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diff --git a/41409-0.txt b/41409-0.txt index 4831255..58a0bf0 100644 --- a/41409-0.txt +++ b/41409-0.txt @@ -1,38 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Old Rome, by Robert Burn - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Old Rome - A Handbook to the Ruins of the City and the Campagna - - -Author: Robert Burn - - - -Release Date: November 19, 2012 [eBook #41409] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD ROME*** - - -E-text prepared by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -(http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41409 *** Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. @@ -10171,362 +10137,4 @@ Transcriber's note: Footnote 16 appears on page 21 of the text, but there is no corresponding marker on the page. - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD ROME*** - - -******* This file should be named 41409-0.txt or 41409-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/1/4/0/41409 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Old Rome - A Handbook to the Ruins of the City and the Campagna - - -Author: Robert Burn - - - -Release Date: November 19, 2012 [eBook #41409] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD ROME*** - - -E-text prepared by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -(http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 41409-h.htm or 41409-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41409/41409-h/41409-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41409/41409-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - http://archive.org/details/oldromehandbookt00burn - - -Transcriber's note: - - The original text includes Greek characters that have been - replaced with transliterations in this text version. - - - - - -OLD ROME: - -A Handbook to the Ruins of the City and the Campagna. - -by - -ROBERT BURN, M.A., -Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. - -Being an Epitome of His Larger Work 'Rome and the Campagna.' - - - - - - - -[Illustration] - -London: George Bell and Sons, York Street, -Covent Garden. -Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, & Co. -1880. - -[The Right of Translation is reserved.] - -London: -Printed by William Clowes and Sons, -Stamford Street and Charing Cross. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -This book is intended to serve as a handbook to the actually-existing -ruins and monuments of ancient Rome and the Campagna. It is divided into -topographical sections for the convenience of travellers visiting Rome, -and the monuments which exist in each section have been briefly described, -and a summary given of their history and archæological value. - -The introductory section contains general remarks upon the site, -monumental history, and architecture of Rome; and in a section prefixed to -Chapter IX. the nature of the soil and configuration of the hills and -valleys of the district surrounding the city are stated. - -In the Appendix to the eighth chapter will be found a list of the chief -monumental antiquities in the museums, galleries, and other public places. -This has been thought to be useful, as these are often difficult to -recognise from being mixed with so many other attractive and important -objects of more modern art and history. All speculative conjectures as to -the probable sites or constructions of ancient buildings or places have -been avoided. Such questions require more space than can be spared in so -small a volume, and have been fully treated of in my larger work, "Rome -and the Campagna." - -I have confined myself in this handbook to a brief topographical, -archæological, and historical description of each existing ruin or -monument. The references given have been restricted to modern treatises -and to a few of the more rarely read Greek and Latin authors. Full -classical authorities are given in "Rome and the Campagna," and are -referred to in the foot-notes of this handbook. - -The importance of topographical and archæological knowledge, in enabling -us to realise the history of ancient life, both national and social, is -fortunately becoming more and more generally recognised. The early growth -and characteristic features of the Roman commonwealth can be traced in -great measure to the conformation of the ground on which the community was -first developed. Such local influences are among the highest and most -philosophical parts of historical investigation, and have a most important -value in enabling us to form an estimate of the truth of statements made -by the ancient writers of history. - -Besides this interest which pervades the early stage of Roman history, -there is also a natural connection, by way of cause or explanation, -between the events of later times and the localities in which they -occurred; and this in social as well as in national history. Many Roman -customs and usages, now extinct, are illustrated and realised by the -knowledge gained from monuments of ancient architecture and art. And -again, the spirit of Roman literature is more fully sympathised with, and -its difficult passages and allusions are frequently elucidated by the -light of archæological knowledge. - -Thus there is not only the poetical and imaginative satisfaction, which is -usually felt most vividly in treading the soil, surveying the scenes, and -breathing the air in which great historical persons lived and events -occurred, but also an element of fact which gives a firm basis of -incontestable truth to our knowledge, and which no speculative -interpretation can dissolve. - -It is hoped, therefore, that even such an abridged description of ruins, -and such a summary of archæological results as that which forms the basis -of the present volume, will not be without use to the student of history, -as well as a guide to the traveller. - -In the chapter on the ruins of the Campagna I have inserted some -statements on the geological formations, and on the climate, which appear -to have influenced the history and the architecture of that district. - -The books from which useful information has been derived are, in addition -to those mentioned in the list given in "Rome and the Campagna," some of -the later numbers of "Annali dell' Instituto," a small treatise called -"Guida del Palatino," by C. L. Visconti and R. A. Lanciani, and "A -Topographical Study of the Roman Forum," by Mr. F. M. Nichols. - -ROBERT BURN. - - CAMBRIDGE. - _Sept. 24, 1879._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION 1 - - CHAPTER I. - - THE PALATINE AND VELIA 14 - - CHAPTER II. - - THE FORUM ROMANUM 38 - - CHAPTER III. - - THE COLISEUM AND ESQUILINE 58 - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE IMPERIAL FORA AND THE CAPITOLIUM 83 - - CHAPTER V. - - THE VELABRUM AND THE CIRCUS FLAMINIUS 103 - - CHAPTER VI. - - PANTHEON, COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS, MAUSOLEUM OF - AUGUSTUS, MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN, AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 127 - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE QUIRINAL HILL--BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN--AGGER OF - SERVIUS--CASTRA PRÆTORIA 153 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE AVENTINE AND CÆLIAN HILLS 161 - - APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VIII. MONUMENTAL ANTIQUITIES IN THE - MUSEUMS, PIAZZAS, AND OTHER PLACES 177 - - INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER IX 185 - - CHAPTER IX. - - A. THE VIA APPIA AND THE ALBAN HILLS 194 - B. THE VIA LATINA AND TUSCULUM 210 - C. GABII AND PRÆNESTE 219 - D. OSTIA AND PORTO 229 - E. TIBUR 235 - F. NORTH-WESTERN CAMPAGNA 256 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE - - TEMPLE OF JUPITER _Title page._ - - TEMPLE OF SATURN, ETC. 47 - - ARCH OF SEVERUS 53 - - COLISEUM, FROM THE PALATINE HILL 62 - - COLUMN OF TRAJAN 85 - - FORUM OF NERVA, IN 1600 95 - - PALATINE HILL, TEMPLE OF HERCULES, AND CLOACA MAXIMA 109 - - THEATRE OF MARCELLUS 113 - - PANTHEON 130 - - THE QUIRINAL HILL FROM THE PALATINE 154 - - ARCH OF DOLABELLA 175 - - PEDESTAL OF ANTONINE COLUMN 179 - - CONE FROM THE TOP OF HADRIAN'S MAUSOLEUM 180 - - CIRCUS OF MAXENTIUS 213 - - TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIBUR 250 - - PONTE NOMENTANO 258 - - - - -MAPS, PLANS, &c. - - - PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME, WITH RAILWAYS 1 - - PLAN OF THE HILLS OF ROME 2 - - MOST ANCIENT ROME 2 - - ROME, THE PRESENT WALLS, AND WALLS OF AURELIAN 4 - - PLAN OF THE PALATINE HILL 14 - - PLAN OF RUINS IN THE FORUM ROMANUM 38 - - PLAN OF MONS OPPIUS 73 - - FORA OF THE CÆSARS 82 - - THE CIRCUS FLAMINIUS 122 - - FRAGMENTS OF PIANTA CAPITOLINA--THEATRE OF POMPEY 124 - - THE THERMÆ OF DIOCLETIAN 154 - - THE SERVIAN WALLS 156 - - THE BATHS OF CARACALLA 166 - - GEOLOGICAL MAP OF ROME 185 - - PLAN OF THE ALBAN HILLS AND GABII 202 - - PLAN OF THE AREA OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER ON MONTE CAVO 206 - - PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNE AT PRÆNESTE 224 - - PLAN OF OSTIA AND PORTO 229 - - PLAN OF HADRIANEUM, NEAR TIVOLI 236 - - PLAN OF TIVOLI 248 - - MAP OF ANCIENT ROADS 256 - - ICHNOGRAPHIA 261 - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -OLD ROME: - -A HANDBOOK TO THE RUINS OF THE CITY AND THE CAMPAGNA. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -I.--THE SITE OF ROME AND THE WALLS OF ROME. - -One of the principal points in the early history of every nation is the -effect of the natural configuration of the country in which their first -settlements are formed upon the subsequent character of the people. - -The site of Rome consists of several separate hills, upon which distinct -groups of original settlers established themselves. These groups after a -temporary rivalry seem to have agreed to form a confederation, in which -the leading part was assigned to the Palatine settlement. Such was the -origin of that special aptitude shown by the Romans for forming coalitions -with rival states, and also of that most valuable trait in their political -character, their reverence for law as laid down by a central authority, -for each group was taught by their confederate union to regard itself as -sharing that central authority. Hence, the historian Livy remarks that -under the Roman Republic which built up the power of Rome, the command of -law was superior to that of men. But besides this aptitude for confederate -union and respect for central authority which the nature of the site seems -to have instilled into them, the Romans were also taught by it a readiness -to meet their enemies in the open field, and not to trust much to the -protection of steep crags or fortified posts. None of the hills of Rome -afforded a strong acropolis, such as most other ancient cities possessed. -The Capitol of Rome was by no means impregnable. Its central depression -rendered it always more or less accessible and liable to be seized by a -powerful enemy. The Palatine, though partially fortified, was never -considered a strong position. Hence we find that the Servian walls were -the only fortifications erected to protect Rome for more than eight -hundred years, from the time of Servius down to that of Aurelian. The -statement of Strabo, that the absence of fortifications round Rome was to -be accounted for by the native spirit of the Romans, which was "to defend -their walls by their men, and not their men by their walls," is evidently -full of meaning. - - -II.--MONUMENTAL HISTORY. - -Relics of the two great public works executed during the regal period of -Roman history still remain in the venerable stone arches of the main drain -which was constructed to make the Forum valley more habitable, and in the -rough portions of the Servian walls which have been found on the Aventine -and Quirinal Hills. It is probable that the ruined walls at the edge of -the Palatine are anterior to the monuments of the time of Servius. - -Of the earlier republican period of Roman history there are no monumental -ruins now existing. The ruins which have been excavated on the Capitoline -Hill and the basement of the Temple of Vesta in the Forum date from the -regal epoch. And this is what might be naturally expected from the dislike -of a republican government to require the forced labour anciently called -for in the erection of large buildings. - -But in the later period of the Roman republic some of the oligarchical -leaders and successful generals constructed large buildings, of which -traces can now be found. Thus the foundations of the temples and of the -portico built in the Campus Martius by Metellus Macedonicus and by Cn. -Octavius can be still recognised, and ruins of the immense stone theatre -of Pompeius Magnus remain to the present day. But the greater portion of -the ruins of Rome dates from the Augustan age and the subsequent imperial -ages. First among them stands the Pantheon, which has kept its roof and -its original structure uninjured through the storms and earthquakes and -the wasting hand of time during more than nineteen centuries. It bears the -date of B.C. 27 on the frieze of its portico. The Theatre of Marcellus -must be next mentioned, and the Mausoleum of Augustus. To the Julian -dynasty may be also ascribed the colossal columns of the Temple of Mars -Ultor, with the huge wall adjoining them, and the Egyptian obelisks which -still decorate some of the piazzas. To the same dynasty we owe the vast -arches of the Claudian aqueduct, and the massive brick foundation of the -Palatine palace. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: ROMA ANTIQUISSIMA.] - -The Flavian dynasty, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian changed the -characteristic features of the city of Rome. Where Caligula and Nero had -covered the ground with costly palaces and pleasure-grounds, the Flavian -emperors built the resorts of military and of national life. The Coliseum -and the Arch of Titus were the fit accompaniments of their world-subduing, -blood-thirsty legions, and the Baths of Titus, and the public reception -rooms on the Palatine, encouraged the citizen life of Rome once more to -develop itself. - -The political aims and imperial ideas of Trajan, Hadrian and the Antonines -are nobly illustrated by the modifications and enlargements they -introduced in the structure and extent of the city of Rome. Trajan in his -magnificent Forum and library sought to encourage the metropolitan life -and literary tastes of the nation, while on his storied column he recorded -their world-wide triumphs and reminded them of their enormous power. - -The Mausoleum of Hadrian remains to commemorate the vast and ponderous -strength of his rule, and the Aurelian Column stands to attest the lofty -magnificence of the Antonine dynasty. - - * * * * * - -In the reign of Commodus, between the Antonine era and the time of -Severus, a great fire devastated the central districts of Rome. The -restorations effected by Severus and the popular policy of his successors -are commemorated in the Arch of Severus, the Portico of the Pantheon, and -the huge ruins of the Baths of Caracalla. The defensive power of the Roman -nation then became gradually weaker and weaker, till in sixty years after -the time of Caracalla, Aurelian commenced the sad task of home -fortification. His walls, which were completed a hundred years later by -Honorius, still surround the greater part of Rome. During these hundred -years the power of the Constantinian rule, of which the great basilica and -arch remain monuments, and the warlike courage of Diocletian revived for a -time the imperial spirit at Rome. - -The last and most familiar of the monuments which follow the transfer of -power from Rome to Constantinople is the Column of Phocas in the Forum, -erected when three centuries of desolation had followed the grandeur of -Constantine and his dynasty. - -The Vatican Hill and the northern end of the Transtiberine district were -not enclosed within walls till the time of Pope Leo IV. He undertook in -A.D. 848 the enclosure of St. Peter's and the Vatican Hill, thus forming -that district into a separate town, which was named after the Pope Civitas -Leoniana. The western wall of this enclosure may still be traced by its -ruins in the garden of the Vatican palace. After the successive -destructions and minor repairs of the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and -thirteenth centuries, in 1527 the architect San Gallo was employed to -erect huge bastions on the wall of Rome, which he placed chiefly between -the Porta Ostiense and the Porta Appia. In 1628 Pope Urban VIII. restored -the walls on the left bank, and subsequently in 1642 he proceeded to erect -the walls which now stand between the Porta Portese and the Porta -Cavallegieri, where the arms of that Pope are still affixed to the walls. -This was the final important addition to the main walls of the city. - - -III.--ROMAN BUILDING AND ARCHITECTURE. - -The earliest form of Roman masonry, consisting of rectangular tufa blocks -placed in layers alternately parallel to and across the line of the wall, -so as to bind the mass together firmly, may be best seen in the ancient -fragments of the Servian wall on the Aventine and the Quirinal Hills and -in the ruins on the western slope of the Palatine. This kind of building -is the natural product of the peculiar parallel cleavage in the -tufaceous rocks of the Roman hills. In those parts of the Campagna where -basalt rather than tufa becomes the usual material, as at Præneste, we -find polygonal masonry. One specimen of a mode of construction anterior to -the introduction of the arch into Roman masonry is left us at Rome. This -is the vault of the old well-house near the Capitol called the Mamertine -Prison, where we find overlapping horizontal blocks of stone which -originally met in a conical roof, but are now truncated and capped by a -mass of stones cramped together with iron. That the principle of the arch -was known in the regal period of Rome is shown by the great arch of the -Cloaca Maxima. But no arches remain of so early a date which are not -subterranean, and it is not likely that the arch was used in the early -temples at Rome. These were, as we learn from Vitruvius, constructed in -the so-called Tuscan style, which was the Italian contemporary of the -Greek Doric. It is possible that the columns in the walls of S. Maria in -Cosmedin, which are placed at unusual distances from each other, may have -been an imperial restoration of the Temple of Ceres, after the old Tuscan -fashion (Fig. 1). The next modification of architectural style, which is -usually called, from the general influence of the Greek colonists on Latin -art, the Tusco-Doric order, may be seen in the lowest range of columns and -bases in the Theatre of Marcellus. The shaft of these columns is much more -slender than in the Grecian Doric, and only partially fluted, if at all; -while a cima recta is substituted for the echinus of the capitals (Figs. 2 -and 3). The position of the triglyphs and the proportions of the cornice -were also much changed, and the whole effect became less massive and bold -than that of the Tuscan temples. - -[Illustration: ROME THE PRESENT WALLS AND THE WALLS OF AURELIAN] - -The ancient Tuscan arrangement of the interior of temples remained after -this modification of their columns and capitals. The three ruins which now -occupy the most prominent place at the northern end of the Forum, the -Temples of Saturn, of Concord, and of Vespasian, all retain the plan -called prostylos by Vitruvius. The Temple of Concord is especially -remarkable for the union of a broad Tuscan cella with a narrow Greek -portico. An alteration peculiarly Roman was made in the cella of the -Greek temple. Instead of surrounding this part of a temple with rows of -columns, the Romans clothed it with pilasters, thus introducing the mode -of construction deservedly stigmatised by Vitruvius, under the name -pseudoperipteral (Fig. 4). This may be seen in the ruin commonly called by -the name of the Temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.] - -The Greek Ionic order became known and employed by the Romans early in the -third century B.C. The Tomb of Scipio Barbatus shows the Ionic volute and -dentil mixed with the Doric triglyph and gutta. The Roman alterations in -the Ionic capital may be best seen in the pillars of the Temple of Saturn, -and in the second range of columns surrounding the Theatre of Marcellus -and the Coliseum. Specimens may also be seen in the basilica of S. -Lorenzo fuori le Mura, and in the church of S. Maria in Trastevere, which -have been transferred from the ancient temples. The distinctive Roman -modification was the position of the volutes diagonally instead of -laterally (Figs. 5 and 6). - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.] - -It is supposed that the first introduction of the Greek Corinthian order -into Rome was brought about by the barbarian act of Sulla, in transporting -the columns of the Temple of Zeus from Athens to the Capitoline Temple of -Jupiter. Of the remaining specimens of this order in Rome, the portico of -the Pantheon is the oldest. In that building the capitals appear somewhat -shorter and broader than in the later examples, at the ruins of the Temple -of Castor in the Forum (Fig. 7), and in the peristyle of Nerva's Forum -called the Colonnacce. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.] - -The Composite capital, for it can hardly be called an order, as there is -nothing in the entablature or the base to distinguish it from the -Corinthian, was formed probably under the patronage of the early emperors. -The earliest instance we have of it now extant in Rome, is in the Arch of -Titus (Fig. 8) and there are only three other ruins where it is found. -These are, the Arch of Septimius Severus, the Arch of the Goldsmiths, and -the Baths of Diocletian, at Sta. Maria degli Angeli, where it is mixed up -with Corinthian capitals. The peculiar combination of which it consists, -the superposition of the Ionic volutes upon two rings of Corinthian -acanthus leaves, is not generally considered a very happy artistic -design. Hope says of it, that "instead of being a new creation of genius, -it gave evidence of poverty to invent and ignorance to combine," and -Fergusson is hardly more complimentary to the Roman architects. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.] - -But though we must deny to this Roman adaptation of Greek forms the credit -of originality, or even of symmetrical design, yet its rich appearance was -peculiarly suited to the lavish ornamentation with which the Roman -emperors delighted to trick out their palaces and halls, and it well -represents to us the character of the Roman imperial architecture, with -its indiscriminate combination of mouldings and profusion of gaudy detail. - -The three great triumphal arches of Titus, Septimius Severus, and -Constantine at Rome, and also the Arch of Drusus, are decorated with an -unmeaning and foreign dress. In the Arch of Constantine alone, the columns -which stand in front are in some measure justified by the statues they -support. - -Of the minor archways at Rome, that of Gallienus has Corinthian pilasters -in the roughest style of art, the Janus Quadrifrons probably had rows of -Corinthian columns between its niches, and the small gateway near it has -decorative pilasters with Composite capitals. On the other hand, the Arch -of Dolabella on the Cælian, which has a single line as cornice, and the -Porta S. Lorenzo are examples of the striking effect of a simple arch -without Greek ornament. The unmeaning pediments and tasteless columns with -which most of these arches are adorned, remind us of Pope's recipe for the -front of a villa, "Clap four slices of pilaster on't; that, laid with bits -of rustic, makes a front." - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.] - -Colossal columns were as genuine a creation of Imperial Rome as triumphal -arches. In both the sculpture had become subordinate to the pedestal. The -idea of placing a statue upon the top of a column was probably unknown to -the Greeks, or at least, never carried out on the immense scale of the two -great Roman Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. It must not, however, -be forgotten, that the Column of Trajan, and probably also that of Marcus -Aurelius, was enclosed within a narrow court, and that the bas-reliefs -were intended to be seen from the roofs and windows of the surrounding -buildings. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.] - -Some of the most characteristic remains of the Roman national taste in -architecture are the Mausoleum of Hadrian, and the Tombs of Cæcilia -Metella and of Plautius. The ponderous walls of these massive and -indestructible marvels of masonry were essentially Roman, but in their -external decorations we find a strange combination of foreign designs. The -Mausoleum of Hadrian was dressed up with an array of pilasters, columns, -and statues, and the Mausoleum of Augustus was covered with terraces and -trees, in imitation of the Temple of Belus at Babylon. - -The most conspicuous among the Roman appropriations of foreign monumental -designs were the oriental obelisks which were brought from Egypt, and -erected in the Circi at Rome and in front of some of the buildings, and -some of which still stand in the piazzas of modern Rome. The remains of -eleven of these have been found. The Romans often misused them by placing -them alone, and not following the Egyptian method of always setting them -in pairs. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.] - -The huge vaulted arches of brick-work and concrete which remain in the -Baths of Caracalla, and the Basilica of Constantine, and the massive -arches of the Claudian Aqueduct, are the glory of Roman architecture. For -the Coliseum, astounding as are its durability and massive grandeur, is -not so illustrative of the special Roman development of the use of the -arch and of brick-work as are the other great ruins just mentioned. We see -embodied in them the indomitable energy which bridged the valleys and -tunnelled through the hills, but which possessed no eye for fine -proportion of outline or symmetrical and harmonious combination of -details. Brickwork was the material in which the characteristic Roman -ruins were executed. The Coliseum and the Theatre of Marcellus are dressed -in Greek robes, while the brick arches of the aqueducts, and the massive -structure of the Baths of Caracalla reflect the peculiar genius and -character of the Roman imperial power. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.] - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE PALATINE AND VELIA. - - -The entrance to the ruins on the Palatine Hill is now made through a -gateway opposite to the Basilica of Constantine. This gateway was erected -by the architect Vignola in the sixteenth century as an approach to the -Farnese Gardens, which formerly occupied the north-western part of the -Palatine Hill. On the right and left hand of the gateway are placed two -ancient pedestals, which were discovered near the Arch of Septimius -Severus in 1547. One of these, which stands on the right hand, supported -an equestrian statue of Constantius, erected by Neratius Cerealis, prefect -of the city in A.D. 353, in commemoration of the expulsion from Italy and -death of Maxentius.[1] On the left side pedestal, a representation of the -Suovetaurilia is sculptured in bas-relief, and the decennalia vota, or ten -years' good wishes to Constantius and Galerius are mentioned. The side of -the hill at the back of the gateway of Vignola is terraced at several -levels, on the third of which ascending from the entrance, a part of the -pavement of an old road, probably the Clivus Victoriæ, leads to the right. -The line of this clivus is represented in the marble plan now on the -staircase of the Capitoline Museum which plan was made in the time of -Septimius Severus. - - INDEX TO THE PLAN OF THE PALATINE RUINS. - - 1, 2. Entrance. - 3. Clivus Victoriæ. - 4. Museum. - 5. Water reservoir. - 6. Fragments of ruins. - 7. Altar of Calvinus. - 8. Fragments of ruin. - 9. Domus Gelotiana. - 10. Figure of crucified ass. - 11. Stadium Palatinum. - 12. Exedra. - 13. Baths. - 14. Palatine Belvedere. - 15. Imperial Box over Circus. - 16. Augustan Palace. - 17. Ruin called the Academy. - 18. Triclinium. - 19. Viridarium. - 20. Peristylium. - 21. Smaller chambers. - 22. Basilica. - 23. Imperial reception hall. - 24. Lararium. - 25. Area Palatina. - 26. Fragment of ancient ruin. - 27. Clivus Palatinus. - 28. Porta Mugionia. - 29. Temple of Jupiter Stator. - 30. Walls of substruction. - 31. Cryptoporticus. - 32. Subterranean passage. - 33. Piscina. - 34. House of Tiberius. - 35. Well. - 36. Unknown ruins. - 37. So-called Temple of Jupiter Victor. - 38. Uncertain basements. Scala Caci. - 39. So-called Auguratorium. - 40. Soldiers' quarters. - 41. Garden. - 42, 43. Staircase and substructions of Caligula's buildings. - 44. Ruins of lavacrum of Heliogabalus. - - ----> Path to be followed. - -_To face Plan on p. 14._ - -[Illustration: GENERAL PLAN OF THE RUINS ON THE PALATINE] - -[Sidenote: Clivus Victoriæ] - -The basalt paving stones of this road are well preserved. On the right -hand proceeding towards the northern angle of the hill lie a number of -fragments of ancient houses, among which were probably the house bought by -Clodius and that of Cicero. These houses appear to have looked down upon -the Forum, since Cicero speaks of raising his house in order to exclude -Clodius from the sight of the city which he had hoped to destroy.[2] -Other houses of the Roman nobility of the later republican times were -probably placed on this side of the Palatine, in order to be near the -Forum and the places of political and social meetings.[3] - -[Sidenote: Porta Romanula.] - -The Museum in which are collected the various fragments of statuary and -antiquarian interest which have been found in the late excavations on the -Palatine has been placed in the ground-floor of the casina which stands -near the Clivus Victoriæ. The ancient road is then overreached and arched -over by the extensions of the Palatine imperial palace built by Caligula, -under which it passes to the site of the ancient Porta Romanula.[4] Most -of the chambers on the left were probably occupied by the guards of the -gateway, and the graffiti they contain are of a character which confirms -this supposition. - -Outside the Porta Romanula the road bends round the hill along the side -which looks towards the Capitoline. The first ruins to be seen under the -slope of the hill here are the remains of a portico of the republican era, -constructed of tufa with reticular-work facings. This portico has been -supposed to be possibly that which Lutatius Catulus built after his -victory over the Cimbri in the Area Flacciana, mentioned by Valerius -Maximus and by Cicero as being near his house.[5] But there seems to be -nothing left which can identify this ruin with the Porticus Catuli. - -[Sidenote: Area Flacciana.] - -Beyond this so-called Area Flacciana the line of walls presents some -projecting masses, which appear to be built upon the ancient substructions -of towers such as would be formed in fortified buildings. A great part of -the walls erected here in imperial times were built of concrete framed and -supported by beams and planks of timber. These beams having now rotted -away, have left their impressions on the concrete, and hence the vertical -and horizontal grooves which form so conspicuous a part of these walls. -Two remarkable fragments of antiquity must be noticed here. The first is a -conical aperture in the side of the hill which supplied a cistern placed -below with water. Such cisterns are to be found elsewhere in the hills, -and may be supposed to have been constructed previous to the great -supplies of water having been brought by the aqueducts. - -At the western corner of the hill opposite to the Janus Quadrifrons stands -a large fragment of the most ancient walls of the Palatine. It is -constructed of masses of tufa, taken from the hill behind it, and roughly -laid together without cement or mortar. These stones appear to have been -split from the rock, and not cut by chisel, which shows the antiquity of -their construction. The wall of Romulus is the name by which this and the -other portions of massive tufa walls round the Palatine are now known. -They undoubtedly belong to the earliest defences of the Palatine -settlement. - -[Sidenote: Altar.] - -Not far from this ancient fragment of wall stands a most interesting relic -of primitive superstition, an altar of travertine stone cut in archaic -fashion, with volutes resembling those in the well-known tomb of Scipio in -the Vatican Museum. The inscription on this altar is as follows: SEI DEO -SEI DEIVÆ SAC. C. SEXTIUS, C. F. CALVINUS, PR. DE SENATI SENTENTIA -RESTITUIT. This is supposed by some antiquarians to be the altar mentioned -by Cicero and Livy, as having been erected in consequence of the voice -heard before the Gallic invasion predicting disastrous times.[6] - -But that altar is said to have been placed above the Temple of Vesta at -the end of the Nova Via, which was on the other side of the Palatine. This -mode of dedication to an unknown Deity was not uncommon at Rome, and is -mentioned by Cato and commented upon by Gellius. The form of the word -DEIVÆ shows that the inscription belongs to the earlier Latin.[7] - -C. Sextius Calvinus, who restored the altar, was probably son of C. S. -Calvinus, the Consul of A.U.C. 630, and was the competitor of C. Servilius -Glaucia in the year 654.[8] - -[Sidenote: Germalus.] - -The north-western end of the Palatine Hill, round which we have been -passing, was the spot whence arose the name Germalus which Varro tells us -was given to it in memory of the (germani) twin brothers, Romulus and -Remus having been cast ashore here from the Tiber waters, and suckled by -the wolf. How far the district called Germalus extended over the hill is -not known. Cicero speaks of a house belonging to Milo which stood upon the -Germalus, and Livy says that a wolf ran through the Vicus Tuscus and the -Germalus to the Porta Capena.[9] The bronze figure of the wolf and twins -now in the Capitoline Museum is said by Flaminius Vacca, who wrote in -1594, to have been found at no great distance from this place, and Urlichs -has shown that this figure is probably the one dedicated by the Ogulnii, -ædiles in B.C. 297.[10] - -Further southwards at the foot of the slope we come to another fragment of -the most ancient wall of the Palatine settlement. This building appears to -stand at right angles to the line of the hillside, and it was therefore -supposed at first to have belonged to a wall traversing the intermontium -or depression which crosses the Palatine Hill from this point to the Arch -of Titus, and to have confirmed the opinion of those archæologists who -confine the extent of Roma quadrata to the north-western end of the hill. -But subsequent exploration has shown that this wall does not pass along -the intermontium, but turns off at a right angle. Another fragment of the -most ancient wall was found in 1860, according to Lanciani, under the -Villa Mills, showing that the wall of Roman quadrata passed round the -whole hill, and not only round the north-western end. - -[Sidenote: Domus Gelotiana.] - -Close to the fragment of ancient wall we come to a series of chambers -excavated first in 1857, and afterwards cleared and rendered more -accessible in 1869. These belonged to a building in connection with this -part of the imperial palace, and were occupied by soldiers of the -emperor's guard, as may be seen by examination of the inscriptions left -on the walls. The traces of a square court, surrounded with a portico, one -granite pillar of which remains, and on the side of this court towards the -hill, of a number of chambers arranged on each side of a semicircular -recess, are the main features of this ruin. The brickwork supports which -appear here were erected by Canina, and a large quantity of remains have -fallen from the higher levels of the hill. - -The inscriptions which are most remarkable are the following. On the -right-hand wall near the entrance the name HILARUS, followed by the -letters MI. V. D. N., which have been interpreted to mean "miles veteranus -domini nostri," a veteran soldier of our Lord. Numerous other inscriptions -with the letters V. D. N. will be found in the chamber to the left of the -central recess. One of these in the triangular room records the name of -two soldiers who belonged to the foreign troop of Peregrini: BASSUS ET -SATURUS PEREG.[11] Other inscriptions allude to a pædagogium, or training -school, as for example, CORINTHUS EXIT DE PEDAGOGIO. Most of these are in -the triangular rooms behind the central semicircular recess, or in the -furthest room on the left of it. In this last is to be seen the figure of -an ass turning a mill, with the inscription, LABORA ASELLE QUOMODO EGO -LABORA VI ET PRODERIT TIBI. But the most famous of these graffiti is that -now shown in the Kircherian Museum representing the crucified ass, with -the title "Alexamenus worshipping his god," which was taken from the room -on the right of the central semicircular recess, and has been the subject -of much comment. Another record of the same Alexamenus was found here in -1870, in which he is called Alexamenus fidelis. - -[Sidenote: Stadium.] - -Passing now beneath the Villa Mills which occupy the site of the Augustan -library, and the Temple of Apollo, built by Augustus, we turn to the left -up the slope of the hill and find a large open space in which the later -excavations have disinterred the relics of a stadium, consisting of a -curved series of walls, surrounding the foundation of a meta or goal, and -two lines of bases of columns, which ran along the sides and the end of -the stadium.[12] - -A large building in the form of a semicircular recess of exedra, a stand -for viewing the races, is still partially remaining, and also the -foundation of two entrances on the southern side. That this was a stadium -connected with the imperial palace is evident from its shape and its -length, which corresponds to that laid down by the ancient writers as the -proper length of a stadium for foot-races. The large exedra at the -southern side contains on the ground-floor a vast central saloon, and two -side rooms. A few decorative paintings of the latest and least valuable -kind of art remain on the walls, among which are some geographical and -astronomical figures. A coat of foreign marbles covered the walls, and the -pavement was of marble. This part of the Palatine buildings was probably -occupied by the Frangipani in the 13th century. The right-hand chamber was -apparently without decoration, but in the one on the left the wall is -ornamented with fresco paintings of elegance, and the pavement is of fine -mosaic. A list of names with numbers attached to them, which seem to be -those of combatants in the stadium, was found among the graffiti here. - -The upper level of the semicircular exedra was filled by a large chamber, -the side of which, towards the stadium, was occupied by a line of granite -columns, fragments of which remain in the arena below. The interior of -this chamber was also ornamented with marbles and statues. Some statues of -Amazons and the Hercules of Lysippus now in the Pitti at Florence, were -found here according to Vacca, who wrote at the end of the sixteenth -century. The brickwork and the architecture of this exedra seem to be of -the time of Hadrian, and the bricks found here with labels give the date -of A.D. 134, the third consulship of Ursus Servianus. The portico which -ran round the stadium was apparently of later construction than the -exedra, as the date on its bricks seems to refer to Tertullus Scapula, -Consul in A.D. 195, in the reign of Septimius Severus, under whom great -alterations and extensions were carried out in this wing of the palace. - -The vast ruins which remain on the south of the stadium belong chiefly to -the works of Septimius Severus, and have long been celebrated as the most -picturesque among the Cæsarean relics. The curved wall behind the great -exedra, and the numerous passages and chambers which stand near it, seem -to have belonged to a bath supplied with water from the branch of the Aqua -Claudia, four arches of which are still remaining on the hill below, -opposite to the church of S. Gregorio. This was a branch from the Claudian -aqueduct, and crossed the valley from the opposite Cælian Hill. - -[Sidenote: Palatine Belvedere.] - -The lofty wing of the palace, which extends along the slope of the Circus -Maximus, opposite to the Aventine, is reached by a modern bridge from the -ruins adjoining the stadium. From the top of this huge ruin a splendid -view of the Cælian, the Aventine, and the Alban Hills may be seen, and the -spot has been sometimes called the Palatine Belvedere. What the exact -nature of the buildings placed upon these lofty ranges of arches was -cannot be easily determined, but they correspond in some degree to the -arched walls of the side between the arches of Titus and Constantine and -to those of the palace of Caligula near the Capitoline, and were mainly -intended to raise the imperial saloons to the higher level of the northern -end of the hill. Spartianus in his 'Life of Severus' says that Severus -bestowed particular pains on this part of the Palatine Hill in order to -make it the chief entrance to the imperial palace, and that his reason for -so doing was to produce an impression of his magnificence upon his African -fellow-countrymen, who, when visiting Rome, would naturally enter at this -point by the Porta Capena, which was the gate just below. The Septizonium -was an imperial building near this part of the hill probably built by -Severus, views of the ruins of which are to be seen in the books of the -topographers Du Perac and Garrucci who wrote before the end of the -sixteenth century, when the Septizonium was pulled down by Sixtus the -Fifth.[13] At the western end of the long and lofty ruin, and near the -end of the stadium, is a projecting portion of ruined chambers which has -been generally supposed to have contained the emperor's private pulvinar, -or box whence he viewed the games in the Circus Maximus. But the -construction of this edifice, including its round tower, seems to be of a -very late style, and it may have been built as late as the sixteenth -century. - -We now return along a modern path which runs under the grounds of the -Villa Mills towards the domus Gelotiana described above. A curved terrace -occupies the upper edge of the hill, along which probably ran a portico -commanding a view over the southern part of Rome and the Trastevere. At -the back of this are the buildings called the Villa Mills from their -former possessors, now occupied by a nunnery, and therefore inaccessible -to the public. In the year 1777, the plan of the ancient buildings which -stood here was explored by Rancoureuil. They consist of a court surrounded -with columns and suites of chambers. Parts of the main front looking -towards the circus remained till the year 1827. The brickwork of these -ruins has induced Cav. Rosa to assign them to the Augustan Age and to call -them Domus Augustana. No sure evidence has, however, been discovered for -this, and it seems more probable that the Domus Augustana was nearer to -the Forum Romanum.[14] - -[Sidenote: Academia and Bibliotheca.] - -Passing back again by the ruins called the Domus Gelotiana as before -described, we turn to the right and ascend the side of the hill. On the -higher level at this point are the ruins of two buildings to which the -names of Academia and Bibliotheca have been given by Rosa. In one of these -the remains of semicircular ranges of seats and a platform have been -supposed to be recognizable, and here may have taken place the recitations -and discussions mentioned by Pliny as constantly kept up in the imperial -palace.[15] - -[Sidenote: Ædes Publicæ.] - -Behind these rooms stand the ruins of a portico, built upon substructions -of an earlier period, with Corinthian columns of cipollino, probably -forming the side of a small courtyard. Here it may be seen through an -opening in the ground to what a depth the substructions of this part of -the Palatine buildings descend into the depression or intermontium which -originally separated the two parts of the hill, and was filled up by the -Flavian emperors. We now enter the range of reception rooms commenced by -Vespasian when he destroyed Nero's golden house, and built by Vespasian -and his sons, Titus and Domitian, at the same time with the Coliseum. -These are raised on gigantic constructions of opus quadratum to the level -of the rest of the Palatine Hill. Many stamps on the bricks found here -seem to show that the buildings were finished by Domitian. - -[Sidenote: Triclinium.] - -The south-eastern side of the range of the Imperial Flavian buildings we -are now entering is still covered by the edge of the monastery which -occupies the grounds of the Villa Mills, and we can therefore only see the -north-western part. But this is sufficient to convey a full idea of the -extent of the suite. We are now entering at the back of the triclinium or -dining hall, at the end of which is a semicircular apse, possibly intended -for the emperor's table when he dined here. The form of the room -corresponds to Vitruvius' description of the proper arrangements for a -triclinium. Very little of the original decoration remains, except two -granite columns, of which there were originally sixteen, and a portion of -beautiful pavement composed of porphyry, serpentine, and giallo antico. It -is possible that this may be the triclinium in which Statius dined at -Domitian's table, and of the marble decorations and spacious size of which -he speaks in the fourth book of his 'Silvæ.'[17] - -Near the apse of this room an opening in the ground leads down to some -subterranean rooms which formerly belonged to a private house situated in -the depression of the hill, and afterwards covered over by the Flavian -emperors. The brickwork in this house seems to be of the later republican -period, and the walls retain decorations of the best style. - -These decorative paintings have, of course, suffered very much from damp -and neglect, and all the principal features of the house have been -destroyed by the substructures of the Flavian triclinium. The name of -Bagni di Livia was long used in connection with this spot by the ciceroni. - -[Sidenote: Nymphæum.] - -Returning to the upper level, we find, at the side of the triclinium, the -remains of a nymphæum or viridarium, consisting of an elliptical basin and -fountain of marble, with niches for statues and bas reliefs, and ledges -for ornamental flowers and plants. On the western side of the nymphæum a -garden-house was built by the Farnese, part of which still stands, the -portico having some arabesques and some paintings by a pupil of Taddeo -Zuccari, representing scenes on the Palatine as described by Virgil, the -meeting of Æneas and Evander, and the monster Cacus. - -[Sidenote: Peristylium. Vestibulum.] - -[Sidenote: Atrium.] - -Beyond the triclinium and nymphæum we come to the remains of the largest -court in the suite, which is called the peristylium, occupying a space of -140 by 154 paces, anciently surrounded by a portico of columns of Porta -Santa marble. The pavement and decorations of this quadrangle would seem -by the remains to have been most superb. On the north-west side of it are -eight rooms of various shapes, arranged symmetrically round an octagonal -central chamber, from which four large doors open, with four corresponding -niches. The same plan of rooms was carried out also on the opposite side -of the peristylium, as was shown by some excavations in 1869. These were -waiting-rooms and offices of various kinds. From the great quadrangle of -the peristylium we pass to the grand audience chamber, the position of -which corresponds generally to that of the atrium of a Roman house. This -was surrounded by a portico of sixteen Corinthian columns of foreign -marbles, and their frieze and bases were ornamented in a most elaborate -manner. Eight niches with colossal statues of basalt are said by Bianchini -to have stood round this court, and in the Tribune at the southern end was -placed the solium augustale, where the emperor sat on grand occasions, -when meetings of the senate or other bodies were held here. The grand -entrance of this atrium, which looked towards the Arch of Titus, was -adorned by two huge columns of giallo antico, and the threshold stone -consisted of a mass of Greek marble from which the altar of the church of -the Pantheon was made. Many of the marbles from this atrium were taken by -the Farnese to Naples. - -[Sidenote: Lararium.] - -On the right hand of this reception room towards the Villa Mills was a -building which shows us by its position and shape that it was the lararium -or shrine of the household gods where sacrifices were offered on solemn -occasions. The remains of an altar were discovered here. - -[Sidenote: Basilica.] - -Opposite to the lararium are the foundations of a building with a tribune -and podium, probably used by the emperor in cases such as those described -by Tacitus, when imperial constraint was exercised over a legal verdict. -Two rows of columns, arranged as is commonly the case in the basilicæ, and -a portion of some white marble railings have been found and preserved -here. - -Along the side of this tribunal hall and that of the peristylium and its -adjoining offices, ran a long portico connecting the whole suite of halls -together. - -The history of this range of imperial buildings has been very probably -supposed to be as follows. Vespasian intended them to be used in support -of his revival of the Augustan imperial policy, and that a name such as -Ædes Publicæ, "National Chambers," should be given to them.[18] - -Accordingly, all these rooms have the character of public rather than -private buildings. There is apparently no provision for domestic life, and -all the sections of the edifice seem to have been public audience or -banqueting rooms. - -[Sidenote: Porta Mugionia.] - -[Sidenote: Jupiter Stator.] - -In front of the last described buildings, which we have called the -basilica, the atrium, and the lararium, is an open space, on the right -hand of which, looking towards the Arch of Titus, a fragment of the -earliest walls of the Palatine remains, constructed of tufa blocks taken -from the hill underneath. Beyond this, towards the Arch of Titus, are the -paving stones of an ancient road which was probably the approach to the -palace, and to the left of this road stand the relics of one of the most -ancient gates, the Porta Mugionia. This is described by Vacca as having -been discovered at the end of the sixteenth century, when it was still -decorated with marble. The substructions alone now remain, and close to -them may still be traced the foundations of an ancient temple which can be -no other than the temple of Jupiter Stator. Solinus says that the house of -Tarquinius Priscus was near the Porta Mugionia, and Livy states that he -lived near the Porta Mugionia. The statue of Cloelia is also said by Livy -to have stood at the top of the Sacra Via which was near the Arch of -Titus, and this statue is further placed by Pliny near the Porta -Mugionia.[19] The remains of the temple show that it was arranged -according to the cardinal points of the heavens, looking north and south. -On the foundation stones are the names of Philocrates and Diocles, masons -employed in building. Three old inscriptions referring to the worship of -Jove were found here, and are to be seen in the Palatine Museum. - -[Sidenote: Cryptoporticus.] - -Near the ruins of this Temple of Jupiter Stator we find vast blocks of -substruction which belong to the complicated ranges of buildings occupying -the north-eastern end of the hill, and generally believed to have been -erected by Caligula. They extend along the side of the hill over the -Forum, and along the Clivus Victoriæ by which we entered, to the point -which overlooks the Velabrum. The modifications and enlargements of this -structure during the ages succeeding Caligula have rendered it a confused -mass of ruins, and the walls and chambers now left have served chiefly as -substructions for the lofty mansions erected upon them in the course of -ages. From the corner of these ruins, next to the Temple of Jupiter -Stator, runs a long arched cryptoporticus or covered passage, which can be -entered from the ruins of this temple or from below nearer to the modern -entrance gateway. It is supposed that this may have been the -cryptoporticus in which, as we learn from Josephus, Caligula was -assassinated on his return from the ludi palatini given in front of the -palace. He is said to have turned off from the direct line of entrance, -and to have passed into this covered way in order to hear and see some -youths from Asia performing. The assassins, after accomplishing their -end, were afraid to venture through the front of the palace, and took -refuge by hiding in the house of Germanicus.[20] - -[Sidenote: House of Tiberius.] - -At the western end of the cryptoporticus a house has been disinterred by -the late excavations, and it has been inferred that this must have been -the one called by Josephus the house of Germanicus. Whatever name may now -be assigned to it, the house appears to have been preserved for some -reason from destruction, and it seems reasonable to conclude that some -connection with the earlier history of the imperial Cæsars rendered it an -object of veneration and care. The space between the cryptoporticus, along -which we have passed, and the so-called basilica of the palace, is -supposed to have been called the Area Palatina, where those who came to -call upon the emperor had to wait.[21] The long cryptoporticus was -connected with the Flavian public buildings, and perhaps also previously -with the house of Augustus, by a branch passage which runs off from the -long cryptoporticus at right angles, towards the back of the atrium and -lararium. By this means the emperor could pass from his private palace to -the public audience and banqueting chambers without encountering the crowd -of those who were waiting for audience in the area. In this area was -found, in 1868, the pedestal bearing the name of Domitius Calvinus, now -placed on the site of the ruined temple which lies farther to the west, -and which we shall presently mention. - -In the angle of the cryptoporticus near the house of Germanicus, are some -beautiful remains of decorative work, consisting of paintings of birds and -winged genii. These have been much injured by the damp exuding from a -piscina which was constructed here in the second or third century for the -keeping of fish, and which can be entered at the angle of the -cryptoporticus. Near this piscina is the entrance to the building called -the house of Tiberius or Germanicus. The construction of this house -belongs to the period of Roman architecture, when reticulated work formed -of the harder tufa, with small diamond-shaped stones, and with corners and -connecting parts of the same stone, but without brickwork, was generally -used. It was therefore probably built during the later republican times, -and this agrees with the supposition that it was the works of Tiberius's -father or grandfather. Suetonius says that Tiberius was born on the -Palatine.[22] The leaden pipes which have been found here, bear the names -of Julia, the daughter of Titus, of one of Domitian's, and one of -Septimius Severus's freedmen. - -The house is divided into two main parts, one of larger dimensions for -receiving guests and showing hospitality, and the other of smaller sized -rooms, for the family. The vestibule is an arched passage adorned with -paintings on the walls, and mosaic pavement. From this the atrium is -entered which had no impluvium, but was covered entirely with a roof. On -the left are the remains of an altar of the Lares, and at the further side -of the atrium are three large rooms, the decorative paintings of which are -well preserved. - -In the central chamber, the walls are divided into large compartments by -columns of the Composite order, adorned with vine leaves. One of the large -scenes represented here is that of Polyphemus, who, after having crushed -his rival Acis with an enormous rock, turns towards Galatea, who is riding -on a hippocampus. Another, placed above the frieze, is a picture of a -domestic initiation ceremony, as the sacred tænia which is being presented -seems to prove. A third picture, also above the frieze, shows the -preparations for a sacrifice. On the right sits a female figure, with a -mantle, and a faun standing before some utensils for ablution, which are -being lifted by a second female figure, while the sacrificial kid is being -brought by a young slave. The next picture represents a row of houses -along the side of a street or road, at the door of one of which a lady -with her maid is knocking, while four or five figures present themselves -above on the balconies. The last picture is one of Io hidden in the wood -of Juno at Mycenæ, and watched by Argos, with a figure of Hermes -descending by Jove's command to rescue Io. The names of Io, Argos, and -Hermes are legible here. - -The room on the left hand of this one is also divided by Composite columns -adorned with vine leaves, and by a beautiful frieze of giallo antico. The -lower compartments have no figures, but the upper are ornamented with -designs of genii and fantastic flowers. - -The room on the right hand is decorated with beautifully-designed -paintings of flowers and fruit, hanging from one column to the next. From -these festoons hang the emblems of various divinities, the lyre of Apollo, -the timbrel of Cybele, and the mystic sieve and mask of Bacchus. These -seem to indicate that this was the lararium of the house. The frieze -contains a number of landscape and marine views, with many figures of men -and animals painted on a yellow ground. - -At the north-western corner of the atrium opens a fourth chamber, which -may perhaps have been the dining-room, or triclinium, decorated with -trophies of sacred emblems of Diana and Apollo. The atrium communicates -with the rooms at the back of the house and with a small courtyard by -means of a corridor. Some of these rooms were used as baths, others seem -to have opened towards the street, the pavement of which still remains -along the side of the house. - -[Sidenote: Palatine temples.] - -On the other side of this street is an entrance to the subterranean caves -which have been cut in this part of the hill. These hollows were mainly -stone quarries and wells. A puteal, or well-cover, has been placed over -one of these in front of the house which we have described. On this side -of the street also stand the foundations which have been supposed to have -belonged to the priests of the Temple of Jupiter Propugnator on the -Palatine, some portions of the fasti of whose college have been found near -the Basilica Julia and the Marforio.[23] There is also the foundation of a -temple, called by Rosa the Temple of Jupiter Victor, to be seen extending -from this street towards the viridarium of the ædes publicæ of Domitian -before mentioned, and towards the edge of the hill which looks over the -Circus Maximus. These ruins consist of masses of tufa work mixed with -later brickwork of the Antonine times. The pedestal with the name of Gnæus -Domitius Calvinus which is placed here came, as we have said, from the -spot called the Area Palatina before mentioned. The Notitia also places -the Temple of Jupiter Victor in the Area Palatina, and for these two -reasons the name seems to be wrongly applied to this ruin. We can trace in -it the remains of a building raised on a basement with lofty flights of -steps, alternating with terraces in front, towards the Circus Maximus, -just as we find at Tibur and at Tusculum temples, placed on the side of a -hill with high flights of steps ascending to them.[24] - -[Sidenote: Germalus and Scala Caci.] - -The remainder of the upper level of this north-western corner of the hill -is occupied by numerous ruins of squared tufa stone, which evidently -belonged to some of the most ancient and venerated relics of Rome. This -was, no doubt, the part of the Palatine to which the name Germalus was -given, in memory of the Germani, or twin-brothers, Romulus and Remus, who -were cast ashore at its foot from the flooded waters of the Tiber. Two -distinct edifices have been disclosed here, from the first of which, a -rectangular foundation of tufa stones, a passage bearing marks of great -antiquity descends towards the church of Anastasia and the gas works. This -rectangular ruin has been called by many various names, such as the Temple -of Jupiter Feretrius, the Tugurium Faustuli, the Temple of the Magna Mater -Cybele, or of the Lares Præstites. The descending passage to the Vallis -Murcia has been supposed to be the Scala Caci mentioned by Solinus,[25] -and it is possible that the legend of Cacus refers to this point of the -Palatine next to the Aventine. The marks on the stones of this descent are -probably only quarry marks. No brickwork is found here in the lower ruins -nor any marbles. But in the mass of fragments there are remains of the -republican and of the imperial restorations of the many venerated -buildings and altars which must have stood upon this corner of the hill. -On the right hand of this descent a small rectangular court was discovered -in 1872, with a staircase and a channel for water running through it. This -is thought by Lanciani to have been possibly the fifth Argean Chapel, -which was somewhere on the Germalus. A statue found here bears some marks -of having represented the goddess Cybele. - -[Sidenote: Auguratorium.] - -The most conspicuous ruin at this end of the hill is a mass of concrete -and tufa blocks, apparently of the republican era, in the shape of a -rectangular basement. This has the form of a temple in antis, i.e. with -projecting wings, and faces the south, commanding a view over the Aventine -and Tiber valley. Cav. Rosa has conjectured that this is the ruin of the -auguratorium mentioned by the Notitia as situated near the other most -ancient sacred spots on the Palatine. But an inscription which records the -restoration of the auguratorium by Hadrian does not support this view, as -the work now remaining is mostly republican.[26] Lanciani thinks that this -may have been the Ædes Matris Deum, to which the statue found as before -mentioned in front of it belonged. - -At the back of the so-called auguratorium we find a long series of rooms -running in a line across the hill from north-west to south-east, which -have vaulted roofs and are similar to those found below in the domus -Gelotiana, before described. Cav. Rosa has inferred with reason from this -and from the graffiti in these rooms that they formed a part of the -offices and guard-rooms attached to that large portion of the palace which -lay on the site now occupied by the gardens and the vast masses of -brickwork at the northern corner of the hill. The graffiti to be seen here -are chiefly the scribblings of soldiers' names, rude sketches of ships and -animals, and combats of gladiators. - -[Sidenote: Tiberiana domus.] - -Several passages of the Roman historians lead us to conclude that the -suite of rooms occupied by Tiberius were situated here. It was from the -Tiberiana Domus, as Tacitus relates, that Vitellius surveyed the -conflagration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, and the engagement -between his adherents and the Flavian party under Sabinus. The Tiberian -part of the palace was also that through which, as Tacitus also tells us, -Otho descended into the Velabrum, after joining Galba at the sacrifice in -the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine.[27] Afterwards, the Tiberiana Domus -became the favourite residence of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, and -it was probably during their reigns that the library which we find -mentioned by Gellius was established here.[28] - -We now pass through the garden grounds which lie over the remains of the -Domus Tiberiana, and descend on the side which looks over the Forum, by a -long staircase through the immense masses of brickwork and concrete which -are said to have been part of the insane additions of Caligula to the -imperial palace. He is declared to have made a passage from this wing of -the palace to the back of the Temple of Castor below in the Forum, in -order that he might appear in that sacred shrine as an equal of the twin -gods and an object of worship when the Senate met there. He also joined -this corner of the palace with the Capitoline Temple of Jupiter by a huge -viaduct, which passed over the Basilica Julia, in order that he might thus -make himself the contubernalis of Jupiter.[29] Some of the substructions -of this viaduct are to be seen near the back of the church of S. Maria -Liberatrice. We now leave the Palatine by the Clivus Victoriæ, along which -we entered, and turn to the arch of Titus and the ruins which stand near -it. - - -THE VELIA. - -[Sidenote: The Velia.] - -Near the arch of Titus the Palatine Hill runs out in a gradually sloping -ridge north-eastwards towards the Esquiline Hill. On one side of this -ridge the ground sinks towards the Forum Romanum, and on the other towards -the Meta Sudans and the Coliseum. The level of the pavement under the arch -of Titus is fifty-three feet above the ancient pavement of the Forum. It -seems probable that this outlying part of the Palatine was that which bore -the name of Velia.[30] - -[Sidenote: Arch of Titus.] - -On the summit of the ridge above described stands the arch of Titus, the -most complete of all the monuments of imperial Rome. The central part of -the original building remains, and is easily distinguished from the -subsequent travertine restorations by being constructed of Pentelic -marble. The height of the arch is forty-nine feet and its breadth -forty-two feet. Originally there were two fluted Corinthian columns on -each side of both faces of the arch, the two inner of which are now left, -while the two outer are modern. Over the arch are two bas-reliefs of -Victory which, though much injured, are still remarkable for the beauty of -their outlines. On the keystone of the side towards the Coliseum is a -figure of Rome, and on the other side Fortune with a cornucopia. - -The most interesting parts of the arch have fortunately been preserved by -their protected position in the interior. On each side is a magnificent -alto-relievo, representing the triumphal procession of Titus after the -capture of Jerusalem. The relievo on the south side shows a number of -persons carrying the spoils of the Jewish Temple. The golden candlestick, -the golden table for showbread, and the trumpets are clearly recognizable. -These, according to Josephus,[31] among other utensils of the Jewish -temple, were deposited in Vespasian's Temple of Peace. The procession is -moving towards a triumphal arch. - -In the northern relief the emperor is represented in his triumphal car, -drawn by four horses, and surrounded by his guards and suite. Victory is -holding a crown over his head, and the goddess Roma guiding the reins. The -interior of the arch is ornamented with richly-carved rosettes and -coffers, and upon the crown is a rather undignified representation of the -apotheosis of the emperor astride upon an eagle's back. - -On the Coliseum side a small portion of the entablature is left. The -frieze had a bas-relief, which partially remains, of a sacrificial -procession. The attica is modern, with the exception of the inscription. -That the arch was erected after the emperor's death is shown by the title -Divus, and also by the figure of his apotheosis under the archway. Another -arch had been erected in the Circus previously in the year 80, when the -Coliseum was completed, and Titus gave a great festival. The date of the -extant arch is, therefore, the year 82 or 83. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.] - -[Sidenote: Temple of Venus and Rome.] - -Almost the whole of the southern slope of the Velia towards the Coliseum -is occupied by the ruin of a vast foundation which extends under the -church and convent of S. Francesca Romana. The substructions, of which -the inner core only, consisting of rubble-work, is left, were originally -cased with travertine blocks. They form an enormous quadrilateral terrace, -round which a portico of granite columns ran. Upon this was raised a -basement some four or five feet higher, and a building with two apses back -to back, similar to the tribunes of a basilica. These are ornamented with -large square coffers and niches for statues. It has been generally -inferred from the statements of Dion Cassius and Spartianus that this -building was the Temple of Venus and Rome built by Hadrian and dedicated -by the Antonines, but burnt down in the time of Constantine and restored -by him.[32] Pope Honorius I. stripped the bronze tiles from the roof, and -they were placed on the Basilica of S. Peter, whence they were taken by -the Saracens in A.D. 846. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, -limekilns were set up near the arch of Titus by the Romans and the marbles -of this spot were burnt into lime.[33] The two tribunes which stand back -to back and the buildings near them have not the appearance of a temple, -but rather of a legal court or basilica. For this reason, and also because -a large portico of this shape is represented in the marble plan of the -city, the fragments of which are now in the Capitoline Museum, as having -belonged to the Porticus Liviæ, Mr. Parker, in his 'Archæology of Rome,' -has maintained that this was the Porticus Liviæ, built by Augustus and -afterwards used by Hadrian for the Temple of the Sun and Moon. Jordan has -also shown that the Porticus Liviæ was near this spot, but he places it -farther to the north-east, behind the Basilica of Constantino.[34] Since -Dion Cassius speaks of the Temple of Venus and Rome as having been close -to the Coliseum and also near the Sacra Via, and Spartianus says that it -stood in the vestibule of the Domus Aurea of Nero, we are almost compelled -to assign this position to that temple.[35] - -[Sidenote: Domus Transitoria.] - -Nero's enormous extension of the Palatine buildings must have occupied a -great part of the Velia, reaching across it from the Palatine to the -Esquiline. But his great Domus Aurea and its surrounding porticoes and -halls, which were called Domus Transitoria, and occupied not only the -slope of the Velia but also the site of the Coliseum, were destroyed by -the Flavian emperors who succeeded him, and we can only point to one -fragment, of the Domus Transitoria which stands near the corner of the -Basilica of Constantine at the side of the path which leads between that -ruin and the buildings of S. Francesca Romana. - -[Sidenote: Basilica of Constantine.] - -The vast arches of the ruin called the Basilica of Constantine form, next -to the Coliseum, the most conspicuous object in the neighbourhood of the -Forum, and they were long supposed to have belonged to the Temple of -Peace, Vespasian's great temple. But the decision of modern archæology has -assigned them to Constantine, on the ground that the brickwork is of much -later date than the time of Vespasian, and also that the few remains of -decoration which are extant bear indications of a great decline of -ornamentative art when they were constructed. Further evidence has been -derived from a coin of Maxentius, the rival of Constantine, having been -found in 1828 sticking in the mortar of one of the fragments. Aurelius -Victor says that the basilica called by the name of Constantine was begun -by Maxentius.[36] The three gigantic arches now standing formed the roof -of the eastern aisle of the basilica, which consisted, as the foundation -clearly shows, of a central hall and two side aisles. The arches are -sixty-eight feet in span and eighty feet high. They are ornamented by -octagonal caissons or coffers, containing central rosettes and the -interspaces are relieved by rhomboidal panel work. The two side arches -have their backs walled up, and there are six arched windows in each wall. -At the back of the central arch is a semicircular tribune, with niches for -statues and a central pedestal. Some of the marble ornaments of this -tribune are still left, and show in their rude execution evidence of the -Constantinian style of art. A screen seems to have separated the tribune -from the interior of the hall. In front of the three great arches can be -plainly seen the spring of the enormous roof which covered the central -hall of the basilica. This central hall must have been at least 80 feet in -width and 115 feet in height. - -The southern aisle was of the same construction and size as the northern, -and in place of the tribune had a grand entrance on the side towards the -arch of Titus. A flight of steps and a portico with porphyry columns, two -of which are now in the Conservatori Museum on the Capitol, formed the -approach to the entrance. A white column from the central hall is to be -seen erected in front of S. Maria Maggiore, where it was placed in the -seventeenth century by Paul V. - -At the western end of the central hall was a tribune, the ruins of which -are now occupied by a warehouse, and at the eastern end an entrance in -three divisions opened into the road between the basilica and the portico -of the so-called Temple of Venus and Rome. This entrance had a vestibule -or verandah similar to those found at S. Giovanni in Laterano and at S. -Maria Maggiore, and answering to the building called a chalcidicum by -Vitruvius.[37] (Fig. 9, p. 33.) - -[Sidenote: SS. Cosma and Damiano.] - -The church of SS. Cosma and Damiano which now stands at the north-western -end of the Basilica of Constantine is, like many other churches in Rome, -constructed on the ruins of some ancient temple. A most careful account -has been given of its various stages of construction by Mr. Parker.[38] -This may possibly have been the site of the original Temple of the -Penates, and some archæologists have thought that the round temple which -has been converted into the vestibule of the church was that of the -Penates. The doorway of this temple with its columns, frieze and bronze -doors, has been raised from the lower level of the old temple, on which -the crypt of the church now stands beneath the floor. At the back of this -the nave of the church was built on the ruins of some unknown temple, and -behind the apse of the nave is said by Mr. Parker to have been the wall on -which the celebrated Capitoline marble plan of Rome was hung. The -fragments of this plan, which was shaken down, he thinks, by the fall of a -great mass from the Basilica of Constantine, were found here. The chapel -of the Penates was on the road from the summa Sacra Via to the Carinæ, -which would place it near this spot.[39] The name "Temple of Romulus" -given to the ruins by mediæval writers may have been derived from some -restoration by Romulus, son of Maxentius. - -[Sidenote: Lavacrum of Heliogabalus.] - -We now pass through the arch of Titus along the ancient road towards the -Coliseum, and on the slope of the Palatine to our right stand the ruins -of a mediæval church which was excavated in 1873 by Cav. Rosa. This is -said to have been called the church of S. Maria Antiqua, and to have been -placed upon the ruins of the lavacrum of Heliogabalus.[40] The chambers -now disclosed seem to have been used as a bath. Along the side of the hill -near this are numerous ruins similar to those on the other side of the -Palatine, which were apparently guard rooms. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE FORUM ROMANUM. - - -[Sidenote: Temple of Castor.] - -At a short distance from the entrance to the Palatine we can enter the -Forum near the ruins of an ancient temple, three columns of which are -still standing. These three columns are among the most conspicuous and -beautiful remains of ancient Rome. No doubt can now be felt that they -belonged to the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The situation agrees with -that which is pointed out by the Ancyræan inscription, and by the fact -that Caligula made a passage from the Palatine Palace to this temple. - -The substructions of this building have been cleared, and the length and -breadth of the basement and of the steps forming the approach can now be -clearly seen. The three columns belonged to the central part of the -south-eastern side. They are of most elegant proportions, and their -capitals, architrave and frieze are ornamented with decorative work of the -very best period of Græco-Roman architecture. The designs on the -entablature are most delicate and perfect, and well repay a minute -examination. Besides the usual ornaments upon the cornice and corbels -there is along the upper edge a row of beautiful lions' heads, through -which the rain-water ran off. - -The temple had evidently eight columns in front, and eleven side columns, -reckoning in the corner column. The approach was raised high above the -forum level, and has three steps projecting beyond the line of the next -building, the Basilica Julia. The lines of the front steps are preserved, -and also those of the side towards the Capitol, while the other side has -been destroyed. The pavement in front of this has been miserably altered -and mended at a late date, probably after the fourth century. - -[Illustration: FORUM ROMANUM] - -The capitals when compared with the earlier Corinthian capitals of the -Pantheon, show a longer and narrower type which is also found at the -Temple of Vespasian and the peristyle of Nerva's Forum, the Colonacce. The -lower foundations of the basement are of old tufa rubble construction, and -possibly belong to the date of the original foundations in B.C. 494 by the -dictator Aulus Postumius, who vowed to build it at the battle of the Lake -Regillus in the Latin war. It was afterwards dedicated by his son in B.C. -484. Two restorations are mentioned, the first executed by L. Metellus -Dalmaticus, consul in B.C. 119, and the second by Drusus and Tiberius in -A.D. 6. The temple was used for meetings of the senate, for harangues from -its steps to the people in the forum, and for holding courts of law. A -register of changes in the value of money was kept in the tabularium of -the temple, and deposits were made here as in many other temples.[41] -Standing as the old temple did near the veteres tabernæ of the forum, and -the newer restorations of them near the Basilica Julia, it was convenient -for business transactions. On the north-west side a street pavement -leading to the Velabrum has been laid bare, which may be that of the Vicus -Tuscus. - -[Sidenote: Puteal.] - -Descending from the Temple of Castor to the ancient pavement of the Forum -Romanum, we find at the north-eastern corner of the ruin the remains of a -puteal or well-house which has naturally been supposed to be the fountain -of Juturna from its neighbourhood to the Temple of the Twin Brethren, who -are said to have given their horses drink there after the battle of -Regillus. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Vesta.] - -A little farther to the south the basement of a round building is to be -seen, which may very probably have been the ancient Temple of Vesta. This -was a round building, as we conclude from Ovid and Plutarch's notices, and -was intended by Numa, the first founder, to denote the spherical shape of -the earth which Vesta personified, or the original family hearth.[42] - -[Sidenote: Chapel of Julius Cæsar.] - -In front of the Temple of Castor a large block of substructions has been -cleared, which is with great probability assigned to the chapel built in -honour of Julius Cæsar, and called the Heroon of Cæsar. Ovid's lines, in -one of his letters from Pontus-- - - "Like the twin brethren whom in their abode - Julius, the god, beholds from his high shrine," - -seem to prove that the heroon was in front of that temple. The body of -Cæsar was burnt in front of the regia and Temple of Vesta, which were at -this end of the Forum, and the heroon was placed on the spot where it was -burnt. The remains of two small staircases were found at the sides of the -heroon, and a wider staircase in front. The epithet "high," given by Ovid -to its position, seems to be in accordance with the raised basement. The -semicircle of masonry on the north side has not been satisfactorily -explained. It is usually supposed to have belonged to the Julian rostra, -but its shape is not such as to support this idea. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Antoninus and Faustina.] - -To the north-east of the heroon of Julius Cæsar, we find the ancient -pavement of the road which ran along the north-eastern side of the Forum, -and to this road descend the steps of a temple with a conspicuous row of -six cipollino columns, and with two columns and a pilaster besides the -corner column on each side. These columns have Attic bases and Corinthian -capitals of white marble. The inscription upon the plain architrave in -front shows that the temple was first dedicated to Faustina alone, and -that the first three words, including the emperor's name, were added after -his death. The Faustina here commemorated was probably the elder Faustina, -wife of Antoninus Pius, as a representation at this temple is given on one -of the medals struck in her honour.[43] She died in A.D. 141, and -Antoninus Pius in 161. The frieze of the temple is ornamented at the sides -with a bold and finely-executed relief representing griffins with upraised -wings, between which are carved elaborately-designed candelabra and vases. -A considerable part of the side walls of grey peperino blocks anciently -faced with marble is still standing. A church was built here at a very -early time, but the present building which forms a strange contrast in the -meanness of its style and proportions to the massive grandeur of the grey -old ruin which embraces it, was built in 1602 by the guild of the Roman -apothecaries.[44] - -[Sidenote: Extent of the Forum.] - -[Sidenote: Seven brick pedestals.] - -[Sidenote: Column of Phocas.] - -We now pass along the ancient stone pavement towards the Capitol, and -observe how small the space occupied by the ancient Forum Romanum was. The -temple we have just left stood in the north-eastern corner, and the -columns of the two temples opposite to us on the slope of the Capitol mark -the other end of the Forum. The central pavement now laid bare is of -travertine flags, while the roads are marked by basaltic blocks. On the -side of the central space runs a row of seven large masses of brickwork, -which seem to be the bases of pedestals which supported dedicatory -columns, or statues similar to the one still standing at the end, which -has become known to English travellers as "the nameless column with the -buried base" of Byron. Since Byron's time the base of this has been -unburied, and bears the name of Smaragdus, proclaimed exarch of Italy for -the eleventh time,[45] who erected it in honour of the Emperor Phocas. The -date is given by the words INDICT. UND., which show that Smaragdus was in -his eleventh year as exarch, and we know that he was exarch under -Mauricius for five years, A.D. 583-588, and six years under Phocas, A.D. -602-608. His eleventh year would thus be in 608, and this was the fifth -year of Phocas' reign, so that the last words of the inscription confirm -the explanation given of the previous words INDICT. UND.[46] "P. C." in -the inscription probably mean, as Clinton explains, post consulatum, which -was the way of reckoning in the later years of the Eastern Empire. - -[Sidenote: Pedestal of equestrian statue.] - -In the centre of the Forum traces of the base of a large pedestal can be -discerned, and this is supposed to have been the position of the -equestrian statue of Domitian described at length by Statius, who says in -the first poem of his 'Silvæ' that an equestrian statue of Domitian stood -at the north-western end of the Forum, looking towards the other end. It -was a triumphal statue erected in honour of Domitian's campaigns against -the Catti and Daci. The poet describes its position very accurately, -mentioning the Heroon of Julius Cæsar which faced it, the Basilica Julia -on the right, the Basilica Paulli on the left, and the temples of Concord -and Vespasian behind. The Temple of Saturn is omitted for some unknown -reason. Statius also alludes to some other principal objects in the Forum, -the Temple of Vesta, the Temple of Castor, and the statue of Curtius. He -concludes with prophesying that the statue will outlast the eternal -city.[47] It seems, however, probable, as Mr. Nichols in his admirable -book on the Forum has said, that the statue was removed after Domitian's -death, when his memory was execrated, or was dedicated to a succeeding -emperor, and that the statement of Herodian about the dream of Severus, -who imagined that he saw an equestrian statue in the Forum, a colossal -representation of which remained there in the historian's time, may refer -to this pedestal.[48] - -[Sidenote: Trajan's bas-reliefs.] - -Two of the most interesting monuments which have been brought to light by -the recent excavations in Rome were discovered in 1872, near the base of -the column of Phocas, where they have been re-erected. They consist of -marble slabs, sculptured with bas-reliefs and forming low screens. Each -screen is constructed of slabs of unequal size, and some of these have -been unfortunately lost. Their original position has been restored as -nearly as possible, and they stand parallel to each other in a line -crossing the area of the Forum. On the inner sides of both of these -sculptured screens, the sacrificial animals, the boar, sheep and bull, -always offered up at the Suovetaurilia, are represented. - -The other sides, which are turned outwards, represent scenes in the Forum, -and are commemorative of some public benefaction of one of the emperors, -probably Trajan or Hadrian. On one of them Italia is represented thanking -the emperor for establishing some "alimenta publica," public relief -institutions, and for apportioning lands to encourage needy parents to -rear their children. Such relief funds and lands intended to supply the -defective population of Italy were first established by the Emperor Nerva, -and afterwards by Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, and are frequently -commemorated on medals, and mentioned by the historians Dion Cassius and -Aurelius Victor, and the authors of the Augustan history.[49] The emperor -is represented in a sitting posture, and stretching out his hand towards a -child presented by a woman in the character of Italia, who apparently -holds another child ready for presentation. Behind the emperor's seat is -the fig-tree called Navia or Ruminalis, which is said to have grown near -the rostra, and also the figure of Marsyas which stood in the same place. -At the other end of this sculptured scene stands a speaker with a roll in -his hand, addressing a crowd of citizens from a rostrum, which may perhaps -represent the publication of the edict establishing alimenta. - -The other bas-relief scene shows a rostrum at one end, from which a -sitting figure is superintending the burning of large bundles of books, -carried and placed in front of him in a heap. The outline of a figure -applying a torch can be traced, and also of several attendants. At the -opposite end to the sitting figure the fig-tree and Marsyas are placed as -in the other relief. - -The style of art in which the reliefs are executed cannot, in Professor -Henzen's opinion, belong to an earlier period than Trajan's reign. The -treatment corresponds to that on those reliefs taken from Trajan's arch, -and set up on Constantine's arch. After Trajan's time the style of -bas-relief was so much altered that we cannot suppose them to have been -sculptured later than the first year of Hadrian. - -As Trajan gained great popularity in the early years of his reign by an -abolition of the arrears of certain debts due to the imperial treasury, -amounting to a large sum, and as he also established alimenta, these -reliefs have been generally supposed to commemorate his public -benefactions, in founding relief institutions and cancelling public debts. - -The backgrounds of both the sculptures are occupied by representations of -some public buildings, but it does not seem possible to identify these -with any certainty. That they roughly represent some of the temples and -Basilicas in the Forum in a sketch is all we can say. One of the temples -shown in the relief which depicts the foundation of alimenta has only five -columns in its portico, showing a want of accuracy in the drawing which -throws great doubt upon its topographical value. The archæologists who -have endeavoured to name the buildings have agreed in calling the Ionic -and the Corinthian portico in the relief where the account books are being -burnt those of the Temples of Saturn and Vespasian, with an arch of the -tabularium between them, and the long row of arches the Basilica Julia, -but they differ as to the buildings shown in the other relief, for while -Mr. Nichols thinks that the Basilica Julia is here again represented with -the Heroon of Julius Cæsar and the arch of Augustus, Signor Brizio is of -opinion that we have here the north-western side of the Forum with the -Basilica Æmilia.[50] The rostra are probably meant to represent temporary -wooden constructions. - -The most reasonable conjecture which has yet been made as to the purpose -which these sculptured screens served is that they formed a pons or -passage along which voters passed at a time of election from the Forum to -the office where the votes were taken. A great part of the structures used -at such times was probably temporary, and made of wood for the occasion. -Another explanation suggested by Mr. Nichols is that they formed a passage -leading to an altar and statue of the Emperor. It may be that the -sculptures never reached their destined site, but were left here, as many -of the marbles on the Tiber banks were, and gradually buried in rubbish. - -[Sidenote: Basilica Julia.] - -We now pass to the rows of restored bases of columns, which occupy the -long space on the south-western side of the seven pedestals above -mentioned. Here we find the ground plan of the great Basilica Julia marked -out by a treble row of columns at each of the larger sides, and a double -row at each end. One pier of the outer row towards the Forum has been -restored by Rosa so as to show the original height. - -The proof that these ruins belong to the Basilica Julia which was planned -by Julius Cæsar, and begun by him but completed by Augustus, who dedicated -it to his grandsons Caius and Lucius, is the statement in the monumentum -Ancyranum, in which it is placed between the temples of Saturn and Castor. - -A second proof is derived from two inscriptions found during the process -of clearing the site, one of which records the repair of the Basilica -Julia, and the erection in it of a statue by Gabinius Vettius Probianus, -prefect of the city in A.D. 377, and the other the rebuilding of the -Basilica Julia under Maximian after the fire which destroyed it in the -time of Carinus and Numerian. This site is also assigned to the Basilica -on the Capitoline plan which may be seen on the staircase of the -Capitoline Museum. The outline given there, and marked by the name -Basilica Julia, agrees in proportion, and in the rows of columns with the -extant remains, and this shows that the present ruin is the same in its -main points with that which stood in the time of Severus, when the -Capitoline plan was made.[51] Seven steps lead up to the level of the -floor from the Forum level. - -A great deal of legal business was transacted here, as may be seen from -the frequent mention of it in Pliny's Epistles. There were four tribunals, -of which Quintilian speaks, at which four trials could be carried on at -the same time; but these tribunals were probably wooden and temporary -erections, and there is no trace of any semicircular apses, such as those -in the Basilica of Constantine. One of Caligula's amusements, as we are -told by Suetonius, was to stand upon the roof of this basilica, and throw -money to the mob in the Forum to scramble for. Whether the basilica was -covered over in the centre is not certain, but it probably was so, with -two aisles open to the Forum. The row of arches standing at the north-west -corner is partly a restoration of the basilica by Canina, and partly -consists of some piers and a wall standing behind, which has not yet been -satisfactorily identified with any ancient building. The most probable -supposition is that they belonged to the Porticus Julia mentioned by Dion -Cassius, and were parts of an earlier edifice, in front of which and upon -which the basilica was placed by Augustus. - -[Sidenote: Cloaca.] - -Under the southern end of the floor of the Julian Basilica, an opening has -been made in which the arch of the main cloaca of the Forum valley can be -seen passing across the Forum towards the Subura. This is the drain of -which Juvenal speaks, when he says that the fish taken from the Crypta -Suburæ is the climax of indignity offered to the unhappy parasite Trebius -at his patron's table.[52] The course of the drain runs from here under -the Via dei Fenili down to the Janus Quadrifrons in the Velabrum, where it -meets other branches and passes down to the Tiber. Between the eastern end -of the Basilica Julia and the temple of Castor ran the Vicus Tuscus, of -which the paving-stones may still be traced. At the western end the Vicus -Jugarius led towards the Velabrum, but this is buried under the present -Via della Consolazione, and cannot be seen. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Tiberius.] - -The Arch of Tiberius, which stood at the corner of the Basilica Julia, -where the Vicus Jugarius and the Clivus Capitolinus diverged, cannot be -clearly traced, though some of its ruins have been thought to exist among -those uncovered at the edge of and under the modern road. This arch has -been with great probability supposed to be that alluded to by Tacitus in -speaking of the recovery of the Roman standards lost by Varus, and retaken -by Germanicus under the auspices of Tiberius.[53] The triumphal arch -represented on the Arch of Constantine is also thought to be that of -Tiberius placed here. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Saturn.] - -We now pass under the modern road to the foot of the Capitoline Hill, and -proceed to examine the most prominent ruin at the western end of the -Forum. This consists of eight columns, six of red granite forming a front, -and two side columns of grey granite. The capitals of these and the -decoration of the entablature, architrave and frieze surmounting them are -of a late and debased Ionic order with volutes in the later style, and -they have been pieced together in the last restoration of the temple with -extraordinary negligence. Unequal spaces are left between the columns, and -some are set upon plinths while others are without them. One of the side -columns has been so badly re-erected that the stones are misplaced, and -consequently the diameter of the upper portion is of the same size as that -of the lower. The restored carving on the inner frieze is of the roughest -description, and the barbarous negligence of the whole restoration shows -that it cannot have been done earlier than the fourth or fifth century. A -comparison of the ruins now remaining with the plan as given on the -fragments of the Capitoline map, bearing the name SAT VRNI has been made -by Jordan, who shows that the remains of a prominent and peculiar flight -of steps in front of the six columns correspond to the rough sketch on the -plan, and that this flight of steps facing north must be taken to be the -front of the temple.[54] The pavement stones of the road which led from -the forum past the front of the temple may still be traced curving round -this projecting flight of steps. Little doubt now remains that the ruin of -the eight columns, the name of which has been so much discussed, belonged -to the Temple of Saturn. - -[Illustration: Temple of Saturn. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. -Coliseum and Arch of Titus. Temple of Castor.] - -The inscription now upon the front was placed there at its latest -restoration which, as we have seen, was in Christian times, and the name -of the divinity is therefore omitted. - -This temple was one of the most revered and ancient in the city, and its -foundation is traced back in legendary myth to the Hellenic Kronos. The -earliest date given for the dedication is B.C. 498. Many restorations must -have taken place. An inscription recording one in the time of Augustus by -Munatius Plancus has been found. This temple long retained the name of the -Mint, from the fact that the state treasures were deposited under the care -of the god Saturnus, as one of the most venerated of Roman deities. - -[Sidenote: Area of the Dii Consentes.] - -The ancient road leading up to the Capitol made a turn behind the Temple -of Saturn, and a portico with semi-Corinthian or Composite columns has -been restored from some columns and capitals found here in 1835. At the -back of this portico were twelve recessed chambers occupied by chapels of -the twelve deities called the Dii Consentes. Four of these still remain -under the modern Via del Campidoglio. The walls are chiefly of brickwork, -apparently of the second or third century, but the back wall against the -ascent to the Capitol is of hard tufa. The interiors were faced with -marble, of which traces are left. From the inscription found in 1835 upon -the architecture it appears that Vettius Prætextatus, a prefect of the -city in A.D. 367, restored the statues of the Dii Consentes, which had -stood here from ancient times. Varro mentions gilded statues of the gods -of the council as near the Forum, and also speaks of their temple. This -portico and chambers cannot, however, have been a temple, but were -evidently clerks' offices connected with the state depositories near the -Temple of Saturn. Cicero speaks of the clerks of the Capitoline -ascent.[55] Vettius Prætextatus, who restored the building in 367, was -notorious for his opposition to the Christian religion and for his zeal in -supporting the ancient cultus. He held several offices, and was pro-consul -of Achaia under Julian, and probably recommended himself to that emperor -by his attachment to the old Roman religion. - -[Sidenote: Schola Xanthi.] - -Below the portico and its chambers stands another row of lower chambers, -three of which are said by Marliani to have been found entire in the -sixteenth century. Inscriptions found here give the name of Schola to the -chambers, and hence they have been called Schola Xanthi, from the name of -Xanthus, which occurs in the inscription as a restorer. They were -undoubtedly clerks' offices, similar to those behind the portico of the -Dii Consentes above them. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Vespasian.] - -We now turn from the portico of the Dii Consentes to the three Corinthian -columns which stand under the large building called the Tabularium. These -three columns have now been proved to belong to the ruin of a temple -dedicated to Vespasian by his son Domitian. This position of Vespasian's -temple agrees with the statements of the Notitia and Curiosum and of -Statius. The inscription, of which only the letters ESTITUER now remain, -was seen and the whole of it transcribed by a writer of the ninth -century, whose MS. is preserved at Einsiedlen.[56] It recorded the -restoration of this temple by Severus and Caracalla. The letters ESTITUER -stand at the lower edge of the frieze, showing that there was another line -above. This upper line was DIVO. VESP. AUG. S.P.Q.R., and referred to the -original building of the temple, while the lower line recorded its -restoration. The temple was approached by a flight of steps from the road -between it and the Temple of Saturn, the uppermost of which were placed -between the columns and have been partially restored. The three columns -which now remain are the three corner columns of the portico. They have -fluted shafts and Corinthian capitals. The letters of the inscription were -of metal, and the holes of the rivets which fastened them are still -visible. The architrave and cornice are ornamented very richly with the -usual mouldings, and there are some most interesting reliefs upon the -frieze representing sacrificial implements and the skulls of oxen. A -horsetail for sprinkling, and a sacrificial knife with a vase, a patera, -an axe, and a high priest's mitre are plainly distinguishable. Another -portion of the entablature was pieced together by Canina and is still kept -in the rooms of the Tabularium. The walls of the cella were built of -travertine faced with marble. Against the back wall stands a large -pedestal which supported the statue of the deified Emperor. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Concord.] - -Next to the temple of Vespasian, we are told by Statius, stood the Temple -of Concord. The site is also determined by passages in Plutarch and in -Dion Cassius, and by the plan given in the Capitoline map. Excavations -were carried out here in 1817, 1830, and 1835 which resulted in disclosing -the foundations of the temple, and in finding some inscriptions which -attest the dedication of this spot to the goddess Concord. The temple of -Concord was founded according to Livy, Ovid, and Plutarch by Camillus in -B.C. 367, on the memorable occasion when the senate after a long and -anxious debate, wisely determined to make peace with the Commons by -throwing open the office of Consul to the plebeian order.[57] - -It was placed near the old meeting-place (Comitium) of the privileged -families (gentes), as if constantly to remind them that the newly -established concord of the community was under the special sanction of the -gods. When the Temple of Camillus was first restored we do not learn. The -earliest notice of a new Temple to Concord is the statement that the -Consul Opimius was ordered by the senate on the death of C. Gracchus to -build a new temple to Concord. The temple seems to have been a kind of -Pantheon or museum, for it was filled with a great number of statues of -various gods, and with curiosities. On the left-hand side of the remaining -foundations of the cella are two large pedestals which probably supported -two of the principal statues. - -Tiberius rebuilt it after his German campaign in A.D. 6 and 7, and -dedicated it in honour of himself and his brother. The form of the latest -restoration, which seems to have been carried out after the building -behind it, the so-called Tabularium, was built, as it is placed so close -to that building and must have rendered the decorations on its walls -invisible, can be traced by the present relics of foundation walls, and -presents a singular deviation from the normal plan of a Roman temple. The -pronaos, or front chamber, is narrower than the cella or shrine behind it, -and forms a sort of porch to it. This is an instance of the form of temple -called prostylos by Vitruvius, and consisting of a broad Tuscan cella with -a narrow Greek portico.[58] - -The cella has greater breadth than depth. The basement is of considerable -height in front, and some of the steps, Cicero's Gradus Concordiæ[59] can -be traced, while the enormous threshold of African marble still remains. A -coin of Tiberius shows us that the temple had a portico of six columns in -the Corinthian style, and a group of three figures embracing, as a symbol -of Concord, at the top. One of the bases of the columns is still preserved -in the Capitoline Museum, and a portion of the frieze was restored by -Canina, showing that the decorative work was of great beauty. The -inscription is given in the Einsiedlen MS. of the ninth century, and the -temple was still standing in the twelfth century, as we learn from the -Ordo Romanus, a procession route book. The stones were probably carried -away for building purposes in the thirteenth century. Between the ruins of -the Temple of Concord and those of Vespasian's Temple, the foundations of -a little chapel of Faustina may be seen. The name has been given to it -from an inscription discovered here. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Severus.] - -Close to the ruins of the Temple of Concord stands the triumphal arch of -Septimius Severus, composed of three archways of Pentelic marble. The side -archways are connected with the central archway by small openings in the -intervening walls, and the arched interiors of all three are decorated by -square coffers with rosette ornaments. On each side stand four columns of -Proconnesian marble with Composite capitals, on the pedestals of which are -bas-reliefs representing figures of barbarian captives clothed in breeches -and wearing the chlamys and Phrygian cap, and conducted by Roman soldiers -wearing the lacerna. The spandrils of the arches are ornamented with the -usual figures of Victory and symbols of captivity, in the outlines of the -river gods of the Euphrates and Tigris. Between each pair of outer and -inner pillars there are large bas-relief sculptured scenes executed in a -very confused and tasteless style. The four lower and narrow compartments -show the goddess Roma receiving the homage of the East, which is -personified by a woman wearing a tiara. Behind her, in a long train of -carts and carriages, come the spoils of the various nations conquered by -Severus. Above this narrow line of figures which runs round below the four -compartments above the side arches, are four larger bas-reliefs -representing the sieges and victories of Severus in Parthia, Adiabene, and -Arabia. On the side towards the Forum is represented on the left hand the -raising of the Parthian siege of Nisibis in northern Mesopotamia by -Severus after he had crushed his rivals Æmilianus and Pescennius Niger in -Pontus and Syria. The taking of the town of Carræ west of Nisibis, and the -march of the Roman army thence against the Adiabenians are also here -portrayed. The compartment, on the right hand, looking from the Forum, -contains a bas-relief representation of the surrender of Abgarus, king of -Osroene,[60] and the siege of the town of Hatra on the Tigris. - -[Illustration: Arch of Severus.] - -On the other side towards the Capitol and so-called Tabularium, the -second campaign of Severus in the East is portrayed. On the right hand the -flight of the Parthians from Babylon, the entry of the Romans into that -city and the second siege of Hatra are represented. On the left is the -wresting of the towns of Seleucia and Ctesiphon from the Parthians, the -flight of their king Artobanus and the surrender of the Arabians who had -joined the Parthian side.[61] - -The entablature which surmounts these arches is badly designed and -executed, the projections over the columns being far too heavy. Upon the -attica above the entablature there are the traces of nails on the corner -pilasters which seem to have borne some military ensigns. The whole -central space of the attica is occupied by a long inscription formerly -inlaid, as appears from the rivets, with metal. Upon a coin of Severus -giving a representation of the arch, a chariot with six horses is shown -standing over the attica, and on the four corners were equestrian statues. - -From the inscription it appears that the arch was built in the year A.D. -203. The repetition of the title Parthicus, points to the Parthian -campaigns of Severus. In the fourth line the name of Geta and his titles -have been erased, as in other ruins of the same date, and the words -OPTIMIS FORTISSIMISQUE PRINCIPIBUS inserted in their place. In the middle -ages the tower of a church called SS. Sergio e Bacco was built upon the -top of this arch, but was removed in 1536 on the entry of Charles V. by -command of Pope Paul III. - -[Sidenote: Ruins under the road across the end of the Forum.] - -Near the Arch of Severus, and also between the temple of Saturn and the -corner of the Basilica Julia, the modern road runs over archways. Under -the archways some substructions of large peperino stones and other forms -of building have been disclosed. These may have belonged to pedestals upon -which statues were placed, or in the case of those near the arch of -Severus to the later Rostra and Græcostasis, and in the case of those near -the corner of the Basilica Julia to the Arch of Tiberius. The round -pedestal which stands near the Arch of Severus was possibly the pedestal -of the Miliarium Aureum, as it is not strong enough to bear the weight of -a heavy statue.[62] - -A representation of the Rostra of the Empire which may have stood here is -given in the relief on the face of the Arch of Constantine, which looks -towards the Coliseum, where three arches are seen, corresponding to the -Arch of Severus on the right, and one arch corresponding to that of -Tiberius on the left. Constantine is shown in this bas-relief addressing -the people from the rostra. - -[Sidenote: The Carcer.] - -Under the church of S. Giuseppe dei Falegnami, which stands near the Arch -of Severus, are two chambers, which are always shown as the ancient prison -of Rome, said to have been first built by the King Ancus Martius, and then -rebuilt or enlarged by Servius Tullius. The upper of these two chambers is -of an irregular shape, but the lower is constructed in a conical form by -the gradual projection of the stones forming the sides. This mode of -building an arch is of very early date, before the introduction of the -principle of the round arch, and is found in the oldest tombs of Etruria, -and in well-houses at Tusculum and Cære.