th of May 1795, he was defended by his brother Thomas, but only +escaped condemnation by the vote of amnesty of the 4th of Brumaire, year +IV. (26th of October 1795). He was minister of finance from the 18th of +June to the 9th of November 1799, but refused office under the Consulate +and the Empire. In 1816 he was proscribed by the Restoration government +as a regicide, and did not return to France until just before his death +on the 17th of February 1825. His brother Thomas made some mark as a +Constitutional bishop and member of the Convention. + + See Amand Montier, _Robert Lindet_ (Paris, 1899); H. Turpin, _Thomas + Lindet_ (Bernay, 1886); A. Montier, _Correspondance de Thomas Lindet_ + (Paris, 1899). + + + + +LINDLEY, JOHN (1799-1865), English botanist, was born on the 5th of +February 1799 at Catton, near Norwich, where his father, George Lindley, +author of _A Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden_, owned a nursery +garden. He was educated at Norwich grammar school. His first +publication, in 1819, a translation of the _Analyse du fruit_ of L. C. +M. Richard, was followed in 1820 by an original _Monographia Rosarum_, +with descriptions of new species, and drawings executed by himself, and +in 1821 by _Monographia Digitalium_, and by "Observations on Pomaceae," +contributed to the Linnean Society. Shortly afterwards he went to +London, where he was engaged by J. C. Loudon to write the descriptive +portion of the _Encyclopaedia of Plants_. In his labours on this +undertaking, which was completed in 1829, he became convinced of the +superiority of the "natural" system of A. L. de Jussieu, as +distinguished from the "artificial" system of Linnaeus followed in the +_Encyclopaedia_; the conviction found expression in _A Synopsis of +British Flora, arranged according to the Natural Order_ (1829) and in +_An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany_ (1830). In 1829 +Lindley, who since 1822 had been assistant secretary to the +Horticultural Society, was appointed to the chair of botany in +University College, London, which he retained till 1860; he lectured +also on botany from 1831 at the Royal Institution, and from 1836 at the +Botanic Gardens, Chelsea. During his professoriate he wrote many +scientific and popular works, besides contributing largely to the +_Botanical Register_, of which he was editor for many years, and to the +_Gardener's Chronicle_, in which he had charge of the horticultural +department from 1841. He was a fellow of the Royal, Linnean and +Geological Societies. He died at Turnham Green on the 1st of November +1865. + + Besides those already mentioned, his works include _An Outline of the + First Principles of Horticulture_ (1832), _An Outline of the Structure + and Physiology of Plants_ (1832), _A Natural System of Botany_ (1836), + _The Fossil Flora of Great Britain_ (with William Hutton, 1831-1837), + _Flora Medica_ (1838), _Theory of Horticulture_ (1840), _The Vegetable + Kingdom_ (1846), _Folia Orchidacea_ (1852), _Descriptive Botany_ + (1858). + + + + +LINDLEY, NATHANIEL LINDLEY, BARON (1828- ), English judge, son of John +Lindley (q.v.), was born at Acton Green, Middlesex, on the 29th of +November 1828. He was educated at University College School, and studied +for a time at University College, London. He was called to the bar at +the Middle Temple in 1850, and began practice in the Court of Chancery. +In 1855 he published _An Introduction to the Study of Jurisprudence_, +consisting of a translation of the general part of Thibaut's _System des +Pandekten Rechts_, with copious notes. In 1860 he published in two +volumes his _Treatise on the Law of Partnership, including its +Application to Joint Stock and other Companies_, and in 1862 a +supplement including the Companies Act of 1862. This work has since been +developed into two text-books well known to lawyers as _Lindley on +Companies_ and _Lindley on Partnership_. He became a Q.C. in January +1872. In 1874 he was elected a bencher of the Middle Temple, of which he +was treasurer in 1894. In 1875 he was appointed a justice of common +pleas, the appointment of a chancery barrister to a common-law court +being justified by the fusion of law and equity then shortly to be +brought about, in theory at all events, by the Judicature Acts. In +pursuance of the changes now made be became a justice of the common +pleas division of the High Court of Justice, and in 1880 of the queen's +bench division. In 1881 he was raised to the Court of Appeal and made a +privy councillor. In 1897, Lord Justice Lindley succeeded Lord Esher as +master of the rolls, and in 1900 he was made a lord of appeal in +ordinary with a life peerage and the title of Baron Lindley. He resigned +the judicial post in 1905. Lord Lindley was the last serjeant-at-law +appointed, and the last judge to wear the serjeant's coif, or rather the +black patch representing it, on the judicial wig. He married in 1858 +Sarah Katherine, daughter of Edward John Teale of Leeds. + + + + +LINDLEY, WILLIAM (1808-1900), English engineer, was born in London on +the 7th of September 1808, and became a pupil under Francis Giles, whom +he assisted in designing the Newcastle and Carlisle and the London and +Southampton railways. Leaving England about 1837, he was engaged for a +time in railway work in various parts of Europe, and then returned, as +engineer-in-chief to the Hamburg-Bergedorf railway, to Hamburg, near +which city he had received his early education, and to which he was +destined to stand in much the same relation as Baron Haussmann to Paris. +His first achievement was to drain the Hammerbrook marshes, and so add +some 1400 acres to the available area of the city. His real opportunity, +however, came with the great fire which broke out on the 5th of May 1842 +and burned for three days. He was entrusted with the direction of the +operations to check its spread, and the strong measures he adopted, +including the blowing-up of the town hall, brought bis life into danger +with the mob, who professed to see in him an English agent charged with +the destruction of the port of Hamburg. After the extinction of the fire +he was appointed consulting engineer to the senate and town council, to +the Water Board and to the Board of Works. He began with the +construction of a complete sewerage system on principles which did not +escape criticism, but which experience showed to be good. Between 1844 +and 1848 water-works were established from his designs, the intake from +the Elbe being at Rothenburgsort. Subsidence tanks were used for +clarification, but in 1853, when he designed large extensions, he urged +the substitution of sand-filtration, which, however, was not adopted +until the cholera epidemic of 1892-1893 had shown the folly of the +opposition directed against it. In 1846 he erected the Hamburg +gas-works; public baths and wash-houses were built, and large extensions +to the port executed according to his plans in 1854; and he supervised +the construction of the Altona gas and water works in 1855. Among other +services he rendered to the city may be mentioned the trigonometrical +survey executed between 1848 and 1860, and the conduct of the +negotiations which in 1852 resulted in the sale of the "Steelyard" on +the banks of the Thames belonging to it jointly with the two other +Hanseatic towns, Bremen and Lübeck. In 1860 he left Hamburg, and during +the remaining nineteen years of his professional practice he was +responsible for many engineering works in various European cities, +among them being Frankfort-on-the-Main, Warsaw, Pesth, Düsseldorf, +Galatz and Basel. In Frankfort he constructed sewerage works on the same +principles as those he followed in Hamburg, and the system was widely +imitated not only in Europe, but also in America. He was also consulted +in regard to water-works at Berlin, Kiel, Stralsund, Stettin and +Leipzig; he advised the New River Company of London on the adoption of +the constant supply system in 1851; and he was commissioned by the +British Government to carry out various works in Heligoland, including +the big retaining wall "Am Falm." He died at Blackheath, London, on the +22nd of May 1900. + + + + +LINDO, MARK PRAGER (1819-1879), Dutch prose writer, of English-Jewish +descent, was born in London on the 18th of September 1810. He went to +Holland when nineteen years of age, and once established there as a +private teacher of the English language, he soon made up his mind to +remain. In 1842 he passed his examination at Arnhem, qualifying him as a +professor of English in Holland, subsequently becoming a teacher of the +English language and literature at the gymnasium in that town. In 1853 +he was appointed in a similar capacity at the Royal Military Academy in +Breda. Meanwhile Lindo had obtained a thorough grasp of the Dutch +language, partly during his student years at Utrecht University, where +in 1854 he gained the degree of doctor of literature. His proficiency in +the two languages led him to translate into Dutch several of the works +of Dickens, Thackeray and others, and afterwards also of Fielding, +Sterne and Walter Scott. Some of Lindo's translations bore the imprint +of hasty and careless work, and all were very unequal in quality. His +name is much more likely to endure as the writer of humorous original +sketches and novelettes in Dutch, which he published under the pseudonym +of De Oude Herr Smits ("Old Mr Smits"). Among the most popular are; +_Brieven en Ontboezemingen_ ("Letters and Confessions," 1853, with three +"Continuations"); _Familie van Ons_ ("Family of Ours," 1855); +_Bekentenissen eener Jonge Dame_ ("Confessions of a Young Lady," 1858); +_Uittreksels uit het Dagboek van Wijlen den Heer Janus Snor_ ("Extracts +from the Diary of the late Mr Janus Snor," 1865); _Typen_ ("Types," +1871); and, particularly, _Afdrukken van Indrukken_ ("Impressions from +Impressions," 1854, reprinted many times). The last-named was written in +collaboration with Lodewyk Mulder, who contributed some of its drollest +whimsicalities of Dutch life and character, which, for that reason, are +almost untranslatable. Lodewyk Mulder and Lindo also founded together, +and carried on, for a considerable time alone, the _Nederlandsche +Spectator_ ("The Dutch Spectator"), a literary weekly, still published +at The Hague, which bears little resemblance to its English prototype, +and which perhaps reached its greatest popularity and influence when +Vosmaer contributed to it a brilliant weekly letter under the fanciful +title of Vlugmaren ("Swifts"). Lindo's serious original Dutch writings +he published under his own name, the principal one being _De Opkomst en +Ontwikkeling van het Engelsche Volk_ ("The Rise and Development of the +British People," 2 vols. 1868-1874)--a valuable history. Lodewyk Mulder +published in 1877-1879 a collected edition of Lindo's writings in five +volumes, and there has since been a popular reissue. Lindo was appointed +an inspector of primary schools in the province of South Holland in +1865, a post he held until his death at The Hague on the 9th of March +1879. + + + + +LINDSAY, the family name of the earls of Crawford. The family is one of +great antiquity in Scotland, the earliest to settle in that country +being Sir Walter de Lindesia, who attended David, earl of Huntingdon, +afterwards King David I., in his colonization of the Lowlands early in +the 12th century. The descendants of Sir Walter divided into three +branches, one of which held the baronies of Lamberton in Scotland, and +Kendal and Molesworth in England; another held Luffness and Crawford in +Scotland and half Limesi in England; and a third held Breneville and +Byres in Scotland and certain lands, not by baronial tenure, in England. +The heads of all these branches sat as barons in the Scottish parliament +for more than two hundred years before the elevation of the chief of the +house to an earldom in 1398. The Lindsays held the great mountain +district of Crawford in Clydesdale, from which the title of the earldom +is derived, from the 12th century till the close of the 15th, when it +passed to the Douglas earls of Angus. See CRAWFORD, EARLS OF. + + See A. W. C. Lindsay, afterwards earl of Crawford, _Lives of the + Lindsays, or a Memoir of the Houses of Crawford and Belcarres_ (3 + vols., 1843 and 1858). + + + + +LINDSAY, a town and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and capital of +Victoria county, on the Scugog river, 57 m. N.E. of Toronto by rail, on +the Canadian Pacific railway, and at the junction of the Port Hope and +Haliburton branches and the Midland division of the Grand Trunk railway. +Pop. (1901) 7003. It has steamboat communication, by way of the Trent +canal, with Lake Scugog and the ports on the Trent system. It contains +saw and grist mills, agricultural implement and other factories. + + + + +LINDSEY, THEOPHILUS (1723-1808), English theologian, was born in +Middlewich, Cheshire, on the 20th of June 1723, and was educated at the +Leeds Free School and at St John's College, Cambridge, where in 1747 he +became a fellow. For some time he held a curacy in Spitalfields, London, +and from 1734 to 1756 he travelled on the continent of Europe as tutor +to the young duke of Northumberland. He was then presented to the living +of Kirkby-Wiske in Yorkshire, and after exchanging it for that of +Piddletown in Dorsetshire, he removed in 1763 to Catterick in Yorkshire. +Here about 1764 he founded one of the first Sunday schools in England. +Meanwhile he had begun to entertain anti-Trinitarian views, and to be +troubled in conscience about their inconsistency with the Anglican +belief; since 1769 the intimate friendship of Joseph Priestley had +served to foster his scruples, and in 1771 he united with Francis +Blackburne, archdeacon of Cleveland (his father-in-law), John Jebb +(1736-1786), Christopher Wyvill (1740-1822) and Edmund Law (1703-1787), +bishop of Carlisle, in preparing a petition to parliament with the +prayer that clergymen of the church and graduates of the universities +might be relieved from the burden of subscribing to the thirty-nine +articles, and "restored to their undoubted rights as Protestants of +interpreting Scripture for themselves." Two hundred and fifty signatures +were obtained, but in February 1772 the House of Commons declined even +to receive the petition by a majority of 217 to 71; the adverse vote was +repeated in the following year, and in the end of 1773, seeing no +prospect of obtaining within the church the relief which his conscience +demanded, Lindsey resigned his vicarage. In April 1774 he began to +conduct Unitarian services in a room in Essex Street, Strand, London, +where first a church, and afterwards the Unitarian offices, were +established. Here he remained till 1793, when he resigned his charge in +favour of John Disney (1746-1816), who like himself had left the +established church and had become his colleague. He died on the 3rd of +November 1808. + + Lindsey's chief work is _An Historical View of the State of the + Unitarian Doctrine and Worship from the Reformation to our own Times_ + (1783); in it he claims, amongst others, Burnet, Tillotson, S. Clarke, + Hoadly and Sir I. Newton for the Unitarian view. His other + publications include _Apology on Resigning the Vicarage of Catterick_ + (1774), and _Sequel to the Apology_ (1776); _The Book of Common Prayer + reformed according to the plan of the late Dr Samuel Clarke_ (1774); + _Dissertations on the Preface to St John's Gospel and on praying to + Jesus Christ_ (1779); _Vindiciae Priestleianae_ (1788); _Conversations + upon Christian Idolatry_ (1792); and _Conversations on the Divine + Government, showing that everything is from God, and for good to all_ + (1802). Two volumes of _Sermons, with appropriate prayers annexed_, + were published posthumously in 1810; and a volume of Memoirs, by + Thomas Belsham, appeared in 1812. + + + + +LINDSTRÖM, GUSTAF (1829-1901), Swedish palaeontologist, was born at +Wisby in Gotland on the 27th of August 1829. In 1848 he entered the +university at Upsala, and in 1854 he took his doctor's degree. Having +attended a course of lectures in Stockholm by S. L. Lovén, he became +interested in the zoology of the Baltic, and published several papers on +the invertebrate fauna, and subsequently on the fishes. In 1856 he +became a school teacher, and in 1858 a master in the grammar school at +Wisby. His leisure was devoted to researches on the fossils of the +Silurian rocks of Gotland, including the corals, brachiopods, +gasteropods, pteropods, cephalopods and crustacea. He described also +remains of the fish _Cyathaspis_ from Wenlock Beds, and (with T. +Thorell) a scorpion _Palaeaphonus_ from Ludlow Beds at Wisby. He +determined the true nature of the operculated coral _Calceola_; and +while he described organic remains from other parts of northern Europe, +he worked especially at the Palaeozoic fossils of Sweden. He was awarded +the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London in 1895. In 1876 +he was appointed keeper of the fossil Invertebrata in the State Museum +at Stockholm, where he died on the 16th of May 1901. + + See obituary (with portrait), by F. A. Bather, in _Geol. Mag._ (July + 1901), p. 333. + + + + +LINDUS, one of the three chief cities of the island of Rhodes, before +their synoecism in the city of Rhodes. It is situated on the E. side of +the island, and has a finely placed acropolis on a precipitous hill, and +a good natural harbour just N. of it. Recent excavations have discovered +the early temple of Athena Lindia on the Acropolis, and splendid +Propylaea and a staircase, resembling those at Athens. The sculptors of +the Laocoon are among the priests of Athena Lindia, whose names are +recorded by inscriptions. Some early temples have also been found, and +inscriptions cut on the rock recording the sacrifices known as [Greek: +Boukatia]. There are also traces of a theatre and rock-cut tombs. On the +Acropolis is a castle, built by the knights in the 14th century, and +many houses in the town show work of the same date. + + See RHODES; also Chr. Blinkenberg and K. F. Kinch, _Exploration arch. + de Rhodes_ (Copenhagen, 1904-1907). + + + + +LINE, a word of which the numerous meanings may be deduced from the +primary ones of thread or cord, a succession of objects in a row, a mark +or stroke, a course or route in any particular direction. The word is +derived from the Lat. _linea_, where all these meanings may be found, +but some applications are due more directly to the Fr. _ligne_. _Linea_, +in Latin, meant originally "something made of hemp or flax," hence a +cord or thread, from _linum_, flax. "Line" in English was formerly used +in the sense of flax, but the use now only survives in the technical +name for the fibres of flax when separated by heckling from the tow (see +LINEN). The ultimate origin is also seen in the verb "to line," to cover +something on the inside, originally used of the "lining" of a garment +with linen. + +In mathematics several definitions of the line may be framed according +to the aspect from which it is viewed. The synthetical genesis of a line +from the notion of a point is the basis of Euclid's definition, [Greek: +grammê, de mêkos aplates] ("a line is widthless length"), and in a +subsequent definition he affirms that the boundaries of a line are +points, [Greek: grammês de perata sêmeia]. The line appears in +definition 6 as the boundary of a surface: [Greek: epiphaneias de perata +grammai] ("the boundaries of a surface are lines"). Another synthetical +definition, also treated by the ancient Greeks, but not by Euclid, +regards the line as generated by the motion of a point ([Greek: rhysis +sêmeiou]), and, in a similar manner, the "surface" was regarded as the +flux of a line, and a "solid" as the flux of a surface. Proclus adopts +this view, styling the line [Greek: archê] in respect of this capacity. +Analytical definitions, although not finding a place in the Euclidean +treatment, have advantages over the synthetical derivation. Thus the +boundaries of a solid may define a plane, the edges a line, and the +corners a point; or a section of a solid may define the surface, a +section of a surface the line, and the section of a line the "point." +The notion of dimensions follows readily from either system of +definitions. The solid extends three ways, i.e. it has length, breadth +and thickness, and is therefore three-dimensional; the surface has +breadth and length and is therefore two-dimensional; the line has only +extension and is unidimensional; and the point, having neither length, +breadth nor thickness but only position, has no dimensions. + +The definition of a "straight" line is a matter of much complexity. +Euclid defines it as the line which lies evenly with respect to the +points on itself--[Greek: eutheia grammê estin hêtis ex isou tois eph +heautês sêmeiois keitai]: Plato defined it as the line having its middle +point hidden by the ends, a definition of no purpose since it only +defines the line by the path of a ray of light. Archimedes defines a +straight line as the shortest distance between two points. + +A better criterion of rectilinearity is that of Simplicius, an Arabian +commentator of the 5th century: _Linea recta est quaecumque super duas +ipsius extremitates rotata non movetur de loco suo ad alium locum_ ("a +straight line is one which when rotated about its two extremities does +not change its position"). This idea was employed by Leibnitz, and most +auspiciously by Gierolamo Saccheri in 1733. + +The drawing of a straight line between any two given points forms the +subject of Euclid's first postulate--[Greek: êitêsthô apo pantos sêmeiou +epi pan sêmeion eutheian grammên agagein], and the producing of a +straight line continuously in a straight line is treated in the second +postulate--[Greek: kai peperasmenên eutheian kata to suneches ep' +eutheias ekbalein]. + + For a detailed analysis of the geometrical notion of the line and + rectilinearity, see W. B. Frankland, _Euclid's Elements_ (1905). In + analytical geometry the right line is always representable by an + equation or equations of the first degree; thus in Cartesian + coordinates of two dimensions the equation is of the form Ax + By + C + = 0, in triangular coordinates Ax + By + Cz = 0. In three-dimensional + coordinates, the line is represented by two linear equations. (See + GEOMETRY, ANALYTICAL.) _Line geometry_ is a branch of analytical + geometry in which the line is the element, and not the point as with + ordinary analytical geometry (see GEOMETRY, LINE). + + + + +LINE ENGRAVING, on plates of copper or steel, the method of engraving +(q.v.), in which the line itself is hollowed, whereas in the woodcut +when the line is to print black it is left in relief, and only white +spaces and white lines are hollowed. + +The art of line engraving has been practised from the earliest ages. The +prehistoric Aztec hatchet given to Humboldt in Mexico was just as truly +_engraved_ as a modern copper-plate which may convey a design by +Flaxman; the Aztec engraving is ruder than the European, but it is the +same art. The important discovery which made line engraving one of the +multiplying arts was the discovery how to print an incised line, which +was hit upon at last by accident, and known for some time before its +real utility was suspected. Line engraving in Europe does not owe its +origin to the woodcut, but to the chasing on goldsmiths' work. The +goldsmiths of Florence in the middle of the 15th century were in the +habit of ornamenting their works by means of engraving, after which they +filled up the hollows produced by the burin with a black enamel made of +silver, lead and sulphur, the result being that the design was rendered +much more visible by the opposition of the enamel and the metal. An +engraved design filled up in this manner was called a _niello_. Whilst a +niello was in progress the artist could not see it so well as if the +enamel were already in the lines, yet he did not like to put in the hard +enamel prematurely, as when once it was set it could not easily be got +out again. He therefore took a sulphur cast of his niello in progress, +on a matrix of fine clay, and filled up the lines in the sulphur with +lampblack, thus enabling himself to judge of the state of his engraving. +At a later period it was discovered that a proof could be taken on +damped paper by filling the engraved lines with a certain ink and wiping +it off the surface of the plate, sufficient pressure being applied to +make the paper go into the hollowed lines and fetch the ink out of them. +This was the beginning of plate printing. The niello engravers thought +it a convenient way of proving their work--the metal itself--as it saved +the trouble of the sulphur cast, but they saw no further into the +future. They went on engraving nielli just the same to ornament plate +and furniture; nor was it until the 16th century that the new method of +printing was carried out to its great and wonderful results. There are, +however, certain differences between plate-printing and block-printing +which affect the essentials of art. When paper is driven _into_ a line +so as to fetch the ink out of it, the line may be of unimaginable +fineness, it will print all the same; but when the paper is only pressed +_upon_ a raised line, the line must have some appreciable thickness; the +wood engraving, therefore, can never--except in a _tour de force_--be so +delicate as plate engraving. Again, not only does plate-printing excel +block-printing in delicacy; it excels it also in force and depth. There +never was, and there will never be, a woodcut line having the power of +a deep line in a plate, for in block-printing the line is only a +blackened surface of paper slightly impressed, whereas in plate-printing +it is a _cast_ with an additional thickness of printing ink. + +The most important of the tools used in line-engraving is the burin, +which is a bar of steel with one end fixed in a handle rather like a +mushroom with one side cut away, the burin itself being shaped so that +the cutting end when sharpened takes the form of a lozenge, point +downwards. The burin acts exactly like a plough; it makes a furrow and +turns out a shaving of metal as the plough turns the soil of a field. +The burin, however, is pushed while the plough is pulled, and this +peculiar character of the burin, or graver, as a pushed instrument at +once establishes a wide separation between it and all the other +instruments employed in the arts of design, such as pencils, brushes, +pens and etching needles. + + The elements of engraving with the burin upon metal will be best + understood by an example of a very simple kind, as in the engraving of + letters. The capital letter B contains in itself the rudiments of an + engraver's education. As at first drawn, before the blacks are + inserted, this letter consists of two perpendicular straight lines and + four curves, all the curves differing from each other. Suppose, then, + that the engraver has to make a B, he will scratch these lines, + reversed, very lightly with a sharp point or style. The next thing is + to cut out the blacks (not the whites, as in wood engraving), and this + would be done with two different burins. The engraver would get his + vertical black line by a powerful ploughing with the burin between his + two preparatory first lines, and then take out some copper in the + thickest parts of the two curves. This done, he would then take a + finer burin and work out the gradation from the thick line in the + midst of the curve to the thin extremities which touch the + perpendicular. When there is much gradation in a line the darker parts + of it are often gradually ploughed out by returning to it over and + over again. The hollows so produced are afterwards filled with + printing ink, just as the hollows in a niello were filled with black + enamel; the surplus printing ink is wiped from the smooth surface of + the copper, damped paper is laid upon it, and driven into the hollowed + letter by the pressure of a revolving cylinder; it fetches the ink + out, and you have your letter B in intense black upon a white ground. + + When the surface of a metal plate is sufficiently polished to be used + for engraving, the slightest scratch upon it will print as a black + line, the degree of blackness being proportioned to the depth of the + scratch. An engraved plate from which visiting cards are printed is a + good example of some elementary principles of engraving. It contains + thin lines and thick ones, and a considerable variety of curves. An + elaborate line engraving, if it is a pure line engraving and nothing + else, will contain only these simple elements in different + combinations. The real line engraver is always engraving a line more + or less broad and deep in one direction or another; he has no other + business than this. + +In the early Italian and early German prints, the line is used with such +perfect simplicity of purpose that the methods of the artists are as +obvious as if we saw them actually at work. + +The student may soon understand the spirit and technical quality of the +earliest Italian engraving by giving his attention to a few of the +series which used erroneously to be called the "Playing Cards of +Mantegna," but which have been shown by Mr Sidney Colvin to represent "a +kind of encyclopaedia of knowledge." + +The history of these engravings is obscure. They are supposed to be +Florentine; they are certainly Italian; and their technical manner is +called that of Baccio Baldini. But their style is as clear as a style +can be, as clear as the artist's conception of his art. In all these +figures the outline is the main thing, and next to that the lines which +mark the leading folds of the drapery; lines quite classical in purity +of form and severity of selection, and especially characteristic in +this, that they are always really engraver's lines, such as may +naturally be done with the burin, and they never imitate the freer line +of the pencil or etching needle. Shading is used in the greatest +moderation with thin straight strokes of the burin, that never overpower +the stronger