[63] - -There can be no doubt that this part of the building is of great -antiquity. But the proofs that it ever formed a prison are not so clear. -This has been inferred from the striking account of the imprisonment of -Jugurtha by Sallust, who states that Jugurtha was placed in a cell with -water at the bottom, and exclaimed, "Hercules, how cold your bath is!" -Hence it has been thought that the prison must have had water in it, as -this chamber has on the floor. - -Another proof that this is the ancient prison, called in the middle ages -the Mamertine prison, from a statue of Mars or Mamers, or from the Forum -Martis near it, has been derived from the statements of many Roman -authors, who place the prison on the slope of the Capitol, near the Forum, -and speak of an inferior as well as a superior chamber. The prison was -probably in this neighbourhood, but the shape of the conical vault is -rather that of a well-house. Mommsen has therefore suggested that this was -the original purpose of the lower chamber, and that it was used as a -cistern for collecting the water from the surrounding slopes. The top of -the ancient conical vault is truncated and closed, with the exception of a -round hole, by slabs of stone fastened together with iron cramps. - -A communication with the arched sewers which run down to the Forum, and -also with an archway which reaches up the slope to some large chambers on -the north-west under the Vicolo del Ghettarello, has been opened by Mr. -Parker, and these longer vaulted chambers which are of great antiquity, -have been taken to be extensions of the original regal prison. But there -is no sufficient evidence to show that these arched passages were used for -any purpose of transit, and they were more probably channels for draining -off the water, which would otherwise have accumulated in the chambers or -on the slopes.[64] - -An inscription is fixed in the outer wall, recording a restoration of the -building by the Consuls C. Vibius Rufinus and M. Cocceius Nerva, as -ordered by a decree of the Senate. These two men were consules suffecti -before A.D. 24, probably in A.D. 22, the ninth year of Tiberius. But the -name of the building is not mentioned in this inscription, and it seems -uncertain whether it has not been removed from elsewhere. - -There was another and larger prison in this district, and this larger -prison was called the Lautumiæ. Forty-three Ætolian prisoners are said by -Livy to have been crucified in the Lautumiæ, which must therefore have -been certainly much more extensive than the cell which is called the -Carcer Mamertinus. Seneca also mentions the request of a prisoner, Julius -Sabinus, that he might be removed from the Carcer to the Lautumiæ.[65] -There seems, therefore, to be no distinct proof that the conical cell was -ever anything more than a water tank, and the name of prison which has -been attached to it is probably a mediæval legend invented to indicate a -spot which might be venerated as the prison of St. Peter. - -[Sidenote: Tabularium.] - -On the side of the Capitoline Hill towards the Forum, a very high and wide -mass of building, now called the Palace of the Senator, and used for the -transaction of urban business, stands. This is founded upon an ancient -range of masonry of which a considerable part still remains, measuring -about 220 feet in length, and 50 feet in height. An entrance has been made -from the Via del Campidoglio, and as the wall was cut through for this -purpose, the structure of the building may be best observed here. On the -inner side red tufa has been used, and on the outer grey peperino, and the -blocks are laid alternately lengthwise and crosswise, as in the Servian -wall building. A great mass of masonry of this sort without cement, forms -the main substructions of the building. Along the front run the traces of -an arcaded passage, which anciently led across from one side to the other -of the building. The arches were walled up by Nicolas V., in order to bear -modern buildings above them. One has now been opened to show the -architecture. A pavement of basaltic lava, such as was used in the streets -of ancient Rome, has been found in the arcade, showing that it was a -public passage. The architecture of the building is Doric, which points to -an early date, and the capitals and cornice are of travertine. It is -probable that another arcade ran above the one now traceable. A high -flight of steps leads up into the chambers from the archway now walled up -at the back of the Temple of Vespasian. From the architecture it may be -concluded that these remains of a large ancient building date from the -republican times of Rome, and are almost the only relics of that era. This -ruin is generally called the Tabularium, but it has been shown by Mommsen -that there is no ground for supposing that the name was ever applied to it -in any ancient writings, and that the name is more properly Ærarium Populi -Romani, or Ærarium Saturni, and that it was attached to the Temple of -Saturn. Many of the temples in Rome had æraria attached to them, and it -does not appear that any central place of deposit ever had the name of -Tabularium alone, without further title, especially applied to it. The -inscription which has been placed at the entrance, and records the -construction of some building, or part of a building by Q. Lutatius -Catulus, when consul, was placed where it now stands by Canina. It is -supposed by Mommsen to refer to the repairs and alterations of the vaults -under the Capitol, which were carried out in pursuance of Sulla's plan of -improvements on the Capitol, and after Sulla's death were continued for -many years by Q. Catulus.[66] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE COLISEUM AND ESQUILINE. - - -[Sidenote: Meta Sudans.] - -On the road from the Forum Romanum to the Coliseum, after passing through -the Arch of Titus, we descend between the platform and ruins of the Temple -of Venus and Rome, and the remains called the lavacrum of Heliogabalus, -mentioned previously, and, close to the south-western corner of the mass -of substruction on the left, we find a conical column of brickwork about -thirty feet high. A large breach on the side towards the Coliseum shows -that the centre was pierced with a perpendicular pipe, and the eastern -exhibits traces of having been divided into three ledges or stages. This -conical building stood in the centre of a circular basin, the ruin of -which has been traced out and restored. The shape would of itself point to -the purpose which this building served, even if this were not rendered -clear by the remains of a watercourse which descended to it from the -Esquiline. The name Meta Sudans by which the ruin is known comes from the -mediæval list of buildings known as the Curiosum Urbis, but the earliest -authentic authority to which we can appeal for its date is a coin of -Alexander Severus, A.D. 222. The passage of Seneca in which he gives the -name Meta Sudans as being a spot at which the flute-players and trumpeters -made a din by their practice, does not give us any information as to its -position, and therefore we are not justified in assuming that the fountain -was erected in Nero's time.[67] The coins of Titus which represent the -Coliseum do not show it. Cassiodorus and other chronologists place the -date of the Meta Sudans in Domitian's reign, and this agrees with the -coins of Titus and also with the nature of the brickwork, which is of the -Flavian era. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Constantine.] - -Near the Meta Sudans at the entrance of the Via di S. Gregorio stands the -Arch of Constantine, which is the most completely preserved of all ancient -Roman buildings. The name of Constantine, revered by subsequent ages, -seems to have defended the archway from the barbarous spoliation which -attacked most of the great monuments of Rome. The most interesting feature -of this arch in the history of art is the proof which it gives of the -decline of art in the fourth century. Some of the reliefs with which it is -ornamented were taken from an older arch, probably that which formed the -entrance to Trajan's Forum, and those which are of Constantine's time show -a coarse and harsh style of execution in lamentable contrast to the -flowing and delicate lines of the more ancient work by their side. - -Among the sculptures which belong to the earlier and better period are the -large reliefs under the central arch and those which are placed on either -end of the attica. These four were originally parts of a larger relief -which has been sawn into four equal pieces for the purpose of adorning -Constantine's arch. The order in which they stood in the original design -has been pointed out by Bellori. The first part is that now placed on the -inside of the middle archway towards the Coliseum, the second stands on -the side of the attica over the arch towards the Cælian, the third on the -inside of the middle archway towards the Palatine, and the fourth upon the -attica on the same side. When united they represented Trajan crowned by -Victory, with the goddess Roma standing near, a battle between Dacians and -Romans, ending in the defeat and submission of the barbarian army. The -dress of the Roman soldiers and of the Dacians is similar to that -represented on Trajan's column, and quite different from the Roman -military habit in the age of Constantine. Beside these four rectangular -reliefs the eight circular sculptures which stand over the smaller -archways belong to the time of Trajan. They represent hunting scenes and -sacrificial ceremonies. One of them, the second from the left, upon the -side towards the Coliseum, has a remarkable figure of the Emperor with a -nimbus or cloud encircling his head, exactly similar to those represented -round the heads of modern saints. The eight large reliefs upon the attica -over the side archways are also of the workmanship of Trajan's time, and -commemorate some of the exploits of that emperor, among which may be -mentioned the construction of a road through the Pontine marshes -represented upon the second relief from the left on the side of the attica -towards the Coliseum. The reclining figure with a wheel represents the -road, and the other figures the surveyors, one of which is perhaps -Apollodorus, the famous Greek architect of Damascus. The other reliefs -upon the sides of the attica represent interviews of Trajan with barbarian -princes, and the common sacrifice of the Suovetaurilia, so frequently -depicted on the reliefs of the columns of that emperor, and also on the -large marble screens now standing in the Forum Romanum. The remainder of -the sculptures belong to the Constantinian era, and contain, viewed as -works of art, nothing worth attention. One of them on the side next to the -Coliseum is, however, of great interest to the antiquarian, as it -represents the rostra of the later Empire and the northern end of the -Forum, with the arches of Severus and Tiberius, and the end of the -Basilica Julia, and another, on the side towards the Via di S. Gregorio -representing the victory of Constantino over Maxentius at the Milvian -bridge, is historically valuable. - -The figures which stand in front of the attica have the Dacian costume, -and have been removed from some one of Trajan's buildings. Upon the side -of the central archway can be still seen the traces of nails which -fastened some Roman ensigns to the stones. Similar traces of nails are to -be seen upon the arch of Severus as before mentioned. - -The inscriptions over the smaller arches refer to the decennalia or -vicennalia, a festival celebrated after the time of Augustus every ten -years of an emperor's reign when he was supposed to have the imperium -conferred upon him afresh. The meaning of the expression VOTIS X. VOTIS -XX. seems to be that these inscriptions were put up on the "vota" or day -when vows were made for the emperor's safety at the beginning of the tenth -and twentieth years of his reign. This is not an uncommon signification of -the word "vota" in later Latin. The day which was usually called vota was -either the first or third of January, and the custom of offering these -vows was retained long after Christianity had been nominally made the -state religion, so that it is not surprising to find it alluded to on -Constantine's arch.[68] The words on the other side of the arch SIC. X. -SIC. XX. may be interpreted as the form of words used in making vows to -the emperor. "Sic x. annos regnet; sic xx. annos regnet." "May his reign -last ten years more or twenty years." - -The larger inscription which is cut upon the attica on both sides shows -that the arch was erected in honour of the victory of Constantine over -Maxentius, and the union of the empire under one sovereign. It is not, -however, certain that the arch was built in the first year of -Constantine's sole reign, for not only do the words INSTINCTU DIVINITATIS -"by inspiration of the Deity," seem to indicate a more decided leaning to -Christianity than Constantine showed at the beginning of his reign, but -the title of Maximus, which is found in the inscription, does not occur in -the coins of Constantine before the tenth year of his reign. - -The solid contents of this arch, as may be seen by ascending the staircase -which is entered by a door at some height from the ground at the end -nearest the Palatine Hill, are mainly composed of pieces of marble taken -from other buildings, and it has even been suspected that the plan itself, -which in beauty of proportion surpasses the Arch of Severus, was borrowed, -together with the materials, from Trajan's Arch or some older building now -destroyed. - -[Illustration: The Coliseum, from the Palatine Hill.] - -[Sidenote: The Coliseum.] - -We now pass from the Arch of Constantine, with its borrowed ornamentation, -to the great ruin of Rome, the Coliseum, or Flavian Amphitheatre. Although -two-thirds of the original building have disappeared under the shameful -treatment to which the barbarous nobles of the middle ages subjected it, -enough still remains to show the arrangement of the entrances, passages, -and seats of this wonderful construction. The plan of the whole may be -best described as consisting of three principal massive concentric -elliptical arcades. The intervals between each of these are filled in -with other arched work containing corridors and staircases, and between -the innermost of these three arcades and the wall which surrounded the -arena was a triple system of substruction supporting the lower parts of -the rows of seats in the amphitheatre. The stone used throughout is -travertine, with the exception of some interior work of brick and -concrete, and some pumice-stone in the arches. The elliptical shape was -probably chosen instead of the circular in imitation of the amphitheatre -of Curio, which was composed of two semicircular theatres with their -stages between them. The name Coliseum was possibly derived from the great -colossal statue of Nero which for a long time stood close to the Flavian -Amphitheatre, and when the real history of the amphitheatre was lost, -would naturally become the most prominent mark by which it could be -designated. This colossal statue was placed originally in the vestibule of -Nero's Golden Palace, and was 120 feet high, according to Suetonius. The -material was bronze and the artist was Zenodorus. It appears that -Vespasian, and afterwards Hadrian, moved the colossus to make room for -their new buildings, and that it was finally placed upon the massive -pedestal of brickwork which still remains on the north of the Coliseum. -That it actually stood upon this pedestal is shown by a coin of Alexander -Severus, which represents the Coliseum with the colossus close to it. It -is said by Gibbon that the name Coliseum was also given to the -amphitheatre at Capua without reference to a colossal statue. The Capuan -title may, however, have been taken from the Roman. - -The major axis of this huge amphitheatre, from one outside wall to the -other, measures 602 feet, the minor 507. The principal outer wall is 157 -feet in height, and is divided into four stories.[69] Of these the lowest -stands on a substruction of two steps, and originally consisted of a row -of eighty arches, between which stood half columns of the Doric order. -These outer arches, with the exception of thirty-three archways, have -disappeared. Upon these rests a very simple entablature without any of the -usual peculiarities of the Doric style, and rather belonging to the Ionic, -a mixture of styles not very rare in Rome.[70] The arches are all -numbered. These numbers were probably intended to correspond to those upon -the entrance tickets and rows of seats, in order that the spectators might -find their proper seats with ease. There is a staircase and a vomitorium -corresponding to every four arches, and the vomitoria as well as the -entrance arches were all numbered to prevent confusion. A ticket for the -amphitheatre at Frosinone has been found. It bears an inscription CAN. VI -IN. X. VIII., thus giving the position and number of the seat. The arches -which stood at the extremities of the minor axis were the approaches to -the imperial pavilions. They were ornamented with marble columns and -carved work on the exterior, and led in the interior to a large -withdrawing-room, from which there was a separate passage to the emperor's -throne (pulvinar) on the podium. On the Esquiline side the imperial -entrance may still be recognised by a slight projection in the -substructions, and by the pillars of white marble lying near it, which -originally stood on each side. The same arrangement was doubtless made on -the Cælian side, where the Emperor Commodus made himself an underground -approach. The other two principal entrances at the extremities of the -major axis lead directly into the arena, and were probably used for the -entry of processions or marching bodies of gladiators, or machines of -various kinds. - -The entablature of the first story is surmounted by an attica, with -projections corresponding to the columns below. Above these stand the -arches of the second story, between which half-columns of the Ionic order -are placed. The details of the architecture here are in a very meagre -style, for the spiral lines on the volutes are omitted, and also the usual -toothed ornaments of the entablature. The same remark applies to the third -story, the half-columns of which have Corinthian capitals with the -acanthus foliage very roughly worked. The fourth story has no arches, but -consists of a wall, pierced with larger and smaller square windows placed -alternately, and is decorated with pilasters of the Composite order. -Between each pair of pilasters three consoles project from the wall, and -above these are corresponding niches in the entablature. The purpose of -these was to support the masts upon which the awnings were stretched. - -The second and third of the principal concentric walls contain arches -corresponding to those in the outer wall. Corridors run between these -concentric walls, and on the first and second floors of the outer ring, -and the first floor of the inner ring, these circles afford a completely -unobstructed passage all round. The other corridors are blocked up in -parts by various staircases, leading to the upper rows of seats. - -Within the third principal concentric arcade the supports of the building -take the form of massive walls, radiating from the centre of the ellipse, -and divided by elliptical corridors into three ranges. Between these -massive walls and in the corridors are the steps and passages leading to -the lower seats of the amphitheatre. The actual seats which were of marble -have been all pilfered for the benefit of the Roman palaces and churches -of the feudal ages, but we can still make out with tolerable certainty the -five principal divisions into which they were separated. The lowest of -these, called the podium, was a platform raised twelve or fifteen feet -above the arena, upon which were placed the chairs of the higher -magistrates and dignitaries. This was protected by railings and nets full -of spikes, and sometimes also by trenches, called euripi, and horizontal -bars of wood or iron which turned freely round, and thus afforded no hold -to the paws of a wild animal. - -Above the podium were four different orders of seats, divided by belts of -upright masonry from each other. The first of these consisted of about -twenty rows of seats, and was appropriated to the knights and tribunes, -and other state officers. The upper row of this set was probably at a -height of about ten feet above the top of the arches of the lowest story. -The next ranges of seats between the second and third belt were -appropriated to Roman citizens in general, and held the greatest number of -spectators. - -The wall dividing these seats from the next set was very high, and -contained, besides the vomitoria or entrance doors, a number of windows -for the purpose of lighting the corridors and passages. A considerable -part of this wall is still extant upon the side towards the Esquiline -Hill. Above it ran the third set of seats, occupied by the lower classes -of the people, and above this again, and separated from it by a very low -wall without vomitoria, was the fourth group of seats, immediately under -the windows of the uppermost story, and covered by a portico which ran -round the whole top of the building.[71] The traces of this uppermost row -of seats and of the colonnade which supported the portico may still be -seen on the side towards the Esquiline Hill. - -The seats in this part seem to have been partly appropriated to women, -partly to the lower classes. On the roof of the portico stood the workmen -whose business it was to manage the awnings, and to move them as the sun -or rain required. The number of seats in the whole amphitheatre is said to -have been 87,000, and a considerable number, in addition to these, could -stand in the passages between the seats at the entrances of the vomitoria, -and in other vacant places, so that the whole number which the building, -when filled from top to bottom, could hold, was probably not less than -90,000. - -The exterior arcade of the building diminishes in thickness towards the -top, in order to render it more stable, and while the Doric and Ionic -columns of the first and second stories stand out from the wall by nearly -three-quarters of their circumference, the third row of Corinthian columns -projects less, and the uppermost row are merely pilasters. - -Much discussion has been raised on the question of the awnings or -_velaria_ required for so large a space. It is impossible of course, in -the absence of any distinct contemporaneous description, to discover the -exact mode of suspension adopted. Venuti supposes that a net of cords -constructed like a spider's web, with both radiating and concentric ropes, -was suspended over the amphitheatre, and that by pulleys arranged over -this the vela were drawn across any part which happened to be exposed to -the sun. By means of pulleys attached to this network of rope, the little -boys mentioned by Juvenal as caught up to the awnings may have been drawn -up. The ropes and pulleys, we are told by Lampridius, were managed by -sailors. In rough and windy weather the awnings could not always be drawn, -and umbrellas coloured according to the favourite's colours, or large -broad-brimmed hats called causiæ or birri, were then used. Martial has -written some amusing epigrams, showing how jealously the seats -appropriated to any particular privileged order were reserved. He gives -the names of Lectius and Oceanus to the boxkeepers of his time, who chased -intruders from the seats to which they were not entitled. And he describes -with great humour the attempts of a certain Nanneius to smuggle himself -into a better place than he was entitled to. The pickpockets of Martial's -time also frequented the amphitheatre. - -The anxiety of the public to attend the shows was so great that they -occupied the free seats in the amphitheatre before dawn in the morning, -and gave fees to the officials to keep places for them, when any favourite -gladiator or bestiarius was announced to perform. The shows lasted whole -days, and hence various contrivances for keeping the spectators in good -humour, and filling up the intervals between the combats. Seneca tells us -of the meridiani, a class of slaves who were kept on purpose to fill up -the midday leisure hours with sham fights, and ludicrous pranks played -upon the bodies of those killed or half killed in the previous fights. The -air was cooled with immense jets of water projected from the centre of the -arena, or from holes in the statues, and scented with fragrant essences, -among which extract of saffron mixed with wine seems to have been the most -popular. - -The _arena_ of the Coliseum was originally about 250 feet in length, and -150 feet in breadth. It seems now much larger on account of the removal of -the wall of the podium. The attention which has been drawn to the arena -during the last few years by the re-opening of the hypogæa, or -subterranean passages, renders it necessary to allude to the subject of -these hypogæa, and to estimate how far the recent excavations have thrown -new light upon the history and construction of the great amphitheatre. -When the French occupied Rome, and it was incorporated into their empire -in the four years preceding the Battle of Waterloo, the French Government -carried out considerable excavations in the arena of the Coliseum, and -besides clearing the podium and the chambers annexed to it, they opened -the cryptoporticus which runs underground towards the Cælian Hill, and -also discovered the passages beneath the arena which have been now -excavated again. - -A great controversy was raised at that time as to the real level of the -original arena between several of the archæological professors and -antiquarians of Rome. The same controversy has now been again revived, and -the same questions as to the probable date of the underground -constructions have been again raised, but with as little hope as ever of -arriving at a satisfactory solution. The truth seems to be that, as in -most amphitheatres, these hypogæa were constructed at the very first -erection of the Coliseum, but have been altered, neglected, filled up, and -again cleared out many times during the eventful history of the building, -and that it has now become impossible to trace the various stages of such -destructions and restorations. As often as the drains which were intended -to carry off the water became choked and failed to act, these lower -chambers and passages were filled with water and rendered useless. - -The French excavations conducted till the early part of this century, -1810-1814, showed the general character of the chambers and passages under -the arena. They consist of one central passage which extends under the -arena from end to end in the line of the major axis of the ellipse. -Parallel to this there are four narrower rectilineal passages on each side -connected with each other by archways and surrounding these are three -curved passages following the elliptical curves of the sides of the -amphitheatre. The material of which these walls were originally built was -great blocks of travertine similar to those in the surrounding -construction of the amphitheatre, but they have been patched and propped -in many places with tufa stones and brick, and now present a strange -miscellaneous mass of masonry. These underground passages are similar to -those found under the arena at Pozzuoli and Capua. It would seem that they -must have been necessary, in addition to the chambers under the staircases -of the building, for keeping wild beasts in large numbers, or for -marshalling and arranging the long processions which were sometimes -exhibited in the arena, or for other unusual exhibitions requiring more -room for preparation than could be otherwise afforded. In the amphitheatre -at Verona the passages under the arena seem to have served the purpose of -drains, as they are much less extensive than those under the Coliseum, and -are apparently connected with the channels which conducted the rain-water -from the upper part. The same is the case with those at Pola in Istria, -but at Pozzuoli and at Capua the hypogæa are of a similar character to -those in the Coliseum, and were evidently used in connection with the -exhibitions on the arena. - -The excavations of 1810-14 do not seem to have been carried deep enough to -show the floor of the hypogæa, and among the principal new objects of -antiquarian interest discovered by the recent operations have been some -large blocks of travertine sunk in the floor of the passages, and pierced -in their centre with large round holes. These holes have evidently been -the sockets into which upright posts of some kind were fixed. In some of -these sockets a metal lining still remains, and in one of them the remains -of a wooden post are said to have been found. Many conjectures as to the -purpose of these sockets have been hazarded. They have been imagined to be -the points on which revolving doors turned, or the holes into which posts -for chaining wild beasts were fixed, or the capstans for the purpose of -winding the ropes attached to stage machines. The explanation which -appears to me to be the most probable is that they were used for the -erection of temporary wooden posts in the same way in which at the present -time such movable posts are used in some of the doorways of large houses -in Rome, to divide the doorway temporarily into two distinct passages, by -attaching a rope to the posts. When long processions had to be marched -across the arena it would be necessary, if they were marshalled below, to -have the course of the entering processionists and of those returning kept -apart by some such device as that of a rope stretched between posts of -this kind. - -A large wooden framework has been found in the central passage, blackened -by long exposure to the water. This seems to have been a contrivance for -making an inclined plane on which heavy machines could be dragged up from -below. - -Another discovery which has been made is that of two cryptoportici, one of -which extends towards the Esquiline and the Thermæ of Titus, and the other -opens out from under the eastern end of the longer axis of the Coliseum. A -few graffiti of interest representing gladiatorial figures, and some -fragments of inscriptions relating to restorations of the building, or to -the munificence of those who indulged the public with amphitheatrical -exhibitions, have also been found. - -The mode in which the naval contests mentioned by Dion as having been -exhibited in the Coliseum were conducted, cannot be stated with any -certainty. They were given by Titus at the dedication of the building and -probably before its completion, so that the space now occupied by the -hypogæa may then have been filled with water previously to the -construction of the dividing walls. - -Perhaps no building of ancient Rome is so strikingly characteristic of the -builder, and the age in which he lived as the Flavian amphitheatre. -Vespasian is described by historians, and represented on coins, and in -extant sculptures, as a thick-set, square-shouldered man, with a short -neck, small eyes, strongly marked but coarse features wearing an -expression of effort. He cared little for the elegancies of life, and was -plebeian in his tastes, and regardless of appearances, but set a high -value on manliness and obstinate, unflinching endurance. - -During his reign the prevalent feeling in the Roman nation was that of a -worn-out and repentant prodigal. Sick of the frivolity and wanton -debauchery of the Neronian age, yet unable to return to the ascetic -simplicity of primitive times, men adored, for want of a better idol, the -blunt honesty and coarse strength of the Flavians. What if their emperor -wished that his courtiers should smell of garlic rather than of perfumery, -if in his contempt for speculative genius he dubbed the agitating -philosophers of his day "barking curs."[72] Yet he stood before them as a -proof that the stern old vigour of the national character was not yet -extinct, and that the profligate effeminacy of the previous generation had -not yet rotted the Roman character to its core. The same massive power of -endurance, yet ponderous and vulgar character, belongs to the architecture -of the Coliseum. It exhibits a neglect, almost a contempt for elegance of -proportion. The upper tiers are as heavy and solid as the lower. Its -arcades are massive, practical, built to last for ages; the full, -elaborate details of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, in which an artistic -eye usually finds so much pleasure, are merely hinted at as superfluous. - -Doubtless as we now see it, the ruin is far more effective than the -complete building can ever have been. For when complete the appearance of -the Coliseum must have been heavy and oppressive. The enormous unrelieved, -flat surface of the upper wall must have seemed ready to topple over or to -crush the arcade below. But now that earthquakes and barbarous hands have -made such ghastly rents in its sides, the outline has become more varied, -and the base more proportioned to the superstructure, so that although we -can still recognise the flavour of a somewhat vulgar and material age, yet -all that would have offended the eye has been removed, and the historical -memories which cluster around its walls, of mighty emperors and -blood-thirsty mobs, of screams of death or triumph, of gorgeous pageants -and heroic martyrdoms, combine to render the Coliseum in its decay the -most imposing ruin in the whole world. - -Two architectural merits have been pointed out in the Coliseum, the -impression of height and size conveyed by the tiers of arches rising one -above another, and the graceful curves produced by the continuous lines of -the entablatures as they cross the building. But what the Roman emperor -under whose auspices this great building was raised would doubtless have -valued more than any elegancies of design which could have been pointed -out to him, is the perfect adaptation of the structure to its purposes. -After the great catastrophe at Fidenæ where 20,000 persons were injured or -killed by the breaking down of a wooden amphitheatre, solidity and safety -were the principal requisites. Free ingress and egress for crowds of -spectators, as well as for any great personages who might attend, was -indispensable. A glance at the plan of the Coliseum will show how -admirably each of these objects was attained. The extraordinary solidity -of the building removed all possibility of the failure of any part to bear -whatever weight might be heaped upon it, and the entrances, galleries and -vomitoria were by the oval form of the building rendered so numerous that -each seat in the whole cavea was accessible at once and without -difficulty. A system of carefully arranged barriers in the passages would -effectually prevent confusion and excessive crowding. - -In endeavouring to adorn the great amphitheatre of the metropolis more -richly than those of the provinces its architect defeated his own object. -Some of the provincial amphitheatres, as that of Capua, though in other -respects like the Coliseum, show a simpler and therefore more natural -exterior. When the Doric order is retained in all the tiers, it harmonises -far better with the rude strength of such an edifice than the Corinthian -and Ionic orders of the Coliseum. At Verona and Pola a still further -improvement is made by the rustication of the exterior. At Nismes, on the -other hand, the faults of the Coliseum are aggravated by breaking the -entablatures, and introducing pediments over each front; and in the small -Amphitheatrum Castrense at Rome, where the Corinthian order is executed -in brick, a lamentable illustration of Roman want of taste is exhibited. - -[Illustration: MONS OPPIUS. After Palladio and Canina.] - -The holes which are now so conspicuous in the travertine blocks of the -exterior wall of the Coliseum were probably made in the middle ages to -extract the iron clamps by which the stones were fastened together. Some -antiquarians have however held that they are the holes in which the beams -of the buildings which clustered round the Coliseum in mediæval times were -fixed. At the end of the fifteenth and at the beginning of the sixteenth -century, the travertine blocks of the amphitheatre were used as a quarry -from which to build palaces, and it is said that the Palazzo di Venezia, -the Palazzo Farnese, and the Palazzo della Cancelleria were constructed of -the stone robbed from hence. During part of the eleventh and twelfth -centuries a castle of the powerful family of the Frangipani, which -afterwards belonged to the Annibaldi stood in the walls of the Coliseum. -Later generations of nobles and popes since the beginning of the -nineteenth century have propped the building by buttresses of brickwork, -and have endeavoured to postpone the date foretold by two Anglo-Saxon -pilgrims as that of the fall of Rome. "When the Coliseum falls, Rome will -fall."[73] - -[Sidenote: Aurea Domus of Nero. Baths of Titus.] - -The Coliseum was built by Vespasian in a depression between the Cælian and -Esquiline Hills, which had been occupied by a large lake of ornamental -water, called the Stagnum Neronis, used by Nero for aquarian -entertainments and exhibitions. The vast palace known as the Domus Aurea -Neronis extended along the side of the Esquiline on the north of the -Coliseum. The Flavian emperors destroyed this palace, and Titus built a -new group of courts and chambers over the ruins. The relics of these -buildings of Titus are now remaining mingled with the substructures and -lower parts of the Domus Aurea which they superseded. They are entered by -a gateway on the road leading from the Coliseum to S. Pietro in Vincoli. - -So far as we can draw any conclusion from the fragmentary and confused -piles of ruins now left, and from the plan which Palladio sketched at a -time when the remains of the palace had not so completely disappeared, it -seems that this part of Nero's palace consisted of a long straight façade -of buildings extending along the slope of the Esquiline from east to west -in the direction marked on the plan (A-B). In front of this there seems to -have been a projecting court surrounded by small chambers (C-D). A few of -these still remain at the western end, and are used as a dwelling-house -for the custode. Behind the above-mentioned façade were numerous rooms of -various kinds, and courts surrounded with colonnades. One of these courts -with its adjacent corridors and apartments is now partly accessible (E, -F), but the greater part were filled in with rubbish when the baths of -Titus were built over them, and have never been entirely cleared. In the -centre of this court the remains of a fountain-basin and a pedestal may be -seen. The area is now traversed by parallel walls built by Titus to serve -as substructions to his Thermæ. These are indicated on the plan by the -dotted lines in black. - -All the rooms in this part which are now accessible have arched roofs, and -are covered with decorative paintings. Fortunately a great number of these -have been preserved to us by artists who copied them before they were -destroyed by damp and the soot of the cicerone's torch. At the present -time scarcely enough remains to show the beauty and delicacy of the -designs. The best preserved paintings are in the long north corridor, -where is also an inscription illustrating Persius, Sat. i. 113: - - "Pinge duos angues: pueri, sacer est locus, extra - Mejite." - -The two snakes were symbolic of the Lares Compitales, and are common at -Pompeii. Raphael adopted the same style of ornamentation as that preserved -here in the Loggie of the Vatican. The rooms now shown, which contain a -bath and other household apparatus, apparently belonged to a private -house, and may either have formed a part of the Aurea Domus, or of some -house built on its site at the time immediately following Nero's death. -The eleven rooms (F) which occupied the north side of the court (E) -contain traces of wooden staircases leading to an upper story. The -decorations and fittings of these appear to have been so inferior to those -of the other rooms, that we must suppose them to have been occupied by the -imperial slaves, or by the household troops. At the northern end of this -row of chambers is a room with mosaic pavement at a considerably lower -level than those surrounding it, and which must therefore have belonged to -some building earlier in date than the Domus Aurea. It is sometimes called -a part of the House of Mæcenas, but there is no authority for this, and it -is more probable that the House of Mæcenas stood nearer to the Agger of -Servius. - -[Sidenote: Sette Sale.] - -Another portion of the Domus Aurea is still visible at the SETTE SALE, a -large brick building lying in a vineyard to the left of the Via delle -Sette Sale. The purpose of this was plainly to serve as a reservoir for -water, and it is shown to have belonged to the Domus Aurea, and not to the -Thermæ of Titus, by the correspondence of its position with the -ground-plan of the former. It may have been afterwards used in connection -with the Thermæ, and was possibly preserved with that view, while the rest -of the palace was destroyed or buried. The peculiar construction of the -interior, which is divided into nine compartments, communicating with each -other by openings--not placed opposite to each other, but in a slanting -direction across the building--is said to have been so arranged in order -to prevent the heavy mass of water from bursting open the sides of the -building. The group of the Laocöon was found near the Sette Sale, and it -is supposed that the state-rooms of Titus may have contained that group of -statues. - -[Sidenote: Thermæ or Baths of Titus.] - -Returning to the ruins of the Baths of Titus near the Coliseum it may be -observed that these Thermæ were connected with the Coliseum by a portico, -traces of which can still be seen on the north side of the amphitheatre. -The arrangement of the building corresponded in some degree to that of the -Baths of Caracalla, consisting apparently of a large square court -surrounded by various offices and places for recreation, in the centre of -which stood a vast mass of building containing the bath-rooms. The sides -of this court were not parallel to any lines of building in the Domus -Aurea, and, therefore, in order to form a level area many new -substructions had to be erected. This is plainly the case with the theatre -(A), which occupied the centre of the side towards the Coliseum. In order -to raise this to the level of the rest of the area, the nine huge arched -chambers, which are now a most conspicuous part of the ruins, were -erected, and one of the courtyards of the Domus Aurea was filled, as we -have seen, with parallel walls of brickwork. On each side of the theatre -there were probably gymnasia, libraries, or ball courts (B B). The central -building was occupied with the frigidarium and tepidarium, and the other -usual adjuncts of a large Roman bath (C C C). - -The catalogue called the 'Curiosum urbis Romæ' places not only the Baths -of Titus but also those of Trajan in the third region. The anonymous MS. -of Einsiedlen places Trajani Thermæ near the Church of S. Pietro in -Vincoli; and Anastasius in his 'Life of Symmachus,' mentions them as near -the Church of S. Martino. It is, therefore, abundantly proved that the -Thermæ of Trajan stood at the back of the Baths of Titus, and it is here -that we find them placed in the plan of Palladio. That they were distinct -buildings seems clear from an inscription in which they are separately -mentioned. A satisfactory explanation of the apparently strange fact that -Trajan erected new and smaller Thermæ near those of Titus is given by one -of the chronologers of the period, who speaks of the Baths of Trajan as -intended for women, for whom there was no separate accommodation provided -in those of Titus. The scattered ruins to the north of the Baths of Titus -may have belonged to Trajan's Baths. - -On the Esquiline Hill, besides the Baths of Titus, the Domus Aurea, and -the Sette Sale, we find four remarkable ruins, which are called the -Trophies of Marius, the Arch of Gallienus, the Minerva Medica, and the -Auditorium of Mæcenas. - -[Sidenote: Trophies of Marius.] - -The ruin called the Trophies of Marius stands at the corner of the Via di -S. Bibiana. It consists in the lower part of a number of small and -curiously shaped compartments of brickwork, with openings at seven or -eight different points. Underneath these, and now hidden under the level -of the ground, is a large basin or tank, and above them the upper part of -the building is formed by the remains of three niches, in which stood the -marble trophies now placed upon the balustrade of the steps of the -Capitol. They were removed to the Capitol by Sixtus V. in the year 1585. -The name Trophies of Marius is an attempt to explain the more ancient name -of Cimbrum, which we find attached to the ruin in the middle ages, by -identifying the trophies with the Tropæa Marii mentioned by Suetonius as -having been pulled down by Sulla and restored by Julius Cæsar.[74] But -although we must allow that there is some probability in the supposition -that the Marian trophies may have occupied these niches, yet it is certain -that the building itself was intended to serve another purpose, that of -the castellum or principal reservoir of an aqueduct, with a public -fountain in the form of a cascade in front. The basin which has been -discovered under the building, and the peculiar shape of the complicated -interior structure, can be best explained thus, and the remains of some -part of the aqueduct itself may be seen at the back. It was at one time -supposed that the Aqua Julia ended here but it is now generally -acknowledged that the ruin belonged to the Aqua Alexandrina, and that the -name Nymphæum Alexandri, found in the catalogues of the fifth region, must -be assigned to it. The Alexandrine Aqueduct was built by Alexander Severus -in the year A.D. 225. Water was brought to Rome by means of it from a spot -near the Lake Regillus, and a portion is still visible on the left hand of -the Via Labicana about two miles from Rome. The level of this aqueduct -corresponds exactly with the building in question, and the style of -brickwork and architecture are such as might belong to the third century. -It is possible, as Reber remarks, that Alexander Severus may have found -the exact spot where the Trophies of Marius had been placed by Julius -Cæsar convenient for the castellum of his aqueduct, and have used the -trophies to ornament the new building which he erected. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Gallienus.] - -Close to the Church of S. Vito, and spanning the Via di S. Vito, stands -the Arch of Gallienus, erected by M. Aurelius Victor, prefect of Rome in -A.D. 262, in honour of the Emperor Gallienus and Empress Salonina. It is -constructed of travertine, and the ornamental work upon it is extremely -simple, consisting only of pilasters crowned by roughly worked Corinthian -capitals, and surmounted by an entablature of the commonest kind. Part of -the basement is buried under the present level of the soil, and from a -sketch by San Gallo of its state in the fifteenth century there appears to -have been a pediment above the entablature, and two smaller archways on -each side. The inscription, which is now hardly legible, is cut upon the -architrave and contains a flattering description of one of the most -singularly accomplished and incapable emperors of Rome, of whom Gibbon -says, "Gallienus was a master of several curious but useless sciences, a -ready orator and elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and -most contemptible prince."[75] - -[Sidenote: Minerva Medica.] - -In the grounds of the Villa Magnani, which are reached from the Via di S. -Bibiana, are two small Columbaria, one of which formerly contained -inscriptions relating to the family of the Arruntii, and also one which -belonged to Statilius Taurus, a nobleman mentioned by Tacitus. This was -decorated with scenes from the Æneid of Virgil, but these are nearly -destroyed. In the same gardens, not far to the north-west of the Porta -Maggiore, stands a lofty and picturesque ruin, comprising a central -decagonal hall surrounded by four other apartments, the ground-plan of -which has been preserved by San Gallo. The central hall contained nine -deep niches, and the entrance passes through the tenth side. Over the -niches and the entrance archway are round-headed windows, and the roof was -of vaulted brickwork. Traces still remain of stucco work and cement on the -inner walls, from which it appears that they were covered with ornamental -work and in some parts with marble. - -Parts of the pavement, which was of porphyry, have also been found, and in -the neighbourhood of the ruin a number of sculptures have been at various -times discovered, among which are statues of Pomona, Æsculapius, Adonis, -Venus, Hercules, Antinous, some Luperci, and a Faun. The old -topographers, Blondus Flavius and Lucius Faunus, give the name of Terme di -Galuccio or Galuzze to the ruin, and this name has been ingeniously -explained as referring to the Thermæ or Basilica of Caius and Lucius. But -there is no good foundation for this conjecture, or for the identification -of the building with the Temple of Minerva Medica, mentioned in the -Notitia. The latter name was derived from the supposed discovery here of -the Pallas Giustiniani, now in the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican. But -another and more ancient account asserts that the statue of Pallas was -found near S. Maria sopra Minerva, and therefore the name of Minerva -Medica cannot with any certainty be applied here. - -Canina has proposed another explanation of the name Galuzze. He thinks -that the ruins belonged to the Palatium Licinianum, which is mentioned by -Anastasius, in his 'Life of Simplicius,' as near the Church of S. Bibiana. -This palace, he thinks, is identical with the Pleasure Gardens of -Gallienus, who bore the name of Licinius, in which, according to -Trebellius Pollio, he used to bathe and banquet with his courtiers. The -name Galuzze is, therefore, according to Canina, derived from Gallieni -Liciniaria, and the building may be supposed to have formed a part of the -baths in Gallienus's pleasure grounds, resembling as it does in its -construction the great rotunda of the Baths of Caracalla. The proximity of -the Arch of Gallienus adds probability to this conjecture. The basin now -standing in the ruin is not ancient, and therefore cannot be held to -support this conjecture, but the brickwork and style of architecture are -said by competent judges to be such as might have been erected at the time -of the later Empire. The building called Minerva Medica by the Notitia may -have been near this spot, as some inscriptions here discovered show, but -it most probably consisted only of a chapel of no great extent standing -near the Via Prænestina. - -The extensive alterations which have been carried on at Rome during the -last few years in the district at the back of the Viminal and Esquiline -Hills, where a new quarter of the city is being laid out, have disclosed a -number of fragments of sculptures and inscriptions, a detailed account of -which has been given from time to time in the _Bullettino della -Commissione Archeologica Municipale_, and in the letters of Mr. Hemans to -the _Academy_. The most interesting relics bearing upon topographical -questions are the inscription relating to the Macellum Liviæ and Forum -Esquilinum found near the Arch of Gallienus, and the supposed foundations -of the Villa of Mæcenas. - -Most of the antiquarian and artistic relics lately discovered here have -been deposited in the Capitoline Museum. - -Unfortunately the necessary extension of the buildings attached to the -railway station has resulted in the destruction of a large portion of the -Servian Agger. Some large fragments of the huge blocks belonging to the -Servian wall may be seen at the back of the station. Traces of a road and -a gate were found which have been supposed to belong to the Via and Porta -Viminalis, and many confused heaps of ruins, the relics of private houses -built up against the side of the agger. In one of these the bricks bore -the date of the third consulship of Servianus, A.D. 134, and of that of -Niger and Camerinus, A.D. 138. - -A Hermeracles in marble was found near the station, which is figured in -the _Bullettino della Commissione_ for March 1873, and numerous mosaic -pavements, one of which is laid on the floor of the waiting-room at the -station. - -[Sidenote: Auditorium.] - -One of the buildings attached to an ancient house in this neighbourhood -has been carefully preserved and walled in for protection. It stands near -the ruin called the Trophies of Marius, and not far from the Arch of -Gallienus, and consists of a semicircular recess with ledges rising one -above another in the form of a miniature theatre. A more correct -description of the site is given by stating that it stands where the -former gardens of the convent of the Redentoristi were situated. This -building has, on account of its resemblance to a theatre, and of its -position on a spot over which the famous Gardens of Mæcenas probably -extended, been called the Auditorium of Mæcenas, and romantic ideas have -been connected with it as having been the actual auditorium where Virgil -and Horace may have recited their poetry to their great patron. This view, -however, has been shown to be untenable by Signor Mau, who thinks with -more probability that the ruin in question is an ornamental recess for -decorative works of art and flowers or a fountain. Such recesses may be -seen in some of the houses at Pompeii. The paintings on the walls are of a -style similar to those in the Villa of Livia at Prima Porta, and the -building may therefore possibly belong to the Augustan age. - -[Sidenote: Porta S. Lorenzo.] - -The inscriptions on the Porta S. Lorenzo at the eastern side of the -Esquiline Hill tell the history of the several gateways here built by -Augustus and other emperors down to Honorius. The aqueducts run along the -walls from this gate to the Porta Maggiore. - -[Sidenote: Porta Maggiore.] - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Eurysaces.] - -The Gateway of Honorius was removed from the Porta Maggiore by Gregory -XVI. as the inscription on the present gate records. The removal of the -old gateway disclosed the Tomb of Eurysaces, a bread contractor, which is -a very fantastic monument, constructed of stone mortars used for kneading -dough, and ornamented with some curious bas-reliefs of a good period of -art, representing the operations of baking. The inscriptions upon it are -as follows: "EST HOC MONIMENTUM MARCEI VERGILEI EURYSACIS PISTORIS AC -REDEMPTORIS APPARETORUM. FUIT ATISTIA UXOR MIHEI FEMINA OPTIMA VEIXIST -QUOJUS CORPORIS RELIQUIÆ QUOD SUPERANT SUNT IN HOC PANARIO." The latter of -these inscriptions, however, probably belongs to some other tomb, the -remains of several having been found here, which lead to the supposition -that this was a spot especially devoted to the burial of bakers. - -The present gateway is formed by two arches of the Claudian Aqueduct, -which runs along the course of the walls from this point to the corner -near the Amphitheatrum Castrense. The arches are built of rusticated -travertino blocks, and each of the piers is pierced with a smaller arch, -decorated with Corinthian half-columns of rustic work and pediments in the -usual Græco-Roman style of a triumphal arch. This gateway is one of the -most characteristic creations of Roman architecture. It conveys more than -any other building I know, except, perhaps, the rusticated archways of the -amphitheatre at Verona, the impression of rough force and solidity. Over -the arches are three atticas, upon which the following inscriptions are -cut, recording the erection and renewal of the Claudian aqueduct by -Claudius, Vespasian, and Titus: - -TI. CLAUDIUS DRUSI F. CAISAR AUGUSTUS GERMANICUS PONTIF. MAXIM. TRIBUNICIA -POTESTATE XII. COS V. IMPERATOR XXVII. PATER PATRIÆ AQUAS CLAUDIAM EX -FONTIBUS QUI VOCABANTUR CÆRULEUS ET CURTIUS A MILLIARIO XXXXV. ITEM -AMERIEM NOVAM A MILLIARIO LXVII. SUA INPENSA IN URBEM PERDUCENDAS CURAVIT. -IMP. CÆSAR VESPASIANUS AUGUST. PONTIF. MAX. TRIB. POT. II. IMP. VI. COS. -III. DESIG. III. P. P. AQUAS CURTIAM ET CÆRULEAM PERDUCTAS A DIVO CLAUDIO -ET POSTEA INTERMISSAS DILAPSASQUE PER ANNOS NOVEM SUA IMPENSA URBI -RESTITUIT. - -IMP. T. CÆSAR DIVI F. VESPASIANUS AUGUSTUS PONT. MAX. TRIBUNIC. POTEST. -X. IMP. XVII. P. P. CENS. COS. VIII. AQUAS CURTIAM ET CÆRULEAM PERDUCTAS A -DIVO CLAUDIO ET POSTEA A DIVO VESPASIANO PATRE SUO URBI RESTITUTAS CUM A -CAPITE AQUARUM A SOLO VETUSTATE DILAPSÆ ESSENT NOVA FORMA REDUCENDAS SUA -IMPENSA CURAVIT. - -[Illustration: THE FORA OF THE CAESARS] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE IMPERIAL FORA AND THE CAPITOLIUM. - - -[Sidenote: Trajan's Forum.] - -[Sidenote: Ruin in the Salita del Grillo.] - -The whole space between the Quirinal and the Capitoline Hills was occupied -by the immense Forum and public buildings which Trajan constructed. The -Column of Trajan, with its wonderful spiral reliefs, still marks the site -of this great mass of masonry; but the remainder, which included a -basilica, two libraries, a temple, and two extensive porticoes, has -disappeared with the exception of a fragmentary ruin in the Via della -Salita del Grillo under the Quirinal. This ruin is the remains of a part -of the great semicircular side of Trajan's Forum under the Quirinal Hill. -It consists of a brick building of two stories high, containing in the -lower story small rooms measuring about ten feet square, probably shops or -offices for notaries and lawyers' clerks. The interior of three of the -rooms is covered with plaster, and painted roughly. The floors were -covered with mosaic pavement of a common kind, of which much still remains -in situ. Above these rooms runs a corridor with arched windows, at the -back of which a row of large and high chambers opens, resting upon the -natural rock of the Quirinal Hill. The front is faced with brick pilasters -on travertine basements, in a mixed Doric and Ionic style, and there were -formerly pediments over the windows. - -It will be seen by reference to the plan that a small portion of the Forum -of Trajan can be now seen in the Piazza della Colonna Trajana. The arch -from which the beautiful bas-reliefs on Constantine's Arch were robbed, -probably stood in the Via del Priorato at some distance from the Piazza. - -The two double rows of bases now to be seen in the Piazza formed a part of -the great Basilica Ulpia, part of the ground-plan of which is still -preserved on two fragments of the Capitoline map. Many fragments are to be -seen here of the columns which supported the roof of the basilica, among -which those of grey granite, probably belonging to the outer rows of -columns, are most conspicuous. - -[Sidenote: Column of Trajan.] - -The great PILLAR with its well-known spiral bas-reliefs, perhaps the most -interesting and instructive monument of antiquity in Rome, was surrounded -when the buildings round it were complete with a narrow court not more -than forty feet square. The south side of this was formed by the Basilica -Ulpia, the eastern and western by the libraries, and on the north there -was probably an open colonnade, the line of which can be traced leading to -the structures beyond, where stood the temple dedicated to Trajan. Thus we -discover a fact which seems at first somewhat surprising, that the pillar -could not be viewed in its full height from any side, and that the upper -part of it alone was visible from the Forum over the roof of the basilica. -That it was intentionally thus enclosed is evident, for had the Greek -architect Apollodorus of Damascus, who designed the Forum, wished it to be -where the full colossal proportions could be seen, the open space of the -Forum was close at hand, in the centre of which it might have been placed. -But it is not unlikely that the sight of a column was almost inseparable -in the Greek architectural ideas from an entablature and pediment. The -Greeks did not place their statues on the top of columns, and probably had -this reason for it, that a single column cannot form a whole by itself, -and wears a forsaken and deserted aspect when viewed from any distance. An -obelisk conveys a different meaning, and the use of a single column cannot -be justified by it. The obelisk tapers upwards and completes itself, but a -column instantly brings the idea of support with it. Obelisks, moreover, -were never used singly by the Egyptians, but always placed in pairs. The -intention of the architect was not that the column should be viewed as we -now view it, as a whole, but that the colossal statue of the emperor might -be raised on high above his splendid group of buildings, and also that the -bas-reliefs should be conveniently viewed from the surrounding galleries. - -[Illustration: The Column of Trajan.] - -The height of the column is 124 feet from the pavement to the foot of the -statue. It stands upon a pedestal of marble eighteen feet high, -ornamented on three sides with highly interesting bas-reliefs representing -trophies of Roman and Dacian armour of various kinds, the Roman labarum -and the Dacian dragon, coats of mail made of scale or chain armour, -helmets, curved and straight swords, axes, clubs, bows, quivers, arrows, -lances, trumpets, and several kinds of military tools. On the fourth side -two genii bear the tablet on which is the inscription: SENATUS POPULUSQUE -ROMANUS IMP. CAESARI DIVI NERVAE F. NERVAE TRAJANO AUG. GERM. DACICO -PONTIF. MAXIMO TRIB. POT. XII. IMP. VI. PP. AD DECLARANDUM QUANTAE -ALTITUDINIS MONS ET LOCUS TANT[is operi]BUS SIT EGESTUS. - -The last words of this inscription are illustrated by a passage of Dion -Cassius, who says that Trajan placed a colossal pillar in his Forum to be -his own tomb, and also to show the amount of labour expended upon the -Forum, the slope of the hill which previously occupied the site having -been dug away so as to afford a level space for the Forum. There is no -need to interpret this, as some writers have done, to mean that the ground -on the spot where the column stands had previously been as high as the top -of the column. Such an interpretation seems highly improbable. The view -taken by Becker and Brocchi is more tenable, that the words allude to the -cutting away of the Quirinal Hill, which was steep and inaccessible before -but was sloped away to a point on the side of the hill as high as the top -of the column. Brocchi's geological observations have made it almost -certain that the ground has not been cut away to any great depth between -the two hills. - -The top of the column is only six feet lower than the level of the Villa -Aldobrandini on the top of the Quirinal, and two feet higher than the -Piazza di Ara Coeli. If, therefore, at any time the ground on the site of -Trajan's Forum was as high as the column, it must have formed a ridge -between the Capitoline and Quirinal Hills, higher than the Capitoline and -very nearly as high as the Quirinal. - -In the base of the column the ashes of Trajan were deposited in a golden -urn. Sixtus V. had the chamber in which the urn was placed opened, but -found it empty, and it has now been walled up. - -Above the pedestal are two flat stones ornamented with garlands of oak -leaves, and upon them rests a round base carved in the shape of a laurel -wreath. The shaft which stands immediately upon this is composed of -nineteen cylindrical blocks of marble, on the outside of which a spiral -band of beautifully executed bas-reliefs winds from bottom to top, -covering the whole shaft. The capital is a single ring of egg-shaped -ornaments with arrowheads between them, and a simple border below. On a -pedestal above it stood originally the colossal bronze-gilt statue of -Trajan. This statue and pedestal were probably carried off during the -robberies committed at Rome by the Byzantine emperors, A.D. 663. Sixtus V. -replaced it by a modern cylindrical pedestal and statue of S. Peter. The -ancient winding staircase hewn in the solid blocks of marble, and lighted -by narrow openings, still leads to the top. From thence it may be seen how -difficult it is to suppose that the ground ever rose to such a height -between the Capitoline and Quirinal as has been imagined by many -historians and topographers. - -[Sidenote: Bas-reliefs representing scenes in the Dacian wars.] - -The magnificent wreath of bas-reliefs which winds round the shaft may be -best studied by means of the model to be seen in the French Academy on the -Pincian Hill, or that in the Kensington Museum. It contains the history of -two campaigns against the Dacians, and has been ingeniously and minutely -interpreted by several writers. A complete account of this marble history -of the Dacian wars, with a discussion of all the historical and -antiquarian points connected with it, would occupy several volumes, and we -must, therefore, content ourselves with noticing the general character of -the work and some few of the more interesting portions. - -[Sidenote: Trajan's first campaign in Dacia.] - -Two campaigns are represented. The first of these took place in the year -101, and during it Trajan's army passed down the river Save and crossed -the Danube in two divisions at Kastolatz and at the confluence of the -Tjerna. The two divisions effected a junction at the pass of the Bistra, -called the Iron Gate, which they forced, and then attacked and took the -royal city Zermizegethusa. Trajan was not satisfied with this success, but -pushed on into the heart of the enemy's country, and gained a great -victory at Tapæ, after which Decebalus, the Dacian king, sued for peace. - -The bas-relief begins at the base by a representation of the banks of the -Save, down which the Roman army passed, and shows military storehouses, -piles of wood, stacks of hay, and wooden huts. Then follow forts with -soldiers on guard, and boats carrying barrels of provisions. - -The river god Danube then appears and looks on with astonishment at the -bridge of boats over which the Roman army is passing. The baggage of the -soldiers on the march, tied to the top of the vallum or palisade which -they carry, and the different military standards, are very distinctly -shown. Many of the men are without covering on their heads, but some wear -lions' skins. The emperor and his staff are then introduced. He is sitting -upon a suggestus or platform, and Lucius, the Prætorian prefect, sits -beside him. The suovetaurilia, a grand sacrificial celebration, is the -next scene, with priests in the Cinctus Gabinus and trumpeters. After this -the emperor is seen making a speech to the army, and a little farther on -the building of a stone encampment enclosing huts is being carried on with -great vigour, and bridges are being thrown across a river, over which -cavalry are passing. - -A battle seems then to take place, and the heads of two enemies are being -brought to the emperor. The Dacian army with the dragon ensign and the -Dacian cap, the symbol of superior rank, seen upon the statues of the -Dacian prisoners on the Arch of Constantine, appears. Jupiter gives the -victory to the Romans, the Dacian camp is burnt, and the Dacians fly. - -Numerous representations of forts, boats, different kinds of troops, -skirmishes, and sieges follow, ending with the surrender of Decebalus and -the return of Trajan to Rome, where a great festival is celebrated. The -arrival at Rome, and the crowd of Romans going to meet the great -conqueror, are very vividly drawn. An immense number of bulls for -sacrifice, altars, camilli, and half-naked popæ are introduced into the -triumphal rejoicings, and the first campaign ends with the figure of -Trajan offering incense on the altar of Jupiter Capitolinus. - -[Sidenote: Trajan's second campaign in Dacia.] - -A somewhat similar series of scenes are represented in the sculptures -which depict the second campaign. Perhaps the most interesting is that of -the great bridge over the Danube, made of wood supported on stone piers, -the foundations of which may still be seen in the bed of the river. -Apollodorus, the architect of the Forum, designed this immense work, which -crossed the Danube at a spot where it is not less than 1300 yards wide, -near the village of Gieli. A permanent road into Dacia and secure -communications with his basis of operations having thus been secured, -Trajan gradually advanced from post to post, driving the Dacians into the -mountainous parts of the country. The sculptures represent a number of -skirmishes and assaults upon fortified places, but no regular pitched -battle. At last the ghastly spectacle of the head and hands of Decebalus -is exhibited on a board by two soldiers in front of the Prætorium. This -disgusting scene is followed by a representation of the storming of the -last strongholds of the enemy in the mountains, and a mournful procession -of fugitives carrying away their goods and driving their cattle into exile -forms the close of the sculptured history of the Dacian campaigns of -Trajan.[76] - -In these curious bas-reliefs we have a treasury of information on the -religion, the military science, the habits and dress of the Romans of the -Empire far more valuable than ten thousand pages of descriptive writing. -The lover of Roman antiquities will learn more by studying Fabretti's -engravings of these reliefs, or the casts at the French Academy at Rome, -and at the Kensington Museum, than by much book-labour. The descriptions -of Livy and Polybius, Cæsar and Tacitus, receive life, and movement, and -interest as we look at the actual figures (oculis subjecta fidelibus) of -the general and his staff; the Prætorian guards marked by their belts over -the left shoulder; the fierce-looking standard-bearers and centurions with -their heads covered by lions' skins, the shaggy manes of which stream down -their backs; the rank and file carrying enormous stakes; the master -masons, sappers, and pioneers, with their axes and crowbars; the lancers, -heavy and light cavalry, and royal chargers; the Sarmatian horsemen, -clothed, both riders and steeds, in complete scale armour, and the Moorish -cavalry, riding without reins. - -Bridges are constructed, Roman causeways laid, forts attacked with all -kinds of military engines; the charge of cavalry, the rout and confusion -of a defeated army, are all most vividly depicted. Trajan in person -traverses the ranks on foot, or mounts the suggestus and harangues his -men, or receives with simple dignity the submission of the enemy, or -marches with all the pomp of a Roman procession under the triumphal arch. -The soldierlike simplicity of the great military emperor is strikingly -portrayed. There is no silken tent, or richly decorated chariot, or -throne, or canopy of state to be seen. His colonel of the guards sits -beside him, as an equal, on the suggestus. In the midst of a battle the -emperor tears up his robe to bind the wounds of his soldiers; he is -present everywhere, wearing a sword and fighting in person. Nothing could -be more illustrative of the state of Roman affairs in that iron age when -again, as in the olden times, a rough and unlettered warrior, fresh from -the camp, swayed the destinies of the empire. - -In this vast spiral relief there are said to be above 2500 figures of men -sculptured, and the higher they are placed on the column the larger are -their dimensions, showing the care that was taken to counteract the -effects of the increased distance from the eye. The whole of the carving -from base to summit is executed with equally minute care, though the upper -part can never have been easily visible, except from the windows or roofs -of the basilica and the libraries which, as we have seen, were placed very -near. The opinion which prevailed for some time, that the figures had been -coloured, is incorrect, as the more minute examination since made has -proved that the colours imagined to be artificial are the natural results -of the decay of the stone and oxidisation of the metallic parts of the -structure, under the effects of the rain, sun, and dust. - -[Sidenote: Remains found on the site.] - -A vast number of fragments of columns, of inscriptions, and of -architectural ornaments have been dug up at various times on the site of -Trajan's Forum. The great granite columns which now lie near the base of -the pillar were found in laying the foundations of the Church of S. Maria -in Loreto, by the architect, the elder San Gallo, and are mentioned as -lying near that church in the middle of the sixteenth century. The -equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, in the Piazza del Campidoglio, -stands upon a pedestal made by Michael Angelo out of an immense fragment -of entablature found on the site of Trajan's Forum. - -An inscription, which is now built into the wall on the north of the -pillar, commemorates the remission of all debts to the emperor's private -purse (fiscus) by Hadrian, a fact which we find also mentioned in Dion -Cassius and Spartianus. The latter writer adds that it was in the Forum of -Trajan that Hadrian publicly burnt the list of his debtors, and the -inscription was no doubt intended to mark the spot of this act of -liberality or bribery. - -[Sidenote: Ruins of the Forum Julium.] - -The ruins of two portions only of the Forum Julium, which adjoined that of -Trajan, have been discovered in modern times. The first is a considerable -part of the outer wall of the Forum, standing in the court of the house -No. 18 in the Via del Ghetarello, a small street which opens out of the -Via di Marforio, near the Carcer and the Church of SS. Martina e Luca. -This ruined wall consists of three arches composed of large blocks of -peperino and travertine skilfully cut and joined without mortar and -under-built by another arch, as if in order to enable the wall to bear a -great weight. The length of the fragment of wall is about 50 feet and the -highest point about 30 feet. - -The other relic of Cæsar's Forum is now no longer visible. We obtain our -information about it from Palladio, the architect, about the middle of the -sixteenth century, who relates that while he was at Rome the ground-plan -of a temple was uncovered in digging the foundations of a house between -the Salita di Marforio and the temple of Mars Ultor, a description which -points plainly to the block of houses behind SS. Martina e Luca. There was -a peculiarity in the inter-columniations of this temple, which Palladio -particularly remarked. The distance between the columns, he says, was the -eleventh part of the diameter of a column less than a diameter and a -half. - -[Sidenote: Forum of Augustus. Temple of Mars Ultor.] - -The almost universal opinion of Roman topographers now is that the three -Corinthian columns on the left-hand side of the Via Bonella and the -massive arch which leads from it into the Via di Tor di Conti are the -remains of the Temple of Mars Ultor, which Augustus built in his Forum, -and of the north-eastern portion of the enclosing wall. - -This opinion was already held by Palladio in the sixteenth century, but -the Italian antiquaries since his time have adopted the most various -hypotheses on the subject. There is, it is true, no actual proof that this -was the temple of Mars Ultor, but there is strong presumptive evidence -that it was so. The 'Catalogue of the Curiosum' places it next to the -Forum Julium in the eighth region. Now the eighth region was bounded on -the east, in this neighbourhood, by the Quirinal Hill and the Via del -Sole, or a street a little to the east of it, and we are tolerably sure -that the forum transitorium filled up a great part of the space between -the temple in question and the above-mentioned street, and that the Forum -Julium intervened between it and the Forum Romanum, while the Forum -Trajani limits the space to the westward within which we can suppose the -Forum Augusti to have been. Thus the only space left in the eighth region -within which the Forum of Augustus can be supposed to have been contained, -is that bounded by the Via della Croce Bianca, the Via del Priorato, and -the Via di Tor di Conti. - -The ruins of the temple consist of three lofty fluted Corinthian columns, -a pilaster of white Carrara marble, a part of the surmounting architrave, -and the corresponding wall of the cella of the temple. Antiquarians are of -opinion that the purity of style and elegance of these columns, and their -ornamentation, forms a strong proof that they were designed and executed -in the best times of Roman architectural art, and cannot belong to a -period later than that of Augustus. The richest decorative work is to be -seen under the roof of the portico, between the columns and the wall of -the cella. - -[Sidenote: Exterior wall. Arco dei Pantani.] - -These three columns stood at the side of the temple which abutted on the -exterior wall of the Forum, as the ruins show. A large portion of this -wall is still standing on each side of the arch called the Arco dei -Pantani. The arch itself is built of travertine, the wall of blocks of -peperino laid alternately with the longer and shorter sides outwards as in -the masonry of the tabularium. In the middle ages a door was fitted on to -this archway, and a portion of the stone was cut away on the west side. -This has injured its architectural beauty very much. It has also been -stripped of the marble facing with which it was probably covered -originally, and being now half buried in the rubbish of ages, it presents -a somewhat mean and rough appearance. - -This archway formed one of the entrances to the Forum Augusti from the -east. The wall of the enclosure can be traced for a considerable distance -on each side of it, but there are no other archways now open. The -monotonous appearance of so high a wall is relieved by having the edges of -the stones cut so that each block stands out separately, and the lower -part of the wall is divided into two, and its upper into three stages by -projecting ruins of travertine. - -It is said that the blocks of stone in this masonry are fastened with -wooden bolts made in the shape of double swallow tails, and that some of -these have been found completely petrified. When the Forum was first -designed Augustus encountered great opposition from owners of private -house property; and through fear of the unpopularity which wholesale -evictions might have caused, he accommodated the shape of the external -walls to that of the ground he could occupy. Hence arose the irregular -line of the exterior, which was, however, reduced to a symmetrical plan -inside by secondary walls. The general shape of the interior area of the -enclosure was that of a broad oblong piazza with two large semicircular -side extensions or wings (somewhat like those in the Piazza S. Pietro) -opposite to and corresponding to each other. The area was large, for the -horse races, and games in honour of Mars were held here once when the -Tiber had overflowed the circus.[77] The temple stood at the northern end -between these two side extensions, and occupied about one-sixth of the -whole space. Tribunals were placed in the hemicycles and courts of law -held there. Some portions of the semicircular recesses are still extant -by which their plan may be traced, but the outer wall is in no part -preserved entire except at the back and sides of the temple. Its height at -the back of the temple is 120 feet, and over the Arco dei Pantani 100 -feet, which we must suppose to have been the normal height of the rest of -the enclosure. These enormous walls served as a defence against fire, no -less than to exclude the traffic and noise of the streets. - -Although it is possible that Augustus may have entertained the design of -erecting a new group of public buildings as a means of gaining distinction -and popularity before the battle of Philippi which established his power, -yet so far as we know, the temple of Mars Ultor and the Forum Augusti owed -their existence to a vow made by the emperor immediately before the -decisive battle of Philippi, B.C. 42, to build if victorious a temple to -Mars as the avenger of his adopted father. The dedication of the temple -took place in B.C. 2, accompanied with most magnificent shows of -gladiators and splendid sham sea-fights. - -[Sidenote: Forum of Nerva.] - -[Sidenote: The Colonnacce.] - -The Forum of Nerva was in the district through which the Via della Croce -Bianca passes, and was connected with the ruin commonly called the Temple -of Minerva, still standing on the right-hand side of that street where it -is crossed by the Via Alessandrina. Two columns are there to be seen now -called the Colonnacce, half buried in the earth, surmounted by an -entablature and an attica. The wall behind the columns is built of blocks -of peperino of unequal size, and is in a style of masonry inferior to the -walls of the Forum of Augustus. In it may be seen the traces of an arch -which has been filled up with the same stone as that of which the wall is -built. The columns, which are of fluted marble, stand out in front of the -wall; but, as in the Arch of Severus, the entablature does not lie between -them, but projects from the wall over the capitals, and unites them with -the wall. The edges of the architrave are richly decorated, and the frieze -contains an elaborately carved bas-relief, which, though unfortunately -much disfigured, can be partially understood by the help of old engravings -taken before it was reduced to its present lamentable state. - -[Illustration: Forum of Nerva as it stood in 1600. From Du Perac, 'Vestigj -di Roma.'] - -From these it appears that the figures represent various attributes of -Minerva as the patroness of household management. Some of them are drawing -water, others weaving or spinning, and others dyeing, washing, holding -scales and purses as if bargaining. The remaining portion of the design is -incomplete, and was probably carried round the rest of the frieze of the -enclosure.[78] On the cornices, both upper and lower, the ornamentation is -very rich, but not so chaste as work of the Augustan period. In the centre -of the attica stands a figure of Minerva in alto-relievo, with spear, -helmet, and shield. - -That this beautiful ruin, which is one of the most picturesque in Rome, -belonged to the wall of Nerva's Forum is rendered certain by the old views -of the sixteenth century, which represent it as part of the inner side of -the wall enclosing a splendid temple which stood to the north-west of it. -Seven of the columns of this temple were still standing in the fifteenth -century, belonging to the left-hand side of the portico, and a -considerable part also of the walls of the cella with the pilasters of the -portico. The cella of the temple adjoined the semicircular part of -Augustus's Forum on one side, and, as will be seen by the plan, the wall -of the enclosure met it on the other, so that only the portico of the -temple projected into the open space of the Forum. - -On the front were the words, probably the last line of a longer -inscription, IMP. NERVA CÆSAR AUG. PONT. MAXIM. TRIB. POT. II. IMP. II. -PROCOS, showing that the temple was dedicated by Nerva. - -There can be but little doubt that this was the temple of Minerva begun -together with the Forum by Domitian, and finished by Nerva. It is true -that there is no actual mention in any of the ancient writers of a temple -of Minerva here, but the assertion of Dion Cassius that Domitian had a -particular reverence for Minerva and Janus, and the character of the -designs and statues of Minerva found upon the ruined part of the enclosure -already described, leave little doubt on the subject. The name of -Palladium given to the Forum by Martial also agrees with this supposition. - -The fate of the Temple of Minerva is better known than that of most of the -ancient temples in Rome. - -In the time of Pope Pius V. (1566-1572) the building of a new quarter of -the city was begun in this district. The streets Via Alessandrina and Via -Bonella were laid out, and as the new quarter grew, the ruins of the old -temple became an impediment to their progress, which Paul V. in the -beginning of the seventeenth century ordered to be removed, and to be -applied to the construction of the Chapel of S. Paul in the church of S. -Maria Maggiore and that of the Fontana Paolo upon the Janiculum. The great -gateway which stood at the end of the Via della Croce Bianca was suffered -to remain for a century longer, but is now quite gone. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Bibulus.] - -We now return to the Piazza Trajana. Between it and the Piazza del -Campidoglio, in a street called the Via di Marforio, are two of the more -ancient ruins in Rome consisting of tombs now built into the walls of -houses. These tombs are monuments of imperial Rome, and were probably -outside the ancient Servian Wall not far from the Porta Ratumena. - -The more prominent of the two, the Tomb of Bibulus, stands close by the -junction of the modern streets of Macel de' Corvi and Marforio. The front -of it only can be seen, as the rest is built into the wall of a house. The -inscription is as follows, - - C . POPLICIO . L . F . BIBULO AED . PL . HONORIS. - VIRTUTISQUE . CAUSSA . SENATUS. - CONSULTO . POPULI . QUE . JUSSU . LOCUS. - MONUMENTO . QUO . IPSE . POSTEREIQUE. - EIUS . INFERRENTUR . PUBLICE . DATUS . EST. - -The inscription was also placed on the side of the tomb, where the -beginning of it may still be seen. It must not be inferred that the -privilege of being buried within the walls was granted to Bibulus contrary -to the regulations of the twelve tables, which forbade any corpse to be -buried or burnt within the city walls. Had this been the case the -exemption would have been expressly mentioned in the inscription, and -besides this the course of the Servian Wall, which crossed the depression -between the Quirinal and Capitoline, would naturally run so as to exclude -the tomb. The inscription only records the gift of the burial place to -Bibulus by the Senate, and is intended to prevent the burial of any other -person there, except the family of Bibulus. - -An Ædile of the name C. Bibulus is mentioned in the 'Annals' of Tacitus in -the reign of Tiberius, A.D. 22, and the style of the tomb agrees tolerably -well with this date. The whole is built of travertine, and the basement is -of the simplest description possible. Four Doric pilasters with Attic -bases surmounted by an Ionic entablature, ornamented with wreaths of fruit -and ox-skulls, form the whole decoration of the front. Bergau, however, -thinks that the architecture is Italian, and should not be called by these -Greek names.[79] - -The other ruin of a tomb is in the wall of a house nearly opposite to that -of Bibulus, and is reduced to a shapeless mass of remains. - -[Sidenote: Capitolium. Temple of Jupiter.] - -Passing from the Tomb of Bibulus to the Piazza del Campidoglio, and thence -to the Caffarelli or southern end of the Capitoline Hill, we find in the -gardens of the German Embassy an excavation which shows a number of tufa -blocks fitted together without mortar, and in an irregular manner.[80] - -The area of the great temple and the wall surrounding it have been traced -out by Lanciani and Jordan among the fragments which are found in this -garden, and on the north side of the Caffarelli palace, and between the -garden and the rotunda of the museum. Jordan thinks that the measurements -of the area indicated by these fragments correspond to the size of the -environs of the temple as given by Dionysius, and that they afford a -conclusive proof that the great temple of Jupiter was on the Caffarelli -and not on the Ara Coeli height. The north-eastern corner of the -excavation in the Caffarelli garden shows a part of these constructions, -and a fragment may be seen in the wall of the Montanara Garden in the -Vicolo di Monte Caprino. - -The natural features of the Capitoline Hill could hardly have been more -completely concealed than they are by the present situation of the -buildings upon it, even if those buildings had been erected with the -express purpose of changing the appearance of the hill. For the convent of -Ara Coeli and the Palazzo Caffarelli, which occupy respectively the -north-eastern and south-western summits of the hill, are comparatively -low and unconspicuous, while the so-called Tabularium and above it the -Palace of the Senator compose a lofty pile which nearly fills up the -depression between these two heights. To the spectator looking at the -Capitol from the Forum, the higher part of the hill appears to lie nearly -in the centre, whereas in reality the shape is that of a double hill -rising at each end. The north-eastern end is somewhat curved round towards -the north, while the south-western approaches within 300 paces of the -river. The whole core of the hill is formed of the harder volcanic tufa, a -section of which may be plainly seen, composing the face of the low -precipice now shown as the Tarpeian rock, and also in a courtyard -surrounded by cottages, near the spot called Palazzaccio. This tufa was, -as has been frequently mentioned, used as a building stone in the early -ages of Rome before the lapis Gabinus, or Albanus (peperino) or the lapis -Tiburtinus had been introduced. - -[Sidenote: Tarpeian Rock.] - -The Tarpeian Rock whence criminals were hurled, was, according to the -older Italian topographers down to the time of Nardini, placed at the -western edge of the hill towards the Tiber, where the Piazza Montanara now -is. But Dureau de la Malle in the Mémoires de l'Académie for 1809, pointed -out that this was inconsistent with the statements of Dionysius, who says -that it was over the Forum, and that the executions took place in full -view of all the people. This would seem to place it on the S.E. side -towards the Palatine near S. Maria della Consolazione. Becker's objection -that the hill is less steep there than at the western edge, may be met by -the fact that several large masses of rock are recorded to have fallen -down from this spot, and therefore the face of the cliff is entirely -changed. The further objection that the criminals would have fallen into -the Vicus Jugarius, instead of which they ought, according to custom, to -have been cast over the city walls, seems to rest on the assumption that -criminals were always thrown over the walls, no proof of which has been -adduced. Tradition is equally divided between the two localities, and -therefore the passages of Dionysius above quoted must be held at present -decisive in favour of the side towards the Palatine and Forum. - -[Sidenote: Thermæ of Constantine.] - -It has been conclusively proved by Becker, that Aurelian's Temple of the -Sun which was commonly supposed to have occupied the Colonna Gardens, and -to which the huge fragments near the Capitol which lie there were thought -to have belonged, was not here but in the Campus Agrippæ on the Campus -Martius. For the Notitia and the Chronologers both place it in the seventh -region or Via Lata, which occupied the eastern side of the Campus, and -mention castra as attached to it. Further, Vopiscus when describing a -drive in which he accompanied Junius Tiberianus, the prefect of the city, -seems to place the Temple of the Sun at a much greater distance from the -Palatine than the Colonna Gardens are. - -The ruin with which it was identified, formerly called turris Mæcenatis, -or Frontispicium Neronis, has now been pulled down, but a part of it, and -especially one huge mass of carved marble, remains in the Colonna Gardens. -Representations of the Frontispicium Neronis as it was before its -destruction, may be seen in Donatus and the older topographers. The -fragments of stonework are now thought to have belonged to the entrance of -the Thermæ of Constantine. - -The site of the building erected upon the Quirinal by the mad emperor -Heliogabalus, and called Senaculum Mulierum in which he assembled the -Roman matrons for consultation about the laws of fashion in dress and -manners, is not known. - -The site of the Thermæ of Constantine, which are placed by the Notitia -next to the Capitolium antiquum, is tolerably well defined by the notices -of the Anonymous MS. of Einsiedlen, and by an inscription found near the -Quirinal Palace, recording their restoration by Petronius Perpenna -probably in the year 443. Both of these indicate the Palazzo Rospigliosi -as standing upon the ground once occupied by the central building of the -Thermæ. The Anonymous MS. mentions the Thermæ on the road between the -Church of S. Agata and that of S. Vitale. Pozzio, Albertini, Fulvius, Q. -Fauno, and Gamucci, all agree in confirming this evidence. Large portions -of the ruins were still standing in their time, and in Du Perac's views, -published in the seventeenth century, the central part of the buildings is -represented. Another part of the ruins of these baths was found in the -construction of the Quirinal Palace in the time of Paul V. - -[Sidenote: Statues found in the Thermæ of Constantine.] - -There can be no doubt that these Thermæ, which were of great extent, -reached nearly across the Quirinal Hill, occupying the sites of the -present Palazzo Rospigliosi, part of the Colonna Gardens and the Quirinal -Palace. Three statues were found in the ruins, representing Constantine -and two of his sons. These are supposed to have stood near the grand -entrance of the Thermæ. The first is now in the Portico of the Lateran -Basilica, the two others were placed by Paul III. on the balustrade of the -Piazza Capitolina. The famous pair of the Dioscuri and their horses, which -now ornament the Piazza di Monte Cavallo, were also discovered on this -site. The history of these well-known sculptures cannot be traced farther -back than the time of Constantine, whose Thermæ they adorned. The old -tradition which states that they were a present from Tiridates to Nero is -in some degree supported by the mention of the equi Tiridatis in the -Notitia, but is not confirmed by any other evidence. That they are not -rightly supposed to represent the Dioscuri can hardly be doubted, and the -inscriptions which ascribe them to the chisels of Phidias and Praxiteles -respectively are erroneous. For not to mention that the exact reproduction -of nature in its highest type of symmetry, peculiar to the style of the -highest Greek art is absent, and that we find instead the conventional -mode of representation characteristic of the revival of art under the -emperors, it seems hardly possible that Praxiteles, who lived more than -half a century after Phidias, should have occupied himself in imitating -and completing a group begun by his predecessor. - -These colossal figures and the statues of Constantine mentioned above, -probably stood in the grand court of the Thermæ. There are now no traces -left of the outer enclosure of this court, but the plan of the central -blocks of buildings has been preserved by Palladio, in whose time there -was doubtless a sufficient portion left to enable him to reconstruct the -whole. It is somewhat different from the plan of most of the other Thermæ, -having a large semicircular court on one side surrounded with arcades, the -purpose of which has not been discovered. The other halls and apartments -are of the usual size and shape, with the exception of the exedræ, which -are rectangular. At one side of the enclosing court, apparently the north -side, there was a large theatre similar to that at the baths of Titus. - -Some of the older topographers had conjectured that the ruins in the -Colonna Gardens, wrongly, as has been shown, ascribed to Aurelian's Temple -of the Sun, and also the massive substructions and stairs which have been -found behind the stables of the Quirinal Palace on the west slope of the -hill, belonged to the Thermæ of Constantine. This conjecture has been -revived and ingeniously supported by Professor Reber, who remarks that the -outer court of the Thermæ, to judge by the extent of that of the baths of -Diocletian or of Caracalla, may very well have reached across the whole -breadth of the hill from east to west, and further that the approach to -the Thermæ would naturally be placed on the west side, where the Imperial -fora lay. If so, the building called the tower of Mæcenas stood exactly in -the position at the summit of the colossal flight of stairs now hidden -under the Papal stables which would answer to the entrance portico of the -Thermæ. The fragments of the so-called Tower of Mæcenas are very similar -to those of the portico of Octavia, which was also the entrance to a grand -enclosure. They consist of two huge blocks of marble, the largest of which -is seventeen feet in length, ornamented with mouldings of the usual -Corinthian character, and with a frieze beautifully decorated with -festoons of foliage enclosing birds and genii. The style is of a late -epoch, and might very probably belong to the Constantinian age. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE VELABRUM AND THE CIRCUS FLAMINIUS. - - -[Sidenote: Janus Quadrifrons.] - -The church of S. Giorgio in Velabro, which stands between the Palatine -Hill and the river near the Piazza Bocca della Verità, retains the ancient -name of this district, formerly a swamp called the Velabrum. This is -perhaps the best point from which to begin our survey of the ruins of the -Velabrum. The most conspicuous ruin near the church is the archway called -Janus Quadrifrons, from its quadrilateral shape. It is a massive square -building of white marble, with four piers supporting as many arches which -are united in the centre, by a vaulted roof. Each pier has on the exterior -twelve niches in two rows, with semicircular shell-shaped crowns. These -two rows of niches were formerly separated by a projecting cornice which -is now nearly destroyed except in the interior. The niches nearest to the -corners on the north and south sides are not hollowed out, but only traced -on the exterior surface, in order not to endanger the solidity of the -angles. The present height of the building is thirty-eight feet, but it -probably had an attica originally upon the top to which the staircase -still extant led, and in which were some small rooms for the transaction -of business. Upon the key-stones of the arches two figures can be still -recognized, one of Rome and the other of the patroness of trade, Minerva. -The exterior surface was doubtless decorated with rows of Corinthian -columns between the niches, a large quantity of remains of such columns -having been found in clearing the base, and in the niches themselves -statues of various deities probably stood. - -The purpose of this arch was probably solely ornamental, and it stood by -itself in some part of the Forum Boarium. The rooms in the attica may have -been used for the accommodation of some of the officials of the cattle -market. The builder and date are alike unknown. From the style of its -architecture and sculptures, it has been pronounced decidedly later than -the age of Domitian, to whom from his fondness for building Jani, it might -be attributed. Platner and Becker suggest that it is identical with an -archway called the Arcus Constantini--in the catalogue of the eleventh -region--but a comparison of the style of the remnants of sculptures upon -it with those on the existing arch of Constantine, does not confirm this -conjecture. - -[Sidenote: Arcus Argentinorum.] - -Close to the Janus Quadrifrons stands a stone ornamental doorway now -partly built into the wall of the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro. It is -constructed of brickwork with marble facings, and consists of two square -piers decorated with pilasters of the Composite or Roman order at the -corners and surmounted by a horizontal entablature of rich carved work. -There is no trace of an attica above. The inscription, still well -preserved, shows that it was erected by the money-changers or bankers, and -other merchants of the Forum Boarium, in honour of Septimius Severus, his -wife Julia, and his son Antoninus (Caracalla). As in the case of the Arch -of Septimius in the Forum, so here the words III. PP. PROCOS. FORTISSIMO -FELICISSIMOQUE PRINCIPI and PARTHICI MAXIMI BRITANNICI MAXIMI were -inserted by Caracalla in place of the name and titles of his murdered -brother Geta. - -Not only in the inscriptions of the time of Septimius Severus, but even in -the reliefs we everywhere find Geta's figure erased. - -On the shafts of the pilasters are representations of military ensigns, -which bear upon their circular tablets and above the eagles likenesses in -relief of two Cæsars, Severus and Caracalla. The third likeness, that of -Geta, has been erased in every instance. In each of the spaces between the -pilasters are four panels with sculptures in relief. The lowest of these -represents the merchants of the Forum Boarium bringing cattle as victims -to the altar. The compartment above these exhibits various instruments -used in sacrifice, similar to those found upon the Temple of Vespasian. -Upon the larger central panel are the figures of the imperial family -engaged in sacrificing, and it can easily be seen that from some of these -the figure of Geta has been carefully chiselled away. - -In one of these large panels is the figure of a barbarian captive with the -Phrygian cap so common upon the sculptures of the triumphal arches. The -upper compartments contain festooned ornamental work and a few figures of -men. The front of the architrave and frieze is almost entirely occupied by -the inscriptions, and is not highly ornamented, but the cornice, which is -divided into seven ledges, is overladen with various decorative patterns -without purity of design or excellence of execution. The date of the -erection of this monument is stated in the inscription to be the twelfth -year of the tribunitia potestas of Severus and the seventh of Caracalla, -which corresponds to the year A.D. 204. Reber thinks it possible that the -merchants of the Forum Boarium intended it as a testimonial of gratitude -to Severus for having built the neighbouring Janus Quadrifrons to ornament -their quarter of the city. - -[Sidenote: Cloaca Maxima.] - -The oldest monument of Roman masonry is the remaining portion of a cloaca -in this district, commonly identified with the Cloaca Maxima of Livy, -which reaches from a spot near the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro and the -Janus Quadrifrons to the Tiber bank near the Ponte Rotto. The ancient -archway has been broken open here, and can be reached by descending into a -hollow near the Janus Quadrifrons. Near the Janus Quadrifrons, at the -above-mentioned spot, seven cloacæ unite and pour their waters into the -still extant portion of the Cloaca Maxima, so that a large stream is -constantly flowing through it. These branch sewers are built with solid -brick arches, but the main archway, though fronted with modern brickwork, -consists of massive blocks of tufa, and at short intervals of every few -yards has an arch of travertine introduced, to add to its solidity and -strength. The original size of the archway, one-third of which is now -choked up with mud, was twelve feet four inches high, and ten feet eight -inches wide. Strabo and Pliny say that a cart loaded with hay could pass -through some of the Roman sewers, and certainly in the case of this -cloaca, it would not be impossible to do so were it cleared of mud. - -M. Agrippa, the Haussmann of Rome, is said, when ædile, to have traversed -the main sewer in a boat. The whole length of this remaining portion is at -least three hundred and forty yards, and it makes several bends, following -probably the direction of the ancient streets. The mouth is still visible, -when the Tiber is not high, at a spot called the Pulchrum Litus, near the -round temple usually called the Temple of Vesta. The immense size is due -to the fact that it was not only a sewer for refuse, but a drain for the -lake of the Velabrum, and the many land springs of the Forum, and must be -classed with the emissarium of the Alban Lake and other gigantic -undertakings of the kind, such as the cuniculus at Veii, executed about -B.C. 539. For a distance of about forty feet from the mouth the cloaca is -constructed of a triple arch of peperino, mixed with some blocks of tufa, -but throughout the rest of its course it consists of a single arch of tufa -with occasional bands of travertine. The masonry along the embankment of -the shore on each side, is partly of peperino and partly of tufa and -travertine blocks laid along and across alternately. - -Livy gives the early history of this extraordinary work in his first Book. -In the thirty-eighth chapter he ascribes the commencement of the -undertaking of draining the Velabrum and Forum to Tarquinius Priscus, and -in the fifty-sixth he says that Tarquinius Superbus completed the Cloaca -Maxima as a receptacle for the refuse of the whole city. Dionysius agrees -in giving the same account of the origin of the system of cloacæ, and -Pliny enumerates the cloacæ among the wonders of the great metropolis, and -expressly mentions Tarquinius Priscus as entitled to the credit of having -first originated this great work of public utility. His words are--"Seven -streams, after traversing the city, are united and their water so -compressed into one channel as to sweep everything along with it like a -torrent, and when a great body of rain-water is added to this the very -walls are shaken by the agitated waters; and sometimes the Tiber rises and -beats back into them, and vast opposing masses of water meet and -struggle, yet the solidity of their masonry resists and stands firm. Huge -weights are carried over them, whole buildings undermined by fire or by -some accident fall upon them, earthquakes shake the very ground around -them, yet they have lasted for seven hundred years from the time of -Tarquinius Priscus almost uninjured, a monument of antiquity which ought -to be the more carefully observed since it has been passed over in silence -by some of our most celebrated historians." - -The Tarquins are said to have compelled the Roman people to work at these -huge structures, just as the kings of Egypt and Assyria exacted task-work -from their subjects; but in palliation of the cruelties alleged against -them by the historians it must be noted that in the one case buildings of -permanent public service were built, while in the other, only the vanity -of a despot was flattered. - -[Sidenote: Fortuna Virilis.] - -Not far from the Janus Quadrifrons, and close to the Pons Æmilius, or -Ponte Rotto, stands a small temple, now converted into the church of S. -Maria Egiziaca, which presents an unsolved problem in Roman topography. -The substruction of this temple, which has been laid bare, consists of -tufa cased with travertine. The form of the temple is that called -tetrastylos by Vitruvius, having four Ionic columns in front and seven at -the sides. The four front columns and two on each side, forming the -pronaos, originally stood clear, but are now enclosed within the wall of -the church. The remaining five on each side with those at the back were -half columns set against the wall of the cella. The shafts of the half -columns are of tufa, but the bases and capitals, with the entablature and -the columns of the pronaos, are of travertine. On the frieze and cornice -are the remains of ornamental work, which is now rendered almost invisible -by the stucco with which the walls have been covered. The Ionic volutes on -the corner capitals of this temple are in the later style, while the side -capitals are in the usual style. - -This building has usually been supposed to be the temple dedicated by -Servius Tullius to Fortuna Virilis, and situated on the bank of the Tiber. -The passage of Dionysius upon which this supposition rests is as follows: -"Servius Tullius built two temples to Fortune, one in the Forum Boarium, -and the other upon the bank of the Tiber."[81] - -It is most probable, as Reber suggests, that we have here the Temple of -Servius dedicated to Fortune without any special title. Dionysius, as we -have seen, places this in the Forum Boarium, and Livy describes it as -intra portam Carmentalem, and mentions it in tracing the course of a -conflagration between the Salinæ near the Porta Trigemina and the Porta -Carmentalis. But there was another temple, that of Mater Matuta which -stood close to the Temple of Fortune, and there is no evidence showing to -which of the two the ruin in question belonged. Both were founded by -Servius, and reckoned among the most venerable relics of ancient Rome. -Becker urges the claims of the Temple of Pudicitia Patricia, which Livy -places in the Forum Boarium near the round Temple of Hercules, to this -site. But this was merely a small shrine, containing a statue and not a -templum. So far as an opinion can be formed of the date of the temple from -the materials and style of architecture, it seems to belong to the later -republic. - -[Sidenote: So-called Temple of Vesta.] - -On the Piazza della Bocca della Verità, at a short distance from the -temple we have just been considering, stand the remains of a small round -temple commonly called the Temple of Vesta. Perhaps of all the ruins of -Rome this is the most familiar to the eye of the tourist. A considerable -part of the cella is still standing, ornamented with a simple and elegant -cornice. Round this stand nineteen graceful Corinthian columns of white -marble. The entablature is unfortunately destroyed, and the rude modern -tiled roof with which the building has been capped completely spoils the -picturesque effect of the ruin. - -[Illustration: Palatine Hill. Æmilian Temple of Hercules, and mouth of -Cloaca Maxima. Bell tower of S. Maria in Cosmedin.] - -The name now given to it rests on no other evidence than its circular -shape, and as we have no mention of a Temple of Vesta in the Forum Boarium -it must be at once condemned as a misnomer. It has also been called the -Temple of the Sibyl or the Temple of Cybele without better reason. The -most probable conjecture as to its name is that first suggested by Piale, -that it is the round Temple of Hercules in the Forum Boarium mentioned in -the tenth Book of Livy, and alluded to by Festus as the Æmilian Temple of -Hercules. The appellation Æmiliana certainly seems to point to the -neighbourhood of the Æmilian bridge. The style of its architecture may be -attributed to a restoration in the latter half of the first century A.D. -Formerly, it was called the Church of Madonna del Sole, from a favourite -image of the Virgin in it, and at an earlier period S. Stefano delle -Carozze, from the discovery of a marble model of a chariot in its -neighbourhood, but in 1810 it was cleared out and restored, and since then -it has not been used as a church, but contains a small collection of -marble fragments. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Ceres.] - -At the entrance of the valley of the Circus Maximus, and on the south side -of the Piazza della Bocca della Verità stands the church of S. Maria in -Cosmedin which is built upon the ruins of an ancient temple. Ten columns -still remain in their original places, seven of which stand in a line -parallel to the entrance, and three others in the left-hand side wall of -the church. Some of the columns are built into the walls of the Sacristies -on the right of the entrance, and reach through the roofs to the upper -story. The material of which they are made is white marble, and the order -to which they belong the Composite. Parts of the wall of the cella may -still be seen in the sacristy, built of tufa which was originally faced -with marble. The design of the capitals and chiselling of the ornamental -work upon them is of the best period of art, and one of them may -conveniently be examined in the room over the sacraria, and in the organ -loft. Behind the apse of the church are some large chambers built of -massive blocks of travertine, which were probably attached to the Carceres -of the Circus as stables or offices of some kind, and the position of -these compels us to assume that the front of the temple faced towards the -Velabrum, and that the seven columns parallel to the façade of the present -church belonged to the side of the temple, while the three in the -left-hand wall formed a part of the front. Otherwise the travertine -chambers at the back must have formed some part of the temple, and it is -difficult to see how this could have been the case, as they are evidently -not the walls of the cella, and cannot be brought into any symmetrical -position with the rows of columns. - -The Temples of Pudicitia Patricia, of Mater Matuta, and of Fortune have -been severally identified with these ruins by the writers of Roman -topography. But it has been shown already that the first of these was -probably a mere chapel, and that the other two must be placed nearer to -the Carmental gate, and therefore the conjecture of Canina that the church -of S. Maria in Cosmedin was the Temple of Ceres, Liber, and Libera appears -much more likely to be true. For that temple is included in the eleventh -region by the Curiosum and Notitia, and is placed by Vitruvius, Tacitus, -and Pliny close to the Circus Maximus, while Dionysius expressly says that -it stood just over the barriers of the Circus Maximus. The account of -Vitruvius answers to the ruins which still remain. For he says that the -temple was of the description called aræostyle, i.e. with wide -intercolumnar intervals, and it will be found that the intervals between -the columns now standing are nearly four times their diameter. Vitruvius -also says that it was of the Tuscan order of architecture, and in this -seems to contradict Pliny who, quoting Varro's authority, speaks of it as -the first temple at Rome which had Greek ornamental work. Their statements -may be reconciled by observing that Pliny is speaking of the decorations -of the temple by Damophilus and Gorgasis, and not of the style of -architecture. The aræostyle arrangement of the columns was probably -preserved even after the complete restoration by Tiberius, at which time, -as Pliny relates, the old Greek frescoes were cut out and framed, and the -terra cotta statues removed from the roof. The temple was first vowed by -A. Postumius, the dictator in the Latin war of B.C. 497, on account of the -great scarcity of provisions which then prevailed. It was dedicated three -years afterwards by the Consul Spurius Cassius, a statesman who showed a -disposition to imitate the great architectural works of the regal period, -contrary to the generally frugal spirit of the early republican fathers. -In the year B.C. 31, a destructive fire, which raged between the Circus -and the Forum Olitorium, destroyed the Temple, and with it some of the -most valuable treasures of Greek art which it contained. Among these, -besides the frescoes of Damophilus and Gorgasis above mentioned, was the -famous pictures of Dionysius by Aristides, for which Attalus bid sixteen -talents, a price which excited the attention of Mummius, and induced him, -although unable himself to appreciate the merits of such works of art, to -suspect its value, and carry it to Rome in spite of the remonstrances of -Attalus. - -The restoration was undertaken by Augustus, and finished by Tiberius in -A.D. 17. This temple was to the Plebeian Ædiles what the Temple of Saturn -was to the quæstors, and it was enacted that the decrees of the Senate -should be delivered over to the Ædiles there, an enactment which seems -never to have been carried out.[82] - -The medieval names of this church, in Cosmedin, and in Schola Græca, seem -to point to the possession of the church by Greek monks after the division -of the empire, and the piazza in which it stands is called Bocca della -Verità from the strange figure of a head under the modern portico of the -church, in the mouth of which it is said that persons whose veracity lay -under suspicion, were required to place their hands while making oath, in -the belief that the mouth would close upon their hands if the oath taken -was a false one. - -[Sidenote: Carceres of the Cirrus Maximus.] - -Immediately behind the church are the arched buildings of travertine -blocks which have already been mentioned as belonging to the Carceres of -the Circus. The largest of these is now used as a store-room for articles -of church furniture, and stands on the right side of the tribune of the -church. They are perhaps situated too far towards the river to be portions -of the actual Carceres from which the chariots started, but they may have -formed one side of a courtyard behind the Carceres, in which the -harnessing and preparation for the races took place. - -[Sidenote: Theatre of Marcellus.] - -The ruins of the Theatre of Marcellus which are still standing in the -Piazza Montanara afford us a fixed point from which to begin our survey of -the region of the Circus Flaminius, which lies to the north-west of the -Velabrum. For it appears certain that the ancient half columns, arches, -and other ruins evidently belonging to a semicircular theatre, which are -now covered by the Palazzo Orsini Savelli, belonged to the theatre of -Marcellus. Suetonius distinctly places this theatre under the Tarpeian -hill, and of the other two stone theatres at Rome we know that the -Pompeian lay further to the north-west, and that the theatre of Balbus was -near the Ponte Sisto. The masonry and architectural details of this -building, though corresponding in many respects with the Coliseum are more -carefully worked, and show an earlier and better period of art. - -[Illustration: Theatre of Marcellus.] - -There had previously been a stone scena built near this spot by Æmilius -Lepidus, which was perhaps used by Julius Cæsar who first began to build -this theatre. It was not finished until the year B.C. 11 when Augustus -opened it, and named it after his nephew Marcellus, son of Octavia. In the -time of the Flavii the scena was restored, having perhaps suffered from -the fire which burnt the Porticus Octaviæ, and it seems to have again -required repairs in the time of Alexander Severus, who is said to have -wished to restore it.[83] - -The Curiosum mentions it as if still in use, and gives the number of -spectators it would contain as 20,000. In the Middle Ages it was, like all -the other great buildings of Rome, turned into a castle by Pietro Leone, a -nobleman of great power in the time of Urban II. and Pascal II., and -celebrated for his factious violence. The shape of the building was thus -completely altered. The great family of the Savelli came into possession -of it in the twelfth century, following Pietro Leone, and after them the -Orsini. The lower stories are now occupied by workshops, small wine -vaults, and rag and bone warehouses, frequented by the rustics of the -Campagna, who are usually to be seen in considerable numbers in the Piazza -Montanara in front of it. - -From the piazza two rows of the exterior arcades are visible, each -containing twelve arches and thirteen columns of travertine. The lower -arcade is now buried to the depth of one third of its surface below the -level of the present ground. Its half columns are of the Doric order, with -a Doric entablature and triglyphs, and are surmounted by a low attica with -projecting bases for the half columns of the upper arcade. The height of -this upper arcade was originally somewhat less than that of the lower. It -has half columns of the Ionic order, carrying a simple entablature with -an architrave of three projecting ledges, a plain frieze, and a cornice -with toothed mouldings. No actual remains of a third arcade above these -two are now to be found, but it can hardly be doubted that one existed -originally, and that it was of the Corinthian order. Some parts of the -substructions of the seats are said to be still extant in the cellars of -the Savelli residence, consisting of diverging walls similar to those -still to be seen in the Coliseum. By means of these, the ground plan of -the cavea of the theatre can be completely restored. There are no remains -of the scena. Upon one of the fragments of the Capitoline plan, partly -restored, the name Theatrum Marcelli is legible. There seems, however, to -be some doubt as to the genuineness of this fragment. - -[Sidenote: The Ponte Rotto.] - -The bridge near the theatre of Marcellus is now called the Ponte Rotto -from its broken condition. The two remaining arches are not ancient, but -probably stand upon the site of an ancient bridge which was called the -Pons Æmilius. Livy mentions this bridge as the first stone bridge built -over the Tiber, and states that it was begun in B.C. 179 by M. Fulvius -Nobilior, and M. Æmilius Lepidus the censor, whose name was given to the -Basilica Æmilia, and that it was finished in B.C. 142 by the Censors -Publius Scipio Africanus, and L. Mummius. The bridge was named after M. -Æmilius Lepidus as Pontifex Maximus, and as a more popular statesman than -Fulvius. The bridge afterwards bore the name pons lapideus, from being the -first stone bridge built over the Tiber, and in contradistinction to the -pons sublicius. - -There is abundant evidence as to the position of this bridge, for the -Fasti Capranici place it ad Theatrum Marcelli, and the Cosmographia of -Æthicus ad Forum Boarium, both of which indications point to the Ponte -Rotto. - -[Sidenote: Island of the Tiber.] - -A short distance above the Æmilian bridge is the island of the Tiber. -According to the legend, this island was formed by the corn belonging to -the Tarquins grown on the Campus Martius, which after their expulsion was -consecrated to Mars. After consecration the corn could not be used for -food, and was therefore cut and thrown into the Tiber, and from this -corn, when collected into heaps by the stream, the island was formed. -Until the fifth century of the city, the island remained consecrated and -uninhabited, but in B.C. 292 a Temple of Æsculapius was built upon it in -consequence, as the story went, of the holy snake brought from Epidaurus -having swum to shore there. The island was probably at this time also -protected with stone embankments, and the two bridges were built, whence -the name inter duos pontes was given to it. A fragment of this ancient -stone embankment, which was in the shape of a ship, may still be seen in -the garden of the Franciscan Monks of S. Bartolommeo, representing part of -the prow of a ship, with a snake and the head of an ox carved in relief -upon it. - -The two bridges uniting the island to either bank were probably, as has -been said, first erected in or about the fifth century of the city, but -the existing bridges, though ancient, must be considered as restorations -of the older fabrics. - -The bridge on the side towards the Campus Martius was built by L. -Fabricius in B.C. 62, as the inscription still extant on the bridge shows. -In accordance with this we find Dion Cassius giving it the name of Pons -Fabricius, and a coin with the title L. Fabricius gives on the other side -a bridge with a snake, plainly pointing to the island of the Tiber. - -Another inscription, also still remaining upon the bridge, states that it -was examined and found in good repair by Q. Lepidus and M. Lollius, -consuls in B.C. 21. - -This bridge is the oldest now standing on the Tiber, and the masonry is of -admirable solidity and workmanship. It was called, in the Middle Ages Pons -Judæus, from its proximity to the Jews' quarter of the city, and now bears -the name Quattro Capi from the jani quadrifrontes which stand upon it.[84] -These jani were formerly the posts which supported the railings of the -bridge, as may be seen by the holes bored in them for the ancient bronze -bars. - -The twin bridge on the right-hand side of the river, dates from the -imperial era, and probably, like the Pons Fabricius, replaced a much older -bridge of the same age as the Temple of Æsculapius. - -Two inscriptions are still legible on this bridge, from which we learn -that it was finished in the year A.D. 370, and dedicated to the use of the -Roman people in the name of the Emperor Gratianus, by Valentinian, Valens -and Gratianus. These inscriptions must be understood as referring to the -rebuilding of the bridge, though they are so worded as to claim the credit -of its first erection. That there was an older bridge is clear, not only -from the fact that the island was called inter duos pontes before the time -of Gratian, but also from the name pons Cestius, which occurs in the -Notitia, and undoubtedly belongs to that bridge. It is not clear who -Cestius was, but it is generally supposed that a præfectus urbi of that -name in B.C. 46 is the person after whom the bridge was named, and this -agrees with the statement of Dion Cassius about the building of the -Fabrician bridge. - -The church of S. Nicola in Carcere, which stands in the Via della Bocca -della Verità close to the Piazza Montanara, contains the remains of two or -perhaps of three temples. - -[Sidenote: S. Nicola in Carcere.] - -These ruins consist first of three fluted columns of travertine with Ionic -capitals, which stand in the façade of the church of S. Nicola. Above them -is a part of the ancient entablature, and in the room to the left of the -portico of the church are two more columns built into the wall. In the -nave of the church on the left hand are remains of the cella of the -temple, to the pronaos of which the five columns belonged. The walls of -the cella were, as has been discovered by excavations, constructed of -travertine blocks. At the end of this left-hand wall of the cella, there -stood before the last restoration of the church, the remains of a pilaster -of the Doric order with an Attic base, and opposite to this pilaster -another column. The position of the six columns shows that the temple was -of the form called peripteros, i.e., surrounded by a continuous colonnade. - -On the right-hand side aisle of the church are five other columns built -into the wall, and a pilaster which evidently belonged to a second temple -standing side by side with the first. These columns are not so high as -those of the first temple described, and their style and the intervals -between them are different. A portion of the entablature, which is of a -simple character, still surmounts them. Two more columns of this temple -are to be seen in the wall of the house which stands to the right of the -church. It was surrounded with colonnades on three sides, but the back of -the cella was ornamented with pilasters only. - -On the left-hand side of the church are six more half-exposed columns, and -some remains of an entablature which may have either belonged to a third -and smaller temple standing by the side of the first, or may have been -merely the portico of some other building. - -The materials of which these buildings consist are chiefly travertine and -peperino, and their difference of style shows them to have been erected at -different times, probably during the Age of the Republic. It is commonly -assumed, from their position near the theatre of Marcellus, that they are -to be identified with the Temples of Spes and Juno Sospita. As the Temple -of Pietas was removed to make room for the theatre, we cannot suppose that -we have here any part of it, and the Temple of Janus would probably have -assumed a different form. - -It is recorded by Livy that M. Acilius Glabrio erected an equestrian -statue near the Temple of Pietas. During some excavations made in 1808 by -the architect Valadier, the pedestal of an equestrian statue was found in -the small piazza opposite to the church of S. Nicola. It appears possible -that when the Temple of Pietas was removed to make way for the theatre, -this statue may have been preserved and set up here as near as possible to -the original site.[85] - -[Sidenote: Portico of Octavia.] - -In the street called the Via di Pescaria, which runs north-westwards from -the Theatre of Marcellus, stand four fluted Corinthian columns, two on -each side of the street. These formed part of the principal entrance to a -colonnade or portico, some of the other columns of which can be traced at -intervals in the walls of the houses further on in the Via di Pescaria -along which the line of the colonnade ran. The entrance or gateway faced -towards the south-west, and over the arch looking into the little Piazza -di Pescaria will be seen an inscription recording its restoration after a -fire, by Septimius Severus and Caracalla (M. Aurelius Antoninus) in the -year A.D. 203, the eleventh year of the tribunitian power of Severus. No -traces can be found of the erasure of Geta's name, which Caracalla, as we -have seen, caused to be effaced after his death from all the inscriptions -containing it. There is no doubt, however, that it was originally placed -here after the name of Caracalla, since Severus was careful to pay equal -honour to both of his sons in all respects. The whole inscription may have -been replaced by a new one, or the fourth line may have been completely -effaced and altered. As it now stands the inscription has been restored as -follows: IMP. CÆS. L. SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS. PIUS. PERTINAX. AUG. ARABIC. -ADIABENIC. PARTHIC. MAXIMUS. TRIB. POTEST. XI. IMP. XI. COS. III. P. P. ET -IMP. CÆS. M. AURELIUS. ANTONINUS. PIUS. FELIX. AUG. TRIB. POTEST. VI. COS. -PROCOS. PORTICUM. INCENDIO CONSUMPTAM RESTITUERUNT. - -The pediment and tympanum over the inscription are still preserved, but -two of the columns below have been replaced by a high brickwork arch, -probably of the fifth century, which now supports the inscription and -pediment. Passing round again into the street Via di Pescaria, we find -ourselves in the interior of the gateway. It consisted of four columns -placed on each side between two antæ or projecting piers ornamented with -pilasters, and was of larger dimensions than the colonnades to which it -formed the entrance. The brickwork of the antæ was originally faced with -marble, and they supported arches which led into the colonnades along the -line of the street. The bases of the columns are now buried in rubbish, -but parts of the architecture, frieze, and cornice, which are of a simple -description, may be still traced over the front. The inner side of the -gateway, with the exception of the two columns and the pier which stand at -the entrance of the Via di S. Angelo in Pescaria, has been removed to make -room for the church of S. Michaele Archangelo. - -If we enter the street just mentioned, the capital of a column may be seen -on the right hand over the wall of the yard belonging to No. 12, and in -the yard itself stand three others, with a portion of the architecture -above them. Their position shows that they formed the corner of a temple. - -There is ample proof that we have in the ruins just described, the -entrance gateway of the Porticus Octaviæ and the corner of the temple of -Juno Regina. For Festus states that there were two Octavian porticoes, one -built in honour of Octavia, the sister of Augustus, near the Theatre of -Marcellus, and a second close to the Theatre of Pompeius, built by Q. -Octavius, the conqueror of Perses. The site upon which the former was -built had been previously occupied by the Porticus Metelli, built by Q. -Metellus Macedonicus, proprætor in B.C. 146, and the Octavian portico was -a complete restoration of this by Augustus.[86] - -Pliny also mentions two statues of Apollo near the Porticus Octaviæ, which -probably stood in the Temple of Apollo, known to have been situated -outside the Porta Carmentalis between the Forum Olitorium and the Circus -Flaminius. But the principal evidence is derived from the plan of Rome, -now on the staircase of the Capitoline Museum, where the whole design of -this portico is laid down, and the temples which it enclosed are named. We -learn from this plan that the portico was in form an oblong space enclosed -with colonnades, and that the ruins now remaining constituted the -principal entrance to this court, and to the Temple of Juno Regina which -it enclosed. The line of the Via di Pescaria corresponds to one of the -shorter sides of the court, and in the centre of this side the gateway -stood. In two points only the Capitoline map fails to correspond with the -actually existing ruins. The antæ of the gateway are not represented, and -the corner column of the Temple of Juno is omitted. The former of these -two omissions may be explained by supposing that the plan was probably -made before the restoration of the portico by Severus. - -The excavations carried on in 1861 by Pellegrini and Contigliozzi, -established the following limits for the Portico of Octavia. - -The southern corner of the rectangle was occupied by a quadrifrontal -archway, and this was situated near No. 4 in the Via della Catena di -Pescaria. From this the south-western side of the portico ran nearly along -the line of the street till it reached the gateway to which the present -ruins belong, near the oratory of S. Angelo. The western corner of the -portico was also formed by a quadrifrontal archway. - -The north-western side passed through the church of S. Ambrogio a little -below the high altar, and then skirted the Palazzo Righetti near the -Piazza di S. Caterina de' Funari, where it joined the north-eastern and -shorter side. In this side there was a pediment with pillars corresponding -to the gateway at the opposite end, but not containing the real entrance, -which stood near the angle of the Palazzo Caraletti in the Via de' -Delphini. The eastern angle was near the Palazzo Capizucchi, and the -south-eastern side passed close to the convent of monks of the order of -Madre di Dio, attached to the church of S. Maria in Portico in the piazza -di Campitelli. - -The three Composite columns of marble, which still stand in the house, No. -11 in the Via di S. Angelo in Pescaria, belonged to the Temple of Juno, -and stood at the western angle of that temple. - -The remains of the Temple of Jupiter are hidden under the church of S. -Maria in Portico, and the street which is now called Via della Tribuna dei -Campitelli occupies the line of the interval between the two temples. A -part of one of the side walls of the Temple of Jupiter rises a little -above the ground at the corner of the church of S. Maria in Portico. The -school or academy of Augustus was behind the temples, and stood near the -centre of the Via della Tribuna di Campitelli. The back of this formed a -part of the northern side of the portico. - -The interior of the gateway has of late years been cleared of some of the -buildings which have blocked it up, and the whole is now visible, with all -the columns except one, which has been taken away to enlarge the church -door. - -A most interesting relic was found near the side door of the church of S. -Angelo in Pescaria in April 1878, consisting of a pedestal of marble -engraved with the title of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi. This was -evidently the pedestal of the sitting statue of Cornelia mentioned by -Pliny in his 'Natural History' as having been placed in the Portico of -Metellus. The statue was the work of Tisicrates. - -Excavations which have been made in the repair of houses and for other -objects during the six years since 1873, have confirmed the conclusions -which have been stated as to the position of the Portico of Octavia, and -the temples near it. Some of the columns of the north side of the portico -were found along the row of houses in the Via di Pescaria, No. 25-34. - -The basement of the Temple of Apollo, between the Theatre of Marcellus and -the Portico of Octavia, was found under the Albergo della Catena. - -[Sidenote: Crypta and Theatrum Balbi.] - -In the Via di S. Maria in Cacaberis, No. 23, there are two Doric columns -of travertine half buried in the around, with a portion of entablature -above them, and between them an ancient brick arch forming the entrance to -a stable. In the interior of the stable are two other similar arches and -columns, and above these there are indications of an upper story. Other -ruins of the same description are built into the next house, No. 22, and -into several other houses near. In the sixteenth century, the Bolognese -architect Serlio saw more ruins here, and he represents in his sketch an -upper story with Corinthian pillars. The name Crypta Balbi, which is found -in the catalogue of places in the ninth region, has been given with much -probability to these ruins. A crypta, or cryptoporticus, according to -Pliny, was a covered corridor with windows, which could be shut or opened -at pleasure. Such a building was used for exercise in wet or hot weather. -Some were open on one side, others closed on both sides. A cryptoporticus -of the latter kind is to be seen in the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea under -the baths of Titus. The ruins in the Via di Cacaberis appear to have had -open arches at the sides. This cryptoporticus was probably attached to the -Theatre of Balbus, as the portions Pompeii was to the Theatrum Pompeii, -and Venuti thinks that it extended along the back of the scena, and that -it was intended as a place of shelter for the spectators in case of the -sudden showers of rain peculiar to the Roman climate.[87] The name of -the street Cacaberis or Caccavari has been derived from crypticula. The -Mirabilia, an ancient list of the sights in Rome, calls these ruins -Templum Craticulæ. - -[Illustration: The Circus Flaminius from Nolli's Map, Pl. 19.] - -[Sidenote: Circus Flaminius.] - -The Circus Flaminius, named from the Flaminian family of ancient Rome, lay -in the quarter traversed by the Via delle Botteghe Oscure, and in the -neighbourhood of the Palazzo Mattei. The Circus was destroyed before the -9th century, and there are now no traces of it left to guide us, but -before the erection, in the 15th century, of the larger houses in this -quarter, some few ruins appear to have been visible in the neighbourhood -of the Palazzo Mattei. These are described by Andrea Fulvio and Ligorio as -having belonged to the Circus Flaminius, and according to their account -the length of the Circus lay in a direction from west to east, and reached -from the Palazzo Mattei, where the semicircular end was situated, to the -Piazzo Margana where the starting-point lay. A tower, now called the Torre -Citrangole, was once called the Torre Metangole, and marked the spot where -the goal of the Circus stood. - -[Sidenote: Theatre of Pompeius.] - -In the district called by the name Circus Flaminius, stand the ruins of a -vast range of buildings, the theatre, porticus, curia, and domus Pompeii. -That these ruins, which are situated at the back of the church of S. -Andrea della Valle, and are plainly those of a theatre, belonged to the -Theatre of Pompey, is clear if the proofs given of the situation of the -other two theatres in ancient Rome be admitted as sufficient. The place -was so familiar to the Romans that we hardly ever find its locality -indicated even in any such general terms as in campo Martio or juxta -Tiberim, expressions commonly applied to other buildings of less note in -the Campus Martius. - -The remains which are now left of these celebrated buildings are to be -seen in the small piazza of S. Maria di Grottapinta behind the church of -S. Andrea della Valle. They consist of ranges of travertine walls, -converging to a centre, similar to those still visible in the interior of -the Theatre of Marcellus and in the Coliseum, and are plainly the remains -of the substructions supporting the cavea of a theatre. Further remains of -piers and converging archways of peperino are visible in the cellars of -the adjoining Palazzo Pio; and during some excavations made in 1837, a -part of the outer walls of the theatre was discovered, with Doric half -columns, and a Doric cornice. Most fortunately the ground plan, not only -of the theatre, but also of the whole adjoining portico, is given upon -some fragments of the Capitoline map. - -[Illustration: FRAGMENTS OF PIANTA CAPITOLINA. THEATRE OF POMPEY] - -The first idea of building such a magnificent theatre seems to have been -suggested to Pompey by his visit to the theatre at Mitylene, whither he -went after the Mithridatic war to be present at a contest of rival poets -held in his honour. Only one attempt had before been made to build a -permanent theatre in Rome. The Censor C. Cassius Longinus in the year B.C. -154 had entered into a contract for the construction of a stone theatre -near the Lupercal, but the senate, by the advice of Scipio Nasica, a rigid -Puritan of the old Roman school, and jealous of the introduction of Greek -luxury, ordered it when half finished to be demolished, and the materials -sold. The same decree inflicted penalties on any one who should, either in -the city or within a mile of its wails, venture to place any seats for -spectators at the games, or sit down while looking on at them. Tacitus -states that even in Pompey's time the conservative Romans retained the -same dread lest indolence and luxury should be promoted by the -construction of permanent theatres.[88] In carrying out this grand design -Pompey was assisted by his freedman Demetrius, who had amassed immense -riches during his master's campaigns, and took this opportunity of paying -his acknowledgments to the author of his wealth. The capabilities of the -theatre must have been very great; nor need we be surprised to hear that -it contained 40,000 seats, for the remaining fragments show that it -comprehended the whole space between the Via de' Chiavari which -corresponds nearly to the line of the scena, the Via di Giubbonari, the -Campo di Fiore and the Via del Paradiso. Eastwards from the Via de' -Chiavari stretched the long ranges of colonnades of which the Capitoline -plan gives the outline, and beyond them the Curia and a temple, with a -variety of offices and shops, as far as the Via di Torre Argentina, -including the modern Teatro Argentina within their compass. In this -theatre Nero gave the grand entertainment to Tiridates, on which occasion -not only the scena but the whole interior of the theatre and its furniture -was covered with gilding, and a purple velarium stretched over it, upon -which Nero himself was represented driving his chariot in the character of -the Sun God, with golden stars glittering around him. The scena was burnt -in the great fire in A.D. 80, but restored again by Vespasian. Two other -conflagrations and restorations are recorded in the first half of the -third century, one in the reign of Philippus in A.D. 249, and a second in -that of Diocletian.[89] An inscription was found in the Via de' Chiavari -in 1551, which commemorates the restoration of one of the colonnades under -the name of Jovius, a title which Diocletian often assumed, and in the -time of Ammianus Marcellinus the theatre could still be reckoned among the -Mirabilia Urbis.[90] Another inscription given by the anonymous writer of -the Einsiedlen MS. records a rebuilding by Arcadius and Honorius about -A.D. 395. At the time the Notitia was compiled, the number of seats had -diminished from 40,000, as given by Pliny, to 27,580 or even less, and the -theatre was therefore probably in a ruinous state when the last mentioned -restoration took place. The building naturally suffered much in the Gothic -wars, and we find that it was again restored by Symmachus in the time of -Theodoric, after which it is again mentioned under the right name of -Theatrum Pompeii by the anonymous writer of Einsiedlen in the 9th and by -the Ordo Romanus in the 12th centuries; but in the 13th the Orsini family -had occupied it, and so changed the building that at the beginning of the -14th century it is called in the Mirabilia, Palatium Pompeii. The -Florentine Poggio saw the ruins of the outer wall still standing in the -Campo di Fiore in the 15th century, but the name of Pompey was then no -longer connected with them, until Marliani, Fulvio, and Fauno the -topographers of the 16th century revived the right designation. Canina, -in his work on the buildings of the ancients, has taken the greatest pains -to give a full description of the ruins now left, and it is from him that -most of our information is derived. - -[Sidenote: Ponte S. Sisto.] - -The bridge now called Ponte S. Sisto, near the ruins of the Theatre of -Pompeius, stands on the site of an ancient bridge, which was most probably -the one named Pons Aurelius in the Notitia. There is no conclusive proof -that this was the Pons Aurelius, but the situation of none of the other -bridges seems to suit this name, while it is peculiarly applicable to the -bridge in question, because it was the principal passage over the Tiber to -the Porta Aurelia and the Aurelian road along the coast to Civita Vecchia. - -The name frequently given to it by topographers, Pons Janicularis, appears -to be a mere invention, as it is not found in any trustworthy authority; -and another name Pons Antoninianus, by which we find it called in the -Middle Ages, seems to have arisen from the mistaken name Theatrum -Antonini, formerly given to the Theatrum Balbi, which is not far distant, -and also from the well-known fondness of Severus and Caracalla for the -trans-Tiberine pleasure grounds. Marliani gives an inscription which is -said to have existed formerly upon this bridge commemorating its -restoration under Hadrian by Messius Rusticus, the Conservator of the -Tiber. The bridge must therefore have been originally built before -Hadrian's time, and cannot be a work of the Antonines. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -PANTHEON, COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS, MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS, MAUSOLEUM OF -HADRIAN, AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. - - -[Sidenote: The Septa.] - -Near the Piazza Venezia and S. Marco, to the east of the site of the -ancient Circus Flaminius, stood the Septa, an ancient building erected for -the purpose of holding the Roman comitia or elections. Some ruins of a -very peculiar kind are situated under the Palazzo Doria and the church of -S. Maria in Via Lata. They consist of ancient piers of travertine stone, -about thirty-nine inches square, standing in rows at distances of five or -six yards, and evidently belonging to the remains of a portico. There are -three rows of these, each containing eight piers under the Palazzo Doria, -and five rows under the church of S. Maria in Via Lata, containing each -five piers. It is plain that these were originally faced with marble, as -the exterior surface of the travertine is rough hewn. The situation of -these pillars agrees well with the locality in which the Septa are placed -by classical writers, and a further proof that they certainly formed a -part of that building is given by the Capitoline map, upon which we find a -large tract occupied by a building resting upon piers arranged in regular -rows exactly corresponding to the piers under the church of S. Maria and -the Palazzo Doria. Upon these fragments the letters SÆPT and LIA are -legible, which appear to belong to the words SÆPTA JULIA. - -The shape of the building is very peculiar. It must have reached along the -side of the Via Lata from the Piazza di S. Marco to the church of S. Maria -in Via Lata, and consisted of a long cloister supported by parallel rows -of eight marble piers. This cannot have been the arrangement of the place -in the Republican or early Imperial times, for a design less adapted for -the orderly meeting of a large body of people can hardly be conceived. It -is much more probable that in the present ruins we have the remains of -Hadrian's Septa, built when the original purpose of the building, the -reception and division of the centuries when they voted, had become an -affair of the past. - -The design of these spacious covered cloisters seems to have been to -afford a sheltered place for various classes of the Roman populace. Even -in Domitian's time the Septa had become the common resort of slave -vendors, dealers in fancy goods, flâneurs and loungers, and the new -arcades were intended possibly for the express accommodation of such -persons. The wide court in which the great assemblies of the centuries had -previously been held was partly filled up by these new buildings, and -partly occupied by private houses, as the Capitoline plan shows. When that -plan was prepared, in the time of Septimius Severus, the old Septa had -entirely lost their form and original use, and the name only remained -attached to the spacious colonnades of Hadrian. - -In the early times of the Republic the Septa were simply an enclosed place -on the Campus Martins partitioned off into a number of different plots by -means of ropes or slight railings, in each of which one division of voters -or century assembled, and whence the presidents passed one by one over the -pontes to deliver the vote of their respective century. Hence arose the -nickname of ovilia, which was given to the septa on account of their -similarity to a sheepfold. Julius Cæsar first entertained the idea of -setting up marble enclosures for the comitia centuriata, and surrounding -them with a magnificent portico. The whole formed a spacious cloistered -court, decorated with works of art, and closely connected with the Villa -Publica. Cæsar's design was completed after his death by Agrippa in B.C. -27, and he gave the building the name Septa Julia. A rostrum was erected -in it, and such was the extent of the space enclosed that gladiatorial -shows, and sometimes naumachiæ were held there. This was afterwards -altered by Hadrian as above described. - -[Sidenote: Temples of Isis and Serapis.] - -Westwards from the septa and nearly upon the site now occupied by the -church of S. Stefano del Cacco, the little Via di pie di Marmo and a part -of the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, stood the temples of Isis, -Serapis, and Minerva Chalcidica.[91] The names of the three temples are -given in the catalogue of the Curiosum in the ninth region, and the sites -of the two first, the Iseum and Serapeum, have been sufficiently traced by -the numerous Egyptian antiquities which have been found near the church of -S. Maria sopra Minerva. Of these the most remarkable are the two obelisks, -one of which now stands in the Piazza della Rotunda in front of the -Pantheon, and the others on the Piazza della Minerva. The latter of these -was found between the church of S. Ignazio and that of S. Maria in the -time of Alexander VII. in 1665, and the former had stood, previously to -its erection on the present pedestal, in a little piazza near this place, -whence it was removed by Clement XI. The antiquarian Fea, in his -Miscellanea, gives an account of various other Egyptian relics found on -the south-east side of the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, which -undoubtedly belonged to the Iseum and Serapeum.[92] - -Among these was a statue of Isis now in the hall of the dying gladiator in -the Capitol, the two Egyptian lions now at the foot of the steps of the -Capitol; the famous group of the Nile now in the Braccio Nuovo of the -Vatican, and two fragments of an altar with Egyptian reliefs, and the -inscription ISIDI SACRUM. Further traces of the same Egyptian worship were -found by Canina in the year 1852, of which he has given an account in the -Annali dell' Instituto of that year. The emperors Commodus and Caracalla -were particularly given to the worship of Egyptian deities, and the -emperor Alexander Severus is said to have bestowed additional decorations -upon those temples. The third temple, that of Minerva Chalcidica, which -was restored by Domitian, together with the Iseum and Serapeum after the -fire in A.D. 80, stood nearer to the Pantheon, and probably occupied the -site of the present church called S. Maria sopra Minerva. The statue of -Minerva, formerly in the Giustiniani Palace and now placed in the Braccio -Nuovo of the Vatican, was found here. Some few remains of pilasters which -are built into the foundations of the houses between the Via della -Minerva and the Via di pie di Marmo may have belonged to this temple. - -[Illustration: Pantheon.] - -[Sidenote: Pantheon.] - -At the same time with his Thermæ, which occupied this district, Agrippa -built the famous dome, called by Pliny and Dion, and in the inscription of -Severus on the architrave of the building itself, the Pantheon, and still -retaining that name, though now consecrated as a Christian Church under -the name of S. Maria ad Martyres or della Rotunda. This consecration, -together with the colossal thickness of the walls, have secured the -building against the waste of time, and the still more destructive attacks -of the barons of the Middle Ages, who destroyed most of the other great -edifices of imperial Rome by either making them their strongholds or -pulling them down for building materials. The pronaos rests upon sixteen -granite columns, with marble Corinthian bases and capitals. It was -formerly approached by six steps, but two only are now above the level of -the surrounding ground. The architrave and frieze are plain, and on the -latter stands the inscription, which formerly, as may be seen by the holes -for nails, was formed by metallic letters: - - M . AGRIPPA . L . F . COS . TERTIUM . FECIT. - -Agrippa was consul for the third time in B.C. 27, so that the building is -now 1906 years old. Another inscription in smaller characters stands under -this upon the two upper ledges of the architrave, commemorating the -restoration of the building by Severus and Caracalla. The pediment, as may -be seen by the holes of the metal fastenings, formerly contained a bronze -relief representing Jupiter hurling thunderbolts upon the giants. The roof -of the pronaos was originally arched, but the vaulting has been replaced -by strong beams, and on the outside the gilded bronze has been replaced by -lead. In the interior of the pronaos, on each side of the entrance are two -huge niches which formerly contained the statues of Augustus and Agrippa, -but are now empty. - -The pronaos is connected with the rotunda by two massive projections of -masonry ornamented at the sides with marble pilasters and exquisitely -worked reliefs in pentelic marble representing candelabra and sacrificial -implements entwined with wreaths. These connecting walls originally rose -to an equal height with the walls of the rotunda, but are now hidden by -the bell towers, erected by Bernini in the time of Urban VIII. about A.D. -1625. - -The doorway is of magnificently carved marble slabs, and the folding -doors, moving on massive hinges fixed in two projecting pilasters, are of -exquisitely worked bronze. - -The rotunda rests on a rectangular base, similar to those which support -the cylindrical part of the mausoleum of Hadrian and the tomb of Cecilia -Metella. In the parts where the thickness of the wall is not lessened by -niches in the interior, it has the amazing breadth of nineteen feet of -solid brickwork. In addition to this it is strengthened with numerous -arches built into the wall. Three cornices run round the exterior of the -rotunda and divide it into three rings, the lowest of which was faced with -marble, and the two upper with stucco. The dome springs from the second -cornice, and consists first of a ring of masonry seven feet high, and then -of six concentric rings, presenting on the exterior the appearance of six -steps. The top is flat, and is pierced in the centre with a large round -opening twenty-seven feet in diameter. Round the opening is a ring of -ornamental gilded bronze, which is the only part of the old bronze gilt -roof now remaining. The masonry of the dome is of wedge-shaped pumice -stones, chosen for this purpose on account of their lightness. The same -kind of stone is used in several other buildings in Rome where lightness -combined with moderate strength is required. The exterior of the dome is -flat and heavy, and impressive only from its stern and massive solidity. -The proportions of the interior are altogether different, and have been -universally admired for their elegance, and the exquisitely simple taste -with which they are decorated. The lower part contains eight deep niches, -alternately semicircular and square, in one of which the entrance doors -are placed, while the others were filled with statues of deities, now -replaced by Romish altars. They are decorated with pilasters, and two -Corinthian columns stand in front of each, supporting the entablature -which runs round the whole interior. Between the eight principal niches -are eight smaller ones, now used as altars, faced with ædiculæ consisting -of two small columns with entablature and pediment. The two ring cornices -in the interior answer in position to the lower exterior cornices. Above -the upper cornice which runs quite round the building there were -originally twelve niches surrounded with elegant marbles and stucco work. -These were altered in 1747, and their effect injured by the introduction -of heavy pediments, and by the removal of the marbles and stucco work. The -interior of the roof is relieved by well-designed rectangular coffer work, -decreasing in size towards the apex of the dome so as to give the -impression of height and space. The floor is laid with slabs of Phrygian -and Numidian marble, porphyry, and grey granite, in alternate squares and -circles, set in reticulated work. In the centre it has a depression -pierced with small holes to carry off the rain water from the aperture -above. This drain probably communicated with the great cloaca built by -Agrippa to drain the Campus Martius. The proportions of the interior of -the dome are admirably adjusted, so that no part of the building has an -undue prominence, contrasting favourably in this respect with S. Peter's, -where the immense size of the piers on which the dome is supported dwarf -the upper part too much. The Pantheon will always be reckoned among the -masterpieces of architecture for solid durability combined with beauty of -interior effect. - -The Romans prided themselves greatly upon it as one of the wonders of -their great capital, and no other dome of antiquity could rival its -colossal dimensions.[93] The height from the pavement to the crown of the -dome is 143 feet, half of which is occupied by the cylindrical wall and -half by the dome; this height is insignificant when compared with S. -Peter's, the dome of which is 405 feet from the pavement to the base of -the lantern, and the exterior appearance of S. Peter's is far finer, but -the diameter of the Pantheon is the greater, and the proportions of the -interior more harmonious. - -The inscription assigns its completion to the year B.C. 27, the third -consulship of Agrippa. For a long time the mistaken notion prevailed that -the building was dedicated to Juppiter Ultor, a misapprehension arising -from a corrupt reading in a passage of Pliny, where the words Jovis -Ultoris had been inserted instead of diribitori. The original name, -Pantheon, taken in connection with the numerous niches for statues of the -gods in the interior, seems to contradict the idea that it was dedicated -to any peculiar deity or class of deities. The seven principal niches may -have been intended for the seven superior deities, and the eight ædiculæ -for the next in dignity, while the twelve niches in the upper ring were -occupied by the inferior inhabitants of Olympus. Dion hints at this -explanation when he suggests that the name was taken from the resemblance -of the dome to the vault of heaven.[94] - -Originally, to all appearance, the Pantheon was not intended for a temple, -but for a part of Agrippa's Thermæ. Its shape corresponds very closely -with the description given by Vitruvius of the Laconicum or Sudatio -attached to all Roman Thermæ. He recommends a dome-shaped building, with a -round opening like that of the Pantheon at the crown, which can be opened -or closed at pleasure, so as to lower or raise the temperature, by the -removal or application of a lid (clypeum) moved by chains. - -And on an examination of the pronaos it will be found that the stones in -its upper part, which abut on the central building, are not bonded into -it, but are only placed against it, showing that the pronaos was an -after-thought, and was not erected till the rotunda had been finished. -Agrippa must have changed the design of the building after the completion -of the dome, and, perhaps because he found it too vast for the purposes of -a sudatio, or because he thought it too splendid a building to be employed -for such a purpose, have determined to dedicate it to the gods of -heathendom. The bronze gilt statuary, the work of Diogenes of Athens, with -which the temple was decorated, was much admired by the Roman -connoisseurs, and in particular the group upon the pediment and the -Caryatides. The statue of Venus was adorned with the two divided halves of -the famous pearl of Cleopatra, fellow to the one which Cleopatra is said -to have dissolved in vinegar in order to win her wager that she could -spend ten million sesterces in one dinner. - -In the fire of A.D. 80 the Pantheon suffered with the rest of the -buildings in this part of the Campus Martius, but from the solidity of its -construction the injury done was not great, and was repaired soon -afterwards by Domitian. It was damaged by lightning in the reign of -Trajan, but restored by Hadrian, who used it frequently as a court of -justice. - -A hundred years after this, the restoration by Septimius Severus, recorded -in the extant inscription, took place A.D. 195. Honorius closed this -temple, with the other temples of Rome, in A.D. 399, but it was not -consecrated as a Christian church until two hundred years afterwards, when -Boniface IV. dedicated it to All Saints in allusion to the pagan name of -Pantheon, giving the name of S. Maria ad Martyres. Two acts of plunder -perpetrated upon the building deserve mention. In the middle of the -seventh century, A.D. 650, Constans II. took off the gilded bronze tiles -of the roof, and was carrying them to Constantinople, with the plunder of -the Forum of Trajan, when he was intercepted at Syracuse by the Saracens -and killed. His act of plunder was imitated by Urban VIII., who in 1632 -took away the bronze girders which supported the roof of the pronaos and -had them melted down and used partly for the pillars of the baldachino in -S. Peter's, and partly for the cannon of the castle of S. Angelo. - -[Sidenote: Aqua Virgo.] - -Not far from the Pantheon the arches of the Aqua Virgo projected from the -side of the Pincian Hill and crossed the Via Lata. Some remains of these -arches are still to be seen in the Via del Nazareno (No. 12) at the back -of the Fountain of Trevi. They bear an inscription which was copied in the -ninth century by the anonymous chronicler of Einsiedlen, recording the -restoration of the arches by Claudius after they had been partially -destroyed by Caligula, who intended to build an amphitheatre in this -neighbourhood. The arches are now entirely covered with rubbish, and the -conduit of the aqueduct itself, which formerly was raised upon them, is -consequently now upon the level of the ground. The inscription stands on -the side of the conduit, and was formerly at the spot where some principal -street passed under the aqueduct. Above it is a simple cornice, and below, -an architrave, with the upper part of some Doric pilasters, appears above -the surface of the water, which is here tapped to afford a washing trough -to the laundresses of the neighbourhood. The masonry is of solid -travertine blocks, carefully cut and fitted. - -[Sidenote: Dogana in the Piazza di Pietra.] - -Some topographers have identified the ruin in the Piazza di Pietra, now -the Dogana, with the Posidonium, a portico built by Agrippa in memory of -his naval exploits; but unless the ruin in the Piazza di Pietra be a later -restoration after the fire of A.D. 80, which is possible enough, the style -is not such as to allow us to assign it to the Augustan age. It has eleven -fluted Corinthian marble columns supporting a tolerably well-preserved -entablature, and plainly belonging to the longer side of a basilica or -temple. The architrave, frieze, and cornice, have a heavy and unimpressive -appearance, though some of the details of the work are rich and carefully -executed. In the courtyard of the building a portion of the wall of the -cella, and the spring of the arches of the vaulted roof, can be seen now -incorporated into the modern building. - -Various conjectures have been made as to the name and history of this -building. Some of the older topographers thought that it was the Temple of -M. Aurelius, which seems, however, to have been nearer to the column of -that emperor than the ruin in question is;[95] nor does the position of -this ruin allow us to suppose that it formed any part of a series of -buildings placed symmetrically round the column. Palladio gives an -elaborate ground-plan, with all the details, and calls it the Temple of -Mars; but there does not appear to be any evidence in favour of this -appellation; nor is it known how much of Palladio's design is taken from -what remained of the ruin in his time, and how much is merely conjectural -restoration. The conjecture of Urlichs that the Temple of Marciana, -Trajan's sister, stood here, rests on no evidence but that of the Notitia, -and is rendered very improbable by the great size of the building, and by -the fact that the expression in the Notitia is Basilica Marciani, and not -Templum Marcianæ. Another hypothesis, which Professor Reber mentions, has -more to recommend it. Antoninus Pius is said to have erected a temple in -honour of his adopted father, Hadrian. This temple could not have stood -in the Forum of Trajan, where there was no room left for such a building, -and would most probably be placed near the rest of the Antonine buildings, -not far from the Column of M. Aurelius. In the Mirabilia, the Temple of -Hadrian is placed near the Church of S. Maria in Aquiro, which -corresponded to the modern Chiesa degli Orfanelli; and part of a temple -precinct built of travertine has been discovered in the Palazzo Cini, and -is, perhaps, a relic of this temple. A medal of the year A.D. 151 contains -a representation of the Temple of Hadrian, and corresponds tolerably well -with the extant ruins; and in the neighbourhood of the Piazza di Pietra, -several statues and fragments of inscriptions bearing the name of -Antoninus Pius have been found at different times. When it is added that -the style of building and execution of the ornamental work belong to the -Antonine era, it will be seen that, although there is nothing more than -probable evidence in favour of the above supposition, yet it has more in -its favour than any of the other conjectures mentioned. - -The present building was erected by Innocent XII. at the end of the -seventeenth century in order to prevent the fall of the columns, which had -become dangerously disjointed. The entablature has been restored in many -parts, and a kind of attica erected over it, which gives the ruin the -appearance of being in better preservation than it really is. - -[Sidenote: Gnomon Obelisk.] - -North of the Piazza Capranica, in the open space called the Piazza di -Monte Citorio, is a large obelisk of red syenite. This is the Gnomon -Obelisk, of which Pliny gives an interesting account in his 'Natural -History.' It was brought by Augustus from Egypt, with that which is now in -the Piazza del Popolo, and was erected on the Campus Martins under the -directions of the mathematician Facundus Novus to serve as a sun-dial, by -which not only the hour of the day, but also the day of the month, might -be shown. For this purpose the pavement of the piazza in which it stood -was marked out with a complicated system of lines in bronze; and, to -prevent any disturbances caused by the settlement of the foundations, they -were laid as deep below the ground as the height of the obelisk itself. -Pliny remarks that when he wrote, the gnomon had ceased for thirty years -to mark the time rightly, and he ascribes this inaccuracy to some -displacement of the obelisk due to natural causes, such as earthquakes or -inundations.[96] It is more probable that the inaccuracy of the Julian -calendar gradually produced the change. Ammianus Marcellinus, the Notitia, -and the anonymous writer of the Einsiedlen MS., all mention this obelisk -as still standing on the place where Augustus placed it. It was -then--after the ninth century--lost for a time, but discovered again in -1403 with a part of the figures of the dial. Marliani, in the first half -of the sixteenth century, mentions a part of the obelisk as lying -neglected in a cellar near S. Lorenzo in Lucina, and it was not erected -upon the present site until 1792. - -To the east and north of the Monte Citorio lay the great buildings of the -Antonine era, of which we still have some remains in the base of the -Pillar of Antoninus Pius, now in the Giardino della Pigna of the Vatican, -the magnificent Pillar of M. Aurelius in the Piazza Colonna, and the -remains of the arch of the latter emperor, now in the Palace of the -Conservators of the Capitol. - -[Sidenote: Pillar of Antoninus Pius.] - -The first of these, the Pillar of Antoninus Pius, was a monolith of red -syenite, resting upon a pedestal of the same stone ornamented with -reliefs. These remained upon their original site in the garden of the Casa -della Missione near the Monte Citorio, until the time of Benedict XIV., -when the pedestal was removed and placed in the Piazza di Monte Citorio -near the Gnomon Obelisk, but the monolith was found to be so damaged, as -not to be worth the expense of re-erection. Pius VI. when he placed the -Gnomon Obelisk in the Piazza di Monte Citorio, removed the pedestal and -took it to the Vatican Gardens, and it was finally placed in the Giardino -della Pigna by Gregory XVI., who caused it to be carefully restored. - -[Sidenote: Column of M. Aurelius.] - -The second of the great Antonine monuments, the Column of M. Aurelius, -still stands upon its original site in the Piazza Colonna. Formerly it was -the centre point of a group of massive temples and colossal halls, which -have entirely perished. It is now surrounded by houses of modern -construction, and surmounted by a statue of S. Paul, and looks like a grey -veteran clothed in the dress of a later generation, in which he feels -self-conscious and ill at ease. The only remains of the colonnades, which -once enclosed the court in which it stood, are to be found on the east -side of the piazza in the palace of the Prince of Piombino. They consist -of a triple portico of brickwork, probably faced in ancient times with -marble. The Temple of M. Aurelius, which stood, like that of Trajan, in -front of the column, was probably upon the western side towards the Piazza -di Monte Citorio, and it is from the ruins of this temple, and not of the -Amphitheatre of Statilius, as commonly supposed, that the mound of ruins -called Monte Citorio may have been formed. But no traces of the -substructions or of the walls or columns have been found.[97] - -The column itself, which is a close imitation of that of Trajan, stands -upon a pedestal which was so altered by Fontana from its original shape as -to present a totally different appearance. The ancient pedestal was much -less massive and better proportioned to the upper part of the monument. -Its base stood at a level thirteen feet lower than the present pavement of -the square, and it consisted of a basement of solid stonework about -sixteen feet in height resting on three steps, nearly the whole of which -is now under the level of the surrounding ground. On the east side was the -door by which the spiral staircase in the interior was reached. Upon the -basement stood a large square flat stone, ornamented with genii and -triumphal and military ensigns, and above this the pedestal upon which, -before the restorations by Fontana, only the words CONSECRATIO and D. -ANTONINI. AUG. PII. were legible. The original shape and inscription of -this lower part are only known to us from old prints and antiquarian notes -in Gamucci, Du Perac, and Piranesi's works. It became necessary for the -safety of the pillar, in 1589 to restore the base, and the whole was cased -in marble and repaired by Fontana, under the orders of Sixtus V., who at -the same time placed the statue of S. Paul upon the top. From a want of -accurate historical information, however, the old inscription was supposed -to refer to the elder of the Antonines, Antoninus Pius, and the new -inscription accordingly speaks of the monument as dedicated to him. The -error was discovered by a narrower inspection of the reliefs upon the -shaft, which clearly relate to the exploits of M. Aurelius. - -The plinth is quite simple, and the base of the shaft is formed, like the -Column of Trajan, in the shape of a laurel crown. The whole of the shaft -is occupied by a spiral series of reliefs, and only a small ring of fluted -mouldings separates them from the capital, which is of the Romano-Doric -order. The whole pillar measures 122 feet in height, being two feet lower -than that of Trajan. The shafts of the two are exactly of the same height -(100 Roman feet), and are formed in the same way of solid cylinders of -marble, in the centre of which the spiral staircase which leads to the top -is hewn. - -The great winding wreath of bas-reliefs which twines round the column -contains scenes from the history of the German wars in the years from A.D. -167-179, in which a number of the tribes north of the Danube, the -Marcomanni, Quadi, Suevi, Hermonduri, Jazyges, Vandali, Sarmati, Alani, -and Roxolani, with many others, took part. The representations begin with -an army on the march crossing a river (the Danube); then follow, as on the -Pillar of Trajan, scenes in which the general harangues his troops, the -enemy's encampments are seen, and a great victory is won, accompanied with -the usual thank-offerings. - -But the most remarkable part of the whole relief is a scene which plainly -corresponds to the account given by Dion Cassius of the sudden, and, as it -seemed, supernatural relief afforded by a thunderstorm to the Roman army -when hard pressed by the Quadi, who had surrounded them and succeeded in -preventing all their efforts to escape. "The Roman army," says Dion, "were -in the greatest distress from fatigue, many of them were wounded, and they -were hemmed in by the enemy, without water, under a burning sun. They -could neither fight nor retreat, and would have been compelled to stand -in their ranks and die under the scorching heat, had not some thick clouds -suddenly gathered, and a heavy rain fallen, which refreshed them, and -afforded them drink. This did not happen without the intervention of the -gods ([Greek: ouk atheei]), for it was said that one Arnuphis, an Egyptian -magician, was with Marcus Aurelius, and that he, by invoking the aid of -Hermes, the god of the air, and some other deities by means of -incantations, drew down the rain." Xiphilinus, however, from whose -abridgement of Dion we have the above account, declares that "Dion has -purposely falsified the circumstances, for he must have known that the -'legio fulminata' obtained its name from this incident, the true history -of which was as follows. There was a legion in the army of Marcus -Aurelius, consisting entirely of Christians. The emperor being told that -their prayers in such an emergency never remained unanswered, requested -them to pray for help to their God. When they had prayed, God immediately -smote the enemy with lightning, but refreshed the Roman army by a copious -rain, upon which Marcus published a decree, in which he complimented the -Christian legion and bestowed the name fulminate upon it." History -however, does not bear out this wonderful tale of Xiphilinus, for the name -fulminate is known, from inscriptions, to have been given to the twelfth -legion as early as the reign of Augustus.[98] - -Upon the pillar the scene is represented by the figure of Jupiter Pluvius -dripping with rain, which the soldiers are eagerly catching in their -shields. - -The drought is followed by an inundation, in which many of the Germans are -drowned. A grand battle takes place, followed by the burning of the -enemy's huts and the seizure of numerous captives. - -The figure of Marcus Aurelius on horseback, accompanying a long train of -spoil taken from the German tribes, and a long series of battles, -conflagrations of villages and towns, conferences with the enemy's -generals follow, and the first campaign ends at a point near the centre of -the column, with a procession of trophies and spoils of war, in the midst -of which a figure of Victory inscribes the triumph on a shield. - -Over this figure of Victory begins the history of the second campaign, in -which four battles are represented, and various military scenes, as the -crossing of the Danube in boats, the thanksgiving sacrifices after -victory, the emperor addressing his army, captures of women and children, -and finally a long train of captives and spoils led off in triumph. This -great marble history is after the model of that on Trajan's Column. The -style of execution is, however, somewhat different: the figures stand out -much more from the surface, are more roughly cut, and have a heavier and -stiffer look, resembling that of the reliefs upon the Arch of Severus, and -the base of the Pillar of Antoninus Pius. - -The column is called in all ancient writings Columna Antonini, which may -apply to either of the Antonines. But it is perfectly evident from spiral -reliefs, representing the frequent crossings of the Danube, and especially -from that recording the incident of the sudden storm which extricated the -Roman army from their difficulties, that the German wars of Marcus -Aurelius are the subject commemorated. - -Aurelius Victor and Julius Capitolinus state that temples, columns and -priesthoods, were dedicated to this emperor after his death, and some -inscriptions discovered in 1777 in the Piazza Colonna establish the -conclusion that this pillar was erected in his honour beyond doubt. These -inscriptions, now in the Gallery of Inscriptions in the Vatican, contain a -petition from Adrastus, a freedman of Septimius Severus, and custodian of -the Pillar of Marcus Aurelius, addressed to the Emperor Severus requesting -leave to have the miserable hut (cannaba) in which he lived changed into a -habitable house (solarium) for himself and his heirs, and also the decree -of the emperor, giving the permission and assigning materials and a site. -The petition was presented immediately on the accession of Severus, and -the decree is dated in the consulship of Falco and Clarus, A.D. 193, two -months after the emperor had taken possession of the palace. In this -inscription the pillar is called the Columna Centenaria, and exact -measurements of the shaft have shown that it is just one hundred Roman -feet in height, including the base and capital.[99] - -The bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius, which stood on the summit, was -probably carried off by the Byzantine emperor, Constans II., to Syracuse, -and was there taken by the Saracens from him, and conveyed to Alexandria -with the rest of the plunder he had stripped from the buildings of Rome. -To distinguish this column from the above-mentioned Pillar of Antoninus -Pius, it is called in some of the legal documents of the tenth century -"Columpna major Antonina." As recorded in the inscription on the modern -base, it was much injured by lightning in the fourteenth century, and -restored by Sixtus V. - -[Sidenote: Piazza Navona.] - -The Piazza Navona was formerly a stadium, not a circus. The strongest -evidence we have in favour of this rests on the shape of the piazza and of -the ruins. One of the essential parts of a circus, the spina, is entirely -wanting, and the end from which the runners started is at right angles to -the longer sides, while in a circus, as in the case of the Circus of -Maxentius, the carceres always stood in a slanting direction across the -course, in order to equalise the distances round the spina. - -The obelisk, which now stands in the centre of the piazza was brought by -Innocent X. from the Circus of Maxentius on the Appian Road. The Circus of -Maxentius was not, however, its original site, for the hieroglyphics are -of Roman execution and contain the name of Domitian. - -[Sidenote: Mausoleum of Augustus.] - -The northern part of the Campus Martius, between the Via del Ripetta and -the Pincian Hill, contained only one great building of which we have any -knowledge. This was the Mausoleum of Augustus, the ruins of which are now -buried under the Teatro Correa, and are approached by a narrow entry -leading out of the Via dei Pontefici. All that can now be seen of the -shapeless mass which this once stately building presents, is a small part -of the cylindrical brickwork basement on the left of the entrance to the -Teatro Correa, and another fragment of the same at the back of the Church -of S. Rocco. The proofs that these are the remains of the Mausoleum of -Augustus are quite indisputable. Suetonius places it between the Tiber and -the Flaminian Road, and Strabo speaks of it as standing near the bank of -the river, descriptions which, though they are not very definite, agree -with the site of the Teatro Correa sufficiently. Complete certainty is, -however, afforded by the inscriptions which have been found on the site of -the Ustrina Cæsarum, where the bodies were burnt before burial. These were -found near the Corso, between the Via degli Otto Cantoni and the Via dei -Pontefici, a spot answering to Strabo's notice of the site of the Ustrina -as standing in the middle of the Campus, which is here narrowed by the -approach of the Pincian Hill towards the river. - -Augustus had built this magnificent tomb in his sixth consulship (B.C. -28). At that time the course of the Flaminian Road through the Campus was -lined with the tombs of many eminent Roman statesmen and public -characters, which have all, with the exception of the insignificant Tomb -of Bibulus, totally disappeared. The modern city has entirely effaced all -traces of these, but we may in all probability suppose that the Flaminian -road presented no less striking a spectacle in the days of Augustus than -the Appian, which we are accustomed to regard as the great burying-place -of Rome. - -The name mausoleum was apparently given to this tomb if not immediately, -yet soon after its completion, not from any resemblance in the plan of the -building of the famous monument of the Halicarnassian queen, which -differed entirely in shape and design, but because the expression -mausoleum had already become a name used to designate any tomb of colossal -proportions. The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus was a rectangular building -surrounded with a colonnade, while the Tomb of Augustus was cylindrical -and ornamented with deep niches. Strabo gives the following description of -the latter monument: "The most remarkable of all the tombs in the Campus -is that called the Mausoleum, which consists of a huge mound of earth -raised upon a lofty base of white marble near the river bank, and planted -to the summit with evergreen trees. Upon the top is a bronze statue of -Cæsar Augustus, and under the mound are the burial-places of Augustus and -his family and friends, while behind it is a spacious wood containing -admirably designed walks. In the middle of the Campus is the enclosure he -made for burning the corpses, also of white marble, surrounded by an iron -railing, and planted with poplar-trees."[100] - -The mound of earth here described by Strabo was probably of a conical -shape, and the trees were planted on terraced ledges. The mass of the -building was cylindrical, like the central portions of Hadrian's -Mausoleum, and of the tombs of Plautius and Cæcilia Metella, and was -supported upon a square basement which is now entirely buried beneath the -level of the ground. The exterior of the cylindrical part was relieved by -large niches which doubtless contained statues, and broke the otherwise -heavy uniformity of the surface. At the entrance were the bronze pillars -which Augustus had ordered to be erected after his death, on which was -engraved a catalogue of the acts of his reign. We now possess a fragment -of a copy of this interesting document in the famous Monumentum Ancyranum, -found at Ancyra in the vestibule of a Temple of Augustus. Besides these -pillars two obelisks stood in front of the entrance door, one of which is -now placed in the Piazza of S. Maria Maggiore, while the other stands -between the statues of the Dioscuri on the Quirinal. These obelisks were -not, however, placed there at the time when the tomb was first built, but -at a later period of the empire. The entrance fronted towards the city, -i.e., to the south, near the apse of the Church of S. Rocco, and appears -to have had a portico with columns, the traces of which are still left. - -The interior was formed by massive concentric walls, the spaces between -which were vaulted and divided into cells for the deposit of the urns -containing the ashes of the illustrious dead. A great alabaster vase found -near the Mausoleum in 1777, and placed in the Vatican Museum, was probably -one of these. We know from various passages of Roman authors that the -first burial which took place here was that of the young Marcellus, the -favourite nephew of Augustus, who died at Baiæ[101] in B.C. 23, and the -last, that of the Emperor Nerva in A.D. 98. Trajan was buried under his -column. The Mausoleum of Hadrian became the Imperial tomb in A.D. -138.[102] During the 160 years which intervened, the ashes of Agrippa, -Octavia, the mother of Marcellus, Drusus, Caius and Lucius, Augustus -himself and Livia, Germanicus, Drusus, son of Tiberius, the elder -Agrippina, Tiberius, Antonia (wife of L. Domitius), Claudius and -Britannicus were deposited here. Besides these there must have been a -great number of other friends and relations of the Imperial family buried -here. Only one of all the inscriptions recording these burials is now -extant. It is engraved on a pedestal, which bore the urn where the ashes -of the elder Agrippina, the wife of Germanicus and mother of Caligula, -lay. In the inscription on this pedestal Caligula is called Augustus, -showing that the burial took place after his accession, in accordance with -the account of Agrippina's banishment by Tiberius. The pedestal was -hollowed out and used in the Middle Ages as a measure for corn, and is -still inscribed with the words RUGITELLA DI GRANO. It may now be seen in -the courtyard of the Conservator's Palace on the Capitol. At the same -time, and at a spot between the Mausoleum and the Corso were found six -cippi of travertine, recording the burning of the bodies of four of the -children of Germanicus, Tiberius Cæsar, Caius Cæsar, Livilla, and one -whose name is erased. The remaining two cippi record the burning of the -bodies of a son of Drusus, and of one of the Flavian family. It is evident -that these belonged to the Ustrina Cæsarum, a place described by Strabo, -as quoted above, where the corpses of the dead were burnt and the formal -ceremony of collecting the bones took place. The cippi may still be seen -in the Vatican Museum. - -The Mausoleum remained closed after Nerva's burial until the capture of -Rome by Alaric in A.D. 409, when the Goths broke it open in their search -for treasure, and scattered the ashes of the Cæsars to the winds. It was -then probably that the alabaster vase mentioned above was removed from the -Mausoleum and carried to the Ustrina where it was found. - -In the 12th century the Mausoleum suffered the fate of all the other great -buildings of Rome. It became a castle of the Colonna family, and bore the -name Augusta. The mound of earth was then probably removed, and a stone or -brick tower built in its place. Previously to this, the statue of -Augustus, with the bronze decorations of the Pantheon and Forum of Trajan, -had probably been carried to Syracuse by Constans, and thence to -Alexandria by the Saracens. - -The building might, however, still, like the tomb of Hadrian, have long -defied the attacks of time, had not the Romans themselves, in the -commotions of 1167, demolished the Colonna Castle, and with it the greater -part of the walls upon which it was built. Two hundred years later, the -body of the last of the Tribunes, Cola di Rienzi, was burned by the Jews -before the Mausoleum.[103] At that time the spot was called Campo d'Austa -from the ancient site of the Ustrina. The interior chambers seem to have -been entirely demolished in the 15th century, and only the exterior wall -left. Poggio, the Florentine, describes the building as used in his time -(1440) for a vineyard, and before that date its shape was completely -changed by the falling in of the vaulting of the interior, so that it -presented the appearance of an amphitheatre instead of a lofty conical -building. In Donatis' book (1638), it is represented as a funnel-shaped -ruin with a garden on the sloping sides of the interior. Much information -might doubtless be gained by well-directed excavations, which have -apparently never been undertaken on account of the present occupation of -the ruin as a circus in winter and a theatre (the Teatro Correa) in -summer. - -[Sidenote: Muro Torto.] - -Beyond the Porta del Popolo on the edge of the Pincian hill, there is a -very ancient piece of wall, faced in the style called opus reticulatum, -which is made of small diamond-shaped blocks of tufa set in the surface of -a mass of concrete. These blocks are driven into the concrete before the -lime has dried and set. This ruin, which is called the Muro Torto, is -often spoken of as having been a part of the house of Sylla but I do not -know upon what authority. It may have formed a part of the substructions -of some of the private buildings on the Pincian, previous to the time of -Aurelian, who incorporated it in his wall. Near the angle of the wall -where it turns sharply to the south is a point at which the brickwork -leans in great masses considerably out of the perpendicular, whence the -name of Muro Torto. Procopius speaks of this as having been in the same -state long before his time, and calls it the broken wall. - -[Sidenote: Pons Ælius.] - -Passing along the bank of the Tiber by the Via Ripetta from the Porta del -Popolo we come to the bridge of S. Angelo (Pons Ælius) which crosses the -river close to the Castle of S. Angelo, anciently the Mausoleum of -Hadrian. This bridge was built by the Emperor Hadrian at the same time -with his Mausoleum. The anonymous writer of the Einsiedlen MS. gives an -inscription which in his time remained upon the bridge assigning its -erection to the nineteenth tribuneship and third consulship of Hadrian, -which indicates the year A.D. 135, and in confirmation of this Nardini -gives a medal of Hadrian which dates from his third consulship, and has on -the obverse a representation of this bridge. The name Pons Ælius, given to -it by Dion Cassius in his account of Hadrian's funeral, was probably -derived either from Hadrian's prænomen Ælius, or from the name of his son -Ælius Cæsar whose burial was the first which took place in the Mausoleum. -The piers of the bridge are ancient, but the upper parts have been -rebuilt. - -[Sidenote: Mausoleum of Hadrian.] - -The Mausoleum of Hadrian owes its preservation entirely to the peculiar -fitness of the site and shape for the purpose of a fortress which it has -served since the time of Belisarius. Had it not been thus made serviceable -to the turbulent spirit of the mediæval Romans, the same hands which -stripped the great pile of its marble facing, and, after hurling the -statues with which it was adorned into the moat, allowed them to lie there -in oblivion, would have torn asunder and carried away the whole mass to -furnish materials for the palaces and stables of their ferocious and -ignorant nobles. The original form of this colossal mausoleum is now -greatly changed by the modern buildings which have been piled upon it, by -the addition of the corbels round its upper part, and by the loss of the -exterior facing of marble, so that the ancient appearance can be only -conjecturally restored. The remaining ancient part consists of a square -basement of concrete and travertine blocks, the sides of which measured -ninety-five yards surmounted by an enormous cylindrical structure of -travertine seventy yards in diameter and seventy-five feet high. Procopius -tells us that this was cased in Parian marble, and that upon the summit -stood a number of splendid marble statues of men and horses.[104] There -are several other tombs in Italy constructed upon the same plan with a -cylindrical tower placed upon a square base. Two of these are upon the -Appian road about three miles from Rome, the celebrated Tomb of Cæcilia -Metella, and that of the Servilii, and belong to the Republican Era. Two -others are of the Augustan Age, the tomb of the Plautii at Ponte Lucano, -near Tivoli, and the beautiful monument of Munatius Plancus, near Gaeta. -Hadrian's design was not therefore by any means a new one, as we might -have expected in the case of an emperor who was himself an architect, and -proud of his artistic designs. - -It is plain from the history of Procopius that the statues of men and -horses which he describes were upon the top of the building. For the -defenders of the mausoleum against the army of Vitiges being hard pressed -by the approach of the Goths under shelter of a testudo, in their despair -seized these statues and hurled them upon the heads of their assailants, -thus breaking down the testudines and repelling the attack. Of the exact -order in which they were arranged we have no evidence. Tradition asserts -that the twenty-four Corinthian columns destroyed by fire in the Basilica -of St. Paul in 1823 formerly belonged to the Mausoleum of Hadrian, and -that they were removed by Honorius.[105] A comparison of this tradition -with a passage of Herodian, in which he says that the ashes of Septimius -Severus were buried in the temple where rest the bones of the Antonini, -has led to the conjecture that the columns formed the colonnade of a round -temple on the top of the mausoleum in which temple Hadrian's colossal -statue stood, and that the bronze fir-cone found here, which is now in the -Vatican garden, ornamented the summit. Round this temple, and upon the -level top of the cylindrical tower, may have been arranged the various -statues of which Procopius speaks. - -The colossal head of Hadrian's statue found here is still to be seen in -the Museo Pio Clementino, the bronze gilt peacocks in the Giardino della -Pigna. The famous Barberini Faun, now at Munich, and the dancing Faun at -Florence, were amongst the ornaments of the upper part of the tomb. -Another conjecture as to the shape of the upper part of the building is -that it was surmounted by a smaller cylindrical tower, with a roof in the -shape of a truncated cone, upon the top of which stood the colossal statue -of Hadrian. There is not sufficient evidence to give any degree of -certainty to either of these conjectural restorations. - -The interior of the building, according to the latest discoveries, -consists of a large central rectangular chamber (thirty-six by thirty feet -wide and fifty-four feet high), approached by an ascending spiral -corridor, leading from a lower chamber which communicated immediately with -the principal entrance. The entrance was a high arch in the cylindrical -tower immediately opposite the bridge; it is now walled up and the lower -chamber into which it leads can only be approached from above. - -In the central chamber there are four niches in which formerly stood the -urns and tombstones of the illustrious persons buried here. A large -sarcophagus of porphyry found here was used for the tomb of Pope Innocent -II. in the Lateran, and the lid may still be seen in the Baptisterium of -St. Peter's, where it is used as a font. The chamber was lighted and -ventilated by square passages cut through the stone in a slanting -direction, and the rain water was carried off by other channels, which -conveyed it into drains at the foot of the building. It does not appear to -be certainly known whether other chambers may not exist in the interior -which have not been yet discovered. Piranesi gives a number of additional -chambers besides the two above mentioned, but his representation is -probably conjectural. - -After the burial of Nerva no more room was left in the Mausoleum of -Augustus for the interment of the imperial ashes. Trajan's remains were -deposited under his column in the forum bearing his name, but Hadrian -gladly seized the opportunity of adding another to the many colossal -structures he had already reared. The mausoleum was begun at the same time -with the Ælian bridge in the year A.D. 135. The bricks of which part of -the building consists have stamps of various years of Hadrian's reign, and -show that the greater part of the building was erected by him, though -Antoninus Pius probably completed it. Hadrian's son Ælius, who died before -his father, was the first Cæsar whose ashes were placed in this tomb. -After him, Hadrian himself was buried here, and then the Emperor Antoninus -Pius, and his wife the elder Faustina, three of their sons, Fulvius -Antoninus, M. Galerius Aurelius Antoninus, and L. Aurelius Verus, the -colleague of M. Aurelius in the empire, and a daughter Aurelia Fadilla. - -No record has been preserved of the burial of M. Aurelius, but it seems -probable that his ashes were deposited here, as the Mausoleum of Hadrian -continued to be the tomb of the Antonines till the time of Severus, who -built a third imperial monument, the Septizonium, on the Appian Road.[106] -Four children of M. Aurelius were buried here, who died during their -father's life, named Aurelius Antoninus, T. Ælius Aurelius, and Domitia -Faustina, and also his miserable son and successor the Emperor Commodus. -The inscriptions recording all these burials, were copied by the anonymous -writer of Einsiedlen in the ninth century, when they were apparently still -legible upon the south wall of the square basement. The inscriptions -recording the names Hadrian and M. Aurelius may have been placed upon the -upper part of the tomb, like those on the Plautian Tomb and the Tomb of -Cæcilia Metella, and may therefore either have escaped the notice of the -above-mentioned anonymous traveller, or have been stripped off with the -marble casing of the exterior. - -After the burial of M. Aurelius the tomb was closed until the sack of Rome -by Alaric in A.D. 410, when this barbarian's soldiers probably broke it -open in search of treasure, and scattered the ashes of the Antonines to -the winds. From this time for a hundred years the tomb was turned into a -fortress, the possession of which became the object of many struggles in -the wars of the Goths under Vitiges A.D. 537 and Totilas who was killed -A.D. 552. From the end of the sixth century, when Gregory the Great saw on -its summit a vision of St. Michael sheathing his sword in token that the -prayers of the Romans for preservation from the plague were heard, the -Mausoleum of Hadrian was considered as a consecrated building under the -name of S. Angelus inter nubes, usque ad cælos, or inter cælos, until it -was seized in A.D. 923 by Alberic, Count of Tusculum and the infamous -Marozia, and again became the scene of the fierce struggles of those -miserable ages between popes, emperors, and reckless adventurers.[107] The -last injuries appear to have been inflicted upon the building in the -contest between the French Pope Clemens VII. and the Italian Pope Urban -VIII. The exterior was then finally dismantled and stripped. Partial -additions and restorations soon began to take place. Boniface IX., in the -beginning of the fifteenth century, erected new battlements and -fortifications on and around it, and since his time it has remained in the -possession of the Papal Government. The strange medley of Papal reception -rooms, dungeons, and military magazines which now encumbers the top was -chiefly built by Paul III. The corridor connecting it with the Vatican -dates from the time of Alexander Borgia (A.D. 1494), and the bronze statue -of St. Michael on the summit, which replaced an older marble statue, from -the reign of Benedict XIV.[108] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE QUIRINAL HILL--BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN--AGGER OF SERVIUS--CASTRA PRÆTORIA. - - -[Sidenote: Baths of Diocletian.] - -The broad flat space to the N.E. of the Quirinal Hill, was occupied by the -Thermæ of Diocletian, now converted into the great Church of S. Maria -degli Angeli. This enormous group of buildings was the most extensive of -all the gigantic edifices of the empire, and the ground plan is not -difficult to trace by the aid of the existing ruins. Some idea of their -dimensions will be given by remarking that the grand court enclosed a -space once occupied by the church, monastery, and spacious garden of the -Monks of S. Bernard, the great church and monastery of the Carthusians, -two very large piazzas the large granaries of the Papal Government, part -of the grounds of the Villa Montalto Negroni, and some vineyards and -houses besides. The north-western side of this grand court is now only -marked by the remains of two semicircular tribunes in front of the railway -station. The rest of the foundations of this side are hidden under the -great cloister of the Carthusian monastery, and in the district beyond. -The principal entrance was on this side. The south-eastern side is now -occupied by the buildings of the railway station, at the back of which -were discovered the ruins of a large reservoir now destroyed (K), in the -shape of a right-angled triangle. The peculiar form of this building seems -to have been necessitated by the course of a public road of some -importance confining it on the south side, and it has been supposed, not -without reason, that this was the principal road leading out of the city -at the Porta Viminalis. The interior was filled with pillars like those -which still stand in the ancient reservoirs at Baiæ and Constantinople. - -[Illustration: The Quirinal Hill, as seen from the Palatine.] - -On the south-western side of the court there are considerable remains. In -the gardens of the monastery of S. Bernardo, part of the cavea of a -theatre (A) with a radius of about seventy yards, may be traced, not -unlike that in the Thermæ of Titus. The seats of this are gone, but -parts of the back wall with niches remain. On each side of this are traces -of rectangular chambers, and at the corners stand two round buildings, -one of which is nearly perfect, and has been converted into the Church of -S. Bernardo. The ancient domed roof with its octagonal panelled work is -still standing. Part of the other rotunda at the southern corner is also -left, and has been built into the end of the Via Strozzi. - -[Illustration: THERMÆ DIOCLETIANÆ. (PALLADIO.) _The red lines mark the -conjectural restorations._] - -The north-western side of the court ran parallel to the Via di Venti -Settembre from the Church of S. Bernardo. It contained, according to -Palladio's plan, two semicircular exedræ (LL) for philosophical -conversation or disputation, and some other rooms the purpose of which is -not known. The Ulpian libraries are said to have been transferred to these -baths from the Forum Trajani. In this spacious court stood a great pile of -buildings, the centre of which was occupied by a great hall (D), now the -church of S. Maria degli Angeli. The pavement of this was raised above the -ancient level of the ground by nearly eight feet, when Michael Angelo -undertook to convert the ancient building into a church, and thus the -bases of the columns remain buried, and new bases of stucco work have been -placed round them. This roof must therefore have been in ancient times -considerably more lofty than at present. The ancient roof was 120 feet -high, and roofed as now, with an intersecting vault in three compartments, -supported by the eight colossal ancient granite pillars. These columns of -Egyptian granite with their Corinthian and composite capitals form the -sole relic of the magnificence of the hall. In the modern church the -transept corresponds to the longer axis of the ancient hall, and the nave -to the shorter. Vanvitelli, who altered the arrangement of the church in -1749, threw out an apse for the choir on the north-east side, and made the -circular laconicum (C) of the old Thermæ serve as an entrance porch. - -Antiquarians are not agreed as to the purpose of this great central hall. -Scamozzi, in his edition of Palladio, calls it a xystus for athletic -exercises, but, following the analogy of the Thermæ of Caracalla, the -baths at Pompeii, and some of the other great thermæ, we should rather -suppose it to have been the tepidarium. This view is confirmed when we -notice that the laconicum or sudarium (C) is on one side, and the natatio -(F) for the cold baths on the other, between which the tepidarium was kept -at a mean temperature. - -The two wings of the central building were occupied by large peristylia, -with cold piscinæ in the centre of each (EE). Round these peristylia were -built various rooms for athletic exercises, called sphæristeria and -gymnasia. - -The style of brick building used in these Thermæ, recalls that of the -Basilica of Constantine, where we see the bricks irregularly and hastily -laid; and the whole of the architectural details which have been preserved -seem to point to the same period. Positive evidence of the date and the -builder is not however wanting. An inscription, which was still to be seen -two hundred years ago in the thermæ, and which has been partially -preserved to us, when compared with three others which were found in the -neighbourhood, shows that Maximianus gave orders for building these thermæ -when he was absent in Africa, during his Mauretanian campaigns, and -intended them to be dedicated to the honour of his brother Diocletian. The -dedication took place after the abdication of Diocletian and Maximianus, -when their successors Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus had -begun their reign, A.D. 305, but before the death of Constantius in 306. -The old chronologers place the date of the commencement of the buildings -in 302, which agrees very well with the date of the Mauretanian campaigns -of Maximian. - -Baronius accounts for the preservation of so large a part of these thermæ -by the statement that they were considered to be a monument of the -Diocletian persecution. There was a tradition, he says, that Diocletian, -after dismissing some thousands of his soldiers because they held the -Christian faith, compelled them to work as slaves in the erection of his -thermæ, and ordered them to be martyred when they had finished the -building. It has also been said that the bricks are in some cases marked -with a cross, but this is not well authenticated. - -[Illustration: THE SERVIAN WALLS.] - -At the end of the fifth century, the baths are mentioned by Sidonius -Apollinaris as still used, but at the time of the visit of the anonymous -writer of the Einsiedlen MS., probably about A.D. 850, they were -evidently in ruins. Among the ruins have been found, from time to time, a -number of busts of the Emperors Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and -Constantine, and also the well-known busts of philosophers now in the -Farnese collection at Naples. - -The great fountain now in front of the railway station is supplied by the -water brought along the course of the ancient Aqua Marcia. - -[Sidenote: The Servian Agger.] - -The Agger of Servius, which has now been so much levelled and destroyed, -ran between the Church of S. Maria degli Angeli and the present walls. -This enormous rampart has been described by Dionysius. He says that the -ditch outside was more than one hundred feet broad at the narrowest part -and thirty feet deep, and that a wall stood upon the edge of the ditch -supported by the agger, which was of such massive strength that it could -not be shaken down by battering rams or breached by undermining the -foundation. Dionysius gives the length of the agger as seven stadia, and -Strabo as six, which, taking the stadium at 202 yards, nearly corresponds -to 1400 yards. The breadth he states at fifty feet. That this ditch and -wall were the work of some of the later kings there can be no doubt, but -it cannot be determined what part each took in their erection. The final -completion of the whole undertaking is ascribed to Tarquinius Superbus, -who deepened the ditch, raised the wall, and added new towers. The -additions made by him can be distinguished in the portion brought to light -by the modern excavations in the railway cutting.[109] - -Excavations which have been made in this part of the agger from time to -time, and the extensions of the city in this direction have brought to -light an enormous wall buried in the earth, constructed of huge blocks of -peperino. This is probably the wall mentioned by Dionysius, which in his -time stood outside the rampart on the edge of the ditch. The remains of -buildings of the imperial times have been found placed upon and outside of -this wall, and it is probable that the whole ditch is now filled with such -remains, and most part of the wall buried in them. - -The central railway station stands close to this agger, and cuttings have -lately been made through it to make room for the station, by which new -portions of the wall have been disinterred. All these excavations have -proved the truth of Dionysius's description, the wall having been found on -the outer side of the original agger, which is easily distinguishable from -the rubbish in which it is buried by being composed of clean soil unmixed -with potsherds and brickbats. The wall probably ran from the southern end -of the agger along the back of the Esquiline and Cælian in the direction -of the modern Via Merulana and Via Ferratella. In this portion must be -placed the Porta Querquetulana and the Porta Cælimontana, but their exact -situation is unknown.[110] - -[Sidenote: The Prætorian Camp.] - -Near the Porta Pia, to the north-east of the church of S. Maria degli -Angeli, the square of the Castra Prætoria projects from the Avails. This -permanent camp was established under Tiberius by Sejanus; subsequently -Aurelian made use of the four outer walls of this camp as a part of his -fortification, and therefore Constantine, when he abolished the Prætorian -Guard, pulled down the side towards the city only. The porta decumana of -the camp is still to be seen though it is now walled up, and also the -porta principalis dextra, but the porta principalis sinistra has -disappeared or perhaps never existed. The camp was enclosed by a wall at -least as early as the time of Pertinax and Julian, for here occurred that -memorable and most melancholy scene in Roman history, when the Prætorian -guards shut themselves within their camp after the murder of the reforming -Emperor Pertinax and put up the throne to auction. Julian and Sulpicianus -were the bidders. The soldiers let down a ladder and allowed Julian to get -up upon the wall, says Herodian, for they would not open the gates before -they heard how much would be offered. Sulpicianus was not allowed to mount -the wall. They then bid one against the other, and at last they ran up the -price little by little to five thousand drachmas to each soldier. Julian -then impatiently outbid his rival by offering at once six thousand two -hundred and fifty, and the Empire was knocked down to him. This was not by -any means the first or only time that the fate of the Empire had been -decided here.[111] - -The chief power in the Roman state had lain within these walls of the -Prætorian camp since the time when Tiberius consented to allow their -designing colonel, Sejanus, to establish the Prætorian guards in permanent -quarters, and the readers of the historians of the Empire will recall the -many vivid pictures of their rapacity and violence. To go to the Prætorian -camp and promise a largess to the guards was the first duty of a Roman -emperor. - -The eastern side of the camp, which is probably the only one now retaining -its original form, measures 500 yards, and the southern 400 yards. The -latter seems to have been partly pulled down, and the northern side has -also been altered. Aurelian's Wall did not exactly meet the two angles of -the camp towards the city, but its course was here determined by the -houses and buildings in the vicinity which it was desirable to protect. -The walls of the camp were, according to Bunsen, at first only fourteen -feet high, but were raised by Aurelian and fortified with towers. Some -parts of the walls doubtless consist of the original brickwork of -Aurelian's time, as the masonry bears the marks of great age, and is of a -most regular and solid style. A few of the soldiers' quarters are still -left, consisting of rows of small low arched rooms similar to those on the -Palatine and at Hadrian's Villa near Tivoli.[112] - -[Sidenote: Porta Chiusa.] - -In the angle formed by the projecting wall of the Prætorian camp and the -Aurelian Wall, there is a gate now walled up and called simply by the name -of the Porta Chiusa. This gate is one of the mysteries of Roman -topography. It is not mentioned by Procopius or by the anonymous writer of -Einsiedlen, yet it seems too large and important to have been altogether -omitted. That a gate would be required here in Aurelian's Wall, at least -before Constantine's reign, while the camp was still occupied, seems -probable. No passage would be allowed to the public through the camp, and -besides the Porta Nomentana, another gate would be wanted for the -convenience of persons resorting to the camp from the country with -supplies of provisions, or on business of various kinds, or for the -shopkeepers who would naturally live within the walls near the camp. It -may have been closed when the camp was abolished by Constantine, and that -part of the city became comparatively empty, and it would thus in the time -of Procopius, or the anonymous writer of Einsiedlen, have been long -blocked up and forgotten or perhaps concealed by other buildings. This may -account for their silence. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE AVENTINE AND CÆLIAN HILLS. - - -[Sidenote: The Servian walls.] - -Before the end of the regal period there was an enlargement of the limits -of the city in which the Aventine and Cælian were comprehended. Dionysius, -Livy, and Aurelius Victor all relate that Tarquinius Priscus undertook the -building of a new stone wall for the defence of the whole of the new -quarters of the city, but that he did not live to finish it. The design -was carried out by Servius Tullius, who also constructed the enormous -agger called by his name, and still partly remaining at the back of the -Esquiline, Viminal and Quirinal Hills. Before this great work was -accomplished we must suppose that each suburb, as it grew out of the -original settlement, was defended by a new piece of fortification, but -these fortifications were, as Dionysius describes them, only temporary and -hastily erected for the nonce. The expressions of Livy and Aurelius would -lead us also to the conclusion that they were not of stone, but probably -were entrenchments of earth. Rome then became the capital of Latium; she -had lately united all her citizens, the Montani, the Collini, and the -other freeholders living within the districts of Servius by a complete -military organisation, and her powers were directed by a form of -government which has always proved best calculated for the production of -great public works. A new stone wall was accordingly planned on a vast -scale, and the drainage of the low-lying parts of the city was effected -about the same time by colossal sewers. The king having the whole control -of the finances of the state could appropriate large sums of money for -works of public utility, and could also doubtless command the labour of -immense gangs of workmen. The Servian walls and the Cloacæ of Rome are to -be looked upon as the parallels in the History of Rome to the pyramids of -Egypt, the walls of Babylon, and of Mycenæ and Tiryns. They point to a -time of concentrated power and unresisting obedience, when the will of one -man could direct the whole resources of the community to the -accomplishment of a comprehensive design. - -With the exception of a small portion which has been discovered in the -depression between the north-western and south-eastern parts of the -Aventine, another portion upon the Servian Agger, and a few remnants on -the Quirinal in the Barberini and Colonna Gardens,[113] no remnants of the -Servian walls are now to be seen, and we have to infer their probable -extent from the nature of the ground, the rough estimate given by -Dionysius of the space which they enclose, and the positions of the gates -as described by various ancient authors. It may be safely concluded that, -wherever it was possible, advantage would be taken of the sides of the -hills, and the wall would be made to run along their edges. Thus the -course of the wall on the outer side of the Capitoline, Quirinal, -Esquiline and north-eastern part of the Aventine can be ascertained with -tolerable certainty, and the agger serves as a guide along the back of the -Viminal and Quirinal. The principal difficulty lies in the portions -between the Capitoline and Aventine along the river bank, in the space to -the south of the Cælian, and at the Hill of S. Saba and S. Balbina, where -there is but little indication in the nature of the ground to guide us. - -In the time of Dionysius, who died about B.C. 10, the Servian Wall was -already so much covered with buildings of various kinds, that he speaks of -it as difficult to trace, and therefore, naturally enough, we find at the -present day that nearly the whole has disappeared under heaps of rubbish. -The portion brought to light in 1855 under the south-eastern slope of the -Aventine was accidentally discovered by digging in the vineyards not far -from the Porta S. Paolo, for the purpose of clearing the ground from -masses of brickwork. This portion, some of which has since been covered -with earth again, was 104 feet in length, 50 feet high, and 12 broad. The -breadth shows the great solidity and strength of the construction. The -original height was probably greater, as Mr. Braun remarks, and a parapet -was placed upon the top. Some parts of this ruin are covered with -reticulated work, and on others great masses of masonry have been placed -which belonged to dwelling-houses. Mr. J. H. Parker has since been able to -clear this fragment of wall, thus doing a very great service to Roman -Archæology. No monumental antiquities have been found in these excavations -earlier than the imperial times. A stamp bearing an inscription was -discovered near one of the more modern arches, and dates from the reign of -Trajan. - -At the time when these walls were built, the stone generally used for such -purposes was the hard tufa. The greater part of the Cloaca Maxima, and the -remnants of these Servian walls, are composed of this material. It is hewn -into long rectangular blocks, which are placed (in builders' phrase -alternately headers and stretchers) sometimes across and sometimes along -the line of the wall, in order to gain greater strength. No cement is -used, but the stones are carefully fitted together and regularly shaped. - -It must here be observed that the rectangular shape and horizontal -position of the blocks in this stonework by no means disprove its high -antiquity. It is true that the so-called Pelasgian walls are built in a -totally different style, for the stones in them are polygonal. But this -difference of shape in the stones arises from a difference in the -material. All the so-called Pelasgian walls in Italy are built of a stone -which naturally breaks into polygonal masses; but tufa stone is found in -the quarry in horizontal layers, and is most easily cut into a rectangular -shape. The inference sometimes drawn from horizontally laid masonry that -it indicates a more advanced state of art than polygonal cannot be relied -upon as certain. The arch in this ruin is of a later date and may have -been an embrasure for a catapult.