organic lines of the design. Of chiaroscuro, in any +complete sense, there is none. The sky behind the figures is represented +by white paper, and the foreground is sometimes occupied by flat +decorative engraving, much nearer in feeling to calligraphy than to +modern painting. Sometimes there is a cast shadow, but it is not +studied, and is only used to give relief. In this early metal engraving +the lines are often crossed in the shading, whereas in the earliest +woodcuts they are not; the reason being that when lines are incised they +can as easily be crossed as not, whereas, when they are reserved, the +crossing involves much labour of a non-artistic kind. Here, then, we +have pure line-engraving with the burin, that is, the engraving of the +pure line patiently studied for its own beauty, and exhibited in an +abstract manner, with care for natural form combined with inattention to +the effects of nature. Even the forms are idealized, especially in the +cast of draperies, for the express purpose of exhibiting the line to +better advantage. Such are the characteristics of those very early +Italian engravings which were attributed erroneously to Mantegna. When +we come to Mantegna himself we find a style equally decided. Drawing and +shading were for him two entirely distinct things. He did not draw and +shade at the same time, as a modern chiaroscurist would, but he first +got his outlines and the patterns on his dresses all very accurate, and +then threw over them a veil of shading, a very peculiar kind of shading, +all the lines being straight and all the shading diagonal. This is the +primitive method, its peculiarities being due, not to a learned +self-restraint, but to a combination of natural genius with technical +inexperience, which made the early Italians at once desire and discover +the simplest and easiest methods. Whilst the Italians were shading with +straight lines the Germans had begun to use curves, and as soon as the +Italians saw good German work they tried to give to their burins +something of the German suppleness. + +The characteristics of early metal engraving in Germany are seen to +perfection in Martin Schongauer and Albert Dürer, who, though with +striking differences, had many points in common. Schongauer died in +1488; whilst the date of Dürer's death is 1528. Schongauer was therefore +a whole generation before Dürer, yet not greatly inferior to him in the +use of the burin, though Dürer has a much greater reputation, due in +great measure to his singular imaginative powers. Schongauer is the +first great German engraver known by name, but he was preceded by an +unknown German master, called "the Master of 1466," who had Gothic +notions of art (in strong contrast to the classicism of Baccio Baldini), +but used the burin skilfully, conceiving of line and shade as separate +elements, yet shading with an evident desire to follow the form of the +thing shaded, and with lines in various directions. Schongauer's art is +a great stride in advance, and we find in him an evident pleasure in the +bold use of the burin. Outline and shade, in Schongauer, are not nearly +so much separated as in Baccio Baldini, and the shading, generally in +curved lines, is far more masterly than the straight shading of +Mantegna. Dürer continued Schongauer's curved shading, with increasing +manual delicacy and skill; and as he found himself able to perform feats +with the burin which amused both himself and his buyers, he over-loaded +his plates with quantities of living and inanimate objects, each of +which he finished with as much care as if it were the most important +thing in the composition. The engravers of those days had no conception +of any necessity for subordinating one part of their work to another; +they drew, like children, first one object and then another object, and +so on until the plate was furnished from top to bottom and from the left +side to the right. Here, of course, is an element of facility in +primitive art which is denied to the modern artist. In Dürer all objects +are on the same plane. In his "St Hubert" (otherwise known as "St +Eustace") of c. 1505, the stag is quietly standing on the horse's back, +with one hoof on the saddle, and the kneeling knight looks as if he were +tapping the horse on the nose. Dürer seems to have perceived the mistake +about the stag, for he put a tree between us and the animal to correct +it, but the stag is on the horse's back nevertheless. This ignorance of +the laws of effect is least visible and obtrusive in plates which have +no landscape distances, such as "The Coat of Arms with the Death's Head" +(1503) and "The Coat of Arms with the Cock" (c. 1512). + +Dürer's great manual skill and close observation made him a wonderful +engraver of objects taken separately. He saw and rendered all objects; +nothing escaped him; he applied the same intensity of study to +everything. Though a thorough student of the nude--witness his Adam and +Eve (1504) and other plates--he would pay just as much attention to the +creases of a gaiter as to the development of a muscle; and though man +was his main subject, he would study dogs with equal care (see the five +dogs in the "St Hubert"), as well as pigs (see the "Prodigal Son," c. +1495); and at a time when landscape painting was unknown he studied +every clump of trees, every visible trunk and branch, nay, every +foreground plant, and each leaf of it separately. In his buildings he +saw every brick like a bricklayer, and every joint in the woodwork like +a carpenter. The immense variety of the objects which he engraved was a +training in suppleness of hand. His lines go in every direction, and are +made to render both the undulations of surfaces (see the plane in the +Melencolia, 1514) and their texture (see the granular texture of the +stones in the same print). + +From Dürer we come to Italy again, through Marcantonio, who copied +Dürer, translating more than sixty of his woodcuts upon metal. It is one +of the most remarkable things in the history of art, that a man who had +trained himself by copying northern work, little removed from pure +Gothicism, should have become soon afterwards the great engraver of +Raphael, who was much pleased with his work and aided him by personal +advice. Yet, although Raphael was a painter, and Marcantonio his +interpreter, the reader is not to infer that engraving had as yet +subordinated itself to painting. Raphael himself evidently considered +engraving a distinct art, for he never once set Marcantonio to work from +a picture, but always (much more judiciously) gave him drawings, which +the engraver might interpret without going outside his own art; +consequently Marcantonio's works are always genuine engravings, and are +never pictorial. Marcantonio was an engraver of remarkable power. In him +the real pure art of line-engraving reached its maturity. He retained +much of the early Italian manner in his backgrounds, where its +simplicity gives a desirable sobriety; but his figures are boldly +modelled in curved lines, crossing each other in the darker shades, but +left single in the passages from dark to light, and breaking away in +fine dots as they approach the light itself, which is of pure white +paper. A school of engraving was thus founded by Raphael, through +Marcantonio, which cast aside the minute details of the early schools +for a broad, harmonious treatment. + +The group known as the engravers of Rubens marked a new development. +Rubens understood the importance of engraving as a means of increasing +his fame and wealth, and directed Vorsterman and others. The theory of +engraving at that time was that it ought not to render accurately the +local colour of painting, which would appear wanting in harmony when +dissociated from the hues of the picture; and it was one of the +anxieties of Rubens so to direct his engravers that the result might be +a fine plate independently of what he had painted. To this end he helped +his engravers by drawings, in which he sometimes indicated what he +thought the best direction for the lines. Rubens liked Vorsterman's +work, and scarcely corrected it, a plate he especially approved being +"Susannah and the Elders," which is a learned piece of work well +modelled, and shaded everywhere on the figures and costumes with fine +curved lines, the straight line being reserved for the masonry. +Vorsterman quitted Rubens after executing fourteen important plates, and +was succeeded by Paul Pontius, then a youth of twenty, who went on +engraving from Rubens with increasing skill until the painter's death. +Boetius a Bolswert engraved from Rubens towards the close of his life, +and his brother Schelte a Bolswert engraved more than sixty compositions +of Rubens, of the most varied character, including hunting scenes and +landscapes. This brings us to the engraving of landscape as a separate +study. Rubens treated landscape in a broad comprehensive manner, and +Schelte's way of engraving it was also broad and comprehensive. The +lines are long and often undulating, the cross-hatchings bold and rather +obtrusive, for they often substitute unpleasant reticulations for the +refinement and mystery of nature, but it was a beginning, and a vigorous +beginning. The technical developments of engraving under the influence +of Rubens may be summed up briefly as follows: (1) The Italian outline +had been discarded as the chief subject of attention, and modelling had +been substituted for it; (2) broad masses had been substituted for the +minutely finished detail of the northern schools; (3) a system of light +and dark had been adopted which was not pictorial, but belonged +especially to engraving, which it rendered (in the opinion of Rubens) +more harmonious. + +The history of line-engraving, from the time of Rubens to the beginning +of the 19th century, is rather that of the vigorous and energetic +application of principles already accepted than any new development. +From the two sources already indicated, the school of Raphael and the +school of Rubens, a double tradition flowed to England and France, where +it mingled and directed English and French practice. The first influence +on English line-engraving was Flemish, and came from Rubens through +Vandyck, Vorsterman, and others; but the English engravers soon +underwent French and Italian influences, for although Payne learned from +a Fleming, Faithorne studied in France under Philippe de Champagne the +painter and Robert Nanteuil the engraver. Sir Robert Strange studied in +France under Philippe Lebas, and then five years in Italy, where he +saturated his mind with Italian art. French engravers came to England as +they went to Italy, so that the art of engraving became in the 18th +century cosmopolitan. In figure-engraving the outline was less and less +insisted upon. Strange made it his study to soften and lose the outline. +Meanwhile, the great classical Renaissance school, with Gérard Audran at +its head, had carried forward the art of modelling with the burin, and +had arrived at great perfection of a sober and dignified kind. Audran +was very productive in the latter half of the 17th century, and died in +1703, after a life of severe self-direction in labour, the best external +influence he underwent being that of the painter Nicolas Poussin. He +made his work more rapid by the use of etching, but kept it entirely +subordinate to the work of the burin. One of the finest of his large +plates is "St John Baptizing," from Poussin, with groups of dignified +figures in the foreground and a background of grand classical landscape, +all executed with the most thorough knowledge according to the ideas of +that time. The influence of Claude Lorrain on the engraving of landscape +was exercised less through his etchings than his pictures, which +compelled the engravers to study delicate distinctions in the values of +light and dark. Through Woollett and Vivarès, Claude exercised an +influence on landscape engraving almost equal to that of Raphael and +Rubens on the engraving of the figure, though he did not direct his +engravers personally. + +In the 19th century line-engraving received first an impulse and finally +a check. The impulse came from the growth of public wealth, the +increasing interest in art and the increase in the commerce of art, +which, by means of engraving, fostered in England mainly by John +Boydell, penetrated into the homes of the middle classes, as well as +from the growing demand for illustrated books, which gave employment to +engravers of first-rate ability. The check to line-engraving came from +the desire for cheaper and more rapid methods, a desire satisfied in +various ways, but especially by etching and by the various kinds of +photography. Nevertheless, the 19th century produced most highly +accomplished work in line-engraving, both in the figure and in +landscape. Its characteristics, in comparison with the work of other +centuries, were chiefly a more thorough and delicate rendering of local +colour, light and shade, and texture. The elder engravers could draw as +correctly as the moderns, but they either neglected these elements or +admitted them sparingly, as opposed to the spirit of their art. In a +modern engraving from Landseer may be seen the blackness of a man's +boots (local colour), the soft roughness of his coat (texture), and the +exact value in light and dark of his face and costume against the cloudy +sky. Nay more, there is to be found every sparkle on bit, boot and +stirrup. Modern painting pays more attention to texture and chiaroscuro +than classical painting did, and engraving necessarily followed in the +same directions. But there is a certain sameness in pure line-engraving +more favourable to some forms and textures than to others. This sameness +of line-engraving, and its costliness, led to the adoption of mixed +methods, extremely prevalent in commercial prints from popular artists. +In the well-known prints from Rosa Bonheur, for example, by T. Landseer, +H. T. Ryall, and C. G. Lewis, the tone of the skies is got by +machine-ruling, and so is much undertone in the landscape; the fur of +the animals is all etched, and so are the foreground plants, the real +burin work being used sparingly where most favourable to texture. Even +in the exquisite engravings after Turner, by Cooke, Goodall, Wallis, +Miller, Willmore, and others, who reached a degree of delicacy in light +and shade far surpassing the work of the old masters, the engravers had +recourse to etching, finishing with the burin and dry point. Turner's +name may be added to those of Raphael, Rubens and Claude in the list of +painters who have had a special influence upon engraving. The speciality +of Turner's influence was in the direction of delicacy of tone. In this +respect the Turner vignettes to Roger's poems were a high-water mark of +human attainment, not likely ever to be surpassed. + +The record of the art of line-engraving during the last quarter of the +19th century is one of continued decay. Technical improvements, it was +hoped, might save the art; it was thought by some that the slight revival +resultant on the turning back of the burin's cutting-point--whereby the +operator pulled the tool towards him instead of pushing it from +him--might effect much, in virtue of the time and labour saved by the +device. But by the beginning of the 20th century pictorial line-engraving +in England was practically non-existent, and, with the passing of Jeens +and Stacpoole, the spasmodic demand by publishers for engravers to +engrave new plates remained unanswered. Mr C. W. Sherborn, the exquisite +and facile designer and engraver of book-plates, has scarcely been +surpassed in his own line, but his art is mainly heraldic. There are now +no men capable of such work as that with which Doo, J. H. Robinson, and +their fellows maintained the credit of the English School. Line-engraving +has been killed by etching, mezzotint and the "mixed method." The +disappearance of the art is due not so much to the artistic objection +that the personality of the line-engraver stands obtrusively between the +painter and the public; it is rather that the public refuse to wait for +several years for the proofs for which they have subscribed, when by +another method they can obtain their plates more quickly. An important +line plate may occupy a prodigious time in the engraving; J. H. +Robinson's "Napoleon and the Pope" took about twelve years. The invention +of steel-facing a copper plate would now enable the engraver to proceed +more expeditiously; but even in this case he can no more compete with the +etcher than the mezzotint-engraver can keep pace with the photogravure +manufacturer. + +The Art Union of London in the past gave what encouragement it could; +but with the death of J. Stephenson (1886) and F. Bacon (1887) it was +evident that all hope was gone. John Saddler at the end was driven, in +spite of his capacity to do original work, to spend most of his time in +assisting Thomas Landseer to rule the skies on his plates, simply +because there was not enough line-engraving to do. Since then there was +some promise of a revival, and Mr Bourne engraved a few of the pictures +by Gustave Doré. But little followed. The last of the line-engravers of +Turner's pictures died in the person of Sir Daniel Wilson (d. 1892), +who, recognizing the hopelessness of his early profession, laid his +graver aside, and left Europe for Canada and eventually became president +of the university of Toronto. + +If line-engraving still flourishes in France, it is due not a little to +official encouragement and to intelligent fostering by collectors and +connoisseurs. The prizes offered by the École des Beaux Arts would +probably not suffice to give vitality to the art but for the employment +afforded to the finished artist by the "Chalcographie du Musée du +Louvre," in the name of which commissions are judiciously distributed. +At the same time, it must be recognized that not only are French +engravers less busy than they were in days when line-engraving was the +only "important" method of picture-translation, but they work for the +most part for much smaller rewards. Moreover, the class of the work has +entirely changed, partly through the reduction of prices paid for it, +partly through the change of taste and fashion, and partly, again, +through the necessities of the situation. That is to say, that public +impatience is but a partial factor in the abandonment of the fine broad +sweeping trough cut deep into the copper which was characteristic of the +earlier engraving, either simply cut or crossed diagonally so as to form +the series of "lozenges" typical of engraving at its finest and grandest +period. That method was slow; but scarcely less slow was the shallower +work rendered possible by the steel plate by reason of the much greater +degree of elaboration of which such plates were capable, and which the +public was taught--mainly by Finden--to expect. The French engravers +were therefore driven at last to simplify their work if they were to +satisfy the public and live by the burin. To compensate for loss of +colour, the art developed in the direction of elegance and refinement. +Gaillard (d. 1887), Blanchard, and Alphonse François (d. 1888) were +perhaps the earliest chiefs of the new school, the characteristics of +which are the substitution of exquisite greys for the rich blacks of +old, simplicity of method being often allied to extremely high +elaboration. Yet the aim of the modern engraver has always been, while +pushing the capability of his own art to the farthermost limit, to +retain throughout the individual and personal qualities of the master +whose work is translated on the plate. The height of perfection to which +the art is reached is seen in the triptych of Mantegna by Achille +Jacquet (d. 1909), to whom may perhaps be accorded the first place among +several engravers of the front rank. This "Passion" (from the three +pictures in the Louvre and at Tours, forming the predella of the San +Zeno altarpiece in Verona) not only conveys the forms, sentiment, and +colour of the master, but succeeds also in rendering the peculiar +luminosity of the originals. Jacquet, who gained the _Prix de Rome_ in +1870, also translated pictures of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and engraved fine +plates after Paul Dubois, Cabanel, Bouguereau, Meissonier and Detaille. +The freedom of much of his work suggests an affinity with etching and +dry-point; indeed, it appears that he uses the etching-needle and acid +to lay in some of his groundwork and outlines. Léopold Flameng's +engraving after Jan van Eyck's "Virgin with the Donor," in the Louvre, +is one of the most admirable works of its kind, retaining the quality +and sentiment of the master, extreme minuteness and elaboration +notwithstanding. Jules Jacquet is known for his work after Meissonier +(especially the "Friedland") and after Bonnat; Adrien Didier for his +plates after Holbein ("Anne of Cleves"), Raphael, and Paul Veronese, +among the Old Masters, and Bonnat, Bouguereau, and Roybet among the new. +Jazinski (Botticelli's "Primavera"), Sulpis (Mantegna and Gustave +Moreau), Patricot (Gustave Moreau), Burney, and Champollion (d. 1901), +have been among the leaders of the modern school. Their object is to +secure the faithful transcript of the painter they reproduce, while +readily sacrificing the power of the old method, which, whatever its +force and its beauty, was easily acquired by mediocre artists of +technical ability who were nevertheless unable to appreciate or +reproduce anything beyond mechanical excellence. + +The Belgian School of engraving is not without vitality. Gustave Biot +was equally skilful in portraiture and subject (engraving after Gallait, +Cabanel, Gustave Doré, among his best work); A. M. Danse executed plates +after leading painters, and elaborated an effective "mixed method" of +graver-work and dry-point; and de Meerman has engraved a number of good +plates; but private patronage is hardly sufficient in Belgium to +maintain the school in a state of prosperous efficiency. + +In Germany, as might be expected, line-engraving retains not a little of +its popularity in its more orthodox form. The novel Stauffer-Bern +method, in which freedom and lightness are obtained with such delicacy +that the fine lines, employed in great numbers, run into tone, and yield +a supposed advantage in modelling, has not been without appreciation. +But the more usual virtue of the graver has been best supported, and +many have worked in the old-fashioned manner. Friedrich Zimmermann (d. +1887) began his career by engraving such prints as Guido Reni's "Ecce +Homo" in Dresden, and then devoted himself to the translation of modern +German painters. Rudolph Pfnor was an ornamentist representative of his +class; and Joseph Kohlschein, of Düsseldorf, a typical exponent of the +intelligent conservative manner. His "Marriage at Cana" after Paul +Veronese, "The Sistine Madonna" after Raphael, and "St Cecilia" after +the same master, are all plates of a high order. + +In Italy the art is well-nigh as moribund as in England. When Vittorio +Pica (of Naples) and Conconi (of Milan) have been named, it is difficult +to mention other successors to the fine school of the 19th century which +followed Piranesi and Volpato. A few of the pupils of Rosaspina and +Paolo Toschi lived into the last quarter of the century, but to the +present generation Asiolo, Jesi, C. Raimondi, L. Bigola, and Antonio +Isac are remembered rather for their efforts than for their success in +supporting their art against the combined opposition of etching, +"process" and public indifference. + +Outside Europe line-engraving can no longer be said to exist. Here and +there a spasmodic attempt may be made to appeal to the artistic +appreciation of a limited public; but no general attention is paid to +such efforts, nor, it may be added, are these inherently worthy of much +notice. There are still a few who can engrave a head from a photograph +or drawing, or a small engraving for book-illustration or for +book-plates; there are more who are highly proficient in mechanical +engraving for decorative purposes; but the engraving-machine is fast +superseding this class. In short, the art of worthily translating a fine +painting beyond the borders of France, Belgium, Germany and perhaps +Italy can scarcely be said to survive, and even in those countries it +appears to exist on sufferance and by hot-house encouragement. + + AUTHORITIES.--P. G. Hamerton, _Drawing and Engraving_ (Edinburgh, + 1892); H. W. Singer and W. Strang, _Etching, Engraving, and other + methods of Printing Pictures_ (London, 1897); A. de Lostalot, _Les + Procédés de la gravure_ (Paris, 1882); Le Comte Henri Delaborde, La + Gravure (Paris, English trans., with a chapter on English engraving + methods, by William Walker, London, 1886); H. W. Singer, _Geschichte + des Kupferstichs_ (Magdeburg and Leipzig, 1895), and _Der Kupferstich_ + (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1904); Alex. Waldow, _Illustrirte Encyklopädie + der Graphischen Künste_ (Leipzig, 1881-1884); Lippmann, _Engraving and + Engraving_, translated by Martin Hardie (London, 1906); and for those + who desire books of gossip on the subject, Arthur Hayden, _Chats on + Old Prints_ (London, 1906), and Malcolm C. Salaman, _The Old Engravers + of England_ (London, 1906). (P. G. H.; M. H. S.) + + + + +LINEN and LINEN MANUFACTURES. Under the name of linen are comprehended +all yarns spun and fabrics woven from flax fibre (see FLAX). + +From the earliest periods of human history till almost the close of the +18th century the linen manufacture was one of the most extensive and +widely disseminated of the domestic industries of European countries. +The industry was most largely developed in Russia, Austria, Germany, +Holland, Belgium, the northern provinces of France, and certain parts of +England, in the north of Ireland, and throughout Scotland; and in these +countries its importance was generally recognized by the enactment of +special laws, having for their object the protection and extension of +the trade. The inventions of Arkwright, Hargreaves and Crompton in the +later part of the 18th century, benefiting almost exclusively the art of +cotton-spinning, and the unparalleled development of that branch of +textile manufactures, largely due to the ingenuity of these inventors, +gave the linen trade as it then existed a fatal blow. Domestic spinning, +and with it hand-loom weaving, immediately began to shrink; the trade +which had supported whole villages and provinces entirely disappeared, +and the linen manufacture, in attenuated dimensions and changed +conditions, took refuge in special localities, where it resisted, not +unsuccessfully, the further assaults of cotton, and, with varying +fortunes, rearranged its relations in the community of textile +industries. The linen industries of the United Kingdom were the first to +suffer from the aggression of cotton; more slowly the influence of the +rival textile reached other countries. + +In 1810 Napoleon I. offered a reward of one million francs to any +inventor who should devise the best machinery for the spinning of flax +yarn. Within a few weeks thereafter Philippe de Girard patented in +France important inventions for flax spinning by both dry and wet +methods. His inventions, however, did not receive the promised reward +and were neglected in his native country. In 1815 he was invited by the +Austrian government to establish a spinning mill at Hirtenberg near +Vienna, which was run with his machinery for a number of years, but it +failed to prove a commercial success. In the meantime English inventors +had applied themselves to the task of adapting machines to the +preparation and spinning of flax. The foundation of machine spinning of +flax was laid by John Kendrew and Thomas Porthouse of Darlington, who, +in 1787, secured a patent for "a mill or machine upon new principles for +spinning yarn from hemp, tow, flax or wool." By innumerable successive +improvements and modifications, the invention of Kendrew and Porthouse +developed into the perfect system of machinery with which, at the +present day, spinning-mills are furnished; but progress in adapting flax +fibres for mechanical spinning, and linen yarn for weaving cloth by +power-loom was much slower than in the corresponding case of cotton. + +Till comparatively recent times, the sole spinning implements were the +spindle and distaff. The spindle, which is the fundamental apparatus in +all spinning machinery, was a round stick or rod of wood about 12 in. in +length, tapering towards each extremity, and having at its upper end a +notch or slit into which the yarn might be caught or fixed. In general, +a ring or "whorl" of stone or clay was passed round the upper part of +the spindle to give it momentum and steadiness when in rotation, while +in some few cases an ordinary potato served the purpose of a whorl. The +distaff, or rock, was a rather longer and stronger bar or stick, around +one end of which, in a loose coil or ball, the fibrous material to be +spun was wound. The other extremity of the distaff was carried under the +left arm, or fixed in the girdle at the left side, so as to have the +coil of flax in a convenient position for drawing out to form the yarn. +A prepared end of yarn being fixed into the notch, the spinster, by a +smart rolling motion of the spindle with the right hand against the +right leg, threw it out from her, spinning in the air, while, with the +left hand, she drew from the rock an additional supply of fibre which +was formed into a uniform and equal strand with the right. The yarn +being sufficiently twisted was released from the notch, wound around the +lower part of the spindle, and again fixed in the notch at the point +insufficiently twisted; and so the rotating, twisting and drawing out +operations went on till the spindle was full. So persistent is an +ancient and primitive art of this description that in remote districts +of Scotland--a country where machine spinning has attained a high +standard--spinning with rock and spindle is still practised;[1] and yarn +of extraordinary delicacy, beauty and tenacity has been spun by their +agency. The first improvement on the primitive spindle was found in the +construction of the hand-wheel, in which the spindle, mounted in a +frame, was fixed horizontally, and rotated by a band passing round it +and a large wheel, set in the same framework. Such a wheel became known +in Europe about the middle of the 16th century, but it appears to have +been in use for cotton spinning in the East from time immemorial. At a +later date, which cannot be fixed, the treadle motion was attached to +the spinning wheel, enabling the spinster to sit at work with both hands +free; and the introduction of the two-handed or double-spindle wheel, +with flyers or twisting arms on the spindles, completed the series of +mechanical improvements effected on flax spinning till the end of the +18th century. The common use of the two-handed wheel throughout the +rural districts of Ireland and Scotland is a matter still within the +recollection of some people; but spinning wheels are now seldom seen. + +The modern manufacture of linen divides itself into two branches, +spinning and weaving, to which may be added the bleaching and various +finishing processes, which, in the case of many linen textures, are +laborious undertakings and important branches of industry. The flax +fibre is received in bundles from the scutch mill, and after having been +classed into various grades, according to the quality of the material, +it is labelled and placed in the store ready for the flax mill. The +whole operations in yarn manufacture comprise (1) hackling, (2) +preparing and (3) spinning. + + _Hackling._--This first preparatory process consists not only in + combing out, disentangling and laying smooth and parallel the separate + fibres, but also serves to split up and separate into their ultimate + filaments the strands of fibre which, up to this point, have been + agglutinated together. The hackling process was originally performed + by hand, and it was one of fundamental importance, requiring the + exercise of much dexterity and judgment. The broken, ravelled and + short fibres, which separate out in the hackling process, form tow, an + article of much inferior value to the spinner. A good deal of + hand-hackling is still practised, especially in Irish and continental + mills; and it has not been found practicable, in any case, to dispense + entirely with a rough preparation of the fibre by hand labour. In + hackling by hand, the hackler takes a handful or "strick" of rough + flax, winds the top end around his hands, and then, spreading out the + root end as broad and flat as possible, by a swinging motion dashes + the fibre into the hackle teeth or needles of the rougher or "ruffer." + The rougher is a board plated with tin, and studded with spikes or + teeth of steel about 7 in. in length, which taper to a fine sharp + point. The hackler draws his strick several times through this tool, + working gradually up from the roots to near his hand, till in his + judgment the fibres at the root end are sufficiently combed out and + smoothed. He then seizes the root end and similarly treats the top end + of the strick. The same process is again repeated on a similar tool, + the teeth of which are 5 in. long, and much more closely studded + together; and for the finer counts of yarn a third and a fourth hackle + may be used, of still increasing fineness and closeness of teeth. In + dealing with certain varieties of the fibre, for fine spinning + especially, the flax is, after roughing, broken or cut into three + lengths--the top, middle and root ends. Of these the middle cut is + most valuable, being uniform in length, strength and quality. The root + end is more woody and harsh, while the top, though fine in quality, is + uneven and variable in strength. From some flax of extra length it is + possible to take two short middle cuts; and, again, the fibre is + occasionally only broken into two cuts. Flax so prepared is known as + "cut line" in contradistinction to "long line" flax, which is the + fibre unbroken. The subsequent treatment of line, whether long or cut, + does not present sufficient variation to require further reference to + these distinctions. + + In the case of hackling by machinery, the flax is first roughed and + arranged in stricks, as above described under hand hackling. In the + construction of hackling machines, the general principles of those now + most commonly adopted are identical. The machines are known as + vertical sheet hackling machines, their essential features being a set + of endless leather bands or sheets revolving over a pair of rollers in + a vertical direction. These sheets are crossed by iron bars, to which + hackle stocks, furnished with teeth, are screwed. The hackle stocks on + each separate sheet are of one size and gauge, but each successive + sheet in the length of the machine is furnished with stocks of + increasing fineness, so that the hackling tool at the end where the + flax is entered is the coarsest, say about four pins per inch, while + that to which the fibre is last submitted has the smallest and most + closely set teeth. The finest tools may contain from 45 to 60 pins per + inch. Thus the whole of the endless vertical revolving sheet presents + a continuous series of hackle teeth, and the machines are furnished + with a double set of such sheets revolving face to face, so close + together that the pins of one set of sheets intersect those on the + opposite stocks. Overhead, and exactly centred between these revolving + sheets, is the head or holder channel, from which the flax hangs down + while it is undergoing the hackling process on both sides. The flax is + fastened in a holder consisting of two heavy flat plates of iron, + between which it is spread and tightly screwed up. The holder is 11 + in. in length, and the holder channel is fitted to contain a line of + six, eight or twelve such holders, according to the number of separate + bands of hackling stocks in the machine. The head or holder channel + has a falling and rising motion, by which it first presents the ends + and gradually more and more of the length of the fibre to the hackle + teeth, and, after dipping down the full length of the fibre exposed, + it slowly rises and lifts the flax clear of the hackle stocks. By a + reciprocal motion all the holders are then moved forward one length; + that at the last and finest set of stocks is thrown out, and place is + made for filling in an additional holder at the beginning of the + series. Thus with a six-tool hackle, or set of stocks, each holder + full of flax from beginning to end descends into and rises from the + hackle teeth six times in travelling from end to end of the machine. + The root ends being thus first hackled, the holders are shot back + along an inclined plane, the iron plates unclamped, the flax reversed, + and the top ends are then submitted to the same hackling operation. + The tow made during the hackling process is carried down by the pins + of the sheet, and is stripped from them by means of a circular brush + placed immediately under the bottom roller. The brush revolves in the + same direction as, but quicker than the sheet, consequently the tow is + withdrawn from the pins. The tow is then removed from the brush by a + doffer roller, from which it is finally removed by a doffing knife. + This material is then carded by a machine similar to, but finer than, + the one described under Jute (q.v.). The hackled flax, however, is + taken direct to the preparing department. + + _Preparing._--The various operations in this stage have for their + object the proper assortment of dressed line into qualities fit for + spinning, and the drawing out of the fibres to a perfectly level and + uniform continuous ribbon or sliver, containing throughout an equal + quantity of fibre in any given length. From the hackling the now + smooth, glossy and clean stricks are taken to the sorting room, where + they are assorted into different qualities by the "line sorter," who + judges by both eye and touch the quality and capabilities of the + fibre. So sorted, the material is passed to the spreading and drawing + frames, a series or system of machines all similar in construction and + effect. The essential features of the spreading frame are: (1) the + feeding cloth or creeping sheet, which delivers the flax to (2) a pair + of "feed and jockey" rollers, which pass it on (3) to the gill frame + or fallers. The gill frame consists of a series of narrow hackle bars, + with short closely studded teeth, which travel between the feed + rollers and the drawing or "boss and pressing" rollers to be + immediately attended to. They are, by an endless screw arrangement, + carried forward at approximately the same rate at which the flax is + delivered to them, and when they reach the end of their course they + fall under, and by a similar screw arrangement are brought back to the + starting-point; and thus they form an endless moving level toothed + platform for carrying away the flax from the feed rollers. This is the + machine in which the fibres are, for the first time, formed into a + continuous length termed a sliver. In order to form this continuous + sliver it is necessary that the short lengths of flax should overlap + each other on the spread sheet or creeping sheet. This sheet contains + four or six divisions, so that four or six lots of overlapped flax are + moving at the same time towards the first pair of rollers--the boss + rollers or retaining rollers. The fibre passes between these rollers + and is immediately caught by the rising gills which carry the fibre + towards the drawing rollers. The pins of the gills should pass through + the fibre so that they may have complete control over it, while their + speed should be a little greater than the surface speed of the + retaining rollers. The fibre is thus carried forward to the drawing + rollers, which have a surface speed of from 10 to 30 times that of the + retaining rollers. The great difference between the speeds of the + retaining and drawing rollers results in each sliver being drawn out + to a corresponding degree. Finally all the slivers are run into one + and in this state are passed between the delivery rollers into the + sliver cans. Each can should contain the same length of sliver, a + common length being 1000 yds. A bell is automatically rung by the + machine to warn the attendant that the desired length has been + deposited into the can. From the spreading frame the cans of sliver + pass to the drawing frames, where from four to twelve slivers combined + are passed through feed rollers over gills, and drawn out by drawing + rollers to the thickness of one. A third and fourth similar doubling + and drawing may be embraced in a preparing system, so that the number + of doublings the flax undergoes, before it arrives at the roving + frame, may amount to from one thousand to one hundred thousand, + according to the quality of yarn in progress. Thus, for example, the + doublings on one preparing system may be 6 × 12 × 12 × 12 × 8 = + 82,944. The slivers delivered by the last drawing frame are taken to + the roving frame, where they are singly passed through feed rollers + and over gills, and, after drafting to sufficient tenuity, they are + slightly twisted by flyers and wound on bobbins, in which condition + the material--termed "rove" or "rovings"--is ready for the spinning + frame.[2] + + _Spinning._--The spinning operation, which follows the roving, is done + in two principal ways, called respectively dry spinning and wet + spinning, the first being used for the lower counts or heavier yarns, + while the second is exclusively adopted in the preparation of fine + yarns. The spinning frame does not differ in principle from the + throstle spinning machine used in cotton manufacture. The bobbins of + flax rove are arranged in rows on each side of the frame (the spinning + frames being all double) on pins in an inclined plane. The rove + passes downwards through an eyelet or guide to a pair of nipping + rollers between which and the final drawing rollers, placed in the + case of dry spinning from 18 to 22 in. lower down, the fibre receives + its final draft while passing over and under cylinders and + guide-plate, and attains that degree of tenuity which the finished + yarn must possess. From the last rollers the now attenuated material, + in passing to the flyers receives the degree of twist which compacts + the fibres into the round hard cord which constitutes spun yarn; and + from the flyers it is wound on the more slowly rotating spool within + the flyer arms, centred on the top of the spindle. The amount of twist + given to the thread at the spinning frame varies from 1.5 to 2 times + the square root of the count. In wet spinning the general sequence of + operations is the same, but the rove, as unwound from its bobbin, + first passes through a trough of water heated to about 120° Fahr.; and + the interval between the two pairs of rollers in which the drawing out + of the rove is accomplished is very much shorter. The influence of the + hot water on the flax fibre appears to be that it softens the gummy + substance which binds the separate cells together, and thereby allows + the elementary cells to a certain extent to be drawn out without + breaking the continuity of the fibre; and further it makes a finer, + smoother and more uniform strand than can be obtained by dry spinning. + The extent to which the original strick of flax as laid on the feeding + roller for (say) the production of a 50 lea yarn is, by doublings and + drawings, extended, when it reaches the spinning spindle, may be + stated thus: 35 times on spreading frame, 15 times on first drawing + frame, 15 times on second drawing frame, 14 times on third drawing + frame, 15 times on roving frame and 10 times on spinning frame, in all + 16,537,500 times its original length, with 8 × 12 × 16 = 1536 + doublings on the three drawing frames. That is to say, 1 yd. of + hackled line fed into the spreading frame is spread out, mixed with + other fibres, to a length of about 9400 m. of yarn, when the above + drafts obtain. The drafts are much shorter for the majority of yarns. + + The next operation is reeling from the bobbins into hanks. By act of + parliament, throughout the United Kingdom the standard measure of flax + yard is the "lea," called also in Scotland the "cut" of 300 yds. The + flax is wound or reeled on a reel having a circumference of 90 in. (2½ + yds.) making "a thread," and one hundred and twenty such threads form + a lea. The grist or count of all fine yarns is estimated by the number + of leas in 1 lb.; thus "50 lea" indicates that there are 50 leas or + cuts of 300 yds. each in 1 lb. of the yard so denominated. With the + heavier yarns in Scotland the quality is indicated by their weight per + "spyndle" of 48 cuts or leas; thus "3 lb. tow yarn" is such as weighs + 3 lb. per spyndle, equivalent to "16 lea." + + The hanks of yarn from wet spinning are either dried in a loft with + artificial heat or exposed over ropes in the open air. When dry they + are twisted back and forward to take the wiry feeling out of the yarn, + and made up in bundles for the market as "grey yarn." English spinners + make up their yarns into "bundles" of 20 hanks, each hank containing + 10 leas; Irish spinners make hanks of 12 leas, 16(2/3) of which form a + bundle; Scottish manufacturers adhere to the spyndle containing 4 + hanks of 12 cuts or leas. + + Commercial qualities of yarn range from about 8 lb. tow yarns (6 lea) + up to 160 lea line yarn. Very much finer yarn up even to 400 lea may + be spun from the system of machines found in many mills; but these + higher counts are only used for fine thread for sewing and for the + making of lace. The highest counts of cut line flax are spun in Irish + mills for the manufacture of fine cambrics and lawns which are + characteristic features of the Ulster trade. Exceedingly high counts + have sometimes been spun by hand, and for the preparation of the + finest lace threads it is said the Belgian hand spinners must work in + damp cellars, where the spinner is guided by the sense of touch alone, + the filament being too fine to be seen by the eye. Such lace yarn is + said to have been sold for as much as £240 per lb. In the Great + Exhibition of 1851, yarn of 760 lea, equal to about 130 m. per lb., + was shown which had been spun by an Irish woman eighty-four years of + age. In the same exhibition there was shown by a Cambray manufacturing + firm hand-spun yarn equal to 1200 warp and 1600 weft or to more than + 204 and 272 m. per lb. respectively. + +_Bleaching._--A large proportion of the linen yarn of commerce undergoes +a more or less thorough bleaching before it is handed over to the +weaver. Linen yarns in the green condition contain such a large +proportion of gummy and resinous matter, removable by bleaching, that +cloths which might present a firm close texture in their natural +unbleached state would become thin and impoverished in a perfectly +bleached condition. Nevertheless, in many cases it is much more +satisfactory to weave the yarns in the green or natural colour, and to +perform all bleaching operations in the piece. Manufacturers allow about +20 to 25% of loss in weight of yarn in bleaching from the green to the +fully bleached stage; and the intermediate stages of boiled, improved, +duck, cream, half bleach and three-quarters bleach, all indicating a +certain degree of bleaching, have corresponding degrees of loss in +weight. The differences in colour resulting from different degrees of +bleaching are taken advantage of for producing patterns in certain +classes of linen fabrics. + +Linen thread is prepared from the various counts of fine bleached line +yarn by winding the hanks on large spools, and twisting the various +strands, two, three, four or six cord as the case may be, on a doubling +spindle similar in principle to the yarn spinning frame, excepting, of +course, the drawing rollers. A large trade in linen thread has been +created by its use in the machine manufacture of boots and shoes, +saddlery and other leather goods, and in heavy sewing-machine work +generally. The thread industry is largely developed at Lisburn near +Belfast, at Johnstone near Glasgow, Bridport, Dorsetshire, and at +Paterson, New Jersey, United States. Fine cords, net twine and ropes are +also twisted from flax. + +Weaving.--The difficulties in the way of power-loom linen weaving, +combined with the obstinate competition of hand-loom weavers, delayed +the introduction of factory weaving of linen fabrics for many years +after the system was fully applied to other textiles. The principal +difficulty arose through the hardness and inelasticity of the linen +yarns, owing to which the yarn frequently broke under the tension to +which it was subjected. Competition with the hand-loom against the +power-loom in certain classes of work is conceivable, although it is +absolutely impossible for the work of the spinning wheel to stand +against the rivalry of drawing, roving and spinning frames. To the +present day, in Ireland especially, a great deal of fine weaving is done +by hand-loom. Warden states that power was applied on a small scale to +the weaving of canvas in London about 1812; that in 1821 power-looms +were started for weaving linen at Kirkcaldy, Scotland; and that in 1824 +Maberly & Co. of Aberdeen had two hundred power-looms erected for linen +manufacture. The power-loom has been in uninterrupted use in the +Broadford factory, Aberdeen, which then belonged to Maberly & Co., down +to the present day, and that firm may be credited with being the +effective introducers of power-loom weaving in the linen trade. + +The various operations connected with linen weaving, such as winding, +warping, dressing, beaming and drawing-in, do not differ in essential +features from the like processes in the case of cotton weaving, &c., +neither is there any significant modification in the looms employed (see +WEAVING). Dressing is a matter of importance in the preparation of linen +warps for beaming. It consists in treating the spread yarn with flour or +farina paste, applied to it by flannel-covered rollers, the lowermost of +which revolves in a trough of paste. The paste is equalized on the yarn +by brushes, and dried by passing the web over steam-heated cylinders +before it is finally wound on the beam for weaving. + + + Fabrics. + + Linen fabrics are numerous in variety and widely different in their + qualities, appearance and applications, ranging from heavy sail-cloth + and rough sacking to the most delicate cambrics, lawns and scrims. The + heavier manufactures include as a principal item sail-cloth, with + canvas, tarpaulin, sacking and carpeting. The principal seats of the + manufacture of these linens are Dundee, Arbroath, Forfar, Kirkcaldy, + Aberdeen and Barnsley. The medium weight linens, which are used for a + great variety of purposes, such as tent-making, towelling, covers, + outer garments for men, linings, upholstery work, &c., include duck, + huckaback, crash, tick, dowlas, osnaburg, low sheetings and low brown + linens. Plain bleached linens form a class by themselves, and include + principally the materials for shirts and collars and for bed sheets. + Under the head of twilled linens are included drills, diapers and + dimity for household use; and damasks for table linen, of which two + kinds are distinguished--single or five-leaf damask, and double or + eight-leaf damask, the pattern being formed by the intersection of + warp and weft yarns at intervals of five and eight threads of yarn + respectively. The fine linens are cambrics, lawns and handkerchiefs; + and lastly, printed and dyed linen fabrics may be assigned to a + special though not important class. In a general way it may be said + regarding the British industry that the heavy linen trade centres in + Dundee; medium goods are made in most linen manufacturing districts; + damasks are chiefly produced in Belfast, Dunfermline and Perth; and + the fine linen manufactures have their seat in Belfast and the north + of Ireland. Leeds and Barnsley are the centres of the linen trade in + England. + + Linen fabrics have several advantages over cotton, resulting + principally from the microscopic structure and length of the flax + fibre. The cloth is much smoother and more lustrous than cotton cloth; + and, presenting a less "woolly" surface, it does not soil so readily, + nor absorb and retain moisture so freely, as the more spongy cotton; + and it is at once a cool, clean and healthful material for + bed-sheeting and clothing. Bleached linen, starched and dressed, + possesses that unequalled purity, gloss and smoothness which make it + alone the material suitable for shirt-fronts, collars and wristbands; + and the gossamer delicacy, yet strength, of the thread it may be spun + into fits it for the fine lace-making to which it is devoted. Flax is + a slightly heavier material than cotton, while its strength is about + double. + + As regards the actual number of spindles and power-looms engaged in + linen manufacture, the following particulars are taken from the report + of the Flax Supply Association for 1905:-- + + +------------------+------+----------+------+------------+ + | | | Number of| | Number of | + | Country. | Year.| Spindles | Year.| Power-looms| + | | | for Flax | | for Linen | + | | | Spinning.| | Weaving. | + |------------------+------+----------+------+------------+ + | Austria-Hungary | 1903 | 280,414 | 1895 | 3357 | + | Belgium | 1902 | 280,000 | 1900 | 3400 | + | England and Wales| 1905 | 49,941 | 1905 | 4424 | + | France | 1902 | 455,838 | 1891 | 18,083 | + | Germany | 1902 | 295,796 | 1895 | 7557 | + | Holland | 1896 | 8000 | 1891 | 1200 | + | Ireland | 1905 | 851,388 | 1905 | 34,498 | + | Italy | 1902 | 77,000 | 1902 | 3500 | + | Norway | .. | .. | 1880 | 120 | + | Russia | 1902 | 300,000 | 1889 | 7312 | + | Scotland | 1905 | 160,085 | 1905 | 17,185 | + | Spain | .. | .. | 1876 | 1000 | + | Sweden | .. | .. | 1884 | 286 | + +------------------+------+----------+------+------------+ + + _British Exports of Linen Yarn and Cloth._ + + +---------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | | 1891. | 1896. | 1901. | 1906. | + +---------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | Weight of linen yarn | | | | | + | in pounds | 14,859,900 | 18,462,300 | 12,971,100 | 14,978,200 | + | Length in yards of linen | | | | | + | piece goods, plain, | | | | | + | bleached or unbleached |144,416,700 |150,849,300 |137,521,000 |173,334,200 | + | Length in yards of linen | | | | | + | piece goods, checked, | | | | | + | dyed or printed, also | | | | | + | damask and diaper | 11,807,600 | 17,986,100 | 8,007,600 | 13,372,100 | + | Length in yards of sail- | | | | | + | cloth | 3,233,400 | 5,372,600 | 4,686,700 | 4,251,400 | + | Total length in yards of | | | | | + | all kinds of linen cloth|159,457,700 |174,208,000 |150,215,300 |190,957,700 | + | Weight in pounds of linen | | | | | + | thread for sewing | 2,474,100 | 2,240,300 | 1,721,000 | 2,181,100 | + +---------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + + AUTHORITIES.--History of the trade, &c.: Warden's _Linen Trade, + Ancient and Modern_. Spinning: Peter Sharp, _Flax, Tow and Jute + Spinning_ (Dundee); H. R. Carter, _Spinning and Twisting of Long + Vegetable Fibres_ (London). Weaving: Woodhouse and Milne, _Jute and + Linen Weaving_, part i., Mechanism, part ii., Calculations and Cloth + Structure (Manchester); and Woodhouse and Milne, _Textile Design: Pure + and Applied_ (London). (T. Wo.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Sir Arthur Mitchell's _The Past in the Present_ (Edinburgh, + 1880). + + [2] The preparation of tow for spinning differs in essential features + from the processes above described. Tow from different sources, such + as scutching tow, hackle tow, &c. differs considerably in quality and + value, some being very impure, filled with woody shives &c., while + other kinds are comparatively open and clean. A preliminary opening + and cleaning is necessary for the dirty much-matted tows, and in + general thereafter they are passed through two carding engines called + respectively the breaker and the finisher cards till the slivers from + their processes are ready for the drawing and roving frames. In the + case of fine clean tows, on the other hand, passing through a single + carding engine may be sufficient. The processes which follow the + carding do not differ materially from those followed in the + preparation of rove from line flax. + + + + +LINEN-PRESS, a contrivance, usually of oak, for pressing sheets, +table-napkins and other linen articles, resembling a modern office +copying-press. Linen presses were made chiefly in the 17th and 18th +centuries, and are now chiefly interesting as curiosities of antique +furniture. Usually quite plain, they were occasionally carved with +characteristic Jacobean designs. + + + + +LINER, or LINE OF BATTLE SHIP, the name formerly given to a vessel +considered large enough to take part in a naval battle. The practice of +distinguishing between vessels fit, and those not fit, to "lie in a line +of battle," arose towards the end of the 17th century. In the early 18th +century all vessels of 50 guns and upwards were considered fit to lie in +a line. After the Seven Years' War (1756-63) the 50-gun ships were +rejected as too small. When the great revolutionary wars broke out the +smallest line of battle ship was of 64 guns. These also came to be +considered as too small, and later the line of battle-ships began with +those of 74 guns. The term is now replaced by "battleship"; "liner" +being the colloquial name given to the great passenger ships used on the +main lines of sea transport. + + + + +LING, PER HENRIK (1776-1839), Swedish medical-gymnastic practitioner, +son of a minister, was born at Ljunga in the south of Sweden in 1776. He +studied divinity, and took his degree in 1797, but then went abroad for +some years, first to Copenhagen, where he taught modern languages, and +then to Germany, France and England. Pecuniary straits injured his +health, and he suffered much from rheumatism, but he had acquired +meanwhile considerable proficiency in gymnastics and fencing. In 1804 he +returned to Sweden, and established himself as a teacher in these arts +at Lund, being appointed in 1805 fencing-master to the university. He +found that his daily exercises had completely restored his bodily +health, and his thoughts now turned towards applying this experience for +the benefit of others. He attended the classes on anatomy and +physiology, and went through the entire curriculum for the training of a +doctor; he then elaborated a system of gymnastics, divided into four +branches, (1) pedagogical, (2) medical, (3) military, (4) aesthetic, +which carried out his theories. After several attempts to interest the +Swedish government, Ling at last in 1813 obtained their co-operation, +and the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute, for the training of gymnastic +instructors, was opened in Stockholm, with himself as principal. The +orthodox medical practitioners were naturally opposed to the larger +claims made by Ling and his pupils respecting the cure of diseases--so +far at least as anything more than the occasional benefit of some form +of skilfully applied "massage" was concerned; but the fact that in 1831 +Ling was elected a member of the Swedish General Medical Association +shows that in his own country at all events his methods were regarded as +consistent with professional recognition. Ling died in 1839, having +previously named as the repositories of his teaching his pupils Lars +Gabriel Branting (1799-1881), who succeeded him as principal of the +Institute, and Karl Augustus Georgii, who became sub-director; his son, +Hjalmar Ling (1820-1886), being for many years associated with them. All +these, together with Major Thure Brandt, who from about 1861 specialized +in the treatment of women (gynecological gymnastics), are regarded as +the pioneers of Swedish medical gymnastics. + +It may be convenient to summarize here the later history of Ling's +system of medical gymnastics. A _Gymnastic Orthopaedic Institute_ at +Stockholm was founded in 1822 by Dr Nils Åkerman, and after 1827 +received a government grant; and Dr Gustaf Zander elaborated a +medico-mechanical system of gymnastics, known by his name, about 1857, +and started his Zander Institute at Stockholm in 1865. At the Stockholm +Gymnastic Central Institute qualified medical men have supervised the +medical department since 1864; the course is three years (one year for +qualified doctors). Broadly speaking, there have been two streams of +development in the Swedish gymnastics founded on Ling's +beginnings--either in a conservative direction, making certain forms of +gymnastic exercises subsidiary to the prescriptions of orthodox medical +science, or else in an extremely progressive direction, making these +exercises a substitute for any other treatment, and claiming them as a +cure for disease by themselves. Modern medical science recognizes fully +the importance of properly selected exercises in preserving the body +from many ailments; but the more extreme claim, which rules out the use +of drugs in disease altogether, has naturally not been admitted. Modern +professed disciples of Ling are divided, the representative of the more +extreme section being Henrik Kellgren (b. 1837), who has a special +school and following. + + Ling and his earlier assistants left no proper written account of + their treatment, and most of the literature on the subject is + repudiated by one set or other of the gymnastic practitioners. Dr + Anders Wide, M.D., of Stockholm, has published a _Handbook of Medical + Gymnastics_ (English edition, 1899), representing the more + conservative practice. Henrik Kellgren's system, which, though based + on Ling's, admittedly goes beyond it, is described in _The Elements of + Kellgren's Manual Treatment_ (1903), by Edgar F. Cyriax, who before + taking the M.D. degree at Edinburgh had passed out of the Stockholm + Institute as a "gymnastic director." See also the encyclopaedic work + on _Sweden: its People and Industry_ (1904), p. 348, edited by G. + Sundbärg for the Swedish government. + + + + + +LING[1] (_Molva vulgaris_), a fish of the family Gadidae, which is +readily recognized by its long body, two dorsal fins (of which the +anterior is much shorter than the posterior), single long anal fin, +separate caudal fin, a barbel on the chin and large teeth in the lower +jaw and on the palate. Its usual length is from 3 to 4 ft., but +individuals of 5 or 6 ft. in length, and some 70 lb. in weight, have +been taken. The ling is found in the North Atlantic, from Spitzbergen +and Iceland southwards to the coast of Portugal. Its proper home is the +North Sea, especially on the coasts of Norway, Denmark, Great Britain +and Ireland, it occurs in great abundance, generally at some distance +from the land, in depths varying between 50 and 100 fathoms. During the +winter months it approaches the shores, when great numbers are caught by +means of long lines. On the American side of the Atlantic it is less +common, although generally distributed along the south coast of +Greenland and on the banks of Newfoundland. Ling is one of the most +valuable species of the cod-fish family; a certain number are consumed +fresh, but by far the greater portion are prepared for exportation to +various countries (Germany, Spain, Italy). They are either salted and +sold as "salt-fish," or split from head to tail and dried, forming, with +similarly prepared cod and coal-fish, the article of which during Lent +immense quantities are consumed in Germany and elsewhere under the name +of "stock-fish." The oil is frequently extracted from the liver and used +by the poorer classes of the coast population for the lamp or as +medicine. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] As the name of the fish, "ling" is found in other Teut. + languages; cf. Dutch and Ger. _Leng_, Norw. _langa_, &c. It is + generally connected in origin with "long," from the length of its + body. As the name of the common heather, _Calluna vulgaris_ (see + HEATH) the word is Scandinavian; cf. Dutch and Dan. _lyng_, Swed. + _ljung_. + + + + +LINGARD, JOHN (1771-1851), English historian, was born on the 5th of +February 1771 at Winchester, where his father, of an ancient +Lincolnshire peasant stock, had established himself as a carpenter. The +boy's talents attracted attention, and in 1782 he was sent to the +English college at Douai, where he continued until shortly after the +declaration of war by England (1793). He then lived as tutor in the +family of Lord Stourton, but in October 1794 he settled along with seven +other former members of the old Douai college at Crook Hall near Durham, +where on the completion of his theological course he became +vice-president of the reorganized seminary. In 1795 he was ordained +priest, and soon afterwards undertook the charge of the chairs of +natural and moral philosophy. In 1808 he accompanied the community of +Crook Hall to the new college at Ushaw, Durham, but in 1811, after +declining the presidency of the college at Maynooth, he withdrew to the +secluded mission at Hornby in Lancashire, where for the rest of his life +he devoted himself to literary pursuits. In 1817 he visited Rome, where +he made researches in the Vatican Library. In 1821 Pope Pius VII. +created him doctor of divinity and of canon and civil law; and in 1825 +Leo XII. is said to have made him cardinal _in petto_. He died at Hornby +on the 17th of July 1851. + + Lingard wrote _The Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church_ (1806), of + which a third and greatly enlarged addition appeared in 1845 under the + title _The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church; + containing an account of its origin, government, doctrines, worship, + revenues, and clerical and monastic institutions_; but the work with + which his name is chiefly associated is _A History of England, from + the first invasion by the Romans to the commencement of the reign of + William III._, which appeared originally in 8 vols. at intervals + between 1819 and 1830. Three successive subsequent editions had the + benefit of extensive revision by the author; a fifth edition in 10 + vols. 8vo appeared in 1849, and a sixth, with life of the author by + Tierney prefixed to vol. x., in 1854-1855. Soon after its appearance + it was translated into French, German and Italian. It is a work of + ability and research; and, though Cardinal Wiseman's claim for its + author that he was "the only impartial historian of our country" may + be disregarded, the book remains interesting as representing the view + taken of certain events in English history by a devout, but able and + learned, Roman Catholic in the earlier part of the 19th century. + + + + +LINGAYAT (from _linga_, the emblem of Siva), the name of a peculiar sect +of Siva worshippers in southern India, who call themselves _Vira-Saivas_ +(see HINDUISM). They carry on the person a stone _linga_ (phallus) in a +silver casket. The founder of the sect is said to have been Basava, a +Brahman prime minister of a Jain king in the 12th century. The Lingayats +are specially numerous in the Kanarese country, and to them the Kanarese +language owes its cultivation as literature. Their priests are called +Jangamas. In 1901 the total number of Lingayats in all India was +returned as more than 2½ millions, mostly in Mysore and the adjoining +districts of Bombay, Madras and Hyderabad. + + + + +LINGAYEN, a town and the capital of the province of Pangasinán, Luzon, +Philippine Islands, about 110 m. N. by W. of Manila, on the S. shore of +the Gulf of Lingayen, and on a low and fertile island in the delta of +the Agno river. Pop. (1903) 21,529. It has good government buildings, a +fine church and plaza, the provincial high school and a girls' school +conducted by Spanish Dominican friars. The climate is cool and healthy. +The chief industries are the cultivation of rice (the most important +crop of the surrounding country), fishing and the making of nipa-wine +from the juice of the nipa palm, which grows abundantly in the +neighbouring swamps. The principal language is Pangasinán; Ilocano is +also spoken. + + + + +LINGEN, RALPH ROBERT WHEELER LINGEN, BARON (1819-1905), English civil +servant, was born in February 1819 at Birmingham, where his father, who +came of an old Hertfordshire family, with Royalist traditions, was in +business. He became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1837; won +the Ireland (1838) and Hertford (1839) scholarships; and after taking a +first-class in _Literae Humaniores_ (1840), was elected a fellow of +Balliol (1841). He subsequently won the Chancellor's Latin Essay (1843) +and the Eldon Law scholarship (1846). After taking his degree in 1840, +he became a student of Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in 1847; +but instead of practising as a barrister, he accepted an appointment in +the Education Office, and after a short period was chosen in 1849 to +succeed Sir J. Kay Shuttleworth as its secretary or chief permanent +official. He retained this position till 1869. The Education Office of +that day had to administer a somewhat chaotic system of government +grants to local schools, and Lingen was conspicuous for his fearless +discrimination and rigid economy, qualities which characterized his +whole career. When Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) became, as +vice-president of the council, his parliamentary chief, Lingen worked +congenially with him in producing the Revised Code of 1862 which +incorporated "payment by results"; but the education department +encountered adverse criticism, and in 1864 the vote of censure in +parliament which caused Lowe's resignation, founded (but erroneously) on +an alleged "editing" of the school inspectors' reports, was inspired by +a certain antagonism to Lingen's as well as to Lowe's methods. Shortly +before the introduction of Forster's Education Act of 1870, he was +transferred to the post of permanent secretary of the treasury. In this +office, which he held till 1885, he proved a most efficient guardian of +the public purse, and he was a tower of strength to successive +chancellors of the exchequer. It used to be said that the best +recommendation for a secretary of the treasury was to be able to say +"No" so disagreeably that nobody would court a repetition. Lingen was at +all events a most successful resister of importunate claims, and his +undoubted talents as a financier were most prominently displayed in the +direction of parsimony. In 1885 he retired. He had been made a C.B. in +1869 and a K.C.B. in 1878, and on his retirement he was created Baron +Lingen. In 1889 he was made one of the first aldermen of the new London +County Council, but he resigned in 1892. He died on the 22nd of July +1905. He had married in 1852, but left no issue. + + + + +LINGEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, on the Ems canal, 43 +m. N.N.W. of Münster by rail. Pop. 7500. It has iron foundries, +machinery factories, railway workshops and a considerable trade in +cattle, and among its other industries are weaving and malting and the +manufacture of cloth. Lingen was the seat of a university from 1685 to +1819. + +The county of Lingen, of which this town was the capital, was united in +the middle ages with the county of Treklenburg. In 1508, however, it was +separated from this and was divided into an upper and a lower county, +but the two were united in 1541. A little, later Lingen was sold to the +emperor Charles V., from whom it passed to his son, Philip II. of Spain, +who ceded it in 1507 to Maurice, prince of Orange. After the death of +the English king, William III., in 1702, it passed to Frederick I., king +of Prussia, and in 1815 the lower county was transferred to Hanover, +only to be united again with Prussia in 1866. + + See Möller, _Geschichte der vormaligen Grafschaft Lingen_ (Lingen, + 1874); Herrmann, _Die Erwerbung der Stadt und Grafschaft Lingen durch + die Krone Preussen_ (Lingen, 1902); and Schriever, _Geschichte des + Kreiges Lingen_ (Lingen, 1905). + + + + +LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI (1736-1794), French journalist and +advocate, was born on the 14th of July 1736, at Reims, whither his +father, the assistant principal in the Collège de Beauvais of Paris, had +recently been exiled by _lettre de cachet_ for engaging in the Jansenist +controversy. He attended the Collège de Beauvais and won the three +highest prizes there in 1751. He accompanied the count palatine of +Zweibrücken to Poland, and on his return to Paris he devoted himself to +writing. He published partial French translations of Calderon and Lope +de Vega, and wrote parodies for the _Opéra Comique_ and pamphlets in +favour of the Jesuits. Received at first in the ranks of the +_philosophes_, he soon went over to their opponents, possibly more from +contempt than from conviction, the immediate occasion for his change +being a quarrel with d'Alembert in 1762. Thenceforth he violently +attacked whatever was considered modern and enlightened, and while he +delighted society with his numerous sensational pamphlets, he aroused +the fear and hatred of his opponents by his stinging wit. He was +admitted to the bar in 1764, and soon became one of the most famous +pleaders of his century. But in spite of his brilliant ability and his +record of having lost but two cases, the bitter attacks which he +directed against his fellow advocates, especially against Gerbier +(1725-1788), caused his dismissal from the bar in 1775. He then turned +to journalism and began the _Journal de politique et de littérature_, +which he employed for two years in literary, philosophical and legal +criticisms. But a sarcastic article on the French Academy compelled him +to turn over the Journal to La Harpe and seek refuge abroad. Linguet, +however, continued his career of free lance, now attacking and now +supporting the government, in the _Annales politiques, civiles et +littéraires_, published from 1777 to 1792, first at London, then at +Brussels and finally at Paris. Attempting to return to France in 1780 he +was arrested for a caustic attack on the duc de Duras (1715-1789), an +academician and marshal of France, and imprisoned nearly two years in +the Bastille. He then went to London, and thence to Brussels, where, for +his support of the reforms of Joseph II., he was ennobled and granted an +honorarium of one thousand ducats. In 1786 he was permitted by Vergennes +to return to France as an Austrian counsellor of state, and to sue the +duc d'Aiguillon (1730-1798), the former minister of Louis XV., for fees +due him for legal services rendered some fifteen years earlier. He +obtained judgment to the amount of 24,000 livres. Linguet received the +support of Marie Antoinette; his fame at the time surpassed that of his +rival Beaumarchais, and almost excelled that of Voltaire. Shortly +afterwards he visited the emperor at Vienna to plead the case of Van der +Noot and the rebels of Brabant. During the early years of the Revolution +he issued several pamphlets against Mirabeau, who returned his ill-will +with interest, calling him "the ignorant and bombastic M. Linguet, +advocate of Neros, sultans and viziers." On his return to Paris in 1791 +he defended the rights of San Domingo before the National Assembly. His +last work was a defence of Louis XVI. He retired to Marnes near Ville +d'Avray to escape the Terror, but was sought out and summarily condemned +to death "for having flattered the despots of Vienna and London." He was +guillotined at Paris on the 27th of June 1794. + + Linguet was a prolific writer in many fields. Examples of his + attempted historical writing are _Histoire du siècle d'Alexandre le + Grand_ (Amsterdam, 1762), and _Histoire impartiale des Jésuites_ + (Madrid, 1768), the latter condemned to be burned. His opposition to + the _philosophes_ had its strongest expressions in _Fanatisme des + philosophes_ (Geneva and Paris, 1764) and _Histoire des révolutions + de l'empire romain_ (Paris, 1766-1768). His _Théorie des lois + civiles_ (London, 1767) is a vigorous defence of absolutism and attack + on the politics of Montesquieu. His best legal treatise is _Mémoire + pour le comte de Morangies_ (Paris, 1772); Linguet's imprisonment in + the Bastille afforded him the opportunity of writing his _Mémoires sur + la Bastille_, first published in London in 1789; it has been + translated into English (Dublin, 1783, and Edinburgh, 1884-1887), and + is the best of his works though untrustworthy. + + See A. Devérité, _Notice pour servir à l'histoire de la vie et des + écrits de S. N. H. Linguet_ (Liége, 1782); Gardoz, _Essai historique + sur la vie et les ouvrages de Linguet_ (Lyon, 1808); J. F. Barrière, + _Mémoire de Linguet et de Latude_ (Paris, 1884); Ch. Monselet, _Les + Oubliés et les dédaignés_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 1-41; H. Monin "Notice + sur Linguet," in the 1889 edition of _Mémoires sur la Bastille_; J. + Cruppi, _Un avocat journaliste au 18^e siècle, Linguet_ (Paris, + 1895); A. Philipp. _Linguet, ein Nationalökonom des XVIII Jahrhunderts + in seinen rechtlichen, socialen und volkswirtschaftlichen + Anschauungen_ (Zürich, 1896); A. Lichtenberger, _Le Socialisme + utopique_ (1898), pp. 77-131. + + + + +LINK. (1) (Of Scandinavian origin; cf. Swed. _länk_, Dan. _laenke_; +cognate with "flank," and Ger. _Gelenk_, joint), one of the loops of +which a chain is composed; used as a measure of length in surveying, +being (1/100)th part of a "chain." In Gunter's chain, a "link" = 7.92 +in.; the chain used by American engineers consists of 100 links of a +foot each in length (for "link work" and "link motions" see MECHANICS: § +_Applied_, and STEAM ENGINE). The term is also applied to anything used +for connecting or binding together, metaphorically or absolutely. (2) +(O. Eng. _hlinc_, possibly from the root which appears in "to lean"), a +bank or ridge of rising ground; in Scots dialect, in the plural, applied +to the ground bordering on the sea-shore, characterized by sand and +coarse grass; hence a course for playing golf. (3) A torch made of pitch +or tow formerly carried in the streets to light passengers, by men or +boys called "link-boys" who plied for hire with them. Iron link-stands +supporting a ring in which the link might be placed may still be seen at +the doorways of old London houses. The word is of doubtful origin. It +has been referred to a Med. Lat. _lichinus_, which occurs in the form +_linchinus_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_); this, according to a +15th-century glossary, meant a wick or match. It is an adaptation of Gr. +[Greek: luchnos], lamp. Another suggestion connects it with a supposed +derivation of "linstock," from "lint." _The New English Dictionary_ +thinks the likeliest suggestion is to identify the word with the "link" +of a chain. The tow and pitch may have been manufactured in lengths, and +then cut into sections or "links." + + + + +LINKÖPING, a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, and chief town of the +district (_län_) of Östergötland. Pop. (1900) 14,552. It is situated in +a fertile plain 142 m. by rail S.W. of Stockholm, and communicates with +Lake Roxen (½ m. to the north) and the Göta and Kinda canals by means of +the navigable Stångå. The cathedral (1150-1499), a Romanesque building +with a beautiful south portal and a Gothic choir, is, next to the +cathedral of Upsala, the largest church in Sweden. It contains an +altarpiece by Martin Heemskerck (d. 1574), which is said to have been +bought by John II. for twelve hundred measures of wheat. In the church +of St Lars are some paintings by Per Horberg (1746-1816), the Swedish +peasant artist. Other buildings of note are the massive episcopal palace +(1470-1500), afterwards a royal palace, and the old gymnasium founded by +Gustavus Adolphus in 1627, which contains the valuable library of old +books and manuscripts belonging to the diocese and state college, and +collection of coins and antiquities. There is also the Östergötland +Museum, with an art collection. The town has manufactures of tobacco, +cloth and hosiery. It is the headquarters of the second army division. + +Linköping early became a place of mark, and was already a bishop's see +in 1082. It was at a council held in the town in 1153 that the payment +of Peter's pence was agreed to at the instigation of Nicholas +Breakspeare, afterwards Adrian IV. The coronation of Birger Jarlsson +Valdemar took place in the cathedral in 1251; and in the reign of +Gustavus Vasa several important diets were held in the town. At +Stångåbro (Stångå Bridge), close by, an obelisk (1898) commemorates the +battle of Stångåbro (1598), when Duke Charles (Protestant) defeated the +Roman Catholic Sigismund. A circle of stones in the Iron Market of +Linköping marks the spot where Sigismund's adherents were beheaded in +1600. + + + + +LINLEY, THOMAS (1732-1795), English musician, was born at Wells, +Somerset, and studied music at Bath, where he settled as a +singing-master and conductor of the concerts. From 1774 he was engaged +in the management at Drury Lane theatre, London, composing or compiling +the music of many of the pieces produced there, besides songs and +madrigals, which rank high among English compositions. He died in London +on the 19th of November 1795. His eldest son THOMAS (1756-1778) was a +remarkable violinist, and also a composer, who assisted his father; and +he became a warm friend of Mozart. His works, with some of his father's, +were published in two volumes, and these contain some lovely madrigals +and songs. Another son, WILLIAM (1771-1835), who held a writership at +Madras, was devoted to literature and music and composed glees and +songs. Three daughters were similarly gifted, and were remarkable both +for singing and beauty; the eldest of them ELIZABETH ANN (1754-1792), +married Richard Brinsley Sheridan in 1773, and thus linked the fortunes +of her family with his career. + + + + +LINLITHGOW, JOHN ADRIAN LOUIS HOPE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1860-1908), British +administrator, was the son of the 6th earl of Hopetoun. The Hope family +traced their descent to John de Hope, who accompanied James V.'s queen +Madeleine of Valois from France to Scotland in 1537, and of whose +great-grandchildren Sir Thomas Hope (d. 1646), lord advocate of +Scotland, was ancestor of the earls of Hopetoun, while Henry Hope +settled in Amsterdam, and was the ancestor of the famous Dutch bankers +of that name, and of the later Hopes of Bedgebury, Kent. Sir Thomas's +son, Sir James Hope of Hopetoun (1614-1661), Scottish lord of session, +was grandfather of Charles, 1st earl of Hopetoun in the Scots peerage +(1681-1742), who was created earl in 1703; and his grandson, the 3rd +earl, was in 1809 made a baron of the United Kingdom. John, the 4th earl +(1765-1823), brother of the 3rd earl, was a distinguished soldier, who +for his services in the Peninsular War was created Baron Niddry in 1814 +before succeeding to the earldom. The marquessate of Linlithgow was +bestowed on the 7th earl of Hopetoun in 1902, in recognition of his +success as first governor (1900-1902) of the commonwealth of Australia; +he died on the 1st of March 1908, being succeeded as 2nd marquess by his +eldest son (b. 1887). + + An earldom of Linlithgow was in existence from 1600 to 1716, this + being held by the Livingstones, a Scottish family descended from Sir + William Livingstone. Sir William obtained the barony of Callendar in + 1346, and his descendant, Sir Alexander Livingstone (d. c. 1450), and + other members of this family were specially prominent during the + minority of King James II. Alexander Livingstone, 7th Lord Livingstone + (d. 1623), the eldest son of William, the 6th lord (d. c. 1580), a + supporter of Mary, queen of Scots, was a leading Scottish noble during + the reign of James VI. and was created earl of Linlithgow in 1600. + Alexander's grandson, George, 3rd earl of Linlithgow (1616-1690), and + the latter's son, George, the 4th earl (c. 1652-1695), were both + engaged against the Covenanters during the reign of Charles II. When + the 4th earl died without sons in August 1695 the earldom passed to + his nephew, James Livingstone, 4th earl of Callendar. James, who then + became the 5th earl of Linlithgow, joined the Stuart rising in 1715; + in 1716 he was attainted, being thus deprived of all his honours, and + he died without sons in Rome in April 1723. + + The earldom of Callendar, which was thus united with that of + Linlithgow, was bestowed in 1641 upon James Livingstone, the third son + of the 1st earl of Linlithgow. Having seen military service in Germany + and the Netherlands, James was created Lord Livingstone of Almond in + 1633 by Charles I., and eight years later the king wished to make him + lord high treasurer of Scotland. Before this, however, Almond had + acted with the Covenanters, and during the short war between England + and Scotland in 1640 he served under General Alexander Leslie, + afterwards earl of Leven. But the trust reposed in him by the + Covenanters did not prevent him in 1640 from signing the "band of + Cumbernauld," an association for defence against Argyll, or from being + in some way mixed up with the "Incident," a plot for the seizure of + the Covenanting leaders, Hamilton and Argyll. In 1641 Almond became an + earl, and, having declined the offer of a high position in the army + raised by Charles I., he led a division of the Scottish forces into + England in 1644 and helped Leven to capture Newcastle. In 1645 + Callendar, who often imagined himself slighted, left the army, and in + 1647 he was one of the promoters of the "engagement" for the release + of the king. In 1648, when the Scots marched into England, he served + as lieutenant-general under the duke of Hamilton, but the duke found + him as difficult to work with as Leven had done previously, and his + advice was mainly responsible for the defeat at Preston. After this + battle he escaped to Holland. In 1650 he was allowed to return to + Scotland, but in 1654 his estates were seized and he was imprisoned; + he came into prominence once more at the Restoration. Callendar died + on March 1674, leaving no children, and, according to a special + remainder, he was succeeded in the earldom by his nephew Alexander (d. + 1685), the second son of the 2nd earl of Linlithgow; and he again was + succeeded by his nephew Alexander (d. 1692), the second son of the 3rd + earl of Linlithgow. The 3rd earl's son, James, the 4th earl, then + became 5th earl of Linlithgow (see _supra_). + + + + +LINLITHGOW, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of +Linlithgowshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4279. It lies in a valley on the +south side of a loch, 17½ m. W. of Edinburgh by the North British +railway. It long preserved an antique and picturesque appearance, with +gardens running down to the lake, or climbing the lower slopes of the +rising ground, but in the 19th century much of it was rebuilt. About 4 +m. S. by W. lies the old village of Torphichen (pop. 540), where the +Knights of St John of Jerusalem had their chief Scottish preceptory. The +parish kirk is built on the site of the nave of the church of the +establishment, but the ruins of the transept and of part of the choir +still exist. Linlithgow belongs to the Falkirk district group of +parliamentary burghs with Falkirk, Airdrie, Hamilton and Lanark. The +industries include shoe-making, tanning and currying, manufactures of +paper, glue and soap, and distilling. An old tower-like structure near +the railway station is traditionally regarded as a mansion of the +Knights Templar. Other public buildings are the first town house +(erected in 1668 and restored in 1848 after a fire); the town hall, +built in 1888; the county buildings and the burgh school, dating from +the pre-Reformation period. There are some fine fountains. The Cross +Well in front of the town house, a striking piece of grotesque work +carved in stone, originally built in the reign of James V., was rebuilt +in 1807. Another fountain is surmounted by the figure of St Michael, the +patron-saint of the burgh. Linlithgow Palace is perhaps the finest ruin +of its kind in Scotland. Heavy but effective, the sombre walls rise +above the green knolls of the promontory which divides the lake into two +nearly equal portions. In plan it is almost square (168 ft. by 174 ft.), +enclosing a court (91 ft. by 88 ft.), in the centre of which stands the +ruined fountain of which an exquisite copy was erected in front of +Holyrood Palace by the Prince Consort. At each corner there is a tower +with an internal spiral staircase, that of the north-west angle being +crowned by a little octagonal turret known as "Queen Margaret's Bower," +from the tradition that it was there that the consort of James IV. +watched and waited for his return from Flodden. The west side, whose +massive masonry, hardly broken by a single window, is supposed to date +in part from the time of James III., who later took refuge in one of its +vaults from his disloyal nobles; but the larger part of the south and +east side belongs to the period of James V., about 1535; and the north +side was rebuilt in 1619-1620 by James VI. Of James V.'s portion, +architecturally the richest, the main apartments are the Lyon chamber or +parliament hall and the chapel royal. The grand entrance, approached by +a drawbridge, was on the east side; above the gateway are still some +weather-worn remains of rich allegorical designs. The palace was reduced +to ruins by General Hawley's dragoons, who set fire to it in 1746. +Government grants have stayed further dilapidation. A few yards to the +south of the palace is the church of St Michael, a Gothic (Scottish +Decorated) building (180 ft. long internally excluding the apse, by 62 +ft. in breadth excluding the transepts), probably founded by David I. in +1242, but mainly built by George Crichton, bishop of Dunkeld +(1528-1536). The central west front steeple was till 1821 topped by