[114] - -[Sidenote: Porta Capena.] - -The situation of no gate in the Servian Avails can be determined so -completely as that of the Porta Capena. We know that part of the Aqua -Marcia passed over it, whence it was called the dripping gate (Madida -Capena) by Martial and Juvenal. It was therefore in the valley below the -Cælian Hill, and we should, judging from the form of the ground, naturally -place it where the hill, on which S. Balbina stands, approaches the Cælian -most nearly. A striking confirmation of this conjecture has been -discovered. The first milestone on the Appian Road was found in 1584 in -the first vineyard beyond the present Porta S. Sebastiano--the Vigna -Naro--and, measuring back one mile from it, we come exactly to this spot. -This milestone is now placed on the steps leading up to the Capitoline -Museum. Milestones and horse-blocks were erected on all the great roads by -Caius Gracchus before the milliarium aureum was put up in the Forum by -Augustus, and it is probable that the distances were always measured from -the gates. Mr. Parker carried on excavations for some time to find the -exact position of the Porta Capena, and he discovered some of the piers of -the aqueduct which passed over the gate in the garden of the Convent of S. -Gregorio. These excavations have unfortunately been more or less filled up -again. - -[Sidenote: Monte Testaccio.] - -Near the Porta S. Paolo, between the Aventine and the river, stands the -hill called Monte Testaccio from its being composed almost entirely of -potsherds mixed with rubbish. The hill is 150 feet high, and one-third of -a mile in circumference. Many conjectures have been hazarded about its -origin, which still, however, remains a mystery. - -The hypothesis which has gained most credit rests upon a passage in -Tacitus, in which that historian, after giving an account of the Neronian -fire, proceeds to say that Nero intended to have the rubbish carried to -the Ostian marshes, and, therefore, gave orders that the corn-ships, after -discharging their freight at the Emporium, should take a load of rubbish -on their return to Ostia. This explanation appears satisfactory until the -peculiar composition of the hill is examined. Nearly the whole mass -consists of pieces of broken earthenware, and is not such as we should -expect the rubbish left after a fire to be. The absence of bricks may -perhaps be explained by the supposition that they were saved in order to -be used a second time; but the immense quantity of potsherds still -remains to be accounted for. Further, it is said that a coin of Gallienus -has been found in such a position on the smaller portion of the hill as to -leave no doubt that the accumulation of that part could not have been -anterior to Gallienus. A medal of Constantine has also been found in the -interior of the larger portion. Bunsen's explanation that the hill is -composed of the rubbish cleared away by Honorius when he restored the -walls of Aurelian, and other ingenious hypotheses of the same kind, do not -sufficiently account for the peculiar composition of the hill. - -M. Reifferscheid, in a paper communicated to the Roman Archæological -Institute, has propounded the most natural and proper solution of the -problem.[115] He observes that it is not necessary to go farther than the -magazines of the neighbouring Emporium for an explanation of this immense -mass of potsherds. Every kind of provisions brought to Rome in ancient -times was stored in earthenware jars, not only wine, but corn, oil, and -other articles of commerce. A fire, therefore, which consumed any part of -the Emporium would leave rubbish composed in great part of fragments of -earthen jars (dolia); and, since many such fires must have taken place in -the course of ages, and immense quantities of earthen jars must have been -broken in the process of unloading, it does not seem at all impossible -that so large an accumulation of matter should have taken place. At -Alexandria and at Cairo similar heaps of potsherds are to be seen outside -the walls, and their extent, though less, as might be expected, than that -at Rome, is such as to create astonishment in the traveller's mind when he -sees them for the first time. An attempt has been made by M. Reifferscheid -to determine the earliest date at which we can suppose this gradual -deposition of potsherds to have taken place, but the data upon which he -builds his conclusion, that the accumulation forming the Monte Testaccio -first began to be deposited in the time of the decay of the Empire, about -the third century, are not by any means such as to produce conviction. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Cestius.] - -Near the Monte Testaccio, and close to the Porta S. Paolo, stands a -pyramidal monument, measuring about 97 feet on each side, and 120 feet in -height. It is placed upon a square basement of travertine, and the rest of -the building is of rubble, with a casing of white marble. It is built into -the Aurelian Wall, no pains having been taken to avoid the injury which -this might cause to the building. It has, however, suffered but little -from this except in appearance. The ancient entrance, which was probably -on the north-east side, has been walled up. No trace is now to be seen of -it, and the present entrance on the north-west was made in 1663. The -interior consists of a small plastered chamber 16 feet long by 13, and 12 -feet high, the corners of which are ornamented with paintings of winged -genii. No coffin or sarcophagus was found when the tomb was opened, but -the inscription on the outside gives the name of C. Cestius, the son of L. -Cestius, of the Publilian tribe, as the person who was buried in it. It -further appears that this C. Cestius had been Prætor and Tribune of the -commons, and one of the seven epulones who superintended the sacrificial -banquets to the gods. The date of his burial has been discovered by means -of two marble pedestals containing inscriptions which were found near the -pyramid. On one of these the foot of a colossal bronze statue is still -fixed. They show that C. Cestius's death took place in the time of M. -Agrippa, and, therefore, of the Emperor Augustus, and that the statues -were erected from the proceeds of the sale of some costly robes of cloth -of gold (attalica), which Cestius had by his will ordered to be buried -with him. Such burial being forbidden by law, the robes were sold and the -statues erected from the proceeds by order of his heirs. They probably -stood at the corners of the pyramid. Two fluted Doric pillars, the -fragments of which were found near the spot, have now been placed at these -corners. Cestius may possibly have been the same person who is mentioned -by Cicero as a Roman knight. - -[Sidenote: Baths of Caracalla.] - -To the south-east of the hills of S. Saba and S. Balbina, between the -Aurelian walls and the Via Appia, lie the most colossal ruins in Rome, -covering a space each side of which measures more than a thousand feet. It -is certain, from the arrangement of these buildings, that they were -destined for public baths; and as tradition and the catalogue of the -twelfth region both assign the name of the Thermæ Antoninianæ to them, and -the style of the masonry is that of the Antonine era, we may feel -satisfied that they belonged to the baths mentioned by Cassiodorus and -Hieronymus as already partially built by Caracalla in the year A.D. 216, -and finished by Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus.[116] - -[Illustration: THE BATHS OF CARACALLA] - -This enormous mass of building consisted of a central oblong block, -containing all the halls and chambers appropriated more immediately to the -baths, and a surrounding court, the sides of which were formed by gymnasia -and other places of amusement, and the area of which was laid out in -gardens, with shrubberies, ornamental colonnades, and fountains. A similar -arrangement is found in the Thermæ of Titus and Diocletian. - -The central block of buildings contained four immense halls and a rotunda, -around which numerous smaller rooms were grouped. The first of these large -halls (a) was entered from the north-eastern side by two wide doorways. -Rows of niches for sculpture broke the broad inner surfaces of its walls, -and it communicated with the chambers on each side by open passages filled -with columns of splendid marble and granite. The floor formed an immense -basin shaped hollow, showing that the purpose for which it was used was -that of a cold swimming-bath. The steps by which the bathers descended -into it have been found at the two shorter sides, and on both sides are -chambers for dressing and undressing. - -In the centre of the group of buildings is another hall (b) of nearly the -same dimensions as the cold bath, with large recesses at both ends. The -floor of this was paved with the richest marbles. The four lateral -circular recesses formed hot baths, and were fitted with steps and seats -of various kinds for bathers. In the recesses at the ends stood two -enormous porphyry basins, one of which is now preserved in the Museum at -Naples. This hall was probably the tepidarium and had a very lofty roof -supported by eight granite pillars of colossal size, and by a network of -brazen or copper rods. One of the pillars was given to Duke Cosmo I. by -Pius IV., and stands in the Piazza di Trinità in Florence. The smaller -chambers (c) (d) (e), at the western and southern angles of the -tepidarium, contained the apparatus for heating water. - -These chambers, the purpose of which is unknown, separate the tepidarium -from the rotunda (f). The position of this latter and its shape would seem -to indicate that it was a laconicum or hot-air room, but the state of the -ruins is at present such as to preclude any positive assertion as to its -purpose. - -On each side of the above-mentioned three chambers is a similar range of -halls. The south-eastern wing (g), being the most perfect, serves as the -better guide to the arrangement of this part of the building. We pass -through two chambers (h) (i) containing fine mosaic pavement, and then -reach a large long hall (g), which apparently consisted of three aisles -and two semicircular tribunes, divided from each other by rows of columns, -somewhat in the manner of a basilica. A considerable portion of the -mosaics on the floor of this hall have been laid bare and may be seen -amongst the ruins of the roof and upper part. In the larger tribune was -discovered the great mosaic pavement of the Athletes, now preserved in the -Lateran Museum, whence it has been inferred that this side hall as well as -the corresponding one on the north-west side were used as gymnasia or ball -courts (sphæristeria), with galleries for spectators. The purpose of the -rooms situated on each side of the rotunda is not known, but it has been -conjectured that they were additional tepidaria, since even the -magnificent central tepidarium is hardly large enough to furnish the -accommodation spoken of by Olympiodorus, who stated that there were 1600 -marble seats for bathers in the Antonine Baths.[117] - -There were numerous chambers in the upper stories in and about these large -halls, to which the staircases led, one of which has been restored. These -were perhaps used as libraries, picture galleries, and museums of -curiosities. - -The whole north-eastern side of the court which surrounded these central -halls consists of ranges of rooms built of brick and opening outwards. -Many of these are still standing, and the traces of an upper story are to -be seen over some of them (j, j). Different opinions have been held as to -their use. Some writers think that they were offices and rooms for the -slaves belonging to the establishment, others that they were separate -baths for women. The principal entrance to the enclosure was in the centre -of this side of the court. - -On the north-western side of the court the remains can be traced of a -large shallow tribune in the shape of a segment of a circle and surrounded -by a vaulted corridor or cloister (k). Within this were three large -apartments, probably used as lecture and conversation rooms. The rest of -this side has entirely disappeared, as has also the opposite south-eastern -side with the exception of one of the large apartments. These two sides of -the court probably correspond in the same way as the wings of the central -building. - -The fourth side of the court was occupied by an immense reservoir of water -divided into numerous compartments (l), in front of which was the cavea of -a stadium (m), and on each side two large halls, possibly used as -dressing-rooms and gymnasia (n, n). - -The reservoir was supplied with water by a branch aqueduct from the Aqua -Marcia. - -The numerous magnificent works of art, sculptures, bronzes, lamps, cameos, -and coins, which have from time to time been discovered in these ruins, -are now dispersed through the museums of Italy. Some of the larger -sculptures, including the Hercules of Glykon and the group called the Toro -Farnese are in the Naples Museum, and two large porphyry fountain-basins -are in the Piazza Farnese at Rome. - -Some excavations have been lately made in the Vigna Guidi, a vineyard on -the south-east side of the Court of these Thermæ. The ruins of a large -house have been found which had been demolished and covered with earth, to -make room for the Thermæ. Nothing is known of the history of this house, -but various conjectures have been hazarded, taken from the catalogues of -the Regionaries. - -The vast Necropolis of Rome stretched along both sides of the Appian Road -from the Porta Capena nearly as far as the Alban Hills. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of the Cornelian Scipios.] - -Conspicuous among these burial-places is the tomb which remained in -possession of the great family of the Cornelian Scipios for nearly four -centuries.[118] The entrance to this is near the gate of one of the -vineyards, on the north-east side of the Appian Road, about two hundred -and fifty yards from the Porta S. Sebastiano. The tomb itself consists of -a number of passages roughly hewn in the tufa stone, as the catacombs are, -without any apparent plan of arrangement. Unfortunately, the original -state of the catacomb has been so altered by the substructions which have -been found necessary to support the roof that it can hardly be recognised -at the present day, and the sarcophagi and inscriptions have been removed, -and placed for greater security in the Vatican Museum. Those now seen in -situ are modern copies. Anciently there were two entrances, one from the -Via Appia, and the other from the road which here unites the Via Appia and -Via Latina. The present entrance has been cut for the convenience of -access from the Appian Road. - -[Sidenote: Columbaria.] - -The catacomb of the Scipios differs from most of the other burial places -which surround it, on account of the retention by the gens Cornelia of the -old Latin custom of burying in coffins, instead of burning the corpse of -the deceased. Most of the burying places on the Monte d'Oro are arranged -in the manner called a columbarium by the Romans, from the resemblance of -the niches in it to the holes in a pigeon-house.[119] Four of these -columbaria have been excavated in the Vigna Codini, near the Porta S. -Sebastiano, and are now to be seen in almost perfect preservation. They -consist of a square pit roofed over, and entered by a staircase. The roof -is supported by a massive square central column, and the whole of the -sides of the pit and of the central column are pierced with semicircular -niches, containing earthenware jars filled with ashes. In one of the -columbaria in the Vigna Codini there is room for 900 jars. Most of the -names which are inscribed above each niche upon a marble tablet are those -of imperial freedmen, or servants of great families or public officers, -and other persons of the middle class of life, and are therefore of -little historical interest. The ashes of some few of a somewhat higher -grade, are placed in small marble sarcophagi or urns, but no persons of -distinguished rank appear to have been buried in this way. There are, -however, few places in Rome where the ordinary manners and customs of the -ancient Romans are more vividly placed before the eye than here, and the -very insignificance of some of the details exhibited is somewhat striking. -In one corner we find the ashes of a lady's maid attached to one of the -imperial princesses; in another, those of the royal barber; and in -another, a favourite lapdog has been admitted to take his place among his -mistress's other faithful servants. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Drusus.] - -Not far from these columbaria, and close to the Porta S. Sebastiano, the -Via Appia is spanned by a half ruinous archway, of which little but the -core remains, the marble casing having long been torn off. It was probably -originally ornamented with eight columns, two only of which now remain -standing on the side next the modern gateway. These have shafts of -Numidian marble (giallo antico), and composite capitals with Corinthian -bases. - -Upon the top of this arch is a brick ruin apparently belonging to the -Middle Ages, as the style of building is similar to that called opera -saracenica by the Italians. It was probably a part of a fortified tower, -placed upon the arch, resembling that which formerly surmounted the Arch -of Titus. - -On each side of the arch are some remains of the branch aqueduct, which -brought water from the Aqua Marcia to the Baths of Caracalla, and it is -natural to conclude that this arch carried the aqueduct over the Via -Appia, and was built by Caracalla for that purpose. The costly nature of -the materials used has, however, induced most topographers to reject this -explanation, and to assume that the arch is one of the three mentioned by -the Notitia in the first region, as built in honour respectively of -Drusus, Trajan, and Verus. The composite capitals seem to point to the -earliest date of these three, and as the building bears a resemblance to a -representation of the Arch of Drusus, which has been discovered upon a -coin,[120] the arch has been thought identical with that erected to -Drusus, the father of Claudius, mentioned by Suetonius. - -[Sidenote: Sessorium and Amphitheatrum Castrense.] - -Two ruins standing near the Basilica of S. Croce in Gerusalemme may be -reckoned as belonging to the district of the Cælian Hill They are called -by the topographers the Sessorium and the Amphitheatrum Castrense. The -first of these consists of a ruin built of brick, containing a large -semicircular apse with round-headed windows, from which two walls project. -No excavations having been made in order to ascertain the further extent -of the buildings, any opinion formed as to their purpose must necessarily -be highly uncertain. The most probable conjecture which has been made is -that they are the ruins of a tribunal called the Sessorium. Such a court -of justice is mentioned by the Scholiast on Horace as situated on the -Esquiline near the place where criminals and paupers were buried. Further -notices of the same name as applied to an edifice in the neighbourhood of -the Basilica of S. Croce are to be found in Anastasius's Life of S. -Silvester, and in a fragmentary history of certain passages in the Life of -Theodoric, printed at the end of the work of Ammianus Marcellinus. -Theodoric is there said to have ordered a criminal to be beheaded in -palatio quod appellatur Sessorium, using the same phrase which Anastasius -also employs. - -The authors of the Beschreibung Roms supposed that this ruin was the -Nymphæum Alexandri of the Notitia, but this has been disproved by Becker, -who shows that the Nymphæum was near the Villa Altieri. - -The opinion that it was the Temple of Spes Vetus, which Frontinus places -near the commencement of the branch aqueduct of Nero, is more likely to be -correct, but the shape of the building, so far as it is at present known, -does not agree with such a supposition. The ruins are commonly known by -the name of the Temple of Venus and Cupid, a name which was given to them -from the discovery of a statue near them representing a female figure. But -it is a fatal objection to this that the name of the Roman matron -(Sallustia) whose statue was supposed to be that of Venus, has been -discovered to be engraved upon the pedestal. The statue may be seen in -the Museo Pio Clementino. - -[Sidenote: Amphitheatrum Castrense.] - -On the other side of the Basilica, and forming a part of the Aurelian -wall, is a portion of an amphitheatre. The interior, now used as a garden, -may be seen by entering the door on the right hand of the basilica. The -larger axis of the amphitheatre was apparently about one hundred and ten -yards, and the shorter eighty-five or thereabouts. It is entirely -constructed of brick, even to the Corinthian capitals which ornament the -exterior, and the workmanship shows it to belong to the best age of Roman -architectural art. The second tier of arches has almost entirely -disappeared, and of the lowest tier only those are left which are built -into the city wall. But to suppose, as Becker does, that it was not an -amphitheatre, but the vivarium, where the wild beasts used in the games -were kept, seems out of the question. The only difficulty is to determine -what the special history and purpose of the building, manifestly an -amphitheatre, placed so far from the populous parts of the city, was. The -Notitia here comes to our aid, for it records the existence of an -amphitheatrum castrense in the fifth region; and there can be little doubt -that we have here the remains of the amphitheatre built for the -entertainment of the prætorian troops quartered in a fortified camp beyond -the Porta S. Lorenzo. Aurelian made use of the outer side of the building -as a part of his walls, and it is most probable that when Constantine -pulled down the inner portion of the prætorian camp, he also destroyed the -greater part of this amphitheatre. - -[Sidenote: House of the Laterani.] - -In consequence of the sinking of part of the wall which supports the apse -of the Basilica of St. John Lateran, excavations became necessary in the -year 1876 which disclosed the foundations of some ancient buildings -between the baptistery and the Via della Ferratella, and of some others -under the apse itself. These were carefully examined, and it became -evident that they belonged to the extended ruins of a large villa, -probably that called the House of the Laterani, which was occupied and -enlarged by the emperors of the second and third centuries, and finally -given by Constantine to the Bishop of Rome. The House of Verus, also -mentioned by Julius Capitolinus, was probably on this site. - -[Sidenote: Claudian Aqueduct.] - -Not far from the Sessorium, and springing out of the angle of the wall -close to the Porta Maggiore, a series of lofty arches begins which extends -throughout the whole length of the Cælian Hill. This is a branch aqueduct -of the Aqua Claudia, built by Nero to supply the Cælian and Aventine Hills -at a higher level than the Aqua Marcia and Aqua Julia, on which they had -previously depended for their supply. It passed over the road leading from -the Porta Maggiore to the Basilica of S. Croce, and thence ran along the -higher ground through the vineyards of the Scala Santa, whence it skirted -the Via di S. Stefano, and, at the Arch of Dolabella, was divided into -three branches, one of which crossed the valley to the Palatine, the -second ran towards the edge of the hill over the Coliseum, and a third -towards the Porta Capena. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Dolabella.] - -The arch of Dolabella stands a little to the north-west of the Piazza -della Navicella, and spans the road leading down from thence into the -valley between the Cælian and Palatine, formerly called the Clivus Scauri. -The archway consists of a single arch of travertine, without any -ornamentation, but carrying an inscription to the effect that Publius -Cornelius Dolabella, when consul, and Caius Julius Silanus, when Flamen -Martialis, erected the arch by order of the Senate. The consulship of this -Dolabella falls in the reign of Augustus A.D. 10, and therefore the arch -can originally have had no connection with the Neronian aqueduct. It is -possible, however, as Becker and Reber suggest, that the arch may have -been originally built to carry the Aqua Marcia and Julia, which, as we -know from Frontinus, supplied the Cælian before the building of the -Neronian branch of the Aqua Claudia.[121] On one side the Arch of -Dolabella is still completely hidden by the brickwork of the Neronian -arches, and the other side was probably covered in a similar manner until -after 1670, as we find no mention of this arch in Donatus, who could not -have omitted to notice it in his description of the Neronian aqueduct had -it been visible in his time. - -[Sidenote: Navicella.] - -The marble representation of a ship, which stands now in the Piazza -della Navicella and gives its name to the place, was probably a votive -offering to Jupiter Redux, and there may be some connection between these -and the Castra Peregrinorum, as having perhaps been the place where the -troops employed on foreign service were quartered. An inscription seems to -allude to this connection between the Temple of Jupiter Redux and the -camp. - -[Illustration: Arch of Dolabella.] - -[Sidenote: Houses on the Cælian.] - -In the time of the empire many palaces of the richer classes stood upon -the Cælian. Among them we have distinct mention of the houses of Claudius -Centumalus, which was visible from the Arx, of Mamurra, and of Annius -Verus, in which Marcus Aurelius was born. Tetricus also, the unsuccessful -rival of Aurelian, built a magnificent residence on the Cælian, in which, -on his readmission to the emperor's favour, he entertained Aurelian. - -[Sidenote: Palace of Commodus.] - -It seems probable, as Bunsen has conjectured, that the Vectilian Palace in -which Commodus lived, occupied the part of the Cælian next to the -Coliseum. The ruins there consist of arches of travertine, forming a -rectangular space upon the northern end of the hill. They are massively -constructed, so as to bear a great superincumbent weight, and would be in -every way suitable for the terraces of a large imperial villa such as -Commodus may have built, when, as Lampridius tells us, he removed from the -Palatine, where he found himself unable to sleep, to the house of -Vectilius on the Cælian. He was afterwards murdered there. The position -may have pleased him from its immediate vicinity to the Coliseum, where he -was so fond of superintending the exhibitions, and displaying his own -skill in killing wild animals. The story that he had an underground -passage made from his villa to the Coliseum is also a strong confirmation -of the conjecture of Bunsen, and some additional probability is given to -it by the course of the branch aqueduct which leads from the Arch of -Dolabella in the direction of this garden, and would certainly be required -to supply the luxuries of a large Roman palace. - - - - -APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VIII. - -MONUMENTAL ANTIQUITIES IN THE MUSEUMS, PIAZZAS AND OTHER PLACES. - - -Besides the ruins which are still standing in Rome and the Campagna, many -historical monuments may be seen in the Roman museums, and in some of the -gardens and piazzas. The principal among these are as follows: - -[Sidenote: Egyptian antiquities.] - -1. Numerous Egyptian antiquities were found near the Churches of S. Maria -sopra Minerva and that of S. Stefano in Cacco, on the site of the ancient -Temples of Isis and Serapis. Of these the most remarkable are the two -obelisks, one of which now stands in front of the Pantheon, and the other -in the Piazza della Minerva. The statue of Isis, now in the Hall of the -Dying Gladiator at the Capitoline Museum, the Egyptian lions on the steps -of the Capitol, and the famous statue of the Nile now in the Braccio Nuovo -of the Vatican, were also found here. - -[Sidenote: Bas-reliefs from Arch of M. Aurelius.] - -2. At the corner where the Strada della Vite crosses the Corso is a tablet -recording the improvements made by Alexander VII. in the Corso at that -point, whence he removed the ruins of an ancient triumphal arch which -impeded the thoroughfare. A view of this is given by Donati, who calls it -the Arcus Domitiani. But Nardini and all topographers since his time are -agreed that the arch which stood here till 1662, must have been erected at -a later time in honour of M. Aurelius. When it was pulled down, for public -convenience as the inscription tells us, there were still four columns of -verde antico standing, two of which are now used to adorn the principal -altar in the Church of S. Agnese in Piazza Navona, and two are in the -Corsini Chapel of the Lateran Basilica. The keystone of the arch is -preserved in the Collegio della Sapienza; on each side of the arch there -were two reliefs, now placed in the Capitoline Palace of the Conservators -on the landing places at the top of the stairs. One of these represents M. -Aurelius standing on a suggestus to deliver an harangue, and the other the -apotheosis of the younger Faustina, his wife, who is being carried up to -heaven by a genius, while the emperor is seated below, and at his feet the -genius of Halala, a town at the foot of Mount Taurus where Faustina died. - -These two reliefs were removed into the Palace of the Conservators in -order that they might be placed near four other reliefs, which had been -found in the sixteenth century in the Church of S. Martina on the Capitol. -A fifth, also found in the same church, is now in the Palazzo Torlonia in -the Piazza di Venezia. The earlier history of the removal of these last -five reliefs is not known, but it seems certain, from their style and -subjects, that they belonged to the Arch of M. Aurelius. The four which -are now in the Conservators' Palace represent Marcus Aurelius on horseback -with his army, a group of barbarians kneeling before him, the goddess -Roma, receiving the emperor who comes on foot to the gates, and presenting -him with the globe, the symbol of empire, the triumphal procession of M. -Aurelius in a quadriga crowned by Victory, and his thanksgiving sacrifice -on the Capitol. The fifth relief, which is now in the Palazzo Torlonia, -represents either M. Aurelius, or his brother Lucius Verus in conference -with some barbarians who kneel as suppliants before him. Even supposing -that the last mentioned five reliefs do not belong to this arch, yet the -two first which are known to have stood upon it are quite sufficient to -prove that it was the arch of M. Aurelius. The similarity between the -representation of the apotheosis of the younger Faustina and that of -Antoninus Pius and the elder Faustina is too evident to be overlooked and -the whole style of sculpture and architecture points to the Antonine Age. - -3. With the bas-reliefs from the Arch of M. Aurelius must be compared that -on the pedestal of the column of Antoninus Pius now placed in the Giardino -della Pigna at the Vatican. On one side of this is an inscription -recording its dedication to Antoninus Pius, and on the other sides are -reliefs, the principal of which represents the apotheosis of Antoninus and -Faustina, while the others represent groups of cavalry and infantry.[122] -One fragment of the column now placed upon the pedestal has a Greek -inscription upon it showing that the stone of which the column was formed -was originally cut in the ninth year of Trajan, and after lying for a long -time in the imperial stoneyard was subsequently used for this column. In -the same place, the Giardino della Pigna, is to be seen the gigantic -bronze fir-cone which may have formed the summit of Hadrian's Mausoleum, -now the Castle of S. Angelo, and also the bronze peacocks which ornamented -the same building.[123] The colossal head of Hadrian from his mausoleum is -now in the Museo Pio Clementino. - -4. The inscription cut upon the pedestal of the urn of Agrippina, the -mother of Caligula, may still be seen in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei -Conservatori on the Capitol, and also the cippi recording the burials of -some of the imperial family. The pedestal was hollowed out and used as a -measure for corn in the Middle Ages, and hence it was called Rugitella di -grano. - -Other colossal fragments are also kept in this courtyard, and on the -staircase are the fragments of the inscription on the Duilian column found -near the arch of Septimius Severus, and a bas-relief of Curtius leaping -into the gulf, found in the Forum Romanum near the Church of S. Maria -Liberatrice. The bas-reliefs mentioned above, No. 2, are also there. - -[Illustration: Pedestal of Antonine Column.] - -5. The fragments of the ancient register of Consuls from A.U.C. 272 to the -end of Augustus' reign, which were found in the Forum Romanum, near the -Temple of Castor, are arranged on the wall of the fourth room in the Halls -of the Conservators on the Capitol. These are printed and discussed in the -Berlin 'Corpus Inscriptionum,' Vol. I. - -[Illustration: Cone from the top of Hadrian's Mausoleum.] - -6. The famous bronze figure of the wolf and twins is placed in the gallery -of bronzes on the Capitol. It was found, according to Flaminius Vacca, who -wrote in 1594, near the Arch of Janus Quadrifrons. Urlichs, who has -discussed the probable history of this figure in the Rheinisches Museum, -thinks that it is the figure dedicated by the Ogulnii, Ædiles in B.C. 297, -and mentioned in the tenth book of Livy. - -7. A stupendous sarcophagus brought from Vico Varo, with a bas-relief -representing the Calydonian boar hunt, stands in the Museum of the -Capitol, and in the next room is the sepulchral monument found at the -Porta Salaria in 1871, recording the young Greek scholar who won the prize -at the Agon Capitolinus in A.D. 86. Another most interesting sarcophagus, -which was found at the Monte del Grano on the road to Frascati, and -contained the vase called the Portland Vase now in the British Museum, -stands in the Hall of the Urns in the Capitoline Museum. - -8. On the wall of the staircase in the Capitoline Museum are the fragments -of the celebrated marble plan of Rome cut in the time of Septimius -Severus, which shows the sites and ground plans of the Portico of Octavia, -the Theatre of Pompeius, the Basilica of Trajan, the Basilica Julia, and -the Theatre of Marcellus. - -9. The Dying Gladiator, or more properly the Dying Gaulish Herald, was -found in the gardens of Sallust, near the Porta Salaria. It now stands in -the room called the Hall of the Dying Gladiator at the Capitoline Museum. - -10. In the Hall of the Faun at the Capitoline Museum may be seen one of -the most beautiful ancient bas-reliefs in Rome, representing the battle of -Theseus, and the Amazons. This is on a sarcophagus which was found near -Torre Salona on the Via Collatina. - -11. In the Capitoline Museum, the Halls of Busts of the Emperors and of -Illustrious Men, the Venus of the Capitol, and the Doves of Pliny, are -monuments connected with several celebrated spots in Rome and the -Campagna. - -12. The places, however, at which most of the important antiquities have -been found are the Villa of Hadrian, near Tibur, and the ruins of Veii and -Ostia. The following is a list of the chief monuments which were found -there and are now placed in the Vatican Museum. - -A. From Hadrian's Villa. - - 1. Faun. No. 84. } - 2. A Vestal. No. 120. } - 3. A Niobid. No. 176. } Museo Chiaromonti. - 4. Clotho. No. 498. } - 5. Bacchic bas-reliefs. No. 642. } - 6. Hercules. No. 732. } - -7. Baths of granite and masses of alabaster in the 4th portico of the -Cortile di Belvedere. - -8. Mosaics on the wall in the Hall of the Animals and in the Cabinet of -the Masks. - -9. The Candelabra on each side of the Ariadne in the Gallery of Statues. - -10. Colossal bust of M. Aurelius in the Hall of the Busts. No. 288. - -11. Corinthian columns in the Hall of the Muses. - -12. Colossal Hermæ at the entrance of the Rotonda and bust of Faustina, -No. 541 in the Rotonda. - -13. Granite statues at the doorway of the Hall of the Greek Cross. - -14. Discobolus, No. 618 in the Hall of the Biga. - -15. Ephesian Diana, No. 81, and Female Statue No. 222, in the Gallery of -Candelabra. - -16. Egyptian figures in the Egyptian Museum. - -B. From Veii and the North-Western Campagna. - - 1. Statue of Tiberius. No. 400. } Museo Chiaromonti. - 2. Head of Augustus. No. 401. } - -3. Statue of Augustus from Prima Porta, in the Braccio Nuovo. - -C. From Ostia. - - 1. Antoninus. No. 6. } - 2. Winter. No. 13. } - 3. Bust of young Augustus. No. 416. } - 4. Bust of Julia. No. 418. } - 5. Juno. No. 534. } Museo Chiaromonti. - 6. Head of Neptune. No. 606a. } - 7. Boy and Swan. No. 651. } - 8. Sarcophagus of Nonius Asprenas. No. 685. } - 9. Æsculapius. No. 684. } - 10. Bust of Antoninus Pius. No. 700. } - - 11. Ganymede. No. 38. } - 12. Ceres. No. 83. } Braccio Nuovo. - 13. Bust of Commodus. No. 121. } - -The other principal ancient monuments now in the Vatican Museum besides -those from the Villa of Hadrian, from Ostia, and Veii, above-mentioned, -are:-- - -1. The statue of Demosthenes from the neighbourhood of Cicero's Tusculan -villa. No. 62. Braccio Nuovo. - -2. The Torso Belvedere found near the ruins of the Theatre of Pompeius. -No. 3, Museo Pio Clementino. - -3. The Laocoon found near the Baths of Titus. Cortile di Belvedere. No. -74. - -4. The great porphyry basin found at the Baths of Diocletian. Rotonda. - -5. Sarcophagi of S. Constantia and S. Helena, and cippus of Syphax found -on the road to Tibur. Hall of the Greek Cross. - -6. Sarcophagus of L. Scipio Barbatus, from the Tomb of the Scipios, near -the Porta S. Sebastiano. Museo Pio Clementino. - -In the Capitoline Museum are placed:-- - -A. From Hadrian's Villa. - -1. Colossal head of Cybele. No. 9 in the courtyard, - - { Psyche. No. 53. } - 2. { Cupid of Praxiteles. No. 13. } In the Gallery. - { Euterpe. No. 32. } - - 3. Roman Matron. No. 3. } - 4. An Amazon. No. 5. } In the Hall of the Dying Gladiator. - 5. Flora. No. 11. } - 6. Antinous. No. 13. } - - 7. The Faun. No. 1 in the Hall of the Faun. - - 8. Centaurs in bigio antico. No. 2. } - 9. A Gymnasiarch. No. 27. } In the Saloon. - 10. Harpocrates. No. 34. } - -Some other great ancient monuments are placed as follows:-- - -1. The first milestone on the Appian Road, found in 1584, is now placed in -the Piazza del Campidoglio at the top of the steps leading up from the -Piazza d'Ara Coeli on the right hand. The seventh milestone is placed -opposite to it. - -On the stairs of the Capitol are also placed the marble sculptures called -the trophies of Marius which were brought from the ruin on the Campus -Esquilinus, not very far from the Arch of Gallienus. At the top of the -steps stand two equestrian figures of the Dioscuri, said to have come from -the neighbourhood of the Theatre of Balbus, and the statues of Constantine -and his son Constans from the Baths of Constantine on the Quirinal. At the -foot of the staircase are the two Egyptian lions found as above mentioned -near the Church of S. Stefano in Cacco. The history of the bronze -equestrian statue of M. Aurelius, now in the Piazza of the Capitol, cannot -be traced as Palladio states to the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, but -it was more probably found as Fea has recorded, near the Arch of Septimius -Severus. - -2. A bronze cista mistica found at Præneste is in the Kircherian Museum. - -3. The wooden beams from the Villa of Cæsar in the lake of Nemi, are kept -partly in the Kircherian Museum, and partly in the Gallery on the right -hand of the Vatican Library. - -4. The caricature of Alexamenos from the Palatine is in the Kircherian -Museum. - -5. The mosaics from the Baths of Caracalla are in the Hall of Mosaics at -the Lateran. - -6. One of the white marble columns from the Basilica of Constantine is -placed in front of the Basilica of S. Maria Maggiore. - -7. The history of the great pair of figures on the Piazza del Quirinale -called the Dioscuri and their horses, cannot be traced further back than -the time of Constantine, in whose baths they stood, as we are told by -Bufalini. The style of sculpture is of the Imperial Age of Rome, and the -inscriptions ascribing them to Phidias and Praxiteles are erroneous. - -8. Many good specimens of columns, ancient ornamental sculpture, and other -monuments may be seen in the following places. The Churches of S. Lorenzo -and S. Agnese fuori le Mura; S. Maria in Cosmedin, di Aracoeli, degli -Angeli, and in Trastevere. The Villas Ludovisi, Borghese, Albani, and -Spada. - -[Illustration: GEOLOGICAL MAP OF ROME] - - - - -INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER IX. - - -The geological strata found on the site of Rome and in its immediate -neighbourhood divide themselves into three principal groups. The oldest of -these is a marine formation, and exhibits itself upon the Vatican, -Janiculum, and Monte Mario. The second, of which all the hills on the -eastern bank and the district of the Campagna are composed, is of volcanic -origin, and consists chiefly of beds of tufaceous matter erupted from -submarine volcanoes and more or less solidified. The third, which appears -in the hollows of the Tiber valley, is a fresh-water formation, and is -found on the slope of the hills on both banks of the river. - -[Sidenote: Marine formation.] - -The oldest of these three groups belongs to the division of the tertiary -period, called by Lyell the older pleiocene, as having had a fauna and -flora in which the greater number of species were identical with those now -living on the earth. These strata are of marine formation, and are similar -to those which extend over a great breadth of Italy on both flanks of the -Apennine mountains, reaching as far south as the point of Reggio in -Calabria. Their lower bed consists of a bluish-grey clayey marl, which -will be found in the valley between the Janiculum and the Vatican. Its -marine origin is sufficiently proved by the fossils found in it, and the -remains of sea-weed. This bed of clay is of a plastic nature, and is still -used for making pottery, as it was in the time of Juvenal. Above it lies a -stratum of yellow calcareous sand, which sometimes takes the form of loose -sand with boulders, sometimes of a stratified arenaceous rock, and -sometimes of a rough conglomerate. This may be seen outside the Porta -Angelica, on the left, under the walls of the city, and in the Belvedere -Gardens on the Vatican Hill. The Church of S. Pietro in Montorio is said -to derive its name Montorio, monte aureo, from the yellow colour of this -sand. - -On Monte Mario an abundance of fossil shells, of the Ostrea hippopus and -other varieties of sea shells, may be seen, plainly indicating the marine -origin of this formation. - -The only places within the actual walls of Rome where these tertiary -marine strata are to be found, are the Vatican and the Janiculum. At the -base of the Capitoline, in the subterranean vaults of the Ospitale della -Consolazione, under the volcanic rock which forms the upper part of the -hill, Brocchi found a stratum of calcareous rock and clay, which he -affirms to be of marine origin, and to resemble the limestone of the -Apennines. - -[Sidenote: Volcanic formation.] - -The second group of strata found on the site of Rome is one which is not -confined to the neighbourhood of Rome, but is most extensively spread over -the whole of the Campagna, the district of Campania, and a considerable -part of southern Italy. The great mass of the Capitoline, Palatine, -Aventine, Esquiline, Cælian, Viminal, Quirinal, and Pincian Hills, is -composed of this formation. Geologists give it the general name of tufa, -and divide it into two kinds, the stony and the granular. It is -distinguished from lava by not having flowed in a liquid state from the -volcano, and is a mechanical conglomerate of scoriæ, ashes, and other -volcanic products which have been carried to some distance from the crater -of eruption, and then consolidated by some chemical re-arrangement of -their constituent elements. The harder kind of tufa, the tufa litoide, is -a reddish brown, or tawny stone, with orange-coloured spots. These spots -are embedded fragments of scoriaceous lava. It is hard enough to be used -as a building stone, and has been quarried largely under the Aventine Hill -near S. Saba, at Monte Verde, on the southern end of the Janiculum, and at -other places near Rome, as at Torre Pignatara on the Via Labicana, at the -bridge over the Anio, on the Via Nomentana, and at the Tarpeian rock. - -This tufaceous stone presents itself in very thick banks, traversed by -long vertical and oblique fissures, probably produced by the contraction -of the mass on passing from a humid and soft to a dry and hard state. The -Arch of the Cloaca Maxima, near S. Giorgio in Velabro, is built of this -stone, and the inner part of the substruction of the so-called tabularium -on the Capitol. Portions of the Servian wall were also built of it, and -many stones which were taken from this wall are to be seen at the present -day in the walls of Aurelian, near the gate of S. Lorenzo; and others have -been laid bare by the railway excavations in the Servian Agger. -Brick-shaped masses of it are found in the ambulacra of the Theatre of -Marcellus, so that the use of it must not be restricted to the earliest -times of Roman architecture. In fact, several buildings of the Middle Ages -in or near Rome consist of this stone, as may be seen at the Fortress -Gaetani, near the Tomb of Cæcilia Metella, and in the large tower at the -side of the palace of the Senator. - -[Sidenote: Freshwater formation.] - -Fresh-water formations cover the bottoms of all the valleys in the -district of Rome and in the whole of the Campus Martius, and ascend to a -considerable height on the flanks of the hills and into the Campagna. They -consist chiefly of sand, clay, gravel, and the stone called travertine, -and of tufa beds which have been disturbed and then re-deposited. This -re-deposited tufa has been the subject of some controversy. It was at one -time thought to indicate that the lower tufa was also a fresh-water -deposit, since it is sometimes found overlying the fresh-water formations. -But no doubt now remains that it must have been formed by a re-arrangement -in fresh water of previously deposited marine tufa beds. The water of the -Tiber, at the time when these fluviatile formations took place, stood at -such a height as to leave deposits upon the intermontium of the Capitol, -and as high as the Church of S. Isidoro on the Pincian, and it must have -partially removed and shifted the previously existing light and porous -volcanic soil of the sea-bottom. Even the top of the Pincian was covered -by this fresh water; for modules of calcareous matter, such as are -deposited in fresh water alone, were found in digging the excavations for -the fountain on the public promenade. - -The surface of the broad river which then existed, seems, in fact, to have -been at from 130 to 140 feet above the present surface level of the Tiber, -and its water must have been more surcharged with alluvium, derived from -sources with which the present river is no longer connected. - -Among the fluviatile deposits, argillaceous marl beds now play an -important part. They intercept the water as it descends from the hills, -and impede its descent to the river, thus furnishing supplies to the wells -in Rome, but rendering the soil less dry and healthy. The greater portion -of these strata consist of a mixture of sand and clay. The ridge between -the Campo Vaccino and the Coliseum, on which the Arch of Titus stands, is -formed almost entirely of these mixed strata of clay and sand. To prove -the fresh-water origin of these deposits, we need only refer to the -modules of travertine and the shells of lacustrine animals which they -contain. Such species of fresh-water shell-fish could not live in turbid -and rapid water like that of the Tiber as it now is, and we must therefore -conclude from their presence that the waters of the Tiber valley where -such fossils are found were once in a semi-stagnant state. That there was -also a period of violent movement during the prevalence of this lacustrine -era is testified by the quantities of matter brought from a distance and -accumulated at considerable altitudes, and by the size of the pebbles and -boulders which have been rolled along by the stream. But before a more -accurate investigation of facts shall have been made, it will be -impossible to distinguish these two periods of stagnation and rapid -movement from each other. - -[Sidenote: Tiber water.] - -The river water has no longer the power which it once possessed of -depositing the travertine which we find lying in thick beds upon the -slopes of some of the hills of Rome, and from which the larger ruins are -all built. This travertine is formed from carbonate of lime which the -waters take up as they pass through the soil containing it. In order to -give the water the power of holding this carbonate of lime in solution, a -certain quantity of carbonic acid gas must be present in it. When by means -of the rapid movement of the water or from other causes this gas becomes -disengaged, it leaves the carbonate of lime behind in the shape of a hard -stony deposit. This natural process of petrifaction is familiar to all who -have seen the Falls of the Anio at Tivoli, and the way in which the -artificial canals of running water in that neighbourhood are choked by -limestone concretions, and it may be seen in all vessels made use of to -boil water which is impregnated with lime. The more violent the agitation -of the water the more rapid is the disengagement of the carbonic acid gas, -and the consequent settlement of the lime. This process is accompanied, in -most places where it can be seen, by the presence of sulphuretted -hydrogen, which produces a white colour in the water by depositing the -sediment called gesso by the Italians. Hence an explanation of the ancient -name of Albula given to the Tiber is easy. In the period when the Tiber -had the power of depositing travertine, its waters were much more strongly -impregnated not only with carbonate of lime, but also with gesso, which -gave a white tinge to the water as it now does to the sulphureous waters -near Tivoli. The same colour was characteristic of "the white Nar, with -its sulphureous stream," Virgil's description of the chief stream of the -central Apennines. - -[Sidenote: Climate.] - -The subject of the climate of Rome is naturally connected with that of the -nature of the soil and configuration of the hills and valleys. - -It is not difficult to see why the peculiar geological formation of the -Campagna proves, without careful drainage, extremely deleterious to -health. We have there a district containing numerous closed valleys and -depressions in the soil without outlet for the waters which naturally -accumulate. The tufa which composes the surface seems commonly to take the -shape of isolated hills with irregular hollows between them, so as to -impede the formation of natural watercourses. Under this tufa is a -quantity of marl and stiff clay, which retains the water after it has -filtered through the tufa, and sends it oozing out into the lower parts of -the country, where it accumulates, and, mixed with putrescent vegetable -matter, taints the surrounding atmosphere. A want of movement in the air -caused by the mountainous barriers by which the Campagna is enclosed is -another source of malaria. - -The sites of Veii, Fidenæ and Gabii, once the rivals and equals of Rome -are now entirely deserted except by a few shepherds and cattle stalls. -Along the coast stood Ardea, Laurentum, Lavinium and Ostia, all of them -towns apparently with a considerable number of inhabitants. Of these Ostia -is now a miserable village, Ardea contains about sixty inhabitants, while -Laurentum and Lavinium are represented by single towers. During a part of -the year the ancient Roman nobility lived in great numbers on these very -shores now found so deadly. Pliny the younger describes the appearance of -their villas near Laurentum as that of a number of towns placed at -intervals along the beach, and he writes an enthusiastic letter in praise -of the salubrity and convenience of his own house there.[124] Lælius and -Scipio used to make the seaside at Laurentum their resort, and to amuse -themselves there with collecting shells.[125] Nor was it only on the -seacoast that the country villas were placed. Six miles from Rome on the -Flaminian Road, at the spot now called Prima Porta, there stood a -well-known country house belonging to the Empress Livia, part of which has -lately been excavated.[126] This was a highly decorated and commodious -house, as the rooms which have been discovered, in which was found a -splendid statue of Augustus, and the busts of several members of the -imperial family, amply testify. The views from this spot over the Campagna -and the Sabine Hills are most lovely, but the contrast between the beauty -of nature and the haggard and fever-stricken appearance of the modern -inhabitants is melancholy enough. A few squalid houses occupied by -agricultural labourers stand by the roadside. Among their tenants not a -single healthy face is to be seen, and even the children are gaunt, -hollow-cheeked, and sallow in complexion. No wealthy Roman would now -consent to live on the site of Hadrian's stately villa in the Campagna -near Tivoli. Tivoli itself, which Horace wished might be the retreat of -his old age, and which was celebrated as a healthy place in Martial's -time, has now lost its reputation for salubrity, and is known as-- - - Tivoli di mal conforto, - O piove, o tira vento, o suona amorto. - -Strabo speaks of the now desolate district between Tusculum and Rome as -having been convenient to live in. But there is no need to multiply proofs -which might be gathered from all sides of what is an acknowledged fact, -that the malarian fevers of the present day were not nearly so deadly in -the classic times of Rome, or even in the Middle Ages. The troops of -labourers who, fearing to pass the night in the country, are met returning -to Rome every evening, the forsaken towers and buildings which stand -rotting everywhere about the Campagna, all tell the same tale of a -pestilence-stricken district. - -The peculiar physical features of the district have had no little -influence in determining the mode in which the population was grouped in -ancient times. Everywhere we find the hills of Rome reproduced on a -reduced scale. Small isolated flat-topped hills, irregularly divided by -deeply cut watercourses, and edged with steep low cliffs, afford numerous -sites for the settlement of limited independent communities. Such are the -hills on which Laurentum, Lavinium, Fidenæ Antemnæ, Ficulea, Crustumerium -and Gabii stood, and similar places abound in many parts of the district. -Such hills afforded suitable sites for the small fortified towns with -which ancient Latini was thickly studded. Their sides can be easily -scarped so as to afford a natural line of defence, and they are in general -fairly supplied with water from numerous land springs. - -Thus, although the general aspect of the Campagna is that of a plain -country, yet the main level of its surface is broken by numerous deep -gullies and groups of hillocks. - -The tertiary marine strata, already described as forming the Janiculum and -other hills upon the right bank of the Tiber, do not rise to the surface -in the Campagna, except on the flanks of the Æquian and Sabine hills. -These hills themselves consist of great masses of Apennine limestone -jutting out here and there into the spurs upon which some of the more -considerable cities of the Latin confederacy stood, as Tibur, Præneste, -Bola and Cameria. - -The Alban Hills form a totally distinct group, consisting of two principal -extinct volcanic craters somewhat resembling, in their relations to each -other, the great Neapolitan craters of Vesuvius and Somma. One of them -lies within the embrace of the other, just as Vesuvius lies half enclosed -by Monte Somma. The walls of the outer Alban crater are of peperino, while -those of the inner are basaltic. Both are broken away on the northern side -towards Grotta Ferrata and Marino, but on the southern side they are -tolerably perfect. - -From the legendary times, when Latinus, Evander, Æneas, and the rest of -Virgil's heroes are supposed to have occupied the great plain of Latium, -down to the final settlement of the district by its subjection to Rome in -B.C. 338, the Roman Campagna was peopled by communities chiefly living in -towns. Etruria on one side and Latium on the other, contained -confederacies of independent cities, with one or other of which the Romans -were constantly at war. Etruria gave way first, and after the fall of Veii -in B.C. 395, the Roman dominions extended northwards as far as the Lago -Bracciano and Civita Castellana. - -At that time the great confederacy of Latium, though Alba was destroyed, -still existed under the Hegemony of Rome as the successor of Alba, and -numbered Tibur, Præneste, Tusculum, Aricia, Antium, Lanuvium, Velitræ, -Pedum, and Nomentum among its members. But after the victories gained by -the consuls of the year B.C. 338, the absorption of the Latin cities made -rapid progress, and the character of the population of the Campagna began -to be completely changed.[127] In this, the second period of the history -of the Campagna, the towns were gradually reduced to mere villages, the -small farmers disappeared, and the land was occupied by the immense -estates (latifundia) of rich proprietors cultivated by hordes of slaves. -Such is the condition in which we find the Campagna in the time of -Cicero.[128] The great villas which strew the ground everywhere in the -neighbourhood of Rome with their ruins were then constructed, and the -colossal aqueducts which served not only to supply Rome with water but -also to irrigate the farms and country seats of the Campagna. - -There seems to have been a constant tendency during the later republic and -early empire to reduce the amount of arable land, and to increase the -extent of pasturage in the Campagna. Thus the country was rendered less -and less healthy, and Rome became gradually more dependent than ever on -foreign countries for her supply of corn. - -The last phase of the history of the Roman Campagna is the most -melancholy. The aqueducts were nearly all destroyed by the Gothic army at -the siege of Rome under Vitiges in A.D. 536, and the great country seats -of the Roman nobles and princes must have been ruined by the successive -devastations of Roman territory during the fifth and sixth centuries in -which the Lombards were the principal actors. Agriculture ceased, and the -few villages and country houses which remained soon became uninhabitable -during a great part of the year, in consequence of the increase of -malarious exhalations arising from the uncultivated state of the soil, or -were rendered unsafe by the lawless bands of ruffian marauders who -infested the open country. Such is in the main the condition of the Roman -Campagna at the present day, for the most part a waste of ragged pastures -without human habitations, and wild jungles tenanted only by foxes, bears, -and other wild animals. - -The above remarks will serve to show that after B.C. 338 the Campagna -became deprived of all historical interest except as the summer residence -of the great Roman proprietors. Its history belongs almost entirely to the -early times of the Roman Republic. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -(A) THE VIA APPIA AND THE ALBAN HILLS. - - -[Sidenote: The Appian Road.] - -Of the great roads along which the principal traffic from ancient Rome -passed, the Appian Road may perhaps be said to have been the most -important, as it led to the southern and oriental provinces of the great -empire; and it is on the line of this ancient road that the greatest -number of ruined tombs and other buildings are still left. Two hundred -ruins are said to stand on the sides of the Appian Road between the site -of the Porta Capena, by which this road left the Servian walls, and -Albano, a distance of fourteen miles. The tombs were of the most varied -and fantastic shapes and designs, the most common forms being those with -square or circular bases, cylindrical superstructure, and conical roof. -Some were square with several floors, and surmounted by a pyramid, others -consisted of chapels in brick, placed upon a cubical base, or of -sarcophagi in various shapes, mounted upon brick substructions. - -Many fragmentary inscriptions have been found which once belonged to these -tombs, but not one of any historical importance. The greater part of them -record the names of freedmen, and other obscure people, as the larger and -more highly decorated tombs were plundered first, and their marble casing -and inscriptions completely destroyed at an early period. The older -fragments which have been saved may be studied in the Berlin Collection of -Inscriptions where they are learnedly and ably edited by Th. Mommsen. - -There were also many fountains and semicircular ranges of seats by the -side of the road designed as resting-places for travellers. - -The commencement of the ancient Appian Road now lies between the Porta S. -Sebastiano and the site of the old Porta Capena. From this part of the -road the Via Latina diverged on the left, and the Via Ardeatina on the -right. Beyond the Porta S. Sebastiano, the first monument now visible is a -mass of stonework on the left hand, about one hundred yards from the gate. -From its form and the style of masonry there can be little doubt that it -was a pyramidal tomb similar to that of Caius Cestius at the Porta S. -Paolo, and that it was built in the Augustan era. The road then crosses -the Almo, and the remains of another pyramidal tomb are to be seen on the -left. This is sometimes called the Tomb of Priscilla, mentioned by -Statius, but that name more probably belongs to the larger tomb further -on, beyond the Church of Domine quo Vadis. This latter ruin agrees better -with the description of Statius, as it had a cupola and loculi for the -reception of unburnt corpses. The immense number of ruined tombs and other -buildings which crowd the sides of the road beyond this point, make it -necessary to restrict our remarks as much as possible, and we shall -therefore only notice a few of the most prominent ruins upon the road or -in the immediate neighbourhood. - -[Sidenote: Divus Rediculus.] - -The brick building called the Temple of the Divus Rediculus stands half a -mile to the left of the road at the second milestone in the Caffarella -valley. The legend which connects it with Hannibal's march on Rome is -altogether unworthy of credit,[129] and it is plain that the building, -which had no rows of surrounding columns, but is constructed with -Corinthian pilasters, had two stories, and cannot therefore have been a -temple. Professor Reber considers that it was a chapel tomb similar to -that to be seen further on the road at S. Urbano, near the Tomb of Cæcilia -Metella. - -[Sidenote: Grotto of Egeria.] - -The Grotto of Egeria, as it is called, lies in the valley of the Almo -about half a mile above the building just mentioned. It is an arched -nymphæum of brick, at the back of which a plentiful stream of clear water -issues. The mutilated statue of the nymph still remains, but no other -parts of the decorations. There is little doubt that it was the nymphæum -of some suburban villa. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Bacchus or Honos.] - -On the hill above it stands the Church of S. Urbano, probably an ancient -tomb in the shape of a chapel. It is commonly called the Temple of Bacchus -from the discovery under it of an altar of Dionysus with a Greek -inscription. But this altar seems to have been moved here from some other -spot. The building is in the form which has a projecting porch with four -Corinthian columns and capitals. These are now built up into the modern -wall. The whole, except the entablature and columns, is of brickwork of -the Antonine era, as appears from the stamps of the bricks. The triple -frieze, forming a kind of attica between the architrave and cornice, seems -to contradict the notion that this was a temple, though the great -antiquary E. Q. Visconti considered that it was the Temple of Honour built -by Marius outside the Porta Capena.[130] The interior is tolerably well -preserved, and has a vaulted roof with coffers and reliefs in the form of -trophies. - -[Sidenote: The Circus of Maxentius and Temple of Romulus.] - -On the left of the Appian Road, where it dips suddenly into a valley near -the Church of S. Sebastian, lies a group of ruins, the principal of which -consist of a circus, a building enclosed in a large square court, and some -remains of rooms apparently belonging to an ancient villa. The walls of -the circus are still in such preservation that they can be easily traced -round the whole enclosure, and are in some parts nearly of the original -height. They are built of rubble mixed with brickwork, and with jars of -terra-cotta to lighten their weight, as in the case of the masonry in -other walls of the same date. The towers at each side of the Carceres, or -starting post, the curved line of Carceres themselves, and the spina, or -central division line, can be easily traced. An inscription in honour of -Romulus, son of Maxentius, found here in 1825, and now placed at the -entrance to the ruins, seems to show the circus was built in honour of -Romulus, son of Maxentius, who died before his father, A.D. 309. This is -confirmed by a statement in one of the ancient chronicles published by -Roncalli, in which it is said that Maxentius built a circus near the -catacombs, evidently referring to the neighbouring catacombs of S. -Sebastian and others, and also by the style of masonry used in the circus. -The adjoining ruined temple, with its enclosing court, seems to belong to -a somewhat earlier style of construction, but some reasons derived from -the coins of Maxentius and Romulus have been given for supposing that it -was the temple dedicated to Romulus after his apotheosis by his -father.[131] The ruins are not sufficiently preserved to make it certain -that the building was a temple, and there is nothing to contradict the -hypothesis that it was a tomb. Nor is anything whatever known about the -adjoining villa. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Cæcilia Metella.] - -On the end of the mound formed by the great lava stream which ages ago -flowed down from the Alban Hills, and along the top of which the Via Appia -runs from this point, stands the conspicuous Tomb of Cæcilia Metella, the -daughter of Metellus Creticus, and wife of Crassus, but whether of the -Triumvir Crassus, or of the orator, or of some other less well known -Crassus is uncertain. The inscription on the tomb is Cæciliæ, Q. Cretici -Filiæ, Metellæ Crassi. The shape of the tomb is the same as that of the -Mausoleum of Hadrian, and the Tomb of the Plautii at Tivoli; a cylindrical -towerlike edifice, resting on a square base of concrete with massive -blocks of travertine. The upper part has been destroyed, and the marble -casing stripped off, with the exception of a band of ox skulls and -garlands which surrounds it, and some trophies carved in relief above the -inscription. The roof was probably conical. Mediæval battlements, erected -by the Caetani family, who held it as a fortress in the 13th century, now -crown the upper edge. The remains of their castle are still visible on -each side of the road beyond the tomb. - -[Sidenote: Roma Vecchia, Villa of Seneca.] - -After passing the third milestone, the Appian Road is fringed with ruins -of innumerable tombs, and here and there the relics of a suburban villa. -Scarcely any of these can have names attached to them with any certainty. -The spot is now called Roma Vecchia, and the Campus sacer Horatiorum, the -Fossa Cluilia, and the Villa Quintiliana Commodi lay here. The suburban -villa in which Seneca committed suicide by opening his veins was at the -fourth milestone, as we learn from Tacitus, and near this was found in -1824, by Nibby, a marble slab with the name of Granius, a military -tribune. A tribune of this name was employed by Nero to compel Seneca to -kill himself, but whether the stone refers to him or not is of course -doubtful. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Atticus.] - -At the fifth milestone on the right hand of the road is a round mass of -ruins with a rectangular chamber inside, which has been supposed to be the -tomb mentioned by Cornelius Nepos, as the burial place of Atticus, -Cicero's friend. Near this is the great platform of peperino blocks which -are thought to have been used as a burning place (ustrina) for the bodies -interred at the sides of the road. - -[Sidenote: Villa Quintiliana.] - -On the left hand, a little way beyond the fifth milestone, the remains of -the Villa Quintiliana of Commodus begin, and reach along the side of the -road for at least half a mile, extending also towards the left into the -adjoining fields as far as the edge of the great lava current, on the top -of which the Via Appia is here carried. The whole of this space, nearly -two miles in circumference, is covered with fragments of costly marbles, -of sculpture, and bits of mosaic, showing that it was covered with -handsomely decorated buildings. The style of construction, says Nibby, -belongs to three different epochs. The buildings nearest to the Appian -Road, comprising the great reservoir, on the foundation of which the -farmhouse of S. Maria Nuova is built, are of brickwork and reticulated -work of the time of Hadrian, the great mass of the ruins which lies on the -left towards the new road to Albano, exhibits workmanship of the Antonine -era, and amongst them have been found numerous fragments of sculpture, -also belonging to the reigns of the Antonines. The third style of building -is that called opera mista by the Italian antiquarians, which prevailed in -the Constantinian times, at the beginning of the fourth century. The -buildings of the Antonines have been repaired and overlaid in many places -by this later work. The stamps of most of the bricks found here belong to -the reigns of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus, and were made -chiefly in the imperial brickyards. Thus the date of the principal parts -of the building is decided, and it is seen that the villa was most -probably an imperial villa. But all doubt on this point was completely -cleared away by the discovery in 1828, of a number of large leaden pipes -bearing the inscription, II. QUINTILIORUM CONDINI ET MAXIMI, from which it -became evident that the villa was the same place which Vopiscus and Dion -Cassius mention as the property of the Quintilii, consuls in the year A.D. -151, under Antoninus Pius, and victims of the spite of Commodus in A.D. -182.[132] Commodus seized their property, and the villa became one of his -favourite residences. The great extent of the ruins explains the -circumstance related by Herodian, that the emperor, being in the back part -of the villa, could not hear the shouts of the infuriated mob on the -Appian Road, who were demanding the life of Cleander.[133] - -The ruins which extend along the side of the road, are plainly fragments -of a kind of vestibule or grand entrance to the imperial villa. They -consist of a nymphæum or grand fountain, and a row of chambers intended -for slaves' lodgings. The fountain is supplied with water by an aqueduct, -the arches of which can be seen at the seventh milestone, where it leaves -the lava rocks, and crosses the country towards Marino, at a higher level -than even the Aqua Claudia. This nymphæum and aqueduct are built of opera -mista, which shows that they are probably the work of the Constantinian -Age. - -The principal mass of the villa itself stood nearly half a mile from the -old Appian Road, on the edge of the rocks of basaltic lava. Between them -and the road the space was occupied by gardens and ornamental -summer-houses and ponds. Nibby describes the chief ruins as having -belonged to a richly ornamented fountain, and a suite of bathing-rooms of -great grandeur. - -One spacious saloon, the walls of which form a picturesque ruin, as seen -from the new post road to Albano, stands on the edge of the rising ground, -and commands a magnificent view of the whole of the Alban and Sabine Hills -and the city of Rome. Near this was a small theatre, from which the -cipollino columns of the entrance to the Tordinone Theatre in Rome were -taken. - -An immense quantity of valuable sculpture, now in the Roman museums and -palaces, was discovered by excavations here in 1787 and 1792. Among these -sculptures was a splendid statue of Euterpe, now in the Galleria dei -Candelabri, a tiger now in the Hall of Animals; and the busts of Lucius -Verus, Diocletian, and Epicurus, Socrates, the Isis and Antinous in the -Vatican, with numerous Sileni, Fauns, and Nereids. - -[Sidenote: Casale Rotondo.] - -Between the sixth and seventh milestones from the Porta Capena there is a -large round ruin 300 feet in diameter, called Casale Rotondo, now -supporting a house and olive orchard upon the top. The fragments of -sculpture found here have been arranged on the face of a wall, close to -the pile of ruins. The name Cotta was found on an inscription belonging to -this, and hence it has been supposed to be the tomb of the gens Aurelia, -who bore the surname of Cotta. On the left are the arches of the aqueduct -which supplied the Villa of Commodus. - -At the eighth milestone there was a Temple of Hercules erected by -Domitian. Martial mentions this temple in several passages. There are -considerable remains of a tetra-style temple on the right hand of the -road, consisting of columns of Alban peperino; but this, which was once -supposed to be the Temple of Hercules, is now said to have contained an -altar to Silvanus. - -[Sidenote: Bovillæ.] - -The Villa and Farm of Persius the poet is said by his biographer to have -been near the eighth milestone. At the ninth stood the Tomb of Gallienus, -and perhaps the ruins there belong to his suburbanum. At the tenth -milestone, the Rivus Albanus, formerly the Aqua Terentina, is crossed; and -at the eleventh, the road begins to ascend the slope towards Albano. At -the twelfth, the circuit of the walls of the ancient town of Bovillæ is -approached. Dionysius says that Bovillæ was situated where the hill before -reaching Albano first begins to be steep, and this answers to the position -of the modern Osteria delle Frattocchie. The ruins which are now generally -held to be those of Bovillæ lie on the cross road, called Strada di -Nettuno, a little way above Frattocchie.[134] They consist of a small -theatre built of brickwork and opus reticulatum, and a somewhat larger -circus, the enclosure of which and the carceres are still pretty well -preserved. The town did not lie close to the road. It was founded by a -colony from Alba Longa, and was a flourishing place until Coriolanus -destroyed it. For centuries afterwards we find but little notice taken of -it. In Cicero's time it was a very insignificant village, and had it not -been immortalised by the assassination of Clodius there, which led to such -important results, it could hardly excite any interest in later -times.[135] - -The honour of being the native place of the gens Julia gave it some -artificial importance in the imperial times. Tiberius is mentioned by -Tacitus as erecting a sacrarium of the Julian family and a statue of -Augustus there, and founding Circensian games in honour of the gens Julia. -Some inscriptions found on the spot show the town still existed in the 2nd -century A.D. It is now occupied by plots of land laid out as gardens. The -Villa of Clodius, Cicero's enemy, appears to have been at or near the -thirteenth milestone from Rome, close to the left side of the Appian Road, -between Bovillæ and the modern Albano. It was raised on immense -substructions, the arches of which were capable of concealing a thousand -men, and Cicero declares that Clodius had not respected even the confines -of the Temple of Jupiter Latiaris or the sacred groves of Alba.[136] The -ruins which lie under Castel Gandolfo, on the left side of the road -towards the Porta Romana of Albano, may have formed part of the -substruction of which Cicero speaks. The estate of Clodius passed after -his death, when the family of the Claudii Pulcri became extinct, into the -hands of the Claudii Nerones, from whom Tiberius inherited it, and thus it -became imperial property. - -[Sidenote: Villa of Pompey.] - -The Villa of Pompey was between that of Clodius and Aricia, and therefore -occupied the site of the present town of Albano. Nibby thinks that the -walls of reticulated work in the Villa Doria belonged to Pompey's house, -and that the great tomb, near the Roman gate of Albano was Pompey's burial -place. Plutarch states that Pompey was buried at his Alban villa. The -tomb, with five truncated cones, usually called the Tomb of the Horatii -and Curiatii, has also been called the Tomb of Pompey. It is more probably -an imitation of the old Etruscan tombs executed at a later time. After the -death of that great general, the estate became the property of Dolabella, -and subsequently of Antony, who held it till the battle of Actium, when -Augustus took possession of it. After the adoption of Tiberius, it was -united with the Clodian grounds, and thus formed the nucleus of the -Albanum Cæsarum. - -[Sidenote: Albanum Cæsarum.] - -Augustus and some of the early emperors found the Albanum a convenient -halting-place on their journeys to the south, but it was in the time of -Domitian that the place was extended so much as to contain a military -camp, enormous reservoirs of water, thermæ, a theatre, an amphitheatre, -and a circular temple. It is called Arx Albana by Juvenal, Tacitus and -Martial. - -The plan of the camp can still be traced. It resembled that of the -Prætorian camp at Rome, in being a quadrangular space rounded off at the -corners. The two longer sides extend from the Church of S. Paolo at Albano -to the round Temple, now the Church of S. Maria. One of the shorter sides -was parallel to the Appian Road, and the other ran near the Church of S. -Paolo. There were four terraces or levels in the camp rising towards the -hill behind. The Porta Decumana was in the north-eastern side, and the -Porta Prætoria on the south-western. The great reservoirs for water stand -on the northern side near S. Paolo, and the thermæ towards the south-east -on the opposite side of the Appian Road. At the western corner is the -round building usually called the Temple of Minerva, and supposed to be -that alluded to by Suetonius as annually visited by Domitian. This round -building is in good preservation, but its purpose cannot be determined -with certainty. Nibby says that the ancient mosaic pavement still remains -at a depth of six feet below the present surface. The amphitheatre is -situated between the Church of S. Paolo and that of the Capuchin Convent. -It is principally constructed of opus quadratum, but the interior parts -are of a mixed masonry, consisting of bricks and fragments of the local -stone. This amphitheatre is supposed to have been the scene of the feats -performed by Domitian, in killing with his own hand hundreds of wild -beasts with arrows and javelins, and also of the degradation of Acilius -Glabrio, who was forced, according to Juvenal, by Domitian to join him in -these sports of the arena. - -[Illustration: Plan of the ALBAN HILLS & GABII] - -Between Castel Gandolfo and Albano four magnificent terraces, rising one -above the other, were traced by Cav. Rosa as forming part of the Albanum -Cæsarum, and in the Villa Barberini there is a considerable part of a -cryptoporticus, ornamented with stucco reliefs, which probably stands over -the old substructions of the Villa Clodi.[137] On the side towards the -lake there were open balconies for viewing the mock naval engagements; and -near the entrance of the Barberini Villa the ruins of a theatre have been -discovered. It appears probable from the numerous ruins found upon the -edge of the lake that the whole of it was surrounded with quays and tiers -of stone seats, and chapels of Nymphs, making it resemble a gigantic -natural naumachia, or sheet of water for sham naval fights. These ruins -may possibly, however, have belonged to separate private villas placed at -different points round the water. - -To the south of Albano, in the grounds of the Villa Doria, there are the -ruins of an extensive Roman villa. Whether this was a part of the Albanum -Cæsarum or not, is uncertain. Some of the bricks bear the stamps of -Domitian, others those of the third consulship of Servianus (A.D. 134), -Hadrian's brother-in-law, others of Commodus.[138] - -[Sidenote: Lago Albano or Di Castello.] - -The Alban lake belongs to the water system of the Tiber, and has most of -its outlets on the western side. It has been supposed that a subterranean -communication exists between this lake and that of Nemi, but Nibby asserts -that this is impossible, as the level of the lake of Nemi is higher than -that of the Alban lake. The circumference of this sheet of water is more -than six miles, and it is nearly elliptical in shape. The story of the -sudden rise of its waters in the sixth year of the siege of Veii is well -known, and the response of the Delphic oracle as given in Livy. - -Cicero gives a distinct account of the drainage of the lake. "We are told, -he says, by the Annalists, that during the siege of Veii, when the Alban -lake had risen to an unusual height, a Veientine noble fled to Rome as a -deserter, and declared that it was written in the books of fate which were -kept at Veii, that Veii could not be taken, so long as the lake was -overflowing its banks, and that if the lake were tapped, and flowed into -the sea by its own channel and stream, it would be fatal to the Roman -nation, but that if the water were so discharged as to make it impossible -for it to reach the sea, then the Romans would be victorious. In -consequence of this our ancestors contrived that admirable plan for -drawing off and dispersing the water of the lake." - -From this passage it would seem likely that the whole object of the -drainage of the lake was to obtain a constant supply of water for the -irrigation of the Campagna. In another passage Cicero states his opinion -still more clearly, that the work was really undertaken for the benefit of -suburban agriculture. "The Veientine prophecy that if the water of the -Alban lake rose above its margin and flowed into the sea, Rome would -perish; but that if it were checked, Veii would be taken, in consequence -of which the Alban water was diverted, was intended to benefit the -suburban farms, and not to secure the safety of Rome." What appears -strange, is that it should have been necessary to appeal to a -superstitious motive in the case of a people evidently so far advanced in -civilization as to be capable of carrying out an engineering work of such -difficulty in a single year.[139] - -[Sidenote: Emissarium of the Alban lake.] - -The tunnel which still carries off the superfluous water of the lake is -cut through solid peperino and occasional masses of still harder basaltic -lava. It is more than a mile and a half in length, from seven to ten feet -in height, and never less than four feet in breadth. The height of the -edge of the lake basin above the level of its water at the part which is -pierced by the tunnel is 430 feet. Three vertical shafts are still -discoverable, by which a draft of air was created and the rubbish was -removed, and one slanting shaft for the entrance and exit of the miners. -The rock was cut with a chisel an inch wide, as may be seen from the marks -left upon the sides of the tunnel. - -At the points where the water enters and leaves the tunnel, considerable -pains have been taken to regulate the flow. The channel of stonework at -the mouth is placed in a slanting direction so as to break the force of -the rush of water. At the end of this first channel is a cross wall with -openings, protected by gratings to catch the leaves and floating rubbish. -Behind this is a reservoir, similar to the cisterns in use in the Roman -aqueducts, allowing the mud to settle before the water entered the tunnel. -Next to the tunnel itself there is a closed building to protect the canal -from the fall of rocks and stones, and the actual entrance into the rock -is faced with a massive portal of wedge-shaped blocks of stone. The water -in this enclosure is now used by the fishermen of the lake as a receptacle -for keeping fish, and is for this purpose provided with sluices. Hirt -thinks that these arrangements at the mouth are very ancient.[140] Others -ascribe them to the imperial era. - -The point where the tunnel emerges from the mountain on the west of Castel -Savelli, nearly a mile from Albano, is called Le Mole. The water was there -received in a long troughlike reservoir arched over with a stone vaulted -roof. From this it ran through five smaller openings into five separate -channels, and was so dispersed into the fields for irrigation. At the -present time the whole stream is united, and after passing the road to -Anzio, thirteen miles from Rome, takes the name of Rio d'Albano, receives -the brook from the valley of Apiolæ, and joining the Acqua Acetosa and -Cornacciola crosses the Ostian way near Tor di Valle, three miles and a -half from Rome, and then discharges itself into the Tiber. - -It is the opinion of some archæologists that the Romans brought engineers -from Greece to superintend the Alban tunnel. This supposition, however, is -not necessary. If the Italian engineers could construct the Cloaca Maxima -they would be fully equal to the task of tapping the Alban lake. - -The physical conformation of Central Italy compelled its inhabitants to -turn their attention at an early period to the construction of drains and -other hydraulic works. Considerable artificial channels were rendered -necessary in order to regulate the flow of the Arno and Tiber in the -neighbourhood of Chiusi. In southern Etruria, the district now known as -the pestilent Maremma, could only have been rendered healthy by systematic -artificial drainage. The sites of Populonia, Saturnia, Cosa, Veii, and -Cære were thus rendered habitable and fertile, and a great part of Latium -Maritimum, the Pomptine marshes, and the tract about Suessa Pometia must -have been artificially and skilfully drained at the time of the greatest -prosperity of those places. Many of the ancient cities of Central Italy -had tunnels bored underneath their streets which served as thoroughfares -connecting the different parts of the city, or as secret passages leading -out into the country. Such tunnels are found at Præneste and Alba -Fucensis. An account of the attempted escape of Marius from Præneste, by -means of the tunnels, is given by Velleius. The catacombs show that the -same genius for tunnelling operations existed at a later time among the -Italians of the empire. - -[Sidenote: Alban Mount.] - -The triumphal route by which the festal processions from Rome ascended the -Alban Mount diverged from the Appian road at the ninth milestone. It -probably passed by Marino to Palazzuolo and thence ascended to the summit -by a series of zigzags. The stones which mark its course have the letters -N V. (numinis via) cut upon them. On the summit stood the Temple of -Jupiter Latiaris, the ancient sanctuary of the Latin league. The sole -remains of this famous building are now built into the wall of the -reservoir of the convent of Palazzuolo. They consist of fragments only. - -Most of the stones employed by Cardinal York in 1783 in the erection of -the convent of Palazzuolo and the church of the Trinity, on the site of -the temple, were taken from the ruins, but nothing can be learnt from them -regarding the ancient buildings. The summit of the hill is not broad -enough to have supported any large building, and we may therefore conclude -that the temple was of small size, and that the great festival games at -the Feriæ Latinæ were held in the Prati d'Annibale below. The inscriptions -on some of the stones are merely the freaks of some modern stonemasons. -The fragments which remain were probably used for the area round the -temple. - -[Illustration: Plan of the Area OF THE TEMPLE of JUPITER ON MONTE CAVO] - -The explorations carried out in 1876 seem to have proved that the -buildings consecrated to Jupiter Latiaris on Monte Cavo were a walled area -of about sixty-five yards long, and fifty wide, a fragment of the wall of -which was found; a chapel dedicated to Jupiter, one corner of which was -excavated; a large altar, and some other chapels dedicated as votive -offerings. A tracing of the shape and position of the area, chapels and -altar was found by M. S. De Rossi in a seventeenth century MS. in the -Barberini Library, and was published in the Annali dell' Instituto for -1876. This traced sketch agrees with the excavations. (See Plan.) - -[Sidenote: Alba Longa.] - -The early destruction of Alba Longa, so famous in Roman legendary lore, -has completely deprived us of the means of tracing its site by the -discovery of any remains of the walls or buildings which it contained. It -was razed to the ground by Tullus Hostilius in B.C. 667 and never rebuilt. -Dionysius thus describes the site: "The city was built close to the -mountain and lake, upon a site between the two. They serve as defences to -it, and make it almost impregnable, for the mountain is very steep and -lofty and the lake deep and wide." Livy says that the city was named Longa -because it extended along a ridge of the Alban hills. The words of -Dionysius seem to imply that Alba stood immediately between Monte Cavo and -the lake on the site of the convent of Palazzuolo, and Cav. Rosa, the -highest modern authority on the topography of the Campagna, who has made -the neighbourhood of Albano and Nemi the subject of special study, holds -this opinion. Nibby thought that the whole edge of the crater from -Palazzuolo nearly to Marino, a distance of more than two miles, was -occupied by the city of Alba. Sir William Gell discovered an ancient road -running along the edge of the crater above Monte Cuccu, and a few blocks -of stone on the top of the precipice bordering the lake further eastwards, -which he thought must have belonged to the gate of Alba. - -At the sixteenth milestone on the Appian road beyond Albano, in the valley -below the modern town of Ariccia, is the massive causeway 700 feet in -length and 40 in width, upon which the old Appian road was raised. It is -built of blocks of peperino and is a solid mass of masonry, except where -three archways give passage to the water which descends from the Alban -hills and the neighbourhood of Nemi. - -[Sidenote: Lake of Nemi.] - -Beyond the ancient viaduct we come to the tunnel through which the lake of -Nemi discharges its waters. - -The name of this lake and of the village on its margin, is derived from -the great grove of Diana (Nemus Dianæ) whose temple probably stood on the -site of the present village of Nemi. The wooded cliffs which surround the -crater here are steep and descend immediately into the water, except on -the side near Genzano, where they slope magnificently and are planted with -vines. Their average height is 300 feet. In the Latin poets frequent -mention is made of this lake as one of the principal ornaments of the -neighbourhood of Rome, and in connection with the widely celebrated temple -of Diana. Hence it was called Speculum Dianæ, lacus Triviæ and Stagnum -Dianæ. - -Whether the name Lacus Aricinus also belonged to this lake is doubtful, -for Pliny speaks of a lake which formerly occupied the valley of Ariccia, -and the water in this valley was certainly called Lacus Aricinus in the -middle ages. - -The water of the lake is supplied partially at least from a small spring -near the road from Genzano to Nemi, and also from the copious stream which -turns the mills of the village of Nemi. The latter is probably alluded to -by Strabo when he says that the sources whence the lake is filled are -visible, and are near the temple of Diana. - -Nibby gives the following account of the Lake of Nemi, and of the -investigations carried on in his time for the purpose of discovering the -real nature of the curious wooden fabrics said to have been found at the -bottom of the lake: - -"The situation of Nemi is picturesque, and the view from it of the crater, -and of the lake, which resembles an enormous mirror spread below, is -magnificent. But beyond the historical reminiscences of the Temple of -Diana, it presents nothing worth particular mention. The baronial castle -near it has all the appearance of a feudal fortress. It was built by the -famous Colonna family, once the lords of the estate, who also built the -round tower or keep which surmounts it. By ascending the side of the -mountain which rises above it, a splendid panoramic view of the coast of -Latium and of the adjacent Rutulian and Volscian territory may be enjoyed. -The eye ranges along the whole coast line of the Tyrrhenian Sea, from the -Circæan promontory to the mouths of the Tiber, and the situations of -Astura, Antium, Ardea, Lavinium, Laurentum, Ostia and Porto are clearly -distinguishable, together with many other points." - -"The crater is surrounded in parts by rocks of the hardest basaltic lava, -in others by conglomerated cinders and scoriæ, and in some places by banks -of tufa. Its circumference is about five miles; and the level of the water -is higher than that of the Alban Lake. The story of the ship discovered at -the bottom of this lake and said by some authors to have belonged to the -time of Tiberius, by others to that of Trajan, is well known. Biondo, Leon -Battista Alberti, and particularly Francesco Marchi a celebrated architect -and military engineer of the sixteenth century, who went down into the -lake himself, have spoken of it.[141] Fresh investigations have been -carried on of late, at which I was present, and saw and examined -everything which was brought to the surface, and inquired of those who -went down what they saw there. I consider myself in a position to assert -that the pretended ship was nothing more than the wooden piles and timbers -used in the foundations of a building. The beams are of fir and larch, and -are joined by metal nails of various sizes. The pavement, or at least the -lowest stratum, of the remains is formed of large tiles placed upon a kind -of grating of iron, on which the name CAISAR, in ancient letters, is -marked. Some of these tiles and nails and gratings are now kept in the -Vatican Library. - -"The name Caisar seems to explain the history of the building, for -Suetonius in his 'Life of Julius Cæsar,' as an illustration of Julius -Cæsar's extravagance, asserts that after having built a villa on the lake -of Nemi at an enormous expense, he had the whole destroyed because it did -not quite suit his taste. It is my belief that the pretended ship was -nothing else than the piles and wooden framework upon which this villa was -supported, and that after the upper part was destroyed the foundations -under the water still remained, partly covered by the fragments of the -demolished building above."[142] - -The mention of paving tiles, marbles, and leaden pipes as among the -objects raised from the bottom of the lake, renders the notion that they -belonged to a ship improbable, and Nibby's conjecture that a Roman villa, -partly built out into the water, stood here, seems much more likely, -though his application of the passage of Suetonius is very doubtful. - -Cav. Rosa, who examined the neighbourhood of Nemi and Genzano with a -special view to the solution of the question of the site of the Temple of -Artemis, has given a careful account both of the ruins under Genzano and -those to the west of Nemi. The former he pronounces undoubtedly to belong -to a villa, the latter he thinks belonged to a temple with a large court -in front, and an ancient road leading to it from the western side of the -lake. These ruins are just above the lower road leading from the Capuccini -convent at Genzano to Nemi, at the point where a cross road leads to the -left and joins the higher road to Nemi, not far from the place called le -Mole.[143] Genzano is a town of mediæval origin. - - -(B) THE VIA LATINA AND TUSCULUM. - -[Sidenote: Latin road.] - -The modern Porta Giovanni is now the point at which the new road to -Albano, and also that to Frascati, leave Rome. The Latin road anciently -diverged, after passing the Porta Capena, from the Alban road and had a -gate of its own in the Aurelian wall, called the Porta Latina, now walled -up. - -[Sidenote: Tombs on Latin road.] - -The old Via Latina is unfortunately now almost lost, and can only be -traced by the lines of ruined tombs which mark its former course. After -leaving the old Porta Latina it runs along the edge of the hills which -fringe the right bank of the Caffarelli valley, and crosses the new road -to Albano at the second milestone, at a point on the other side of the -valley almost opposite to the so-called fountain of Egeria. Not far from -this spot some very interesting tombs were excavated in 1860. A full -account of them has been given in the 'Annali dell' Instituto di -Corrispondenza Archeologica' for 1860. The sarcophagi and stucco ornaments -are the most perfect remains of the kind in the neighbourhood of Rome. -These sepulchral monuments are near the remains of the Basilica of S. -Stefano, a ruin of the fifth century, and on the farm which bears the name -of Arco Travertino from the travertine arches of the Claudian Aqueduct -which cross it. The ancient pavement of the Latin road has been uncovered -in some places near the tombs, and also some traces of a villa, which -probably belonged to the Servilian and Anician families, have been -excavated. The portico of the tomb which faces the southern side of the -road leads down to two large vaults, in the outer of which stand the -mutilated remains of a marble sarcophagus in a niche, while the inner -vault is decorated with well-preserved stucco ornaments in relief, -representing sea-monsters and nymphs. Some of the marble casing which -covered the walls remains, but no name has been found on the bricks or -stones. In the tomb on the opposite side of the road there is a -well-preserved mosaic with figures of sea-monsters at the entrance, and -below are paintings of birds upon the arches which support the sarcophagi -in the outer chamber, and an inscription which gives the name of the -Pancratii as the owners of the tomb. The family figures and profiles are -only sketched roughly in outline, as is common in the catacombs. The roof -of the inner chamber in this second tomb is exquisitely ornamented with -paintings and stucco reliefs, representing mythological subjects and -landscapes. In the centre a large marble sarcophagus containing places for -two bodies is left standing. This sarcophagus is plain and without any -decoration. The date of this tomb cannot precede the Antonine era, as -there are no cinerary urns in it. - -[Sidenote: Torre Fiscale.] - -At the fourth milestone from the Porta Capena, the Latin road passed under -the arches of the Claudian and Marcian aqueducts, at the tower now called -Torre Fiscale. At this point the two aqueducts cross each other, and -present a most magnificent series of arcades running along the side of the -old Latin road for more than a mile. The arches of the Claudian aqueduct -are here more than fifty feet in height. The railway to Naples runs very -close to the line of the old Latin road here. - -A great number of ruins are still to be seen at a place called Sette -Bassi, four miles and a half from the Porta S. Giovanni and near the -Osteria del Curato. This spot, as well as the district near it on the -Appian road, bears the name of Roma Vecchia. The scattered ruins occupy a -space of nearly three-quarters of a mile in circumference, and appear to -have been built at two different epochs. The bricks of which one portion -of them is constructed have the dates A.D. 123 and 134 upon them, the -years when Poetinus and Africanus and Servianus and Juventius were -consuls. The other part of the building is evidently contemporaneous with -the ruins on the Appian road and belongs to the Antonine era. All the -bricks were made at one of the imperial kilns, and it has therefore been -generally supposed that the villa was an imperial residence, forming a -part of the already-mentioned Suburbanum Commodi. The marbles found on the -spot show that it was decorated with great magnificence, and a particular -kind of breccia, numerous fragments of which have been picked up there, -obtains its name, Breccia di Sette Bassi from the place. - -The plan, according to Nibby, was that of a large oblong area, the longer -sides of which ran north and south. In the centre there was room for a -large pleasure garden. The front of the buildings was at the northern end -towards Rome, and the remains of a portico can be traced, which supported -a terrace on a level with the first floor rooms of the mansion. One of -these rooms with three doors and the same number of windows can still be -traced. In some of the walls the remains may be seen of terra-cotta pipes -for heating the rooms. The ground floor apartments were without -decorations, and are therefore supposed to have served as storehouses for -grain and farm produce.[144] - -[Illustration: Circus of Maxentius, with Torre Fiscale beyond it and the -hills above Præneste and Tusculum.] - -Behind this front building, on the eastern and western sides, are long -ranges of building, the eastern consisting of two suites of rooms, -probably intended for baths or for gymnasia, and the western forming a -long ambulacrum terminated by an exedra. On the south side there is a -cryptoporticus and a reservoir for water which was supplied by a branch of -the Claudian aqueduct. - -About a quarter of a mile farther south, near the Latin road, there is an -outlying building which seems to have been intended to command a view of -that road. The railway to Frascati now runs between the Claudian aqueduct -and these ruins. - -The castella of the Aqua Marcia, the Tepula, the Julia, the Claudia, the -Anio Vetus, and the Anio Nova lie on the right of the old Latin road here, -at the sixth milestone, where the arcades make a right angle. The old road -then runs to the right of the present road to Frascati, nearly on the line -of the modern Strada di Grotta Ferrata, and ascending the slopes of the -Alban Hills, passes behind Tusculum and Corbio, along the valley called -Vallis Albana. - -[Sidenote: Tusculum.] - -Since the excavations carried out by Lucien Bonaparte at the beginning of -this century, there has been no doubt left as to the site of the ancient -city of Tusculum. The ruins lie from about a mile and a half to two miles -above Frascati, upon the ridge forming the edge of the most ancient crater -of the Alban Hills. Between this ridge, which bore the name of Tusculani -Colles, and the hills upon which Marino and Rocca di Papa stand, the great -Latin road ran. Tusculum stands just over this road and was approached -from it by a steep path ascending the northern side of the valley. The -main road entered the city on the other side, from the direction of -Frascati and Rufinella, leaving the Via Latina at the tenth milestone, -between Morena and Ciampino. The ancient pavement of this road can be -clearly traced on the slope of the hill above Frascati, and it leads us -along the top of the hill through what has plainly been the main street of -the town to the citadel, which stood at the eastern extremity. - -[Sidenote: Theatre.] - -The site of the citadel is a platform nearly square and 2700 feet in -circuit, standing about 200 feet above the level of the surrounding parts -of the hill. Its walls were completely demolished By the Romans in 1191 -and not a vestige of them is left. Sir William Gell thought, however, that -he could discover the traces of four ancient gates, one on the west, -another on the side of the Alban valley, a third on the eastern side, and -not far from this last, a postern communicating with a steep and rocky -path which descended to the Alban valley. Most of the ruins now visible -belong to the mediæval fortress of the Dukes of Tusculum, and a few only -of the quadrilateral blocks of the ancient enclosure are visible. In the -Æquian and Volscian wars this citadel played an important part. It must -therefore have been a fortress of considerable strength from very early -times. Dionysius describes it as a very strong position, requiring but a -small garrison to hold it, and adds that the whole country as far as the -gates of Rome, is plainly visible from it, so that the defenders could see -the Roman forces issuing from the Porta Latina. The city itself lay on the -ridge of the hill westwards from the citadel. The area which it occupied -is an oblong strip of ground about 3000 feet long, and from 500 to 1000 -feet in width. On the north and south sides the limits of the city are -clearly marked by the edges of the hill, but on the west they are not so -easily defined. At the foot of the descent from the citadel are the ruins -of a large water tank of an oblong shape divided into four compartments by -three rows of piers, and immediately under this tank is a small theatre -built of peperino, which was excavated by the dowager Queen of Sardinia -Maria Christina in 1839 and 1840. This, with the exception of the theatres -at Pompeii, is the most perfectly preserved in Italy. The walls of the -scena are unfortunately destroyed, but the ground plan of it can still be -traced. The stage, which abuts closely on the western side of the -semicircular cavea, is 110 feet in length, and 20 feet in depth. It has -the three usual entrances from the back, and one at each end. These open -into a corridor and communicate with two chambers, probably used as -dressing rooms by the actors. Nearly the whole of the fifteen rows of -seats in the lower division are still preserved unbroken, but the upper -part which contained, to judge by the height of the outer walls still -remaining, about nine rows of seats, is entirely destroyed. - -[Sidenote: Other ruins.] - -[Sidenote: Gate and walls.] - -The curved walls on the northern side of the theatre were supposed by -Nibby to have belonged to another theatre, but are now generally believed -to have been a part of a fountain connected with the above-mentioned -reservoir. Along the northern side of the reservoir are two parallel -walls, which apparently enclosed the street leading to the citadel. The -roadway must have been here carried by an arched corridor under the side -of the theatre. Near the ancient road from the theatre westwards is a mass -of ruins the plan of which cannot be determined, and beyond these, not far -from the point where the road divides, and on its right-hand branch, is -one of the gates of the city, marked by two fragments of ancient fluted -columns which perhaps formed a part of its architecture. Near this are the -remains of the ancient north wall of the city, consisting of blocks of -peperino of great size more or less regularly laid, and of restorations -here and there in reticulated work, partly of the later republic, and -partly of more modern times. The pavement of the street is here perfectly -preserved, and near the gateway there is a wide space left, probably as a -turning place for carts or carriages. - -[Sidenote: Tank and fountain.] - -In the walls near this point is a stone doorway leading into a stone -water-tank, with a pointed roof formed by overlapping stones, on the same -principle as the roof of the so-called Mamertine prison at Rome, the gate -of Arpinum and the treasuries of Mycenæ and Orchomenos. The doorway is -about ten feet high and five wide, and the tank of the same dimensions. In -the interior are three divisions or basins for water, and at the back an -aqueduct enters by means of which the water was supplied. At the side of -this tank there is a small ancient fountain under the wall which was -supplied from the tank by a leaden pipe. An inscription on the fountain -records that it was made by the Ædiles Quintus Cælius Latinus, son of -Quintus, and Marcus Decumo, by command of the Senate of Tusculum. Not far -from the fountain was found the fifteenth milestone from Rome. - -On the road to Frascati, near the point where the western gate of the -city has been supposed to have stood, the remains of an amphitheatre can -be discovered. The seats are entirely destroyed, and it is only by the -oval shape and by the position of the substruction that the ruins can be -recognized as those of an amphitheatre. A round tomb stands a little above -the amphitheatre, and beyond this the ruins of a large villa called Scuola -di Cicerone cover the side of the hill towards the Alban valley. - -The legend which ascribes the foundation of Tusculum to Telegonus, the son -of Circe and Ulysses, is familiar to all readers of the Latin poets. It is -remarkable, however, that Virgil, who mentions most of the towns of -Latium, has entirely omitted to notice Tusculum. This may be mere -accident, or it may be attributable to a grudge similar to that which led -him, according to Aulus Gellius, to omit Nola from the lines in the -Georgics celebrating the fertility of Campania, but it certainly cannot be -due to the fear of making an anachronism, as Nibby supposes. In the times -of the Latin league, from the fall of Alba to the battle of the Lake -Regillus, Tusculum was the most prominent town in Latium. It suffered, -like the other towns of Latium, a complete eclipse during the later -republic and the imperial times, but in the ninth, tenth, eleventh and -twelfth centuries under the counts of Tusculum it became again a place of -great importance and power, no less than seven Popes of their house having -sat in the chair of St. Peter. The final destruction of the city is placed -by Nibby, following the account given in the records of the Podesta of -Reggio, on the 1st of April, A.D. 1191, in which year the city was given -up to the Romans by the Emperor Henry VI., and after the withdrawal of the -German garrison, was sacked and razed to the ground. Those of the -inhabitants who escaped collected round the church of S. Sebastian on the -foot of the hill, in the district called Frascati, whence the town of -Frascati took its origin and name. They founded their new town upon the -remains of an ancient villa, which stood near the round tomb which still -remains on the road to the Villa della Ruffinella. The name of Lucullus -has been attached to this villa and tomb from the statement of Plutarch -that Lucullus was buried by his brother at his Tusculan villa. It is -however, much more probable that the larger round tomb in the vigna -Angelotti on the road towards Rome was the burial-place of Lucullus. - -[Sidenote: Scuola di Cicerone.] - -The building now called Scuola di Cicerone is not far from the ruins of -the western gate of Tusculum. The ground floor is apparently about 270 -feet in length and 100 in depth, but the upper parts of the buildings have -now completely disappeared. The materials were of brick and reticulated -work, similar to that now found in the gardens of Sallust at Rome, and -generally considered as belonging to the last age of the Republic or the -early Empire. The ground floor had a cryptoporticus along its whole -length, and above this on the first floor was probably an open portico -with a colonnade. Eight large rooms opened out behind the cryptoporticus, -in the second of which are the remains of some stairs, and at the back of -the eighth a recess. At the ends of the cryptoporticus are the remains of -some more rooms. There are no signs of decoration on any of the walls, and -therefore this lowest story of the building is supposed to have been used -as a storehouse for corn and farm produce. - -There is, however, no evidence whatever to connect these ruins with -Cicero's Villa. The only indication we have of its site is given by the -Scholiast on Horace, who speaks of it as situated near Tusculum on the -upper slopes of the hill.