a +crown like that of St Giles', Edinburgh. The chief features of the +church are the embattled and pinnacled tower, with the fine doorway +below, the nave, the north porch and the flamboyant window in the south +transept. The church contains some fine stained glass, including a +window to the memory of Sir Charles Wyville Thomson (1830-1882), the +naturalist, who was born in the parish. + +Linlithgow (wrongly identified with the Roman _Lindum_) was made a royal +burgh by David I. Edward I. encamped here the night before the battle of +Falkirk (1298), wintered here in 1301, and next year built "a pele +[castle] mekill and strong," which in 1313 was captured by the Scots +through the assistance of William Bunnock, or Binning, and his hay-cart. +In 1369 the customs of Linlithgow yielded more than those of any other +town in Scotland, except Edinburgh; and the burgh was taken with Lanark +to supply the place of Berwick and Roxburgh in the court of the Four +Burghs (1368). Robert II. granted it a charter of immunities in 1384. +The palace became a favourite residence of the kings of Scotland, and +often formed part of the marriage settlement of their consorts (Mary of +Guelders, 1449; Margaret of Denmark, 1468; Margaret of England, 1503). +James V. was born within its walls in 1512, and his daughter Mary on the +7th of December 1542. In 1570 the Regent Moray was assassinated in the +High Street by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh. The university of +Edinburgh took refuge at Linlithgow from the plague in 1645-1646; in the +same year the national parliament, which had often sat in the palace, +was held there for the last time. In 1661 the Covenant was publicly +burned here, and in 1745 Prince Charles Edward passed through the town. +In 1859 the burgh was deprived by the House of Lords of its claim to +levy bridge toll and custom from the railway company. + + + + +LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or WEST LOTHIAN, a south-eastern county of Scotland, +bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, E. and S.E. by Edinburghshire, S.W. by +Lanarkshire and N.W. by Stirlingshire. It has an area of 76,861 acres, +or 120 sq. m., and a coast line of 17 m. The surface rises very +gradually from the Firth to the hilly district in the south. A few miles +from the Forth a valley stretches from east to west. Between the county +town and Bathgate are several hills, the chief being Knock (1017 ft.), +Cairnpapple, or Cairnnaple (1000), Cocklerue (said to be a corruption of +Cuckold-le-Roi, 912), Riccarton Hills (832) terminating eastwards in +Binny Craig, a striking eminence similar to those of Stirling and +Edinburgh, Torphichen Hills (777) and Bowden (749). In the coast +district a few bold rocks are found, such as Dalmeny, Dundas (well +wooded and with a precipitous front), the Binns and a rounded eminence +of 559 ft. named Glower-o'er-'em or Bonnytoun, bearing on its summit a +monument to General Adrian Hope, who fell in the Indian Mutiny. The +river Almond, rising in Lanarkshire and pursuing a north-easterly +direction, enters the Firth at Cramond after a course of 24 m., during a +great part of which it forms the boundary between West and Mid Lothian. +Its right-hand tributary, Breich Water, constitutes another portion of +the line dividing the same counties. The Avon, rising in the detached +portion of Dumbartonshire, flows eastwards across south Stirlingshire +and then, following in the main a northerly direction, passes the county +town on the west and reaches the Firth about midway between Grangemouth +and Bo'ness, having served as the boundary of Stirlingshire, during +rather more than the latter half of its course. The only loch is +Linlithgow Lake (102 acres), immediately adjoining the county town on +the north, a favourite resort of curlers and skaters. It is 10 ft. deep +at the east end and 48 ft. at the west. Eels, perch and braise (a +species of roach) are abundant. + + _Geology._--The rocks of Linlithgowshire belong almost without + exception to the Carboniferous system. At the base is the Calciferous + Sandstone series, most of which lies between the Bathgate Hills and + the eastern boundary of the county. In this series are the Queensferry + limestone, the equivalent of the Burdiehouse limestone of Edinburgh, + and the Binny sandstone group with shales and clays and the Houston + coal bed. At more than one horizon in this series oil shales are + found. The Bathgate Hills are formed of basaltic lavas and tuffs--an + interbedded volcanic group possibly 2000 ft. thick in the Calciferous + Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone series. A peculiar serpentinous + variety of the prevailing rock is quarried at Blackburn for oven + floors; it is known as "lakestone." Binns Hill is the site of one of + the volcanic cones of the period. The Carboniferous Limestone series + consists of an upper and lower limestone group--including the + Petershill, Index, Dykeneuk and Craigenbuck limestones--and a middle + group of shales, ironstones and coals; the Smithy, Easter Main, Foul, + Red and Splint coals belong to this horizon. Above the Carboniferous + Limestone the Millstone grit series crops in a belt which may be + traced from the mouth of the Avon southwards to Whitburn. This is + followed by the true coal-measures with the Boghead or Torbanehill + coal, the Colinburn, Main, Ball, Mill and Upper Cannel or Shotts gas + coals of Armadale, Torbanehill and Fauldhouse. + + _Climate and Agriculture._--The average rainfall for the year is 29.9 + in., and the average temperature 47.5° F. (January 38° F.; July 59.5° + F.). More than three-fourths of the county, the agriculture of which + is highly developed, is under cultivation. The best land is found + along the coast, as at Carriden and Dalmeny. The farming is mostly + arable, permanent pasture being practically stationary (at about + 22,000 acres). Oats is the principal grain crop, but barley and wheat + are also cultivated. Farms between 100 and 300 acres are the most + common. Turnips and potatoes are the leading green crops. Much land + has been reclaimed; the parish of Livingston, for example, which in + the beginning of the 18th century was covered with heath and juniper, + is now under rotation. In Torphichen and Bathgate, however, patches of + peat moss and swamp occur, and in the south there are extensive moors + at Fauldhouse and Polkemmet. Live stock does not count for so much in + West Lothian as in other Scottish counties, though a considerable + number of cattle are fattened and dairy farming is followed + successfully, the fresh butter and milk finding a market in Edinburgh. + There is some sheep-farming, and horses and pigs are reared. The + wooded land occurs principally in the parks and "policies" surrounding + the many noblemen's mansions and private estates. + + _Other Industries._--The shale-oil trade flourishes at Bathgate, + Broxburn, Armadale, Uphall, Winchburgh, Philpstoun and Dalmeny. There + are important iron-works with blast furnaces at Bo'ness, Kinneil, + Whitburn and Bathgate, and coal is also largely mined at these places. + Coal-mining is supposed to have been followed since Roman times, and + the earliest document extant regarding coalpits in Scotland is a + charter granted about the end of the 12th century to William Oldbridge + of Carriden. Fire-clay is extensively worked in connexion with the + coal, and ironstone employs many hands. Limestone, freestone and + whinstone are all quarried. Binny freestone was used for the Royal + Institution and the National Gallery in Edinburgh, and many important + buildings in Glasgow. Some fishing is carried on from Queensferry, and + Bo'ness is the principal port. + + _Communications._--The North British Railway Company's line from + Edinburgh to Glasgow runs across the north of the county, it controls + the approaches to the Forth Bridge, and serves the rich mineral + district around Airdrie and Coatbridge in Lanarkshire via Bathgate. + The Caledonian Railway Company's line from Glasgow to Edinburgh + touches the extreme south of the shire. The Union Canal, constructed + in 1818-1822 to connect Edinburgh with the Forth and Clyde Canal near + Camelon in Stirlingshire, crosses the county, roughly following the + N.B.R. line to Falkirk. The Union Canal, which is 31 m. long and + belongs to the North British railway, is carried across the Almond and + Avon on aqueducts designed by Thomas Telford, and near Falkirk is + conveyed through a tunnel 2100 ft. long. + +_Population and Administration._--In 1891 the population amounted to +52,808, and in 1901 to 65,708, showing an increase of 24.43% in the +decennial period, the highest of any Scottish county for that decade, +and a density of 547 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 five persons spoke +Gaelic only, and 575 Gaelic and English. The chief towns, with +populations in 1901, are Bathgate (7549), Borrowstounness (9306), +Broxburn (7099) and Linlithgow (4279). The shire returns one member to +parliament. Linlithgowshire is part of the sheriffdom of the Lothians +and Peebles, and a resident sheriff-substitute sits at Linlithgow and +Bathgate. The county is under school-board jurisdiction, and there are +academies at Linlithgow, Bathgate and Bo'ness. The local authorities +entrust the bulk of the "residue" grant to the County Secondary +Education Committee, which subsidizes elementary technical classes +(cookery, laundry and dairy) and science and art and technological +classes, including their equipment. + +_History._--Traces of the Pictish inhabitants still exist. Near +Inveravon is an accumulation of shells--mostly oysters, which have long +ceased to be found so far up the Forth--considered by geologists to be a +natural bed, but pronounced by antiquaries to be a kitchen midden. Stone +cists have been discovered at Carlowrie, Dalmeny, Newliston and +elsewhere; on Cairnnaple is a circular structure of remote but unknown +date; and at Kipps is a cromlech that was once surrounded by stones. The +wall of Antoninus lies for several miles in the shire. The discovery of +a fine legionary tablet at Bridgeness in 1868 is held by some to be +conclusive evidence that the great rampart terminated at that point and +not at Carriden. Roman camps can be distinguished at several spots. On +the hill of Bowden is an earthwork, which J. Stuart Glennie and others +connect with the struggle of the ancient Britons against the Saxons of +Northumbria. The historical associations of the county mainly cluster +round the town of Linlithgow (q.v.). Kingscavil (pop. 629) disputes with +Stonehouse in Lanarkshire the honour of being the birthplace of Patrick +Hamilton, the martyr (1504-1528). + + See Sir R. Sibbald, _History of the Sheriffdoms of Linlithgow and + Stirlingshire_ (Edinburgh, 1710); G. Waldie, _Walks along the Northern + Roman Wall_ (Linlithgow, 1883); R. J. H. Cunningham, _Geology of the + Lothians_ (Edinburgh, 1838). + + + + +LINNAEUS, the name usually given to CARL VON LINNÉ (1707-1778), Swedish +botanist, who was born on the 13th of May, O.S. (May 23, N.S.) 1707 at +Råshult, in the province of Småland, Sweden, and was the eldest child of +Nils Linnaeus the comminister, afterwards pastor, of the parish, and +Christina Brodersonia, the daughter of the previous incumbent. In 1717 +he was sent to the primary school at Wexiö, and in 1724 he passed to the +gymnasium. His interests were centred on botany, and his progress in the +studies considered necessary for admission to holy orders, for which he +was intended, was so slight that in 1726 his father was recommended to +apprentice him to a tailor or shoemaker. He was saved from this fate +through Dr Rothman, a physician in the town, who expressed the belief +that he would yet distinguish himself in medicine and natural history, +and who further instructed him in physiology. In 1727 he entered the +university of Lund, but removed in the following year to that of Upsala. +There, through lack of means, he had a hard struggle until, in 1729, he +made the acquaintance of Dr Olaf Celsius (1670-1756), professor of +theology, at that time working at his _Hierobotanicon_, which saw the +light nearly twenty years later. Celsius, impressed with Linnaeus's +knowledge and botanical collections, and finding him necessitous, +offered him board and lodging. + +During this period, he came upon a critique which ultimately led to the +establishment of his artificial system of plant classification. This was +a review of Sébastien Vaillant's _Sermo de Structura Florum_ (Leiden, +1718), a thin quarto in French and Latin; it set him upon examining the +stamens and pistils of flowers, and, becoming convinced of the paramount +importance of these organs, he formed the idea of basing a system of +arrangement upon them. Another work by Wallin, [Greek: Gamos phytôn], +_sive Nuptiae Arborum Dissertatio_ (Upsala, 1729), having fallen into +his hands, he drew up a short treatise on the sexes of plants, which was +placed in the hands of the younger Olaf Rudbeck (1660-1740), the +professor of botany in the university. In the following year Rudbeck, +whose advanced age compelled him to lecture by deputy, appointed +Linnaeus his adjunctus; in the spring of 1730, therefore, the latter +began his lectures. The academic garden was entirely remodelled under +his auspices, and furnished with many rare species. In the preceding +year he had solicited appointment to the vacant post of gardener, which +was refused him on the ground of his capacity for better things. + +In 1732 he undertook to explore Lapland, at the cost of the Academy of +Sciences of Upsala; he traversed upwards of 4600 m., and the cost of the +journey is given at 530 copper dollars, or about £25 sterling. His own +account was published in English by Sir J. E. Smith, under the title +_Lachesis Lapponica_, in 1811; the scientific results were published in +his _Flora Lapponica_ (Amsterdam, 1737). In 1733 Linnaeus was engaged at +Upsala in teaching the methods of assaying ores, but was prevented from +delivering lectures on botany for academic reasons. At this juncture the +governor of Dalecarlia invited him to travel through his province, as he +had done through Lapland. Whilst on this journey, he lectured at Fahlun +to large audiences; and J. Browallius (1707-1755), the chaplain there, +afterwards bishop of Åbo, strongly urged him to go abroad and take his +degree of M.D. at a foreign university, by which means he could +afterwards settle where he pleased. Accordingly he left Sweden in 1735. +Travelling by Lübeck and Hamburg, he proceeded to Harderwijk, where he +went through the requisite examinations, and defended his thesis on the +cause of intermittent fever. His scanty funds were now nearly spent, but +he passed on through Haarlem to Leiden; there he called on Jan Fredrik +Gronovius (1600-1762), who, returning the visit, was shown the _Systema +naturae_ in MS., and was so greatly astonished at it that he sent it to +press at his own expense. This famous system, which, artificial as it +was, substituted order for confusion, largely made its way on account of +the lucid and admirable laws, and comments on them, which were issued +almost at the same time (see BOTANY). H. Boerhaave, whom Linnaeus saw +after waiting eight days for admission, recommended him to J. Burman +(1707-1780), the professor of botany at Amsterdam, with whom he stayed a +twelvemonth. While there he issued his _Fundamenta Botanica_, an +unassuming small octavo, which exercised immense influence. For some +time also he lived with the wealthy banker, G. Clifford (1685-1750), who +had a magnificent garden at Hartecamp, near Haarlem. + +In 1736 Linnaeus visited England. He was warmly recommended by Boerhaave +to Sir Hans Sloane, who seems to have received him coldly. At Oxford Dr +Thomas Shaw welcomed him cordially; J. J. Dillenius, the professor of +botany, was cold at first, but afterwards changed completely, kept him a +month, and even offered to share the emoluments of the chair with him. +He saw Philip Miller (1691-1771), the _Hortulanorum Princeps_, at +Chelsea Physic Garden, and took some plants thence to Clifford; but +certain other stories which are current about his visit to England are +of very doubtful authenticity. + +On his return to the Netherlands he completed the printing of his +_Genera Plantarum_, a volume which must be considered the starting-point +of modern systematic botany. During the same year, 1737, he finished +arranging Clifford's collection of plants, living and dried, described +in the _Hortus Cliffortianus_. During the compilation he used to "amuse" +himself with drawing up the _Critica Botanica_, also printed in the +Netherlands. But this strenuous and unremitting labour told upon him; +the atmosphere of the Low Countries seemed to oppress him beyond +endurance; and, resisting all Clifford's entreaties to remain with him, +he started homewards, yet on the way he remained a year at Leiden, and +published his _Classes Plantarum_ (1738). He then visited Paris, where +he saw Antoine and Bernard de Jussieu, and finally sailed for Sweden +from Rouen. In September 1738 he established himself as a physician in +Stockholm, but, being unknown as a medical man, no one at first cared to +consult him; by degrees, however, he found patients, was appointed naval +physician at Stockholm, with minor appointments, and in June 1730 +married Sara Moræa. In 1741 he was appointed to the chair of medicine at +Upsala, but soon exchanged it for that of botany. In the same year, +previous to this exchange, he travelled through Öland and Gothland, by +command of the state, publishing his results in _Oländska och +Gothländska Resa_ (1745). The index to this volume shows the first +employment of specific names in nomenclature. + +Henceforward his time was taken up by teaching and the preparation of +other works. In 1745 he issued his _Flora Suecica_ and _Fauna Suecica_, +the latter having occupied his attention during fifteen years; +afterwards, two volumes of observations made during journeys in Sweden, +_Wästgöta Resa_ (Stockholm, 1747), and _Skånska Resa_ (Stockholm, 1751). +In 1748 he brought out his _Hortus Upsaliensis_, showing that he had +added eleven hundred species to those formerly in cultivation in that +garden. In 1750 his _Philosophia Botanica_ was given to the world; it +consists of a commentary on the various axioms he had published in 1735 +in his _Fundamenta Botanica_, and was dictated to his pupil P. Löfling +(1720-1756), while the professor was confined to his bed by an attack of +gout. But the most important work of this period was his _Species +Plantarum_ (Stockholm, 1753), in which the specific names are fully set +forth. In the same year he was created knight of the Polar Star, the +first time a scientific man had been raised to that honour in Sweden. In +1755 he was invited by the king of Spain to settle in that country, with +a liberal salary, and full liberty of conscience, but he declined on the +ground that whatever merits he possessed should be devoted to his +country's service, and Löfling was sent instead. He was enabled now to +purchase the estates of Säfja and Hammarby; at the latter he built his +museum of stone, to guard against loss by fire. His lectures at the +university drew men from all parts of the world; the normal number of +students at Upsala was five hundred, but while he occupied the chair of +botany there it rose to fifteen hundred. In 1761 he was granted a patent +of nobility, antedated to 1757, from which time he was styled Carl von +Linné. To his great delight the tea-plant was introduced alive into +Europe in 1763; in the same year his surviving son Carl (1741-1783) was +allowed to assist his father in his professorial duties, and to be +trained as his successor. At the age of sixty his memory began to fail; +an apoplectic attack in 1774 greatly weakened him; two years after he +lost the use of his right side; and he died on the 10th of January 1778 +at Upsala, in the cathedral of which he was buried. + + With Linnaeus arrangement seems to have been a passion; he delighted + in devising classifications, and not only did he systematize the three + kingdoms of nature, but even drew up a treatise on the _Genera + Morborum_. When he appeared upon the scene, new plants and animals + were in course of daily discovery in increasing numbers, due to the + increase of trading facilities; he devised schemes of arrangement by + which these acquisitions might be sorted provisionally, until their + natural affinities should have become clearer. He made many mistakes; + but the honour due to him for having first enunciated the principles + for defining genera and species, and his uniform use of specific + names, is enduring. His style is terse and laconic; he methodically + treated of each organ in its proper turn, and had a special term for + each, the meaning of which did not vary. The reader cannot doubt the + author's intention; his sentences are business-like and to the point. + The omission of the verb in his descriptions was an innovation, and + gave an abruptness to his language which was foreign to the writing of + his time; but it probably by its succinctness added to the popularity + of his works. + + No modern naturalist has impressed his own character with greater + force upon his pupils than did Linnaeus. He imbued them with his own + intense acquisitiveness, reared them in an atmosphere of enthusiasm, + trained them to close and accurate observation, and then despatched + them to various parts of the globe. + + His published works amount to more than one hundred and eighty, + including the _Amoenitates Academicae_, for which he provided the + material, revising them also for press; corrections in his handwriting + may be seen in the Banksian and Linnean Society's libraries. Many of + his works were not published during his lifetime; those which were are + enumerated by Dr Richard Pulteney in his _General View of the Writings + of Linnaeus_ (1781). His widow sold his collections and books to Sir + J. E. Smith, the first president of the Linnean Society of London. + When Smith died in 1828, a subscription was raised to purchase the + herbarium and library for the Society, whose property they became. The + manuscripts of many of Linnaeus's publications, and the letters he + received from his contemporaries, also came into the possession of the + Society. (B. D. J.) + + + + +LINNELL, JOHN (1792-1882), English painter, was born in London on the +16th of June 1792. His father being a carver and gilder, Linnell was +early brought into contact with artists, and when he was ten years old +he was drawing and selling his portraits in chalk and pencil. His first +artistic instruction was received from Benjamin West, and he spent a +year in the house of John Varley the water-colour painter, where he had +William Hunt and Mulready as fellow-pupils, and made the acquaintance of +Shelley, Godwin and other men of mark. In 1805 he was admitted a student +of the Royal Academy, where he obtained medals for drawing, modelling +and sculpture. He was also trained as an engraver, and executed a +transcript of Varley's "Burial of Saul." In after life he frequently +occupied himself with the burin, publishing, in 1834, a series of +outlines from Michelangelo's frescoes in the Sistine chapel, and, in +1840, superintending the issue of a selection of plates from the +pictures in Buckingham Palace, one of them, a Titian landscape, being +mezzotinted by himself. At first he supported himself mainly by +miniature painting, and by the execution of larger portraits, such as +the likenesses of Mulready, Whately, Peel and Carlyle. Several of his +portraits he engraved with his own hand in line and mezzotint. He also +painted many subjects like the "St John Preaching," the "Covenant of +Abraham," and the "Journey to Emmaus," in which, while the landscape is +usually prominent the figures are yet of sufficient importance to supply +the title of the work. But it is mainly in connexion with his paintings +of pure landscape that his name is known. His works commonly deal with +some scene of typical uneventful English landscape, which is made +impressive by a gorgeous effect of sunrise or sunset. They are full of +true poetic feeling, and are rich and glowing in colour. Linnell was +able to command very large prices for his pictures, and about 1850 he +purchased a property at Redhill, Surrey, where he resided till his death +on the 20th of January 1882, painting with unabated power till within +the last few years of his life. His leisure was greatly occupied with a +study of the Scriptures in the original, and he published several +pamphlets and larger treatises of Biblical criticism. Linnell was one of +the best friends and kindest patrons of William Blake. He gave him the +two largest commissions he ever received for single series of +designs--£150 for drawings and engravings of _The Inventions to the Book +of Job_, and a like sum for those illustrative of Dante. + + + + +LINNET, O. Eng. _Linete_ and _Linet-wige_, whence seems to have been +corrupted the old Scottish "Lintquhit," and the modern northern English +"Lintwhite"--originally a somewhat generalized bird's name, but latterly +specialized for the _Fringilla cannabina_ of Linnaeus, the _Linota +cannabina_ of recent ornithologists. This is a common song-bird, +frequenting almost the whole of Europe south of lat. 64°, and in Asia +extending to Turkestan. It is known as a winter visitant to Egypt and +Abyssinia, and is abundant at all seasons in Barbary, as well as in the +Canaries and Madeira. Though the fondness of this species for the seeds +of flax (_Linum_) and hemp (_Cannabis_) has given it its common name in +so many European languages,[1] it feeds largely, if not chiefly in +Britain on the seeds of plants of the order _Compositae_, especially +those growing on heaths and commons. As these waste places have been +gradually brought under the plough, in England and Scotland +particularly, the haunts and means of subsistence of the linnet have +been curtailed, and hence its numbers have undergone a very visible +diminution throughout Great Britain. According to its sex, or the season +of the year, it is known as the red, grey or brown linnet, and by the +earlier English writers on birds, as well as in many localities at the +present time, these names have been held to distinguish at least two +species; but there is now no question among ornithologists on this +point, though the conditions under which the bright crimson-red +colouring of the breast and crown of the cock's spring and summer +plumage is donned and doffed may still be open to discussion. Its +intensity seems due, however, in some degree at least, to the weathering +of the brown fringes of the feathers which hide the more brilliant hue, +and in the Atlantic islands examples are said to retain their gay tints +all the year round, while throughout Europe there is scarcely a trace of +them visible in autumn and winter; but, beginning to appear in spring, +they reach their greatest brilliancy towards midsummer; they are never +assumed by examples in confinement. The linnet begins to breed in April, +the nest being generally placed in a bush at no great distance from the +ground. It is nearly always a neat structure composed of fine twigs, +roots or bents, and lined with wool or hair. The eggs, often six in +number, are of a very pale blue marked with reddish or purplish brown. +Two broods seem to be common in the course of the season, and towards +the end of summer the birds--the young greatly preponderating in +number--collect in large flocks and move to the sea-coast, whence a +large proportion depart for more southern latitudes. Of these emigrants +some return the following spring, and are recognizable by the more +advanced state of their plumage, the effect presumably of having +wintered in countries enjoying a brighter and hotter sun. + +Nearly allied to the foregoing species is the twite, so named from its +ordinary call-note, or mountain-linnet, the _Linota flavirostris_, or +_L. montium_ of ornithologists, which can be distinguished by its yellow +bill, longer tail and reddish-tawny throat. This bird never assumes any +crimson on the crown or breast, but the male has the rump at all times +tinged more or less with that colour. In Great Britain in the +breeding-season it seems to affect exclusively hilly and moorland +districts from Herefordshire northward, in which it partly or wholly +replaces the common linnet, but is very much more local in its +distribution, and, except in the British Islands and some parts of +Scandinavia, it only appears as an irregular visitant in winter. At that +season it may, however, be found in large flocks in the low-lying +countries, and as regards England even on the sea-shore. In Asia it +seems to be represented by a kindred form _L. brevirostris_. + +The redpolls form a little group placed by many authorities in the genus +_Linota_, to which they are unquestionably closely allied, and, as +stated elsewhere (see FINCH), the linnets seem to be related to the +birds of the genus _Leucosticte_, the species of which inhabit the +northern parts of North-West America and of Asia. _L. tephrocotis_ is +generally of a chocolate colour, tinged on some parts with pale crimson +or pink, and has the crown of the head silvery-grey. Another species, +_L. arctoa_, was formerly said to have occurred in North America, but +its proper home is in the Kurile Islands or Kamchatka. This has no red +in its plumage. The birds of the genus _Leucosticte_ seem to be more +terrestrial in their habit than those of _Linota_, perhaps from their +having been chiefly observed where trees are scarce; but it is possible +that the mutual relationship of the two groups is more apparent than +real. Allied to _Leucosticte_ is _Montifringilla_, to which belongs the +snow-finch of the Alps, _M. nivalis_, often mistaken by travellers for +the snow-bunting, _Plectrophanes nivalis_. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] E.g. Fr. _Linotte_, Ger. _Hänfling_, Swed. _Hämpling_. + + + + +LINSANG, the native name of one of the members of the viverrine genus +_Linsanga_. There are four species of the genus, from the Indo-Malay +countries. Linsangs are civet-like creatures, with the body and tail +greatly elongated; and the ground colour fulvous marked with bold black +patches, which in one species (_L. pardicolor_) are oblong. In West +Africa the group is represented by the smaller and spotted _Poiana +richardsoni_ which has a genet-like hind-foot. (See CARNIVORA.) + + + + +LINSEED, the seed of the common flax (q.v.) or lint, _Linum +usitatissimum_. These seeds, the linseed of commerce, are of a lustrous +brown colour externally, and a compressed and elongated oval form, with +a slight beak or projection at one extremity. The brown testa contains, +in the outer of the four coats into which it is microscopically +distinguishable, an abundant secretion of mucilaginous matter; and it +has within it a thin layer of albumen, enclosing a pair of large oily +cotyledons. The seeds when placed in water for some time become coated +with glutinous matter from the exudation of the mucilage in the external +layer of the epidermis; and by boiling in sixteen parts of water they +exude sufficient mucilage to form with the water a thick pasty +decoction. The cotyledons contain the valuable linseed oil referred to +below. Linseed grown in tropical countries is much larger and more plump +than that obtained in temperate climes, but the seed from the colder +countries yields a finer quality of oil. + +Linseed formed an article of food among the Greeks and Romans, and it is +said that the Abyssinians at the present day eat it roasted. The oil is +to some extent used as food in Russia and in parts of Poland and +Hungary. The still prevalent use of linseed in poultices for open wounds +is entirely to be reprobated. It has now been abandoned by +practitioners. The principal objections to this use of linseed is that +it specially favours the growth of micro-organisms. There are numerous +clean and efficient substitutes which have all its supposed advantages +and none of its disadvantages. There are now no medicinal uses of this +substance. Linseed cake, the marc left after the expression of the oil, +is a most valuable feeding substance for cattle. + +Linseed is subject to extensive and detrimental adulterations, resulting +not only from careless harvesting and cleaning, whereby seeds of the +flax dodder, and other weeds and grasses are mixed with it, but also +from the direct admixture of cheaper and inferior oil-seeds, such as +wild rape, mustard, sesame, poppy, &c., the latter adulterations being +known in trade under the generic name of "buffum." In 1864, owing to the +serious aspect of the prevalent adulteration, a union of traders was +formed under the name of the "Linseed Association." This body samples +all linseed oil arriving in England and reports on its value. + + _Linseed oil_, the most valuable drying oil, is obtained by expression + from the seeds, with or without the aid of heat. Preliminary to the + operation of pressing, the seeds are crushed and ground to a fine + meal. Cold pressing of the seeds yields a golden-yellow oil, which is + often used as an edible oil. Larger quantities are obtained by heating + the crushed seeds to 160° F. (71° C.), and then expressing the oil. So + obtained, it is somewhat turbid and yellowish-brown in colour. On + storing, moisture and mucilaginous matter gradually settle out. After + storing several years it is known commercially as "tanked oil," and + has a high value in varnish-making. The delay attendant on this method + of purification is avoided by treating the crude oil with 1 to 2% of a + somewhat strong sulphuric acid, which chars and carries down the bulk + of the impurities. For the preparation of "artist's oil," the finest + form of linseed oil, the refined oil is placed in shallow trays + covered with glass, and exposed to the action of the sun's rays. + Numerous other methods of purification, some based on the oxidizing + action of ozone, have been suggested. The yield of oil from different + classes of seed varies, but from 23 to 28% of the weight of the seed + operated on should be obtained. A good average quality of seed + weighing about 392 lb. per quarter has been found in practice to give + out 109 lb. of oil. + + Commercial linseed oil has a peculiar, rather disagreeable sharp taste + and smell; its specific gravity is given as varying from 0.928 to + 0.953, and it solidifies at about -27°. By saponification it yields a + number of fatty acids--palmitic, myristic, oleic, linolic, linolenic + and isolinolenic. Exposed to the air in thin films, linseed oil + absorbs oxygen and forms "linoxyn," a resinous semi-elastic, + caoutchouc-like mass, of uncertain composition. The oil, when boiled + with small proportions of litharge and minium, undergoes the process + of resinification in the air with greatly increased rapidity. + + Its most important use is in the preparation of oil paints and + varnishes. By painters both raw and boiled oil are used, the latter + forming the principal medium in oil painting, and also serving + separately as the basis of all oil varnishes. Boiled oil is prepared + in a variety of ways--that most common being by heating the raw oil in + an iron or copper boiler, which, to allow for frothing, must only be + about three-fourths filled. The boiler is heated by a furnace, and the + oil is brought gradually to the point of ebullition, at which it is + maintained for two hours, during which time moisture is driven off, + and the scum and froth which accumulate on the surface are ladled out. + Then by slow degrees a proportion of "dryers" is added--usually equal + weights of litharge and minium being used to the extent of 3% of the + charge of oil; and with these a small proportion of umber is generally + thrown in. After the addition of the dryers the boiling is continued + two or three hours; the fire is then suddenly withdrawn, and the oil + is left covered up in the boiler for ten hours or more. Before sending + out, it is usually stored in settling tanks for a few weeks, during + which time the uncombined dryers settle at the bottom as "foots." + Besides the dryers already mentioned, lead acetate, manganese borate, + manganese dioxide, zinc sulphate and other bodies are used. + + Linseed oil is also the principal ingredient in printing and + lithographic inks. The oil for ink-making is prepared by heating it in + an iron pot up to the point where it either takes fire spontaneously + or can be ignited with any flaming substance. After the oil has been + allowed to burn for some time according to the consistence of the + varnish desired, the pot is covered over, and the product when cooled + forms a viscid tenacious substance which in its most concentrated form + may be drawn into threads. By boiling this varnish with dilute nitric + acid vapours of acrolein are given off, and the substance gradually + becomes a solid non-adhesive mass the same as the ultimate oxidation + product of both raw and boiled oil. + + Linseed oil is subject to various falsifications, chiefly through the + addition of cotton-seed, niger-seed and hemp-seed oils; and rosin oil + and mineral oils also are not infrequently added. Except by smell, by + change of specific gravity, and by deterioration of drying properties, + these adulterations are difficult to detect. + + + + +LINSTOCK (adapted from the Dutch _lontstok_, i.e. "matchstick," from +_lont_, a match, _stok_, a stick; the word is sometimes erroneously +spelled "lintstock" from a supposed derivation from "lint" in the sense +of tinder), a kind of torch made of a stout stick a yard in length, with +a fork at one end to hold a lighted match, and a point at the other to +stick in the ground. "Linstocks" were used for discharging cannon in the +early days of artillery. + + + + +LINT (in M. Eng. _linnet_, probably through Fr. _linette_, from _lin_, +the flax-plant; cf. "line"), properly the flax-plant, now only in Scots +dialect; hence the application of such expressions as "lint-haired," +"lint white locks" to flaxen hair. It is also the term applied to the +flax when prepared for spinning, and to the waste material left over +which was used for tinder. "Lint" is still the name given to a specially +prepared material for dressing wounds, made soft and fluffy by scraping +or ravelling linen cloth. + + + + +LINTEL (O. Fr. _lintel_, mod. _linteau_, from Late Lat. _limitellum_, +_limes_, boundary, confused in sense with _limen_, threshold; the Latin +name is _supercilium_, Ital. _soprasogli_, and Ger. _Sturz_), in +architecture, a horizontal piece of stone or timber over a doorway or +opening, provided to carry the superstructure. In order to relieve the +lintel from too great a pressure a "discharging arch" is generally built +over it. + + + + +LINTH, or LIMMAT, a river of Switzerland, one of the tributaries of the +Aar. It rises in the glaciers of the Tödi range, and has cut out a deep +bed which forms the Grossthal that comprises the greater portion of the +canton of Glarus. A little below the town of Glarus the river, keeping +its northerly direction, runs through the alluvial plain which it has +formed, towards the Walensee and the Lake of Zürich. But between the +Lake of Zürich and the Walensee the huge desolate alluvial plain grew +ever in size, while great damage was done by the river, which overflowed +its bed and the dykes built to protect the region near it. The Swiss +diet decided in 1804 to undertake the "correction" of this turbulent +stream. The necessary works were begun in 1807 under the supervision of +Hans Conrad Escher of Zürich (1767-1823). The first portion of the +undertaking was completed in 1811, and received the name of the "Escher +canal," the river being thus diverted into the Walensee. The second +portion, known as the "Linth canal," regulated the course of the river +between the Walensee and the Lake of Zürich and was completed in 1816. +Many improvements and extra protective works were carried out after +1816, and it was estimated that the total cost of this great engineering +undertaking from 1807 to 1902 amounted to about £200,000, the date for +the completion of the work being 1911. To commemorate the efforts of +Escher, the Swiss diet in 1823 (after his death) decided that his male +descendants should bear the name of "Escher von der Linth." On issuing +from the Lake of Zürich the Linth alters its name to that of "Limmat," +it does not appear wherefore, and, keeping the north-westerly direction +it had taken from the Walensee, joins the Aar a little way below Brugg, +and just below the junction of the Reuss with the Aar. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LINTON, ELIZA LYNN (1822-1898), English novelist, daughter of the Rev. +J. Lynn, vicar of Crosthwaite, in Cumberland, was born at Keswick on the +10th of February 1822. She early manifested great independence of +character, and in great measure educated herself from the stores of her +father's library. Coming to London about 1845 with a large stock of +miscellaneous erudition, she turned this to account in her first novels, +_Azeth the Egyptian_ (1846) and _Amymone_ (1848), a romance of the days +of Pericles. Her next story, _Realities_, a tale of modern life (1851), +was not successful, and for several years she seemed to have abandoned +fiction. When, in 1865, she reappeared with _Grasp your Nettle_, it was +as an expert in a new style of novel-writing--stirring, fluent, +ably-constructed stories, retaining the attention throughout, but +affording little to reflect upon or to remember. Measured by their +immediate success, they gave her an honourable position among the +writers of her day, and secure of an audience, she continued to write +with vigour nearly until her death. _Lizzie Lorton of Greyrigg_ (1866), +_Patricia Kemball_ (1874), _The Atonement of Leam Dundas_ (1877) are +among the best examples of this more mechanical side of her talent, to +which there were notable exceptions in _Joshua Davidson_ (1872), a bold +but not irreverent adaptation of the story of the Carpenter of Nazareth +to that of the French Commune; and _Christopher Kirkland_, a veiled +autobiography (1885). Mrs Linton was a practised and constant writer in +the journals of the day; her articles on the "Girl of the Period" in the +_Saturday Review_ produced a great sensation, and she was a constant +contributor to the _St James's Gazette_, the _Daily News_ and other +leading newspapers. Many of her detached essays have been collected. In +1858 she married W. J. Linton, the engraver, but the union was soon +terminated by mutual consent; she nevertheless brought up one of Mr +Linton's daughters by a former marriage. A few years before her death +she retired to Malvern. She died in London on the 14th of July 1898. + + Her reminiscences appeared after her death under the title of _My + Literary Life_ (1899) and her life has been written by G. S. Layard + (1901). + + + + +LINTON, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1897), English wood-engraver, republican and +author, was born in London. He was educated at Stratford, and in his +sixteenth year was apprenticed to the wood-engraver G. W. Bonner. His +earliest known work is to be found in Martin and Westall's _Pictorial +Illustrations of the Bible_ (1833). He rapidly rose to a place amongst +the foremost wood-engravers of the time. After working as a journeyman +engraver with two or three firms, losing his money over a cheap +political library called the "National," and writing a life of Thomas +Paine, he went into partnership (1842) with John Orrin Smith. The firm +was immediately employed on the _Illustrated London News_, just then +projected. The following year Orrin Smith died, and Linton, who had +married a sister of Thomas Wade, editor of _Bell's Weekly Messenger_, +found himself in sole charge of a business upon which two families were +dependent. For years he had concerned himself with the social and +European political problems of the time, and was now actively engaged in +the republican propaganda. In 1844 he took a prominent part in exposing +the violation by the English post-office of Mazzini's correspondence. +This led to a friendship with the Italian revolutionist, and Linton +threw himself with ardour into European politics. He carried the first +congratulatory address of English workmen to the French Provisional +Government in 1848. He edited a twopenny weekly paper, _The Cause of the +People_, published in the Isle of Man, and he wrote political verses for +the Dublin _Nation_, signed "Spartacus." He helped to found the +"International League" of patriots, and, in 1850, with G. H. Lewes and +Thornton Hunt, started _The Leader_, an organ which, however, did not +satisfy his advanced republicanism, and from which he soon withdrew. The +same year he wrote a series of articles propounding the views of Mazzini +in _The Red Republican_. In 1852 he took up his residence at Brantwood, +which he afterwards sold to John Ruskin, and from there issued _The +English Republic_, first in the form of weekly tracts and afterwards as +a monthly magazine--"a useful exponent of republican principles, a +faithful record of republican progress throughout the world; an organ of +propagandism and a medium of communication for the active republicans in +England." Most of the paper, which never paid its way and was abandoned +in 1855, was written by himself. In 1852 he also printed for private +circulation an anonymous volume of poems entitled _The Plaint of +Freedom_. After the failure of his paper he returned to his proper work +of wood-engraving. In 1857 his wife died, and in the following year he +married Eliza Lynn (afterwards known as Mrs Lynn Linton) and returned to +London. In 1864 he retired to Brantwood, his wife remaining in London. +In 1867, pressed by financial difficulties, he determined to try his +fortune in America, and finally separated from his wife, with whom, +however, he always corresponded affectionately. With his children he +settled at Appledore, New Haven, Connecticut, where he set up a +printing-press. Here he wrote _Practical Hints on Wood-Engraving_ +(1879), _James Watson, a Memoir of Chartist Times_ (1879), _A History of +Wood-Engraving in America_ (1882), _Wood-Engraving, a Manual of +Instruction_ (1884), _The Masters of Wood-Engraving_, for which he made +two journeys to England (1890), _The Life of Whittier_ (1893), and +_Memories_, an autobiography (1895). He died at New Haven on the 29th of +December 1897. Linton was a singularly gifted man, who, in the words of +his wife, if he had not bitten the Dead Sea apple of impracticable +politics, would have risen higher in the world of both art and letters. +As an engraver on wood he reached the highest point of execution in his +own line. He carried on the tradition of Bewick, fought for intelligent +as against merely manipulative excellence in the use of the graver, and +championed the use of the "white line" as well as of the black, +believing with Ruskin that the former was the truer and more telling +basis of aesthetic expression in the wood-block printed upon paper. + + See W. J. Linton, _Memories_; F. G. Kitton, article on "Linton" in + _English Illustrated Magazine_ (April 1891); G. S. Layard, _Life of + Mrs Lynn Linton_ (1901). (G. S. L.) + + + + +LINTOT, BARNABY BERNARD (1675-1736), English publisher, was born at +Southwater, Sussex, on the 1st of December 1675, and started business as +a publisher in London about 1698. He published for many of the leading +writers of the day, notably Vanbrugh, Steele, Gay and Pope. The latter's +_Rape of the Lock_ in its original form was first published in _Lintot's +Miscellany_, and Lintot subsequently issued Pope's translation of the +_Iliad_ and the joint translation of the _Odyssey_ by Pope, Fenton and +Broome. Pope quarrelled with Lintot with regard to the supply of free +copies of the latter translation to the author's subscribers, and in +1728 satirized the publisher in the _Dunciad_, and in 1735 in the +_Prologue to the Satires_, though he does not appear to have had any +serious grievance. Lintot died on the 3rd of February 1736. + + + + +LINUS, one of the saints of the Gregorian canon, whose festival is +celebrated on the 23rd of September. All that can be said with certainty +about him is that his name appears at the head of all the lists of the +bishops of Rome. Irenaeus (_Adv. Haer._ iii. 3. 3) identifies him with +the Linus mentioned by St Paul in 2 Tim. iv. 21. According to the _Liber +Pontificalis_, Linus suffered martyrdom, and was buried in the Vatican. +In the 17th century an inscription was found near the confession of St +Peter, which was believed to contain the name Linus; but it is not +certain that this epitaph has been read correctly or completely. The +apocryphal Latin account of the death of the apostles Peter and Paul is +falsely attributed to Linus. + + See _Acta Sanctorum_, Septembris, vi. 539-545; C. de Smedt, + _Dissertatione selectae in primam aetatem hist. eccl._ pp. 300-312 + (Ghent, 1876); L. Duchesne's edition of the _Liber Pontificalis_, i. + 121 (Paris, 1886); R. A. Lipsius, _Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten_, + ii. 85-96 (Brunswick, 1883-1890); J. B. de Rossi, _Bullettino di + archeologia cristiana_, p. 50 (1864). (H. De.) + + + + +LINUS, one of a numerous class of heroic figures in Greek legend, of +which other examples are found in Hyacinthus and Adonis. The connected +legend is always of the same character: a beautiful youth, fond of +hunting and rural life, the favourite of some god or goddess, suddenly +perishes by a terrible death. In many cases the religious background of +the legend is preserved by the annual ceremonial that commemorated it. +At Argos this religious character of the Linus myth was best preserved: +the secret child of Psamathe by the god Apollo, Linus is exposed, nursed +by sheep and torn in pieces by sheep-dogs. Every year at the festival +Arnis or Cynophontis, the women of Argos mourned for Linus and +propitiated Apollo, who in revenge for his child's death had sent a +female monster (Poine), which tore the children from their mothers' +arms. Lambs were sacrificed, all dogs found running loose were killed, +and women and children raised a lament for Linus and Psamathe (Pausanias +i. 43. 7; Conon, _Narrat._ 19). In the Theban version, Linus, the son of +Amphimarus and the muse Urania, was a famous musician, inventor of the +Linus song, who was said to have been slain by Apollo, because he had +challenged him to a contest (Pausanias ix. 29. 6). A later story makes +him the teacher of Heracles, by whom he was killed because he had +rebuked his pupil for stupidity (Apollodorus ii. 4. 9). On Mount Helicon +there was a grotto containing his statue, to which sacrifice was offered +every year before the sacrifices to the Muses. From being the inventor +of musical methods, he was finally transformed by later writers into a +composer of prophecies and legends. He was also said to have adapted the +Phoenician letters introduced by Cadmus to the Greek language. It is +generally agreed that Linus and Ailinus are of Semitic origin, derived +from the words _ai lanu_ (woe to us), which formed the burden of the +Adonis and similar songs popular in the East. The Linus song is +mentioned in Homer; the tragedians often use the word [Greek: ailinos] +as the refrain in mournful songs, and Euripides calls the custom a +Phrygian one. Linus, originally the personification of the song of +lamentation, becomes, like Adonis, Maneros, Narcissus, the +representative of the tender life of nature and of the vegetation +destroyed by the fiery heat of the dog-star. + + The chief work on the subject is H. Brugsch, _Die Adonisklage und das + Linoslied_ (1852); see also article in Roscher's _Lexikon der + Mythologie_; J. G. Frazer, _Golden Bough_ (ii. 224, 253), where, the + identity of Linus with Adonis (possibly a corn-spirit) being assumed, + the lament is explained as the lamentation of the reapers over the + dead corn-spirit; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldculte_, ii. 281. + + + + +LINZ, capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland of Upper Austria, and +see of a bishop, 117 m. W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 58,778. It +lies on the right bank of the Danube and is connected by an iron bridge, +308 yds. long, with the market-town of Urfahr (pop. 12,827) on the +opposite bank. Linz possesses two cathedrals, one built in 1669-1682 in +rococo style, and another in early Gothic style, begun in 1862. In the +Capuchin church is the tomb of Count Raimondo Montecucculi, who died at +Linz in 1680. The museum Francisco-Carolinum, founded in 1833 and +reconstructed in 1895, contains several important collections relating +to the history of Upper Austria. In the Franz Josef-Platz stands a +marble monument, known as Trinity Column, erected by the emperor Charles +VI. in 1723, commemorating the triple deliverance of Linz from war, +fire, and pestilence. The principal manufactories are of tobacco, +boat-building, agricultural implements, foundries and cloth factories. +Being an important railway junction and a port of the Danube, Linz has a +very active transit trade. + +Linz is believed to stand on the site of the Roman station _Lentia_. The +name of Linz appears in documents for the first time in 799 and it +received municipal rights in 1324. In 1490 it became the capital of the +province above the Enns. It successfully resisted the attacks of the +insurgent peasants under Stephen Fadinger on the 21st and 22nd of July +1626, but its suburbs were laid in ashes. During the siege of Vienna in +1683, the castle of Linz was the residence of Leopold I. In 1741, during +the War of the Austrian Succession, Linz was taken by the Bavarians, but +was recovered by the Austrians in the following year. The bishopric was +established in 1784. + + See F. Krackowitzer, _Die Donaustadt Linz_ (Linz, 1901). + + + + +LION (Lat. _leo_, _leonis_; Gr. [Greek: leôn]). From the earliest +historic times few animals have been better known to man than the lion. +Its habitat made it familiar to all the races among whom human +civilization took its origin. The literature of the ancient Hebrews +abounds in allusions to the lion; and the almost incredible numbers +stated to have been provided for exhibition and destruction in the Roman +amphitheatres (as many as six hundred on a single occasion by Pompey, +for example) show how abundant these animals must have been within +accessible distance of Rome. + +Even within the historic period the geographical range of the lion +covered the whole of Africa, the south of Asia, including Syria, Arabia, +Asia Minor, Persia and the greater part of northern and central India. +Professor A. B. Meyer, director of the zoological museum at Dresden, has +published an article on the alleged existence of the lion in historical +times in Greece, a translation of which appears in the _Report_ of the +Smithsonian Institution for 1905. Meyer is of opinion that the writer of +the _Iliad_ was probably acquainted with the lion, but this does not +prove its former existence in Greece. The accounts given by Herodotus +and Aristotle merely go to show that about 500 B.C. lions existed in +some part of eastern Europe. The Greek name for the lion is very +ancient, and this suggests, although by no means demonstrates, that it +refers to an animal indigenous to the country. Although the evidence is +not decisive, it seems probable that lions did exist in Greece at the +time of Herodotus; and it is quite possible that the representation of a +lion-chase incised on a Mycenean dagger may have been taken from life. +In prehistoric times the lion was spread over the greater part of +Europe; and if, as is very probable, the so-called _Felis atrox_ be +inseparable, its range also included the greater part of North America. + +At the present day the lion is found throughout Africa (save in places +where it has been exterminated by man) and in Mesopotamia, Persia, and +some parts of north-west India. According to Dr W. T. Blanford, lions +are still numerous in the reedy swamps, bordering the Tigris and +Euphrates, and also occur on the west flanks of the Zagros mountains and +the oak-clad ranges near Shiraz, to which they are attracted by the +herds of swine which feed on the acorns. The lion nowhere exists in the +table-land of Persia, nor is it found in Baluchistan. In India it is +confined to the province of Kathiawar in Gujerat, though within the 19th +century it extended through the north-west parts of Hindustan, from +Bahawalpur and Sind to at least the Jumna (about Delhi) southward as far +as Khandesh, and in central India through the Sagur and Narbuda +territories, Bundelkund, and as far east as Palamau. It was extirpated +in Hariana about 1824. One was killed at Rhyli, in the Dumaoh district, +Sagur and Narbuda territories, so late as in the cold season of +1847-1848; and about the same time a few still remained in the valley of +the Sind river in Kotah, central India. + +[Illustration: After a Drawing by Woll in Elliot's Monograph of the +_Felidae_. + +FIG. 1.--Lion and Lioness (_Felis leo_).] + +The variations in external characters which lions present, especially in +the colour and the amount of mane, as well as in the general colour of +the fur, indicate local races, to which special names have been given; +the Indian lion being _F. leo gujratensis_. It is noteworthy, however, +that, according to Mr F. C. Selous, in South Africa the black-maned lion +and others with yellow scanty manes are found, not only in the same +locality, but even among individuals of the same parentage. + +The lion belongs to the genus _Felis_ of Linnaeus (for the characters +and position of which see CARNIVORA), and differs from the tiger and +leopard in its uniform colouring, and from all the other _Felidae_ in +the hair of the top of the head, chin and neck, as far back as the +shoulder, being not only much longer, but also differently disposed from +the hair elsewhere, being erect or directed forwards, and so +constituting the characteristic ornament called the mane. There is also +a tuft of elongated hairs at the end of the tail, one upon each elbow, +and in most lions a copious fringe along the middle line of the under +surface of the body, wanting, however, in some examples. These +characters are, however, peculiar to the adults of the male sex; and +even as regards coloration young lions show indications of the darker +stripes and mottlings so characteristic of the greater number of the +members of the genus. The usual colour of the adult is yellowish-brown, +but it may vary from a deep red or chestnut brown to an almost silvery +grey. The mane, as well as the long hair of the other parts of the body, +sometimes scarcely differs from the general colour, but is usually +darker and not unfrequently nearly black. The mane begins to grow when +the animal is about three years old, and is fully developed at five or +six. + +In size the lion is only equalled or exceeded by the tiger among +existing _Felidae_; and though both species present great variations, +the largest specimens of the latter appear to surpass the largest lions. +A full-sized South African lion, according to Selous, measures slightly +less than 10 ft. from nose to tip of tail, following the curves of the +body. Sir Cornwallis Harris gives 10 ft. 6 in., of which the tail +occupies 3 ft. The lioness is about a foot less. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Front View of Skull of Lion.] + + The internal structure of the lion, except in slight details, + resembles that of other _Felidae_, the whole organization being that + of an animal adapted for an active, predaceous existence. The teeth + especially exemplify the carnivorous type in its highest condition of + development. The most important function they have to perform, that of + seizing and holding firmly animals of considerable size and strength, + violently struggling for life, is provided for by the great, + sharp-pointed and sharp-edged canines, placed wide apart at the angles + of the mouth, the incisors between them being greatly reduced in size + and kept back nearly to the same level, so as not to interfere with + their action. The jaws are short and strong, and the width of the + zygomatic arches, and great development of the bony ridges on the + skull, give ample space for the attachment of the powerful muscles by + which they are closed. In the cheek-teeth the sectorial or + scissor-like cutting function is developed at the expense of the + tubercular or grinding, there being only one rudimentary tooth of the + latter form in the upper jaw, and none in the lower. They are, + however, sufficiently strong to break bones of large size. The tongue + is long and flat, and remarkable for the development of the papillae + of the anterior part of the dorsal surface, which (except near the + edge) are modified so as to resemble long, compressed, recurved, horny + spines or claws, which, near the middle line, attain the length of + one-fifth of an inch. They give the part of the tongue on which they + occur the appearance and feel of a coarse rasp. The feet are furnished + with round soft pads or cushions covered with thick, naked skin, one + on the under surface of each of the principal toes, and one larger one + of trilobed form, behind these, under the lower ends of the metacarpal + and metatarsal bones, which are placed nearly vertically in ordinary + progression. The claws are large, strongly compressed, sharp, and + exhibit the retractile condition in the highest degree, being drawn + backwards and upwards into a sheath by the action of an elastic + ligament so long as the foot is in a state of repose, but exerted by + muscular action when the animal strikes its prey. + +The lion lives chiefly in sandy plains and rocky places interspersed +with dense thorn-thickets, or frequents the low bushes and tall rank +grass and reeds that grow along the sides of streams and near the +springs where it lies in wait for the larger herbivorous animals on +which it feeds. Although occasionally seen abroad during the day, +especially in wild and desolate regions, where it is subject to little +molestation, the night is, as in the case of so many other predaceous +animals, the period of its greatest activity. It is then that its +characteristic roar is chiefly heard, as thus graphically described by +Gordon-Cumming:-- + + "One of the most striking things connected with the lion is his voice, + which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It consists at times + of a low deep moaning, repeated five or six times, ending in faintly + audible sighs; at other times he startles the forest with loud, + deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated in quick succession, each + increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his voice dies + away in five or six low muffled sounds very much resembling distant + thunder. At times, and not unfrequently, a troop may be heard, roaring + in concert, one assuming the lead, and two, three or four more + regularly taking up their parts, like persons singing a catch. Like + our Scottish stags at the rutting season, they roar loudest in cold + frosty nights; but on no occasions are their voices to be heard in + such perfection, or so intensely powerful, as when two or three troops + of strange lions approach a fountain to drink at the same time. When + this occurs, every member of each troop sounds a bold roar of defiance + at the opposite parties; and when one roars, all roar together, and + each seems to vie with his comrades in the intensity and power of his + voice. The power and grandeur of these nocturnal concerts is + inconceivably striking and pleasing to the hunter's ear." + +"The usual pace of a lion," C. J. Andersson says, "is a walk, and, +though apparently rather slow, yet, from the great length of his body, +he is able to get over a good deal of ground in a short time. +Occasionally he trots, when his speed is not inconsiderable. His +gallop--or rather succession of bounds--is, for a short distance, very +fast--nearly or quite equal to that of a horse." + +"The lion, as with other members of the feline family," the same writer +says, "seldom attacks his prey openly, unless compelled by extreme +hunger. For the most part he steals upon it in the manner of a cat, or +ambushes himself near to the water or a pathway frequented by game. At +such times he lies crouched upon his belly in a thicket until the animal +approaches sufficiently near, when, with one prodigious bound, he pounces +upon it. In most cases he is successful, but should his intended victim +escape, as at times happens, from his having miscalculated the distance, +he may make a second or even a third bound, which, however, usually prove +fruitless, or he returns disconcerted to his hiding-place, there to wait +for another opportunity." His food consists of all the larger herbivorous +animals of the country in which he resides--buffaloes, antelopes, zebras, +giraffes or even young elephants or rhinoceroses. In cultivated districts +cattle, sheep, and even human inhabitants are never safe from his +nocturnal ravages. He appears, however, as a general rule, only to kill +when hungry or attacked, and not for the mere pleasure of killing, as +with some other carnivorous animals. He, moreover, by no means limits +himself to animals of his own killing, but, according to Selous, often +prefers eating game that has been killed by man, even when not very +fresh, to taking the trouble to catch an animal himself. + +The lion appears to be monogamous, a single male and female continuing +attached to each other irrespectively of the pairing season. At all +events the lion remains with the lioness while the cubs are young and +helpless, and assists in providing her and them with food, and in +educating them in the art of providing for themselves. The number of +cubs at a birth is from two to four, usually three. They are said to +remain with their parents till they are about three years old. + +Though not strictly gregarious, lions appear to be sociable towards +their own species, and often are found in small troops sometimes +consisting of a pair of old ones with their nearly full-grown cubs, but +occasionally of adults of the same sex; and there seems to be evidence +that several lions will associate for the purpose of hunting upon a +preconcerted plan. Their natural ferocity and powerful armature are +sometimes turned upon one another; combats, often mortal, occur among +male lions under the influence of jealousy; and Andersson relates an +instance of a quarrel between a hungry lion and lioness over the carcase +of an antelope which they had just killed, and which did not seem +sufficient for the appetite of both, ending in the lion not only +killing, but devouring his mate. Old lions, whose teeth have become +injured with constant wear, become "man-eaters," finding their easiest +means of obtaining a subsistence in lurking in the neighbourhood of +villages, and dashing into the tents at night and carrying off one of +the sleeping inmates. Lions never climb. + +With regard to the character of the lion, those who have had +opportunities of observing it in its native haunts differ greatly. The +accounts of early writers as to its courage, nobility and magnanimity +have led to a reaction, causing some modern authors to accuse it of +cowardice and meanness. Livingstone goes so far as to say, "nothing that +I ever learned of the lion could lead me to attribute to it either the +ferocious or noble character ascribed to it elsewhere," and he adds that +its roar is not distinguishable from that of the ostrich. These different +estimates depend to a great extent upon the particular standard of the +writer, and also upon the circumstance that lions, like other animals, +show considerable individual differences in character, and behave +differently under varying circumstances. (W. H. F.; R. L.*) + + + + +LIONNE, HUGUES DE (1611-1671), French statesman, was born at Grenoble on +the 11th of October 1611, of an old family of Dauphiné. Early trained +for diplomacy, his remarkable abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal +Mazarin, who sent him as secretary of the French embassy to the congress +of Münster, and, in 1642, on a mission to the pope. In 1646 he became +secretary to the queen regent; in 1653 obtained high office in the +king's household; and in 1654 was ambassador extraordinary at the +election of Pope Alexander VII. He was instrumental in forming the +league of the Rhine, by which Austria was cut off from the Spanish +Netherlands, and, as minister of state, was associated with Mazarin in +the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), which secured the marriage of Louis +XIV. to the infanta Maria Theresa. At the cardinal's dying request he +was appointed his successor in foreign affairs, and, for the next ten +years, continued to direct French foreign policy. Among his most +important diplomatic successes were the treaty of Breda (1667), the +treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) and the sale of Dunkirk. He died in +Paris on the 1st of September 1671, leaving memoirs. He was a man of +pleasure, but his natural indolence gave place to an unflagging energy +when the occasion demanded it; and, in an age of great ministers, his +consummate statesmanship placed him in the front rank. + + See Ulysse Chevalier, _Lettres inédites de Hugues de Lionne ... + précédées d'une notice historique sur la famille de Lionne_ (Valence, + 1879); J. Valfrey, _La diplomatie française au XVIII^e siècle: + Hugues de Lionne, ses ambassadeurs_ (2 vols., Paris, 1877-1881). For + further works see Rochas, _Biogr. du Dauphiné_ (Paris, 1860), tome ii. + p. 87. + + + + +LIOTARD, JEAN ETIENNE (1702-1789), French painter, was born at Geneva. +He began his studies under Professor Gardelle and Petitot, whose enamels +and miniatures he copied with considerable skill. He went to Paris in +1725, studying under J. B. Massé and F. le Moyne, on whose +recommendation he was taken to Naples by the Marquis Puysieux. In 1735 +he was in Rome, painting the portraits of Pope Clement XII. and several +cardinals. Three years later he accompanied Lord Duncannon to +Constantinople, whence he went to Vienna in 1742 to paint the portraits +of the imperial family. His eccentric adoption of oriental costume +secured him the nickname of "the Turkish painter." Still under +distinguished patronage he returned to Paris in 1744, visited England, +where he painted the princess of Wales in 1753, and went to Holland in +1756, where, in the following year, he married Marie Fargues. Another +visit to England followed in 1772, and in the next two years his name +figures among the Royal Academy exhibitors. He returned to his native +town in 1776 and died at Geneva in 1789. + +Liotard was an artist of great versatility, and though his fame depends +largely on his graceful and delicate pastel drawings, of which "La +Liseuse," the "Chocolate Girl," and "La Belle Lyonnaise" at the Dresden +Gallery are delightful examples, he achieved distinction by his enamels, +copper-plate engravings and glass painting. He also wrote a _Treatise on +the Art of Painting_, and was an expert collector of paintings by the +old masters. Many of the masterpieces he had acquired were sold by him +at high prices on his second visit to England. The museums of Amsterdam, +Berne, and Geneva are particularly rich in examples of his paintings and +pastel drawings. A picture of a Turk seated is at the Victoria and +Albert Museum, while the British Museum owns two of his drawings. The +Louvre has, besides twenty-two drawings, a portrait of General Hérault +and a portrait of the artist is to be found at the Sala dei pittori, in +the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. + + See _La Vie et les oeuvres de Jean Etienne Liotard (1702-1789), étude + biographique et iconographique_, by E. Humbert, A. Revilliod, and J. + W. R. Tilanus (Amsterdam, 1897). + + + + +LIP (a word common in various forms, to Teutonic languages, cf Ger. +_Lippe_, Dan. _laebe_; Lat. _labium_ is cognate), one of the two fleshy +protuberant edges of the mouth in man and other animals, hence +transferred to such objects as resemble a lip, the edge of a circular or +other opening, as of a shell, or of a wound, or of any fissure in +anatomy and zoology; in this last usage the Latin _labium_ is more +usually employed. It is also used of any projecting edge, as in +coal-mining, &c. Many figurative uses are derived from the connexion +with the mouth as the organ of speech. In architecture "lip moulding" is +a term given to a moulding employed in the Perpendicular period, from +its resemblance to an overhanging lip. It is often found in base +mouldings, and is not confined to England, there being similar examples +in France and Italy. + + + + +LIPA, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +about 90 m. S. by E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 37,934. Lipa is on high +ground at the intersection of old military roads, is noted for its cool +and healthy climate, and is one of the largest and wealthiest inland +towns of the archipelago. Many of its houses have two storeys above the +ground-floor, and its church and convent together form a very large +building. The surrounding country is very fertile, producing sugar-cane, +Indian corn, cacao, tobacco and indigo. The cultivation of coffee was +begun here on a large scale about the middle of the 19th century and was +increased gradually until 1889-1890 when an insect pest destroyed the +trees. The language of Lipa is Tagalog. + + + + +LIPAN, a tribe of North American Indians of Athabascan stock. Their +former range was central Texas. Later they were driven into Mexico. They +were pure nomads, lived entirely by hunting, and were perhaps the most +daring of the Texas Indians. A few survivors were brought back from +Mexico in 1905 and placed on a reservation in New Mexico. + + + + +LIPARI ISLANDS (anc. [Greek: Aiolou nêsoi], or _Aeoliae Insulae_), a +group of volcanic islands N. of the eastern portion of Sicily. They are +seven in number--Lipari (_Lipara_, pop. in 1901, 15,290), Stromboli +(_Strongyle_), Salina (_Didyme_, pop. in 1901, 4934), Filicuri +(_Phoenicusa_), Alicuri (_Ericusa_), Vulcano (_Hiera_, _Therasia_ or +_Thermissa_), the mythical abode of Hephaestus, and Panaria +(_Euonymus_). The island of Aiolie, the home of Aiolos, lord of the +winds, which Ulysses twice visited in his wanderings, has generally been +identified with one of this group. A colony of Cnidians and Rhodians was +established on Lipara in 580-577 B.C.[1] The inhabitants were allied +with the Syracusans, and were attacked by the Athenian fleet in 427 +B.C., and by the Carthaginians in 397 B.C., while Agathocles plundered a +temple on Lipara in 301 B.C. During the Punic wars the islands were a +Carthaginian naval station of some importance until the Romans took +possession of them in 252 B.C. Sextus Pompeius also used them as a naval +base. Under the Empire the islands served as a place of banishment for +political prisoners. In the middle ages they frequently changed hands. +The island of Lipari contains the chief town (population in 1901, 5855), +which bears the same name and had municipal rights in Roman times. It is +the seat of a bishop. It is fertile and contains sulphur springs and +vapour baths, which were known and used in ancient times. Pumicestone is +exported. + +Stromboli, 22 m. N.E. of Lipari, is a constantly active volcano, +ejecting gas and lava at brief intervals, and always visible at night. +Salina, 3 m. N.W. of Lipari, consisting of the cones of two extinct +volcanoes, that on the S.E., Monte Salvatore (3155 ft.), being the +highest point in the islands, is the most fertile of the whole group and +produces good Malmsey wine: it takes its name from the salt-works on the +south coast. Vulcano, ½ m. S. of Lipari, contains a still smoking +crater. Sulphur works were started in 1874, have since been abandoned. + + See Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria, _Die Liparischen Inseln_, 8 + vols. (for private circulation) (Prague, 1893 seqq.). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Greek coins of the Lipari Islands are preserved in the museum at + Cefalù. + + + + +LIPETSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, 108 m. by rail +W. of the city of Tambov, on the right bank of the river Voronezh. Pop. +(1897) 16,353. The town is built of wood and the streets are unpaved. +There are sugar, tallow, and leather works, and distilleries, and an +active trade in horses, cattle, tallow, skins, honey and timber. The +Lipetsk mineral springs (chalybeate) came into repute in the time of +Peter the Great and attract a good many visitors. + + + + +LIPPE, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. It rises +near Lippspringe under the western declivity of the Teutoburger Wald, +and, after being joined by the Alme, the Pader and the Ahse on the left, +and by the Stever on the right, flows into the Rhine near Wesel, after a +course of 154 m. It is navigable downwards from Lippstadt, for boats and +barges, by the aid of twelve locks, drawing less than 4 ft. of water. +The river is important for the transport facilities it affords to the +rich agricultural districts of Westphalia. + + + + +LIPPE, a principality of Germany and constituent state of the German +empire, bounded N.W., W. and S. by the Prussian province of Westphalia +and N.E. and E. by the Prussian provinces of Hanover and Hesse-Nassau +and the principality of Waldeck-Pyrmont. It also possesses three small +enclaves--Kappel and Lipperode in Westphalia and Grevenhagen near +Höxter. The area is 469 sq. m., and the population (1905) 145,610, +showing a density of 125 to the sq. m. The greater part of the surface +is hilly, and in the S. and W., where the Teutoburger Wald practically +forms its physical boundary, mountainous. The chief rivers are the +Weser, which crosses the north extremity of the principality, and its +affluents, the Werre, Exter, Kalle and Emmer. The Lippe, which gives its +name to the country, is a purely Westphalian river and does not touch +the principality at any point. The forests of Lippe, among the finest in +Germany, produce abundance of excellent timber. They occupy 28% of the +whole area, and consist mostly of deciduous trees, beech preponderating. +The valleys contain a considerable amount of good arable land, the +tillage of which employs the greater part of the inhabitants. Small +farms, the larger proportion of which are under 2½ acres, are numerous, +and their yield shows a high degree of prosperity among the peasant +farmers. The principal crops are potatoes, beetroot (for sugar), hay, +rye, oats, wheat and barley. Cattle, sheep and swine are also reared, +and the "Senner" breed of horses, in the stud farm at Lopshorn, is +celebrated. The industries are small and consist mainly in the +manufacture of starch, paper, sugar, tobacco, and in weaving and +brewing. Lemgo is famous for its meerschaum pipes and Salzuflen for its +brine-springs, producing annually about 1500 tons of salt, which is +mostly exported. Each year, in spring, about 15,000 brickmakers leave +the principality and journey to other countries, Hungary, Sweden and +Russia, to return home in the late autumn. + +The roads are well laid and kept in good repair. A railway intersects +the country from Herford (on the Cologne-Hanover main line) to +Altenbeken; and another from Bielefeld to Hameln traverses it from W. to +E. More than 95% of the population in 1905 were Protestants. Education +is provided for by two gymnasia and numerous other efficient schools. +The principality contains seven small towns, the chief of which are +Detmold, the seat of government, Lemgo, Horn and Blomberg. The present +constitution was granted in 1836, but it was altered in 1867 and again +in 1876. It provides for a representative chamber of twenty-one members, +whose functions are mainly consultative. For electoral purposes the +population is divided into three classes, rated according to taxation, +each of which returns seven members. The courts of law are centred at +Detmold, whence an appeal lies to the court of appeal at Celle in the +Prussian province of Hanover. The estimated revenue in 1909 was £113,000 +and the expenditure £116,000. The public debt in 1908 was £64,000. Lippe +has one vote in the German Reichstag, and also one vote in the +Bundesrat, or federal council. Its military forces form a battalion of +the 6th Westphalian infantry. + +_History._--The present principality of Lippe was inhabited in early +times by the Cherusii, whose leader Arminius (Hermann) annihilated in +A.D. 9 the legions of Varus in the Teutoburger Wald. It was afterwards +occupied by the Saxons and was subdued by Charlemagne. The founder of +the present reigning family, one of the most ancient in Germany, was +Bernard I. (1113-1144), who received a grant of the territory from the +emperor Lothair, and assumed the title of lord of Lippe (_edler Herr von +Lippe_). He was descended from a certain Hoold who flourished about 950. +Bernard's successors inherited or obtained several counties, and one of +them, Simon III. (d. 1410), introduced the principles of primogeniture. +Under Simon V. (d. 1536), who was the first to style himself count, the +Reformation was introduced into the country. His grandson, Simon VI. +(1555-1613), is the ancestor of both lines of the princes of Lippe. In +1613 the country, as it then existed, was divided among his three sons, +the lines founded by two of whom still exist, while the third (Brake) +became extinct in 1709. Lippe proper was the patrimony of the eldest +son, Simon VII. (1587-1627), upon whose descendant Frederick William +Leopold (d. 1802) the title of prince of the empire was bestowed in +1789, a dignity already conferred, though not confirmed, in 1720. +Philip, the youngest son of Simon VI., received but a scanty part of his +father's possessions, but in 1640 he inherited a large part of the +countship of Schaumburg, including Bückeburg, and adopted the title of +count of Schaumburg-Lippe. The ruler of this territory became a +sovereign prince in 1807. Simon VII. had a younger son, Jobst Hermann +(d. 1678), who founded the line of counts of Lippe-Biesterfeld, and a +cadet branch of this family were the counts of Lippe-Weissenfeld. In +1762 these two counties--Biesterfeld and Weissenfeld--passed by +arrangement into the possession of the senior and ruling branch of the +family. Under the prudent government of the princess Pauline (from 1802 +to 1820), widow of Frederick William Leopold, the little state enjoyed +great prosperity. In 1807 it joined the Confederation of the Rhine and +in 1813 the German Confederation. Pauline's son, Paul Alexander Leopold, +who reigned from 1820 to 1851, also ruled in a wise and liberal spirit, +and in 1836 granted the charter of rights upon which the constitution is +based. In 1842 Lippe entered the German Customs Union (_Zollverein_), +and in 1866 threw in its lot with Prussia and joined the North German +Confederation. + + + The Lippe succession dispute. + +The line of rulers in Lippe dates back, as already mentioned, to Simon +VI. But besides this, the senior line, the two collateral lines of +counts, Lippe-Biesterfeld and Lippe-Weissenfeld and the princely line of +Schaumburg-Lippe, also trace their descent to the same ancestor, and +these three lines stand in the above order as regards their rights to +the Lippe succession, the counts being descended from Simon's eldest son +and the princes from his youngest son. These facts were not in dispute +when in March 1895 the death of Prince Woldemar, who had reigned since +1875, raised a dispute as to the succession. Woldemar's brother +Alexander, the last of the senior line, was hopelessly insane and had +been declared incapable of ruling. On the death of Woldemar, Prince +Adolph of Schaumburg-Lippe, fourth son of Prince Adolph George of that +country and brother-in-law of the German emperor, took over the regency +by virtue of a decree issued by Prince Woldemar, but which had until the +latter's death been kept secret. The Lippe house of representatives +consequently passed a special law confirming the regency in the person +of Prince Adolph, but with the proviso that the regency should be at an +end as soon as the disputes touching the succession were adjusted; and +with a further proviso that, should this dispute not have been settled +before the death of Prince Alexander, then, if a competent court of law +had been secured before that event happened, the regency of Prince +Adolph should continue until such court had given its decision. The +dispute in question had arisen because the heads of the two collateral +countly lines had entered a _caveat_. In order to adjust matters the +Lippe government moved the _Bundesrat_, on the 5th of July 1895, to pass +an imperial law declaring the _Reichsgericht_ (the supreme tribunal of +the empire) a competent court to adjudicate upon the claims of the rival +lines to the succession. In consequence the Bundesrat passed a +resolution on the 1st of February 1896, requesting the chancellor of the +empire to bring about a compromise for the appointment of a court of +arbitration between the parties. Owing to the mediation of the +chancellor a compact was on the 3rd of July 1896 concluded between the +heads of the three collateral lines of the whole house of Lippe, binding +"both on themselves and on the lines of which they were the heads." By +clause 2 of this compact, a court of arbitration was to be appointed, +consisting of the king of Saxony and six members selected by him from +among the members of the supreme court of law of the empire. This court +was duly constituted, and on the 22nd of June 1897 delivered judgment to +the effect that Count Ernest of Lippe-Biesterfeld, head of the line of +Lippe-Biesterfeld, was entitled to succeed to the throne of Lippe on the +death of Prince Alexander. In consequence of this judgment Prince Adolph +resigned the regency and Count Ernest became regent in his stead. On the +26th of September 1904 Count Ernest died and his eldest son, Count +Leopold, succeeded to the regency; but the question of the succession +was again raised by the prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, who urged that the +marriage of Count William Ernest, father of Count Ernest, with Modeste +von Unruh, and that of the count regent Ernest himself with Countess +Carline von Wartensleben were not _ebenbürtig_ (equal birth), and that +the issue of these marriages were therefore excluded from the +succession. Prince George of Schaumburg-Lippe and the count regent, +Leopold, thereupon entered into a compact, again referring the matter to +the Bundesrat, which requested the chancellor of the empire to agree to +the appointment of a court of arbitration consisting of two civil +senates of the supreme court, sitting at Leipzig, to decide finally the +matter in dispute. It was further provided in the compact that Leopold +should remain as regent, even after the death of Alexander, until the +decision of the court had been given. Prince Alexander died on the 13th +of January 1905; Count Leopold remained as regent, and on the 25th of +October the court of arbitration issued its award, declaring the +marriages in question (which were, as proved by document, contracted +with the consent of the head of the house in each case) _ebenbürtig_, +and that in pursuance of the award of the king of Saxony the family of +Lippe-Biesterfeld, together with the collateral lines sprung from Count +William Ernest (father of the regent, Count Ernest) were in the order of +nearest agnates called to the succession. Leopold (b. 1871) thus became +prince of Lippe. + + See A. Falkmann, _Beiträge zur Geschichte des Fürstenthums Lippe_ + (Detmold, 1857-1892; 6 vols.); Schwanold, _Das Fürstentum Lippe, das + Land und seine Bewohner_ (Detmold, 1899); Piderit, _Die lippischen + Edelherrn im Mittelalter_ (Detmold, 1876); A. Falkmann and O. Preuss, + _Lippische Regenten_ (Detmold, 1860-1868); H. Triepel, _Der Streit um + die Thronfolge im Fürstentum Lippe_ (Leipzig, 1903); and P. Laband, + _Die Thronfolge im Fürstentum Lippe_ (Freiburg, 1891); and + _Schiedsspruch in dem Rechtstreit über die Thronfolge im Fürstentum + Lippe vom 25 Okt. 1905_ (Leipzig, 1906). + + + + +LIPPI, the name of three celebrated Italian painters. + +I. FRA FILIPPO LIPPI (1406-1469), commonly called Lippo Lippi, one of +the most renowned painters of the Italian quattrocento, was born in +Florence--his father, Tommaso, being a butcher. His mother died in his +childhood, and his father survived his wife only two years. His aunt, a +poor woman named Monna Lapaccia, then took charge of the boy; and in +1420, when fourteen years of age, he was registered in the community of +the Carmelite friars of the Carmine in Florence. Here he remained till +1432, and his early faculty for fine arts was probably developed by +studying the works of Masaccio in the neighbouring chapel of the +Brancacci. Between 1430 and 1432 he executed some works in the +monastery, which were destroyed by a fire in 1771; they are specified by +Vasari, and one of them was particularly marked by its resemblance to +Masaccio's style. Eventually Fra Filippo quitted his convent, but it +appears that he was not relieved from some sort of religious vow; in a +letter dated in 1439 he speaks of himself as the poorest friar of +Florence, and says he is charged with the maintenance of six +marriageable nieces. In 1452 he was appointed chaplain to the convent of +S. Giovannino in Florence, and in 1457 rector (_Rettore Commendatario_) +of S. Quirico at Legania, and his gains were considerable and uncommonly +large from time to time; but his poverty seems to have been chronic, the +money being spent, according to one account, in frequently recurring +amours. + +Vasari relates some curious and romantic adventures of Fra Filippo, +which modern biographers are not inclined to believe. Except through +Vasari, nothing is known of his visits to Ancona and Naples, and his +intermediate capture by Barbary pirates and enslavement in Barbary, +whence his skill in portrait-sketching availed to release him. This +relates to