[145] - -[Sidenote: Villa of Gabinius.] - -This will agree either with the ruins just described or with those found -in 1741 under the modern Villa Rufinella, which is a little way lower down -the western slope. That Cicero's Villa was upon the upper part of the hill -is confirmed by his own statement that it was so near that of the consul -Gabinius, that at the time of Cicero's exile, not only the furniture but -the trees in his garden were transferred to the Villa of Gabinius, and we -also find that this latter villa was upon the upper part of the hill. -Nibby accordingly places the Villa of Gabinius on the site of the modern -Villa Falconieri close to the Rufinella. - -Several particulars about his villa are mentioned by Cicero himself. It -contained two rooms called gymnasia, to the upper of which he gave the -name of Lyceum, and which contained his library. The lower gymnasium was -called the Academy in honour of Plato. - -The Lyceum seems to have been used in the morning, and the Academia in the -afternoon, as being more sheltered from the heat of the sun. - -The Hermathena, a double-headed bust of Hermes and Athena, mentioned in -the letters to Atticus, was probably placed in the Lyceum, for the phrase -he uses there seems to refer to Apollo as the patron of the gymnasium, in -which it was placed. There were also some Hermæ of Pentelic marble, bronze -busts, and Megarian statues placed in the gymnasia, and Atticus had a -general commission to buy up anything which he might think suitable for -these rooms. - -Another part of the villa was called the atriolum. Nibby has shown from -one of the letters to Quintus that the atriolum of a villa was a small -courtyard surrounded with bedchambers and offices. The Tusculan atriolum -was decorated with stucco reliefs on the walls, like those in the tombs on -the Latin Road. - - -(C) GABII AND PRÆNESTE. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Atta.] - -[Sidenote: Villa Gordiana.] - -The road to Gabii and Præneste leaves Rome at the Porta Maggiore. The most -conspicuous ruin, which it passes at about one mile from the walls of -Rome, is a very large circular sepulchral monument more than a hundred -feet in diameter, to which the name of Quintus Atta has been attached. -Beyond this, at a distance of two miles and a half from Rome, we come to -the remains of a vast villa, which has been identified with that spoken of -by Julius Capitolinus in his history of the Gordian family. That historian -says that their "country house was situated on the road to Præneste, and -was remarkable for the magnificence of a portico with four ranges of -columns, fifty of which were of Carystian, fifty of Claudian, fifty of -Synnadan and fifty of Numidian marble. There were also three basilicas in -it, each of a hundred feet in length, and other buildings of corresponding -size, in particular some Thermæ more magnificent than any others in the -world except those at Rome." The ruins of this great imperial villa extend -for nearly a mile along the road, consisting chiefly of some huge -reservoirs for water, two spacious halls belonging to the Thermæ, a round -temple or Heroon, and a stadium surrounded with arcades. The style of -construction in most of these is the irregular brickwork with thick layers -of mortar which is known to be characteristic of the third century. -Gordian III. was killed in A.D. 244. The great reservoirs are close to the -road, two on the left and two on the right-hand side, beyond the -depression in which the stream called Acqua Bollicante runs, where the -ground rises towards the hill of Torre de' Schiavi. Some of them appear to -be of an earlier date than the reigns of the Gordians, and are referred by -Nibby to the Antonine epoch. The brickwork of these last is more regular, -and they contain a good deal of reticulated work and layers of squared -tufa stones. The two large halls which belonged to the Thermæ are to the -east of the reservoirs. One of them was a spacious octagonal building with -round windows. It was occupied as a fortress or watch-tower in the middle -ages, and has been repaired in the style called Saracenesca. In the walls -of this may be seen the earliest instances of a mode of construction -afterwards, as in the Circus of Maxentius, very common, the introduction -of jars of terra-cotta in the walls to make the work lighter. The interior -is ornamented with niches alternately square and circular headed, and -retaining some of their ancient stucco decorations. - -The other hall of the Thermæ stands not far off, and is circular with a -domed roof. - -The Heroon, or circular temple, of which mention has been made, is similar -to that near the Circus of Maxentius. The diameter of this is fifty-six -feet, and it was lighted by four large round windows. The front was turned -towards the road according to the rule laid down by the architect -Vitruvius. Underneath, there is a crypt supported by a massive round -pillar, and containing six niches. In this, Nibby thinks that the ashes of -the dead were placed, as their statues were in the temple above, and that -the building was the Heroon of the reigning family. In the middle ages -this Heroon was used as a church, and some of the paintings then -introduced are still visible on the interior walls. Not far from the -Heroon are the ruins of the arcades which surrounded the stadium and -bounded the domain of the villa on the east side. - -[Sidenote: Torre Pignatara.] - -In this district, but along the ancient Via Labicana which runs in the -direction of Frascati, stands the conspicuous tower now called Torre -Pignatara from its construction with pigne or earthen pots. It surmounts a -large circular hall and a catacomb to which the titles of S. Helena's -Mausoleum and the Chapels of SS. Peter and Marcellinus have been given, -but the real history of the building is unknown. - -[Sidenote: Ponte di Nono.] - -At the ninth milestone on the road to Palestrina, where the road crosses a -small brook, is a magnificent monument of ancient Roman architecture, -consisting of an arched viaduct built of peperino and tufa blocks. The -length of this viaduct is 105 yards, and the highest of the seven arches -about fifty feet. The blocks of stone used are in some cases ten feet in -length, and they are firmly fitted together without any kind of cement. -This viaduct is now called Ponte di Nono.[146] The ancient roadway of -polygonal fragments of basalt still remains, but the parapet on each side -has been destroyed. - -[Sidenote: Gabii.] - -At a distance of about three miles beyond the Ponte di Nono are the ruins -of Gabii on the edge of the lake called Lago di Pantano in the district of -Castiglione. Numerous traces of the ancient city are still visible. It -occupied a long strip of ground extending from the sepulchral mound on the -right of the road near the outlet of the lake to the tower of Castiglione. -Nibby thinks that this tower stands on the spot formerly occupied by the -citadel of Gabii, the original stronghold founded according to the legend -by a colony from Alba. In the year 1792 extensive excavations were made on -the site by Prince Marcantonio Borghese at the suggestion of Mr. Hamilton -a Scotch painter, and a quantity of sculptures and inscriptions now in the -Louvre at Paris were discovered. The principal ruins now remaining are -those of the cella of a temple built of the famous lapis Gabinus, and some -steps in a semicircular form, probably the remains of a theatre. The -temple is generally supposed to have been that of Juno alluded to by -Virgil. - -The form of this temple was almost identical with that at Aricia. The -interior of the cella was twenty-seven feet wide and forty-five feet long. -It had columns of the Doric order in front and at the sides, but none at -the back. The walls of the chamber at the back were here, as at Aricia, -prolonged on each side, so as to close the side porticoes at the back. The -surrounding area was about fifty-four feet in breadth at the sides, but in -front a space of only eight feet was left open, in consequence of the -position of the theatre, which abutted closely upon the temple. On the -eastern side of the cella are traces of the rooms where the priests in -charge of the temple lived. - -The shape of the forum can only be partially made out. From the plan -published in the 'Monumenti Gabinoborghesiani,' it appears that it was a -rectangular quadrilateral space, traversed by the Via Prænestina at the -southern end, and that it was surrounded with a portico of Doric columns -except at the end along which the Via Prænestina was carried. It was -believed at the time when the excavations were made that the Curia and -Augusteum could be distinguished among the surrounding buildings, but this -seems now to be very doubtful. In the centre stood the statue of Titus -Flavius Ælianus, the patron of the borough town. The pedestal of this -statue with its inscription was found in situ in 1792. - -"The stone of Gabii quarried near the lake and the product of its extinct -volcano, is used in many of the Roman buildings and especially in the -building called the tabularium at the head of the Forum Romanum. It is a -hard species of peperino, of a brownish-grey colour, which when exposed to -the air becomes paler than the common peperino of Albano. It resists the -action of fire, and is a compound of volcanic ashes mixed with small -fragments of black, brown, and reddish lava, scales of mica, and bits of -Apennine limestone."[147] - -The city of Gabii lost its independence soon after the beginning of the -Republican era of Rome. It was restored as a colony of veterans by Sylla, -but sank into obscurity, and became almost proverbial for its desolate -condition in the Augustan era. It afterwards recovered its prosperity in -some degree by means of the celebrity of its cold baths, and in the time -of Hadrian was patronised by the Emperor, who built an aqueduct and a -Curia Ælia there. The inscriptions found on the spot belong chiefly to the -Antonine era, and the busts of Severus and Geta also found there show that -in the first part of the third century Gabii was still a flourishing -borough town. - -[Sidenote: Labicum.] - -The most conspicuous outlying hill of the volcanic district not far from -Gabii is that of La Colonna, about three miles below Rocca Priora. It -stands apart from the rest of the range, and is easily seen from Rome. -From Strabo's description of the site of Labicum there can be but little -doubt that this hill must be considered to be the place to which he refers -in his account of the Via Labicana. "That road," he says, "begins at the -Esquiline Gate, at which the Prænestine Road also leaves the city, and -leaving both this latter and the Esquiline plain on the left, proceeds for -more than a hundred and twenty stadia (fifteen and a half Roman miles) -till it reaches Labicum, an old, dismantled city, lying on a mount. The -road leaves it and Tusculum on the right, and ends at the station called -ad Pictas, where it joins the Latin Road." There are no ancient ruins now -on the spot. In Strabo's time it was apparently ruined and deserted, and -at an earlier date Cicero says that it was difficult to find any -inhabitant to represent Labicum at the Feriæ Latinæ. It seems probable, -therefore, that it suffered severely in the civil wars of Sylla and -Marius, and did not recover itself until the establishment of an imperial -villa there gave it some importance. - -[Sidenote: Præneste.] - -Beyond La Colonna, the ancient Labicum, by far the most important place on -the Æquian frontier was the strong fortress-town of Præneste, now -Palestrina, which commands the passage from Latium into the valley of the -Sacco. Præneste is placed on one of the projecting spurs of the -mountainous district which intervenes between the Anio and the Sacco. -Standing, as the city does, more than 2100 feet above the sea level, it -forms a very conspicuous object in the view from the hills of Rome. - -After its eventful history as the great border fortress of Latium, we can -only wonder that it has been found possible to restore the ancient plan of -Præneste with tolerable accuracy, as has been done by Nibby and other -archæologists. The modern town, an agglomeration of filthy narrow alleys, -occupies little more than the space on which stood the great Temple of -Fortune and its approaches. Nearly a mile distant from this, on the summit -of the hill, stood the citadel united with the town by two long walls of -polygonal masonry, traces of which are still to be seen, though they do -not rise to any height above the ground. The site of the citadel is now -occupied by a wretched little suburb called Borgo di S. Pietro, and by a -ruined mediæval castle of the Colonnas built in the style called opera -Saracenesca. On the side towards the town the walls of the citadel are -still easily traced, and present admirable examples of polygonal -structure, rising in some places to a considerable height. On the other -side, where the steepness of the hill made artificial defences less -necessary, the walls have almost disappeared. - -The original fortifications of the city may be followed from the Porta del -Sole, where the ancient polygonal masonry is visible. "In this part of the -walls," says Nibby, "are some towers of opus incertum, standing between -the Porta delle Monache and the Porta Portella. Near the latter gate the -polygonal wall is nearly fifteen feet in height, and on one great block -may be read in very ancient letters the words PED. XXX. After having -surrounded the summit of the hill of S. Pietro, the wall descends to the -Porta S. Martino, where it was strengthened at the time of the Punic wars -with additions of quadrilateral structure, and where an ancient gate now -closed may be seen. From this point the wall proceeds in a nearly straight -line in the direction of the upper garden of the Barberini Palace and the -Via di S. Girolamo towards the Porta del Sole. This circuit of about three -miles in length was intersected at different points by at least three -other lines of fortifications above the Contrada della Cortina, and hence -perhaps the city bore the name of 'many crowns,' given it by Strabo, -forming, as it were, four separate inclosures, besides the various -terraces of the great temple, which could almost be regarded as so many -divisions of the town."[148] - -[Illustration: PLAN OF TEMPLE OF FORTUNE as rebuilt by Sylla. AT -PRÆNESTE.] - -The original foundation of the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia at Præneste is -lost in obscurity; but the ancient polygonal substructions which support -it show that it was a very large temple even in early times. - -Cicero in his description of the Prænestine lots, calls it a splendid and -ancient temple, and Valerius Maximus speaks of it as the most celebrated -oracle of Latium at the end of the first Punic war. - -The original extent of the temple appears to have included only that part -of the lower town, which lies between the modern streets of the Corso and -the Borgo, and the ancient city principally lay on the side towards the -citadel. But after Sylla had rebuilt the temple, its precincts reached as -far downwards as the modern Contrada degli Arconi, and upwards to the -Contrada Scacciato behind the baronial palace. The whole of this space was -filled with a gradually ascending series of flights of marble stairs and -terraces, arranged in a pyramidal form, at the summit of which stood the -tholus or round temple of the goddess, 450 feet above the lowest terrace. -The base of this pyramidal approach was 1275 feet broad, and the upper -terraces gradually diminished in width. The temple faced the south, like -those of Diana at Aricia, of Juno at Gabii and Lanuvium, and of Jupiter -Capitolinus at Rome. The modes of construction found in the ruins are -referred by Nibby to four different epochs--the polyhedral stonework of -the primitive temple, which was incorporated in the buildings of the new; -the squared stonework of the time of the Punic wars; the structures -composed of smaller polygonal stones erected by Sylla; and the brickwork -of the imperial times. There were five principal terraces or platforms -rising one above the other. Nibby calls these the terrace of the cisterns, -the terrace of the halls, the central terrace, the terrace of the -recesses, and the terrace of the hemicycle. In front of the lowest terrace -was a large open space on which the boundary of the sacred precincts was -marked out by stone landmarks, some of which have been found on the spot. -This open area was on the right of the Contrada degli Arconi, which takes -its name from the arches still remaining. The sides of the area were -bordered by two immense reservoirs. One of these is still entirely -preserved, but the other is filled with rubbish. On the side of the open -area towards the hill were twenty-nine arches, five of which in the centre -projected, forming a kind of portico with fountains in niches, while the -other twenty-four completed the sides towards the reservoirs. The style of -these arches seems to indicate that they were built by Sylla as an -addition to the older temple precincts. One arch on the left hand, and all -the twelve on the right, still remain intact. They were probably used as -rooms for the slaves belonging to the temple. - -[Sidenote: Reservoirs.] - -The two reservoirs, as may be seen by the brickwork of which they consist, -were added after Sylla's time. They served to collect and keep the water -which flowed from the fountains of the upper terraces, and to distribute -it to those parts of the city which lay below the temple. The western -reservoir, which can still be seen, is one of the most remarkable of such -edifices now extant. It is 320 feet in length and 100 in width, and is -divided internally into ten compartments, in the same manner as the Sette -Sale at Rome, each communicating with the next to it by three apertures, -and each lighted by two openings in the roof covered with circular -well-mouths of stone. The interior walls of this reservoir are covered -with the finest cement. On the exterior to the south, the walls are -decorated with niches, one of which, with a square head, was intended to -contain the inscription stating the names and titles of the builder of the -reservoir.[149] The brickwork, which is similar to that of the Prætorian -camp at Rome, and the fact that an inscription dated A.D. 18, when -Tiberius was consul-designate for the third time, has been found near, -seem to point to Tiberius as the builder. On the western side there are no -niches, but a doorway, with a stair leading down to the bottom of the -reservoir, and ornamented with two brick half-columns of the Doric order. - -[Sidenote: Terrace of cisterns.] - -From the area between the reservoirs just described, two staircases built -by Sylla ascended to the level of the first principal terrace 1275 feet in -breadth, containing two large basins for water, of rectangular shape, each -250 feet by 90 in size. They were intended for the purpose of the -ceremonial ablutions commanded by the religious rites of the temple. That -on the western side can still be seen in the Barberini garden, though it -is now filled with rubbish. The rim or edging of these basins was of white -mosaic. - -[Sidenote: Terrace of halls.] - -Above this terrace two flights of stairs conducted to the next principal -esplanade, which was of the same length as the first, but narrower. At the -back of this esplanade, against the side of the hill, stood two -magnificent halls, with an open area between them. The eastern hall is now -entirely destroyed, but that on the western side, now serving as the -kitchen of the modern seminario, is partly preserved. The front, which may -be seen near the cathedral in the Piazza Tonda, was decorated with four -Corinthian half-columns, the capitals of which still remain in their -original position. The interior had seven recesses on each side, separated -by half-columns and pilasters, and probably intended for statues. In front -of the side recesses ran a low wall or podium, ornamented with triglyphs -like a Doric frieze. These decorations are executed in a style which Nibby -considers equal to that of any of the ancient Doric buildings now extant. -At the end of the hall there was a large rectangular recess, with niches -for statues. In the easternmost of these recesses was found the celebrated -Prænestine mosaic, now in the Barberini Palace at Palestrina. The rest of -the floor was composed of white mosaic work. Between the fronts of the two -halls ran a row of columns, three of which still stand in their original -positions in the wall of one of the chapels near the cathedral, and at the -back of the area between them was a corridor with nine windows, some of -which may still be seen in the court of the seminario. - -[Sidenote: Central terrace.] - -Above the terrace of the halls rose the central grand terrace, supported -by a great wall of polygonal masonry, which at the point called the -Rifolta still stands at its full height. This terrace is now occupied by -the Contrada del Borgo. On the eastern side it reached to the wall of the -city, where the ancient gate, now closed, near the Porta Portella, stands. -Two lofty arches stood, one at each end of the back of this terrace, -containing fountains and statues. - -It was upon this level, according to Nibby, that the original temple -stood, before the alterations made by Sylla. - -[Sidenote: Terrace of Recesses.] - -The whole of the two uppermost terraces were the work of the great -dictator. They were supported by walls of opus incertum, and the lower of -them contained two large semicircular recesses, for the accommodation of -the persons who came to consult the oracle. Hence it may be called the -terrace of the recesses. The eastern recess is still remaining under the -name of the Grotta Petrelli. It is supported in the interior by four -Corinthian columns, and the roof preserves the traces of decorative -designs in bronze. It is probable that the chamber in the centre, between -the two recesses, was the spot where, as Cicero narrates, the mysterious -Prænestine lots were originally discovered by Numerius Suffucius, and -where the statue of Fortuna, mentioned by him, stood. On each side of the -recesses were arched chambers, probably appropriated to the priests of the -temple and the interpreters of the lots. - -[Sidenote: Terrace of Hemicycle.] - -Above the terrace of the recesses, rose that of the Hemicycle. This was -divided into two parts, the lower consisting of a great rectangular -sacrificial court, with porticoes surrounding it, and the upper, of a -semicircular recess, somewhat similar to those which existed in the fora -of the emperors at Rome, having at the back of it a smaller raised terrace -on which stood the actual ædes, or shrine of the goddess Fortune. This -must have been the place where, according to the legend as told by Cicero, -the olive-tree which yielded honey grew, from which the casket was made -for the Prænestine lots. - -Fragments of an inscription which are still visible on the frieze, -surmounting two arched chambers under the hemicycle, seem to show that -this part was rebuilt by the civic officials and the municipality, but at -what period is not discoverable. No traces are now left of this part of -the building except the ground-plan of the hemicycle, which may be -traced in front of the Barberini Palace, and a few columns belonging to -the portico of the great square court. These stand in the public prison, -and the house of the sacristan of S. Rosalia.[150] - -[Illustration: Plan of Ostia & Porto] - -The ancient town extended to a considerable distance beyond the precincts -of the temple. Outside the Porta S. Francesco of the modern town, at about -the distance of half a mile, are two huge reservoirs, similar to those -described as placed at the foot of the Temple of Fortune; and in the -Contrada degli Arconi is the cistern of an aqueduct. This, with other -ruins near it, belonged to that part of the town founded by Sylla, which -extended to a distance of a mile and a half from the lowest terrace of the -great temple. - -The forum of the city lay between the western reservoir of the temple, and -the churches of S. Lucia and S. Madonna dell' Aquila. This is inferred -from numerous inscriptions, and some commemorative pillars and altars -found there. The Prænestine Registers of Verrius Flaccus were found in the -Contrada delle Quadrelle, a mile and a half from this spot. They may, -however, as Nibby suggests, have been moved from the forum, where we -should naturally expect to find them. - - -(D) OSTIA AND PORTO. - -[Sidenote: Ostia.] - -Ostia is fifteen miles distant from the Porta di S. Paolo of Rome. The -site of the old town is plainly discernible by the hillocks of rubbish -with which it is covered, and the ruined brick walls which protrude here -and there. - -On approaching from the modern village, which is half a mile nearer Rome -than the ruins of the old town, we pass between lines of tombs on each -side of the road, similar to those which have been excavated at Pompeii. -The tombs are very closely packed together, and of different sizes and -shapes. On the left-hand side, two sarcophagi remain, with the names of -Sex. Carminius Parthenopæus Eq., and T. Flavius Verus Eq., and a -terra-cotta inscription on the tomb of Flavia Cæcilia, priestess of Isis -at Ostia.[151] - -At the end of this street of tombs, the gate of the city has been laid -bare, and its foundations can be easily traced together with those of a -guard-house on the left-hand side, having a rude tabula lusoria marked on -the pavement, where the soldiers whiled away their time at some game -resembling skittles. - -The street which is then entered passes between the ruins of private -houses, without anything more remarkable about them than a few common -mosaic pavements and two fountains. The principal public buildings which -have been excavated, are, I. The house of the priests of Mithras, in which -a well-preserved altar still stands with the inscription: - - C CAELIVS . HERMAEROS - ANTISTES . HVIVS . LOCI - FECIT - -II. The Thermæ, consisting of a large court, and several smaller side -rooms for vapour-baths, with mosaic pavements of various designs. These -baths may possibly be the lavacrum Ostiense of Antoninus Pius. The stamps -on the bricks are said to be of the Antonine era. - -III. A large rectangular brick edifice with three windows on each side. In -the interior are the remains of ornamental niches, Corinthian capitals, -and a marble cornice. The walls have rivets upon them, by which it appears -that they were covered with a marble casing, and the magnificent block of -African marble which serves as the threshold shows that the building was -of a costly description. Traces have been found of a front chamber with a -portico of grey granite columns. Whether this was a temple or not is -uncertain, but it has been supposed that the arrangements in the interior -would agree with such a supposition. The masonry may be assigned to the -age of Trajan or Hadrian. The name of Vulcan has been usually given to -this temple, which was at one end of the ancient forum. Many excavations -have been made here within the last ten years, and some valuable works of -art have been discovered, and numerous stores and shops of various kinds -have been uncovered. - -IV. The ruins of a theatre supposed by Nibby to be that mentioned in the -Acta Martyrum, near which S. Quiriacus and S. Maximus, and S. Archelaus, -and a number of others were martyred. It is built partly of yellow and red -brickwork, and partly of opus reticulatum, and apparently belongs to the -restorations and additions made by Hadrian to the city. - -V. The ruins of an extensive building, probably an emporium, on the bank -of the river near Torre Bovacciano. In this place a great number of works -of art were discovered by Fagan in 1797, showing the magnificent -decorations with which the building was ornamented; and several -inscriptions with the names of Severus and Caracalla found here are given -by Nibby.[152] - -[Sidenote: Grove of the Arval College.] - -Fiumicino at the present mouth of the Tiber, and Porto which stands at the -site of the ports formed by Claudius and Trajan, may be reached from Rome -by steamer down the river, or by carriage. The road which leads to -Fiumicino and Porto leaves the city walls at the Porta Portese, and at -about the fifth milestone reaches the celebrated grove of the Dea Dia, -where the worship of the great collegiate priesthood of the Fratres -Arvales was carried on. The railway to Civita Vecchia crosses the road at -this spot, to which the modern names of the Monte delle Piche and the -Vigna Ceccarelli are given. Discoveries of inscriptions had been made here -since the year 1570, but no formal collection of them was made until the -publication of Marini's great work in 1785. No effective investigations -were, however, carried on until April 1868. The remains of a Christian -cemetery were then disinterred on the slope of the hill above the Vigna -Ceccarelli, where many of the marble tablets upon which the Arval Brothers -had inscribed their records were found to have been used in the graves in -lieu of coffins and as gravestones. One tomb was covered with a slab -containing the records of the year A.D. 155, and numerous fragments of -inscriptions were found scattered in all directions. The cemetery was -ascertained to have been adjacent to an oratory founded by Pope Damasus -(A.D. 1048), and a subterranean catacomb was found to have been formed, -which is mentioned in the Acta Martyrum as the Cemeterium Generosæ. The -inscriptions obtained from this spot refer chiefly to the year A.D. 90, -but some fragments belonging to the years 38, 87, and 59 were also found. - -These inscriptions are of great interest both archæologically, as -containing authentic particulars about the worship of the Arval Brothers, -and the places at Rome or elsewhere in which it was held, and also -historically, since many of them give the titles of eminent persons, or -fix the dates of consuls and other ministers of state, and enable us -thereby to correct and compare the statements of Tacitus and Suetonius -with those of Dion Cassius. Many points of mythology are also illustrated -by the mention of the divinities whom the college worshipped in their -ritual. - -An instance of the value of these inscriptions in determining the relative -accuracy of Dion and Suetonius is afforded by the inscription belonging to -the year A.D. 39, which gives us some historical facts about the reign of -Caius, a portion of Roman history rendered difficult and obscure by the -loss of the central books of the Annals of Tacitus. Suetonius states that -the title of Augusta was conferred on Antonia by Claudius, whereas Dion on -the contrary attributes the conference of this title to Caius. The -inscription decides the question in favour of the account of Dion Cassius. -Again, the date of the recognition of Caius by the Senate is fixed by the -same inscription as having occurred on the 18th of March, and not on the -16th as recorded by Tacitus and Suetonius, nor the 26th, as Dion Cassius -states. Many other interesting corrections or elucidations of the Latin -historians will be found in Henzen's learned treatises, or in his articles -in the 'Annali dell' Instituto' for 1867, and the 'Hermes' 1867. Besides -the grove of the Arval College, which was an extensive wood, four -buildings are mentioned in the Records--the Ædes Deæ Diæ, the Cesareum, -the Tetrastylon and the Circus. - -With regard to the position of these, Pellegrini is of opinion that the -Circus was situated on the ridge of the hill on the western side of the -Vigna Ceccarelli, in which place some remains apparently belonging to a -circus have been found. Henzen leaves the site of the Circus -undetermined, thinking that there is not sufficient evidence. The -Tetrastylon and the Cesareum were supposed by Mommsen to have been names -of the same building, but Henzen thinks that they are mentioned as -separate places in the same inscription. The college feasts and meetings -were held in one or other of these, which must therefore have been large -enough to contain, besides the dining hall, an assembly-room, as the -Brothers are said to have met there and to have sat in rows of seats. The -Cesareum was a quadrangular building, as the form of the inscriptions -which were attached to its walls seems to show, since they could not have -been placed on a round surface. The temple of the Dea Dia stood upon a -hill, for the priests are described as ascending in order to perform the -sacrifices, and descending afterwards. Yet there are no vestiges of a -building upon the top of the hill. Henzen therefore concludes that the -ruins of the round building, upon which the modern Casa rustica in the -Ceccarelli vineyard is placed, must have belonged to this Ædes. It was not -decorated with columns but with Corinthian pilasters, and the inscriptions -were affixed to the interior until the year 81, when it became necessary -from want of space to place them on the pedestals of the columns.[153] - -[Sidenote: Porto.] - -Beyond the site of the Arval Chapel, the road passes by the relics of the -papal palace of La Magliana, and then along a causeway six miles in length -to Porto. The site of the ancient Portus Trajani on the right branch of -the Tiber is now occupied by the town of Porto, mainly consisting of the -cathedral, the Villa Pallavicini, and some farm buildings. The sea has -here continuously receded for many centuries, and the river deposits of -sand and marl have extended. Fiumicino at the present mouth of the river -is two miles distant from Porto, and its site was entirely covered by the -sea at the time when Claudius, and Trajan after him, constructed their new -ports. The large marshy tract to the north of Porto marks the site of the -port of Claudius. The hexagonal basin of Trajan lies between this marsh -and the town of Porto. - -It is not at all clear when the right arm of the Tiber, or rather the -canal which now serves for communication between the sea and the Tiber -proper, assumed its present shape. Inundations and occasional repairs and -alterations have changed its course, and the constant retreat of the sea -must have lengthened it considerably. - -Nibby's opinion is that, besides the large harbour, Claudius constructed -an inner basin between the harbour and the old course of the river. Into -this basin he cut a canal from the bend of the river near modern Ostia, -and thus allowed the superfluous waters of the Tiber to escape through the -harbour, and at the same time gained a supply of water for his docks. The -inscription found in 1837, and now placed by the roadside near the Villa -Pallavicini, alludes to this canal. The words of this inscription seem to -show that the primary object of the canal was to supply the port with -water, and that the advantage of preventing inundations at Rome was only -secondary. Trajan probably enlarged and reconstructed the inner basin of -Claudius, and surrounded it with the massive quays and warehouses, the -ruins of which still remain. This inner basin is referred to by Juvenal. - -At the same time the canal was probably enlarged, and it is to this -enlargement that Pliny alludes when he speaks of the canal formed by the -most provident of all emperors.[154] - -[Sidenote: Ruins at Torre Paterno.] - -Passing from Ostia along the sea coast through the woods of Castel Fusano -to Torre Paterno, we find the ruins of a large villa, which have been -supposed by some to belong to Pliny's Laurentinum. But they are more -probably the relics of an imperial villa mentioned by Herodian as the -retreat to which Commodus withdrew, by the advice of his physicians, at -the time of the great plague in Rome, in the year 187. The neighbourhood -of Laurentum was recommended, says the historian, on account of its being -cooler than Rome, and also because it was shaded with large woods of -laurel and bay trees, the strong scent from which was supposed to -counteract the influence of the deadly malaria which was devastating the -capital.[155] The present ruins at Torre Paterno consist of brick walls -in two styles, one of which Nibby refers to the age of Nero, and the other -to the reign of Commodus or Severus. The central building, which contained -the grand suite of rooms, is the only part where work of the first -century, analogous to that of Nero's buildings at Rome, is to be seen; the -rest, says Nibby, is composed of various courtyards in the style of the -Antonine era, which have been altered and partly concealed by later modern -edifices. On one side of the ruins are two large cisterns, supplied by an -aqueduct which comes from the Tenimento la Santola. The brickwork of this -is apparently contemporaneous with other works which we know to have -belonged to the age of Commodus or Severus as having very thin bricks and -a great quantity of mortar. Near these reservoirs is an enclosed space -which was probably a courtyard or garden of a rectangular shape. On the -north side it has some ruins in the mode of construction called opus -mixtum of the fourth century; and on the east is the principal part of the -villa built of large and thick triangular bricks, with thin layers of -mortar beautifully laid, and evidently of an early date. On the west there -is a large dining-hall looking towards the sea, like that described in -Pliny's Laurentinum. Various other rooms and the foundations of a tower -can be traced on the sites occupied by the modern guardhouse and the -Chapel of S. Filippo.[156] - - -(E) TIBUR. - -The Via Valeria or Tiburtina leading to Tivoli, the ancient Tibur, now -leaves Rome at the Porta S. Lorenzo. Traces of the polygonal pavement of -the old road can be seen at intervals along the modern road to Tivoli, -especially between the eighth and ninth milestones, and here and there -elsewhere. In the Basilica of S. Lorenzo, a mile from the gate, are many -ancient fragments of architecture. The Ponte Mammolo, by which the Anio is -crossed at three and a half miles from Rome, is modern and there are -scarcely any relics of the old bridge. Here and there on the road are the -naked cores of tombs, but nothing of any interest offers itself to an -archæologist until the Aquæ Albulæ are reached. Some few remains of an -ancient building, which may have belonged to the Thermæ here, have been -discovered. They are now built into the walls of a modern farmhouse. These -ruins may have belonged to the Thermæ of Agrippa, which Augustus -frequented. - -The ancient quarries of travertine mentioned by Strabo, whence the stone -of the Coliseum came, lie on the right of the road beyond the Solfatara, -and the modern quarries on the left. The road then crosses the Anio over -an ancient bridge still called the Ponte Lucano, from Marcus Plautius -Lucanus, a Tiburtine magistrate, whose memory is preserved in an -inscription discovered upon the ancient fourteenth milestone on this road. - -The bridge was originally composed of three travertine arches, of which -the one next to the left bank remains entire. The central arch has been -restored with masonry of the sixth century, similar to that in the Ponte -Nomentano and the Ponte Salario. The arch on the right bank was restored -in the fifteenth century, and the whole bridge was repaired again about -1836. This bridge was broken down by Totila when he was encamped at Tibur, -and Nibby thinks that he destroyed the middle arch, which was then -restored by Narses. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of the Plautian family.] - -Just on the other side of the bridge is the tomb of the gens Plautia, well -known from numerous paintings and photographs. It is very similar to that -of Cæcilia Metella on the Appian Road, and to the Mausoleum of Hadrian, in -its main features. A cylindrical tower of travertine, based on a square -foundation, and capped with a cone, was the original design, but a -mediæval tower built upon the top now disfigures it. - -Two inscriptions placed in a projecting front with Ionic pilasters record -the names of M. Plautius Silvanus, consul with Augustus in the year B.C. -2, and his son Ti. Plautius Silvanus, prefect of the city in A.D. 73. A -third inscription, which is now destroyed, commemorated a P. Plautius -Pulcher. The longer inscription is given with notes in Wilmann's Inscr. -Lat. No. 1145. The person whose memory it preserves was the pontifex who -officiated at the rebuilding of the Capitoline Temple in A.D. 70, as -recorded by Tacitus. - -[Illustration: PLAN OF HADRIANEUM (_NEAR TIVOLI_)] - -[Sidenote: Hadrian's Villa.] - -Beyond the Ponte Lucano to the right are the ruins of Hadrian's great -Tiburtine Villa. They occupy the slopes of a hill of volcanic tufa, which -may be called an outlying part of Monte Affliano, extending for about -three miles in a direction from south-east to north-west. The various -levels afforded by the ground have been formed into terraces adapted to -the buildings they were intended to support by means of substructions, -which in some places are of vast solidity and gigantic height. "From these -terraces," says Nibby, "the views are most varied and picturesque. On one -side the horizon is bounded by the pointed heights of the Montes -Corniculani, and by the ridges of the Peschiatore, the Ripoli, and the -Affliano, and on the other, the eye ranges over the gently undulating -expanse of the Ager Romanus, from which rise the towers of the Eternal -City; while beyond, the long streak of light reflected from the waters of -the Etruscan and Laurentine Sea seems to encircle the whole with a silvery -zone. The situation of the villa is open to the healthy breezes of the -west wind, but is sheltered by the mountains from the fury of the north -wind, the piercing chills of the north-east, and the unwholesome hot -summer blasts of the south." - -The high ground on which the villa stands rises between two valleys, which -may be called from their position the north and south valleys. They run -down into the plain through which the Anio cuts its bed. The northern -valley has been artificially altered, with the view of increasing its -picturesque appearance, by cutting the sides so as form perpendicular -cliffs of reddish stone. The tints of these rocks, the soft verdure of the -plants and trees which grow luxuriantly upon them, the bright colours of -the wild flowers scattered here and there, and the lovely hills which rise -as a screen behind them, give this valley such a character of soothing and -enchanting retirement and beauty, that it has been universally regarded as -the spot to which the name of the Vale of Tempe was given by the emperor. -The southern valley is less deep and bold, and from its monotonous and -severe aspect it may perhaps have been the spot where Hadrian placed his -imitation of the infernal regions.[157] - -The brook which runs at the bottom of the northern valley (Fosso dell' -Acqua Ferrata) has received the name of the Peneius from antiquaries, and -that in the southern valley is called Fosso di Risicoli by the modern -inhabitants. These streams are now very scantily supplied with water, but -in ancient times, when the villa was watered by a constant flow from its -aqueducts, they must have been of considerable volume. The ruins, now -overgrown with clumps of cypress and other trees, extend for a space of -seven miles in circumference, and in the middle ages were known as Tivoli -Vecchio, from a vague and unfounded idea that the ancient city of Tibur -stood here. It has been remarked that the Coliseum is strikingly -characteristic of the Flavian emperors who planned and executed it, and -with equal truth it may be said that the Tiburtinum of Hadrian gives a -marvellous picture of the many-sided genius of the great man who was at -once the ruler of the whole known world and had travelled throughout his -vast domains from Britain to the Euphrates, organising and controlling -everywhere, and at the same time showing an appreciation of and value for -literature, philosophy, and the fine arts, which was generally foreign to -the Roman character. Hadrian constructed in his villa at Tibur a panorama -of all the sights which had struck him most in his world-wide travels, in -order that he might in this realm of enchantment, when no longer able to -travel, have the sights and thoughts in which he had taken such pleasure, -revived for his imagination to feed upon. Considering the size and -magnificence of the place, which almost resembles a town in its vast -extent, it is surprising that so few notices of it should be found among -the Roman historians and biographers. Dion Cassius, or rather his -epitomiser Xiphilinus, does not even mention it, and Spartianus and -Aurelius Victor pass it over without such special remark as we should -expect. As, however, a great part of the building consisted of the -familiar Thermæ, stadia, theatres and gymnasium, which were constructed in -every large Roman villa, they were perhaps not noticed, as matters of -course, and only the peculiarities of the villa were recorded. After -Hadrian's return to Rome at the end of his last journey to the East in -A.D. 135, he resigned the care of the empire to Lucius Ælius Verus and -retired to this villa, which had probably been built during his absence, -and may have been begun in 125 when he returned to Rome from his first -journey, and finished during the last three years of his life from 135 to -138. - -This opinion as to the date at which the villa was built is confirmed by -the stamps found on the bricks, which range from the year 123 to the year -A.D. 137, and that the ruins belong to Hadrian's villa is sufficiently -attested by universal tradition, and by the number of statues of Antinous, -and other works of art found here unquestionably belonging to the reign of -Hadrian. - -The ruins contain specimens of almost every kind of construction. The most -ancient part is a wall of opus incertum, composed of small polygonal -fragments of tufa, which stands near the Casino Fede. This wall is -probably a remnant of some older villa rustica or farmhouse which occupied -the site before Hadrian's time, and may have belonged to the gens Ælia. It -apparently belongs to the first half of the first century B.C. The most -common mode of construction is opus reticulatum, with squares of tawny -coloured tufa cut in the valley adjoining and bonded at the corners with -blocks of the same rock, or with red bricks. In those parts of the -buildings, which require great durability from being exposed to the action -of water, brickwork is used throughout. The Greek theatre and parts of the -academy are built of small squared blocks of tufa, or in some cases of -irregular fragments of tufa resembling the later opera Saracenesca. These -are sometimes strengthened with bands of reticulated work. In most cases -the outer covering of the walls has been removed, especially where it -consisted of marble slabs. Some of the stucco ornaments are still very -beautiful and well preserved. - -Each part of the buildings is complete in itself, but they do not seem to -have been arranged on any general plan, and now that the roads which -conducted from one part to another have disappeared, they present a -confused mass which requires some careful attention to unravel. I have -been obliged to confine myself to a very general and cursory account of -each main feature. To notice every detail would be far beyond the compass -of this book. In Ligorio's plan 334 different parts of the villa are -marked and separately described, and he spent a year in his investigation -of the ruins. - -Spartianus gives us the names of the Lyceum, the Academy, the Prytaneum, -the Canopus, the Poecile, the Tempe and the Inferi as the parts of the -villa made by Hadrian in imitation of their foreign originals. To these -Ligorio has added the name Cynosarges found upon a brick stamp. The sites -of the Canopus, the Poecile, the Academy, Tempe, and the Inferi may be -said to be ascertained with tolerable certainty, but those of the Lyceum -and Prytaneum have not been discovered. - -The other names given by antiquarians to the different buildings are -generally founded upon some definite evidence drawn from their shape and -situation, and are probably upon the whole fairly applicable. They are the -Theatres, the Palæstra, the Nymphæum, the Library, the Imperial Palace, -the Hospitals, the Stadium, the Camp, and the Thermæ. - -Proceeding from north to south, the ruins may be divided, for the -convenience of description, into ten grand groups--A, the Palæstra, -including the Greek and Latin Theatres and the Nymphæum; B, the Poecile; -C, the Guards' Barracks; D, the Library; E, the Imperial Palace; F, the -Stadium; G, the Thermæ; H, the Canopus; I, the Academy, including the -third theatre or Odeum; K, the Inferi. In giving these general divisions, -some attempt is made to represent the parts of the villa as they -were in Hadrian's time. The ruins are in such different states of -preservation--some being entirely destroyed and the ground-plan barely -traceable, while others are almost entire--that their real relative -importance is completely obscured. The modern alleys and walks also create -much confusion, and render the recognition of the ancient arrangement much -more difficult. - -The ancient grand entrance to the grounds was at the north-western end of -the ruins, on the road towards Tibur, about a quarter of a mile beyond -the Ponte Lucano. It seems to have consisted of two large pedestals of -white marble, between which the carriage-road passed, and which were -pierced with arched passages for the footways on each side. One of these -is still traceable in the Vigna Gentili, and has the remains of a -bas-relief upon it, while the other has been destroyed, and its -corresponding bas-relief placed in the Villa Albani at Rome. This gateway -has been imitated by the architect of the gateway at the old Villa -Borghese. It is erroneously called a tomb by Piranesi and Ligorio (see -Piranesi, Ant. Rom. tom. ii. tav. 39.) - -The modern entrance to the ruins is at the gate of the Villa Braschi, and -leads, through an avenue of cypress-trees, in a direction at right angles -to the ancient road of approach. The avenue runs across a space which was -formerly a large quadrilateral court, 350 feet by 250 feet, surrounded -with porticoes, attached to the theatre which stands a little to the side -at the end of the avenue. The ancient road from the Ponte Lucano entered -this court at the northern angle. The porticoes have now nearly -disappeared, but part of them was remaining in Ligorio's time. They served -the same purposes as the great colonnades behind the Theatres of Pompey -and Balbus at Rome. The theatre is an oval building, sunk in the slope of -the rising ground, the southern side containing the seats for spectators, -and the northern being occupied by the orchestra and scena, which has a -stage in the form of a long and narrow parallelogram. The plan corresponds -exactly to the description by Vitruvius of a Greek theatre, and has, -therefore, been called the Greek Theatre by the antiquaries. The Greeks -had the orchestra wider and the actual stage much narrower than the -Latins. Fragments of the travertine substructions of the scena still -remain. - -At some distance from this theatre, towards the east, and on the other -side of the stream which runs along the Valley of Tempe, is the Latin -Theatre, so called because the stage is much broader than that of the -theatre just described. Externally it was surrounded with arched porticoes -decorated, like the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome, with half-columns, -There were probably two tiers of these arches, corresponding to the two -divisions of seats. At the sides of the scena there were rooms for the use -of the actors and for the machinery, and behind the scena are three rooms, -probably corresponding to the three doors in the wall behind the stage. -The spectators' seats are turned towards the south, contrary to the rules -of Vitruvius. - -Between the two theatres there is a natural rise in the ground, which has -been further heightened by the rubbish heaped upon the spot. The ruins -here occupy a space in the form of a trapezium, the largest side of which -lies towards the north-west, and the shortest towards the south-west. They -are now covered with modern buildings belonging to the Villa Braschi. - -[Sidenote: Palæstra.] - -The northern angle of these ruins shows the remains of a quadrilateral -area surrounded by a covered way; and at the eastern angle there is -another smaller court, surrounded with a portico, which has a double row -of columns on the south-west side. This court is called the Palæstra by -Ligorio and Piranesi, and it is supposed by them that the double portico -was intended to be used in bad weather, when the athletes could not take -their exercise in the unsheltered part of the court. Several statues of -athletes, the colossal bust of Isis, now in the Museo Chiaromonti, and a -statue of Ceres, were found here. There is a suite of rooms on the -north-west side, intended, perhaps, for anointing-rooms, dust rooms, or -sparring-courts. On the southern side there is a spacious recess, with -niches for statues, and attached to it are two large halls, in the form of -a Greek cross, with small recesses at the sides, still retaining some -marks of their ancient decorations in stucco and paint. The western angle -of these ruins is conjectured to have been the site of the Xystus or -covered Palæstra, a cloistered court, with a small square opening in the -centre. - -The ruins of the Nymphæum lie on the south side of the Palæstra, and are -connected with it by some chambers in which the stucco ornaments are still -well preserved, and show what elegance of design and workmanship was -bestowed even on the inferior parts of the villa. The curved basin of the -Nymphæum can be traced, though it is now overgrown with trees, and some of -the niches still covered with stucco-work remain. The western side of one -of the adjacent rooms, now used as a granary, is ornamented with niches, -and Nibby thinks that this, which was the back of the Nymphæum, was -arranged so as to present a fountain supplied from the main pipe of the -aqueduct. A similar arrangement, he says, may be seen in the remains of -the Nymphæum at Ampiglione. The great vase now at Warwick Castle came from -Hadrian's Villa. - -[Sidenote: Poecile.] - -The Poecile lies to the south of the Nymphæum. Between them is a reservoir -and the remains of a fountain belonging to some building now entirely -destroyed. - -[Sidenote: Castra.] - -The Athenian Poecile, of which this is an imitation, was a portico, the -walls of which were decorated with the paintings of Polygnotus and Micon. -From the description given of it by Pausanias, the Athenian building -appears to have been a portico with three sides at least, on one of which -the battle of Oenoe was represented; on the second, and longest, the wars -of Theseus against the Amazons, and the council of the Greek chiefs after -the capture of Troy; and on the third, the battle of Marathon. It thus -appears that one of the sides was much longer than the others; and this is -the case with the ruin in the Villa of Hadrian, which has three sides, -one, 640, on the north, and the others, on the east and west, each 240 -feet in length. In Ligorio's time, 1550, a part of the porticoes, which -were of brick, still remained, and some of the paintings corresponding to -the Athenian pattern. It is not certain whether there was a similar wall -and portico on the southern side. The wall of the northern side, which is -the longest, still remains entire. It had a portico on the exterior, which -terminated in two circular buildings; and in the centre was the principal -entrance to the Poecile. The present entrance is modern. Both the eastern -and western sides are slightly curved. The former contains a recess in the -centre connected with the buildings behind. In the centre was an open -reservoir of the same shape as the building surrounding it. On the western -and southern sides the area of the Poecile is supported by substructions -of masonry, against which are built a number of soldiers' rooms commonly -called the Cento Camarelle. At the corner towards the south-west is a -public washhouse, the tubes of which are still in good preservation. - -Attached to the north-eastern corner of the Poecile is a fine building, in -the form of a recess, with a semicircular niche turned towards the north, -which, from the connection of the Stoic philosophy with the Stoa Poecile -at Athens, has been called the Temple or School of the Stoics. It was -possibly a hall for conversation and discussion. - -[Sidenote: Library.] - -Opening from this school, towards the north-east, is a building in the -form of two concentric circles. Between the two circular parts there was a -canal filled with water. This edifice was probably a swimming-bath. It -appears to have been very highly ornamented with precious marbles and -sculptures, most of which were taken to Rome by Cardinal Alessandro -Farnese, and others to Tivoli by Cardinal Ippolito d'Este. The ruin -commonly goes by the name of Theatrum Maritimum. A little farther to the -north-east is a quadrilateral court, 200 feet wide, which was surrounded -by a portico with Corinthian columns. On the north-west side of this court -are the buildings usually supposed to belong to the library, and called -the Greek and Latin libraries. They consist of a large number of rooms, -more or less preserved, which may have been ante-rooms and chambers for -the attendants and librarians. In the centre of the north-western side of -the court is a well-preserved Nymphæum, and on the north-east a long -corridor with windows towards the south, which may be called a Helio -Caminus, or room for basking in the sun, from its resemblance to the place -so called by Pliny at his Laurentine villa. The ruins to the north-east of -these, towards the Valley of Tempe, are thought by Nibby to be the remains -of a suite of rooms belonging to one wing of the imperial palace, but -their plan is very imperfectly known. - -[Sidenote: Palace.] - -The great mass of the imperial apartments were farther to the south-east, -and were grouped round three large courts of dazzling magnificence. The -most splendid of those, which afforded spoil for generations of -plunderers, is called by Piranesi, from the richness of its decorative -work, the Piazza d'Oro. Round the courts were numberless suites of rooms -and several large recesses, a basilica, and a great hall now called Eco -Corintio, formerly supported on vast granite columns, and cased with slabs -of the choicest marbles. - -[Sidenote: Stadium.] - -The Stadium lies in a direction at right-angles to the southern side of -the Poecile. The curved end is towards the south. Between the -swimming-bath and the northern, or square end of the Stadium, are some -bath-rooms for the use of the athletes, and on the west side stands a -temple surrounded by a sacred enclosure formed by two vast semicircular -walls ornamented with niches. On the eastern side are more rooms, and a -magnificent quadrilateral covered way. - -[Sidenote: Thermæ.] - -The Thermæ stand between the Stadium and the Canopus. Numerous pipes and -conduits for water, and also the arrangement of the various parts of the -buildings, show that they have been rightly placed here. There seem to -have been two distinct sets of bath-rooms, which are generally called the -Terme virili and the Terme muliebri by the Italian antiquaries. The -northern group of buildings is connected with the curved end of the -Stadium, and contains the usual number of halls and an elliptical -Laconicum. The Laconicum of the southern wing is circular, and is -connected with a grand central hall similar to that in the Baths of -Caracalla at Rome. - -[Sidenote: Canopus.] - -The place called Canopus lies to the south of the Thermæ, and close to a -mass of buildings now utterly destroyed, but in Piranesi's time thought to -be a vestibule of the villa. The Canopus itself consists of an oblong pool -of water or euripus excavated in the tufa, with a row of buildings on the -west side, and a magnificent nymphæum at the southern end, containing a -great number of niches for statuary, and holes for jets of water. At the -back of the Nymphæum is a hall called the Sacrarium, in which it is -supposed the statue of Serapis stood. A passage of Strabo explains the -idea which Hadrian had in forming this canal and Nymphæum. He says that on -the grand festival of Serapis, whose temple and oracle were at Canopus, -120 stadia from Alexandria, immense crowds of men and women go down to -Canopus from Alexandria by boats on the canal, on the banks of which are -pleasant houses of entertainment, where the worshippers stop on their way -to feast and dance.[158] The long, broad pool was intended to represent -the Canopic canal, and the rooms ranged along the side, the houses of -refreshment. A confirmation of this is derived from the character of the -statues found here which were almost all those of Egyptian deities. - -[Sidenote: Academy.] - -To the south-west of the Canopus rise the immense substructions, 1755 feet -in length, which supported the highest terrace on this side of the villa. -They extend as far as the square tower called Rocca Bruna in Ligorio's -plan. This terrace and hill are supposed to have been the imitation of the -Athenian Academy mentioned by Spartianus. There was a gymnasium here, the -ruins of which are to be seen in a vineyard at the southern end of the -hill, consisting of a large court, a circular temple, and a large recess. -Beyond these there was a large square block of buildings supposed by Nibby -to have been used for the students and masters of the School of Art -maintained by Hadrian, and beyond this again was a spacious Odeum or -theatre for musical performances. The raised seat of this is now converted -into a vineyard, but the stage is still well preserved. There were, as in -the Odeum of Catania, two divisions, and at the top of the central -division was a round temple dedicated to the presiding genius of the -Odeum; just as in the Theatre of Pompey the Chapel of Victory stood above -the seats. - -Close to this Odeum are the vast subterranean passages supposed to be the -Inferi which Spartianus mentions. The depth at which these lie is only -fourteen feet, but they occupy a trapezoidal area, the longest side of -which is about one thousand and fifty feet, and the shortest two hundred. -Most of these corridors are excavated like catacombs in the natural rock. -A brick stamped with the name Cynosarges was found near the aqueduct which -runs to the south of the Inferi. There are two other names found in -Spartianus, the Lyceum, and the Prytaneum, and Piranesi identifies the -Lyceum with a ruined portico at a little distance to the south of the -Inferi, and the Prytaneum with some more extensive ruins to the -south-east. - -After Constantine's time, the Villa of Hadrian remained in a desolate -state, and was abandoned to the caprices of the imbecile Cæsars, who -tormented the empire in the fourth and fifth centuries, and to occasional -visits from the plundering hordes of Goths, Vandals, and Heruli, who -successively ravaged the neighbouring country. In the middle of the sixth -century it was completely pillaged and ruined. In the Gothic wars of -546-556 Totila took Tibur after a siege of some months, and revenged -himself for the resistance of the Isaurian garrison by putting all to the -sword without sparing even the bishop. At the same time Totila broke down -all the bridges on the Anio. During that long siege, the Villa of Hadrian -with its enormous halls, its vast ranges of rooms, and its advantageous -and commanding site at the junction of several roads, offered convenient -quarters to the barbarian king and his host. It may be imagined what -devastation such tenants would inflict upon the place. In the sixth -century the villa fell more and more into ruins; to the disasters of the -Gothic wars were added those incurred during the Lombard wars under -Astulf. The Lombards were a more savage horde than the Goths, and their -object was to destroy the Roman empire utterly, and to divide Italy into -dukedoms. These barbarians attacked Rome many times, and ravaged the -Campagna, but Astulf distinguished himself above all the rest in these -incursions, massacring and burning everywhere without distinction. As we -hear that he was encamped near Tivoli, we may conclude that the Villa of -Hadrian suffered severely in or about the year 755. - -The wars between emperors and popes, and the quarrels between the factions -in Rome itself which followed, injured Rome perhaps rather more than the -cities of the Campagna. But the greatest damage of all was done to the -villa by its being made the quarry whence the churches, the monasteries, -and the houses of the wealthy Tiburtines were decorated with marbles, -columns, and costly stonework, and when these were filled and could hold -no more of the innumerable marble sculptures and statues, they were -condemned to the lime-kiln and converted into mortar. After the revival -of letters and arts in the fifteenth century, the lamentations poured out -in the time of Pius II. (A.D. 1458) over the ruins of the villa are most -pathetic. "The lofty vaults of the temples are still standing, and the -wonderful columns of the cloisters and magnificent porticoes. The -swimming-baths and Thermæ can be traced, where the water of the Anio once -mitigated the summer heats. But the hand of time has defaced all these, -and the walls once draped with embroidered tapestry and cloth of gold are -now clad with ivy; the thorns and briar grow where tribunes sat in purple -robes, and serpents crawl, in their kings' chambers." In spite of the -existence here and there of such love of antiquity, the burning of the -Tiburtine marbles into lime continued throughout the sixteenth century, -and the levelling of the ground for cultivation has gone on even to the -present century.[159] - -The same fate attended all the other grand monuments of the Campagna. -Rutilius Numatianus, writing probably in 417 in the reign of Honorius, -speaks of the buildings of Rome and the aqueducts of the Campagna as if -they were still uninjured, but he prefers to return to his native home in -Gaul by sea, on account of the bad state of the roads on the coast caused -by the Gothic devastations. - -[Illustration: ENVIRONS OF TIVOLI.] - -[Sidenote: Tibur.] - -Ascending from Hadrian's Villa to the point where the Anio issues from a -valley dividing the Æquian from the Sabine Mountains, we find the river -winding round a considerable hill, partly clothed with groves of olive, -and rising to the height of 830 feet. At the back of this hill the river -has forced a passage for itself through the limestone rocks which threaten -to impede its exit from the upper valley, and falls in a tremendous -cataract down a precipitous cliff of 320 feet in height to the lower -level. The water is strongly charged with carbonate of lime, which is -constantly being deposited in the shape of masses of travertine in the -channels through which the stream runs, especially where the water, in -consequence of the violent agitation caused by its rapid descent, parts -quickly with the carbonic acid gas contained in it. The course of the -stream is from time to time blocked up by its own formations of stone, -and it is forced to open new passages for itself. From this cause the city -of Tibur, which stands on the hill, close to the point where the river -falls to its lower level, has always been subject to violent and dangerous -inundations. The great inundation of 1826 proved so formidable that it was -at once resolved to divert the course of part of the river and provide it -with an artificial outlet. This was effected by boring two tunnels through -Monte Catillo on the east of the city, through which any rush of water can -be allowed to pass and fall harmlessly into the lower valley. A part of -the river water is always allowed to pass through these tunnels, and forms -at their lower end a magnificent cascade. Another part passes under the -bridge called Ponte S. Gregorio and then rushes through a fantastic grotto -of travertine blocks called by the local guides Grotta di Nettuno, and -joins the stream from the tunnels at the bottom of the valley. A third -portion of the Anio is diverted just above the bridge into canals -apparently of very ancient date, which, passing completely through the -centre of the town, are used as the motive power of watermills and -factories of various kinds, and then fall again into the main stream at -various points of the romantic cliffs on the western hill side. These form -the wreaths of "snow white foam" so celebrated as the cascades of the -Anio, and explain perfectly the expression of Horace: - - O headlong Anio, O Tiburnian groves, - And orchards saturate with shifting streams. - -But few traces of the ancient walls of the city are left. Nibby is however -doubtless right in saying that there can be no question about their course -along the northern and eastern sides of the city, where the brow of the -hill is steep and perfectly adapted for defence by a wall placed on the -edge of the rocky valley of the Anio. The citadel was probably situated in -the quarter called Castro Vetere--where the two temples commonly called -the temples of the Sibyl and of Drusilla stand, for it is plain that some -pains have been taken to isolate this from the remainder of the site. On -the western side the limit of the ancient walls is marked by the old -gate, and by the fragments of walls which still exist at the point where -the direct road from Rome enters the city by the modern Porta del Colle. -The course of the walls then excludes the Villa d'Este, and runs across -the hill to the Church of the Annunziata and the Porta Santa Croce and the -citadel built by Pius II. on the site of the ancient amphitheatre. From -thence the walls passed in a straight line down to the river near the -Church of S. Bartolommeo. The ancient town did not extend to the right -bank of the Anio. - -[Illustration: Temple of Vesta at Tibur.] - -[Sidenote: Temple of Vesta.] - -Two ancient temples are still standing in tolerable preservation at Tibur. -The first of these is a small round temple perched on the very edge of the -precipitous ravine through which the Anio dashes. It has been protected -against the violence of the furious torrent by massive substructions, -which apparently existed in ancient times and have often been renewed. Ten -of the eighteen columns which formerly surrounded the inner chamber still -remain. - -The details of this temple are rather peculiar in style, and show an -originality of invention very rare in Roman architecture. The columns have -Attic bases, but the grooves of the fluting are cut in a style which is -neither Doric nor Ionic. They terminate above in an abrupt horizontal -line, and reach at the foot of the column quite down to the base without -any intermediate cylinder. The capitals exhibit a fantastic variety of the -Corinthian order, having the second row of acanthus leaves nearly hidden -behind the first, and a lotus blossom as the decoration of the abacus. The -frieze is ornamented with the skulls of oxen and festoons, in the loops of -which are rosettes and pateræ placed alternately. The inner chamber, which -is built of opus incertum, is partly destroyed, but the lower half of the -door and a window still remain. - -From the above description it will be seen that the architecture of the -temple appears to belong to the end of the Republican era, but the -inscription on the architecture gives us no further hint of the exact -date, as the whole of it: with the exception of the words L. CELLIO. L. -F., has disappeared. The most probable conjecture as to the deity to whom -it was dedicated is that based upon the fact that Vesta was worshipped at -Tibur, as is shown not only by two inscriptions found near the spot, but -also by the mediæval name of this quarter of the town. The form of the -temple also confirms such an opinion. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Albunea.] - -The second temple stands quite close to this round building, and is now -consecrated as the Church of S. Giorgio. Its shape was that of a -pseudoperipteral temple, i.e. with the side columns half sunk in the -walls, raised on a meagre base of tufa blocks. It had a front, with four -Ionic columns, one of which still remains, forming a support to the -Campanile. An inscription dedicated to Drusilla, the sister of Caligula, -was found here, but no reference as to the name of the temple can be drawn -from it. A bas-relief, also found on the spot, represents the Tiburtine -Sibyl sitting, and in the act of delivering an oracle. Hence it has been -thought that we have in the Church of S. Giorgio the Temple of the Sibyl -Albunea mentioned by Horace, Tibullus, and Lactantius, and this seems to -be the most probable of the various conjectures which have been hazarded -on the subject. The Grove of Tiburnus mentioned by Horace was probably on -the right bank of the Anio, but further than this it is impossible to -determine its exact position. There was also a grove dedicated to Diana. -The Mons Catillus, now Monte Catillo or Monte della Croce, is the height -on the right bank of the Anio. The name is at least as early as the time -of Servius. - -[Sidenote: Villas.] - -As may easily be imagined there are numerous remains of ancient villas -scattered about the immediate neighbourhood of Tibur, and the local -guides, in order to please travellers but without the slightest evidence -in support of their assertions, have dubbed them the Villas of Catullus, -Horace, Ventidius, Quintilius Varus, Mæcenas, Sallust, Piso, Capito, -Brutus, Popillius, and other celebrated Romans. - -The most remarkable ruins are those to which the name of Mæcenas has been -attached. The greater part of these have been now unfortunately concealed -by new buildings and by an iron manufactory, but a fine terrace and parts -of the porticoes still remain on the lofty bank of the Anio. The rest is -a mere confused mass of vaulted chambers and archways. The Via Tecta, or -Porta Oscura, as it is sometimes called, by which the road passes -underneath these ruins, was built, as we learn from an inscription now in -the Vatican collection, by O. Vitulus and Rustius Flavos. The materials -and style show that it can hardly be of a later date than the first -century A.D. - -[Sidenote: Tempio della Tosse.] - -The Tempio della Tosse which probably obtains its name from a vulgar -interpretation of the name of the gens Tossia, is a ruin standing in a -vineyard at the side of the old road, called the Via Constantina, below -the Villa d'Este. It has none of the characteristic marks of an ancient -temple, and the large number of windows it contains forbid us to suppose -it to be a tomb. The interior of the building is round, the exterior -octagonal. It is built of layers of small fragments of tufa intermixed -with courses of bricks, materials which point to the fourth century as the -earliest possible date of its erection. On the walls are the remains of -frescoes of the Saviour and the Virgin, dating probably from the 13th -century. These show that, if it was not originally a Christian Church, it -was used as one at the time the frescoes were painted. - -[Sidenote: Villa of Cassius.] - -The ruins of a considerable villa lie near the Porta S. Croce of Tivoli, -in the estate called Carciano, from the mediæval name of the Fundus -Cassianus, which is stated in a list of the estates belonging to the -cathedral at Tivoli to have been the site of a villa of Caius Cassius. -Part of these ruins consist of a very ancient structure of polygonal work, -but the rest is pronounced by Nibby to belong to the time of the later -republic. The casino of the Collegio Greco is now built on the spot, but -the plan of the ancient villa can be so far traced as to show that it had -several terraces, and looked towards the south-west. In the 16th century -there were still eighteen large apartments existing, surrounded with a -portico of Doric columns, and also some temples, a theatre, some -fountains, and fish ponds. The opus reticulatum of these ruins is peculiar -for the alternate arrangement of coloured tufa in its lozenges. An immense -number of works of art were dug up here, and the nearly complete -destruction of what still remained of the villa in the 16th century, is -probably due to the fact of its having been found to be so rich a mine of -sculpture. - -[Sidenote: Sabine Farm of Horace.] - -The Sabine farm of Horace can hardly be passed over here, though it is not -strictly included within the district of Tibur. There is no evidence to -show that Horace ever had any villa at Tibur in addition to his Sabine -farm; indeed his own words seem expressly to imply the contrary. The -estate he had was plainly usually called a Sabinum, not a Tiburtinum, and -must therefore be looked for at some distance from Tibur. Horace mentions -two places in its neighbourhood, Varia, and Mandela, the sites of which -can be exactly determined. The ancient list of towns places Varia on the -Via Valeria, eight miles beyond Tibur, and precisely at this distance are -the remains of an ancient town now covered by the modern village of Vico -Varo. But the position of Mandela is more important for ascertaining the -site of Horace's farm, because if we can fix upon it, we then can discover -to which of the mountain streams which flow into the Anio the name -Digentia belonged. An inscription dug up in 1757 near the Church of S. -Cosimato on the Via Valeria, two miles from the village of Bardella, shows -that an estate in the modern district formed by the union of Cantalupo and -Bardella was called in the later imperial times, or the early Middle Ages, -Massa Mandelana. - -From this it is plain that the Digentia was the torrent called Mariscella, -which joins the Anio between Cantalupo, Bardella and Vico Varo, descending -from near Licenza, a small village about six miles from Vico Varo. As to -the exact spot where the farm of Horace itself stood in the valley of the -Digentia, we cannot be quite certain. The ruins usually pointed out are on -a little knoll opposite to the village of Licenza, and on the other side -of the stream. These are possibly situated on the spot on which the -farmhouse stood, if they do not date so far back as the lifetime of the -poet himself. Dennis in Milman's Horace says, "The ruins consist only of a -mosaic pavement, and of two capitals and two fragments of Doric columns -lying among the bushes. The pavement has been much ruined by the planting -of a vineyard, and can only be seen on removing the earth which covers -it. The groundwork is white with a border of animals in black. These are -the sole traces now visible (1842), but some fifty years ago, the mosaic -floors of six chambers were brought to light, but were covered again with -earth, as nothing was found to tempt any further excavation. The farm is -situated on a rising ground which sinks with a gentle slope to the stream, -leaving a level intervening strip now yellow with the harvest. In this I -recognised the sunny meadow which, as the poet says, was in danger of -being inundated. The sunny fields were probably then, as now, sown with -corn. Here it must have been that the poet was wont to repose on the grass -after his meal, and here his personal efforts perhaps to dam out the -stream provoked his neighbours' smiles." The place is surrounded on all -sides by hills, except where the main valley of the Digentia separates -them, running nearly due north and south, so that facing down the valley, -the sun before midday rests on the right-hand slopes, and in the afternoon -on the left hand, thus corresponding exactly to the poet's description of -the site.[160] - -[Illustration: Vico Varo and Lucretilis.] - -The other spots mentioned by Horace as near his farm, are the Chapel of -Vacuna, the slopes of Ustica, and the mountain of Lucretilis. The first of -these has been placed by the Italian topographers at Rocca Giovane, a -village perched on a hill on the west side of the valley about two miles -above Cantalupo Bardella. The evidence for this identification is, -however, very doubtful. - -The Ustica cubans of the poet is commonly with some probability supposed -to be La Rustica, which lies on the hill close to Licenza on the eastern -side of the valley. Lucretilis is probably a name applied to the whole -range of hills connected with Monte Gennaro. Cav. Rosa, however, places it -at Monte del Corynaleto just above Rocca Giovane. The name of Fons -Bandusiæ has been given to most of the springs in this valley by the -enthusiastic admirers of Horace, but it is quite uncertain whether the -Fons Bandusiæ was not in Apulia. - - -(F) THE NORTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. - -The principal roads which traversed the Campagna to the north and -north-west of Rome are the Nomentana, the Salaria and the Flaminia. -These roads offer but little, within the bounds of ancient Latium, which -calls for remark. - -[Illustration: AGRI ROMANI TABULA] - -The Via Nomentana diverged from the Via Salaria at the Collina gate in the -Servian walls, and passed through the Aurelian wall at a gate which now -stands a little to the south of the modern Porta Pia. The present road -follows the line of the ancient Via Nomentana, as may be seen by the ruins -of tombs which fringe it beyond S. Agnese. The Chapel of S. Constanza, -opposite S. Agnese, is an interesting building of the Constantinian epoch, -and the mosaics it contains, including a mixture of Christian and pagan -emblems, are very remarkable. The Mons Sacer stands just beyond the bridge -over the Anio, and the Villa of Phaon, where Nero ended his life, was at -the Vigne Nuove, on a side road which branches off to the right, just -beyond the Ponte Nomentano. - -The Via Salaria is said to have been so named from the supplies of salt -conveyed along it to the Sabine district at the time when the Romans and -Sabines were confederates. It is first mentioned in history as the scene -of the single combat between Manlius and the gigantic Gaul. The ancient -road passed out at the Collina gate, and followed very nearly the same -line as the present road along the left bank of the Tiber, as may be seen -by the ruins near Serpentara, and by the position of the ancient bridge, -the Ponte Salaro, which carries it over the Anio close to Antemnæ. Beyond -this, Fidenæ and the Allia are the most remarkable points of interest upon -the road in the neighbourhood of Rome. Beyond Malpasso, the ancient road, -according to Nibby, diverges to the right, crossing the railway to Ancona. - -The Via Flaminia, after passing through the Porta Ratumena at the Tomb of -Bibulus, left the Aurelian fortifications at the Porta Flaminia, which -stood a little nearer the slope of Monte Pincio than the present Porta del -Popolo. It ran to the right of the present street, and then crossed the -Tiber at the well-known Milvian bridge, and then diverged to the right -along the Tiber valley, while the Via Cassia ascended to the left among -the Etruscan hills towards Veii, which lay to the right at the twelfth -milestone. The old Flaminian Road lay closer to the river than the -modern, which is carried through a cutting in the hills and rejoins it at -Tor di Quinto. There are a few rock tombs on the left hand, between the -fifth and sixth milestones. One of them has been connected with the poet -Ovid by a mistaken inference drawn from the inscription found upon it -which bears the name of Q. Nasonius Ambrosius. - -[Illustration: Ponte Nomentano.] - -The Ponte Molle, which derives its name from an unknown Roman Mulvius, or -from the neighbouring hills, carries the Flaminian Road over the Tiber at -a distance of two miles from the Porta del Popolo. Some of the foundations -of the bridge, and parts of the peperino and travertine stonework in the -smaller arches, are ancient. The victory of Constantine over Maxentius, -which is usually called the battle of the Pons Mulvius, was gained six -miles further along the road. - -An inscription cut in a block of travertine has been fixed in the -right-hand parapet of the bridge. This inscription records the inspection -of the banks of the Tiber by the Censors of M. Valerius and Publius -Serveilius, who were Censors in the year B.C. 55. - -[Sidenote: Villa of Livia at Prima Porta.] - -One of the imperial villas of an early date was placed on the right bank -of the Tiber at the ninth milestone on the Via Flaminia in the Veientine -territory. - -The Via Flaminia is here bordered for a long distance on the left-hand -side by tufa rocks of a reddish hue, whence the district had obtained, in -Livy's time, the name of Saxa Rubra. The Cremera, now the Valca, is one of -the streams which enter the Tiber in this district, and beyond it, where -the road turns to the left, and, leaving the valley of the Tiber, ascends -the hill through a cutting, is the stream and hamlet of Prima Porta. On -the right of the road here, and between it and the Tiber, lie the ruins of -a large villa, the various terraces of which, raised one above the other, -occupy the whole of the top of the hill, and command magnificent views of -the Sabine and Æquian highlands. There can be no doubt that these ruins -are the remains of the villa of Livia called ad Gallinas, mentioned by -Pliny and by Suetonius as situated at the ninth milestone on the Via -Flaminia. The style of construction in the walls which remain corresponds -to that of the Mausoleum of Augustus in the Campus Martius. The -reticulated work has that peculiar irregularity about it which indicates -the transition from the opus incertum to the more regularly formed opus -reticulatum. Nibby had pointed out this spot in 1837 as one in which a -rich harvest might be reaped from excavating, but it was not till 1863 -that the splendid Statue of Augustus, now in the Braccio Nuovo of the -Vatican with other interesting sculptures, was dug up here.[161] - -At the same time some rooms were excavated at a depth of ten feet, under -the level of the ancient villa. They had apparently been closed at a very -early time and filled with earth, in order to erect a building over them. -The largest of these was apparently intended as a cool retreat during the -summer heats, and the walls are painted with trees and birds, in imitation -of a rustic bower. These paintings have attracted great attention as being -some of the most ancient now in existence, and also on account of their -intrinsic beauty, and the wonderful way in which they have preserved their -freshness of colour. The pavement of this painted room was of marble, -which was, however, removed when the earth was thrown in at the time of -building the rooms above. - -The legend about this villa connects it with the death of Nero, relating -that the laurel bushes and the white fowls, for which the villa had been -celebrated since the days of Livia, withered and died out during Nero's -last days. - -[Sidenote: Veii.] - -Beyond Prima Porta, to the west, is the site of Veii. This is about twelve -miles from Rome, and now bears the name of Isola Farnese. But little -remains of the ancient city have been found, but no doubt is now felt by -antiquaries that the city occupied the rocky ground between the Cremera -and the Fosso de' due Fossi. - -Inscriptions bearing the names of some Etruscan families, especially the -Tarquitii, have been found here, and the remains of the ancient citadel, -on the spot now called the Piazza d'Armi, are mentioned in some old -ecclesiastical documents. - -[Illustration: _ICHNOGRAPHIA._ ROMAE VETERIS.] - -One of the gates must have been at the spot now called the Porta de' Sette -Pagi as the road from Veii to Sutri probably passed out here, and another -gate was opposite Isola called the Porta dell' Arco. A third may have -stood towards Fidenæ, where the ancient postern and flight of steps is -now to be seen, called La Scaletta. Other remains are to be seen near -the site of a gate called by Canina La Spezieria. The Ponte Sodo and the -tombs near it are worth attention, as is also the ancient Etruscan tomb -called the Grotta Campana, in which a most interesting set of sepulchral -ornamentations and cinerary urns has been preserved. The chief monuments -of Veii, which have been taken to Rome, are the Ionic columns in front of -the Post Office in the Piazza Colonna, the Statue of Tiberius, and the -colossal heads of Tiberius and Augustus, now in the Vatican Museum.[162] - - - - -INDEX. - - - A. - - Academia, 21, 246 - - Ædes Publican, Flavian, 22, 24 - - Æsculapius, temple of, 116 - - Agger of Servius, 157 - - Agon Capitolinus, 181 - - Agrippina, pedestal of, 146, 178 - - Alba Longa, 207 - - Alban Hills, 192, 194; - Emissarium or tunnel of, 204 - - ---- Lake, 203 - - ---- Mount, 206 - - Albanum Cæsarum, 202 - - Albula, 189 - - Albulæ Aquæ, 236 - - Alexamenus, 18 - - Allia, 257 - - Altar of Sextius, 16 - - Amphitheatrum Castrense, 173 - - Ancient stone work, 163 - - Anio, falls of, 249 - - Antoninus Pius, pedestal of column, 178 - - Appian Road, 194 - - Aqua Virgo, 135 - - Arches, 9 - - Arch of Constantine, 59 - - ---- Dolabella, 174 - - ---- Drusus, 171 - - ---- Gallienus, 77 - - ---- M. Aurelius, 177 - - ---- Severus, 52 - - ---- Silversmiths, 104 - - ---- Tiberius, 46 - - ---- Titus, 31 - - Architectural styles, 5, 11 - - Arco dei Pantani, 92 - - Area Flacciana, 15 - - Arena of Coliseum, 67 - - Arricia, causeway at, 208 - - Arval College, 231 - - Atta, tomb of, 219 - - Atticus, tomb of, 198 - - Atrium, Palatine, 23 - - Auguratorium, on Palatine, 30 - - Augustan buildings, 21 - - Aurelius, M., bas-reliefs from arch, 177 - - Aventine and Cælian Hills, 161. - - - B. - - Bandusiæ Fons, 256 - - Basilica, Constantine, 34, 35, 183 - - ---- Julia, 44 - - ----, Palatine, 24 - - ----, Ulpia, 83 - - Bas-reliefs in Forum, 42, 43 - - Baths of Agrippa, 134 - - ---- Caracalla, 166, 183 - - ---- Constantine, 100, 183 - - ---- Diocletian, 153 - - ---- Titus, 75 - - Bibliotheca, 21 - - Bibulus, tomb of, 97 - - Brickwork, 12 - - Bronze cone, 149, 178; - peacocks, 150, 178 - - Bovillæ, 200 - - - C. - - Cæcilia Metella, tomb of, 197 - - Cælian, houses on, 176 - - Caffarelli Palace, 98 - - Caligula, Palace of, 31 - - Calydonian boar hunt, 181 - - Campagna, hills of, 191; - population, 192 - - Capitoline map, 120, 181 - - Capitolium, 98 - - Casale Rotondo, 200 - - Cestius, tomb of, 165 - - Cicero's Villa, 218 - - Circus Flaminius, 123; - - ---- Maximus, Carceres of, 112 - - Claudian Aqueduct, 20, 81, 174 - - Climate, 189 - - Clivus Victoriæ, 14 - - Cloaca Maxima, 46, 105 - - Clodius, Villa of, 201 - - Cluilia Fossa, 197 - - Coliseum, 61; - architecture of, 72; - characteristic of builder, 70 - - Colonnacce, 94 - - Colossus of Nero, 63 - - Columbaria, 73, 170 - - Columns, 10 - - Column of Marcus Aurelius, 138 - - ---- Phocas, 41 - - ---- Trajan, 84; - cast of, 89 - - Columna Centenaria, 142 - - Commodus, Palace of, 176 - - Constantine, Baths of, 100 - - Cornelia Gracchorum, 121 - - Cosmedin, S. Maria in, 111 - - Cremera, 259 - - Cryptoporticus, 25 - - Curtius, bas-relief, 179 - - - D. - - Dacian campaigns, Trajan's, 87 - - Decebalus, 88 - - Demosthenes, statue of, 182 - - Digentia, 254 - - Dii Consentes, area of, 48 - - Dogana, in Piazza di Pietra, 136 - - Domitius Calvinus, pedestal, 26, 28 - - Domus Aurea of Nero, 73 - - Doria Palace, 127 - - Duilian column, inscription on, 179 - - - E. - - Egeria, grotto of, 195 - - Egyptian antiquities, 129, 177 - - Einsiedlen MS., 51, 76, 100, 125, 138, 148 - - Eurysaces, tomb of, 81 - - - F. - - Fasti Consulares, 179 - - ---- Prænestini, 229 - - Faustina, the younger, 178 - - Fidenæ, 257 - - Fiumicino, 231 - - Flaminia, Via, 257 - - Forum Augusti, 92 - - ---- Julium, 91 - - ----, Nerva's, 94 - - ---- Romanum, 38 - - ----, Trajan's, 83 - - Fratres Arvales, 231; - buildings of, 232 - - Freshwater strata, 187 - - Frontispicium Neronis, 100 - - - G. - - Gabii, 221 - - Gabinius, Villa of, 218 - - Galuzze, 79 - - Gelotiana, Domus, 17 - - Geology of Campagna, 185 - - Germalus, 17, 29 - - Germanicus, House of, 26 - - Geta, erased, 104, 119 - - Gladiator or Gaul, dying, 181 - - Gnomon Obelisk, 137 - - Gordiana, Villa, 219 - - Gradus Concordiæ, 51 - - Graffiti, 18, 70 - - - H. - - Hadrian, colossal head of, 178 - - Hadrian's Villa, 237; - antiquities from, 181, 183 - - Heliogabalus, Lavacrum, 36, 58 - - Horace, Sabine farm, 254 - - House of Laterani, 173 - - - I. - - Imperial monuments, 3 - - - J. - - Janus Quadrifrons, 103 - - Julius Cæsar, Heroon of, 39 - - Jupiter Pluvius, 141 - - ---- Propugnator, 28 - - ---- Redux, 176 - - ---- Stator, 25 - - ---- Victor, 28 - - - L. - - Labicum, 223 - - Laconicum, 134, 155, 168 - - Laocoon, 182 - - Lararium, Palatine, 24 - - Latifundia, 192 - - Latin road, tombs on, 211 - - Latium, towns of, 191, 192 - - Lautumiæ, 56 - - Legio fulminata, 141 - - Lucretilis, 256 - - - M. - - Mæcenas, Auditorium of, 80; - Tower of, 102 - - Mamertine Prison, 55 - - Mandela, 254 - - Marcus Aurelius, statue of, 183 - - Marine strata, 185 - - Masonry, Roman, 4 - - Mausoleum of Augustus, 143 - - ---- Hadrian, 148 - - Maxentius, Circus of, 196 - - Meta Sudans, 58 - - Milestones on Appian Road, 183 - - Miliarium Aureum, 54 - - Minerva Medica, 78 - - Mons Sacer, 257 - - Monte Cavallo, 183 - - ---- Testaccio, 164 - - Monumental History, 2 - - Monumentum Ancyranum, 145 - - Muro Torto, 147 - - Museum, Kircherian, antiquities in, 183 - - - N. - - Navicella, 174 - - Nemi, Lake of, 208; - Cæsar's Villa at, 210 - - Nomentana, Via, 257 - - Nymphæum, Palatine, 23 - - - O. - - Obelisks, 12, 129, 145 - - Oligarchical monuments, 2 - - Ostia, 229; - antiquities from, 182 - - - P. - - Palatine, Belvedere on, 20; - entrance, 14; - paintings on peristylium, 23, 27; - walls, 16, 17 - - Pantheon, 130; - plundered, 135 - - Pedestals, in Forum, 41, 42 - - Phaon, Villa of, 257 - - Piazza Navona, 143 - - Pillar of Antoninus Pius, 138 - - Plautian Tomb, 236 - - Pompey, Villa and Tomb of, 201 - - Pons Ælius, 148 - - Ponte Lucano, 236 - - ---- Molle, or Milvian bridge, 257 - - ---- di Nono, 221 - - ---- Rotto, 115 - - ---- S. Sisto, 126 - - Porphyry basin, 182 - - Porta Capena, 163 - - ---- Chiusa, 159 - - ---- Collina, 257 - - ---- Maggiore, 81 - - ---- Mugionia, 24 - - ---- Ratumena, 97 - - ---- Romanula, 15 - - ---- S. Lorenzo, 81 - - ---- Viminalis, 153 - - Porticus Catuli, 15 - - ---- Metelli, 120 - - ---- Octaviæ, 119 - - Portland Vase, 181 - - Porto, 233 - - Præneste, 223 - - Prætorian Camp, 158 - - Prima Porta, statue of Augustus from, 260; - Villa of Livia, 259 - - Puteal, in Forum, 39 - - - Q. - - Quintiliana, Villa of Commodus, 198, 212; - sculpture from, 200 - - Quirinal Hill, 101 - - Quirinale, or Monte Cavallo, Piazza, 101, 183 - - - R. - - Rediculus, Divus, 195 - - Regal Monuments, 2 - - Republican Monuments, 2 - - Rienzi, 147 - - Roma Vecchia, 197, 212 - - Rostra of Empire, 54 - - Rutilius, 248 - - - S. - - Salaria Via, 257 - - Salita del Grillo, ruin in, 83 - - Sallustia, statue of, 172 - - S. Andrea della Valle, 123 - - S. Angelo, bridge of, 148 - - S. Constanza, Chapel of, 257 - - SS. Cosma and Damiano, 36 - - S. Maria degli Angeli, 153, 155 - - S. Maria in Via Lata, 127 - - S. Nicola in Carcere, ruins in, 117 - - S. Urbano, 195 - - Sarcophagi and cippus, 182 - - Saxa Rubra, 259 - - Scala Coeli, 29 - - Schola Xanthi, 49 - - Scipio, Sarcophagus, 182 - - Scipios, Tomb of, 170 - - Sculpture, ancient specimens of, 184 - - Seneca, Villa of, 197 - - Septa, 127 - - Septizonium, 20, 151 - - Servian Walls, 161 - - Sessorium, 172 - - Sette Basse, 212 - - ---- Sale, 75 - - Site of Rome, 1 - - Sortes Prænestinæ, 225, 228 - - Stadium Palatinum, 18 - - Suovetaurilia, 42, 60, 88 - - - T. - - Tabularium, 56 - - Tarpeian Rock, 99 - - Tarquin Dynasty, 106, 157, 161 - - Teatro Correa, 143 - - Temple of Albunea at Tivoli, 252 - - ---- Antoninus and Faustina, 40 - - ---- Artemis at Nemi, 210 - - ---- Bacchus or Honos, 195 - - ---- Castor, 38 - - ---- Ceres, 110 - - ---- Concord, 50 - - ---- Cybele, 29 - - ---- Fortuna Prænestina, 225 - - ---- Fortuna Virilis, 107 - - ---- Hadrian, 137 - - ---- Isis, 128 - - ---- Jupiter Capitolinus, 98 - - ---- Jupiter Feretrius, 29 - - ---- Jupiter Latiaris, 207 - - ---- Lares Præstites, 29 - - ---- Marcus Aurelius, 139 - - ---- Mars Ultor, 92 - - ---- Minerva, 96 - - ---- Penates, 36 - - ---- Romulus, 196 - - ---- Saturn, 46 - - ---- Serapis, 128 - - ---- Sibyl, or Vesta, at Tivoli, 251 - - ---- Sun, Aurelian's, 100 - - ---- Venus and Cupid, 172 - - ---- Venus and Rome, 32 - - ---- Vespasian, 49 - - ---- Vesta, 39 - - ---- Vesta or Hercules, 108 - - Temples, on Palatine, 28 - - Theatre of Balbus, 122, 183 - - ---- Marcellus, 112 - - ---- Pompey, 123 - - Theseus and Amazons, 181 - - Tiber, Island of, 115; - bridges, 116; - water of, 188 - - Tiberius, House of, 26, 30 - - Tivoli, or Tibur, 235; - Villas at, 252 - - Torre Fiscale, 212 - - ---- Paterno, ruins at, 234 - - ---- Pignatara, 221 - - Torso Belvedere, 182 - - Totilas, 152, 236, 247 - - Transitoria, Domus, 34 - - Transtiberine Walls, 4 - - Travertine, quarries, 236 - - Triclinium, Palatine, 22 - - Trophies, of Marius, 76, 183 - - Tufaceous stone, 186 - - Tunnels, subterranean, 206 - - Tusculum, 214; - gate and walls, 216; - history of city, 217; - theatre at, 215 - - - U. - - Ustica, 256 - - Ustrina Cæsarum, 144, 146 - - - V. - - Vacuna, Chapel of, 256 - - Varia, 254 - - Vatican Hill, enclosed, 4 - - V. D. N., 18 - - Veii, 260 - - Veii and Campagna, antiquities from, 182 - - Velabrum, 103 - - Velia, 31 - - Vettius Prætextatus, 49 - - Vicus Tuscus, 39 - - Vigna Guidi, 169 - - Villa Mills, 21 - - Villas, ancient, 190, 193 - - Vitiges, 149, 152, 193 - - Volcanic strata, 186 - - Vota, 60 - - - W. - - Wolf, bronze figure, 17, 180 - - - LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET - AND CHARING CROSS. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] See Corp. Inscr. Lat. vol. vi. 1, No. 1158. - -[2] Cic. de Har. Resp. xv., 33. Vettius, in Cic. ad Att. ii. 24, calls -Cicero "vicinus consulis," i.e. near the Regia. - -[3] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' ch. viii. p. 160. - -[4] Festus, p. 262, "infimo clivo Victoriæ." - -[5] A descent to the right to the Forum has been observed by a French -architect. See 'Le Forum Romain,' par Dutert; Lévy, Paris, 1876, p. 14. -'Guida del Palatino,' p. 71. Valerius Maximus, vi. 3, 1. Cic. pro Dom. 38. -102. - -[6] Cic. de Div. i. 45; ii. 32. Liv. v. 32. - -[7] Corp. Inscr. i. 632. Wordsworth, Frag. of early Latin, p. 167, 410. - -[8] Cic. de Orat. ii. 249. - -[9] Cic. ad Att. iv. 3, 3. Liv. xxxiii. 26. - -[10] Vacca Memorie 3, Urlichs, in Rheinisches Museum, 1846. - -[11] See Henzen, in Bull. dell. Inst., 1867. The name of Domus Gelotiana -has been given to this ruin by Visconti. See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. -181. - -[12] The marks on the bricks found here bear the names of Clonius and -Ermetes, freedmen of the Gens Domitia, but the walls which stand near the -meta are constructed of materials which show that they are of later date, -and belong to the Restoration of Theodoric, A.D. 500. - -[13] Hist. Aug. Severus, 19, 24. See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 180. - -[14] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' pp. 174, 200. - -[15] Plin. Ep. I. 13. - -[16] See 'The Journal of Philology,' Cambridge 1869, vol. ii. p. 89. - -[17] Stat. Silv., iv. 2, 26. - -[18] The name Basilica Jovis, placed here by Rosa, probably refers to a -temple and not to this tribunal. - -Plin. Panegyr., 47. - -[19] 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 34. - -[20] Josephus, Ant. Jud. xix. 1, 15. - -[21] Gell, N. A. xx. 1, 2. - -[22] Suet. Tib. 5. - -[23] Orelli, Inscr. 6057, 6058. - -[24] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 178. - -[25] Solinus, i. 18. - -[26] Orelli, 2286. - -[27] Tac. Hist. i. 27. - -[28] Hist. Aug. Ant. Pius, 10; Ant. Phil. 6; Gell. xiii. 20. - -[29] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 160, Note 1. - -[30] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 162. - -[31] Josephus, Bell. Jud. vii. 5, 7. - -[32] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 170. - -[33] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 171. - -[34] Parker's 'Archæology of Rome,' vol. ii. p. 98. Jordan, 'Forma urbis -Romæ'; Berlin, 1874, p. 37. - -[35] 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 169. - -[36] Aur. Vict. Cæs. xl. 26. See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 166. - -[37] Vitruv. v. 1. - -[38] 'Archæology of Rome,' vol. ii. p. 75. - -[39] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 163. - -[40] Lampridius, Hist. Aug. Ant. Hel. 8, 17, in ædibus aulicis. Parker, -'Archæology of Rome,' vol. ii. p. 92. - -[41] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 100. - -[42] Ibid. p. 103. - -[43] Eckhel, vii. 37. On the mistaken appropriation of the temple to M. -Aurelius, see 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 114. - -[44] See Reber's 'Ruinen Roms,' p. 132. - -[45] Corp. Inscr. Lat. vol. vi. pt. 1, No. 1200. "Indictionis undecimo -Post Consulatum pietatis ejus anno quinto" are the last words of the -inscription. "In the eleventh year of his appointment and the fifth year -of his reverence the emperor." See Nibby, 'Roma antica,' p. 152; Zell. -Epigr. 1226. A D = A Deo. - -[46] See Clinton, Fast. Rom. A.D. 608. - -[47] Stat. Silv. i. 1. Mr. Parker thinks that this was the pedestal of a -statue of Constantine. Archæol. vol. ii. pl. xix. - -[48] Nichols, 'The Roman Forum,' p. 78. - -[49] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' Appendix, p. 452. - -[50] Gardhausen, 'Hermes,' viii. 129. Nichols, 'Roman Forum,' p. 67. Ann. -dell. Inst. 1872. Mr. Nichols's explanation does not account for the -position of the fig-tree and Marsyas satisfactorily. - -[51] Jordan, 'Forma urbis Romæ,' pp. 4, 25. The proportion of the length -to the breadth is nearly that given by Vitruvius as proper for a basilica. - -[52] Juv. Sat. v. 104. - -[53] Tac. Ann. ii. 41. - -[54] Jordan, 'Forma urbis Romæ,' p. 26. - -[55] Cic. Phil. ii. 7. - -[56] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 58. - -[57] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 91. - -[58] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. xxix. - -[59] Cic. Phil. vii. ch. 8. The third Catilinarian oration was delivered -here. - -[60] Dion. Cass. lxxvii. 12. - -[61] Herodian iii. 9, 10, 11. Hist. Aug. Vit. Sev. 9, 16, 17. - -[62] See Parker's Archæol. vol. ii. pl. xi. - -[63] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 354, Appendix. - -[64] See Jordan, Top. Rom. p. 13, Note 20. - -[65] Liv. xxxvii. 3. Seneca, Contr. ix. 4, 21. - -[66] Corp. Inscr. Lat. i. 591, 592. Mommsen, Ann. Inst. 1858, p. 211. -Canina, Rom. Ant. p. 290. Virgil's use of the plural tabularia is not, -therefore, merely poetical: Georg. ii. 502. - -[67] Seneca's letter was written from Baiæ, which seems to place the -building he speaks of there and not at Rome. The word "meta" was used by -the Latin classical writers in speaking of haystacks or cream-cheeses made -in a conical shape. Columella, ii. 19; Mart. i. 44. - -[68] See Casaubon's note on Spartian, Hist. Aug. p. 40; B.C. Tac. Ann. vi. -17; xvi. 22. - -[69] The great amphitheatre at El Djemm in Tunis is 480 feet by 420 and -102 feet in height, that at Pola in Istria 437 by 346 feet and 97 feet in -height. Shaw's 'Travels,' i. p. 220. Ann. dell' Inst. 1852. Allason's -Pola. - -[70] The tomb of Scipio Barbatus in the Vatican is another curious -instance of this mixture of Doric and Ionic decorative forms. - -[71] This portico is shown in the medals of Titus and Alexander Severus. -The remains of a similar portico exist in the amphitheatre at Thysdrus (El -Djemm) in Tunis. See Canina in the Ann. dell' Inst. 1852, tav. d'Agg. U. - -[72] Suet. Vesp. viii. 13. - -[73] Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' ch. lxxi. - -[74] Suet. Jul. ii. Propert. iv. ii. 46. - -[75] Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' ch. x. - -[76] See Dion Cassius, lxviii. 9-13. - -[77] Dion Cass. lvi. 27. - -[78] The frieze is described and representations of it are given in the -Annali and Monumenti dell' Inst. 1877. - -[79] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. xlii. - -[80] See the Annali and Monumenti of the Inst. di Corr. arch. 1876. - -[81] Dionys. iv. 27. - -[82] Tac. Ann. ii. 49. Dionys. vi. 7, 94. Vitruv. iii. 3, 5. Plin. N. H. -xxxv. 4, 24. 10, 99. 12. 154. - -[83] Auson. Sept. Sap. prol. 22. Mon. Ancyr. tab. iv. Hist. Aug. Alex. -Sev. 44. - -[84] See Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 316. Eckhel, Num. Vet. tom. v. p. 210. - -[85] Ann. dell' Inst. 1850, p. 347. Monum. v. xxiv. - -[86] Festus, p. 178, ed. Müller. Velleius, i. 1, 3; ii. 1, 2. - -[87] Vitruv. v. 9. - -[88] Tac. Ann. xiv. 20. - -[89] Hier. Chron. ed. Ronealli, i. 475; ii. 247. - -[90] Grut. Inser. cxi. 6. Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. - -[91] Juv. Sat. vi. 529. Joseph. B. J. vii. 5, 4. - -[92] Fea, Misc. lxvi. 26; cxxv. 17; ccliv. 112. - -[93] Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. Seneca de Ben. iii. 32. - -[94] Dion. Cass. liii. 27. - -[95] In the Curiosum the temple and column are placed together in the -ninth region. - -[96] Plin. N. H. xxxvi. 9, 71, 72. - -[97] Annali dell' Inst. 1852, p. 338. - -[98] Dion. Cass. lv. 23. Orelli, Inscr. 517, 5447. - -[99] Gruter, Inscr. 466. - -[100] Strabo, v. 3, 8. - -[101] Dion. Cass. liii. 32, liv. 26. - -[102] Dion. Cass. lxix. 23. - -[103] Reumont, Gesch. Roms, vol. ii. p. 917, A.D. 1354; Gibbon, ch. lxx. - -[104] Procop. Bell. Goth. 22. - -[105] Bunsen's Memoirs, vol. i. p. 208. Hirt. Gesch. der Bauk, ii. p. 373. - -[106] Hist. Aug. Sept. Sev. 19, 24. Herodian iv. 1, 4. - -[107] Gibbon, ch. xlix. - -[108] Donati 'Roma vetus ac recens,' 1665, p. 476. - -[109] Dionys. ix. 68. Brocchi, Suolo di Roma, p. 144. - -[110] Ann. dell' Inst. xxxiv. 133. Festus, p. 261. Varro, L. L. v. § 49. - -[111] Herodian, ii. 6. - -[112] Bunsen, Beschreibung Roms, iii. 2, 359. - -[113] Bull. dell' Inst. 1855, p. 87. - -[114] Abeken. 'Mittelitalien,' p. 143. - -[115] Bull. dell' Inst. xxv. 85, 116; xxxvii. 235. - -[116] Hist. Aug. Car. 9. Hel. 17. Al. Sev. 25. - -[117] Olymp. ap. Phot. Bibl. 80, p. 63. Bekker. - -[118] Cor. Insc. Lat. vol. i. p. 12. - -[119] Marini, Frat. Arv. p. 674. - -[120] Eckhel, Num. Vet. ii. 6. 176. - -[121] Frontin. 76. - -[122] See Woodcut on p. 179. - -[123] Ibid. p. 180. - -[124] Plin. Ep. ii. 17. The depopulation of the Campagna began even in the -time of the later Republic. See Appian, B.C., i. 7. In the Antonine era -and the following reigns, pestilence and famine swept off millions of -inhabitants. Zumpt, 'Stand der Bevölkerung,' p. 84, quoted by Merivale, -vol. vii. p. 610. - -[125] Cic. de Or. ii. 6. Val. Max. viii. 8. See Mommsen, R. H. i. 13, p. -200. - -[126] Suet. Galb. i. Plin. N. H. xv. 40, 136, 137. - -[127] Plin. N. H. xxxiv. § 20. Rutilius de Red. 224. Strabo, v. 3. - -[128] Cic. pro Planc. 9. De Leg. Agr. ii. 35. - -[129] Festus, p. 232. - -[130] Visconti, op. Milan 1829, vol. ii. p. 387. - -[131] Hobler, Roman coins, p. 821. No. 2035. Eckhel, Num. Vet. viii. p. -59. - -[132] Hist. Aug. Flor. 16. Dion Cass. lxxii. 5, 13. - -[133] Herodian, i. 12. - -[134] Ann. dell' Inst. 1853, 1854. - -[135] Cic. pro Planc. 9; Propert. v. 1, 33. - -[136] Cic. pro Mil. 10, 19, 20, 31. - -[137] The mock council held over the gigantic turbot described in the -Fourth Satire of Juvenal was at the Albanum. - -[138] Ann. and Mon. dell' Inst. 1854, p. 101. - -[139] Cic. de Div. i. 44; ii. 32. - -[140] Hirt, Gesch. der Bau, ii. p. 106. - -[141] Fea, Miscellanea, pp. cccxvii. cclxxiv. - -[142] Nibby, Analisi, ii. 305. - -[143] Annali and Monumenti dell' Inst. 1856. - -[144] Nibby, Anal. iii. p. 736. - -[145] Schol. ad Hor. Ep. i. 29. - -[146] Canina, Mon. dell' Arch. ant. tav. 183. - -[147] Nibby, Anal. vol. ii. p. 87. - -[148] Nibby, Anal. ii. 496. - -[149] Cecconi, 'Storia di Palestrina,' p. 162. - -[150] See 'Tempio di Fortuna Prænestina,' Thon and Nibby, Roma 1825. - -[151] Mon. dell' Inst. VI. tav. xi. Ann. dell' Inst. 1857 p. 281. - -[152] Nibby, Anal. II. 468. - -[153] Lanciani, 'Scavi nel Bosco Sacro,' Roma 1868. - -[154] Plin. Ep. viii. 17. - -[155] Herodian i. 12, 2. - -[156] Nibby, Anal. ii. p. 205. - -[157] Hist. Aug. Hadrian 26. Aur. Vict. Epit. xiv. Tertull. Apol. 5. - -[158] Strabo, xvii. 17. - -[159] Nibby, Anal. iii. 655. - -[160] Dennis in Milman's Horace, p. 101; pratum apricum, Ep. i. 14, 30; -aprica rura, Od. iii. 18, 2. See also, Od. iii. 16, 30; Ep. i. 14, 35, 39. -'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 430. - -[161] Nibby, Anal. iii. 31. Bull. dell' Inst. 1863, pp. 72, 81. - -[162] See Dennis, 'Etruria,' ch. i. - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Footnote 16 appears on page 21 of the text, but there is no corresponding -marker on the page. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD ROME*** - - -******* This file should be named 41409-8.txt or 41409-8.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/1/4/0/41409 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> -<p>Title: Old Rome</p> -<p> A Handbook to the Ruins of the City and the Campagna</p> -<p>Author: Robert Burn</p> -<p>Release Date: November 19, 2012 [eBook #41409]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD ROME***</p> <p> </p> -<h4>E-text prepared by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="http://archive.org">http://archive.org</a>)</h4> <p> </p> <table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> <tr> @@ -10421,360 +10405,6 @@ marker on the page.</p> <p> </p> <p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD ROME***</p> -<p>******* This file should be named 41409-h.txt or 41409-h.zip *******</p> -<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/1/4/0/41409">http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/4/0/41409</a></p> -<p> -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed.</p> - -<p> -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Old Rome - A Handbook to the Ruins of the City and the Campagna - - -Author: Robert Burn - - - -Release Date: November 19, 2012 [eBook #41409] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD ROME*** - - -E-text prepared by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -(http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 41409-h.htm or 41409-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41409/41409-h/41409-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41409/41409-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - http://archive.org/details/oldromehandbookt00burn - - -Transcriber's note: - - The original text includes Greek characters that have been - replaced with transliterations in this text version. - - - - - -OLD ROME: - -A Handbook to the Ruins of the City and the Campagna. - -by - -ROBERT BURN, M.A., -Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. - -Being an Epitome of His Larger Work 'Rome and the Campagna.' - - - - - - - -[Illustration] - -London: George Bell and Sons, York Street, -Covent Garden. -Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, & Co. -1880. - -[The Right of Translation is reserved.] - -London: -Printed by William Clowes and Sons, -Stamford Street and Charing Cross. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -This book is intended to serve as a handbook to the actually-existing -ruins and monuments of ancient Rome and the Campagna. It is divided into -topographical sections for the convenience of travellers visiting Rome, -and the monuments which exist in each section have been briefly described, -and a summary given of their history and archaeological value. - -The introductory section contains general remarks upon the site, -monumental history, and architecture of Rome; and in a section prefixed to -Chapter IX. the nature of the soil and configuration of the hills and -valleys of the district surrounding the city are stated. - -In the Appendix to the eighth chapter will be found a list of the chief -monumental antiquities in the museums, galleries, and other public places. -This has been thought to be useful, as these are often difficult to -recognise from being mixed with so many other attractive and important -objects of more modern art and history. All speculative conjectures as to -the probable sites or constructions of ancient buildings or places have -been avoided. Such questions require more space than can be spared in so -small a volume, and have been fully treated of in my larger work, "Rome -and the Campagna." - -I have confined myself in this handbook to a brief topographical, -archaeological, and historical description of each existing ruin or -monument. The references given have been restricted to modern treatises -and to a few of the more rarely read Greek and Latin authors. Full -classical authorities are given in "Rome and the Campagna," and are -referred to in the foot-notes of this handbook. - -The importance of topographical and archaeological knowledge, in enabling -us to realise the history of ancient life, both national and social, is -fortunately becoming more and more generally recognised. The early growth -and characteristic features of the Roman commonwealth can be traced in -great measure to the conformation of the ground on which the community was -first developed. Such local influences are among the highest and most -philosophical parts of historical investigation, and have a most important -value in enabling us to form an estimate of the truth of statements made -by the ancient writers of history. - -Besides this interest which pervades the early stage of Roman history, -there is also a natural connection, by way of cause or explanation, -between the events of later times and the localities in which they -occurred; and this in social as well as in national history. Many Roman -customs and usages, now extinct, are illustrated and realised by the -knowledge gained from monuments of ancient architecture and art. And -again, the spirit of Roman literature is more fully sympathised with, and -its difficult passages and allusions are frequently elucidated by the -light of archaeological knowledge. - -Thus there is not only the poetical and imaginative satisfaction, which is -usually felt most vividly in treading the soil, surveying the scenes, and -breathing the air in which great historical persons lived and events -occurred, but also an element of fact which gives a firm basis of -incontestable truth to our knowledge, and which no speculative -interpretation can dissolve. - -It is hoped, therefore, that even such an abridged description of ruins, -and such a summary of archaeological results as that which forms the basis -of the present volume, will not be without use to the student of history, -as well as a guide to the traveller. - -In the chapter on the ruins of the Campagna I have inserted some -statements on the geological formations, and on the climate, which appear -to have influenced the history and the architecture of that district. - -The books from which useful information has been derived are, in addition -to those mentioned in the list given in "Rome and the Campagna," some of -the later numbers of "Annali dell' Instituto," a small treatise called -"Guida del Palatino," by C. L. Visconti and R. A. Lanciani, and "A -Topographical Study of the Roman Forum," by Mr. F. M. Nichols. - -ROBERT BURN. - - CAMBRIDGE. - _Sept. 24, 1879._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION 1 - - CHAPTER I. - - THE PALATINE AND VELIA 14 - - CHAPTER II. - - THE FORUM ROMANUM 38 - - CHAPTER III. - - THE COLISEUM AND ESQUILINE 58 - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE IMPERIAL FORA AND THE CAPITOLIUM 83 - - CHAPTER V. - - THE VELABRUM AND THE CIRCUS FLAMINIUS 103 - - CHAPTER VI. - - PANTHEON, COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS, MAUSOLEUM OF - AUGUSTUS, MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN, AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 127 - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE QUIRINAL HILL--BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN--AGGER OF - SERVIUS--CASTRA PRAETORIA 153 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE AVENTINE AND CAELIAN HILLS 161 - - APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VIII. MONUMENTAL ANTIQUITIES IN THE - MUSEUMS, PIAZZAS, AND OTHER PLACES 177 - - INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER IX 185 - - CHAPTER IX. - - A. THE VIA APPIA AND THE ALBAN HILLS 194 - B. THE VIA LATINA AND TUSCULUM 210 - C. GABII AND PRAENESTE 219 - D. OSTIA AND PORTO 229 - E. TIBUR 235 - F. NORTH-WESTERN CAMPAGNA 256 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE - - TEMPLE OF JUPITER _Title page._ - - TEMPLE OF SATURN, ETC. 47 - - ARCH OF SEVERUS 53 - - COLISEUM, FROM THE PALATINE HILL 62 - - COLUMN OF TRAJAN 85 - - FORUM OF NERVA, IN 1600 95 - - PALATINE HILL, TEMPLE OF HERCULES, AND CLOACA MAXIMA 109 - - THEATRE OF MARCELLUS 113 - - PANTHEON 130 - - THE QUIRINAL HILL FROM THE PALATINE 154 - - ARCH OF DOLABELLA 175 - - PEDESTAL OF ANTONINE COLUMN 179 - - CONE FROM THE TOP OF HADRIAN'S MAUSOLEUM 180 - - CIRCUS OF MAXENTIUS 213 - - TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIBUR 250 - - PONTE NOMENTANO 258 - - - - -MAPS, PLANS, &c. - - - PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME, WITH RAILWAYS 1 - - PLAN OF THE HILLS OF ROME 2 - - MOST ANCIENT ROME 2 - - ROME, THE PRESENT WALLS, AND WALLS OF AURELIAN 4 - - PLAN OF THE PALATINE HILL 14 - - PLAN OF RUINS IN THE FORUM ROMANUM 38 - - PLAN OF MONS OPPIUS 73 - - FORA OF THE CAESARS 82 - - THE CIRCUS FLAMINIUS 122 - - FRAGMENTS OF PIANTA CAPITOLINA--THEATRE OF POMPEY 124 - - THE THERMAE OF DIOCLETIAN 154 - - THE SERVIAN WALLS 156 - - THE BATHS OF CARACALLA 166 - - GEOLOGICAL MAP OF ROME 185 - - PLAN OF THE ALBAN HILLS AND GABII 202 - - PLAN OF THE AREA OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER ON MONTE CAVO 206 - - PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNE AT PRAENESTE 224 - - PLAN OF OSTIA AND PORTO 229 - - PLAN OF HADRIANEUM, NEAR TIVOLI 236 - - PLAN OF TIVOLI 248 - - MAP OF ANCIENT ROADS 256 - - ICHNOGRAPHIA 261 - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -OLD ROME: - -A HANDBOOK TO THE RUINS OF THE CITY AND THE CAMPAGNA. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -I.--THE SITE OF ROME AND THE WALLS OF ROME. - -One of the principal points in the early history of every nation is the -effect of the natural configuration of the country in which their first -settlements are formed upon the subsequent character of the people. - -The site of Rome consists of several separate hills, upon which distinct -groups of original settlers established themselves. These groups after a -temporary rivalry seem to have agreed to form a confederation, in which -the leading part was assigned to the Palatine settlement. Such was the -origin of that special aptitude shown by the Romans for forming coalitions -with rival states, and also of that most valuable trait in their political -character, their reverence for law as laid down by a central authority, -for each group was taught by their confederate union to regard itself as -sharing that central authority. Hence, the historian Livy remarks that -under the Roman Republic which built up the power of Rome, the command of -law was superior to that of men. But besides this aptitude for confederate -union and respect for central authority which the nature of the site seems -to have instilled into them, the Romans were also taught by it a readiness -to meet their enemies in the open field, and not to trust much to the -protection of steep crags or fortified posts. None of the hills of Rome -afforded a strong acropolis, such as most other ancient cities possessed. -The Capitol of Rome was by no means impregnable. Its central depression -rendered it always more or less accessible and liable to be seized by a -powerful enemy. The Palatine, though partially fortified, was never -considered a strong position. Hence we find that the Servian walls were -the only fortifications erected to protect Rome for more than eight -hundred years, from the time of Servius down to that of Aurelian. The -statement of Strabo, that the absence of fortifications round Rome was to -be accounted for by the native spirit of the Romans, which was "to defend -their walls by their men, and not their men by their walls," is evidently -full of meaning. - - -II.--MONUMENTAL HISTORY. - -Relics of the two great public works executed during the regal period of -Roman history still remain in the venerable stone arches of the main drain -which was constructed to make the Forum valley more habitable, and in the -rough portions of the Servian walls which have been found on the Aventine -and Quirinal Hills. It is probable that the ruined walls at the edge of -the Palatine are anterior to the monuments of the time of Servius. - -Of the earlier republican period of Roman history there are no monumental -ruins now existing. The ruins which have been excavated on the Capitoline -Hill and the basement of the Temple of Vesta in the Forum date from the -regal epoch. And this is what might be naturally expected from the dislike -of a republican government to require the forced labour anciently called -for in the erection of large buildings. - -But in the later period of the Roman republic some of the oligarchical -leaders and successful generals constructed large buildings, of which -traces can now be found. Thus the foundations of the temples and of the -portico built in the Campus Martius by Metellus Macedonicus and by Cn. -Octavius can be still recognised, and ruins of the immense stone theatre -of Pompeius Magnus remain to the present day. But the greater portion of -the ruins of Rome dates from the Augustan age and the subsequent imperial -ages. First among them stands the Pantheon, which has kept its roof and -its original structure uninjured through the storms and earthquakes and -the wasting hand of time during more than nineteen centuries. It bears the -date of B.C. 27 on the frieze of its portico. The Theatre of Marcellus -must be next mentioned, and the Mausoleum of Augustus. To the Julian -dynasty may be also ascribed the colossal columns of the Temple of Mars -Ultor, with the huge wall adjoining them, and the Egyptian obelisks which -still decorate some of the piazzas. To the same dynasty we owe the vast -arches of the Claudian aqueduct, and the massive brick foundation of the -Palatine palace. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: ROMA ANTIQUISSIMA.] - -The Flavian dynasty, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian changed the -characteristic features of the city of Rome. Where Caligula and Nero had -covered the ground with costly palaces and pleasure-grounds, the Flavian -emperors built the resorts of military and of national life. The Coliseum -and the Arch of Titus were the fit accompaniments of their world-subduing, -blood-thirsty legions, and the Baths of Titus, and the public reception -rooms on the Palatine, encouraged the citizen life of Rome once more to -develop itself. - -The political aims and imperial ideas of Trajan, Hadrian and the Antonines -are nobly illustrated by the modifications and enlargements they -introduced in the structure and extent of the city of Rome. Trajan in his -magnificent Forum and library sought to encourage the metropolitan life -and literary tastes of the nation, while on his storied column he recorded -their world-wide triumphs and reminded them of their enormous power. - -The Mausoleum of Hadrian remains to commemorate the vast and ponderous -strength of his rule, and the Aurelian Column stands to attest the lofty -magnificence of the Antonine dynasty. - - * * * * * - -In the reign of Commodus, between the Antonine era and the time of -Severus, a great fire devastated the central districts of Rome. The -restorations effected by Severus and the popular policy of his successors -are commemorated in the Arch of Severus, the Portico of the Pantheon, and -the huge ruins of the Baths of Caracalla. The defensive power of the Roman -nation then became gradually weaker and weaker, till in sixty years after -the time of Caracalla, Aurelian commenced the sad task of home -fortification. His walls, which were completed a hundred years later by -Honorius, still surround the greater part of Rome. During these hundred -years the power of the Constantinian rule, of which the great basilica and -arch remain monuments, and the warlike courage of Diocletian revived for a -time the imperial spirit at Rome. - -The last and most familiar of the monuments which follow the transfer of -power from Rome to Constantinople is the Column of Phocas in the Forum, -erected when three centuries of desolation had followed the grandeur of -Constantine and his dynasty. - -The Vatican Hill and the northern end of the Transtiberine district were -not enclosed within walls till the time of Pope Leo IV. He undertook in -A.D. 848 the enclosure of St. Peter's and the Vatican Hill, thus forming -that district into a separate town, which was named after the Pope Civitas -Leoniana. The western wall of this enclosure may still be traced by its -ruins in the garden of the Vatican palace. After the successive -destructions and minor repairs of the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and -thirteenth centuries, in 1527 the architect San Gallo was employed to -erect huge bastions on the wall of Rome, which he placed chiefly between -the Porta Ostiense and the Porta Appia. In 1628 Pope Urban VIII. restored -the walls on the left bank, and subsequently in 1642 he proceeded to erect -the walls which now stand between the Porta Portese and the Porta -Cavallegieri, where the arms of that Pope are still affixed to the walls. -This was the final important addition to the main walls of the city. - - -III.--ROMAN BUILDING AND ARCHITECTURE. - -The earliest form of Roman masonry, consisting of rectangular tufa blocks -placed in layers alternately parallel to and across the line of the wall, -so as to bind the mass together firmly, may be best seen in the ancient -fragments of the Servian wall on the Aventine and the Quirinal Hills and -in the ruins on the western slope of the Palatine. This kind of building -is the natural product of the peculiar parallel cleavage in the -tufaceous rocks of the Roman hills. In those parts of the Campagna where -basalt rather than tufa becomes the usual material, as at Praeneste, we -find polygonal masonry. One specimen of a mode of construction anterior to -the introduction of the arch into Roman masonry is left us at Rome. This -is the vault of the old well-house near the Capitol called the Mamertine -Prison, where we find overlapping horizontal blocks of stone which -originally met in a conical roof, but are now truncated and capped by a -mass of stones cramped together with iron. That the principle of the arch -was known in the regal period of Rome is shown by the great arch of the -Cloaca Maxima. But no arches remain of so early a date which are not -subterranean, and it is not likely that the arch was used in the early -temples at Rome. These were, as we learn from Vitruvius, constructed in -the so-called Tuscan style, which was the Italian contemporary of the -Greek Doric. It is possible that the columns in the walls of S. Maria in -Cosmedin, which are placed at unusual distances from each other, may have -been an imperial restoration of the Temple of Ceres, after the old Tuscan -fashion (Fig. 1). The next modification of architectural style, which is -usually called, from the general influence of the Greek colonists on Latin -art, the Tusco-Doric order, may be seen in the lowest range of columns and -bases in the Theatre of Marcellus. The shaft of these columns is much more -slender than in the Grecian Doric, and only partially fluted, if at all; -while a cima recta is substituted for the echinus of the capitals (Figs. 2 -and 3). The position of the triglyphs and the proportions of the cornice -were also much changed, and the whole effect became less massive and bold -than that of the Tuscan temples. - -[Illustration: ROME THE PRESENT WALLS AND THE WALLS OF AURELIAN] - -The ancient Tuscan arrangement of the interior of temples remained after -this modification of their columns and capitals. The three ruins which now -occupy the most prominent place at the northern end of the Forum, the -Temples of Saturn, of Concord, and of Vespasian, all retain the plan -called prostylos by Vitruvius. The Temple of Concord is especially -remarkable for the union of a broad Tuscan cella with a narrow Greek -portico. An alteration peculiarly Roman was made in the cella of the -Greek temple. Instead of surrounding this part of a temple with rows of -columns, the Romans clothed it with pilasters, thus introducing the mode -of construction deservedly stigmatised by Vitruvius, under the name -pseudoperipteral (Fig. 4). This may be seen in the ruin commonly called by -the name of the Temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.] - -The Greek Ionic order became known and employed by the Romans early in the -third century B.C. The Tomb of Scipio Barbatus shows the Ionic volute and -dentil mixed with the Doric triglyph and gutta. The Roman alterations in -the Ionic capital may be best seen in the pillars of the Temple of Saturn, -and in the second range of columns surrounding the Theatre of Marcellus -and the Coliseum. Specimens may also be seen in the basilica of S. -Lorenzo fuori le Mura, and in the church of S. Maria in Trastevere, which -have been transferred from the ancient temples. The distinctive Roman -modification was the position of the volutes diagonally instead of -laterally (Figs. 5 and 6). - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.] - -It is supposed that the first introduction of the Greek Corinthian order -into Rome was brought about by the barbarian act of Sulla, in transporting -the columns of the Temple of Zeus from Athens to the Capitoline Temple of -Jupiter. Of the remaining specimens of this order in Rome, the portico of -the Pantheon is the oldest. In that building the capitals appear somewhat -shorter and broader than in the later examples, at the ruins of the Temple -of Castor in the Forum (Fig. 7), and in the peristyle of Nerva's Forum -called the Colonnacce. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.] - -The Composite capital, for it can hardly be called an order, as there is -nothing in the entablature or the base to distinguish it from the -Corinthian, was formed probably under the patronage of the early emperors. -The earliest instance we have of it now extant in Rome, is in the Arch of -Titus (Fig. 8) and there are only three other ruins where it is found. -These are, the Arch of Septimius Severus, the Arch of the Goldsmiths, and -the Baths of Diocletian, at Sta. Maria degli Angeli, where it is mixed up -with Corinthian capitals. The peculiar combination of which it consists, -the superposition of the Ionic volutes upon two rings of Corinthian -acanthus leaves, is not generally considered a very happy artistic -design. Hope says of it, that "instead of being a new creation of genius, -it gave evidence of poverty to invent and ignorance to combine," and -Fergusson is hardly more complimentary to the Roman architects. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.] - -But though we must deny to this Roman adaptation of Greek forms the credit -of originality, or even of symmetrical design, yet its rich appearance was -peculiarly suited to the lavish ornamentation with which the Roman -emperors delighted to trick out their palaces and halls, and it well -represents to us the character of the Roman imperial architecture, with -its indiscriminate combination of mouldings and profusion of gaudy detail. - -The three great triumphal arches of Titus, Septimius Severus, and -Constantine at Rome, and also the Arch of Drusus, are decorated with an -unmeaning and foreign dress. In the Arch of Constantine alone, the columns -which stand in front are in some measure justified by the statues they -support. - -Of the minor archways at Rome, that of Gallienus has Corinthian pilasters -in the roughest style of art, the Janus Quadrifrons probably had rows of -Corinthian columns between its niches, and the small gateway near it has -decorative pilasters with Composite capitals. On the other hand, the Arch -of Dolabella on the Caelian, which has a single line as cornice, and the -Porta S. Lorenzo are examples of the striking effect of a simple arch -without Greek ornament. The unmeaning pediments and tasteless columns with -which most of these arches are adorned, remind us of Pope's recipe for the -front of a villa, "Clap four slices of pilaster on't; that, laid with bits -of rustic, makes a front." - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.] - -Colossal columns were as genuine a creation of Imperial Rome as triumphal -arches. In both the sculpture had become subordinate to the pedestal. The -idea of placing a statue upon the top of a column was probably unknown to -the Greeks, or at least, never carried out on the immense scale of the two -great Roman Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. It must not, however, -be forgotten, that the Column of Trajan, and probably also that of Marcus -Aurelius, was enclosed within a narrow court, and that the bas-reliefs -were intended to be seen from the roofs and windows of the surrounding -buildings. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.] - -Some of the most characteristic remains of the Roman national taste in -architecture are the Mausoleum of Hadrian, and the Tombs of Caecilia -Metella and of Plautius. The ponderous walls of these massive and -indestructible marvels of masonry were essentially Roman, but in their -external decorations we find a strange combination of foreign designs. The -Mausoleum of Hadrian was dressed up with an array of pilasters, columns, -and statues, and the Mausoleum of Augustus was covered with terraces and -trees, in imitation of the Temple of Belus at Babylon. - -The most conspicuous among the Roman appropriations of foreign monumental -designs were the oriental obelisks which were brought from Egypt, and -erected in the Circi at Rome and in front of some of the buildings, and -some of which still stand in the piazzas of modern Rome. The remains of -eleven of these have been found. The Romans often misused them by placing -them alone, and not following the Egyptian method of always setting them -in pairs. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.] - -The huge vaulted arches of brick-work and concrete which remain in the -Baths of Caracalla, and the Basilica of Constantine, and the massive -arches of the Claudian Aqueduct, are the glory of Roman architecture. For -the Coliseum, astounding as are its durability and massive grandeur, is -not so illustrative of the special Roman development of the use of the -arch and of brick-work as are the other great ruins just mentioned. We see -embodied in them the indomitable energy which bridged the valleys and -tunnelled through the hills, but which possessed no eye for fine -proportion of outline or symmetrical and harmonious combination of -details. Brickwork was the material in which the characteristic Roman -ruins were executed. The Coliseum and the Theatre of Marcellus are dressed -in Greek robes, while the brick arches of the aqueducts, and the massive -structure of the Baths of Caracalla reflect the peculiar genius and -character of the Roman imperial power. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.] - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE PALATINE AND VELIA. - - -The entrance to the ruins on the Palatine Hill is now made through a -gateway opposite to the Basilica of Constantine. This gateway was erected -by the architect Vignola in the sixteenth century as an approach to the -Farnese Gardens, which formerly occupied the north-western part of the -Palatine Hill. On the right and left hand of the gateway are placed two -ancient pedestals, which were discovered near the Arch of Septimius -Severus in 1547. One of these, which stands on the right hand, supported -an equestrian statue of Constantius, erected by Neratius Cerealis, prefect -of the city in A.D. 353, in commemoration of the expulsion from Italy and -death of Maxentius.[1] On the left side pedestal, a representation of the -Suovetaurilia is sculptured in bas-relief, and the decennalia vota, or ten -years' good wishes to Constantius and Galerius are mentioned. The side of -the hill at the back of the gateway of Vignola is terraced at several -levels, on the third of which ascending from the entrance, a part of the -pavement of an old road, probably the Clivus Victoriae, leads to the right. -The line of this clivus is represented in the marble plan now on the -staircase of the Capitoline Museum which plan was made in the time of -Septimius Severus. - - INDEX TO THE PLAN OF THE PALATINE RUINS. - - 1, 2. Entrance. - 3. Clivus Victoriae. - 4. Museum. - 5. Water reservoir. - 6. Fragments of ruins. - 7. Altar of Calvinus. - 8. Fragments of ruin. - 9. Domus Gelotiana. - 10. Figure of crucified ass. - 11. Stadium Palatinum. - 12. Exedra. - 13. Baths. - 14. Palatine Belvedere. - 15. Imperial Box over Circus. - 16. Augustan Palace. - 17. Ruin called the Academy. - 18. Triclinium. - 19. Viridarium. - 20. Peristylium. - 21. Smaller chambers. - 22. Basilica. - 23. Imperial reception hall. - 24. Lararium. - 25. Area Palatina. - 26. Fragment of ancient ruin. - 27. Clivus Palatinus. - 28. Porta Mugionia. - 29. Temple of Jupiter Stator. - 30. Walls of substruction. - 31. Cryptoporticus. - 32. Subterranean passage. - 33. Piscina. - 34. House of Tiberius. - 35. Well. - 36. Unknown ruins. - 37. So-called Temple of Jupiter Victor. - 38. Uncertain basements. Scala Caci. - 39. So-called Auguratorium. - 40. Soldiers' quarters. - 41. Garden. - 42, 43. Staircase and substructions of Caligula's buildings. - 44. Ruins of lavacrum of Heliogabalus. - - ----> Path to be followed. - -_To face Plan on p. 14._ - -[Illustration: GENERAL PLAN OF THE RUINS ON THE PALATINE] - -[Sidenote: Clivus Victoriae] - -The basalt paving stones of this road are well preserved. On the right -hand proceeding towards the northern angle of the hill lie a number of -fragments of ancient houses, among which were probably the house bought by -Clodius and that of Cicero. These houses appear to have looked down upon -the Forum, since Cicero speaks of raising his house in order to exclude -Clodius from the sight of the city which he had hoped to destroy.[2] -Other houses of the Roman nobility of the later republican times were -probably placed on this side of the Palatine, in order to be near the -Forum and the places of political and social meetings.[3] - -[Sidenote: Porta Romanula.] - -The Museum in which are collected the various fragments of statuary and -antiquarian interest which have been found in the late excavations on the -Palatine has been placed in the ground-floor of the casina which stands -near the Clivus Victoriae. The ancient road is then overreached and arched -over by the extensions of the Palatine imperial palace built by Caligula, -under which it passes to the site of the ancient Porta Romanula.[4] Most -of the chambers on the left were probably occupied by the guards of the -gateway, and the graffiti they contain are of a character which confirms -this supposition. - -Outside the Porta Romanula the road bends round the hill along the side -which looks towards the Capitoline. The first ruins to be seen under the -slope of the hill here are the remains of a portico of the republican era, -constructed of tufa with reticular-work facings. This portico has been -supposed to be possibly that which Lutatius Catulus built after his -victory over the Cimbri in the Area Flacciana, mentioned by Valerius -Maximus and by Cicero as being near his house.[5] But there seems to be -nothing left which can identify this ruin with the Porticus Catuli. - -[Sidenote: Area Flacciana.] - -Beyond this so-called Area Flacciana the line of walls presents some -projecting masses, which appear to be built upon the ancient substructions -of towers such as would be formed in fortified buildings. A great part of -the walls erected here in imperial times were built of concrete framed and -supported by beams and planks of timber. These beams having now rotted -away, have left their impressions on the concrete, and hence the vertical -and horizontal grooves which form so conspicuous a part of these walls. -Two remarkable fragments of antiquity must be noticed here. The first is a -conical aperture in the side of the hill which supplied a cistern placed -below with water. Such cisterns are to be found elsewhere in the hills, -and may be supposed to have been constructed previous to the great -supplies of water having been brought by the aqueducts. - -At the western corner of the hill opposite to the Janus Quadrifrons stands -a large fragment of the most ancient walls of the Palatine. It is -constructed of masses of tufa, taken from the hill behind it, and roughly -laid together without cement or mortar. These stones appear to have been -split from the rock, and not cut by chisel, which shows the antiquity of -their construction. The wall of Romulus is the name by which this and the -other portions of massive tufa walls round the Palatine are now known. -They undoubtedly belong to the earliest defences of the Palatine -settlement. - -[Sidenote: Altar.] - -Not far from this ancient fragment of wall stands a most interesting relic -of primitive superstition, an altar of travertine stone cut in archaic -fashion, with volutes resembling those in the well-known tomb of Scipio in -the Vatican Museum. The inscription on this altar is as follows: SEI DEO -SEI DEIVAE SAC. C. SEXTIUS, C. F. CALVINUS, PR. DE SENATI SENTENTIA -RESTITUIT. This is supposed by some antiquarians to be the altar mentioned -by Cicero and Livy, as having been erected in consequence of the voice -heard before the Gallic invasion predicting disastrous times.[6] - -But that altar is said to have been placed above the Temple of Vesta at -the end of the Nova Via, which was on the other side of the Palatine. This -mode of dedication to an unknown Deity was not uncommon at Rome, and is -mentioned by Cato and commented upon by Gellius. The form of the word -DEIVAE shows that the inscription belongs to the earlier Latin.[7] - -C. Sextius Calvinus, who restored the altar, was probably son of C. S. -Calvinus, the Consul of A.U.C. 630, and was the competitor of C. Servilius -Glaucia in the year 654.[8] - -[Sidenote: Germalus.] - -The north-western end of the Palatine Hill, round which we have been -passing, was the spot whence arose the name Germalus which Varro tells us -was given to it in memory of the (germani) twin brothers, Romulus and -Remus having been cast ashore here from the Tiber waters, and suckled by -the wolf. How far the district called Germalus extended over the hill is -not known. Cicero speaks of a house belonging to Milo which stood upon the -Germalus, and Livy says that a wolf ran through the Vicus Tuscus and the -Germalus to the Porta Capena.[9] The bronze figure of the wolf and twins -now in the Capitoline Museum is said by Flaminius Vacca, who wrote in -1594, to have been found at no great distance from this place, and Urlichs -has shown that this figure is probably the one dedicated by the Ogulnii, -aediles in B.C. 297.[10] - -Further southwards at the foot of the slope we come to another fragment of -the most ancient wall of the Palatine settlement. This building appears to -stand at right angles to the line of the hillside, and it was therefore -supposed at first to have belonged to a wall traversing the intermontium -or depression which crosses the Palatine Hill from this point to the Arch -of Titus, and to have confirmed the opinion of those archaeologists who -confine the extent of Roma quadrata to the north-western end of the hill. -But subsequent exploration has shown that this wall does not pass along -the intermontium, but turns off at a right angle. Another fragment of the -most ancient wall was found in 1860, according to Lanciani, under the -Villa Mills, showing that the wall of Roman quadrata passed round the -whole hill, and not only round the north-western end. - -[Sidenote: Domus Gelotiana.] - -Close to the fragment of ancient wall we come to a series of chambers -excavated first in 1857, and afterwards cleared and rendered more -accessible in 1869. These belonged to a building in connection with this -part of the imperial palace, and were occupied by soldiers of the -emperor's guard, as may be seen by examination of the inscriptions left -on the walls. The traces of a square court, surrounded with a portico, one -granite pillar of which remains, and on the side of this court towards the -hill, of a number of chambers arranged on each side of a semicircular -recess, are the main features of this ruin. The brickwork supports which -appear here were erected by Canina, and a large quantity of remains have -fallen from the higher levels of the hill. - -The inscriptions which are most remarkable are the following. On the -right-hand wall near the entrance the name HILARUS, followed by the -letters MI. V. D. N., which have been interpreted to mean "miles veteranus -domini nostri," a veteran soldier of our Lord. Numerous other inscriptions -with the letters V. D. N. will be found in the chamber to the left of the -central recess. One of these in the triangular room records the name of -two soldiers who belonged to the foreign troop of Peregrini: BASSUS ET -SATURUS PEREG.[11] Other inscriptions allude to a paedagogium, or training -school, as for example, CORINTHUS EXIT DE PEDAGOGIO. Most of these are in -the triangular rooms behind the central semicircular recess, or in the -furthest room on the left of it. In this last is to be seen the figure of -an ass turning a mill, with the inscription, LABORA ASELLE QUOMODO EGO -LABORA VI ET PRODERIT TIBI. But the most famous of these graffiti is that -now shown in the Kircherian Museum representing the crucified ass, with -the title "Alexamenus worshipping his god," which was taken from the room -on the right of the central semicircular recess, and has been the subject -of much comment. Another record of the same Alexamenus was found here in -1870, in which he is called Alexamenus fidelis. - -[Sidenote: Stadium.] - -Passing now beneath the Villa Mills which occupy the site of the Augustan -library, and the Temple of Apollo, built by Augustus, we turn to the left -up the slope of the hill and find a large open space in which the later -excavations have disinterred the relics of a stadium, consisting of a -curved series of walls, surrounding the foundation of a meta or goal, and -two lines of bases of columns, which ran along the sides and the end of -the stadium.[12] - -A large building in the form of a semicircular recess of exedra, a stand -for viewing the races, is still partially remaining, and also the -foundation of two entrances on the southern side. That this was a stadium -connected with the imperial palace is evident from its shape and its -length, which corresponds to that laid down by the ancient writers as the -proper length of a stadium for foot-races. The large exedra at the -southern side contains on the ground-floor a vast central saloon, and two -side rooms. A few decorative paintings of the latest and least valuable -kind of art remain on the walls, among which are some geographical and -astronomical figures. A coat of foreign marbles covered the walls, and the -pavement was of marble. This part of the Palatine buildings was probably -occupied by the Frangipani in the 13th century. The right-hand chamber was -apparently without decoration, but in the one on the left the wall is -ornamented with fresco paintings of elegance, and the pavement is of fine -mosaic. A list of names with numbers attached to them, which seem to be -those of combatants in the stadium, was found among the graffiti here. - -The upper level of the semicircular exedra was filled by a large chamber, -the side of which, towards the stadium, was occupied by a line of granite -columns, fragments of which remain in the arena below. The interior of -this chamber was also ornamented with marbles and statues. Some statues of -Amazons and the Hercules of Lysippus now in the Pitti at Florence, were -found here according to Vacca, who wrote at the end of the sixteenth -century. The brickwork and the architecture of this exedra seem to be of -the time of Hadrian, and the bricks found here with labels give the date -of A.D. 134, the third consulship of Ursus Servianus. The portico which -ran round the stadium was apparently of later construction than the -exedra, as the date on its bricks seems to refer to Tertullus Scapula, -Consul in A.D. 195, in the reign of Septimius Severus, under whom great -alterations and extensions were carried out in this wing of the palace. - -The vast ruins which remain on the south of the stadium belong chiefly to -the works of Septimius Severus, and have long been celebrated as the most -picturesque among the Caesarean relics. The curved wall behind the great -exedra, and the numerous passages and chambers which stand near it, seem -to have belonged to a bath supplied with water from the branch of the Aqua -Claudia, four arches of which are still remaining on the hill below, -opposite to the church of S. Gregorio. This was a branch from the Claudian -aqueduct, and crossed the valley from the opposite Caelian Hill. - -[Sidenote: Palatine Belvedere.] - -The lofty wing of the palace, which extends along the slope of the Circus -Maximus, opposite to the Aventine, is reached by a modern bridge from the -ruins adjoining the stadium. From the top of this huge ruin a splendid -view of the Caelian, the Aventine, and the Alban Hills may be seen, and the -spot has been sometimes called the Palatine Belvedere. What the exact -nature of the buildings placed upon these lofty ranges of arches was -cannot be easily determined, but they correspond in some degree to the -arched walls of the side between the arches of Titus and Constantine and -to those of the palace of Caligula near the Capitoline, and were mainly -intended to raise the imperial saloons to the higher level of the northern -end of the hill. Spartianus in his 'Life of Severus' says that Severus -bestowed particular pains on this part of the Palatine Hill in order to -make it the chief entrance to the imperial palace, and that his reason for -so doing was to produce an impression of his magnificence upon his African -fellow-countrymen, who, when visiting Rome, would naturally enter at this -point by the Porta Capena, which was the gate just below. The Septizonium -was an imperial building near this part of the hill probably built by -Severus, views of the ruins of which are to be seen in the books of the -topographers Du Perac and Garrucci who wrote before the end of the -sixteenth century, when the Septizonium was pulled down by Sixtus the -Fifth.[13] At the western end of the long and lofty ruin, and near the -end of the stadium, is a projecting portion of ruined chambers which has -been generally supposed to have contained the emperor's private pulvinar, -or box whence he viewed the games in the Circus Maximus. But the -construction of this edifice, including its round tower, seems to be of a -very late style, and it may have been built as late as the sixteenth -century. - -We now return along a modern path which runs under the grounds of the -Villa Mills towards the domus Gelotiana described above. A curved terrace -occupies the upper edge of the hill, along which probably ran a portico -commanding a view over the southern part of Rome and the Trastevere. At -the back of this are the buildings called the Villa Mills from their -former possessors, now occupied by a nunnery, and therefore inaccessible -to the public. In the year 1777, the plan of the ancient buildings which -stood here was explored by Rancoureuil. They consist of a court surrounded -with columns and suites of chambers. Parts of the main front looking -towards the circus remained till the year 1827. The brickwork of these -ruins has induced Cav. Rosa to assign them to the Augustan Age and to call -them Domus Augustana. No sure evidence has, however, been discovered for -this, and it seems more probable that the Domus Augustana was nearer to -the Forum Romanum.[14] - -[Sidenote: Academia and Bibliotheca.] - -Passing back again by the ruins called the Domus Gelotiana as before -described, we turn to the right and ascend the side of the hill. On the -higher level at this point are the ruins of two buildings to which the -names of Academia and Bibliotheca have been given by Rosa. In one of these -the remains of semicircular ranges of seats and a platform have been -supposed to be recognizable, and here may have taken place the recitations -and discussions mentioned by Pliny as constantly kept up in the imperial -palace.[15] - -[Sidenote: Aedes Publicae.] - -Behind these rooms stand the ruins of a portico, built upon substructions -of an earlier period, with Corinthian columns of cipollino, probably -forming the side of a small courtyard. Here it may be seen through an -opening in the ground to what a depth the substructions of this part of -the Palatine buildings descend into the depression or intermontium which -originally separated the two parts of the hill, and was filled up by the -Flavian emperors. We now enter the range of reception rooms commenced by -Vespasian when he destroyed Nero's golden house, and built by Vespasian -and his sons, Titus and Domitian, at the same time with the Coliseum. -These are raised on gigantic constructions of opus quadratum to the level -of the rest of the Palatine Hill. Many stamps on the bricks found here -seem to show that the buildings were finished by Domitian. - -[Sidenote: Triclinium.] - -The south-eastern side of the range of the Imperial Flavian buildings we -are now entering is still covered by the edge of the monastery which -occupies the grounds of the Villa Mills, and we can therefore only see the -north-western part. But this is sufficient to convey a full idea of the -extent of the suite. We are now entering at the back of the triclinium or -dining hall, at the end of which is a semicircular apse, possibly intended -for the emperor's table when he dined here. The form of the room -corresponds to Vitruvius' description of the proper arrangements for a -triclinium. Very little of the original decoration remains, except two -granite columns, of which there were originally sixteen, and a portion of -beautiful pavement composed of porphyry, serpentine, and giallo antico. It -is possible that this may be the triclinium in which Statius dined at -Domitian's table, and of the marble decorations and spacious size of which -he speaks in the fourth book of his 'Silvae.'[17] - -Near the apse of this room an opening in the ground leads down to some -subterranean rooms which formerly belonged to a private house situated in -the depression of the hill, and afterwards covered over by the Flavian -emperors. The brickwork in this house seems to be of the later republican -period, and the walls retain decorations of the best style. - -These decorative paintings have, of course, suffered very much from damp -and neglect, and all the principal features of the house have been -destroyed by the substructures of the Flavian triclinium. The name of -Bagni di Livia was long used in connection with this spot by the ciceroni. - -[Sidenote: Nymphaeum.] - -Returning to the upper level, we find, at the side of the triclinium, the -remains of a nymphaeum or viridarium, consisting of an elliptical basin and -fountain of marble, with niches for statues and bas reliefs, and ledges -for ornamental flowers and plants. On the western side of the nymphaeum a -garden-house was built by the Farnese, part of which still stands, the -portico having some arabesques and some paintings by a pupil of Taddeo -Zuccari, representing scenes on the Palatine as described by Virgil, the -meeting of Aeneas and Evander, and the monster Cacus. - -[Sidenote: Peristylium. Vestibulum.] - -[Sidenote: Atrium.] - -Beyond the triclinium and nymphaeum we come to the remains of the largest -court in the suite, which is called the peristylium, occupying a space of -140 by 154 paces, anciently surrounded by a portico of columns of Porta -Santa marble. The pavement and decorations of this quadrangle would seem -by the remains to have been most superb. On the north-west side of it are -eight rooms of various shapes, arranged symmetrically round an octagonal -central chamber, from which four large doors open, with four corresponding -niches. The same plan of rooms was carried out also on the opposite side -of the peristylium, as was shown by some excavations in 1869. These were -waiting-rooms and offices of various kinds. From the great quadrangle of -the peristylium we pass to the grand audience chamber, the position of -which corresponds generally to that of the atrium of a Roman house. This -was surrounded by a portico of sixteen Corinthian columns of foreign -marbles, and their frieze and bases were ornamented in a most elaborate -manner. Eight niches with colossal statues of basalt are said by Bianchini -to have stood round this court, and in the Tribune at the southern end was -placed the solium augustale, where the emperor sat on grand occasions, -when meetings of the senate or other bodies were held here. The grand -entrance of this atrium, which looked towards the Arch of Titus, was -adorned by two huge columns of giallo antico, and the threshold stone -consisted of a mass of Greek marble from which the altar of the church of -the Pantheon was made. Many of the marbles from this atrium were taken by -the Farnese to Naples. - -[Sidenote: Lararium.] - -On the right hand of this reception room towards the Villa Mills was a -building which shows us by its position and shape that it was the lararium -or shrine of the household gods where sacrifices were offered on solemn -occasions. The remains of an altar were discovered here. - -[Sidenote: Basilica.] - -Opposite to the lararium are the foundations of a building with a tribune -and podium, probably used by the emperor in cases such as those described -by Tacitus, when imperial constraint was exercised over a legal verdict. -Two rows of columns, arranged as is commonly the case in the basilicae, and -a portion of some white marble railings have been found and preserved -here. - -Along the side of this tribunal hall and that of the peristylium and its -adjoining offices, ran a long portico connecting the whole suite of halls -together. - -The history of this range of imperial buildings has been very probably -supposed to be as follows. Vespasian intended them to be used in support -of his revival of the Augustan imperial policy, and that a name such as -Aedes Publicae, "National Chambers," should be given to them.[18] - -Accordingly, all these rooms have the character of public rather than -private buildings. There is apparently no provision for domestic life, and -all the sections of the edifice seem to have been public audience or -banqueting rooms. - -[Sidenote: Porta Mugionia.] - -[Sidenote: Jupiter Stator.] - -In front of the last described buildings, which we have called the -basilica, the atrium, and the lararium, is an open space, on the right -hand of which, looking towards the Arch of Titus, a fragment of the -earliest walls of the Palatine remains, constructed of tufa blocks taken -from the hill underneath. Beyond this, towards the Arch of Titus, are the -paving stones of an ancient road which was probably the approach to the -palace, and to the left of this road stand the relics of one of the most -ancient gates, the Porta Mugionia. This is described by Vacca as having -been discovered at the end of the sixteenth century, when it was still -decorated with marble. The substructions alone now remain, and close to -them may still be traced the foundations of an ancient temple which can be -no other than the temple of Jupiter Stator. Solinus says that the house of -Tarquinius Priscus was near the Porta Mugionia, and Livy states that he -lived near the Porta Mugionia. The statue of Cloelia is also said by Livy -to have stood at the top of the Sacra Via which was near the Arch of -Titus, and this statue is further placed by Pliny near the Porta -Mugionia.[19] The remains of the temple show that it was arranged -according to the cardinal points of the heavens, looking north and south. -On the foundation stones are the names of Philocrates and Diocles, masons -employed in building. Three old inscriptions referring to the worship of -Jove were found here, and are to be seen in the Palatine Museum. - -[Sidenote: Cryptoporticus.] - -Near the ruins of this Temple of Jupiter Stator we find vast blocks of -substruction which belong to the complicated ranges of buildings occupying -the north-eastern end of the hill, and generally believed to have been -erected by Caligula. They extend along the side of the hill over the -Forum, and along the Clivus Victoriae by which we entered, to the point -which overlooks the Velabrum. The modifications and enlargements of this -structure during the ages succeeding Caligula have rendered it a confused -mass of ruins, and the walls and chambers now left have served chiefly as -substructions for the lofty mansions erected upon them in the course of -ages. From the corner of these ruins, next to the Temple of Jupiter -Stator, runs a long arched cryptoporticus or covered passage, which can be -entered from the ruins of this temple or from below nearer to the modern -entrance gateway. It is supposed that this may have been the -cryptoporticus in which, as we learn from Josephus, Caligula was -assassinated on his return from the ludi palatini given in front of the -palace. He is said to have turned off from the direct line of entrance, -and to have passed into this covered way in order to hear and see some -youths from Asia performing. The assassins, after accomplishing their -end, were afraid to venture through the front of the palace, and took -refuge by hiding in the house of Germanicus.[20] - -[Sidenote: House of Tiberius.] - -At the western end of the cryptoporticus a house has been disinterred by -the late excavations, and it has been inferred that this must have been -the one called by Josephus the house of Germanicus. Whatever name may now -be assigned to it, the house appears to have been preserved for some -reason from destruction, and it seems reasonable to conclude that some -connection with the earlier history of the imperial Caesars rendered it an -object of veneration and care. The space between the cryptoporticus, along -which we have passed, and the so-called basilica of the palace, is -supposed to have been called the Area Palatina, where those who came to -call upon the emperor had to wait.[21] The long cryptoporticus was -connected with the Flavian public buildings, and perhaps also previously -with the house of Augustus, by a branch passage which runs off from the -long cryptoporticus at right angles, towards the back of the atrium and -lararium. By this means the emperor could pass from his private palace to -the public audience and banqueting chambers without encountering the crowd -of those who were waiting for audience in the area. In this area was -found, in 1868, the pedestal bearing the name of Domitius Calvinus, now -placed on the site of the ruined temple which lies farther to the west, -and which we shall presently mention. - -In the angle of the cryptoporticus near the house of Germanicus, are some -beautiful remains of decorative work, consisting of paintings of birds and -winged genii. These have been much injured by the damp exuding from a -piscina which was constructed here in the second or third century for the -keeping of fish, and which can be entered at the angle of the -cryptoporticus. Near this piscina is the entrance to the building called -the house of Tiberius or Germanicus. The construction of this house -belongs to the period of Roman architecture, when reticulated work formed -of the harder tufa, with small diamond-shaped stones, and with corners and -connecting parts of the same stone, but without brickwork, was generally -used. It was therefore probably built during the later republican times, -and this agrees with the supposition that it was the works of Tiberius's -father or grandfather. Suetonius says that Tiberius was born on the -Palatine.[22] The leaden pipes which have been found here, bear the names -of Julia, the daughter of Titus, of one of Domitian's, and one of -Septimius Severus's freedmen. - -The house is divided into two main parts, one of larger dimensions for -receiving guests and showing hospitality, and the other of smaller sized -rooms, for the family. The vestibule is an arched passage adorned with -paintings on the walls, and mosaic pavement. From this the atrium is -entered which had no impluvium, but was covered entirely with a roof. On -the left are the remains of an altar of the Lares, and at the further side -of the atrium are three large rooms, the decorative paintings of which are -well preserved. - -In the central chamber, the walls are divided into large compartments by -columns of the Composite order, adorned with vine leaves. One of the large -scenes represented here is that of Polyphemus, who, after having crushed -his rival Acis with an enormous rock, turns towards Galatea, who is riding -on a hippocampus. Another, placed above the frieze, is a picture of a -domestic initiation ceremony, as the sacred taenia which is being presented -seems to prove. A third picture, also above the frieze, shows the -preparations for a sacrifice. On the right sits a female figure, with a -mantle, and a faun standing before some utensils for ablution, which are -being lifted by a second female figure, while the sacrificial kid is being -brought by a young slave. The next picture represents a row of houses -along the side of a street or road, at the door of one of which a lady -with her maid is knocking, while four or five figures present themselves -above on the balconies. The last picture is one of Io hidden in the wood -of Juno at Mycenae, and watched by Argos, with a figure of Hermes -descending by Jove's command to rescue Io. The names of Io, Argos, and -Hermes are legible here. - -The room on the left hand of this one is also divided by Composite columns -adorned with vine leaves, and by a beautiful frieze of giallo antico. The -lower compartments have no figures, but the upper are ornamented with -designs of genii and fantastic flowers. - -The room on the right hand is decorated with beautifully-designed -paintings of flowers and fruit, hanging from one column to the next. From -these festoons hang the emblems of various divinities, the lyre of Apollo, -the timbrel of Cybele, and the mystic sieve and mask of Bacchus. These -seem to indicate that this was the lararium of the house. The frieze -contains a number of landscape and marine views, with many figures of men -and animals painted on a yellow ground. - -At the north-western corner of the atrium opens a fourth chamber, which -may perhaps have been the dining-room, or triclinium, decorated with -trophies of sacred emblems of Diana and Apollo. The atrium communicates -with the rooms at the back of the house and with a small courtyard by -means of a corridor. Some of these rooms were used as baths, others seem -to have opened towards the street, the pavement of which still remains -along the side of the house. - -[Sidenote: Palatine temples.] - -On the other side of this street is an entrance to the subterranean caves -which have been cut in this part of the hill. These hollows were mainly -stone quarries and wells. A puteal, or well-cover, has been placed over -one of these in front of the house which we have described. On this side -of the street also stand the foundations which have been supposed to have -belonged to the priests of the Temple of Jupiter Propugnator on the -Palatine, some portions of the fasti of whose college have been found near -the Basilica Julia and the Marforio.[23] There is also the foundation of a -temple, called by Rosa the Temple of Jupiter Victor, to be seen extending -from this street towards the viridarium of the aedes publicae of Domitian -before mentioned, and towards the edge of the hill which looks over the -Circus Maximus. These ruins consist of masses of tufa work mixed with -later brickwork of the Antonine times. The pedestal with the name of Gnaeus -Domitius Calvinus which is placed here came, as we have said, from the -spot called the Area Palatina before mentioned. The Notitia also places -the Temple of Jupiter Victor in the Area Palatina, and for these two -reasons the name seems to be wrongly applied to this ruin. We can trace in -it the remains of a building raised on a basement with lofty flights of -steps, alternating with terraces in front, towards the Circus Maximus, -just as we find at Tibur and at Tusculum temples, placed on the side of a -hill with high flights of steps ascending to them.[24] - -[Sidenote: Germalus and Scala Caci.] - -The remainder of the upper level of this north-western corner of the hill -is occupied by numerous ruins of squared tufa stone, which evidently -belonged to some of the most ancient and venerated relics of Rome. This -was, no doubt, the part of the Palatine to which the name Germalus was -given, in memory of the Germani, or twin-brothers, Romulus and Remus, who -were cast ashore at its foot from the flooded waters of the Tiber. Two -distinct edifices have been disclosed here, from the first of which, a -rectangular foundation of tufa stones, a passage bearing marks of great -antiquity descends towards the church of Anastasia and the gas works. This -rectangular ruin has been called by many various names, such as the Temple -of Jupiter Feretrius, the Tugurium Faustuli, the Temple of the Magna Mater -Cybele, or of the Lares Praestites. The descending passage to the Vallis -Murcia has been supposed to be the Scala Caci mentioned by Solinus,[25] -and it is possible that the legend of Cacus refers to this point of the -Palatine next to the Aventine. The marks on the stones of this descent are -probably only quarry marks. No brickwork is found here in the lower ruins -nor any marbles. But in the mass of fragments there are remains of the -republican and of the imperial restorations of the many venerated -buildings and altars which must have stood upon this corner of the hill. -On the right hand of this descent a small rectangular court was discovered -in 1872, with a staircase and a channel for water running through it. This -is thought by Lanciani to have been possibly the fifth Argean Chapel, -which was somewhere on the Germalus. A statue found here bears some marks -of having represented the goddess Cybele. - -[Sidenote: Auguratorium.] - -The most conspicuous ruin at this end of the hill is a mass of concrete -and tufa blocks, apparently of the republican era, in the shape of a -rectangular basement. This has the form of a temple in antis, i.e. with -projecting wings, and faces the south, commanding a view over the Aventine -and Tiber valley. Cav. Rosa has conjectured that this is the ruin of the -auguratorium mentioned by the Notitia as situated near the other most -ancient sacred spots on the Palatine. But an inscription which records the -restoration of the auguratorium by Hadrian does not support this view, as -the work now remaining is mostly republican.[26] Lanciani thinks that this -may have been the Aedes Matris Deum, to which the statue found as before -mentioned in front of it belonged. - -At the back of the so-called auguratorium we find a long series of rooms -running in a line across the hill from north-west to south-east, which -have vaulted roofs and are similar to those found below in the domus -Gelotiana, before described. Cav. Rosa has inferred with reason from this -and from the graffiti in these rooms that they formed a part of the -offices and guard-rooms attached to that large portion of the palace which -lay on the site now occupied by the gardens and the vast masses of -brickwork at the northern corner of the hill. The graffiti to be seen here -are chiefly the scribblings of soldiers' names, rude sketches of ships and -animals, and combats of gladiators. - -[Sidenote: Tiberiana domus.] - -Several passages of the Roman historians lead us to conclude that the -suite of rooms occupied by Tiberius were situated here. It was from the -Tiberiana Domus, as Tacitus relates, that Vitellius surveyed the -conflagration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, and the engagement -between his adherents and the Flavian party under Sabinus. The Tiberian -part of the palace was also that through which, as Tacitus also tells us, -Otho descended into the Velabrum, after joining Galba at the sacrifice in -the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine.[27] Afterwards, the Tiberiana Domus -became the favourite residence of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, and -it was probably during their reigns that the library which we find -mentioned by Gellius was established here.[28] - -We now pass through the garden grounds which lie over the remains of the -Domus Tiberiana, and descend on the side which looks over the Forum, by a -long staircase through the immense masses of brickwork and concrete which -are said to have been part of the insane additions of Caligula to the -imperial palace. He is declared to have made a passage from this wing of -the palace to the back of the Temple of Castor below in the Forum, in -order that he might appear in that sacred shrine as an equal of the twin -gods and an object of worship when the Senate met there. He also joined -this corner of the palace with the Capitoline Temple of Jupiter by a huge -viaduct, which passed over the Basilica Julia, in order that he might thus -make himself the contubernalis of Jupiter.[29] Some of the substructions -of this viaduct are to be seen near the back of the church of S. Maria -Liberatrice. We now leave the Palatine by the Clivus Victoriae, along which -we entered, and turn to the arch of Titus and the ruins which stand near -it. - - -THE VELIA. - -[Sidenote: The Velia.] - -Near the arch of Titus the Palatine Hill runs out in a gradually sloping -ridge north-eastwards towards the Esquiline Hill. On one side of this -ridge the ground sinks towards the Forum Romanum, and on the other towards -the Meta Sudans and the Coliseum. The level of the pavement under the arch -of Titus is fifty-three feet above the ancient pavement of the Forum. It -seems probable that this outlying part of the Palatine was that which bore -the name of Velia.[30] - -[Sidenote: Arch of Titus.] - -On the summit of the ridge above described stands the arch of Titus, the -most complete of all the monuments of imperial Rome. The central part of -the original building remains, and is easily distinguished from the -subsequent travertine restorations by being constructed of Pentelic -marble. The height of the arch is forty-nine feet and its breadth -forty-two feet. Originally there were two fluted Corinthian columns on -each side of both faces of the arch, the two inner of which are now left, -while the two outer are modern. Over the arch are two bas-reliefs of -Victory which, though much injured, are still remarkable for the beauty of -their outlines. On the keystone of the side towards the Coliseum is a -figure of Rome, and on the other side Fortune with a cornucopia. - -The most interesting parts of the arch have fortunately been preserved by -their protected position in the interior. On each side is a magnificent -alto-relievo, representing the triumphal procession of Titus after the -capture of Jerusalem. The relievo on the south side shows a number of -persons carrying the spoils of the Jewish Temple. The golden candlestick, -the golden table for showbread, and the trumpets are clearly recognizable. -These, according to Josephus,[31] among other utensils of the Jewish -temple, were deposited in Vespasian's Temple of Peace. The procession is -moving towards a triumphal arch. - -In the northern relief the emperor is represented in his triumphal car, -drawn by four horses, and surrounded by his guards and suite. Victory is -holding a crown over his head, and the goddess Roma guiding the reins. The -interior of the arch is ornamented with richly-carved rosettes and -coffers, and upon the crown is a rather undignified representation of the -apotheosis of the emperor astride upon an eagle's back. - -On the Coliseum side a small portion of the entablature is left. The -frieze had a bas-relief, which partially remains, of a sacrificial -procession. The attica is modern, with the exception of the inscription. -That the arch was erected after the emperor's death is shown by the title -Divus, and also by the figure of his apotheosis under the archway. Another -arch had been erected in the Circus previously in the year 80, when the -Coliseum was completed, and Titus gave a great festival. The date of the -extant arch is, therefore, the year 82 or 83. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.] - -[Sidenote: Temple of Venus and Rome.] - -Almost the whole of the southern slope of the Velia towards the Coliseum -is occupied by the ruin of a vast foundation which extends under the -church and convent of S. Francesca Romana. The substructions, of which -the inner core only, consisting of rubble-work, is left, were originally -cased with travertine blocks. They form an enormous quadrilateral terrace, -round which a portico of granite columns ran. Upon this was raised a -basement some four or five feet higher, and a building with two apses back -to back, similar to the tribunes of a basilica. These are ornamented with -large square coffers and niches for statues. It has been generally -inferred from the statements of Dion Cassius and Spartianus that this -building was the Temple of Venus and Rome built by Hadrian and dedicated -by the Antonines, but burnt down in the time of Constantine and restored -by him.[32] Pope Honorius I. stripped the bronze tiles from the roof, and -they were placed on the Basilica of S. Peter, whence they were taken by -the Saracens in A.D. 846. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, -limekilns were set up near the arch of Titus by the Romans and the marbles -of this spot were burnt into lime.[33] The two tribunes which stand back -to back and the buildings near them have not the appearance of a temple, -but rather of a legal court or basilica. For this reason, and also because -a large portico of this shape is represented in the marble plan of the -city, the fragments of which are now in the Capitoline Museum, as having -belonged to the Porticus Liviae, Mr. Parker, in his 'Archaeology of Rome,' -has maintained that this was the Porticus Liviae, built by Augustus and -afterwards used by Hadrian for the Temple of the Sun and Moon. Jordan has -also shown that the Porticus Liviae was near this spot, but he places it -farther to the north-east, behind the Basilica of Constantino.[34] Since -Dion Cassius speaks of the Temple of Venus and Rome as having been close -to the Coliseum and also near the Sacra Via, and Spartianus says that it -stood in the vestibule of the Domus Aurea of Nero, we are almost compelled -to assign this position to that temple.[35] - -[Sidenote: Domus Transitoria.] - -Nero's enormous extension of the Palatine buildings must have occupied a -great part of the Velia, reaching across it from the Palatine to the -Esquiline. But his great Domus Aurea and its surrounding porticoes and -halls, which were called Domus Transitoria, and occupied not only the -slope of the Velia but also the site of the Coliseum, were destroyed by -the Flavian emperors who succeeded him, and we can only point to one -fragment, of the Domus Transitoria which stands near the corner of the -Basilica of Constantine at the side of the path which leads between that -ruin and the buildings of S. Francesca Romana. - -[Sidenote: Basilica of Constantine.] - -The vast arches of the ruin called the Basilica of Constantine form, next -to the Coliseum, the most conspicuous object in the neighbourhood of the -Forum, and they were long supposed to have belonged to the Temple of -Peace, Vespasian's great temple. But the decision of modern archaeology has -assigned them to Constantine, on the ground that the brickwork is of much -later date than the time of Vespasian, and also that the few remains of -decoration which are extant bear indications of a great decline of -ornamentative art when they were constructed. Further evidence has been -derived from a coin of Maxentius, the rival of Constantine, having been -found in 1828 sticking in the mortar of one of the fragments. Aurelius -Victor says that the basilica called by the name of Constantine was begun -by Maxentius.[36] The three gigantic arches now standing formed the roof -of the eastern aisle of the basilica, which consisted, as the foundation -clearly shows, of a central hall and two side aisles. The arches are -sixty-eight feet in span and eighty feet high. They are ornamented by -octagonal caissons or coffers, containing central rosettes and the -interspaces are relieved by rhomboidal panel work. The two side arches -have their backs walled up, and there are six arched windows in each wall. -At the back of the central arch is a semicircular tribune, with niches for -statues and a central pedestal. Some of the marble ornaments of this -tribune are still left, and show in their rude execution evidence of the -Constantinian style of art. A screen seems to have separated the tribune -from the interior of the hall. In front of the three great arches can be -plainly seen the spring of the enormous roof which covered the central -hall of the basilica. This central hall must have been at least 80 feet in -width and 115 feet in height. - -The southern aisle was of the same construction and size as the northern, -and in place of the tribune had a grand entrance on the side towards the -arch of Titus. A flight of steps and a portico with porphyry columns, two -of which are now in the Conservatori Museum on the Capitol, formed the -approach to the entrance. A white column from the central hall is to be -seen erected in front of S. Maria Maggiore, where it was placed in the -seventeenth century by Paul V. - -At the western end of the central hall was a tribune, the ruins of which -are now occupied by a warehouse, and at the eastern end an entrance in -three divisions opened into the road between the basilica and the portico -of the so-called Temple of Venus and Rome. This entrance had a vestibule -or verandah similar to those found at S. Giovanni in Laterano and at S. -Maria Maggiore, and answering to the building called a chalcidicum by -Vitruvius.[37] (Fig. 9, p. 33.) - -[Sidenote: SS. Cosma and Damiano.] - -The church of SS. Cosma and Damiano which now stands at the north-western -end of the Basilica of Constantine is, like many other churches in Rome, -constructed on the ruins of some ancient temple. A most careful account -has been given of its various stages of construction by Mr. Parker.[38] -This may possibly have been the site of the original Temple of the -Penates, and some archaeologists have thought that the round temple which -has been converted into the vestibule of the church was that of the -Penates. The doorway of this temple with its columns, frieze and bronze -doors, has been raised from the lower level of the old temple, on which -the crypt of the church now stands beneath the floor. At the back of this -the nave of the church was built on the ruins of some unknown temple, and -behind the apse of the nave is said by Mr. Parker to have been the wall on -which the celebrated Capitoline marble plan of Rome was hung. The -fragments of this plan, which was shaken down, he thinks, by the fall of a -great mass from the Basilica of Constantine, were found here. The chapel -of the Penates was on the road from the summa Sacra Via to the Carinae, -which would place it near this spot.[39] The name "Temple of Romulus" -given to the ruins by mediaeval writers may have been derived from some -restoration by Romulus, son of Maxentius. - -[Sidenote: Lavacrum of Heliogabalus.] - -We now pass through the arch of Titus along the ancient road towards the -Coliseum, and on the slope of the Palatine to our right stand the ruins -of a mediaeval church which was excavated in 1873 by Cav. Rosa. This is -said to have been called the church of S. Maria Antiqua, and to have been -placed upon the ruins of the lavacrum of Heliogabalus.[40] The chambers -now disclosed seem to have been used as a bath. Along the side of the hill -near this are numerous ruins similar to those on the other side of the -Palatine, which were apparently guard rooms. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE FORUM ROMANUM. - - -[Sidenote: Temple of Castor.] - -At a short distance from the entrance to the Palatine we can enter the -Forum near the ruins of an ancient temple, three columns of which are -still standing. These three columns are among the most conspicuous and -beautiful remains of ancient Rome. No doubt can now be felt that they -belonged to the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The situation agrees with -that which is pointed out by the Ancyraean inscription, and by the fact -that Caligula made a passage from the Palatine Palace to this temple. - -The substructions of this building have been cleared, and the length and -breadth of the basement and of the steps forming the approach can now be -clearly seen. The three columns belonged to the central part of the -south-eastern side. They are of most elegant proportions, and their -capitals, architrave and frieze are ornamented with decorative work of the -very best period of Graeco-Roman architecture. The designs on the -entablature are most delicate and perfect, and well repay a minute -examination. Besides the usual ornaments upon the cornice and corbels -there is along the upper edge a row of beautiful lions' heads, through -which the rain-water ran off. - -The temple had evidently eight columns in front, and eleven side columns, -reckoning in the corner column. The approach was raised high above the -forum level, and has three steps projecting beyond the line of the next -building, the Basilica Julia. The lines of the front steps are preserved, -and also those of the side towards the Capitol, while the other side has -been destroyed. The pavement in front of this has been miserably altered -and mended at a late date, probably after the fourth century. - -[Illustration: FORUM ROMANUM] - -The capitals when compared with the earlier Corinthian capitals of the -Pantheon, show a longer and narrower type which is also found at the -Temple of Vespasian and the peristyle of Nerva's Forum, the Colonacce. The -lower foundations of the basement are of old tufa rubble construction, and -possibly belong to the date of the original foundations in B.C. 494 by the -dictator Aulus Postumius, who vowed to build it at the battle of the Lake -Regillus in the Latin war. It was afterwards dedicated by his son in B.C. -484. Two restorations are mentioned, the first executed by L. Metellus -Dalmaticus, consul in B.C. 119, and the second by Drusus and Tiberius in -A.D. 6. The temple was used for meetings of the senate, for harangues from -its steps to the people in the forum, and for holding courts of law. A -register of changes in the value of money was kept in the tabularium of -the temple, and deposits were made here as in many other temples.[41] -Standing as the old temple did near the veteres tabernae of the forum, and -the newer restorations of them near the Basilica Julia, it was convenient -for business transactions. On the north-west side a street pavement -leading to the Velabrum has been laid bare, which may be that of the Vicus -Tuscus. - -[Sidenote: Puteal.] - -Descending from the Temple of Castor to the ancient pavement of the Forum -Romanum, we find at the north-eastern corner of the ruin the remains of a -puteal or well-house which has naturally been supposed to be the fountain -of Juturna from its neighbourhood to the Temple of the Twin Brethren, who -are said to have given their horses drink there after the battle of -Regillus. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Vesta.] - -A little farther to the south the basement of a round building is to be -seen, which may very probably have been the ancient Temple of Vesta. This -was a round building, as we conclude from Ovid and Plutarch's notices, and -was intended by Numa, the first founder, to denote the spherical shape of -the earth which Vesta personified, or the original family hearth.[42] - -[Sidenote: Chapel of Julius Caesar.] - -In front of the Temple of Castor a large block of substructions has been -cleared, which is with great probability assigned to the chapel built in -honour of Julius Caesar, and called the Heroon of Caesar. Ovid's lines, in -one of his letters from Pontus-- - - "Like the twin brethren whom in their abode - Julius, the god, beholds from his high shrine," - -seem to prove that the heroon was in front of that temple. The body of -Caesar was burnt in front of the regia and Temple of Vesta, which were at -this end of the Forum, and the heroon was placed on the spot where it was -burnt. The remains of two small staircases were found at the sides of the -heroon, and a wider staircase in front. The epithet "high," given by Ovid -to its position, seems to be in accordance with the raised basement. The -semicircle of masonry on the north side has not been satisfactorily -explained. It is usually supposed to have belonged to the Julian rostra, -but its shape is not such as to support this idea. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Antoninus and Faustina.] - -To the north-east of the heroon of Julius Caesar, we find the ancient -pavement of the road which ran along the north-eastern side of the Forum, -and to this road descend the steps of a temple with a conspicuous row of -six cipollino columns, and with two columns and a pilaster besides the -corner column on each side. These columns have Attic bases and Corinthian -capitals of white marble. The inscription upon the plain architrave in -front shows that the temple was first dedicated to Faustina alone, and -that the first three words, including the emperor's name, were added after -his death. The Faustina here commemorated was probably the elder Faustina, -wife of Antoninus Pius, as a representation at this temple is given on one -of the medals struck in her honour.[43] She died in A.D. 141, and -Antoninus Pius in 161. The frieze of the temple is ornamented at the sides -with a bold and finely-executed relief representing griffins with upraised -wings, between which are carved elaborately-designed candelabra and vases. -A considerable part of the side walls of grey peperino blocks anciently -faced with marble is still standing. A church was built here at a very -early time, but the present building which forms a strange contrast in the -meanness of its style and proportions to the massive grandeur of the grey -old ruin which embraces it, was built in 1602 by the guild of the Roman -apothecaries.[44] - -[Sidenote: Extent of the Forum.] - -[Sidenote: Seven brick pedestals.] - -[Sidenote: Column of Phocas.] - -We now pass along the ancient stone pavement towards the Capitol, and -observe how small the space occupied by the ancient Forum Romanum was. The -temple we have just left stood in the north-eastern corner, and the -columns of the two temples opposite to us on the slope of the Capitol mark -the other end of the Forum. The central pavement now laid bare is of -travertine flags, while the roads are marked by basaltic blocks. On the -side of the central space runs a row of seven large masses of brickwork, -which seem to be the bases of pedestals which supported dedicatory -columns, or statues similar to the one still standing at the end, which -has become known to English travellers as "the nameless column with the -buried base" of Byron. Since Byron's time the base of this has been -unburied, and bears the name of Smaragdus, proclaimed exarch of Italy for -the eleventh time,[45] who erected it in honour of the Emperor Phocas. The -date is given by the words INDICT. UND., which show that Smaragdus was in -his eleventh year as exarch, and we know that he was exarch under -Mauricius for five years, A.D. 583-588, and six years under Phocas, A.D. -602-608. His eleventh year would thus be in 608, and this was the fifth -year of Phocas' reign, so that the last words of the inscription confirm -the explanation given of the previous words INDICT. UND.[46] "P. C." in -the inscription probably mean, as Clinton explains, post consulatum, which -was the way of reckoning in the later years of the Eastern Empire. - -[Sidenote: Pedestal of equestrian statue.] - -In the centre of the Forum traces of the base of a large pedestal can be -discerned, and this is supposed to have been the position of the -equestrian statue of Domitian described at length by Statius, who says in -the first poem of his 'Silvae' that an equestrian statue of Domitian stood -at the north-western end of the Forum, looking towards the other end. It -was a triumphal statue erected in honour of Domitian's campaigns against -the Catti and Daci. The poet describes its position very accurately, -mentioning the Heroon of Julius Caesar which faced it, the Basilica Julia -on the right, the Basilica Paulli on the left, and the temples of Concord -and Vespasian behind. The Temple of Saturn is omitted for some unknown -reason. Statius also alludes to some other principal objects in the Forum, -the Temple of Vesta, the Temple of Castor, and the statue of Curtius. He -concludes with prophesying that the statue will outlast the eternal -city.[47] It seems, however, probable, as Mr. Nichols in his admirable -book on the Forum has said, that the statue was removed after Domitian's -death, when his memory was execrated, or was dedicated to a succeeding -emperor, and that the statement of Herodian about the dream of Severus, -who imagined that he saw an equestrian statue in the Forum, a colossal -representation of which remained there in the historian's time, may refer -to this pedestal.[48] - -[Sidenote: Trajan's bas-reliefs.] - -Two of the most interesting monuments which have been brought to light by -the recent excavations in Rome were discovered in 1872, near the base of -the column of Phocas, where they have been re-erected. They consist of -marble slabs, sculptured with bas-reliefs and forming low screens. Each -screen is constructed of slabs of unequal size, and some of these have -been unfortunately lost. Their original position has been restored as -nearly as possible, and they stand parallel to each other in a line -crossing the area of the Forum. On the inner sides of both of these -sculptured screens, the sacrificial animals, the boar, sheep and bull, -always offered up at the Suovetaurilia, are represented. - -The other sides, which are turned outwards, represent scenes in the Forum, -and are commemorative of some public benefaction of one of the emperors, -probably Trajan or Hadrian. On one of them Italia is represented thanking -the emperor for establishing some "alimenta publica," public relief -institutions, and for apportioning lands to encourage needy parents to -rear their children. Such relief funds and lands intended to supply the -defective population of Italy were first established by the Emperor Nerva, -and afterwards by Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, and are frequently -commemorated on medals, and mentioned by the historians Dion Cassius and -Aurelius Victor, and the authors of the Augustan history.[49] The emperor -is represented in a sitting posture, and stretching out his hand towards a -child presented by a woman in the character of Italia, who apparently -holds another child ready for presentation. Behind the emperor's seat is -the fig-tree called Navia or Ruminalis, which is said to have grown near -the rostra, and also the figure of Marsyas which stood in the same place. -At the other end of this sculptured scene stands a speaker with a roll in -his hand, addressing a crowd of citizens from a rostrum, which may perhaps -represent the publication of the edict establishing alimenta. - -The other bas-relief scene shows a rostrum at one end, from which a -sitting figure is superintending the burning of large bundles of books, -carried and placed in front of him in a heap. The outline of a figure -applying a torch can be traced, and also of several attendants. At the -opposite end to the sitting figure the fig-tree and Marsyas are placed as -in the other relief. - -The style of art in which the reliefs are executed cannot, in Professor -Henzen's opinion, belong to an earlier period than Trajan's reign. The -treatment corresponds to that on those reliefs taken from Trajan's arch, -and set up on Constantine's arch. After Trajan's time the style of -bas-relief was so much altered that we cannot suppose them to have been -sculptured later than the first year of Hadrian. - -As Trajan gained great popularity in the early years of his reign by an -abolition of the arrears of certain debts due to the imperial treasury, -amounting to a large sum, and as he also established alimenta, these -reliefs have been generally supposed to commemorate his public -benefactions, in founding relief institutions and cancelling public debts. - -The backgrounds of both the sculptures are occupied by representations of -some public buildings, but it does not seem possible to identify these -with any certainty. That they roughly represent some of the temples and -Basilicas in the Forum in a sketch is all we can say. One of the temples -shown in the relief which depicts the foundation of alimenta has only five -columns in its portico, showing a want of accuracy in the drawing which -throws great doubt upon its topographical value. The archaeologists who -have endeavoured to name the buildings have agreed in calling the Ionic -and the Corinthian portico in the relief where the account books are being -burnt those of the Temples of Saturn and Vespasian, with an arch of the -tabularium between them, and the long row of arches the Basilica Julia, -but they differ as to the buildings shown in the other relief, for while -Mr. Nichols thinks that the Basilica Julia is here again represented with -the Heroon of Julius Caesar and the arch of Augustus, Signor Brizio is of -opinion that we have here the north-western side of the Forum with the -Basilica Aemilia.[50] The rostra are probably meant to represent temporary -wooden constructions. - -The most reasonable conjecture which has yet been made as to the purpose -which these sculptured screens served is that they formed a pons or -passage along which voters passed at a time of election from the Forum to -the office where the votes were taken. A great part of the structures used -at such times was probably temporary, and made of wood for the occasion. -Another explanation suggested by Mr. Nichols is that they formed a passage -leading to an altar and statue of the Emperor. It may be that the -sculptures never reached their destined site, but were left here, as many -of the marbles on the Tiber banks were, and gradually buried in rubbish. - -[Sidenote: Basilica Julia.] - -We now pass to the rows of restored bases of columns, which occupy the -long space on the south-western side of the seven pedestals above -mentioned. Here we find the ground plan of the great Basilica Julia marked -out by a treble row of columns at each of the larger sides, and a double -row at each end. One pier of the outer row towards the Forum has been -restored by Rosa so as to show the original height. - -The proof that these ruins belong to the Basilica Julia which was planned -by Julius Caesar, and begun by him but completed by Augustus, who dedicated -it to his grandsons Caius and Lucius, is the statement in the monumentum -Ancyranum, in which it is placed between the temples of Saturn and Castor. - -A second proof is derived from two inscriptions found during the process -of clearing the site, one of which records the repair of the Basilica -Julia, and the erection in it of a statue by Gabinius Vettius Probianus, -prefect of the city in A.D. 377, and the other the rebuilding of the -Basilica Julia under Maximian after the fire which destroyed it in the -time of Carinus and Numerian. This site is also assigned to the Basilica -on the Capitoline plan which may be seen on the staircase of the -Capitoline Museum. The outline given there, and marked by the name -Basilica Julia, agrees in proportion, and in the rows of columns with the -extant remains, and this shows that the present ruin is the same in its -main points with that which stood in the time of Severus, when the -Capitoline plan was made.[51] Seven steps lead up to the level of the -floor from the Forum level. - -A great deal of legal business was transacted here, as may be seen from -the frequent mention of it in Pliny's Epistles. There were four tribunals, -of which Quintilian speaks, at which four trials could be carried on at -the same time; but these tribunals were probably wooden and temporary -erections, and there is no trace of any semicircular apses, such as those -in the Basilica of Constantine. One of Caligula's amusements, as we are -told by Suetonius, was to stand upon the roof of this basilica, and throw -money to the mob in the Forum to scramble for. Whether the basilica was -covered over in the centre is not certain, but it probably was so, with -two aisles open to the Forum. The row of arches standing at the north-west -corner is partly a restoration of the basilica by Canina, and partly -consists of some piers and a wall standing behind, which has not yet been -satisfactorily identified with any ancient building. The most probable -supposition is that they belonged to the Porticus Julia mentioned by Dion -Cassius, and were parts of an earlier edifice, in front of which and upon -which the basilica was placed by Augustus. - -[Sidenote: Cloaca.] - -Under the southern end of the floor of the Julian Basilica, an opening has -been made in which the arch of the main cloaca of the Forum valley can be -seen passing across the Forum towards the Subura. This is the drain of -which Juvenal speaks, when he says that the fish taken from the Crypta -Suburae is the climax of indignity offered to the unhappy parasite Trebius -at his patron's table.[52] The course of the drain runs from here under -the Via dei Fenili down to the Janus Quadrifrons in the Velabrum, where it -meets other branches and passes down to the Tiber. Between the eastern end -of the Basilica Julia and the temple of Castor ran the Vicus Tuscus, of -which the paving-stones may still be traced. At the western end the Vicus -Jugarius led towards the Velabrum, but this is buried under the present -Via della Consolazione, and cannot be seen. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Tiberius.] - -The Arch of Tiberius, which stood at the corner of the Basilica Julia, -where the Vicus Jugarius and the Clivus Capitolinus diverged, cannot be -clearly traced, though some of its ruins have been thought to exist among -those uncovered at the edge of and under the modern road. This arch has -been with great probability supposed to be that alluded to by Tacitus in -speaking of the recovery of the Roman standards lost by Varus, and retaken -by Germanicus under the auspices of Tiberius.[53] The triumphal arch -represented on the Arch of Constantine is also thought to be that of -Tiberius placed here. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Saturn.] - -We now pass under the modern road to the foot of the Capitoline Hill, and -proceed to examine the most prominent ruin at the western end of the -Forum. This consists of eight columns, six of red granite forming a front, -and two side columns of grey granite. The capitals of these and the -decoration of the entablature, architrave and frieze surmounting them are -of a late and debased Ionic order with volutes in the later style, and -they have been pieced together in the last restoration of the temple with -extraordinary negligence. Unequal spaces are left between the columns, and -some are set upon plinths while others are without them. One of the side -columns has been so badly re-erected that the stones are misplaced, and -consequently the diameter of the upper portion is of the same size as that -of the lower. The restored carving on the inner frieze is of the roughest -description, and the barbarous negligence of the whole restoration shows -that it cannot have been done earlier than the fourth or fifth century. A -comparison of the ruins now remaining with the plan as given on the -fragments of the Capitoline map, bearing the name SAT VRNI has been made -by Jordan, who shows that the remains of a prominent and peculiar flight -of steps in front of the six columns correspond to the rough sketch on the -plan, and that this flight of steps facing north must be taken to be the -front of the temple.[54] The pavement stones of the road which led from -the forum past the front of the temple may still be traced curving round -this projecting flight of steps. Little doubt now remains that the ruin of -the eight columns, the name of which has been so much discussed, belonged -to the Temple of Saturn. - -[Illustration: Temple of Saturn. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. -Coliseum and Arch of Titus. Temple of Castor.] - -The inscription now upon the front was placed there at its latest -restoration which, as we have seen, was in Christian times, and the name -of the divinity is therefore omitted. - -This temple was one of the most revered and ancient in the city, and its -foundation is traced back in legendary myth to the Hellenic Kronos. The -earliest date given for the dedication is B.C. 498. Many restorations must -have taken place. An inscription recording one in the time of Augustus by -Munatius Plancus has been found. This temple long retained the name of the -Mint, from the fact that the state treasures were deposited under the care -of the god Saturnus, as one of the most venerated of Roman deities. - -[Sidenote: Area of the Dii Consentes.] - -The ancient road leading up to the Capitol made a turn behind the Temple -of Saturn, and a portico with semi-Corinthian or Composite columns has -been restored from some columns and capitals found here in 1835. At the -back of this portico were twelve recessed chambers occupied by chapels of -the twelve deities called the Dii Consentes. Four of these still remain -under the modern Via del Campidoglio. The walls are chiefly of brickwork, -apparently of the second or third century, but the back wall against the -ascent to the Capitol is of hard tufa. The interiors were faced with -marble, of which traces are left. From the inscription found in 1835 upon -the architecture it appears that Vettius Praetextatus, a prefect of the -city in A.D. 367, restored the statues of the Dii Consentes, which had -stood here from ancient times. Varro mentions gilded statues of the gods -of the council as near the Forum, and also speaks of their temple. This -portico and chambers cannot, however, have been a temple, but were -evidently clerks' offices connected with the state depositories near the -Temple of Saturn. Cicero speaks of the clerks of the Capitoline -ascent.[55] Vettius Praetextatus, who restored the building in 367, was -notorious for his opposition to the Christian religion and for his zeal in -supporting the ancient cultus. He held several offices, and was pro-consul -of Achaia under Julian, and probably recommended himself to that emperor -by his attachment to the old Roman religion. - -[Sidenote: Schola Xanthi.] - -Below the portico and its chambers stands another row of lower chambers, -three of which are said by Marliani to have been found entire in the -sixteenth century. Inscriptions found here give the name of Schola to the -chambers, and hence they have been called Schola Xanthi, from the name of -Xanthus, which occurs in the inscription as a restorer. They were -undoubtedly clerks' offices, similar to those behind the portico of the -Dii Consentes above them. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Vespasian.] - -We now turn from the portico of the Dii Consentes to the three Corinthian -columns which stand under the large building called the Tabularium. These -three columns have now been proved to belong to the ruin of a temple -dedicated to Vespasian by his son Domitian. This position of Vespasian's -temple agrees with the statements of the Notitia and Curiosum and of -Statius. The inscription, of which only the letters ESTITUER now remain, -was seen and the whole of it transcribed by a writer of the ninth -century, whose MS. is preserved at Einsiedlen.[56] It recorded the -restoration of this temple by Severus and Caracalla. The letters ESTITUER -stand at the lower edge of the frieze, showing that there was another line -above. This upper line was DIVO. VESP. AUG. S.P.Q.R., and referred to the -original building of the temple, while the lower line recorded its -restoration. The temple was approached by a flight of steps from the road -between it and the Temple of Saturn, the uppermost of which were placed -between the columns and have been partially restored. The three columns -which now remain are the three corner columns of the portico. They have -fluted shafts and Corinthian capitals. The letters of the inscription were -of metal, and the holes of the rivets which fastened them are still -visible. The architrave and cornice are ornamented very richly with the -usual mouldings, and there are some most interesting reliefs upon the -frieze representing sacrificial implements and the skulls of oxen. A -horsetail for sprinkling, and a sacrificial knife with a vase, a patera, -an axe, and a high priest's mitre are plainly distinguishable. Another -portion of the entablature was pieced together by Canina and is still kept -in the rooms of the Tabularium. The walls of the cella were built of -travertine faced with marble. Against the back wall stands a large -pedestal which supported the statue of the deified Emperor. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Concord.] - -Next to the temple of Vespasian, we are told by Statius, stood the Temple -of Concord. The site is also determined by passages in Plutarch and in -Dion Cassius, and by the plan given in the Capitoline map. Excavations -were carried out here in 1817, 1830, and 1835 which resulted in disclosing -the foundations of the temple, and in finding some inscriptions which -attest the dedication of this spot to the goddess Concord. The temple of -Concord was founded according to Livy, Ovid, and Plutarch by Camillus in -B.C. 367, on the memorable occasion when the senate after a long and -anxious debate, wisely determined to make peace with the Commons by -throwing open the office of Consul to the plebeian order.[57] - -It was placed near the old meeting-place (Comitium) of the privileged -families (gentes), as if constantly to remind them that the newly -established concord of the community was under the special sanction of the -gods. When the Temple of Camillus was first restored we do not learn. The -earliest notice of a new Temple to Concord is the statement that the -Consul Opimius was ordered by the senate on the death of C. Gracchus to -build a new temple to Concord. The temple seems to have been a kind of -Pantheon or museum, for it was filled with a great number of statues of -various gods, and with curiosities. On the left-hand side of the remaining -foundations of the cella are two large pedestals which probably supported -two of the principal statues. - -Tiberius rebuilt it after his German campaign in A.D. 6 and 7, and -dedicated it in honour of himself and his brother. The form of the latest -restoration, which seems to have been carried out after the building -behind it, the so-called Tabularium, was built, as it is placed so close -to that building and must have rendered the decorations on its walls -invisible, can be traced by the present relics of foundation walls, and -presents a singular deviation from the normal plan of a Roman temple. The -pronaos, or front chamber, is narrower than the cella or shrine behind it, -and forms a sort of porch to it. This is an instance of the form of temple -called prostylos by Vitruvius, and consisting of a broad Tuscan cella with -a narrow Greek portico.[58] - -The cella has greater breadth than depth. The basement is of considerable -height in front, and some of the steps, Cicero's Gradus Concordiae[59] can -be traced, while the enormous threshold of African marble still remains. A -coin of Tiberius shows us that the temple had a portico of six columns in -the Corinthian style, and a group of three figures embracing, as a symbol -of Concord, at the top. One of the bases of the columns is still preserved -in the Capitoline Museum, and a portion of the frieze was restored by -Canina, showing that the decorative work was of great beauty. The -inscription is given in the Einsiedlen MS. of the ninth century, and the -temple was still standing in the twelfth century, as we learn from the -Ordo Romanus, a procession route book. The stones were probably carried -away for building purposes in the thirteenth century. Between the ruins of -the Temple of Concord and those of Vespasian's Temple, the foundations of -a little chapel of Faustina may be seen. The name has been given to it -from an inscription discovered here. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Severus.] - -Close to the ruins of the Temple of Concord stands the triumphal arch of -Septimius Severus, composed of three archways of Pentelic marble. The side -archways are connected with the central archway by small openings in the -intervening walls, and the arched interiors of all three are decorated by -square coffers with rosette ornaments. On each side stand four columns of -Proconnesian marble with Composite capitals, on the pedestals of which are -bas-reliefs representing figures of barbarian captives clothed in breeches -and wearing the chlamys and Phrygian cap, and conducted by Roman soldiers -wearing the lacerna. The spandrils of the arches are ornamented with the -usual figures of Victory and symbols of captivity, in the outlines of the -river gods of the Euphrates and Tigris. Between each pair of outer and -inner pillars there are large bas-relief sculptured scenes executed in a -very confused and tasteless style. The four lower and narrow compartments -show the goddess Roma receiving the homage of the East, which is -personified by a woman wearing a tiara. Behind her, in a long train of -carts and carriages, come the spoils of the various nations conquered by -Severus. Above this narrow line of figures which runs round below the four -compartments above the side arches, are four larger bas-reliefs -representing the sieges and victories of Severus in Parthia, Adiabene, and -Arabia. On the side towards the Forum is represented on the left hand the -raising of the Parthian siege of Nisibis in northern Mesopotamia by -Severus after he had crushed his rivals Aemilianus and Pescennius Niger in -Pontus and Syria. The taking of the town of Carrae west of Nisibis, and the -march of the Roman army thence against the Adiabenians are also here -portrayed. The compartment, on the right hand, looking from the Forum, -contains a bas-relief representation of the surrender of Abgarus, king of -Osroene,[60] and the siege of the town of Hatra on the Tigris. - -[Illustration: Arch of Severus.] - -On the other side towards the Capitol and so-called Tabularium, the -second campaign of Severus in the East is portrayed. On the right hand the -flight of the Parthians from Babylon, the entry of the Romans into that -city and the second siege of Hatra are represented. On the left is the -wresting of the towns of Seleucia and Ctesiphon from the Parthians, the -flight of their king Artobanus and the surrender of the Arabians who had -joined the Parthian side.[61] - -The entablature which surmounts these arches is badly designed and -executed, the projections over the columns being far too heavy. Upon the -attica above the entablature there are the traces of nails on the corner -pilasters which seem to have borne some military ensigns. The whole -central space of the attica is occupied by a long inscription formerly -inlaid, as appears from the rivets, with metal. Upon a coin of Severus -giving a representation of the arch, a chariot with six horses is shown -standing over the attica, and on the four corners were equestrian statues. - -From the inscription it appears that the arch was built in the year A.D. -203. The repetition of the title Parthicus, points to the Parthian -campaigns of Severus. In the fourth line the name of Geta and his titles -have been erased, as in other ruins of the same date, and the words -OPTIMIS FORTISSIMISQUE PRINCIPIBUS inserted in their place. In the middle -ages the tower of a church called SS. Sergio e Bacco was built upon the -top of this arch, but was removed in 1536 on the entry of Charles V. by -command of Pope Paul III. - -[Sidenote: Ruins under the road across the end of the Forum.] - -Near the Arch of Severus, and also between the temple of Saturn and the -corner of the Basilica Julia, the modern road runs over archways. Under -the archways some substructions of large peperino stones and other forms -of building have been disclosed. These may have belonged to pedestals upon -which statues were placed, or in the case of those near the arch of -Severus to the later Rostra and Graecostasis, and in the case of those near -the corner of the Basilica Julia to the Arch of Tiberius. The round -pedestal which stands near the Arch of Severus was possibly the pedestal -of the Miliarium Aureum, as it is not strong enough to bear the weight of -a heavy statue.[62] - -A representation of the Rostra of the Empire which may have stood here is -given in the relief on the face of the Arch of Constantine, which looks -towards the Coliseum, where three arches are seen, corresponding to the -Arch of Severus on the right, and one arch corresponding to that of -Tiberius on the left. Constantine is shown in this bas-relief addressing -the people from the rostra. - -[Sidenote: The Carcer.] - -Under the church of S. Giuseppe dei Falegnami, which stands near the Arch -of Severus, are two chambers, which are always shown as the ancient prison -of Rome, said to have been first built by the King Ancus Martius, and then -rebuilt or enlarged by Servius Tullius. The upper of these two chambers is -of an irregular shape, but the lower is constructed in a conical form by -the gradual projection of the stones forming the sides. This mode of -building an arch is of very early date, before the introduction of the -principle of the round arch, and is found in the oldest tombs of Etruria, -and in well-houses at Tusculum and Caere.[63] - -There can be no doubt that this part of the building is of great -antiquity. But the proofs that it ever formed a prison are not so clear. -This has been inferred from the striking account of the imprisonment of -Jugurtha by Sallust, who states that Jugurtha was placed in a cell with -water at the bottom, and exclaimed, "Hercules, how cold your bath is!" -Hence it has been thought that the prison must have had water in it, as -this chamber has on the floor. - -Another proof that this is the ancient prison, called in the middle ages -the Mamertine prison, from a statue of Mars or Mamers, or from the Forum -Martis near it, has been derived from the statements of many Roman -authors, who place the prison on the slope of the Capitol, near the Forum, -and speak of an inferior as well as a superior chamber. The prison was -probably in this neighbourhood, but the shape of the conical vault is -rather that of a well-house. Mommsen has therefore suggested that this was -the original purpose of the lower chamber, and that it was used as a -cistern for collecting the water from the surrounding slopes. The top of -the ancient conical vault is truncated and closed, with the exception of a -round hole, by slabs of stone fastened together with iron cramps. - -A communication with the arched sewers which run down to the Forum, and -also with an archway which reaches up the slope to some large chambers on -the north-west under the Vicolo del Ghettarello, has been opened by Mr. -Parker, and these longer vaulted chambers which are of great antiquity, -have been taken to be extensions of the original regal prison. But there -is no sufficient evidence to show that these arched passages were used for -any purpose of transit, and they were more probably channels for draining -off the water, which would otherwise have accumulated in the chambers or -on the slopes.[64] - -An inscription is fixed in the outer wall, recording a restoration of the -building by the Consuls C. Vibius Rufinus and M. Cocceius Nerva, as -ordered by a decree of the Senate. These two men were consules suffecti -before A.D. 24, probably in A.D. 22, the ninth year of Tiberius. But the -name of the building is not mentioned in this inscription, and it seems -uncertain whether it has not been removed from elsewhere. - -There was another and larger prison in this district, and this larger -prison was called the Lautumiae. Forty-three Aetolian prisoners are said by -Livy to have been crucified in the Lautumiae, which must therefore have -been certainly much more extensive than the cell which is called the -Carcer Mamertinus. Seneca also mentions the request of a prisoner, Julius -Sabinus, that he might be removed from the Carcer to the Lautumiae.[65] -There seems, therefore, to be no distinct proof that the conical cell was -ever anything more than a water tank, and the name of prison which has -been attached to it is probably a mediaeval legend invented to indicate a -spot which might be venerated as the prison of St. Peter. - -[Sidenote: Tabularium.] - -On the side of the Capitoline Hill towards the Forum, a very high and wide -mass of building, now called the Palace of the Senator, and used for the -transaction of urban business, stands. This is founded upon an ancient -range of masonry of which a considerable part still remains, measuring -about 220 feet in length, and 50 feet in height. An entrance has been made -from the Via del Campidoglio, and as the wall was cut through for this -purpose, the structure of the building may be best observed here. On the -inner side red tufa has been used, and on the outer grey peperino, and the -blocks are laid alternately lengthwise and crosswise, as in the Servian -wall building. A great mass of masonry of this sort without cement, forms -the main substructions of the building. Along the front run the traces of -an arcaded passage, which anciently led across from one side to the other -of the building. The arches were walled up by Nicolas V., in order to bear -modern buildings above them. One has now been opened to show the -architecture. A pavement of basaltic lava, such as was used in the streets -of ancient Rome, has been found in the arcade, showing that it was a -public passage. The architecture of the building is Doric, which points to -an early date, and the capitals and cornice are of travertine. It is -probable that another arcade ran above the one now traceable. A high -flight of steps leads up into the chambers from the archway now walled up -at the back of the Temple of Vespasian. From the architecture it may be -concluded that these remains of a large ancient building date from the -republican times of Rome, and are almost the only relics of that era. This -ruin is generally called the Tabularium, but it has been shown by Mommsen -that there is no ground for supposing that the name was ever applied to it -in any ancient writings, and that the name is more properly Aerarium Populi -Romani, or Aerarium Saturni, and that it was attached to the Temple of -Saturn. Many of the temples in Rome had aeraria attached to them, and it -does not appear that any central place of deposit ever had the name of -Tabularium alone, without further title, especially applied to it. The -inscription which has been placed at the entrance, and records the -construction of some building, or part of a building by Q. Lutatius -Catulus, when consul, was placed where it now stands by Canina. It is -supposed by Mommsen to refer to the repairs and alterations of the vaults -under the Capitol, which were carried out in pursuance of Sulla's plan of -improvements on the Capitol, and after Sulla's death were continued for -many years by Q. Catulus.[66] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE COLISEUM AND ESQUILINE. - - -[Sidenote: Meta Sudans.] - -On the road from the Forum Romanum to the Coliseum, after passing through -the Arch of Titus, we descend between the platform and ruins of the Temple -of Venus and Rome, and the remains called the lavacrum of Heliogabalus, -mentioned previously, and, close to the south-western corner of the mass -of substruction on the left, we find a conical column of brickwork about -thirty feet high. A large breach on the side towards the Coliseum shows -that the centre was pierced with a perpendicular pipe, and the eastern -exhibits traces of having been divided into three ledges or stages. This -conical building stood in the centre of a circular basin, the ruin of -which has been traced out and restored. The shape would of itself point to -the purpose which this building served, even if this were not rendered -clear by the remains of a watercourse which descended to it from the -Esquiline. The name Meta Sudans by which the ruin is known comes from the -mediaeval list of buildings known as the Curiosum Urbis, but the earliest -authentic authority to which we can appeal for its date is a coin of -Alexander Severus, A.D. 222. The passage of Seneca in which he gives the -name Meta Sudans as being a spot at which the flute-players and trumpeters -made a din by their practice, does not give us any information as to its -position, and therefore we are not justified in assuming that the fountain -was erected in Nero's time.[67] The coins of Titus which represent the -Coliseum do not show it. Cassiodorus and other chronologists place the -date of the Meta Sudans in Domitian's reign, and this agrees with the -coins of Titus and also with the nature of the brickwork, which is of the -Flavian era. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Constantine.] - -Near the Meta Sudans at the entrance of the Via di S. Gregorio stands the -Arch of Constantine, which is the most completely preserved of all ancient -Roman buildings. The name of Constantine, revered by subsequent ages, -seems to have defended the archway from the barbarous spoliation which -attacked most of the great monuments of Rome. The most interesting feature -of this arch in the history of art is the proof which it gives of the -decline of art in the fourth century. Some of the reliefs with which it is -ornamented were taken from an older arch, probably that which formed the -entrance to Trajan's Forum, and those which are of Constantine's time show -a coarse and harsh style of execution in lamentable contrast to the -flowing and delicate lines of the more ancient work by their side. - -Among the sculptures which belong to the earlier and better period are the -large reliefs under the central arch and those which are placed on either -end of the attica. These four were originally parts of a larger relief -which has been sawn into four equal pieces for the purpose of adorning -Constantine's arch. The order in which they stood in the original design -has been pointed out by Bellori. The first part is that now placed on the -inside of the middle archway towards the Coliseum, the second stands on -the side of the attica over the arch towards the Caelian, the third on the -inside of the middle archway towards the Palatine, and the fourth upon the -attica on the same side. When united they represented Trajan crowned by -Victory, with the goddess Roma standing near, a battle between Dacians and -Romans, ending in the defeat and submission of the barbarian army. The -dress of the Roman soldiers and of the Dacians is similar to that -represented on Trajan's column, and quite different from the Roman -military habit in the age of Constantine. Beside these four rectangular -reliefs the eight circular sculptures which stand over the smaller -archways belong to the time of Trajan. They represent hunting scenes and -sacrificial ceremonies. One of them, the second from the left, upon the -side towards the Coliseum, has a remarkable figure of the Emperor with a -nimbus or cloud encircling his head, exactly similar to those represented -round the heads of modern saints. The eight large reliefs upon the attica -over the side archways are also of the workmanship of Trajan's time, and -commemorate some of the exploits of that emperor, among which may be -mentioned the construction of a road through the Pontine marshes -represented upon the second relief from the left on the side of the attica -towards the Coliseum. The reclining figure with a wheel represents the -road, and the other figures the surveyors, one of which is perhaps -Apollodorus, the famous Greek architect of Damascus. The other reliefs -upon the sides of the attica represent interviews of Trajan with barbarian -princes, and the common sacrifice of the Suovetaurilia, so frequently -depicted on the reliefs of the columns of that emperor, and also on the -large marble screens now standing in the Forum Romanum. The remainder of -the sculptures belong to the Constantinian era, and contain, viewed as -works of art, nothing worth attention. One of them on the side next to the -Coliseum is, however, of great interest to the antiquarian, as it -represents the rostra of the later Empire and the northern end of the -Forum, with the arches of Severus and Tiberius, and the end of the -Basilica Julia, and another, on the side towards the Via di S. Gregorio -representing the victory of Constantino over Maxentius at the Milvian -bridge, is historically valuable. - -The figures which stand in front of the attica have the Dacian costume, -and have been removed from some one of Trajan's buildings. Upon the side -of the central archway can be still seen the traces of nails which -fastened some Roman ensigns to the stones. Similar traces of nails are to -be seen upon the arch of Severus as before mentioned. - -The inscriptions over the smaller arches refer to the decennalia or -vicennalia, a festival celebrated after the time of Augustus every ten -years of an emperor's reign when he was supposed to have the imperium -conferred upon him afresh. The meaning of the expression VOTIS X. VOTIS -XX. seems to be that these inscriptions were put up on the "vota" or day -when vows were made for the emperor's safety at the beginning of the tenth -and twentieth years of his reign. This is not an uncommon signification of -the word "vota" in later Latin. The day which was usually called vota was -either the first or third of January, and the custom of offering these -vows was retained long after Christianity had been nominally made the -state religion, so that it is not surprising to find it alluded to on -Constantine's arch.[68] The words on the other side of the arch SIC. X. -SIC. XX. may be interpreted as the form of words used in making vows to -the emperor. "Sic x. annos regnet; sic xx. annos regnet." "May his reign -last ten years more or twenty years." - -The larger inscription which is cut upon the attica on both sides shows -that the arch was erected in honour of the victory of Constantine over -Maxentius, and the union of the empire under one sovereign. It is not, -however, certain that the arch was built in the first year of -Constantine's sole reign, for not only do the words INSTINCTU DIVINITATIS -"by inspiration of the Deity," seem to indicate a more decided leaning to -Christianity than Constantine showed at the beginning of his reign, but -the title of Maximus, which is found in the inscription, does not occur in -the coins of Constantine before the tenth year of his reign. - -The solid contents of this arch, as may be seen by ascending the staircase -which is entered by a door at some height from the ground at the end -nearest the Palatine Hill, are mainly composed of pieces of marble taken -from other buildings, and it has even been suspected that the plan itself, -which in beauty of proportion surpasses the Arch of Severus, was borrowed, -together with the materials, from Trajan's Arch or some older building now -destroyed. - -[Illustration: The Coliseum, from the Palatine Hill.] - -[Sidenote: The Coliseum.] - -We now pass from the Arch of Constantine, with its borrowed ornamentation, -to the great ruin of Rome, the Coliseum, or Flavian Amphitheatre. Although -two-thirds of the original building have disappeared under the shameful -treatment to which the barbarous nobles of the middle ages subjected it, -enough still remains to show the arrangement of the entrances, passages, -and seats of this wonderful construction. The plan of the whole may be -best described as consisting of three principal massive concentric -elliptical arcades. The intervals between each of these are filled in -with other arched work containing corridors and staircases, and between -the innermost of these three arcades and the wall which surrounded the -arena was a triple system of substruction supporting the lower parts of -the rows of seats in the amphitheatre. The stone used throughout is -travertine, with the exception of some interior work of brick and -concrete, and some pumice-stone in the arches. The elliptical shape was -probably chosen instead of the circular in imitation of the amphitheatre -of Curio, which was composed of two semicircular theatres with their -stages between them. The name Coliseum was possibly derived from the great -colossal statue of Nero which for a long time stood close to the Flavian -Amphitheatre, and when the real history of the amphitheatre was lost, -would naturally become the most prominent mark by which it could be -designated. This colossal statue was placed originally in the vestibule of -Nero's Golden Palace, and was 120 feet high, according to Suetonius. The -material was bronze and the artist was Zenodorus. It appears that -Vespasian, and afterwards Hadrian, moved the colossus to make room for -their new buildings, and that it was finally placed upon the massive -pedestal of brickwork which still remains on the north of the Coliseum. -That it actually stood upon this pedestal is shown by a coin of Alexander -Severus, which represents the Coliseum with the colossus close to it. It -is said by Gibbon that the name Coliseum was also given to the -amphitheatre at Capua without reference to a colossal statue. The Capuan -title may, however, have been taken from the Roman. - -The major axis of this huge amphitheatre, from one outside wall to the -other, measures 602 feet, the minor 507. The principal outer wall is 157 -feet in height, and is divided into four stories.[69] Of these the lowest -stands on a substruction of two steps, and originally consisted of a row -of eighty arches, between which stood half columns of the Doric order. -These outer arches, with the exception of thirty-three archways, have -disappeared. Upon these rests a very simple entablature without any of the -usual peculiarities of the Doric style, and rather belonging to the Ionic, -a mixture of styles not very rare in Rome.[70] The arches are all -numbered. These numbers were probably intended to correspond to those upon -the entrance tickets and rows of seats, in order that the spectators might -find their proper seats with ease. There is a staircase and a vomitorium -corresponding to every four arches, and the vomitoria as well as the -entrance arches were all numbered to prevent confusion. A ticket for the -amphitheatre at Frosinone has been found. It bears an inscription CAN. VI -IN. X. VIII., thus giving the position and number of the seat. The arches -which stood at the extremities of the minor axis were the approaches to -the imperial pavilions. They were ornamented with marble columns and -carved work on the exterior, and led in the interior to a large -withdrawing-room, from which there was a separate passage to the emperor's -throne (pulvinar) on the podium. On the Esquiline side the imperial -entrance may still be recognised by a slight projection in the -substructions, and by the pillars of white marble lying near it, which -originally stood on each side. The same arrangement was doubtless made on -the Caelian side, where the Emperor Commodus made himself an underground -approach. The other two principal entrances at the extremities of the -major axis lead directly into the arena, and were probably used for the -entry of processions or marching bodies of gladiators, or machines of -various kinds. - -The entablature of the first story is surmounted by an attica, with -projections corresponding to the columns below. Above these stand the -arches of the second story, between which half-columns of the Ionic order -are placed. The details of the architecture here are in a very meagre -style, for the spiral lines on the volutes are omitted, and also the usual -toothed ornaments of the entablature. The same remark applies to the third -story, the half-columns of which have Corinthian capitals with the -acanthus foliage very roughly worked. The fourth story has no arches, but -consists of a wall, pierced with larger and smaller square windows placed -alternately, and is decorated with pilasters of the Composite order. -Between each pair of pilasters three consoles project from the wall, and -above these are corresponding niches in the entablature. The purpose of -these was to support the masts upon which the awnings were stretched. - -The second and third of the principal concentric walls contain arches -corresponding to those in the outer wall. Corridors run between these -concentric walls, and on the first and second floors of the outer ring, -and the first floor of the inner ring, these circles afford a completely -unobstructed passage all round. The other corridors are blocked up in -parts by various staircases, leading to the upper rows of seats. - -Within the third principal concentric arcade the supports of the building -take the form of massive walls, radiating from the centre of the ellipse, -and divided by elliptical corridors into three ranges. Between these -massive walls and in the corridors are the steps and passages leading to -the lower seats of the amphitheatre. The actual seats which were of marble -have been all pilfered for the benefit of the Roman palaces and churches -of the feudal ages, but we can still make out with tolerable certainty the -five principal divisions into which they were separated. The lowest of -these, called the podium, was a platform raised twelve or fifteen feet -above the arena, upon which were placed the chairs of the higher -magistrates and dignitaries. This was protected by railings and nets full -of spikes, and sometimes also by trenches, called euripi, and horizontal -bars of wood or iron which turned freely round, and thus afforded no hold -to the paws of a wild animal. - -Above the podium were four different orders of seats, divided by belts of -upright masonry from each other. The first of these consisted of about -twenty rows of seats, and was appropriated to the knights and tribunes, -and other state officers. The upper row of this set was probably at a -height of about ten feet above the top of the arches of the lowest story. -The next ranges of seats between the second and third belt were -appropriated to Roman citizens in general, and held the greatest number of -spectators. - -The wall dividing these seats from the next set was very high, and -contained, besides the vomitoria or entrance doors, a number of windows -for the purpose of lighting the corridors and passages. A considerable -part of this wall is still extant upon the side towards the Esquiline -Hill. Above it ran the third set of seats, occupied by the lower classes -of the people, and above this again, and separated from it by a very low -wall without vomitoria, was the fourth group of seats, immediately under -the windows of the uppermost story, and covered by a portico which ran -round the whole top of the building.[71] The traces of this uppermost row -of seats and of the colonnade which supported the portico may still be -seen on the side towards the Esquiline Hill. - -The seats in this part seem to have been partly appropriated to women, -partly to the lower classes. On the roof of the portico stood the workmen -whose business it was to manage the awnings, and to move them as the sun -or rain required. The number of seats in the whole amphitheatre is said to -have been 87,000, and a considerable number, in addition to these, could -stand in the passages between the seats at the entrances of the vomitoria, -and in other vacant places, so that the whole number which the building, -when filled from top to bottom, could hold, was probably not less than -90,000. - -The exterior arcade of the building diminishes in thickness towards the -top, in order to render it more stable, and while the Doric and Ionic -columns of the first and second stories stand out from the wall by nearly -three-quarters of their circumference, the third row of Corinthian columns -projects less, and the uppermost row are merely pilasters. - -Much discussion has been raised on the question of the awnings or -_velaria_ required for so large a space. It is impossible of course, in -the absence of any distinct contemporaneous description, to discover the -exact mode of suspension adopted. Venuti supposes that a net of cords -constructed like a spider's web, with both radiating and concentric ropes, -was suspended over the amphitheatre, and that by pulleys arranged over -this the vela were drawn across any part which happened to be exposed to -the sun. By means of pulleys attached to this network of rope, the little -boys mentioned by Juvenal as caught up to the awnings may have been drawn -up. The ropes and pulleys, we are told by Lampridius, were managed by -sailors. In rough and windy weather the awnings could not always be drawn, -and umbrellas coloured according to the favourite's colours, or large -broad-brimmed hats called causiae or birri, were then used. Martial has -written some amusing epigrams, showing how jealously the seats -appropriated to any particular privileged order were reserved. He gives -the names of Lectius and Oceanus to the boxkeepers of his time, who chased -intruders from the seats to which they were not entitled. And he describes -with great humour the attempts of a certain Nanneius to smuggle himself -into a better place than he was entitled to. The pickpockets of Martial's -time also frequented the amphitheatre. - -The anxiety of the public to attend the shows was so great that they -occupied the free seats in the amphitheatre before dawn in the morning, -and gave fees to the officials to keep places for them, when any favourite -gladiator or bestiarius was announced to perform. The shows lasted whole -days, and hence various contrivances for keeping the spectators in good -humour, and filling up the intervals between the combats. Seneca tells us -of the meridiani, a class of slaves who were kept on purpose to fill up -the midday leisure hours with sham fights, and ludicrous pranks played -upon the bodies of those killed or half killed in the previous fights. The -air was cooled with immense jets of water projected from the centre of the -arena, or from holes in the statues, and scented with fragrant essences, -among which extract of saffron mixed with wine seems to have been the most -popular. - -The _arena_ of the Coliseum was originally about 250 feet in length, and -150 feet in breadth. It seems now much larger on account of the removal of -the wall of the podium. The attention which has been drawn to the arena -during the last few years by the re-opening of the hypogaea, or -subterranean passages, renders it necessary to allude to the subject of -these hypogaea, and to estimate how far the recent excavations have thrown -new light upon the history and construction of the great amphitheatre. -When the French occupied Rome, and it was incorporated into their empire -in the four years preceding the Battle of Waterloo, the French Government -carried out considerable excavations in the arena of the Coliseum, and -besides clearing the podium and the chambers annexed to it, they opened -the cryptoporticus which runs underground towards the Caelian Hill, and -also discovered the passages beneath the arena which have been now -excavated again. - -A great controversy was raised at that time as to the real level of the -original arena between several of the archaeological professors and -antiquarians of Rome. The same controversy has now been again revived, and -the same questions as to the probable date of the underground -constructions have been again raised, but with as little hope as ever of -arriving at a satisfactory solution. The truth seems to be that, as in -most amphitheatres, these hypogaea were constructed at the very first -erection of the Coliseum, but have been altered, neglected, filled up, and -again cleared out many times during the eventful history of the building, -and that it has now become impossible to trace the various stages of such -destructions and restorations. As often as the drains which were intended -to carry off the water became choked and failed to act, these lower -chambers and passages were filled with water and rendered useless. - -The French excavations conducted till the early part of this century, -1810-1814, showed the general character of the chambers and passages under -the arena. They consist of one central passage which extends under the -arena from end to end in the line of the major axis of the ellipse. -Parallel to this there are four narrower rectilineal passages on each side -connected with each other by archways and surrounding these are three -curved passages following the elliptical curves of the sides of the -amphitheatre. The material of which these walls were originally built was -great blocks of travertine similar to those in the surrounding -construction of the amphitheatre, but they have been patched and propped -in many places with tufa stones and brick, and now present a strange -miscellaneous mass of masonry. These underground passages are similar to -those found under the arena at Pozzuoli and Capua. It would seem that they -must have been necessary, in addition to the chambers under the staircases -of the building, for keeping wild beasts in large numbers, or for -marshalling and arranging the long processions which were sometimes -exhibited in the arena, or for other unusual exhibitions requiring more -room for preparation than could be otherwise afforded. In the amphitheatre -at Verona the passages under the arena seem to have served the purpose of -drains, as they are much less extensive than those under the Coliseum, and -are apparently connected with the channels which conducted the rain-water -from the upper part. The same is the case with those at Pola in Istria, -but at Pozzuoli and at Capua the hypogaea are of a similar character to -those in the Coliseum, and were evidently used in connection with the -exhibitions on the arena. - -The excavations of 1810-14 do not seem to have been carried deep enough to -show the floor of the hypogaea, and among the principal new objects of -antiquarian interest discovered by the recent operations have been some -large blocks of travertine sunk in the floor of the passages, and pierced -in their centre with large round holes. These holes have evidently been -the sockets into which upright posts of some kind were fixed. In some of -these sockets a metal lining still remains, and in one of them the remains -of a wooden post are said to have been found. Many conjectures as to the -purpose of these sockets have been hazarded. They have been imagined to be -the points on which revolving doors turned, or the holes into which posts -for chaining wild beasts were fixed, or the capstans for the purpose of -winding the ropes attached to stage machines. The explanation which -appears to me to be the most probable is that they were used for the -erection of temporary wooden posts in the same way in which at the present -time such movable posts are used in some of the doorways of large houses -in Rome, to divide the doorway temporarily into two distinct passages, by -attaching a rope to the posts. When long processions had to be marched -across the arena it would be necessary, if they were marshalled below, to -have the course of the entering processionists and of those returning kept -apart by some such device as that of a rope stretched between posts of -this kind. - -A large wooden framework has been found in the central passage, blackened -by long exposure to the water. This seems to have been a contrivance for -making an inclined plane on which heavy machines could be dragged up from -below. - -Another discovery which has been made is that of two cryptoportici, one of -which extends towards the Esquiline and the Thermae of Titus, and the other -opens out from under the eastern end of the longer axis of the Coliseum. A -few graffiti of interest representing gladiatorial figures, and some -fragments of inscriptions relating to restorations of the building, or to -the munificence of those who indulged the public with amphitheatrical -exhibitions, have also been found. - -The mode in which the naval contests mentioned by Dion as having been -exhibited in the Coliseum were conducted, cannot be stated with any -certainty. They were given by Titus at the dedication of the building and -probably before its completion, so that the space now occupied by the -hypogaea may then have been filled with water previously to the -construction of the dividing walls. - -Perhaps no building of ancient Rome is so strikingly characteristic of the -builder, and the age in which he lived as the Flavian amphitheatre. -Vespasian is described by historians, and represented on coins, and in -extant sculptures, as a thick-set, square-shouldered man, with a short -neck, small eyes, strongly marked but coarse features wearing an -expression of effort. He cared little for the elegancies of life, and was -plebeian in his tastes, and regardless of appearances, but set a high -value on manliness and obstinate, unflinching endurance. - -During his reign the prevalent feeling in the Roman nation was that of a -worn-out and repentant prodigal. Sick of the frivolity and wanton -debauchery of the Neronian age, yet unable to return to the ascetic -simplicity of primitive times, men adored, for want of a better idol, the -blunt honesty and coarse strength of the Flavians. What if their emperor -wished that his courtiers should smell of garlic rather than of perfumery, -if in his contempt for speculative genius he dubbed the agitating -philosophers of his day "barking curs."[72] Yet he stood before them as a -proof that the stern old vigour of the national character was not yet -extinct, and that the profligate effeminacy of the previous generation had -not yet rotted the Roman character to its core. The same massive power of -endurance, yet ponderous and vulgar character, belongs to the architecture -of the Coliseum. It exhibits a neglect, almost a contempt for elegance of -proportion. The upper tiers are as heavy and solid as the lower. Its -arcades are massive, practical, built to last for ages; the full, -elaborate details of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, in which an artistic -eye usually finds so much pleasure, are merely hinted at as superfluous. - -Doubtless as we now see it, the ruin is far more effective than the -complete building can ever have been. For when complete the appearance of -the Coliseum must have been heavy and oppressive. The enormous unrelieved, -flat surface of the upper wall must have seemed ready to topple over or to -crush the arcade below. But now that earthquakes and barbarous hands have -made such ghastly rents in its sides, the outline has become more varied, -and the base more proportioned to the superstructure, so that although we -can still recognise the flavour of a somewhat vulgar and material age, yet -all that would have offended the eye has been removed, and the historical -memories which cluster around its walls, of mighty emperors and -blood-thirsty mobs, of screams of death or triumph, of gorgeous pageants -and heroic martyrdoms, combine to render the Coliseum in its decay the -most imposing ruin in the whole world. - -Two architectural merits have been pointed out in the Coliseum, the -impression of height and size conveyed by the tiers of arches rising one -above another, and the graceful curves produced by the continuous lines of -the entablatures as they cross the building. But what the Roman emperor -under whose auspices this great building was raised would doubtless have -valued more than any elegancies of design which could have been pointed -out to him, is the perfect adaptation of the structure to its purposes. -After the great catastrophe at Fidenae where 20,000 persons were injured or -killed by the breaking down of a wooden amphitheatre, solidity and safety -were the principal requisites. Free ingress and egress for crowds of -spectators, as well as for any great personages who might attend, was -indispensable. A glance at the plan of the Coliseum will show how -admirably each of these objects was attained. The extraordinary solidity -of the building removed all possibility of the failure of any part to bear -whatever weight might be heaped upon it, and the entrances, galleries and -vomitoria were by the oval form of the building rendered so numerous that -each seat in the whole cavea was accessible at once and without -difficulty. A system of carefully arranged barriers in the passages would -effectually prevent confusion and excessive crowding. - -In endeavouring to adorn the great amphitheatre of the metropolis more -richly than those of the provinces its architect defeated his own object. -Some of the provincial amphitheatres, as that of Capua, though in other -respects like the Coliseum, show a simpler and therefore more natural -exterior. When the Doric order is retained in all the tiers, it harmonises -far better with the rude strength of such an edifice than the Corinthian -and Ionic orders of the Coliseum. At Verona and Pola a still further -improvement is made by the rustication of the exterior. At Nismes, on the -other hand, the faults of the Coliseum are aggravated by breaking the -entablatures, and introducing pediments over each front; and in the small -Amphitheatrum Castrense at Rome, where the Corinthian order is executed -in brick, a lamentable illustration of Roman want of taste is exhibited. - -[Illustration: MONS OPPIUS. After Palladio and Canina.] - -The holes which are now so conspicuous in the travertine blocks of the -exterior wall of the Coliseum were probably made in the middle ages to -extract the iron clamps by which the stones were fastened together. Some -antiquarians have however held that they are the holes in which the beams -of the buildings which clustered round the Coliseum in mediaeval times were -fixed. At the end of the fifteenth and at the beginning of the sixteenth -century, the travertine blocks of the amphitheatre were used as a quarry -from which to build palaces, and it is said that the Palazzo di Venezia, -the Palazzo Farnese, and the Palazzo della Cancelleria were constructed of -the stone robbed from hence. During part of the eleventh and twelfth -centuries a castle of the powerful family of the Frangipani, which -afterwards belonged to the Annibaldi stood in the walls of the Coliseum. -Later generations of nobles and popes since the beginning of the -nineteenth century have propped the building by buttresses of brickwork, -and have endeavoured to postpone the date foretold by two Anglo-Saxon -pilgrims as that of the fall of Rome. "When the Coliseum falls, Rome will -fall."[73] - -[Sidenote: Aurea Domus of Nero. Baths of Titus.] - -The Coliseum was built by Vespasian in a depression between the Caelian and -Esquiline Hills, which had been occupied by a large lake of ornamental -water, called the Stagnum Neronis, used by Nero for aquarian -entertainments and exhibitions. The vast palace known as the Domus Aurea -Neronis extended along the side of the Esquiline on the north of the -Coliseum. The Flavian emperors destroyed this palace, and Titus built a -new group of courts and chambers over the ruins. The relics of these -buildings of Titus are now remaining mingled with the substructures and -lower parts of the Domus Aurea which they superseded. They are entered by -a gateway on the road leading from the Coliseum to S. Pietro in Vincoli. - -So far as we can draw any conclusion from the fragmentary and confused -piles of ruins now left, and from the plan which Palladio sketched at a -time when the remains of the palace had not so completely disappeared, it -seems that this part of Nero's palace consisted of a long straight facade -of buildings extending along the slope of the Esquiline from east to west -in the direction marked on the plan (A-B). In front of this there seems to -have been a projecting court surrounded by small chambers (C-D). A few of -these still remain at the western end, and are used as a dwelling-house -for the custode. Behind the above-mentioned facade were numerous rooms of -various kinds, and courts surrounded with colonnades. One of these courts -with its adjacent corridors and apartments is now partly accessible (E, -F), but the greater part were filled in with rubbish when the baths of -Titus were built over them, and have never been entirely cleared. In the -centre of this court the remains of a fountain-basin and a pedestal may be -seen. The area is now traversed by parallel walls built by Titus to serve -as substructions to his Thermae. These are indicated on the plan by the -dotted lines in black. - -All the rooms in this part which are now accessible have arched roofs, and -are covered with decorative paintings. Fortunately a great number of these -have been preserved to us by artists who copied them before they were -destroyed by damp and the soot of the cicerone's torch. At the present -time scarcely enough remains to show the beauty and delicacy of the -designs. The best preserved paintings are in the long north corridor, -where is also an inscription illustrating Persius, Sat. i. 113: - - "Pinge duos angues: pueri, sacer est locus, extra - Mejite." - -The two snakes were symbolic of the Lares Compitales, and are common at -Pompeii. Raphael adopted the same style of ornamentation as that preserved -here in the Loggie of the Vatican. The rooms now shown, which contain a -bath and other household apparatus, apparently belonged to a private -house, and may either have formed a part of the Aurea Domus, or of some -house built on its site at the time immediately following Nero's death. -The eleven rooms (F) which occupied the north side of the court (E) -contain traces of wooden staircases leading to an upper story. The -decorations and fittings of these appear to have been so inferior to those -of the other rooms, that we must suppose them to have been occupied by the -imperial slaves, or by the household troops. At the northern end of this -row of chambers is a room with mosaic pavement at a considerably lower -level than those surrounding it, and which must therefore have belonged to -some building earlier in date than the Domus Aurea. It is sometimes called -a part of the House of Maecenas, but there is no authority for this, and it -is more probable that the House of Maecenas stood nearer to the Agger of -Servius. - -[Sidenote: Sette Sale.] - -Another portion of the Domus Aurea is still visible at the SETTE SALE, a -large brick building lying in a vineyard to the left of the Via delle -Sette Sale. The purpose of this was plainly to serve as a reservoir for -water, and it is shown to have belonged to the Domus Aurea, and not to the -Thermae of Titus, by the correspondence of its position with the -ground-plan of the former. It may have been afterwards used in connection -with the Thermae, and was possibly preserved with that view, while the rest -of the palace was destroyed or buried. The peculiar construction of the -interior, which is divided into nine compartments, communicating with each -other by openings--not placed opposite to each other, but in a slanting -direction across the building--is said to have been so arranged in order -to prevent the heavy mass of water from bursting open the sides of the -building. The group of the Laocoon was found near the Sette Sale, and it -is supposed that the state-rooms of Titus may have contained that group of -statues. - -[Sidenote: Thermae or Baths of Titus.] - -Returning to the ruins of the Baths of Titus near the Coliseum it may be -observed that these Thermae were connected with the Coliseum by a portico, -traces of which can still be seen on the north side of the amphitheatre. -The arrangement of the building corresponded in some degree to that of the -Baths of Caracalla, consisting apparently of a large square court -surrounded by various offices and places for recreation, in the centre of -which stood a vast mass of building containing the bath-rooms. The sides -of this court were not parallel to any lines of building in the Domus -Aurea, and, therefore, in order to form a level area many new -substructions had to be erected. This is plainly the case with the theatre -(A), which occupied the centre of the side towards the Coliseum. In order -to raise this to the level of the rest of the area, the nine huge arched -chambers, which are now a most conspicuous part of the ruins, were -erected, and one of the courtyards of the Domus Aurea was filled, as we -have seen, with parallel walls of brickwork. On each side of the theatre -there were probably gymnasia, libraries, or ball courts (B B). The central -building was occupied with the frigidarium and tepidarium, and the other -usual adjuncts of a large Roman bath (C C C). - -The catalogue called the 'Curiosum urbis Romae' places not only the Baths -of Titus but also those of Trajan in the third region. The anonymous MS. -of Einsiedlen places Trajani Thermae near the Church of S. Pietro in -Vincoli; and Anastasius in his 'Life of Symmachus,' mentions them as near -the Church of S. Martino. It is, therefore, abundantly proved that the -Thermae of Trajan stood at the back of the Baths of Titus, and it is here -that we find them placed in the plan of Palladio. That they were distinct -buildings seems clear from an inscription in which they are separately -mentioned. A satisfactory explanation of the apparently strange fact that -Trajan erected new and smaller Thermae near those of Titus is given by one -of the chronologers of the period, who speaks of the Baths of Trajan as -intended for women, for whom there was no separate accommodation provided -in those of Titus. The scattered ruins to the north of the Baths of Titus -may have belonged to Trajan's Baths. - -On the Esquiline Hill, besides the Baths of Titus, the Domus Aurea, and -the Sette Sale, we find four remarkable ruins, which are called the -Trophies of Marius, the Arch of Gallienus, the Minerva Medica, and the -Auditorium of Maecenas. - -[Sidenote: Trophies of Marius.] - -The ruin called the Trophies of Marius stands at the corner of the Via di -S. Bibiana. It consists in the lower part of a number of small and -curiously shaped compartments of brickwork, with openings at seven or -eight different points. Underneath these, and now hidden under the level -of the ground, is a large basin or tank, and above them the upper part of -the building is formed by the remains of three niches, in which stood the -marble trophies now placed upon the balustrade of the steps of the -Capitol. They were removed to the Capitol by Sixtus V. in the year 1585. -The name Trophies of Marius is an attempt to explain the more ancient name -of Cimbrum, which we find attached to the ruin in the middle ages, by -identifying the trophies with the Tropaea Marii mentioned by Suetonius as -having been pulled down by Sulla and restored by Julius Caesar.[74] But -although we must allow that there is some probability in the supposition -that the Marian trophies may have occupied these niches, yet it is certain -that the building itself was intended to serve another purpose, that of -the castellum or principal reservoir of an aqueduct, with a public -fountain in the form of a cascade in front. The basin which has been -discovered under the building, and the peculiar shape of the complicated -interior structure, can be best explained thus, and the remains of some -part of the aqueduct itself may be seen at the back. It was at one time -supposed that the Aqua Julia ended here but it is now generally -acknowledged that the ruin belonged to the Aqua Alexandrina, and that the -name Nymphaeum Alexandri, found in the catalogues of the fifth region, must -be assigned to it. The Alexandrine Aqueduct was built by Alexander Severus -in the year A.D. 225. Water was brought to Rome by means of it from a spot -near the Lake Regillus, and a portion is still visible on the left hand of -the Via Labicana about two miles from Rome. The level of this aqueduct -corresponds exactly with the building in question, and the style of -brickwork and architecture are such as might belong to the third century. -It is possible, as Reber remarks, that Alexander Severus may have found -the exact spot where the Trophies of Marius had been placed by Julius -Caesar convenient for the castellum of his aqueduct, and have used the -trophies to ornament the new building which he erected. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Gallienus.] - -Close to the Church of S. Vito, and spanning the Via di S. Vito, stands -the Arch of Gallienus, erected by M. Aurelius Victor, prefect of Rome in -A.D. 262, in honour of the Emperor Gallienus and Empress Salonina. It is -constructed of travertine, and the ornamental work upon it is extremely -simple, consisting only of pilasters crowned by roughly worked Corinthian -capitals, and surmounted by an entablature of the commonest kind. Part of -the basement is buried under the present level of the soil, and from a -sketch by San Gallo of its state in the fifteenth century there appears to -have been a pediment above the entablature, and two smaller archways on -each side. The inscription, which is now hardly legible, is cut upon the -architrave and contains a flattering description of one of the most -singularly accomplished and incapable emperors of Rome, of whom Gibbon -says, "Gallienus was a master of several curious but useless sciences, a -ready orator and elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and -most contemptible prince."[75] - -[Sidenote: Minerva Medica.] - -In the grounds of the Villa Magnani, which are reached from the Via di S. -Bibiana, are two small Columbaria, one of which formerly contained -inscriptions relating to the family of the Arruntii, and also one which -belonged to Statilius Taurus, a nobleman mentioned by Tacitus. This was -decorated with scenes from the Aeneid of Virgil, but these are nearly -destroyed. In the same gardens, not far to the north-west of the Porta -Maggiore, stands a lofty and picturesque ruin, comprising a central -decagonal hall surrounded by four other apartments, the ground-plan of -which has been preserved by San Gallo. The central hall contained nine -deep niches, and the entrance passes through the tenth side. Over the -niches and the entrance archway are round-headed windows, and the roof was -of vaulted brickwork. Traces still remain of stucco work and cement on the -inner walls, from which it appears that they were covered with ornamental -work and in some parts with marble. - -Parts of the pavement, which was of porphyry, have also been found, and in -the neighbourhood of the ruin a number of sculptures have been at various -times discovered, among which are statues of Pomona, Aesculapius, Adonis, -Venus, Hercules, Antinous, some Luperci, and a Faun. The old -topographers, Blondus Flavius and Lucius Faunus, give the name of Terme di -Galuccio or Galuzze to the ruin, and this name has been ingeniously -explained as referring to the Thermae or Basilica of Caius and Lucius. But -there is no good foundation for this conjecture, or for the identification -of the building with the Temple of Minerva Medica, mentioned in the -Notitia. The latter name was derived from the supposed discovery here of -the Pallas Giustiniani, now in the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican. But -another and more ancient account asserts that the statue of Pallas was -found near S. Maria sopra Minerva, and therefore the name of Minerva -Medica cannot with any certainty be applied here. - -Canina has proposed another explanation of the name Galuzze. He thinks -that the ruins belonged to the Palatium Licinianum, which is mentioned by -Anastasius, in his 'Life of Simplicius,' as near the Church of S. Bibiana. -This palace, he thinks, is identical with the Pleasure Gardens of -Gallienus, who bore the name of Licinius, in which, according to -Trebellius Pollio, he used to bathe and banquet with his courtiers. The -name Galuzze is, therefore, according to Canina, derived from Gallieni -Liciniaria, and the building may be supposed to have formed a part of the -baths in Gallienus's pleasure grounds, resembling as it does in its -construction the great rotunda of the Baths of Caracalla. The proximity of -the Arch of Gallienus adds probability to this conjecture. The basin now -standing in the ruin is not ancient, and therefore cannot be held to -support this conjecture, but the brickwork and style of architecture are -said by competent judges to be such as might have been erected at the time -of the later Empire. The building called Minerva Medica by the Notitia may -have been near this spot, as some inscriptions here discovered show, but -it most probably consisted only of a chapel of no great extent standing -near the Via Praenestina. - -The extensive alterations which have been carried on at Rome during the -last few years in the district at the back of the Viminal and Esquiline -Hills, where a new quarter of the city is being laid out, have disclosed a -number of fragments of sculptures and inscriptions, a detailed account of -which has been given from time to time in the _Bullettino della -Commissione Archeologica Municipale_, and in the letters of Mr. Hemans to -the _Academy_. The most interesting relics bearing upon topographical -questions are the inscription relating to the Macellum Liviae and Forum -Esquilinum found near the Arch of Gallienus, and the supposed foundations -of the Villa of Maecenas. - -Most of the antiquarian and artistic relics lately discovered here have -been deposited in the Capitoline Museum. - -Unfortunately the necessary extension of the buildings attached to the -railway station has resulted in the destruction of a large portion of the -Servian Agger. Some large fragments of the huge blocks belonging to the -Servian wall may be seen at the back of the station. Traces of a road and -a gate were found which have been supposed to belong to the Via and Porta -Viminalis, and many confused heaps of ruins, the relics of private houses -built up against the side of the agger. In one of these the bricks bore -the date of the third consulship of Servianus, A.D. 134, and of that of -Niger and Camerinus, A.D. 138. - -A Hermeracles in marble was found near the station, which is figured in -the _Bullettino della Commissione_ for March 1873, and numerous mosaic -pavements, one of which is laid on the floor of the waiting-room at the -station. - -[Sidenote: Auditorium.] - -One of the buildings attached to an ancient house in this neighbourhood -has been carefully preserved and walled in for protection. It stands near -the ruin called the Trophies of Marius, and not far from the Arch of -Gallienus, and consists of a semicircular recess with ledges rising one -above another in the form of a miniature theatre. A more correct -description of the site is given by stating that it stands where the -former gardens of the convent of the Redentoristi were situated. This -building has, on account of its resemblance to a theatre, and of its -position on a spot over which the famous Gardens of Maecenas probably -extended, been called the Auditorium of Maecenas, and romantic ideas have -been connected with it as having been the actual auditorium where Virgil -and Horace may have recited their poetry to their great patron. This view, -however, has been shown to be untenable by Signor Mau, who thinks with -more probability that the ruin in question is an ornamental recess for -decorative works of art and flowers or a fountain. Such recesses may be -seen in some of the houses at Pompeii. The paintings on the walls are of a -style similar to those in the Villa of Livia at Prima Porta, and the -building may therefore possibly belong to the Augustan age. - -[Sidenote: Porta S. Lorenzo.] - -The inscriptions on the Porta S. Lorenzo at the eastern side of the -Esquiline Hill tell the history of the several gateways here built by -Augustus and other emperors down to Honorius. The aqueducts run along the -walls from this gate to the Porta Maggiore. - -[Sidenote: Porta Maggiore.] - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Eurysaces.] - -The Gateway of Honorius was removed from the Porta Maggiore by Gregory -XVI. as the inscription on the present gate records. The removal of the -old gateway disclosed the Tomb of Eurysaces, a bread contractor, which is -a very fantastic monument, constructed of stone mortars used for kneading -dough, and ornamented with some curious bas-reliefs of a good period of -art, representing the operations of baking. The inscriptions upon it are -as follows: "EST HOC MONIMENTUM MARCEI VERGILEI EURYSACIS PISTORIS AC -REDEMPTORIS APPARETORUM. FUIT ATISTIA UXOR MIHEI FEMINA OPTIMA VEIXIST -QUOJUS CORPORIS RELIQUIAE QUOD SUPERANT SUNT IN HOC PANARIO." The latter -of these inscriptions, however, probably belongs to some other tomb, the -remains of several having been found here, which lead to the supposition -that this was a spot especially devoted to the burial of bakers. - -The present gateway is formed by two arches of the Claudian Aqueduct, -which runs along the course of the walls from this point to the corner -near the Amphitheatrum Castrense. The arches are built of rusticated -travertino blocks, and each of the piers is pierced with a smaller arch, -decorated with Corinthian half-columns of rustic work and pediments in the -usual Graeco-Roman style of a triumphal arch. This gateway is one of the -most characteristic creations of Roman architecture. It conveys more than -any other building I know, except, perhaps, the rusticated archways of the -amphitheatre at Verona, the impression of rough force and solidity. Over -the arches are three atticas, upon which the following inscriptions are -cut, recording the erection and renewal of the Claudian aqueduct by -Claudius, Vespasian, and Titus: - -TI. CLAUDIUS DRUSI F. CAISAR AUGUSTUS GERMANICUS PONTIF. MAXIM. TRIBUNICIA -POTESTATE XII. COS V. IMPERATOR XXVII. PATER PATRIAE AQUAS CLAUDIAM EX -FONTIBUS QUI VOCABANTUR CAERULEUS ET CURTIUS A MILLIARIO XXXXV. ITEM -AMERIEM NOVAM A MILLIARIO LXVII. SUA INPENSA IN URBEM PERDUCENDAS CURAVIT. -IMP. CAESAR VESPASIANUS AUGUST. PONTIF. MAX. TRIB. POT. II. IMP. VI. COS. -III. DESIG. III. P. P. AQUAS CURTIAM ET CAERULEAM PERDUCTAS A DIVO CLAUDIO -ET POSTEA INTERMISSAS DILAPSASQUE PER ANNOS NOVEM SUA IMPENSA URBI -RESTITUIT. - -IMP. T. CAESAR DIVI F. VESPASIANUS AUGUSTUS PONT. MAX. TRIBUNIC. POTEST. -X. IMP. XVII. P. P. CENS. COS. VIII. AQUAS CURTIAM ET CAERULEAM PERDUCTAS -A DIVO CLAUDIO ET POSTEA A DIVO VESPASIANO PATRE SUO URBI RESTITUTAS CUM A -CAPITE AQUARUM A SOLO VETUSTATE DILAPSAE ESSENT NOVA FORMA REDUCENDAS SUA -IMPENSA CURAVIT. - -[Illustration: THE FORA OF THE CAESARS] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE IMPERIAL FORA AND THE CAPITOLIUM. - - -[Sidenote: Trajan's Forum.] - -[Sidenote: Ruin in the Salita del Grillo.] - -The whole space between the Quirinal and the Capitoline Hills was occupied -by the immense Forum and public buildings which Trajan constructed. The -Column of Trajan, with its wonderful spiral reliefs, still marks the site -of this great mass of masonry; but the remainder, which included a -basilica, two libraries, a temple, and two extensive porticoes, has -disappeared with the exception of a fragmentary ruin in the Via della -Salita del Grillo under the Quirinal. This ruin is the remains of a part -of the great semicircular side of Trajan's Forum under the Quirinal Hill. -It consists of a brick building of two stories high, containing in the -lower story small rooms measuring about ten feet square, probably shops or -offices for notaries and lawyers' clerks. The interior of three of the -rooms is covered with plaster, and painted roughly. The floors were -covered with mosaic pavement of a common kind, of which much still remains -in situ. Above these rooms runs a corridor with arched windows, at the -back of which a row of large and high chambers opens, resting upon the -natural rock of the Quirinal Hill. The front is faced with brick pilasters -on travertine basements, in a mixed Doric and Ionic style, and there were -formerly pediments over the windows. - -It will be seen by reference to the plan that a small portion of the Forum -of Trajan can be now seen in the Piazza della Colonna Trajana. The arch -from which the beautiful bas-reliefs on Constantine's Arch were robbed, -probably stood in the Via del Priorato at some distance from the Piazza. - -The two double rows of bases now to be seen in the Piazza formed a part of -the great Basilica Ulpia, part of the ground-plan of which is still -preserved on two fragments of the Capitoline map. Many fragments are to be -seen here of the columns which supported the roof of the basilica, among -which those of grey granite, probably belonging to the outer rows of -columns, are most conspicuous. - -[Sidenote: Column of Trajan.] - -The great PILLAR with its well-known spiral bas-reliefs, perhaps the most -interesting and instructive monument of antiquity in Rome, was surrounded -when the buildings round it were complete with a narrow court not more -than forty feet square. The south side of this was formed by the Basilica -Ulpia, the eastern and western by the libraries, and on the north there -was probably an open colonnade, the line of which can be traced leading to -the structures beyond, where stood the temple dedicated to Trajan. Thus we -discover a fact which seems at first somewhat surprising, that the pillar -could not be viewed in its full height from any side, and that the upper -part of it alone was visible from the Forum over the roof of the basilica. -That it was intentionally thus enclosed is evident, for had the Greek -architect Apollodorus of Damascus, who designed the Forum, wished it to be -where the full colossal proportions could be seen, the open space of the -Forum was close at hand, in the centre of which it might have been placed. -But it is not unlikely that the sight of a column was almost inseparable -in the Greek architectural ideas from an entablature and pediment. The -Greeks did not place their statues on the top of columns, and probably had -this reason for it, that a single column cannot form a whole by itself, -and wears a forsaken and deserted aspect when viewed from any distance. An -obelisk conveys a different meaning, and the use of a single column cannot -be justified by it. The obelisk tapers upwards and completes itself, but a -column instantly brings the idea of support with it. Obelisks, moreover, -were never used singly by the Egyptians, but always placed in pairs. The -intention of the architect was not that the column should be viewed as we -now view it, as a whole, but that the colossal statue of the emperor might -be raised on high above his splendid group of buildings, and also that the -bas-reliefs should be conveniently viewed from the surrounding galleries. - -[Illustration: The Column of Trajan.] - -The height of the column is 124 feet from the pavement to the foot of the -statue. It stands upon a pedestal of marble eighteen feet high, -ornamented on three sides with highly interesting bas-reliefs representing -trophies of Roman and Dacian armour of various kinds, the Roman labarum -and the Dacian dragon, coats of mail made of scale or chain armour, -helmets, curved and straight swords, axes, clubs, bows, quivers, arrows, -lances, trumpets, and several kinds of military tools. On the fourth side -two genii bear the tablet on which is the inscription: SENATUS POPULUSQUE -ROMANUS IMP. CAESARI DIVI NERVAE F. NERVAE TRAJANO AUG. GERM. DACICO -PONTIF. MAXIMO TRIB. POT. XII. IMP. VI. PP. AD DECLARANDUM QUANTAE -ALTITUDINIS MONS ET LOCUS TANT[is operi]BUS SIT EGESTUS. - -The last words of this inscription are illustrated by a passage of Dion -Cassius, who says that Trajan placed a colossal pillar in his Forum to be -his own tomb, and also to show the amount of labour expended upon the -Forum, the slope of the hill which previously occupied the site having -been dug away so as to afford a level space for the Forum. There is no -need to interpret this, as some writers have done, to mean that the ground -on the spot where the column stands had previously been as high as the top -of the column. Such an interpretation seems highly improbable. The view -taken by Becker and Brocchi is more tenable, that the words allude to the -cutting away of the Quirinal Hill, which was steep and inaccessible before -but was sloped away to a point on the side of the hill as high as the top -of the column. Brocchi's geological observations have made it almost -certain that the ground has not been cut away to any great depth between -the two hills. - -The top of the column is only six feet lower than the level of the Villa -Aldobrandini on the top of the Quirinal, and two feet higher than the -Piazza di Ara Coeli. If, therefore, at any time the ground on the site of -Trajan's Forum was as high as the column, it must have formed a ridge -between the Capitoline and Quirinal Hills, higher than the Capitoline and -very nearly as high as the Quirinal. - -In the base of the column the ashes of Trajan were deposited in a golden -urn. Sixtus V. had the chamber in which the urn was placed opened, but -found it empty, and it has now been walled up. - -Above the pedestal are two flat stones ornamented with garlands of oak -leaves, and upon them rests a round base carved in the shape of a laurel -wreath. The shaft which stands immediately upon this is composed of -nineteen cylindrical blocks of marble, on the outside of which a spiral -band of beautifully executed bas-reliefs winds from bottom to top, -covering the whole shaft. The capital is a single ring of egg-shaped -ornaments with arrowheads between them, and a simple border below. On a -pedestal above it stood originally the colossal bronze-gilt statue of -Trajan. This statue and pedestal were probably carried off during the -robberies committed at Rome by the Byzantine emperors, A.D. 663. Sixtus V. -replaced it by a modern cylindrical pedestal and statue of S. Peter. The -ancient winding staircase hewn in the solid blocks of marble, and lighted -by narrow openings, still leads to the top. From thence it may be seen how -difficult it is to suppose that the ground ever rose to such a height -between the Capitoline and Quirinal as has been imagined by many -historians and topographers. - -[Sidenote: Bas-reliefs representing scenes in the Dacian wars.] - -The magnificent wreath of bas-reliefs which winds round the shaft may be -best studied by means of the model to be seen in the French Academy on the -Pincian Hill, or that in the Kensington Museum. It contains the history of -two campaigns against the Dacians, and has been ingeniously and minutely -interpreted by several writers. A complete account of this marble history -of the Dacian wars, with a discussion of all the historical and -antiquarian points connected with it, would occupy several volumes, and we -must, therefore, content ourselves with noticing the general character of -the work and some few of the more interesting portions. - -[Sidenote: Trajan's first campaign in Dacia.] - -Two campaigns are represented. The first of these took place in the year -101, and during it Trajan's army passed down the river Save and crossed -the Danube in two divisions at Kastolatz and at the confluence of the -Tjerna. The two divisions effected a junction at the pass of the Bistra, -called the Iron Gate, which they forced, and then attacked and took the -royal city Zermizegethusa. Trajan was not satisfied with this success, but -pushed on into the heart of the enemy's country, and gained a great -victory at Tapae, after which Decebalus, the Dacian king, sued for peace. - -The bas-relief begins at the base by a representation of the banks of the -Save, down which the Roman army passed, and shows military storehouses, -piles of wood, stacks of hay, and wooden huts. Then follow forts with -soldiers on guard, and boats carrying barrels of provisions. - -The river god Danube then appears and looks on with astonishment at the -bridge of boats over which the Roman army is passing. The baggage of the -soldiers on the march, tied to the top of the vallum or palisade which -they carry, and the different military standards, are very distinctly -shown. Many of the men are without covering on their heads, but some wear -lions' skins. The emperor and his staff are then introduced. He is sitting -upon a suggestus or platform, and Lucius, the Praetorian prefect, sits -beside him. The suovetaurilia, a grand sacrificial celebration, is the -next scene, with priests in the Cinctus Gabinus and trumpeters. After this -the emperor is seen making a speech to the army, and a little farther on -the building of a stone encampment enclosing huts is being carried on with -great vigour, and bridges are being thrown across a river, over which -cavalry are passing. - -A battle seems then to take place, and the heads of two enemies are being -brought to the emperor. The Dacian army with the dragon ensign and the -Dacian cap, the symbol of superior rank, seen upon the statues of the -Dacian prisoners on the Arch of Constantine, appears. Jupiter gives the -victory to the Romans, the Dacian camp is burnt, and the Dacians fly. - -Numerous representations of forts, boats, different kinds of troops, -skirmishes, and sieges follow, ending with the surrender of Decebalus and -the return of Trajan to Rome, where a great festival is celebrated. The -arrival at Rome, and the crowd of Romans going to meet the great -conqueror, are very vividly drawn. An immense number of bulls for -sacrifice, altars, camilli, and half-naked popae are introduced into the -triumphal rejoicings, and the first campaign ends with the figure of -Trajan offering incense on the altar of Jupiter Capitolinus. - -[Sidenote: Trajan's second campaign in Dacia.] - -A somewhat similar series of scenes are represented in the sculptures -which depict the second campaign. Perhaps the most interesting is that of -the great bridge over the Danube, made of wood supported on stone piers, -the foundations of which may still be seen in the bed of the river. -Apollodorus, the architect of the Forum, designed this immense work, which -crossed the Danube at a spot where it is not less than 1300 yards wide, -near the village of Gieli. A permanent road into Dacia and secure -communications with his basis of operations having thus been secured, -Trajan gradually advanced from post to post, driving the Dacians into the -mountainous parts of the country. The sculptures represent a number of -skirmishes and assaults upon fortified places, but no regular pitched -battle. At last the ghastly spectacle of the head and hands of Decebalus -is exhibited on a board by two soldiers in front of the Praetorium. This -disgusting scene is followed by a representation of the storming of the -last strongholds of the enemy in the mountains, and a mournful procession -of fugitives carrying away their goods and driving their cattle into exile -forms the close of the sculptured history of the Dacian campaigns of -Trajan.[76] - -In these curious bas-reliefs we have a treasury of information on the -religion, the military science, the habits and dress of the Romans of the -Empire far more valuable than ten thousand pages of descriptive writing. -The lover of Roman antiquities will learn more by studying Fabretti's -engravings of these reliefs, or the casts at the French Academy at Rome, -and at the Kensington Museum, than by much book-labour. The descriptions -of Livy and Polybius, Caesar and Tacitus, receive life, and movement, and -interest as we look at the actual figures (oculis subjecta fidelibus) of -the general and his staff; the Praetorian guards marked by their belts over -the left shoulder; the fierce-looking standard-bearers and centurions with -their heads covered by lions' skins, the shaggy manes of which stream down -their backs; the rank and file carrying enormous stakes; the master -masons, sappers, and pioneers, with their axes and crowbars; the lancers, -heavy and light cavalry, and royal chargers; the Sarmatian horsemen, -clothed, both riders and steeds, in complete scale armour, and the Moorish -cavalry, riding without reins. - -Bridges are constructed, Roman causeways laid, forts attacked with all -kinds of military engines; the charge of cavalry, the rout and confusion -of a defeated army, are all most vividly depicted. Trajan in person -traverses the ranks on foot, or mounts the suggestus and harangues his -men, or receives with simple dignity the submission of the enemy, or -marches with all the pomp of a Roman procession under the triumphal arch. -The soldierlike simplicity of the great military emperor is strikingly -portrayed. There is no silken tent, or richly decorated chariot, or -throne, or canopy of state to be seen. His colonel of the guards sits -beside him, as an equal, on the suggestus. In the midst of a battle the -emperor tears up his robe to bind the wounds of his soldiers; he is -present everywhere, wearing a sword and fighting in person. Nothing could -be more illustrative of the state of Roman affairs in that iron age when -again, as in the olden times, a rough and unlettered warrior, fresh from -the camp, swayed the destinies of the empire. - -In this vast spiral relief there are said to be above 2500 figures of men -sculptured, and the higher they are placed on the column the larger are -their dimensions, showing the care that was taken to counteract the -effects of the increased distance from the eye. The whole of the carving -from base to summit is executed with equally minute care, though the upper -part can never have been easily visible, except from the windows or roofs -of the basilica and the libraries which, as we have seen, were placed very -near. The opinion which prevailed for some time, that the figures had been -coloured, is incorrect, as the more minute examination since made has -proved that the colours imagined to be artificial are the natural results -of the decay of the stone and oxidisation of the metallic parts of the -structure, under the effects of the rain, sun, and dust. - -[Sidenote: Remains found on the site.] - -A vast number of fragments of columns, of inscriptions, and of -architectural ornaments have been dug up at various times on the site of -Trajan's Forum. The great granite columns which now lie near the base of -the pillar were found in laying the foundations of the Church of S. Maria -in Loreto, by the architect, the elder San Gallo, and are mentioned as -lying near that church in the middle of the sixteenth century. The -equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, in the Piazza del Campidoglio, -stands upon a pedestal made by Michael Angelo out of an immense fragment -of entablature found on the site of Trajan's Forum. - -An inscription, which is now built into the wall on the north of the -pillar, commemorates the remission of all debts to the emperor's private -purse (fiscus) by Hadrian, a fact which we find also mentioned in Dion -Cassius and Spartianus. The latter writer adds that it was in the Forum of -Trajan that Hadrian publicly burnt the list of his debtors, and the -inscription was no doubt intended to mark the spot of this act of -liberality or bribery. - -[Sidenote: Ruins of the Forum Julium.] - -The ruins of two portions only of the Forum Julium, which adjoined that of -Trajan, have been discovered in modern times. The first is a considerable -part of the outer wall of the Forum, standing in the court of the house -No. 18 in the Via del Ghetarello, a small street which opens out of the -Via di Marforio, near the Carcer and the Church of SS. Martina e Luca. -This ruined wall consists of three arches composed of large blocks of -peperino and travertine skilfully cut and joined without mortar and -under-built by another arch, as if in order to enable the wall to bear a -great weight. The length of the fragment of wall is about 50 feet and the -highest point about 30 feet. - -The other relic of Caesar's Forum is now no longer visible. We obtain our -information about it from Palladio, the architect, about the middle of the -sixteenth century, who relates that while he was at Rome the ground-plan -of a temple was uncovered in digging the foundations of a house between -the Salita di Marforio and the temple of Mars Ultor, a description which -points plainly to the block of houses behind SS. Martina e Luca. There was -a peculiarity in the inter-columniations of this temple, which Palladio -particularly remarked. The distance between the columns, he says, was the -eleventh part of the diameter of a column less than a diameter and a -half. - -[Sidenote: Forum of Augustus. Temple of Mars Ultor.] - -The almost universal opinion of Roman topographers now is that the three -Corinthian columns on the left-hand side of the Via Bonella and the -massive arch which leads from it into the Via di Tor di Conti are the -remains of the Temple of Mars Ultor, which Augustus built in his Forum, -and of the north-eastern portion of the enclosing wall. - -This opinion was already held by Palladio in the sixteenth century, but -the Italian antiquaries since his time have adopted the most various -hypotheses on the subject. There is, it is true, no actual proof that this -was the temple of Mars Ultor, but there is strong presumptive evidence -that it was so. The 'Catalogue of the Curiosum' places it next to the -Forum Julium in the eighth region. Now the eighth region was bounded on -the east, in this neighbourhood, by the Quirinal Hill and the Via del -Sole, or a street a little to the east of it, and we are tolerably sure -that the forum transitorium filled up a great part of the space between -the temple in question and the above-mentioned street, and that the Forum -Julium intervened between it and the Forum Romanum, while the Forum -Trajani limits the space to the westward within which we can suppose the -Forum Augusti to have been. Thus the only space left in the eighth region -within which the Forum of Augustus can be supposed to have been contained, -is that bounded by the Via della Croce Bianca, the Via del Priorato, and -the Via di Tor di Conti. - -The ruins of the temple consist of three lofty fluted Corinthian columns, -a pilaster of white Carrara marble, a part of the surmounting architrave, -and the corresponding wall of the cella of the temple. Antiquarians are of -opinion that the purity of style and elegance of these columns, and their -ornamentation, forms a strong proof that they were designed and executed -in the best times of Roman architectural art, and cannot belong to a -period later than that of Augustus. The richest decorative work is to be -seen under the roof of the portico, between the columns and the wall of -the cella. - -[Sidenote: Exterior wall. Arco dei Pantani.] - -These three columns stood at the side of the temple which abutted on the -exterior wall of the Forum, as the ruins show. A large portion of this -wall is still standing on each side of the arch called the Arco dei -Pantani. The arch itself is built of travertine, the wall of blocks of -peperino laid alternately with the longer and shorter sides outwards as in -the masonry of the tabularium. In the middle ages a door was fitted on to -this archway, and a portion of the stone was cut away on the west side. -This has injured its architectural beauty very much. It has also been -stripped of the marble facing with which it was probably covered -originally, and being now half buried in the rubbish of ages, it presents -a somewhat mean and rough appearance. - -This archway formed one of the entrances to the Forum Augusti from the -east. The wall of the enclosure can be traced for a considerable distance -on each side of it, but there are no other archways now open. The -monotonous appearance of so high a wall is relieved by having the edges of -the stones cut so that each block stands out separately, and the lower -part of the wall is divided into two, and its upper into three stages by -projecting ruins of travertine. - -It is said that the blocks of stone in this masonry are fastened with -wooden bolts made in the shape of double swallow tails, and that some of -these have been found completely petrified. When the Forum was first -designed Augustus encountered great opposition from owners of private -house property; and through fear of the unpopularity which wholesale -evictions might have caused, he accommodated the shape of the external -walls to that of the ground he could occupy. Hence arose the irregular -line of the exterior, which was, however, reduced to a symmetrical plan -inside by secondary walls. The general shape of the interior area of the -enclosure was that of a broad oblong piazza with two large semicircular -side extensions or wings (somewhat like those in the Piazza S. Pietro) -opposite to and corresponding to each other. The area was large, for the -horse races, and games in honour of Mars were held here once when the -Tiber had overflowed the circus.[77] The temple stood at the northern end -between these two side extensions, and occupied about one-sixth of the -whole space. Tribunals were placed in the hemicycles and courts of law -held there. Some portions of the semicircular recesses are still extant -by which their plan may be traced, but the outer wall is in no part -preserved entire except at the back and sides of the temple. Its height at -the back of the temple is 120 feet, and over the Arco dei Pantani 100 -feet, which we must suppose to have been the normal height of the rest of -the enclosure. These enormous walls served as a defence against fire, no -less than to exclude the traffic and noise of the streets. - -Although it is possible that Augustus may have entertained the design of -erecting a new group of public buildings as a means of gaining distinction -and popularity before the battle of Philippi which established his power, -yet so far as we know, the temple of Mars Ultor and the Forum Augusti owed -their existence to a vow made by the emperor immediately before the -decisive battle of Philippi, B.C. 42, to build if victorious a temple to -Mars as the avenger of his adopted father. The dedication of the temple -took place in B.C. 2, accompanied with most magnificent shows of -gladiators and splendid sham sea-fights. - -[Sidenote: Forum of Nerva.] - -[Sidenote: The Colonnacce.] - -The Forum of Nerva was in the district through which the Via della Croce -Bianca passes, and was connected with the ruin commonly called the Temple -of Minerva, still standing on the right-hand side of that street where it -is crossed by the Via Alessandrina. Two columns are there to be seen now -called the Colonnacce, half buried in the earth, surmounted by an -entablature and an attica. The wall behind the columns is built of blocks -of peperino of unequal size, and is in a style of masonry inferior to the -walls of the Forum of Augustus. In it may be seen the traces of an arch -which has been filled up with the same stone as that of which the wall is -built. The columns, which are of fluted marble, stand out in front of the -wall; but, as in the Arch of Severus, the entablature does not lie between -them, but projects from the wall over the capitals, and unites them with -the wall. The edges of the architrave are richly decorated, and the frieze -contains an elaborately carved bas-relief, which, though unfortunately -much disfigured, can be partially understood by the help of old engravings -taken before it was reduced to its present lamentable state. - -[Illustration: Forum of Nerva as it stood in 1600. From Du Perac, 'Vestigj -di Roma.'] - -From these it appears that the figures represent various attributes of -Minerva as the patroness of household management. Some of them are drawing -water, others weaving or spinning, and others dyeing, washing, holding -scales and purses as if bargaining. The remaining portion of the design is -incomplete, and was probably carried round the rest of the frieze of the -enclosure.[78] On the cornices, both upper and lower, the ornamentation is -very rich, but not so chaste as work of the Augustan period. In the centre -of the attica stands a figure of Minerva in alto-relievo, with spear, -helmet, and shield. - -That this beautiful ruin, which is one of the most picturesque in Rome, -belonged to the wall of Nerva's Forum is rendered certain by the old views -of the sixteenth century, which represent it as part of the inner side of -the wall enclosing a splendid temple which stood to the north-west of it. -Seven of the columns of this temple were still standing in the fifteenth -century, belonging to the left-hand side of the portico, and a -considerable part also of the walls of the cella with the pilasters of the -portico. The cella of the temple adjoined the semicircular part of -Augustus's Forum on one side, and, as will be seen by the plan, the wall -of the enclosure met it on the other, so that only the portico of the -temple projected into the open space of the Forum. - -On the front were the words, probably the last line of a longer -inscription, IMP. NERVA CAESAR AUG. PONT. MAXIM. TRIB. POT. II. IMP. II. -PROCOS, showing that the temple was dedicated by Nerva. - -There can be but little doubt that this was the temple of Minerva begun -together with the Forum by Domitian, and finished by Nerva. It is true -that there is no actual mention in any of the ancient writers of a temple -of Minerva here, but the assertion of Dion Cassius that Domitian had a -particular reverence for Minerva and Janus, and the character of the -designs and statues of Minerva found upon the ruined part of the enclosure -already described, leave little doubt on the subject. The name of -Palladium given to the Forum by Martial also agrees with this supposition. - -The fate of the Temple of Minerva is better known than that of most of the -ancient temples in Rome. - -In the time of Pope Pius V. (1566-1572) the building of a new quarter of -the city was begun in this district. The streets Via Alessandrina and Via -Bonella were laid out, and as the new quarter grew, the ruins of the old -temple became an impediment to their progress, which Paul V. in the -beginning of the seventeenth century ordered to be removed, and to be -applied to the construction of the Chapel of S. Paul in the church of S. -Maria Maggiore and that of the Fontana Paolo upon the Janiculum. The great -gateway which stood at the end of the Via della Croce Bianca was suffered -to remain for a century longer, but is now quite gone. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Bibulus.] - -We now return to the Piazza Trajana. Between it and the Piazza del -Campidoglio, in a street called the Via di Marforio, are two of the more -ancient ruins in Rome consisting of tombs now built into the walls of -houses. These tombs are monuments of imperial Rome, and were probably -outside the ancient Servian Wall not far from the Porta Ratumena. - -The more prominent of the two, the Tomb of Bibulus, stands close by the -junction of the modern streets of Macel de' Corvi and Marforio. The front -of it only can be seen, as the rest is built into the wall of a house. The -inscription is as follows, - - C . POPLICIO . L . F . BIBULO AED . PL . HONORIS. - VIRTUTISQUE . CAUSSA . SENATUS. - CONSULTO . POPULI . QUE . JUSSU . LOCUS. - MONUMENTO . QUO . IPSE . POSTEREIQUE. - EIUS . INFERRENTUR . PUBLICE . DATUS . EST. - -The inscription was also placed on the side of the tomb, where the -beginning of it may still be seen. It must not be inferred that the -privilege of being buried within the walls was granted to Bibulus contrary -to the regulations of the twelve tables, which forbade any corpse to be -buried or burnt within the city walls. Had this been the case the -exemption would have been expressly mentioned in the inscription, and -besides this the course of the Servian Wall, which crossed the depression -between the Quirinal and Capitoline, would naturally run so as to exclude -the tomb. The inscription only records the gift of the burial place to -Bibulus by the Senate, and is intended to prevent the burial of any other -person there, except the family of Bibulus. - -An Aedile of the name C. Bibulus is mentioned in the 'Annals' of Tacitus in -the reign of Tiberius, A.D. 22, and the style of the tomb agrees tolerably -well with this date. The whole is built of travertine, and the basement is -of the simplest description possible. Four Doric pilasters with Attic -bases surmounted by an Ionic entablature, ornamented with wreaths of fruit -and ox-skulls, form the whole decoration of the front. Bergau, however, -thinks that the architecture is Italian, and should not be called by these -Greek names.[79] - -The other ruin of a tomb is in the wall of a house nearly opposite to that -of Bibulus, and is reduced to a shapeless mass of remains. - -[Sidenote: Capitolium. Temple of Jupiter.] - -Passing from the Tomb of Bibulus to the Piazza del Campidoglio, and thence -to the Caffarelli or southern end of the Capitoline Hill, we find in the -gardens of the German Embassy an excavation which shows a number of tufa -blocks fitted together without mortar, and in an irregular manner.[80] - -The area of the great temple and the wall surrounding it have been traced -out by Lanciani and Jordan among the fragments which are found in this -garden, and on the north side of the Caffarelli palace, and between the -garden and the rotunda of the museum. Jordan thinks that the measurements -of the area indicated by these fragments correspond to the size of the -environs of the temple as given by Dionysius, and that they afford a -conclusive proof that the great temple of Jupiter was on the Caffarelli -and not on the Ara Coeli height. The north-eastern corner of the -excavation in the Caffarelli garden shows a part of these constructions, -and a fragment may be seen in the wall of the Montanara Garden in the -Vicolo di Monte Caprino. - -The natural features of the Capitoline Hill could hardly have been more -completely concealed than they are by the present situation of the -buildings upon it, even if those buildings had been erected with the -express purpose of changing the appearance of the hill. For the convent of -Ara Coeli and the Palazzo Caffarelli, which occupy respectively the -north-eastern and south-western summits of the hill, are comparatively -low and unconspicuous, while the so-called Tabularium and above it the -Palace of the Senator compose a lofty pile which nearly fills up the -depression between these two heights. To the spectator looking at the -Capitol from the Forum, the higher part of the hill appears to lie nearly -in the centre, whereas in reality the shape is that of a double hill -rising at each end. The north-eastern end is somewhat curved round towards -the north, while the south-western approaches within 300 paces of the -river. The whole core of the hill is formed of the harder volcanic tufa, a -section of which may be plainly seen, composing the face of the low -precipice now shown as the Tarpeian rock, and also in a courtyard -surrounded by cottages, near the spot called Palazzaccio. This tufa was, -as has been frequently mentioned, used as a building stone in the early -ages of Rome before the lapis Gabinus, or Albanus (peperino) or the lapis -Tiburtinus had been introduced. - -[Sidenote: Tarpeian Rock.] - -The Tarpeian Rock whence criminals were hurled, was, according to the -older Italian topographers down to the time of Nardini, placed at the -western edge of the hill towards the Tiber, where the Piazza Montanara now -is. But Dureau de la Malle in the Memoires de l'Academie for 1809, pointed -out that this was inconsistent with the statements of Dionysius, who says -that it was over the Forum, and that the executions took place in full -view of all the people. This would seem to place it on the S.E. side -towards the Palatine near S. Maria della Consolazione. Becker's objection -that the hill is less steep there than at the western edge, may be met by -the fact that several large masses of rock are recorded to have fallen -down from this spot, and therefore the face of the cliff is entirely -changed. The further objection that the criminals would have fallen into -the Vicus Jugarius, instead of which they ought, according to custom, to -have been cast over the city walls, seems to rest on the assumption that -criminals were always thrown over the walls, no proof of which has been -adduced. Tradition is equally divided between the two localities, and -therefore the passages of Dionysius above quoted must be held at present -decisive in favour of the side towards the Palatine and Forum. - -[Sidenote: Thermae of Constantine.] - -It has been conclusively proved by Becker, that Aurelian's Temple of the -Sun which was commonly supposed to have occupied the Colonna Gardens, and -to which the huge fragments near the Capitol which lie there were thought -to have belonged, was not here but in the Campus Agrippae on the Campus -Martius. For the Notitia and the Chronologers both place it in the seventh -region or Via Lata, which occupied the eastern side of the Campus, and -mention castra as attached to it. Further, Vopiscus when describing a -drive in which he accompanied Junius Tiberianus, the prefect of the city, -seems to place the Temple of the Sun at a much greater distance from the -Palatine than the Colonna Gardens are. - -The ruin with which it was identified, formerly called turris Maecenatis, -or Frontispicium Neronis, has now been pulled down, but a part of it, and -especially one huge mass of carved marble, remains in the Colonna Gardens. -Representations of the Frontispicium Neronis as it was before its -destruction, may be seen in Donatus and the older topographers. The -fragments of stonework are now thought to have belonged to the entrance of -the Thermae of Constantine. - -The site of the building erected upon the Quirinal by the mad emperor -Heliogabalus, and called Senaculum Mulierum in which he assembled the -Roman matrons for consultation about the laws of fashion in dress and -manners, is not known. - -The site of the Thermae of Constantine, which are placed by the Notitia -next to the Capitolium antiquum, is tolerably well defined by the notices -of the Anonymous MS. of Einsiedlen, and by an inscription found near the -Quirinal Palace, recording their restoration by Petronius Perpenna -probably in the year 443. Both of these indicate the Palazzo Rospigliosi -as standing upon the ground once occupied by the central building of the -Thermae. The Anonymous MS. mentions the Thermae on the road between the -Church of S. Agata and that of S. Vitale. Pozzio, Albertini, Fulvius, Q. -Fauno, and Gamucci, all agree in confirming this evidence. Large portions -of the ruins were still standing in their time, and in Du Perac's views, -published in the seventeenth century, the central part of the buildings is -represented. Another part of the ruins of these baths was found in the -construction of the Quirinal Palace in the time of Paul V. - -[Sidenote: Statues found in the Thermae of Constantine.] - -There can be no doubt that these Thermae, which were of great extent, -reached nearly across the Quirinal Hill, occupying the sites of the -present Palazzo Rospigliosi, part of the Colonna Gardens and the Quirinal -Palace. Three statues were found in the ruins, representing Constantine -and two of his sons. These are supposed to have stood near the grand -entrance of the Thermae. The first is now in the Portico of the Lateran -Basilica, the two others were placed by Paul III. on the balustrade of the -Piazza Capitolina. The famous pair of the Dioscuri and their horses, which -now ornament the Piazza di Monte Cavallo, were also discovered on this -site. The history of these well-known sculptures cannot be traced farther -back than the time of Constantine, whose Thermae they adorned. The old -tradition which states that they were a present from Tiridates to Nero is -in some degree supported by the mention of the equi Tiridatis in the -Notitia, but is not confirmed by any other evidence. That they are not -rightly supposed to represent the Dioscuri can hardly be doubted, and the -inscriptions which ascribe them to the chisels of Phidias and Praxiteles -respectively are erroneous. For not to mention that the exact reproduction -of nature in its highest type of symmetry, peculiar to the style of the -highest Greek art is absent, and that we find instead the conventional -mode of representation characteristic of the revival of art under the -emperors, it seems hardly possible that Praxiteles, who lived more than -half a century after Phidias, should have occupied himself in imitating -and completing a group begun by his predecessor. - -These colossal figures and the statues of Constantine mentioned above, -probably stood in the grand court of the Thermae. There are now no traces -left of the outer enclosure of this court, but the plan of the central -blocks of buildings has been preserved by Palladio, in whose time there -was doubtless a sufficient portion left to enable him to reconstruct the -whole. It is somewhat different from the plan of most of the other Thermae, -having a large semicircular court on one side surrounded with arcades, the -purpose of which has not been discovered. The other halls and apartments -are of the usual size and shape, with the exception of the exedrae, which -are rectangular. At one side of the enclosing court, apparently the north -side, there was a large theatre similar to that at the baths of Titus. - -Some of the older topographers had conjectured that the ruins in the -Colonna Gardens, wrongly, as has been shown, ascribed to Aurelian's Temple -of the Sun, and also the massive substructions and stairs which have been -found behind the stables of the Quirinal Palace on the west slope of the -hill, belonged to the Thermae of Constantine. This conjecture has been -revived and ingeniously supported by Professor Reber, who remarks that the -outer court of the Thermae, to judge by the extent of that of the baths of -Diocletian or of Caracalla, may very well have reached across the whole -breadth of the hill from east to west, and further that the approach to -the Thermae would naturally be placed on the west side, where the Imperial -fora lay. If so, the building called the tower of Maecenas stood exactly in -the position at the summit of the colossal flight of stairs now hidden -under the Papal stables which would answer to the entrance portico of the -Thermae. The fragments of the so-called Tower of Maecenas are very similar -to those of the portico of Octavia, which was also the entrance to a grand -enclosure. They consist of two huge blocks of marble, the largest of which -is seventeen feet in length, ornamented with mouldings of the usual -Corinthian character, and with a frieze beautifully decorated with -festoons of foliage enclosing birds and genii. The style is of a late -epoch, and might very probably belong to the Constantinian age. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE VELABRUM AND THE CIRCUS FLAMINIUS. - - -[Sidenote: Janus Quadrifrons.] - -The church of S. Giorgio in Velabro, which stands between the Palatine -Hill and the river near the Piazza Bocca della Verita, retains the ancient -name of this district, formerly a swamp called the Velabrum. This is -perhaps the best point from which to begin our survey of the ruins of the -Velabrum. The most conspicuous ruin near the church is the archway called -Janus Quadrifrons, from its quadrilateral shape. It is a massive square -building of white marble, with four piers supporting as many arches which -are united in the centre, by a vaulted roof. Each pier has on the exterior -twelve niches in two rows, with semicircular shell-shaped crowns. These -two rows of niches were formerly separated by a projecting cornice which -is now nearly destroyed except in the interior. The niches nearest to the -corners on the north and south sides are not hollowed out, but only traced -on the exterior surface, in order not to endanger the solidity of the -angles. The present height of the building is thirty-eight feet, but it -probably had an attica originally upon the top to which the staircase -still extant led, and in which were some small rooms for the transaction -of business. Upon the key-stones of the arches two figures can be still -recognized, one of Rome and the other of the patroness of trade, Minerva. -The exterior surface was doubtless decorated with rows of Corinthian -columns between the niches, a large quantity of remains of such columns -having been found in clearing the base, and in the niches themselves -statues of various deities probably stood. - -The purpose of this arch was probably solely ornamental, and it stood by -itself in some part of the Forum Boarium. The rooms in the attica may have -been used for the accommodation of some of the officials of the cattle -market. The builder and date are alike unknown. From the style of its -architecture and sculptures, it has been pronounced decidedly later than -the age of Domitian, to whom from his fondness for building Jani, it might -be attributed. Platner and Becker suggest that it is identical with an -archway called the Arcus Constantini--in the catalogue of the eleventh -region--but a comparison of the style of the remnants of sculptures upon -it with those on the existing arch of Constantine, does not confirm this -conjecture. - -[Sidenote: Arcus Argentinorum.] - -Close to the Janus Quadrifrons stands a stone ornamental doorway now -partly built into the wall of the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro. It is -constructed of brickwork with marble facings, and consists of two square -piers decorated with pilasters of the Composite or Roman order at the -corners and surmounted by a horizontal entablature of rich carved work. -There is no trace of an attica above. The inscription, still well -preserved, shows that it was erected by the money-changers or bankers, and -other merchants of the Forum Boarium, in honour of Septimius Severus, his -wife Julia, and his son Antoninus (Caracalla). As in the case of the Arch -of Septimius in the Forum, so here the words III. PP. PROCOS. FORTISSIMO -FELICISSIMOQUE PRINCIPI and PARTHICI MAXIMI BRITANNICI MAXIMI were -inserted by Caracalla in place of the name and titles of his murdered -brother Geta. - -Not only in the inscriptions of the time of Septimius Severus, but even in -the reliefs we everywhere find Geta's figure erased. - -On the shafts of the pilasters are representations of military ensigns, -which bear upon their circular tablets and above the eagles likenesses in -relief of two Caesars, Severus and Caracalla. The third likeness, that of -Geta, has been erased in every instance. In each of the spaces between the -pilasters are four panels with sculptures in relief. The lowest of these -represents the merchants of the Forum Boarium bringing cattle as victims -to the altar. The compartment above these exhibits various instruments -used in sacrifice, similar to those found upon the Temple of Vespasian. -Upon the larger central panel are the figures of the imperial family -engaged in sacrificing, and it can easily be seen that from some of these -the figure of Geta has been carefully chiselled away. - -In one of these large panels is the figure of a barbarian captive with the -Phrygian cap so common upon the sculptures of the triumphal arches. The -upper compartments contain festooned ornamental work and a few figures of -men. The front of the architrave and frieze is almost entirely occupied by -the inscriptions, and is not highly ornamented, but the cornice, which is -divided into seven ledges, is overladen with various decorative patterns -without purity of design or excellence of execution. The date of the -erection of this monument is stated in the inscription to be the twelfth -year of the tribunitia potestas of Severus and the seventh of Caracalla, -which corresponds to the year A.D. 204. Reber thinks it possible that the -merchants of the Forum Boarium intended it as a testimonial of gratitude -to Severus for having built the neighbouring Janus Quadrifrons to ornament -their quarter of the city. - -[Sidenote: Cloaca Maxima.] - -The oldest monument of Roman masonry is the remaining portion of a cloaca -in this district, commonly identified with the Cloaca Maxima of Livy, -which reaches from a spot near the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro and the -Janus Quadrifrons to the Tiber bank near the Ponte Rotto. The ancient -archway has been broken open here, and can be reached by descending into a -hollow near the Janus Quadrifrons. Near the Janus Quadrifrons, at the -above-mentioned spot, seven cloacae unite and pour their waters into the -still extant portion of the Cloaca Maxima, so that a large stream is -constantly flowing through it. These branch sewers are built with solid -brick arches, but the main archway, though fronted with modern brickwork, -consists of massive blocks of tufa, and at short intervals of every few -yards has an arch of travertine introduced, to add to its solidity and -strength. The original size of the archway, one-third of which is now -choked up with mud, was twelve feet four inches high, and ten feet eight -inches wide. Strabo and Pliny say that a cart loaded with hay could pass -through some of the Roman sewers, and certainly in the case of this -cloaca, it would not be impossible to do so were it cleared of mud. - -M. Agrippa, the Haussmann of Rome, is said, when aedile, to have traversed -the main sewer in a boat. The whole length of this remaining portion is at -least three hundred and forty yards, and it makes several bends, following -probably the direction of the ancient streets. The mouth is still visible, -when the Tiber is not high, at a spot called the Pulchrum Litus, near the -round temple usually called the Temple of Vesta. The immense size is due -to the fact that it was not only a sewer for refuse, but a drain for the -lake of the Velabrum, and the many land springs of the Forum, and must be -classed with the emissarium of the Alban Lake and other gigantic -undertakings of the kind, such as the cuniculus at Veii, executed about -B.C. 539. For a distance of about forty feet from the mouth the cloaca is -constructed of a triple arch of peperino, mixed with some blocks of tufa, -but throughout the rest of its course it consists of a single arch of tufa -with occasional bands of travertine. The masonry along the embankment of -the shore on each side, is partly of peperino and partly of tufa and -travertine blocks laid along and across alternately. - -Livy gives the early history of this extraordinary work in his first Book. -In the thirty-eighth chapter he ascribes the commencement of the -undertaking of draining the Velabrum and Forum to Tarquinius Priscus, and -in the fifty-sixth he says that Tarquinius Superbus completed the Cloaca -Maxima as a receptacle for the refuse of the whole city. Dionysius agrees -in giving the same account of the origin of the system of cloacae, and -Pliny enumerates the cloacae among the wonders of the great metropolis, and -expressly mentions Tarquinius Priscus as entitled to the credit of having -first originated this great work of public utility. His words are--"Seven -streams, after traversing the city, are united and their water so -compressed into one channel as to sweep everything along with it like a -torrent, and when a great body of rain-water is added to this the very -walls are shaken by the agitated waters; and sometimes the Tiber rises and -beats back into them, and vast opposing masses of water meet and -struggle, yet the solidity of their masonry resists and stands firm. Huge -weights are carried over them, whole buildings undermined by fire or by -some accident fall upon them, earthquakes shake the very ground around -them, yet they have lasted for seven hundred years from the time of -Tarquinius Priscus almost uninjured, a monument of antiquity which ought -to be the more carefully observed since it has been passed over in silence -by some of our most celebrated historians." - -The Tarquins are said to have compelled the Roman people to work at these -huge structures, just as the kings of Egypt and Assyria exacted task-work -from their subjects; but in palliation of the cruelties alleged against -them by the historians it must be noted that in the one case buildings of -permanent public service were built, while in the other, only the vanity -of a despot was flattered. - -[Sidenote: Fortuna Virilis.] - -Not far from the Janus Quadrifrons, and close to the Pons Aemilius, or -Ponte Rotto, stands a small temple, now converted into the church of S. -Maria Egiziaca, which presents an unsolved problem in Roman topography. -The substruction of this temple, which has been laid bare, consists of -tufa cased with travertine. The form of the temple is that called -tetrastylos by Vitruvius, having four Ionic columns in front and seven at -the sides. The four front columns and two on each side, forming the -pronaos, originally stood clear, but are now enclosed within the wall of -the church. The remaining five on each side with those at the back were -half columns set against the wall of the cella. The shafts of the half -columns are of tufa, but the bases and capitals, with the entablature and -the columns of the pronaos, are of travertine. On the frieze and cornice -are the remains of ornamental work, which is now rendered almost invisible -by the stucco with which the walls have been covered. The Ionic volutes on -the corner capitals of this temple are in the later style, while the side -capitals are in the usual style. - -This building has usually been supposed to be the temple dedicated by -Servius Tullius to Fortuna Virilis, and situated on the bank of the Tiber. -The passage of Dionysius upon which this supposition rests is as follows: -"Servius Tullius built two temples to Fortune, one in the Forum Boarium, -and the other upon the bank of the Tiber."