a period, 1431-1437, when his career is not otherwise clearly +accounted for. The doubts thrown upon his semi-marital relations with a +Florentine lady appear, however, to be somewhat arbitrary; Vasari's +account is circumstantial, and in itself not greatly improbable. Towards +June 1456 Fra Filippo was settled in Prato (near Florence) for the +purpose of fulfilling a commission to paint frescoes in the choir of the +cathedral. Before actually undertaking this work he set about painting, +in 1458, a picture for the convent chapel of S. Margherita of Prato, and +there saw Lucrezia Buti, the beautiful daughter of a Florentine, +Francesco Buti; she was either a novice or a young lady placed under the +nuns' guardianship. Lippi asked that she might be permitted to sit to +him for the figure of the Madonna (or it might rather appear of S. +Margherita); he made passionate love to her, abducted her to his own +house, and kept her there spite of the utmost efforts the nuns could +make to reclaim her. The fruit of their loves was a boy, who became the +painter, not less celebrated than his father, Filippino Lippi (noticed +below). Such is substantially Vasari's narrative, published less than a +century after the alleged events; it is not refuted by saying, more than +three centuries later, that perhaps Lippo had nothing to do with any +such Lucrezia, and perhaps Lippino was his adopted son, or only an +ordinary relative and scholar. The argument that two reputed portraits +of Lucrezia in paintings by Lippo are not alike, one as a Madonna in a +very fine picture in the Pitti gallery, and the other in the same +character in a Nativity in the Louvre, comes to very little; and it is +reduced to nothing when the disputant adds that the Louvre painting is +probably not done by Lippi at all. Besides, it appears more likely that +not the Madonna in the Louvre but a S. Margaret in a picture now in the +Gallery of Prato is the original portrait (according to the tradition) +of Lucrezia Buti. + +The frescoes in the choir of Prato cathedral, being the stories of the +Baptist and of St Stephen, represented on the two opposite wall spaces, +are the most important and monumental works which Fra Filippo has left, +more especially the figure of Salome dancing, and the last of the +series, showing the ceremonial mourning over Stephen's corpse. This +contains a portrait of the painter, but which is the proper figure is a +question that has raised some diversity of opinion. At the end wall of +the choir are S. Giovanni Gualberto and S. Alberto, and on the ceiling +the four evangelists. + +The close of Lippi's life was spent at Spoleto, where he had been +commissioned to paint, for the apse of the cathedral, some scenes from +the life of the Virgin. In the semidome of the apse is Christ crowning +the Madonna, with angels, sibyls and prophets. This series, which is not +wholly equal to the one at Prato, was completed by Fra Diamante after +Lippi's death. That Lippi died in Spoleto, on or about the 8th of +October 1469, is an undoubted fact; the mode of his death is again a +matter of dispute. It has been said that the pope granted Lippi a +dispensation for marrying Lucrezia, but that, before the permission +arrived, he had been poisoned by the indignant relatives either of +Lucrezia herself, or of some lady who had replaced her in the inconstant +painter's affections. This is now generally regarded as a fable; and +indeed a vendetta upon a man aged sixty-three for a seduction committed +at the already mature age of fifty-two seems hardly plausible. Fra +Filippo lies buried in Spoleto, with a monument erected to him by +Lorenzo the Magnificent; he had always been zealously patronized by the +Medici family, beginning with Cosimo, Pater Patriae. Francesco di +Pesello (called Pesellino) and Sandro Botticelli were among his most +distinguished pupils. + + In 1441 Lippi painted an altarpiece for the nuns of S. Ambrogio which + is now a prominent attraction in the Academy of Florence, and has been + celebrated in Browning's well-known poem. It represents the coronation + of the Virgin among angels and saints, of whom many are Bernardine + monks. One of these, placed to the right, is a half-length portrait of + Lippo, pointed out by an inscription upon an angel's scroll "Is + perfecit opus." The price paid for this work in 1447 was 1200 + Florentine lire, which seems surprisingly large. For Germiniano + Inghirami of Prato he painted the "Death of St Bernard," a fine + specimen still extant. His principal altarpiece in this city is a + Nativity in the refectory of S. Domenico--the Infant on the ground + adored by the Virgin and Joseph, between Sts George and Dominic, in a + rocky landscape, with the shepherds playing and six angels in the sky. + In the Uffizi is a fine Virgin adoring the infant Christ, who is held + by two angels; in the National Gallery, London, a "Vision of St + Bernard." The picture of the "Virgin and Infant with an Angel," in + this same gallery, also ascribed to Lippi, is disputable. + + Few pictures are so thoroughly enjoyable as those of Lippo Lippi; they + show the naiveté of a strong, rich nature, redundant in lively and + somewhat whimsical observation. He approaches religious art from its + human side, and is not pietistic though true to a phase of Catholic + devotion. He was perhaps the greatest colourist and technical adept of + his time, with good draughtsmanship--a naturalist, with less vulgar + realism than some of his contemporaries, and with much genuine + episodical animation, including semi-humorous incidents and low + characters. He made little effort after perspective and none for + foreshortenings, was fond of ornamenting pilasters and other + architectural features. Vasari says that Lippi was wont to hide the + extremities in drapery to evade difficulties. His career was one of + continual development, without fundamental variation in style or in + colouring. In his great works the proportions are larger than life. + + Along with Vasari's interesting and amusing, and possibly not very + unauthentic, account of Lippo Lippi, the work of Crowe and + Cavalcaselle should be consulted. Also: E. C. Strutt, _Fra Lippo + Lippi_ (1901); C. M. Phillimore, _Early Florentine Painters_ (1881); + B. Supino, _Fra Filippo Lippi_ (illustrated) (1902). It should be + observed that Crowe and Cavalcaselle give 1412 as the date of the + painter's birth, and this would make a considerable difference in + estimating details of his after career. We have preferred to follow + the more usual account. The self-portrait dated 1441 looks like a man + much older than twenty-nine. + +II. FILIPPINO, or LIPPINO LIPPI (1460-1505), was the natural son of Fra +Lippo Lippi and Lucrezia Buti, born in Florence and educated at Prato. +Losing his father before he had completed his tenth year, the boy took +up his avocation as a painter, studying under Sandro Botticelli and +probably under Fra Diamante. The style which he formed was to a great +extent original, but it bears clear traces of the manner both of Lippo +and of Botticelli--more ornamental than the first, more realistic and +less poetical than the second. His powers developed early; for we find +him an accomplished artist by 1480, when he painted an altarpiece, the +"Vision of St Bernard," now in the Badia of Florence; it is in tempera, +with almost the same force as oil painting. Soon afterwards, probably +from 1482 to 1490, he began to work upon the frescoes which completed +the decoration of the Brancacci chapel in the Carmine, commenced by +Masolino and Masaccio many years before. He finished Masaccio's +"Resurrection of the King's Son," and was the sole author of "Paul's +Interview with Peter in Prison," the "Liberation of Peter," the "Two +Saints before the Proconsul" and the "Crucifixion of Peter." These works +are sufficient to prove that Lippino stood in the front rank of the +artists of his time. The dignified and expressive figure of St Paul in +the second-named subject has always been particularly admired, and +appears to have furnished a suggestion to Raphael for his "Paul at +Athens." Portraits of Luigi Pulci, Antonio Pollajuolo, Lippino himself +and various others are in this series. In 1485 he executed the great +altarpiece of the "Virgin and Saints," with several other figures, now +in the Uffizi Gallery. Another of his leading works is the altarpiece +for the Nerli chapel in S. Spirito--the "Virgin Enthroned," with +splendidly living portraits of Nerli and his wife, and a thronged +distance. In 1489 Lippino was in Rome, painting in the church of the +Minerva, having first passed through Spoleto to design the monument for +his father in the cathedral of that city. Some of his principal frescoes +in the Minerva are still extant, the subjects being in celebration of St +Thomas Aquinas. In one picture the saint is miraculously commended by a +crucifix; in another, triumphing over heretics. In 1496 Lippino painted +the "Adoration of the Magi" now in the Uffizi, a very striking picture, +with numerous figures. This was succeeded by his last important +undertaking, the frescoes in the Strozzi chapel, in the church of S. +Maria Novella in Florence--"Drusiana Restored to Life by St John, the +Evangelist," "St John in the Cauldron of Boiling Oil" and two subjects +from the legend of St Philip. These are conspicuous and attractive +works, yet somewhat grotesque and exaggerated--full of ornate +architecture, showy colour and the distinctive peculiarities of the +master. Filippino, who had married in 1497, died in 1505. The best +reputed of his scholars was Raffaellino del Garbo. + + Like his father, Filippino had a most marked original genius for + painting, and he was hardly less a chief among the artists of his time + than Fra Filippo had been in his; it may be said that in all the + annals of the art a rival instance is not to be found of a father and + son each of whom had such pre-eminent natural gifts and leadership. + The father displayed more of sentiment and candid sweetness of motive; + the son more of richness, variety and lively pictorial combination. He + was admirable in all matters of decorative adjunct and presentment, + such as draperies, landscape backgrounds and accessories; and he was + the first Florentine to introduce a taste for antique details of + costume, &c. He formed a large collection of objects of this kind, and + left his designs of them to his son. In his later works there is a + tendency to a mannered development of the extremities, and generally + to facile overdoing. The National Gallery, London, possesses a good + and characteristic though not exactly a first-rate specimen of + Lippino, the "Virgin and Child between Sts Jerome and Dominic"; also + an "Adoration of the Magi," of which recent criticism contests the + authenticity. Crowe and Cavalcaselle, supplemented by the writings of + Berenson, should be consulted as to this painter. An album of his + works is in Newnes' Art-library. + +III. LORENZO LIPPI (1606-1664), painter and poet, was born in Florence. +He studied painting under Matteo Rosselli, the influence of whose style, +and more especially of that of Santi di Tito, is to be traced in Lippi's +works, which are marked by taste, delicacy and a strong turn for +portrait-like naturalism. His maxim was "to poetize as he spoke, and to +paint as he saw." After exercising his art for some time in Florence, +and having married at the age of forty the daughter of a rich sculptor +named Susini, Lippi went as court painter to Innsbruck, where he has +left many excellent portraits. There he wrote his humorous poem named +_Malmantile Racquistato_, which was published under the anagrammatic +pseudonym of "Perlone Zipoli." Lippi was somewhat self-sufficient, and, +when visiting Parma, would not look at the famous Correggios there, +saying that they could teach him nothing. He died of pleurisy in 1664, +in Florence. + + The most esteemed works of Lippi as a painter are a "Crucifixion" in + the Uffizi gallery at Florence, and a "Triumph of David" which he + executed for the saloon of Angiolo Galli, introducing into it + portraits of the seventeen children of the owner. The _Malmantile + Racquistato_ is a burlesque romance, mostly compounded out of a + variety of popular tales; its principal subject-matter is an + expedition for the recovery of a fortress and territory whose queen + had been expelled by a female usurper. It is full of graceful or racy + Florentine idioms, and is counted by Italians as a "testo di lingua." + Lippi is more generally or more advantageously remembered by this poem + than by anything which he has left in the art of painting. It was not + published until 1688, several years after his death. Lanzi as to + Lorenzo Lippi's pictorial work, and Tiraboschi and other literary + historians as to his writings, are among the best authorities. + (W. M. R.) + + + + +LIPPSPRINGE, a town and watering-place in the Prussian province of +Westphalia, lying under the western slope of the Teutoburger Wald, 5 m. +N. of Paderborn. Pop. (1905) 3100. The springs, the Arminius Quelle and +the Liborius Quelle, for which it is famous, are saline waters of a +temperature of 70° F., and are utilized both for bathing and drinking in +cases of pulmonary consumption and chronic diseases of the respiratory +organs. The annual number of visitors amounts to about 6000. Lippspringe +is mentioned in chronicles as early as the 9th century, and here in the +13th century the order of the Templars established a stronghold. It +received civic rights about 1400. + + See Dammann, _Der Kurort Lippspringe_ (Paderborn, 1900); Königer, + _Lippspringe_ (Berlin, 1893); and Frey, _Lippspringe, Kurort für + Lungenkranke_ (Paderborn, 1899). + + + + +LIPPSTADT, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the river +Lippe, 20 m. by rail W. by S. of Paderborn, on the main line to +Düsseldorf. Pop. (1905) 15,436. The Marien Kirche is a large edifice in +the Transitional style, dating from the 13th century. It has several +schools, among them being one which was originally founded as a nunnery +in 1185. The manufactures include cigar-making, distilling, +carriage-building and metal-working. + +Lippstadt was founded in 1168 by the lords of Lippe, the rights over one +half of the town passing subsequently by purchase to the counts of the +Mark, which in 1614 was incorporated with Brandenburg. In 1850 the +prince of Lippe-Detmold sold his share to Prussia when this joint +lordship ceased. In 1620 Lippstadt was occupied by the Spaniards and in +1757 by the French. + + See Chalybäus, _Lippstadt, ein Beitrag zur deutschen Städtegeschichte_ + (Lippstadt, 1876). + + + + +LIPSIUS, JUSTUS (1547-1606), the Latinized name of Joest (Juste or +Josse) Lips, Belgian scholar, born on the 18th of October (15th of +November, according to Amiel) 1547 at Overyssche, a small village in +Brabant, near Brussels. Sent early to the Jesuit college in Cologne, he +was removed at the age of sixteen to the university of Louvain by his +parents, who feared that he might be induced to become a member of the +Society of Jesus. The publication of his _Variarum Lectionum Libri Tres_ +(1567), dedicated to Cardinal Granvella, procured him an appointment as +Latin secretary and a visit to Rome in the retinue of the cardinal. Here +Lipsius remained two years, devoting his spare time to the study of the +Latin classics, collecting inscriptions and examining MSS. in the +Vatican. A second volume of miscellaneous criticism (_Antiquarum +Lectionum Libri Quinque_, 1575), published after his return from Rome, +compared with the _Variae Lectiones_ of eight years earlier, shows that +he had advanced from the notion of purely conjectural emendation to that +of emending by collation. In 1570 he wandered over Burgundy, Germany, +Austria, Bohemia, and was engaged for more than a year as teacher in the +university of Jena, a position which implied an outward conformity to +the Lutheran Church. On his way back to Louvain, he stopped some time at +Cologne, where he must have comported himself as a Catholic. He then +returned to Louvain, but was soon driven by the Civil War to take refuge +in Antwerp, where he received, in 1579, a call to the newly founded +university of Leiden, as professor of history. At Leiden, where he must +have passed as a Calvinist, Lipsius remained eleven years, the period of +his greatest productivity. It was now that he prepared his _Seneca_, +perfected, in successive editions, his _Tacitus_ and brought out a +series of works, some of pure scholarship, others collections from +classical authors, others again of general interest. Of this latter +class was a treatise on politics (_Politicorum Libri Sex_, 1589), in +which he showed that, though a public teacher in a country which +professed toleration, he had not departed from the state maxims of Alva +and Philip II. He lays it down that a government should recognize only +one religion, and that dissent should be extirpated by fire and sword. +From the attacks to which this avowal exposed him, he was saved by the +prudence of the authorities of Leiden, who prevailed upon him to publish +a declaration that his expression, _Ure, seca_, was a metaphor for a +vigorous treatment. In the spring of 1590, leaving Leiden under pretext +of taking the waters at Spa, he went to Mainz, where he was reconciled +to the Roman Catholic Church. The event deeply interested the Catholic +world, and invitations poured in on Lipsius from the courts and +universities of Italy, Austria and Spain. But he preferred to remain in +his own country, and finally settled at Louvain, as professor of Latin +in the Collegium Buslidianum. He was not expected to teach, and his +trifling stipend was eked out by the appointments of privy councillor +and historiographer to the king of Spain. He continued to publish +dissertations as before, the chief being his _De militia romana_ +(Antwerp, 1595) and _Lovanium_ (Antwerp, 1605; 4th ed., Wesel, 1671), +intended as an introduction to a general history of Brabant. He died at +Louvain on the 23rd of March (some give 24th of April) 1606. + +Lipsius's knowledge of classical antiquity was extremely limited. He had +but slight acquaintance with Greek, and in Latin literature the poets +and Cicero lay outside his range. His greatest work was his edition of +Tacitus. This author he had so completely made his own that he could +repeat the whole, and offered to be tested in any part of the text, with +a poniard held to his breast, to be used against him if he should fail. +His _Tacitus_ first appeared in 1575, and was five times revised and +corrected--the last time in 1606, shortly before his death. His _Opera +Omnia_ appeared in 8 vols. at Antwerp (1585, 2nd ed., 1637). + + A full list of his publications will be found in van der Aa, + _Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden_ (1865), and in + _Bibliographie Lipsienne_ (Ghent, 1886-1888). In addition to the + biography by A. le Mire (Aubertus Miraeus) (1609), the only original + account of his life, see M. E. C. Nisard, _Le Triumvirat littéraire au + XVI^e siècle_ (1852); A. Räss, _Die Convertiten seit der + Reformation_ (1867); P. Bergman's _Autobiographie de J. Lipse_ (1889); + L. Galesloot, _Particularités sur la vie de J. Lipse_ (1877); E. + Amiel, _Un Publiciste du XVI^e siècle. Juste Lipse_ (1884); and L. + Müller, _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden_. + The articles by J. J. Thonissen of Louvain in the _Nouvelle Biographie + générale_, and L. Roersch in _Biographie nationale de Belgique_, may + also be consulted. + + + + +LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT (1830-1892), German Protestant theologian, son +of K. H. A. Lipsius (d. 1861), who was rector of the school of St Thomas +at Leipzig, was born at Gera on the 14th of February 1830. He studied at +Leipzig, and eventually (1871) settled at Jena as professor ordinarius. +He helped to found the "Evangelical Protestant Missionary Union" and the +"Evangelical Alliance," and from 1874 took an active part in their +management. He died at Jena on the 19th of August 1892. Lipsius wrote +principally on dogmatics and the history of early Christianity from a +liberal and critical standpoint. A Neo-Kantian, he was to some extent an +opponent of Albrecht Ritschl, demanding "a connected and consistent +theory of the universe, which shall comprehend the entire realm of our +experience as a whole. He rejects the doctrine of dualism in a truth, +one division of which would be confined to 'judgments of value,' and be +unconnected with our theoretical knowledge of the external world. The +possibility of combining the results of our scientific knowledge with +the declarations of our ethico-religious experience, so as to form a +consistent philosophy, is based, according to Lipsius, upon the unity of +the personal ego, which on the one hand knows the world scientifically, +and on the other regards it as the means of realizing the +ethico-religious object of its life" (Otto Pfleiderer). This, in part, +is his attitude in _Philosophie und Religion_ (1885). In his _Lehrbuch +der evang.-prot. Dogmatik_ (1876; 3rd ed., 1893) he deals in detail with +the doctrines of "God," "Christ," "Justification" and the "Church." From +1875 he assisted K. Hase, O. Pfleiderer and E. Schrader in editing the +_Jahrbücher für prot. Theologie_, and from 1885 till 1891 he edited the +_Theol. Jahresbericht_. + + His other works include _Die Pilatusakten_ (1871, new ed., 1886), + _Dogmatische Beiträge_ (1878), _Die Quellen der ältesten + Ketzergeschichte_ (1875), _Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten_ + (1883-1890), _Hauptpunkte der christl. Glaubenslehre im Umriss + dargestellt_ (1889), and commentaries on the Epistles to the + Galatians, Romans and Philippians in H. J. Holtzmann's _Handkommentar + zum Neuen Testament_ (1891-1892). + + + + +LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHNSTONE, BART. (1850- ), British merchant, was +born at Glasgow in 1850, of Irish parents. At a very early age he was +employed as errand boy to a Glasgow stationer; at fifteen he emigrated +to America, where at first he worked in a grocery store, and afterwards +as a tram-car driver in New Orleans, as a traveller for a portrait firm, +and on a plantation in South Carolina. Eventually, having saved some +money, he returned to Glasgow and opened a small provision shop. +Business gradually increased, and by degrees Lipton had provision shops +first all over Scotland and then all over the United Kingdom. To supply +his retail shops on the most favourable terms, he purchased extensive +tea, coffee and cocoa plantations in Ceylon, and provided his own +packing-house for hogs in Chicago, and fruit farms, jam factories, +bakeries and bacon-curing establishments in England. In 1898 his +business was converted into a limited liability company. At Queen +Victoria's diamond jubilee in 1897 he gave £20,000 for providing dinners +for a large number of the London poor. In 1898 he was knighted, and in +1902 was made a baronet. In the world of yacht-racing he became well +known from his repeated attempts to win the America Cup. + + + + +LIQUEURS, the general term applied to perfumed or flavoured potable +spirits, sweetened by the addition of sugar. The term "liqueur" is also +used for certain wines and unsweetened spirits of very superior quality, +or remarkable for their bouquet, such as tokay or fine old brandy or +whisky. The basis of all the "liqueurs" proper consists of (a) +relatively strong alcohol or spirit, which must be as pure and neutral +as possible; (b) sugar or syrup; and (c) flavouring matters. There are +three distinct main methods of manufacturing liqueurs. The first, by +which liqueurs of the highest class are prepared, is the "distillation" +or "alcoholate" process. This consists in macerating various aromatic +substances such as seeds, leaves, roots and barks of plants, &c., with +strong spirit and subsequently distilling the infusion so obtained +generally in the presence of a whole or a part of the solid matter. The +mixture of spirit, water and flavouring matters which distils over is +termed the "alcoholate." To this is added a solution of sugar or syrup, +and frequently colouring matter in the shape of harmless vegetable +extracts or burnt sugar, and a further quantity of flavouring matter in +the shape of essential oils or clear spirituous vegetable extracts. The +second method of making liqueurs is that known as the "essence" process. +It is employed, as a rule, for cheap and inferior articles; the process +resolving itself into the addition of various essential oils, either +natural or artificially prepared, and of spirituous extracts to strong +spirit, filtering and adding the saccharine matter to the clear +filtrate. The third method of manufacturing liqueurs is the "infusion" +process, in which alcohol and sugar are added to various fresh fruit +juices. Liqueurs prepared by this method are frequently called +"cordials." It has been suggested that "cordials" are articles of home +manufacture, and that liqueurs are necessarily of foreign origin, but it +is at least doubtful whether this is entirely correct. The French, who +excel in the preparation of liqueurs, grade their products, according to +their sweetness and alcoholic strength, into _crêmes_, _huiles_ or +_baumes_, which have a thick, oily consistency; and _eaux_, _extraits_ +or _élixirs_, which, being less sweetened, are relatively limpid. +Liqueurs are also classed, according to their commercial quality and +composition, as _ordinaires_, _demi-fines_, _fines_ and _sur-fines_. +Certain liqueurs, containing only a single flavouring ingredient, or +having a prevailing flavour of a particular substance, are named after +that body, for instance, _crême de vanille_, _anisette_, _kümmel_, +_crême de menthe_, &c. On the other hand, many well-known liqueurs are +compounded of very numerous aromatic principles. The nature and +quantities of the flavouring agents employed in the preparation of +liqueurs of this kind are kept strictly secret, but numerous "recipes" +are given in works dealing with this subject. Among the substances +frequently used as flavouring agents are aniseed, coriander, fennel, +wormwood, gentian, sassafras, amber, hyssop, mint, thyme, angelica, +citron, lemon and orange peel, peppermint, cinnamon, cloves, iris, +caraway, tea, coffee and so on. The alcoholic strength of liqueurs +ranges from close on 80% of alcohol by volume in some kinds of absinthe, +to 27% in anisette. The liqueur industry is a very considerable one, +there being in France some 25,000 factories. Most of these are small, +but some 600,000 gallons are annually exported from France alone. For +absinthe, benedictine, chartreuse, curaçoa, kirsch and vermouth see +under separate headings. Among other well-known trade liqueurs may be +mentioned maraschino, which takes its name from a variety of cherry--the +marasca--grown in Dalmatia, the centre of the trade being at Zara; +kümmel, the flavour of which is largely due to caraway seeds; allasch, +which is a rich variety of kümmel; and cherry and other "fruit" brandies +and whiskies, the latter being perhaps more properly termed cordials. + + See Duplais, _La Fabrication des liqueurs_; and Rocques, _Les + Eaux-de-vie et liqueurs_. + + + + +LIQUIDAMBAR, LIQUID AMBER or SWEET GUM, a product of _Liquidambar +styraciflua_ (order Hamamelideae), a deciduous tree of from 80 to 140 +ft. high, with a straight trunk 4 or 5 ft. in diameter, a native of the +United States, Mexico and Central America. It bears palmately-lobed +leaves, somewhat resembling those of the maple, but larger. The male and +female inflorescences are on different branches of the same tree, the +globular heads of fruit resembling those of the plane. This species is +nearly allied to _L. orientalis_, a native of a very restricted portion +of the south-west coast of Asia Minor, where it forms forests. The +earliest record of the tree appears to be in a Spanish work by F. +Hernandez, published in 1651, in which he describes it as a large tree +producing a fragrant gum resembling liquid amber, whence the name (_Nov. +Plant._, &c., p. 56). In Ray's _Historia Plantarum_ (1686) it is called +_Styrax liquida_. It was introduced into Europe in 1681 by John +Banister, the missionary collector sent out by Bishop Compton, who +planted it in the palace gardens at Fulham. The wood is very compact and +fine-grained--the heart-wood being reddish, and, when cut into planks, +marked transversely with blackish belts. It is employed for veneering in +America. Being readily dyed black, it is sometimes used instead of ebony +for picture frames, balusters, &c.; but it is too liable to decay for +outdoor work. + + The gum resin yielded by this tree has no special medicinal virtues, + being inferior in therapeutic properties to many others of its class. + Mixed with tobacco, the gum was used for smoking at the court of the + Mexican emperors (Humboldt iv. 10). It has long been used in France as + a perfume for gloves, &c. It is mainly produced in Mexico, little + being obtained from trees growing in higher latitudes of North + America, or in England. + + + + +LIQUIDATION (i.e. making "liquid" or clear), in law, the clearing off or +settling of a debt. The word was more especially used in bankruptcy law +to define the method by which, under the Bankruptcy Act 1869, the +affairs of an insolvent debtor were arranged and a composition accepted +by his creditors without actual bankruptcy. It was abolished by the +Bankruptcy Act 1883 (see BANKRUPTCY). In a general sense, liquidation is +used for the act of adjusting debts, as the Egyptian Law of Liquidation, +July 1880, for a general settlement of the liabilities of Egypt. In +company law, liquidation is the winding up and dissolving a company. The +winding up may be either voluntary or compulsory, and an officer, termed +a liquidator, is appointed, who takes into his custody all the property +of the company and performs such duties as are necessary on its behalf +(see COMPANY). + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 16, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41472 *** |