[81] - -It is most probable, as Reber suggests, that we have here the Temple of -Servius dedicated to Fortune without any special title. Dionysius, as we -have seen, places this in the Forum Boarium, and Livy describes it as -intra portam Carmentalem, and mentions it in tracing the course of a -conflagration between the Salinae near the Porta Trigemina and the Porta -Carmentalis. But there was another temple, that of Mater Matuta which -stood close to the Temple of Fortune, and there is no evidence showing to -which of the two the ruin in question belonged. Both were founded by -Servius, and reckoned among the most venerable relics of ancient Rome. -Becker urges the claims of the Temple of Pudicitia Patricia, which Livy -places in the Forum Boarium near the round Temple of Hercules, to this -site. But this was merely a small shrine, containing a statue and not a -templum. So far as an opinion can be formed of the date of the temple from -the materials and style of architecture, it seems to belong to the later -republic. - -[Sidenote: So-called Temple of Vesta.] - -On the Piazza della Bocca della Verita, at a short distance from the -temple we have just been considering, stand the remains of a small round -temple commonly called the Temple of Vesta. Perhaps of all the ruins of -Rome this is the most familiar to the eye of the tourist. A considerable -part of the cella is still standing, ornamented with a simple and elegant -cornice. Round this stand nineteen graceful Corinthian columns of white -marble. The entablature is unfortunately destroyed, and the rude modern -tiled roof with which the building has been capped completely spoils the -picturesque effect of the ruin. - -[Illustration: Palatine Hill. Aemilian Temple of Hercules, and mouth of -Cloaca Maxima. Bell tower of S. Maria in Cosmedin.] - -The name now given to it rests on no other evidence than its circular -shape, and as we have no mention of a Temple of Vesta in the Forum Boarium -it must be at once condemned as a misnomer. It has also been called the -Temple of the Sibyl or the Temple of Cybele without better reason. The -most probable conjecture as to its name is that first suggested by Piale, -that it is the round Temple of Hercules in the Forum Boarium mentioned in -the tenth Book of Livy, and alluded to by Festus as the Aemilian Temple of -Hercules. The appellation Aemiliana certainly seems to point to the -neighbourhood of the Aemilian bridge. The style of its architecture may be -attributed to a restoration in the latter half of the first century A.D. -Formerly, it was called the Church of Madonna del Sole, from a favourite -image of the Virgin in it, and at an earlier period S. Stefano delle -Carozze, from the discovery of a marble model of a chariot in its -neighbourhood, but in 1810 it was cleared out and restored, and since then -it has not been used as a church, but contains a small collection of -marble fragments. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Ceres.] - -At the entrance of the valley of the Circus Maximus, and on the south side -of the Piazza della Bocca della Verita stands the church of S. Maria in -Cosmedin which is built upon the ruins of an ancient temple. Ten columns -still remain in their original places, seven of which stand in a line -parallel to the entrance, and three others in the left-hand side wall of -the church. Some of the columns are built into the walls of the Sacristies -on the right of the entrance, and reach through the roofs to the upper -story. The material of which they are made is white marble, and the order -to which they belong the Composite. Parts of the wall of the cella may -still be seen in the sacristy, built of tufa which was originally faced -with marble. The design of the capitals and chiselling of the ornamental -work upon them is of the best period of art, and one of them may -conveniently be examined in the room over the sacraria, and in the organ -loft. Behind the apse of the church are some large chambers built of -massive blocks of travertine, which were probably attached to the Carceres -of the Circus as stables or offices of some kind, and the position of -these compels us to assume that the front of the temple faced towards the -Velabrum, and that the seven columns parallel to the facade of the present -church belonged to the side of the temple, while the three in the -left-hand wall formed a part of the front. Otherwise the travertine -chambers at the back must have formed some part of the temple, and it is -difficult to see how this could have been the case, as they are evidently -not the walls of the cella, and cannot be brought into any symmetrical -position with the rows of columns. - -The Temples of Pudicitia Patricia, of Mater Matuta, and of Fortune have -been severally identified with these ruins by the writers of Roman -topography. But it has been shown already that the first of these was -probably a mere chapel, and that the other two must be placed nearer to -the Carmental gate, and therefore the conjecture of Canina that the church -of S. Maria in Cosmedin was the Temple of Ceres, Liber, and Libera appears -much more likely to be true. For that temple is included in the eleventh -region by the Curiosum and Notitia, and is placed by Vitruvius, Tacitus, -and Pliny close to the Circus Maximus, while Dionysius expressly says that -it stood just over the barriers of the Circus Maximus. The account of -Vitruvius answers to the ruins which still remain. For he says that the -temple was of the description called araeostyle, i.e. with wide -intercolumnar intervals, and it will be found that the intervals between -the columns now standing are nearly four times their diameter. Vitruvius -also says that it was of the Tuscan order of architecture, and in this -seems to contradict Pliny who, quoting Varro's authority, speaks of it as -the first temple at Rome which had Greek ornamental work. Their statements -may be reconciled by observing that Pliny is speaking of the decorations -of the temple by Damophilus and Gorgasis, and not of the style of -architecture. The araeostyle arrangement of the columns was probably -preserved even after the complete restoration by Tiberius, at which time, -as Pliny relates, the old Greek frescoes were cut out and framed, and the -terra cotta statues removed from the roof. The temple was first vowed by -A. Postumius, the dictator in the Latin war of B.C. 497, on account of the -great scarcity of provisions which then prevailed. It was dedicated three -years afterwards by the Consul Spurius Cassius, a statesman who showed a -disposition to imitate the great architectural works of the regal period, -contrary to the generally frugal spirit of the early republican fathers. -In the year B.C. 31, a destructive fire, which raged between the Circus -and the Forum Olitorium, destroyed the Temple, and with it some of the -most valuable treasures of Greek art which it contained. Among these, -besides the frescoes of Damophilus and Gorgasis above mentioned, was the -famous pictures of Dionysius by Aristides, for which Attalus bid sixteen -talents, a price which excited the attention of Mummius, and induced him, -although unable himself to appreciate the merits of such works of art, to -suspect its value, and carry it to Rome in spite of the remonstrances of -Attalus. - -The restoration was undertaken by Augustus, and finished by Tiberius in -A.D. 17. This temple was to the Plebeian Aediles what the Temple of Saturn -was to the quaestors, and it was enacted that the decrees of the Senate -should be delivered over to the Aediles there, an enactment which seems -never to have been carried out.[82] - -The medieval names of this church, in Cosmedin, and in Schola Graeca, seem -to point to the possession of the church by Greek monks after the division -of the empire, and the piazza in which it stands is called Bocca della -Verita from the strange figure of a head under the modern portico of the -church, in the mouth of which it is said that persons whose veracity lay -under suspicion, were required to place their hands while making oath, in -the belief that the mouth would close upon their hands if the oath taken -was a false one. - -[Sidenote: Carceres of the Cirrus Maximus.] - -Immediately behind the church are the arched buildings of travertine -blocks which have already been mentioned as belonging to the Carceres of -the Circus. The largest of these is now used as a store-room for articles -of church furniture, and stands on the right side of the tribune of the -church. They are perhaps situated too far towards the river to be portions -of the actual Carceres from which the chariots started, but they may have -formed one side of a courtyard behind the Carceres, in which the -harnessing and preparation for the races took place. - -[Sidenote: Theatre of Marcellus.] - -The ruins of the Theatre of Marcellus which are still standing in the -Piazza Montanara afford us a fixed point from which to begin our survey of -the region of the Circus Flaminius, which lies to the north-west of the -Velabrum. For it appears certain that the ancient half columns, arches, -and other ruins evidently belonging to a semicircular theatre, which are -now covered by the Palazzo Orsini Savelli, belonged to the theatre of -Marcellus. Suetonius distinctly places this theatre under the Tarpeian -hill, and of the other two stone theatres at Rome we know that the -Pompeian lay further to the north-west, and that the theatre of Balbus was -near the Ponte Sisto. The masonry and architectural details of this -building, though corresponding in many respects with the Coliseum are more -carefully worked, and show an earlier and better period of art. - -[Illustration: Theatre of Marcellus.] - -There had previously been a stone scena built near this spot by Aemilius -Lepidus, which was perhaps used by Julius Caesar who first began to build -this theatre. It was not finished until the year B.C. 11 when Augustus -opened it, and named it after his nephew Marcellus, son of Octavia. In the -time of the Flavii the scena was restored, having perhaps suffered from -the fire which burnt the Porticus Octaviae, and it seems to have again -required repairs in the time of Alexander Severus, who is said to have -wished to restore it.[83] - -The Curiosum mentions it as if still in use, and gives the number of -spectators it would contain as 20,000. In the Middle Ages it was, like all -the other great buildings of Rome, turned into a castle by Pietro Leone, a -nobleman of great power in the time of Urban II. and Pascal II., and -celebrated for his factious violence. The shape of the building was thus -completely altered. The great family of the Savelli came into possession -of it in the twelfth century, following Pietro Leone, and after them the -Orsini. The lower stories are now occupied by workshops, small wine -vaults, and rag and bone warehouses, frequented by the rustics of the -Campagna, who are usually to be seen in considerable numbers in the Piazza -Montanara in front of it. - -From the piazza two rows of the exterior arcades are visible, each -containing twelve arches and thirteen columns of travertine. The lower -arcade is now buried to the depth of one third of its surface below the -level of the present ground. Its half columns are of the Doric order, with -a Doric entablature and triglyphs, and are surmounted by a low attica with -projecting bases for the half columns of the upper arcade. The height of -this upper arcade was originally somewhat less than that of the lower. It -has half columns of the Ionic order, carrying a simple entablature with -an architrave of three projecting ledges, a plain frieze, and a cornice -with toothed mouldings. No actual remains of a third arcade above these -two are now to be found, but it can hardly be doubted that one existed -originally, and that it was of the Corinthian order. Some parts of the -substructions of the seats are said to be still extant in the cellars of -the Savelli residence, consisting of diverging walls similar to those -still to be seen in the Coliseum. By means of these, the ground plan of -the cavea of the theatre can be completely restored. There are no remains -of the scena. Upon one of the fragments of the Capitoline plan, partly -restored, the name Theatrum Marcelli is legible. There seems, however, to -be some doubt as to the genuineness of this fragment. - -[Sidenote: The Ponte Rotto.] - -The bridge near the theatre of Marcellus is now called the Ponte Rotto -from its broken condition. The two remaining arches are not ancient, but -probably stand upon the site of an ancient bridge which was called the -Pons Aemilius. Livy mentions this bridge as the first stone bridge built -over the Tiber, and states that it was begun in B.C. 179 by M. Fulvius -Nobilior, and M. Aemilius Lepidus the censor, whose name was given to the -Basilica Aemilia, and that it was finished in B.C. 142 by the Censors -Publius Scipio Africanus, and L. Mummius. The bridge was named after M. -Aemilius Lepidus as Pontifex Maximus, and as a more popular statesman than -Fulvius. The bridge afterwards bore the name pons lapideus, from being the -first stone bridge built over the Tiber, and in contradistinction to the -pons sublicius. - -There is abundant evidence as to the position of this bridge, for the -Fasti Capranici place it ad Theatrum Marcelli, and the Cosmographia of -Aethicus ad Forum Boarium, both of which indications point to the Ponte -Rotto. - -[Sidenote: Island of the Tiber.] - -A short distance above the Aemilian bridge is the island of the Tiber. -According to the legend, this island was formed by the corn belonging to -the Tarquins grown on the Campus Martius, which after their expulsion was -consecrated to Mars. After consecration the corn could not be used for -food, and was therefore cut and thrown into the Tiber, and from this -corn, when collected into heaps by the stream, the island was formed. -Until the fifth century of the city, the island remained consecrated and -uninhabited, but in B.C. 292 a Temple of Aesculapius was built upon it in -consequence, as the story went, of the holy snake brought from Epidaurus -having swum to shore there. The island was probably at this time also -protected with stone embankments, and the two bridges were built, whence -the name inter duos pontes was given to it. A fragment of this ancient -stone embankment, which was in the shape of a ship, may still be seen in -the garden of the Franciscan Monks of S. Bartolommeo, representing part of -the prow of a ship, with a snake and the head of an ox carved in relief -upon it. - -The two bridges uniting the island to either bank were probably, as has -been said, first erected in or about the fifth century of the city, but -the existing bridges, though ancient, must be considered as restorations -of the older fabrics. - -The bridge on the side towards the Campus Martius was built by L. -Fabricius in B.C. 62, as the inscription still extant on the bridge shows. -In accordance with this we find Dion Cassius giving it the name of Pons -Fabricius, and a coin with the title L. Fabricius gives on the other side -a bridge with a snake, plainly pointing to the island of the Tiber. - -Another inscription, also still remaining upon the bridge, states that it -was examined and found in good repair by Q. Lepidus and M. Lollius, -consuls in B.C. 21. - -This bridge is the oldest now standing on the Tiber, and the masonry is of -admirable solidity and workmanship. It was called, in the Middle Ages Pons -Judaeus, from its proximity to the Jews' quarter of the city, and now bears -the name Quattro Capi from the jani quadrifrontes which stand upon it.[84] -These jani were formerly the posts which supported the railings of the -bridge, as may be seen by the holes bored in them for the ancient bronze -bars. - -The twin bridge on the right-hand side of the river, dates from the -imperial era, and probably, like the Pons Fabricius, replaced a much older -bridge of the same age as the Temple of Aesculapius. - -Two inscriptions are still legible on this bridge, from which we learn -that it was finished in the year A.D. 370, and dedicated to the use of the -Roman people in the name of the Emperor Gratianus, by Valentinian, Valens -and Gratianus. These inscriptions must be understood as referring to the -rebuilding of the bridge, though they are so worded as to claim the credit -of its first erection. That there was an older bridge is clear, not only -from the fact that the island was called inter duos pontes before the time -of Gratian, but also from the name pons Cestius, which occurs in the -Notitia, and undoubtedly belongs to that bridge. It is not clear who -Cestius was, but it is generally supposed that a praefectus urbi of that -name in B.C. 46 is the person after whom the bridge was named, and this -agrees with the statement of Dion Cassius about the building of the -Fabrician bridge. - -The church of S. Nicola in Carcere, which stands in the Via della Bocca -della Verita close to the Piazza Montanara, contains the remains of two or -perhaps of three temples. - -[Sidenote: S. Nicola in Carcere.] - -These ruins consist first of three fluted columns of travertine with Ionic -capitals, which stand in the facade of the church of S. Nicola. Above them -is a part of the ancient entablature, and in the room to the left of the -portico of the church are two more columns built into the wall. In the -nave of the church on the left hand are remains of the cella of the -temple, to the pronaos of which the five columns belonged. The walls of -the cella were, as has been discovered by excavations, constructed of -travertine blocks. At the end of this left-hand wall of the cella, there -stood before the last restoration of the church, the remains of a pilaster -of the Doric order with an Attic base, and opposite to this pilaster -another column. The position of the six columns shows that the temple was -of the form called peripteros, i.e., surrounded by a continuous colonnade. - -On the right-hand side aisle of the church are five other columns built -into the wall, and a pilaster which evidently belonged to a second temple -standing side by side with the first. These columns are not so high as -those of the first temple described, and their style and the intervals -between them are different. A portion of the entablature, which is of a -simple character, still surmounts them. Two more columns of this temple -are to be seen in the wall of the house which stands to the right of the -church. It was surrounded with colonnades on three sides, but the back of -the cella was ornamented with pilasters only. - -On the left-hand side of the church are six more half-exposed columns, and -some remains of an entablature which may have either belonged to a third -and smaller temple standing by the side of the first, or may have been -merely the portico of some other building. - -The materials of which these buildings consist are chiefly travertine and -peperino, and their difference of style shows them to have been erected at -different times, probably during the Age of the Republic. It is commonly -assumed, from their position near the theatre of Marcellus, that they are -to be identified with the Temples of Spes and Juno Sospita. As the Temple -of Pietas was removed to make room for the theatre, we cannot suppose that -we have here any part of it, and the Temple of Janus would probably have -assumed a different form. - -It is recorded by Livy that M. Acilius Glabrio erected an equestrian -statue near the Temple of Pietas. During some excavations made in 1808 by -the architect Valadier, the pedestal of an equestrian statue was found in -the small piazza opposite to the church of S. Nicola. It appears possible -that when the Temple of Pietas was removed to make way for the theatre, -this statue may have been preserved and set up here as near as possible to -the original site.[85] - -[Sidenote: Portico of Octavia.] - -In the street called the Via di Pescaria, which runs north-westwards from -the Theatre of Marcellus, stand four fluted Corinthian columns, two on -each side of the street. These formed part of the principal entrance to a -colonnade or portico, some of the other columns of which can be traced at -intervals in the walls of the houses further on in the Via di Pescaria -along which the line of the colonnade ran. The entrance or gateway faced -towards the south-west, and over the arch looking into the little Piazza -di Pescaria will be seen an inscription recording its restoration after a -fire, by Septimius Severus and Caracalla (M. Aurelius Antoninus) in the -year A.D. 203, the eleventh year of the tribunitian power of Severus. No -traces can be found of the erasure of Geta's name, which Caracalla, as we -have seen, caused to be effaced after his death from all the inscriptions -containing it. There is no doubt, however, that it was originally placed -here after the name of Caracalla, since Severus was careful to pay equal -honour to both of his sons in all respects. The whole inscription may have -been replaced by a new one, or the fourth line may have been completely -effaced and altered. As it now stands the inscription has been restored as -follows: IMP. CAES. L. SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS. PIUS. PERTINAX. AUG. ARABIC. -ADIABENIC. PARTHIC. MAXIMUS. TRIB. POTEST. XI. IMP. XI. COS. III. P. P. ET -IMP. CAES. M. AURELIUS. ANTONINUS. PIUS. FELIX. AUG. TRIB. POTEST. VI. COS. -PROCOS. PORTICUM. INCENDIO CONSUMPTAM RESTITUERUNT. - -The pediment and tympanum over the inscription are still preserved, but -two of the columns below have been replaced by a high brickwork arch, -probably of the fifth century, which now supports the inscription and -pediment. Passing round again into the street Via di Pescaria, we find -ourselves in the interior of the gateway. It consisted of four columns -placed on each side between two antae or projecting piers ornamented with -pilasters, and was of larger dimensions than the colonnades to which it -formed the entrance. The brickwork of the antae was originally faced with -marble, and they supported arches which led into the colonnades along the -line of the street. The bases of the columns are now buried in rubbish, -but parts of the architecture, frieze, and cornice, which are of a simple -description, may be still traced over the front. The inner side of the -gateway, with the exception of the two columns and the pier which stand at -the entrance of the Via di S. Angelo in Pescaria, has been removed to make -room for the church of S. Michaele Archangelo. - -If we enter the street just mentioned, the capital of a column may be seen -on the right hand over the wall of the yard belonging to No. 12, and in -the yard itself stand three others, with a portion of the architecture -above them. Their position shows that they formed the corner of a temple. - -There is ample proof that we have in the ruins just described, the -entrance gateway of the Porticus Octaviae and the corner of the temple of -Juno Regina. For Festus states that there were two Octavian porticoes, one -built in honour of Octavia, the sister of Augustus, near the Theatre of -Marcellus, and a second close to the Theatre of Pompeius, built by Q. -Octavius, the conqueror of Perses. The site upon which the former was -built had been previously occupied by the Porticus Metelli, built by Q. -Metellus Macedonicus, propraetor in B.C. 146, and the Octavian portico was -a complete restoration of this by Augustus.[86] - -Pliny also mentions two statues of Apollo near the Porticus Octaviae, which -probably stood in the Temple of Apollo, known to have been situated -outside the Porta Carmentalis between the Forum Olitorium and the Circus -Flaminius. But the principal evidence is derived from the plan of Rome, -now on the staircase of the Capitoline Museum, where the whole design of -this portico is laid down, and the temples which it enclosed are named. We -learn from this plan that the portico was in form an oblong space enclosed -with colonnades, and that the ruins now remaining constituted the -principal entrance to this court, and to the Temple of Juno Regina which -it enclosed. The line of the Via di Pescaria corresponds to one of the -shorter sides of the court, and in the centre of this side the gateway -stood. In two points only the Capitoline map fails to correspond with the -actually existing ruins. The antae of the gateway are not represented, and -the corner column of the Temple of Juno is omitted. The former of these -two omissions may be explained by supposing that the plan was probably -made before the restoration of the portico by Severus. - -The excavations carried on in 1861 by Pellegrini and Contigliozzi, -established the following limits for the Portico of Octavia. - -The southern corner of the rectangle was occupied by a quadrifrontal -archway, and this was situated near No. 4 in the Via della Catena di -Pescaria. From this the south-western side of the portico ran nearly along -the line of the street till it reached the gateway to which the present -ruins belong, near the oratory of S. Angelo. The western corner of the -portico was also formed by a quadrifrontal archway. - -The north-western side passed through the church of S. Ambrogio a little -below the high altar, and then skirted the Palazzo Righetti near the -Piazza di S. Caterina de' Funari, where it joined the north-eastern and -shorter side. In this side there was a pediment with pillars corresponding -to the gateway at the opposite end, but not containing the real entrance, -which stood near the angle of the Palazzo Caraletti in the Via de' -Delphini. The eastern angle was near the Palazzo Capizucchi, and the -south-eastern side passed close to the convent of monks of the order of -Madre di Dio, attached to the church of S. Maria in Portico in the piazza -di Campitelli. - -The three Composite columns of marble, which still stand in the house, No. -11 in the Via di S. Angelo in Pescaria, belonged to the Temple of Juno, -and stood at the western angle of that temple. - -The remains of the Temple of Jupiter are hidden under the church of S. -Maria in Portico, and the street which is now called Via della Tribuna dei -Campitelli occupies the line of the interval between the two temples. A -part of one of the side walls of the Temple of Jupiter rises a little -above the ground at the corner of the church of S. Maria in Portico. The -school or academy of Augustus was behind the temples, and stood near the -centre of the Via della Tribuna di Campitelli. The back of this formed a -part of the northern side of the portico. - -The interior of the gateway has of late years been cleared of some of the -buildings which have blocked it up, and the whole is now visible, with all -the columns except one, which has been taken away to enlarge the church -door. - -A most interesting relic was found near the side door of the church of S. -Angelo in Pescaria in April 1878, consisting of a pedestal of marble -engraved with the title of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi. This was -evidently the pedestal of the sitting statue of Cornelia mentioned by -Pliny in his 'Natural History' as having been placed in the Portico of -Metellus. The statue was the work of Tisicrates. - -Excavations which have been made in the repair of houses and for other -objects during the six years since 1873, have confirmed the conclusions -which have been stated as to the position of the Portico of Octavia, and -the temples near it. Some of the columns of the north side of the portico -were found along the row of houses in the Via di Pescaria, No. 25-34. - -The basement of the Temple of Apollo, between the Theatre of Marcellus and -the Portico of Octavia, was found under the Albergo della Catena. - -[Sidenote: Crypta and Theatrum Balbi.] - -In the Via di S. Maria in Cacaberis, No. 23, there are two Doric columns -of travertine half buried in the around, with a portion of entablature -above them, and between them an ancient brick arch forming the entrance to -a stable. In the interior of the stable are two other similar arches and -columns, and above these there are indications of an upper story. Other -ruins of the same description are built into the next house, No. 22, and -into several other houses near. In the sixteenth century, the Bolognese -architect Serlio saw more ruins here, and he represents in his sketch an -upper story with Corinthian pillars. The name Crypta Balbi, which is found -in the catalogue of places in the ninth region, has been given with much -probability to these ruins. A crypta, or cryptoporticus, according to -Pliny, was a covered corridor with windows, which could be shut or opened -at pleasure. Such a building was used for exercise in wet or hot weather. -Some were open on one side, others closed on both sides. A cryptoporticus -of the latter kind is to be seen in the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea under -the baths of Titus. The ruins in the Via di Cacaberis appear to have had -open arches at the sides. This cryptoporticus was probably attached to the -Theatre of Balbus, as the portions Pompeii was to the Theatrum Pompeii, -and Venuti thinks that it extended along the back of the scena, and that -it was intended as a place of shelter for the spectators in case of the -sudden showers of rain peculiar to the Roman climate.[87] The name of -the street Cacaberis or Caccavari has been derived from crypticula. The -Mirabilia, an ancient list of the sights in Rome, calls these ruins -Templum Craticulae. - -[Illustration: The Circus Flaminius from Nolli's Map, Pl. 19.] - -[Sidenote: Circus Flaminius.] - -The Circus Flaminius, named from the Flaminian family of ancient Rome, lay -in the quarter traversed by the Via delle Botteghe Oscure, and in the -neighbourhood of the Palazzo Mattei. The Circus was destroyed before the -9th century, and there are now no traces of it left to guide us, but -before the erection, in the 15th century, of the larger houses in this -quarter, some few ruins appear to have been visible in the neighbourhood -of the Palazzo Mattei. These are described by Andrea Fulvio and Ligorio as -having belonged to the Circus Flaminius, and according to their account -the length of the Circus lay in a direction from west to east, and reached -from the Palazzo Mattei, where the semicircular end was situated, to the -Piazzo Margana where the starting-point lay. A tower, now called the Torre -Citrangole, was once called the Torre Metangole, and marked the spot where -the goal of the Circus stood. - -[Sidenote: Theatre of Pompeius.] - -In the district called by the name Circus Flaminius, stand the ruins of a -vast range of buildings, the theatre, porticus, curia, and domus Pompeii. -That these ruins, which are situated at the back of the church of S. -Andrea della Valle, and are plainly those of a theatre, belonged to the -Theatre of Pompey, is clear if the proofs given of the situation of the -other two theatres in ancient Rome be admitted as sufficient. The place -was so familiar to the Romans that we hardly ever find its locality -indicated even in any such general terms as in campo Martio or juxta -Tiberim, expressions commonly applied to other buildings of less note in -the Campus Martius. - -The remains which are now left of these celebrated buildings are to be -seen in the small piazza of S. Maria di Grottapinta behind the church of -S. Andrea della Valle. They consist of ranges of travertine walls, -converging to a centre, similar to those still visible in the interior of -the Theatre of Marcellus and in the Coliseum, and are plainly the remains -of the substructions supporting the cavea of a theatre. Further remains of -piers and converging archways of peperino are visible in the cellars of -the adjoining Palazzo Pio; and during some excavations made in 1837, a -part of the outer walls of the theatre was discovered, with Doric half -columns, and a Doric cornice. Most fortunately the ground plan, not only -of the theatre, but also of the whole adjoining portico, is given upon -some fragments of the Capitoline map. - -[Illustration: FRAGMENTS OF PIANTA CAPITOLINA. THEATRE OF POMPEY] - -The first idea of building such a magnificent theatre seems to have been -suggested to Pompey by his visit to the theatre at Mitylene, whither he -went after the Mithridatic war to be present at a contest of rival poets -held in his honour. Only one attempt had before been made to build a -permanent theatre in Rome. The Censor C. Cassius Longinus in the year B.C. -154 had entered into a contract for the construction of a stone theatre -near the Lupercal, but the senate, by the advice of Scipio Nasica, a rigid -Puritan of the old Roman school, and jealous of the introduction of Greek -luxury, ordered it when half finished to be demolished, and the materials -sold. The same decree inflicted penalties on any one who should, either in -the city or within a mile of its wails, venture to place any seats for -spectators at the games, or sit down while looking on at them. Tacitus -states that even in Pompey's time the conservative Romans retained the -same dread lest indolence and luxury should be promoted by the -construction of permanent theatres.[88] In carrying out this grand design -Pompey was assisted by his freedman Demetrius, who had amassed immense -riches during his master's campaigns, and took this opportunity of paying -his acknowledgments to the author of his wealth. The capabilities of the -theatre must have been very great; nor need we be surprised to hear that -it contained 40,000 seats, for the remaining fragments show that it -comprehended the whole space between the Via de' Chiavari which -corresponds nearly to the line of the scena, the Via di Giubbonari, the -Campo di Fiore and the Via del Paradiso. Eastwards from the Via de' -Chiavari stretched the long ranges of colonnades of which the Capitoline -plan gives the outline, and beyond them the Curia and a temple, with a -variety of offices and shops, as far as the Via di Torre Argentina, -including the modern Teatro Argentina within their compass. In this -theatre Nero gave the grand entertainment to Tiridates, on which occasion -not only the scena but the whole interior of the theatre and its furniture -was covered with gilding, and a purple velarium stretched over it, upon -which Nero himself was represented driving his chariot in the character of -the Sun God, with golden stars glittering around him. The scena was burnt -in the great fire in A.D. 80, but restored again by Vespasian. Two other -conflagrations and restorations are recorded in the first half of the -third century, one in the reign of Philippus in A.D. 249, and a second in -that of Diocletian.[89] An inscription was found in the Via de' Chiavari -in 1551, which commemorates the restoration of one of the colonnades under -the name of Jovius, a title which Diocletian often assumed, and in the -time of Ammianus Marcellinus the theatre could still be reckoned among the -Mirabilia Urbis.[90] Another inscription given by the anonymous writer of -the Einsiedlen MS. records a rebuilding by Arcadius and Honorius about -A.D. 395. At the time the Notitia was compiled, the number of seats had -diminished from 40,000, as given by Pliny, to 27,580 or even less, and the -theatre was therefore probably in a ruinous state when the last mentioned -restoration took place. The building naturally suffered much in the Gothic -wars, and we find that it was again restored by Symmachus in the time of -Theodoric, after which it is again mentioned under the right name of -Theatrum Pompeii by the anonymous writer of Einsiedlen in the 9th and by -the Ordo Romanus in the 12th centuries; but in the 13th the Orsini family -had occupied it, and so changed the building that at the beginning of the -14th century it is called in the Mirabilia, Palatium Pompeii. The -Florentine Poggio saw the ruins of the outer wall still standing in the -Campo di Fiore in the 15th century, but the name of Pompey was then no -longer connected with them, until Marliani, Fulvio, and Fauno the -topographers of the 16th century revived the right designation. Canina, -in his work on the buildings of the ancients, has taken the greatest pains -to give a full description of the ruins now left, and it is from him that -most of our information is derived. - -[Sidenote: Ponte S. Sisto.] - -The bridge now called Ponte S. Sisto, near the ruins of the Theatre of -Pompeius, stands on the site of an ancient bridge, which was most probably -the one named Pons Aurelius in the Notitia. There is no conclusive proof -that this was the Pons Aurelius, but the situation of none of the other -bridges seems to suit this name, while it is peculiarly applicable to the -bridge in question, because it was the principal passage over the Tiber to -the Porta Aurelia and the Aurelian road along the coast to Civita Vecchia. - -The name frequently given to it by topographers, Pons Janicularis, appears -to be a mere invention, as it is not found in any trustworthy authority; -and another name Pons Antoninianus, by which we find it called in the -Middle Ages, seems to have arisen from the mistaken name Theatrum -Antonini, formerly given to the Theatrum Balbi, which is not far distant, -and also from the well-known fondness of Severus and Caracalla for the -trans-Tiberine pleasure grounds. Marliani gives an inscription which is -said to have existed formerly upon this bridge commemorating its -restoration under Hadrian by Messius Rusticus, the Conservator of the -Tiber. The bridge must therefore have been originally built before -Hadrian's time, and cannot be a work of the Antonines. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -PANTHEON, COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS, MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS, MAUSOLEUM OF -HADRIAN, AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. - - -[Sidenote: The Septa.] - -Near the Piazza Venezia and S. Marco, to the east of the site of the -ancient Circus Flaminius, stood the Septa, an ancient building erected for -the purpose of holding the Roman comitia or elections. Some ruins of a -very peculiar kind are situated under the Palazzo Doria and the church of -S. Maria in Via Lata. They consist of ancient piers of travertine stone, -about thirty-nine inches square, standing in rows at distances of five or -six yards, and evidently belonging to the remains of a portico. There are -three rows of these, each containing eight piers under the Palazzo Doria, -and five rows under the church of S. Maria in Via Lata, containing each -five piers. It is plain that these were originally faced with marble, as -the exterior surface of the travertine is rough hewn. The situation of -these pillars agrees well with the locality in which the Septa are placed -by classical writers, and a further proof that they certainly formed a -part of that building is given by the Capitoline map, upon which we find a -large tract occupied by a building resting upon piers arranged in regular -rows exactly corresponding to the piers under the church of S. Maria and -the Palazzo Doria. Upon these fragments the letters SAEPT and LIA are -legible, which appear to belong to the words SAEPTA JULIA. - -The shape of the building is very peculiar. It must have reached along the -side of the Via Lata from the Piazza di S. Marco to the church of S. Maria -in Via Lata, and consisted of a long cloister supported by parallel rows -of eight marble piers. This cannot have been the arrangement of the place -in the Republican or early Imperial times, for a design less adapted for -the orderly meeting of a large body of people can hardly be conceived. It -is much more probable that in the present ruins we have the remains of -Hadrian's Septa, built when the original purpose of the building, the -reception and division of the centuries when they voted, had become an -affair of the past. - -The design of these spacious covered cloisters seems to have been to -afford a sheltered place for various classes of the Roman populace. Even -in Domitian's time the Septa had become the common resort of slave -vendors, dealers in fancy goods, flaneurs and loungers, and the new -arcades were intended possibly for the express accommodation of such -persons. The wide court in which the great assemblies of the centuries had -previously been held was partly filled up by these new buildings, and -partly occupied by private houses, as the Capitoline plan shows. When that -plan was prepared, in the time of Septimius Severus, the old Septa had -entirely lost their form and original use, and the name only remained -attached to the spacious colonnades of Hadrian. - -In the early times of the Republic the Septa were simply an enclosed place -on the Campus Martins partitioned off into a number of different plots by -means of ropes or slight railings, in each of which one division of voters -or century assembled, and whence the presidents passed one by one over the -pontes to deliver the vote of their respective century. Hence arose the -nickname of ovilia, which was given to the septa on account of their -similarity to a sheepfold. Julius Caesar first entertained the idea of -setting up marble enclosures for the comitia centuriata, and surrounding -them with a magnificent portico. The whole formed a spacious cloistered -court, decorated with works of art, and closely connected with the Villa -Publica. Caesar's design was completed after his death by Agrippa in B.C. -27, and he gave the building the name Septa Julia. A rostrum was erected -in it, and such was the extent of the space enclosed that gladiatorial -shows, and sometimes naumachiae were held there. This was afterwards -altered by Hadrian as above described. - -[Sidenote: Temples of Isis and Serapis.] - -Westwards from the septa and nearly upon the site now occupied by the -church of S. Stefano del Cacco, the little Via di pie di Marmo and a part -of the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, stood the temples of Isis, -Serapis, and Minerva Chalcidica.[91] The names of the three temples are -given in the catalogue of the Curiosum in the ninth region, and the sites -of the two first, the Iseum and Serapeum, have been sufficiently traced by -the numerous Egyptian antiquities which have been found near the church of -S. Maria sopra Minerva. Of these the most remarkable are the two obelisks, -one of which now stands in the Piazza della Rotunda in front of the -Pantheon, and the others on the Piazza della Minerva. The latter of these -was found between the church of S. Ignazio and that of S. Maria in the -time of Alexander VII. in 1665, and the former had stood, previously to -its erection on the present pedestal, in a little piazza near this place, -whence it was removed by Clement XI. The antiquarian Fea, in his -Miscellanea, gives an account of various other Egyptian relics found on -the south-east side of the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, which -undoubtedly belonged to the Iseum and Serapeum.[92] - -Among these was a statue of Isis now in the hall of the dying gladiator in -the Capitol, the two Egyptian lions now at the foot of the steps of the -Capitol; the famous group of the Nile now in the Braccio Nuovo of the -Vatican, and two fragments of an altar with Egyptian reliefs, and the -inscription ISIDI SACRUM. Further traces of the same Egyptian worship were -found by Canina in the year 1852, of which he has given an account in the -Annali dell' Instituto of that year. The emperors Commodus and Caracalla -were particularly given to the worship of Egyptian deities, and the -emperor Alexander Severus is said to have bestowed additional decorations -upon those temples. The third temple, that of Minerva Chalcidica, which -was restored by Domitian, together with the Iseum and Serapeum after the -fire in A.D. 80, stood nearer to the Pantheon, and probably occupied the -site of the present church called S. Maria sopra Minerva. The statue of -Minerva, formerly in the Giustiniani Palace and now placed in the Braccio -Nuovo of the Vatican, was found here. Some few remains of pilasters which -are built into the foundations of the houses between the Via della -Minerva and the Via di pie di Marmo may have belonged to this temple. - -[Illustration: Pantheon.] - -[Sidenote: Pantheon.] - -At the same time with his Thermae, which occupied this district, Agrippa -built the famous dome, called by Pliny and Dion, and in the inscription of -Severus on the architrave of the building itself, the Pantheon, and still -retaining that name, though now consecrated as a Christian Church under -the name of S. Maria ad Martyres or della Rotunda. This consecration, -together with the colossal thickness of the walls, have secured the -building against the waste of time, and the still more destructive attacks -of the barons of the Middle Ages, who destroyed most of the other great -edifices of imperial Rome by either making them their strongholds or -pulling them down for building materials. The pronaos rests upon sixteen -granite columns, with marble Corinthian bases and capitals. It was -formerly approached by six steps, but two only are now above the level of -the surrounding ground. The architrave and frieze are plain, and on the -latter stands the inscription, which formerly, as may be seen by the holes -for nails, was formed by metallic letters: - - M . AGRIPPA . L . F . COS . TERTIUM . FECIT. - -Agrippa was consul for the third time in B.C. 27, so that the building is -now 1906 years old. Another inscription in smaller characters stands under -this upon the two upper ledges of the architrave, commemorating the -restoration of the building by Severus and Caracalla. The pediment, as may -be seen by the holes of the metal fastenings, formerly contained a bronze -relief representing Jupiter hurling thunderbolts upon the giants. The roof -of the pronaos was originally arched, but the vaulting has been replaced -by strong beams, and on the outside the gilded bronze has been replaced by -lead. In the interior of the pronaos, on each side of the entrance are two -huge niches which formerly contained the statues of Augustus and Agrippa, -but are now empty. - -The pronaos is connected with the rotunda by two massive projections of -masonry ornamented at the sides with marble pilasters and exquisitely -worked reliefs in pentelic marble representing candelabra and sacrificial -implements entwined with wreaths. These connecting walls originally rose -to an equal height with the walls of the rotunda, but are now hidden by -the bell towers, erected by Bernini in the time of Urban VIII. about A.D. -1625. - -The doorway is of magnificently carved marble slabs, and the folding -doors, moving on massive hinges fixed in two projecting pilasters, are of -exquisitely worked bronze. - -The rotunda rests on a rectangular base, similar to those which support -the cylindrical part of the mausoleum of Hadrian and the tomb of Cecilia -Metella. In the parts where the thickness of the wall is not lessened by -niches in the interior, it has the amazing breadth of nineteen feet of -solid brickwork. In addition to this it is strengthened with numerous -arches built into the wall. Three cornices run round the exterior of the -rotunda and divide it into three rings, the lowest of which was faced with -marble, and the two upper with stucco. The dome springs from the second -cornice, and consists first of a ring of masonry seven feet high, and then -of six concentric rings, presenting on the exterior the appearance of six -steps. The top is flat, and is pierced in the centre with a large round -opening twenty-seven feet in diameter. Round the opening is a ring of -ornamental gilded bronze, which is the only part of the old bronze gilt -roof now remaining. The masonry of the dome is of wedge-shaped pumice -stones, chosen for this purpose on account of their lightness. The same -kind of stone is used in several other buildings in Rome where lightness -combined with moderate strength is required. The exterior of the dome is -flat and heavy, and impressive only from its stern and massive solidity. -The proportions of the interior are altogether different, and have been -universally admired for their elegance, and the exquisitely simple taste -with which they are decorated. The lower part contains eight deep niches, -alternately semicircular and square, in one of which the entrance doors -are placed, while the others were filled with statues of deities, now -replaced by Romish altars. They are decorated with pilasters, and two -Corinthian columns stand in front of each, supporting the entablature -which runs round the whole interior. Between the eight principal niches -are eight smaller ones, now used as altars, faced with aediculae consisting -of two small columns with entablature and pediment. The two ring cornices -in the interior answer in position to the lower exterior cornices. Above -the upper cornice which runs quite round the building there were -originally twelve niches surrounded with elegant marbles and stucco work. -These were altered in 1747, and their effect injured by the introduction -of heavy pediments, and by the removal of the marbles and stucco work. The -interior of the roof is relieved by well-designed rectangular coffer work, -decreasing in size towards the apex of the dome so as to give the -impression of height and space. The floor is laid with slabs of Phrygian -and Numidian marble, porphyry, and grey granite, in alternate squares and -circles, set in reticulated work. In the centre it has a depression -pierced with small holes to carry off the rain water from the aperture -above. This drain probably communicated with the great cloaca built by -Agrippa to drain the Campus Martius. The proportions of the interior of -the dome are admirably adjusted, so that no part of the building has an -undue prominence, contrasting favourably in this respect with S. Peter's, -where the immense size of the piers on which the dome is supported dwarf -the upper part too much. The Pantheon will always be reckoned among the -masterpieces of architecture for solid durability combined with beauty of -interior effect. - -The Romans prided themselves greatly upon it as one of the wonders of -their great capital, and no other dome of antiquity could rival its -colossal dimensions.[93] The height from the pavement to the crown of the -dome is 143 feet, half of which is occupied by the cylindrical wall and -half by the dome; this height is insignificant when compared with S. -Peter's, the dome of which is 405 feet from the pavement to the base of -the lantern, and the exterior appearance of S. Peter's is far finer, but -the diameter of the Pantheon is the greater, and the proportions of the -interior more harmonious. - -The inscription assigns its completion to the year B.C. 27, the third -consulship of Agrippa. For a long time the mistaken notion prevailed that -the building was dedicated to Juppiter Ultor, a misapprehension arising -from a corrupt reading in a passage of Pliny, where the words Jovis -Ultoris had been inserted instead of diribitori. The original name, -Pantheon, taken in connection with the numerous niches for statues of the -gods in the interior, seems to contradict the idea that it was dedicated -to any peculiar deity or class of deities. The seven principal niches may -have been intended for the seven superior deities, and the eight aediculae -for the next in dignity, while the twelve niches in the upper ring were -occupied by the inferior inhabitants of Olympus. Dion hints at this -explanation when he suggests that the name was taken from the resemblance -of the dome to the vault of heaven.[94] - -Originally, to all appearance, the Pantheon was not intended for a temple, -but for a part of Agrippa's Thermae. Its shape corresponds very closely -with the description given by Vitruvius of the Laconicum or Sudatio -attached to all Roman Thermae. He recommends a dome-shaped building, with a -round opening like that of the Pantheon at the crown, which can be opened -or closed at pleasure, so as to lower or raise the temperature, by the -removal or application of a lid (clypeum) moved by chains. - -And on an examination of the pronaos it will be found that the stones in -its upper part, which abut on the central building, are not bonded into -it, but are only placed against it, showing that the pronaos was an -after-thought, and was not erected till the rotunda had been finished. -Agrippa must have changed the design of the building after the completion -of the dome, and, perhaps because he found it too vast for the purposes of -a sudatio, or because he thought it too splendid a building to be employed -for such a purpose, have determined to dedicate it to the gods of -heathendom. The bronze gilt statuary, the work of Diogenes of Athens, with -which the temple was decorated, was much admired by the Roman -connoisseurs, and in particular the group upon the pediment and the -Caryatides. The statue of Venus was adorned with the two divided halves of -the famous pearl of Cleopatra, fellow to the one which Cleopatra is said -to have dissolved in vinegar in order to win her wager that she could -spend ten million sesterces in one dinner. - -In the fire of A.D. 80 the Pantheon suffered with the rest of the -buildings in this part of the Campus Martius, but from the solidity of its -construction the injury done was not great, and was repaired soon -afterwards by Domitian. It was damaged by lightning in the reign of -Trajan, but restored by Hadrian, who used it frequently as a court of -justice. - -A hundred years after this, the restoration by Septimius Severus, recorded -in the extant inscription, took place A.D. 195. Honorius closed this -temple, with the other temples of Rome, in A.D. 399, but it was not -consecrated as a Christian church until two hundred years afterwards, when -Boniface IV. dedicated it to All Saints in allusion to the pagan name of -Pantheon, giving the name of S. Maria ad Martyres. Two acts of plunder -perpetrated upon the building deserve mention. In the middle of the -seventh century, A.D. 650, Constans II. took off the gilded bronze tiles -of the roof, and was carrying them to Constantinople, with the plunder of -the Forum of Trajan, when he was intercepted at Syracuse by the Saracens -and killed. His act of plunder was imitated by Urban VIII., who in 1632 -took away the bronze girders which supported the roof of the pronaos and -had them melted down and used partly for the pillars of the baldachino in -S. Peter's, and partly for the cannon of the castle of S. Angelo. - -[Sidenote: Aqua Virgo.] - -Not far from the Pantheon the arches of the Aqua Virgo projected from the -side of the Pincian Hill and crossed the Via Lata. Some remains of these -arches are still to be seen in the Via del Nazareno (No. 12) at the back -of the Fountain of Trevi. They bear an inscription which was copied in the -ninth century by the anonymous chronicler of Einsiedlen, recording the -restoration of the arches by Claudius after they had been partially -destroyed by Caligula, who intended to build an amphitheatre in this -neighbourhood. The arches are now entirely covered with rubbish, and the -conduit of the aqueduct itself, which formerly was raised upon them, is -consequently now upon the level of the ground. The inscription stands on -the side of the conduit, and was formerly at the spot where some principal -street passed under the aqueduct. Above it is a simple cornice, and below, -an architrave, with the upper part of some Doric pilasters, appears above -the surface of the water, which is here tapped to afford a washing trough -to the laundresses of the neighbourhood. The masonry is of solid -travertine blocks, carefully cut and fitted. - -[Sidenote: Dogana in the Piazza di Pietra.] - -Some topographers have identified the ruin in the Piazza di Pietra, now -the Dogana, with the Posidonium, a portico built by Agrippa in memory of -his naval exploits; but unless the ruin in the Piazza di Pietra be a later -restoration after the fire of A.D. 80, which is possible enough, the style -is not such as to allow us to assign it to the Augustan age. It has eleven -fluted Corinthian marble columns supporting a tolerably well-preserved -entablature, and plainly belonging to the longer side of a basilica or -temple. The architrave, frieze, and cornice, have a heavy and unimpressive -appearance, though some of the details of the work are rich and carefully -executed. In the courtyard of the building a portion of the wall of the -cella, and the spring of the arches of the vaulted roof, can be seen now -incorporated into the modern building. - -Various conjectures have been made as to the name and history of this -building. Some of the older topographers thought that it was the Temple of -M. Aurelius, which seems, however, to have been nearer to the column of -that emperor than the ruin in question is;[95] nor does the position of -this ruin allow us to suppose that it formed any part of a series of -buildings placed symmetrically round the column. Palladio gives an -elaborate ground-plan, with all the details, and calls it the Temple of -Mars; but there does not appear to be any evidence in favour of this -appellation; nor is it known how much of Palladio's design is taken from -what remained of the ruin in his time, and how much is merely conjectural -restoration. The conjecture of Urlichs that the Temple of Marciana, -Trajan's sister, stood here, rests on no evidence but that of the Notitia, -and is rendered very improbable by the great size of the building, and by -the fact that the expression in the Notitia is Basilica Marciani, and not -Templum Marcianae. Another hypothesis, which Professor Reber mentions, has -more to recommend it. Antoninus Pius is said to have erected a temple in -honour of his adopted father, Hadrian. This temple could not have stood -in the Forum of Trajan, where there was no room left for such a building, -and would most probably be placed near the rest of the Antonine buildings, -not far from the Column of M. Aurelius. In the Mirabilia, the Temple of -Hadrian is placed near the Church of S. Maria in Aquiro, which -corresponded to the modern Chiesa degli Orfanelli; and part of a temple -precinct built of travertine has been discovered in the Palazzo Cini, and -is, perhaps, a relic of this temple. A medal of the year A.D. 151 contains -a representation of the Temple of Hadrian, and corresponds tolerably well -with the extant ruins; and in the neighbourhood of the Piazza di Pietra, -several statues and fragments of inscriptions bearing the name of -Antoninus Pius have been found at different times. When it is added that -the style of building and execution of the ornamental work belong to the -Antonine era, it will be seen that, although there is nothing more than -probable evidence in favour of the above supposition, yet it has more in -its favour than any of the other conjectures mentioned. - -The present building was erected by Innocent XII. at the end of the -seventeenth century in order to prevent the fall of the columns, which had -become dangerously disjointed. The entablature has been restored in many -parts, and a kind of attica erected over it, which gives the ruin the -appearance of being in better preservation than it really is. - -[Sidenote: Gnomon Obelisk.] - -North of the Piazza Capranica, in the open space called the Piazza di -Monte Citorio, is a large obelisk of red syenite. This is the Gnomon -Obelisk, of which Pliny gives an interesting account in his 'Natural -History.' It was brought by Augustus from Egypt, with that which is now in -the Piazza del Popolo, and was erected on the Campus Martins under the -directions of the mathematician Facundus Novus to serve as a sun-dial, by -which not only the hour of the day, but also the day of the month, might -be shown. For this purpose the pavement of the piazza in which it stood -was marked out with a complicated system of lines in bronze; and, to -prevent any disturbances caused by the settlement of the foundations, they -were laid as deep below the ground as the height of the obelisk itself. -Pliny remarks that when he wrote, the gnomon had ceased for thirty years -to mark the time rightly, and he ascribes this inaccuracy to some -displacement of the obelisk due to natural causes, such as earthquakes or -inundations.[96] It is more probable that the inaccuracy of the Julian -calendar gradually produced the change. Ammianus Marcellinus, the Notitia, -and the anonymous writer of the Einsiedlen MS., all mention this obelisk -as still standing on the place where Augustus placed it. It was -then--after the ninth century--lost for a time, but discovered again in -1403 with a part of the figures of the dial. Marliani, in the first half -of the sixteenth century, mentions a part of the obelisk as lying -neglected in a cellar near S. Lorenzo in Lucina, and it was not erected -upon the present site until 1792. - -To the east and north of the Monte Citorio lay the great buildings of the -Antonine era, of which we still have some remains in the base of the -Pillar of Antoninus Pius, now in the Giardino della Pigna of the Vatican, -the magnificent Pillar of M. Aurelius in the Piazza Colonna, and the -remains of the arch of the latter emperor, now in the Palace of the -Conservators of the Capitol. - -[Sidenote: Pillar of Antoninus Pius.] - -The first of these, the Pillar of Antoninus Pius, was a monolith of red -syenite, resting upon a pedestal of the same stone ornamented with -reliefs. These remained upon their original site in the garden of the Casa -della Missione near the Monte Citorio, until the time of Benedict XIV., -when the pedestal was removed and placed in the Piazza di Monte Citorio -near the Gnomon Obelisk, but the monolith was found to be so damaged, as -not to be worth the expense of re-erection. Pius VI. when he placed the -Gnomon Obelisk in the Piazza di Monte Citorio, removed the pedestal and -took it to the Vatican Gardens, and it was finally placed in the Giardino -della Pigna by Gregory XVI., who caused it to be carefully restored. - -[Sidenote: Column of M. Aurelius.] - -The second of the great Antonine monuments, the Column of M. Aurelius, -still stands upon its original site in the Piazza Colonna. Formerly it was -the centre point of a group of massive temples and colossal halls, which -have entirely perished. It is now surrounded by houses of modern -construction, and surmounted by a statue of S. Paul, and looks like a grey -veteran clothed in the dress of a later generation, in which he feels -self-conscious and ill at ease. The only remains of the colonnades, which -once enclosed the court in which it stood, are to be found on the east -side of the piazza in the palace of the Prince of Piombino. They consist -of a triple portico of brickwork, probably faced in ancient times with -marble. The Temple of M. Aurelius, which stood, like that of Trajan, in -front of the column, was probably upon the western side towards the Piazza -di Monte Citorio, and it is from the ruins of this temple, and not of the -Amphitheatre of Statilius, as commonly supposed, that the mound of ruins -called Monte Citorio may have been formed. But no traces of the -substructions or of the walls or columns have been found.[97] - -The column itself, which is a close imitation of that of Trajan, stands -upon a pedestal which was so altered by Fontana from its original shape as -to present a totally different appearance. The ancient pedestal was much -less massive and better proportioned to the upper part of the monument. -Its base stood at a level thirteen feet lower than the present pavement of -the square, and it consisted of a basement of solid stonework about -sixteen feet in height resting on three steps, nearly the whole of which -is now under the level of the surrounding ground. On the east side was the -door by which the spiral staircase in the interior was reached. Upon the -basement stood a large square flat stone, ornamented with genii and -triumphal and military ensigns, and above this the pedestal upon which, -before the restorations by Fontana, only the words CONSECRATIO and D. -ANTONINI. AUG. PII. were legible. The original shape and inscription of -this lower part are only known to us from old prints and antiquarian notes -in Gamucci, Du Perac, and Piranesi's works. It became necessary for the -safety of the pillar, in 1589 to restore the base, and the whole was cased -in marble and repaired by Fontana, under the orders of Sixtus V., who at -the same time placed the statue of S. Paul upon the top. From a want of -accurate historical information, however, the old inscription was supposed -to refer to the elder of the Antonines, Antoninus Pius, and the new -inscription accordingly speaks of the monument as dedicated to him. The -error was discovered by a narrower inspection of the reliefs upon the -shaft, which clearly relate to the exploits of M. Aurelius. - -The plinth is quite simple, and the base of the shaft is formed, like the -Column of Trajan, in the shape of a laurel crown. The whole of the shaft -is occupied by a spiral series of reliefs, and only a small ring of fluted -mouldings separates them from the capital, which is of the Romano-Doric -order. The whole pillar measures 122 feet in height, being two feet lower -than that of Trajan. The shafts of the two are exactly of the same height -(100 Roman feet), and are formed in the same way of solid cylinders of -marble, in the centre of which the spiral staircase which leads to the top -is hewn. - -The great winding wreath of bas-reliefs which twines round the column -contains scenes from the history of the German wars in the years from A.D. -167-179, in which a number of the tribes north of the Danube, the -Marcomanni, Quadi, Suevi, Hermonduri, Jazyges, Vandali, Sarmati, Alani, -and Roxolani, with many others, took part. The representations begin with -an army on the march crossing a river (the Danube); then follow, as on the -Pillar of Trajan, scenes in which the general harangues his troops, the -enemy's encampments are seen, and a great victory is won, accompanied with -the usual thank-offerings. - -But the most remarkable part of the whole relief is a scene which plainly -corresponds to the account given by Dion Cassius of the sudden, and, as it -seemed, supernatural relief afforded by a thunderstorm to the Roman army -when hard pressed by the Quadi, who had surrounded them and succeeded in -preventing all their efforts to escape. "The Roman army," says Dion, "were -in the greatest distress from fatigue, many of them were wounded, and they -were hemmed in by the enemy, without water, under a burning sun. They -could neither fight nor retreat, and would have been compelled to stand -in their ranks and die under the scorching heat, had not some thick clouds -suddenly gathered, and a heavy rain fallen, which refreshed them, and -afforded them drink. This did not happen without the intervention of the -gods ([Greek: ouk atheei]), for it was said that one Arnuphis, an Egyptian -magician, was with Marcus Aurelius, and that he, by invoking the aid of -Hermes, the god of the air, and some other deities by means of -incantations, drew down the rain." Xiphilinus, however, from whose -abridgement of Dion we have the above account, declares that "Dion has -purposely falsified the circumstances, for he must have known that the -'legio fulminata' obtained its name from this incident, the true history -of which was as follows. There was a legion in the army of Marcus -Aurelius, consisting entirely of Christians. The emperor being told that -their prayers in such an emergency never remained unanswered, requested -them to pray for help to their God. When they had prayed, God immediately -smote the enemy with lightning, but refreshed the Roman army by a copious -rain, upon which Marcus published a decree, in which he complimented the -Christian legion and bestowed the name fulminate upon it." History -however, does not bear out this wonderful tale of Xiphilinus, for the name -fulminate is known, from inscriptions, to have been given to the twelfth -legion as early as the reign of Augustus.[98] - -Upon the pillar the scene is represented by the figure of Jupiter Pluvius -dripping with rain, which the soldiers are eagerly catching in their -shields. - -The drought is followed by an inundation, in which many of the Germans are -drowned. A grand battle takes place, followed by the burning of the -enemy's huts and the seizure of numerous captives. - -The figure of Marcus Aurelius on horseback, accompanying a long train of -spoil taken from the German tribes, and a long series of battles, -conflagrations of villages and towns, conferences with the enemy's -generals follow, and the first campaign ends at a point near the centre of -the column, with a procession of trophies and spoils of war, in the midst -of which a figure of Victory inscribes the triumph on a shield. - -Over this figure of Victory begins the history of the second campaign, in -which four battles are represented, and various military scenes, as the -crossing of the Danube in boats, the thanksgiving sacrifices after -victory, the emperor addressing his army, captures of women and children, -and finally a long train of captives and spoils led off in triumph. This -great marble history is after the model of that on Trajan's Column. The -style of execution is, however, somewhat different: the figures stand out -much more from the surface, are more roughly cut, and have a heavier and -stiffer look, resembling that of the reliefs upon the Arch of Severus, and -the base of the Pillar of Antoninus Pius. - -The column is called in all ancient writings Columna Antonini, which may -apply to either of the Antonines. But it is perfectly evident from spiral -reliefs, representing the frequent crossings of the Danube, and especially -from that recording the incident of the sudden storm which extricated the -Roman army from their difficulties, that the German wars of Marcus -Aurelius are the subject commemorated. - -Aurelius Victor and Julius Capitolinus state that temples, columns and -priesthoods, were dedicated to this emperor after his death, and some -inscriptions discovered in 1777 in the Piazza Colonna establish the -conclusion that this pillar was erected in his honour beyond doubt. These -inscriptions, now in the Gallery of Inscriptions in the Vatican, contain a -petition from Adrastus, a freedman of Septimius Severus, and custodian of -the Pillar of Marcus Aurelius, addressed to the Emperor Severus requesting -leave to have the miserable hut (cannaba) in which he lived changed into a -habitable house (solarium) for himself and his heirs, and also the decree -of the emperor, giving the permission and assigning materials and a site. -The petition was presented immediately on the accession of Severus, and -the decree is dated in the consulship of Falco and Clarus, A.D. 193, two -months after the emperor had taken possession of the palace. In this -inscription the pillar is called the Columna Centenaria, and exact -measurements of the shaft have shown that it is just one hundred Roman -feet in height, including the base and capital.[99] - -The bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius, which stood on the summit, was -probably carried off by the Byzantine emperor, Constans II., to Syracuse, -and was there taken by the Saracens from him, and conveyed to Alexandria -with the rest of the plunder he had stripped from the buildings of Rome. -To distinguish this column from the above-mentioned Pillar of Antoninus -Pius, it is called in some of the legal documents of the tenth century -"Columpna major Antonina." As recorded in the inscription on the modern -base, it was much injured by lightning in the fourteenth century, and -restored by Sixtus V. - -[Sidenote: Piazza Navona.] - -The Piazza Navona was formerly a stadium, not a circus. The strongest -evidence we have in favour of this rests on the shape of the piazza and of -the ruins. One of the essential parts of a circus, the spina, is entirely -wanting, and the end from which the runners started is at right angles to -the longer sides, while in a circus, as in the case of the Circus of -Maxentius, the carceres always stood in a slanting direction across the -course, in order to equalise the distances round the spina. - -The obelisk, which now stands in the centre of the piazza was brought by -Innocent X. from the Circus of Maxentius on the Appian Road. The Circus of -Maxentius was not, however, its original site, for the hieroglyphics are -of Roman execution and contain the name of Domitian. - -[Sidenote: Mausoleum of Augustus.] - -The northern part of the Campus Martius, between the Via del Ripetta and -the Pincian Hill, contained only one great building of which we have any -knowledge. This was the Mausoleum of Augustus, the ruins of which are now -buried under the Teatro Correa, and are approached by a narrow entry -leading out of the Via dei Pontefici. All that can now be seen of the -shapeless mass which this once stately building presents, is a small part -of the cylindrical brickwork basement on the left of the entrance to the -Teatro Correa, and another fragment of the same at the back of the Church -of S. Rocco. The proofs that these are the remains of the Mausoleum of -Augustus are quite indisputable. Suetonius places it between the Tiber and -the Flaminian Road, and Strabo speaks of it as standing near the bank of -the river, descriptions which, though they are not very definite, agree -with the site of the Teatro Correa sufficiently. Complete certainty is, -however, afforded by the inscriptions which have been found on the site of -the Ustrina Caesarum, where the bodies were burnt before burial. These were -found near the Corso, between the Via degli Otto Cantoni and the Via dei -Pontefici, a spot answering to Strabo's notice of the site of the Ustrina -as standing in the middle of the Campus, which is here narrowed by the -approach of the Pincian Hill towards the river. - -Augustus had built this magnificent tomb in his sixth consulship (B.C. -28). At that time the course of the Flaminian Road through the Campus was -lined with the tombs of many eminent Roman statesmen and public -characters, which have all, with the exception of the insignificant Tomb -of Bibulus, totally disappeared. The modern city has entirely effaced all -traces of these, but we may in all probability suppose that the Flaminian -road presented no less striking a spectacle in the days of Augustus than -the Appian, which we are accustomed to regard as the great burying-place -of Rome. - -The name mausoleum was apparently given to this tomb if not immediately, -yet soon after its completion, not from any resemblance in the plan of the -building of the famous monument of the Halicarnassian queen, which -differed entirely in shape and design, but because the expression -mausoleum had already become a name used to designate any tomb of colossal -proportions. The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus was a rectangular building -surrounded with a colonnade, while the Tomb of Augustus was cylindrical -and ornamented with deep niches. Strabo gives the following description of -the latter monument: "The most remarkable of all the tombs in the Campus -is that called the Mausoleum, which consists of a huge mound of earth -raised upon a lofty base of white marble near the river bank, and planted -to the summit with evergreen trees. Upon the top is a bronze statue of -Caesar Augustus, and under the mound are the burial-places of Augustus and -his family and friends, while behind it is a spacious wood containing -admirably designed walks. In the middle of the Campus is the enclosure he -made for burning the corpses, also of white marble, surrounded by an iron -railing, and planted with poplar-trees."[100] - -The mound of earth here described by Strabo was probably of a conical -shape, and the trees were planted on terraced ledges. The mass of the -building was cylindrical, like the central portions of Hadrian's -Mausoleum, and of the tombs of Plautius and Caecilia Metella, and was -supported upon a square basement which is now entirely buried beneath the -level of the ground. The exterior of the cylindrical part was relieved by -large niches which doubtless contained statues, and broke the otherwise -heavy uniformity of the surface. At the entrance were the bronze pillars -which Augustus had ordered to be erected after his death, on which was -engraved a catalogue of the acts of his reign. We now possess a fragment -of a copy of this interesting document in the famous Monumentum Ancyranum, -found at Ancyra in the vestibule of a Temple of Augustus. Besides these -pillars two obelisks stood in front of the entrance door, one of which is -now placed in the Piazza of S. Maria Maggiore, while the other stands -between the statues of the Dioscuri on the Quirinal. These obelisks were -not, however, placed there at the time when the tomb was first built, but -at a later period of the empire. The entrance fronted towards the city, -i.e., to the south, near the apse of the Church of S. Rocco, and appears -to have had a portico with columns, the traces of which are still left. - -The interior was formed by massive concentric walls, the spaces between -which were vaulted and divided into cells for the deposit of the urns -containing the ashes of the illustrious dead. A great alabaster vase found -near the Mausoleum in 1777, and placed in the Vatican Museum, was probably -one of these. We know from various passages of Roman authors that the -first burial which took place here was that of the young Marcellus, the -favourite nephew of Augustus, who died at Baiae[101] in B.C. 23, and the -last, that of the Emperor Nerva in A.D. 98. Trajan was buried under his -column. The Mausoleum of Hadrian became the Imperial tomb in A.D. -138.[102] During the 160 years which intervened, the ashes of Agrippa, -Octavia, the mother of Marcellus, Drusus, Caius and Lucius, Augustus -himself and Livia, Germanicus, Drusus, son of Tiberius, the elder -Agrippina, Tiberius, Antonia (wife of L. Domitius), Claudius and -Britannicus were deposited here. Besides these there must have been a -great number of other friends and relations of the Imperial family buried -here. Only one of all the inscriptions recording these burials is now -extant. It is engraved on a pedestal, which bore the urn where the ashes -of the elder Agrippina, the wife of Germanicus and mother of Caligula, -lay. In the inscription on this pedestal Caligula is called Augustus, -showing that the burial took place after his accession, in accordance with -the account of Agrippina's banishment by Tiberius. The pedestal was -hollowed out and used in the Middle Ages as a measure for corn, and is -still inscribed with the words RUGITELLA DI GRANO. It may now be seen in -the courtyard of the Conservator's Palace on the Capitol. At the same -time, and at a spot between the Mausoleum and the Corso were found six -cippi of travertine, recording the burning of the bodies of four of the -children of Germanicus, Tiberius Caesar, Caius Caesar, Livilla, and one -whose name is erased. The remaining two cippi record the burning of the -bodies of a son of Drusus, and of one of the Flavian family. It is evident -that these belonged to the Ustrina Caesarum, a place described by Strabo, -as quoted above, where the corpses of the dead were burnt and the formal -ceremony of collecting the bones took place. The cippi may still be seen -in the Vatican Museum. - -The Mausoleum remained closed after Nerva's burial until the capture of -Rome by Alaric in A.D. 409, when the Goths broke it open in their search -for treasure, and scattered the ashes of the Caesars to the winds. It was -then probably that the alabaster vase mentioned above was removed from the -Mausoleum and carried to the Ustrina where it was found. - -In the 12th century the Mausoleum suffered the fate of all the other great -buildings of Rome. It became a castle of the Colonna family, and bore the -name Augusta. The mound of earth was then probably removed, and a stone or -brick tower built in its place. Previously to this, the statue of -Augustus, with the bronze decorations of the Pantheon and Forum of Trajan, -had probably been carried to Syracuse by Constans, and thence to -Alexandria by the Saracens. - -The building might, however, still, like the tomb of Hadrian, have long -defied the attacks of time, had not the Romans themselves, in the -commotions of 1167, demolished the Colonna Castle, and with it the greater -part of the walls upon which it was built. Two hundred years later, the -body of the last of the Tribunes, Cola di Rienzi, was burned by the Jews -before the Mausoleum.[103] At that time the spot was called Campo d'Austa -from the ancient site of the Ustrina. The interior chambers seem to have -been entirely demolished in the 15th century, and only the exterior wall -left. Poggio, the Florentine, describes the building as used in his time -(1440) for a vineyard, and before that date its shape was completely -changed by the falling in of the vaulting of the interior, so that it -presented the appearance of an amphitheatre instead of a lofty conical -building. In Donatis' book (1638), it is represented as a funnel-shaped -ruin with a garden on the sloping sides of the interior. Much information -might doubtless be gained by well-directed excavations, which have -apparently never been undertaken on account of the present occupation of -the ruin as a circus in winter and a theatre (the Teatro Correa) in -summer. - -[Sidenote: Muro Torto.] - -Beyond the Porta del Popolo on the edge of the Pincian hill, there is a -very ancient piece of wall, faced in the style called opus reticulatum, -which is made of small diamond-shaped blocks of tufa set in the surface of -a mass of concrete. These blocks are driven into the concrete before the -lime has dried and set. This ruin, which is called the Muro Torto, is -often spoken of as having been a part of the house of Sylla but I do not -know upon what authority. It may have formed a part of the substructions -of some of the private buildings on the Pincian, previous to the time of -Aurelian, who incorporated it in his wall. Near the angle of the wall -where it turns sharply to the south is a point at which the brickwork -leans in great masses considerably out of the perpendicular, whence the -name of Muro Torto. Procopius speaks of this as having been in the same -state long before his time, and calls it the broken wall. - -[Sidenote: Pons Aelius.] - -Passing along the bank of the Tiber by the Via Ripetta from the Porta del -Popolo we come to the bridge of S. Angelo (Pons Aelius) which crosses the -river close to the Castle of S. Angelo, anciently the Mausoleum of -Hadrian. This bridge was built by the Emperor Hadrian at the same time -with his Mausoleum. The anonymous writer of the Einsiedlen MS. gives an -inscription which in his time remained upon the bridge assigning its -erection to the nineteenth tribuneship and third consulship of Hadrian, -which indicates the year A.D. 135, and in confirmation of this Nardini -gives a medal of Hadrian which dates from his third consulship, and has on -the obverse a representation of this bridge. The name Pons Aelius, given to -it by Dion Cassius in his account of Hadrian's funeral, was probably -derived either from Hadrian's praenomen Aelius, or from the name of his son -Aelius Caesar whose burial was the first which took place in the Mausoleum. -The piers of the bridge are ancient, but the upper parts have been -rebuilt. - -[Sidenote: Mausoleum of Hadrian.] - -The Mausoleum of Hadrian owes its preservation entirely to the peculiar -fitness of the site and shape for the purpose of a fortress which it has -served since the time of Belisarius. Had it not been thus made serviceable -to the turbulent spirit of the mediaeval Romans, the same hands which -stripped the great pile of its marble facing, and, after hurling the -statues with which it was adorned into the moat, allowed them to lie there -in oblivion, would have torn asunder and carried away the whole mass to -furnish materials for the palaces and stables of their ferocious and -ignorant nobles. The original form of this colossal mausoleum is now -greatly changed by the modern buildings which have been piled upon it, by -the addition of the corbels round its upper part, and by the loss of the -exterior facing of marble, so that the ancient appearance can be only -conjecturally restored. The remaining ancient part consists of a square -basement of concrete and travertine blocks, the sides of which measured -ninety-five yards surmounted by an enormous cylindrical structure of -travertine seventy yards in diameter and seventy-five feet high. Procopius -tells us that this was cased in Parian marble, and that upon the summit -stood a number of splendid marble statues of men and horses.[104] There -are several other tombs in Italy constructed upon the same plan with a -cylindrical tower placed upon a square base. Two of these are upon the -Appian road about three miles from Rome, the celebrated Tomb of Caecilia -Metella, and that of the Servilii, and belong to the Republican Era. Two -others are of the Augustan Age, the tomb of the Plautii at Ponte Lucano, -near Tivoli, and the beautiful monument of Munatius Plancus, near Gaeta. -Hadrian's design was not therefore by any means a new one, as we might -have expected in the case of an emperor who was himself an architect, and -proud of his artistic designs. - -It is plain from the history of Procopius that the statues of men and -horses which he describes were upon the top of the building. For the -defenders of the mausoleum against the army of Vitiges being hard pressed -by the approach of the Goths under shelter of a testudo, in their despair -seized these statues and hurled them upon the heads of their assailants, -thus breaking down the testudines and repelling the attack. Of the exact -order in which they were arranged we have no evidence. Tradition asserts -that the twenty-four Corinthian columns destroyed by fire in the Basilica -of St. Paul in 1823 formerly belonged to the Mausoleum of Hadrian, and -that they were removed by Honorius.[105] A comparison of this tradition -with a passage of Herodian, in which he says that the ashes of Septimius -Severus were buried in the temple where rest the bones of the Antonini, -has led to the conjecture that the columns formed the colonnade of a round -temple on the top of the mausoleum in which temple Hadrian's colossal -statue stood, and that the bronze fir-cone found here, which is now in the -Vatican garden, ornamented the summit. Round this temple, and upon the -level top of the cylindrical tower, may have been arranged the various -statues of which Procopius speaks. - -The colossal head of Hadrian's statue found here is still to be seen in -the Museo Pio Clementino, the bronze gilt peacocks in the Giardino della -Pigna. The famous Barberini Faun, now at Munich, and the dancing Faun at -Florence, were amongst the ornaments of the upper part of the tomb. -Another conjecture as to the shape of the upper part of the building is -that it was surmounted by a smaller cylindrical tower, with a roof in the -shape of a truncated cone, upon the top of which stood the colossal statue -of Hadrian. There is not sufficient evidence to give any degree of -certainty to either of these conjectural restorations. - -The interior of the building, according to the latest discoveries, -consists of a large central rectangular chamber (thirty-six by thirty feet -wide and fifty-four feet high), approached by an ascending spiral -corridor, leading from a lower chamber which communicated immediately with -the principal entrance. The entrance was a high arch in the cylindrical -tower immediately opposite the bridge; it is now walled up and the lower -chamber into which it leads can only be approached from above. - -In the central chamber there are four niches in which formerly stood the -urns and tombstones of the illustrious persons buried here. A large -sarcophagus of porphyry found here was used for the tomb of Pope Innocent -II. in the Lateran, and the lid may still be seen in the Baptisterium of -St. Peter's, where it is used as a font. The chamber was lighted and -ventilated by square passages cut through the stone in a slanting -direction, and the rain water was carried off by other channels, which -conveyed it into drains at the foot of the building. It does not appear to -be certainly known whether other chambers may not exist in the interior -which have not been yet discovered. Piranesi gives a number of additional -chambers besides the two above mentioned, but his representation is -probably conjectural. - -After the burial of Nerva no more room was left in the Mausoleum of -Augustus for the interment of the imperial ashes. Trajan's remains were -deposited under his column in the forum bearing his name, but Hadrian -gladly seized the opportunity of adding another to the many colossal -structures he had already reared. The mausoleum was begun at the same time -with the Aelian bridge in the year A.D. 135. The bricks of which part of -the building consists have stamps of various years of Hadrian's reign, and -show that the greater part of the building was erected by him, though -Antoninus Pius probably completed it. Hadrian's son Aelius, who died before -his father, was the first Caesar whose ashes were placed in this tomb. -After him, Hadrian himself was buried here, and then the Emperor Antoninus -Pius, and his wife the elder Faustina, three of their sons, Fulvius -Antoninus, M. Galerius Aurelius Antoninus, and L. Aurelius Verus, the -colleague of M. Aurelius in the empire, and a daughter Aurelia Fadilla. - -No record has been preserved of the burial of M. Aurelius, but it seems -probable that his ashes were deposited here, as the Mausoleum of Hadrian -continued to be the tomb of the Antonines till the time of Severus, who -built a third imperial monument, the Septizonium, on the Appian Road.[106] -Four children of M. Aurelius were buried here, who died during their -father's life, named Aurelius Antoninus, T. Aelius Aurelius, and Domitia -Faustina, and also his miserable son and successor the Emperor Commodus. -The inscriptions recording all these burials, were copied by the anonymous -writer of Einsiedlen in the ninth century, when they were apparently still -legible upon the south wall of the square basement. The inscriptions -recording the names Hadrian and M. Aurelius may have been placed upon the -upper part of the tomb, like those on the Plautian Tomb and the Tomb of -Caecilia Metella, and may therefore either have escaped the notice of the -above-mentioned anonymous traveller, or have been stripped off with the -marble casing of the exterior. - -After the burial of M. Aurelius the tomb was closed until the sack of Rome -by Alaric in A.D. 410, when this barbarian's soldiers probably broke it -open in search of treasure, and scattered the ashes of the Antonines to -the winds. From this time for a hundred years the tomb was turned into a -fortress, the possession of which became the object of many struggles in -the wars of the Goths under Vitiges A.D. 537 and Totilas who was killed -A.D. 552. From the end of the sixth century, when Gregory the Great saw on -its summit a vision of St. Michael sheathing his sword in token that the -prayers of the Romans for preservation from the plague were heard, the -Mausoleum of Hadrian was considered as a consecrated building under the -name of S. Angelus inter nubes, usque ad caelos, or inter caelos, until it -was seized in A.D. 923 by Alberic, Count of Tusculum and the infamous -Marozia, and again became the scene of the fierce struggles of those -miserable ages between popes, emperors, and reckless adventurers.[107] The -last injuries appear to have been inflicted upon the building in the -contest between the French Pope Clemens VII. and the Italian Pope Urban -VIII. The exterior was then finally dismantled and stripped. Partial -additions and restorations soon began to take place. Boniface IX., in the -beginning of the fifteenth century, erected new battlements and -fortifications on and around it, and since his time it has remained in the -possession of the Papal Government. The strange medley of Papal reception -rooms, dungeons, and military magazines which now encumbers the top was -chiefly built by Paul III. The corridor connecting it with the Vatican -dates from the time of Alexander Borgia (A.D. 1494), and the bronze statue -of St. Michael on the summit, which replaced an older marble statue, from -the reign of Benedict XIV.[108] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE QUIRINAL HILL--BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN--AGGER OF SERVIUS--CASTRA -PRAETORIA. - - -[Sidenote: Baths of Diocletian.] - -The broad flat space to the N.E. of the Quirinal Hill, was occupied by the -Thermae of Diocletian, now converted into the great Church of S. Maria -degli Angeli. This enormous group of buildings was the most extensive of -all the gigantic edifices of the empire, and the ground plan is not -difficult to trace by the aid of the existing ruins. Some idea of their -dimensions will be given by remarking that the grand court enclosed a -space once occupied by the church, monastery, and spacious garden of the -Monks of S. Bernard, the great church and monastery of the Carthusians, -two very large piazzas the large granaries of the Papal Government, part -of the grounds of the Villa Montalto Negroni, and some vineyards and -houses besides. The north-western side of this grand court is now only -marked by the remains of two semicircular tribunes in front of the railway -station. The rest of the foundations of this side are hidden under the -great cloister of the Carthusian monastery, and in the district beyond. -The principal entrance was on this side. The south-eastern side is now -occupied by the buildings of the railway station, at the back of which -were discovered the ruins of a large reservoir now destroyed (K), in the -shape of a right-angled triangle. The peculiar form of this building seems -to have been necessitated by the course of a public road of some -importance confining it on the south side, and it has been supposed, not -without reason, that this was the principal road leading out of the city -at the Porta Viminalis. The interior was filled with pillars like those -which still stand in the ancient reservoirs at Baiae and Constantinople. - -[Illustration: The Quirinal Hill, as seen from the Palatine.] - -On the south-western side of the court there are considerable remains. In -the gardens of the monastery of S. Bernardo, part of the cavea of a -theatre (A) with a radius of about seventy yards, may be traced, not -unlike that in the Thermae of Titus. The seats of this are gone, but -parts of the back wall with niches remain. On each side of this are traces -of rectangular chambers, and at the corners stand two round buildings, -one of which is nearly perfect, and has been converted into the Church of -S. Bernardo. The ancient domed roof with its octagonal panelled work is -still standing. Part of the other rotunda at the southern corner is also -left, and has been built into the end of the Via Strozzi. - -[Illustration: THERMAE DIOCLETIANAE. (PALLADIO.) _The red lines mark the -conjectural restorations._] - -The north-western side of the court ran parallel to the Via di Venti -Settembre from the Church of S. Bernardo. It contained, according to -Palladio's plan, two semicircular exedrae (LL) for philosophical -conversation or disputation, and some other rooms the purpose of which is -not known. The Ulpian libraries are said to have been transferred to these -baths from the Forum Trajani. In this spacious court stood a great pile of -buildings, the centre of which was occupied by a great hall (D), now the -church of S. Maria degli Angeli. The pavement of this was raised above the -ancient level of the ground by nearly eight feet, when Michael Angelo -undertook to convert the ancient building into a church, and thus the -bases of the columns remain buried, and new bases of stucco work have been -placed round them. This roof must therefore have been in ancient times -considerably more lofty than at present. The ancient roof was 120 feet -high, and roofed as now, with an intersecting vault in three compartments, -supported by the eight colossal ancient granite pillars. These columns of -Egyptian granite with their Corinthian and composite capitals form the -sole relic of the magnificence of the hall. In the modern church the -transept corresponds to the longer axis of the ancient hall, and the nave -to the shorter. Vanvitelli, who altered the arrangement of the church in -1749, threw out an apse for the choir on the north-east side, and made the -circular laconicum (C) of the old Thermae serve as an entrance porch. - -Antiquarians are not agreed as to the purpose of this great central hall. -Scamozzi, in his edition of Palladio, calls it a xystus for athletic -exercises, but, following the analogy of the Thermae of Caracalla, the -baths at Pompeii, and some of the other great thermae, we should rather -suppose it to have been the tepidarium. This view is confirmed when we -notice that the laconicum or sudarium (C) is on one side, and the natatio -(F) for the cold baths on the other, between which the tepidarium was kept -at a mean temperature. - -The two wings of the central building were occupied by large peristylia, -with cold piscinae in the centre of each (EE). Round these peristylia were -built various rooms for athletic exercises, called sphaeristeria and -gymnasia. - -The style of brick building used in these Thermae, recalls that of the -Basilica of Constantine, where we see the bricks irregularly and hastily -laid; and the whole of the architectural details which have been preserved -seem to point to the same period. Positive evidence of the date and the -builder is not however wanting. An inscription, which was still to be seen -two hundred years ago in the thermae, and which has been partially -preserved to us, when compared with three others which were found in the -neighbourhood, shows that Maximianus gave orders for building these thermae -when he was absent in Africa, during his Mauretanian campaigns, and -intended them to be dedicated to the honour of his brother Diocletian. The -dedication took place after the abdication of Diocletian and Maximianus, -when their successors Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus had -begun their reign, A.D. 305, but before the death of Constantius in 306. -The old chronologers place the date of the commencement of the buildings -in 302, which agrees very well with the date of the Mauretanian campaigns -of Maximian. - -Baronius accounts for the preservation of so large a part of these thermae -by the statement that they were considered to be a monument of the -Diocletian persecution. There was a tradition, he says, that Diocletian, -after dismissing some thousands of his soldiers because they held the -Christian faith, compelled them to work as slaves in the erection of his -thermae, and ordered them to be martyred when they had finished the -building. It has also been said that the bricks are in some cases marked -with a cross, but this is not well authenticated. - -[Illustration: THE SERVIAN WALLS.] - -At the end of the fifth century, the baths are mentioned by Sidonius -Apollinaris as still used, but at the time of the visit of the anonymous -writer of the Einsiedlen MS., probably about A.D. 850, they were -evidently in ruins. Among the ruins have been found, from time to time, a -number of busts of the Emperors Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and -Constantine, and also the well-known busts of philosophers now in the -Farnese collection at Naples. - -The great fountain now in front of the railway station is supplied by the -water brought along the course of the ancient Aqua Marcia. - -[Sidenote: The Servian Agger.] - -The Agger of Servius, which has now been so much levelled and destroyed, -ran between the Church of S. Maria degli Angeli and the present walls. -This enormous rampart has been described by Dionysius. He says that the -ditch outside was more than one hundred feet broad at the narrowest part -and thirty feet deep, and that a wall stood upon the edge of the ditch -supported by the agger, which was of such massive strength that it could -not be shaken down by battering rams or breached by undermining the -foundation. Dionysius gives the length of the agger as seven stadia, and -Strabo as six, which, taking the stadium at 202 yards, nearly corresponds -to 1400 yards. The breadth he states at fifty feet. That this ditch and -wall were the work of some of the later kings there can be no doubt, but -it cannot be determined what part each took in their erection. The final -completion of the whole undertaking is ascribed to Tarquinius Superbus, -who deepened the ditch, raised the wall, and added new towers. The -additions made by him can be distinguished in the portion brought to light -by the modern excavations in the railway cutting.[109] - -Excavations which have been made in this part of the agger from time to -time, and the extensions of the city in this direction have brought to -light an enormous wall buried in the earth, constructed of huge blocks of -peperino. This is probably the wall mentioned by Dionysius, which in his -time stood outside the rampart on the edge of the ditch. The remains of -buildings of the imperial times have been found placed upon and outside of -this wall, and it is probable that the whole ditch is now filled with such -remains, and most part of the wall buried in them. - -The central railway station stands close to this agger, and cuttings have -lately been made through it to make room for the station, by which new -portions of the wall have been disinterred. All these excavations have -proved the truth of Dionysius's description, the wall having been found on -the outer side of the original agger, which is easily distinguishable from -the rubbish in which it is buried by being composed of clean soil unmixed -with potsherds and brickbats. The wall probably ran from the southern end -of the agger along the back of the Esquiline and Caelian in the direction -of the modern Via Merulana and Via Ferratella. In this portion must be -placed the Porta Querquetulana and the Porta Caelimontana, but their exact -situation is unknown.[110] - -[Sidenote: The Praetorian Camp.] - -Near the Porta Pia, to the north-east of the church of S. Maria degli -Angeli, the square of the Castra Praetoria projects from the Avails. This -permanent camp was established under Tiberius by Sejanus; subsequently -Aurelian made use of the four outer walls of this camp as a part of his -fortification, and therefore Constantine, when he abolished the Praetorian -Guard, pulled down the side towards the city only. The porta decumana of -the camp is still to be seen though it is now walled up, and also the -porta principalis dextra, but the porta principalis sinistra has -disappeared or perhaps never existed. The camp was enclosed by a wall at -least as early as the time of Pertinax and Julian, for here occurred that -memorable and most melancholy scene in Roman history, when the Praetorian -guards shut themselves within their camp after the murder of the reforming -Emperor Pertinax and put up the throne to auction. Julian and Sulpicianus -were the bidders. The soldiers let down a ladder and allowed Julian to get -up upon the wall, says Herodian, for they would not open the gates before -they heard how much would be offered. Sulpicianus was not allowed to mount -the wall. They then bid one against the other, and at last they ran up the -price little by little to five thousand drachmas to each soldier. Julian -then impatiently outbid his rival by offering at once six thousand two -hundred and fifty, and the Empire was knocked down to him. This was not by -any means the first or only time that the fate of the Empire had been -decided here.[111] - -The chief power in the Roman state had lain within these walls of the -Praetorian camp since the time when Tiberius consented to allow their -designing colonel, Sejanus, to establish the Praetorian guards in permanent -quarters, and the readers of the historians of the Empire will recall the -many vivid pictures of their rapacity and violence. To go to the Praetorian -camp and promise a largess to the guards was the first duty of a Roman -emperor. - -The eastern side of the camp, which is probably the only one now retaining -its original form, measures 500 yards, and the southern 400 yards. The -latter seems to have been partly pulled down, and the northern side has -also been altered. Aurelian's Wall did not exactly meet the two angles of -the camp towards the city, but its course was here determined by the -houses and buildings in the vicinity which it was desirable to protect. -The walls of the camp were, according to Bunsen, at first only fourteen -feet high, but were raised by Aurelian and fortified with towers. Some -parts of the walls doubtless consist of the original brickwork of -Aurelian's time, as the masonry bears the marks of great age, and is of a -most regular and solid style. A few of the soldiers' quarters are still -left, consisting of rows of small low arched rooms similar to those on the -Palatine and at Hadrian's Villa near Tivoli.[112] - -[Sidenote: Porta Chiusa.] - -In the angle formed by the projecting wall of the Praetorian camp and the -Aurelian Wall, there is a gate now walled up and called simply by the name -of the Porta Chiusa. This gate is one of the mysteries of Roman -topography. It is not mentioned by Procopius or by the anonymous writer of -Einsiedlen, yet it seems too large and important to have been altogether -omitted. That a gate would be required here in Aurelian's Wall, at least -before Constantine's reign, while the camp was still occupied, seems -probable. No passage would be allowed to the public through the camp, and -besides the Porta Nomentana, another gate would be wanted for the -convenience of persons resorting to the camp from the country with -supplies of provisions, or on business of various kinds, or for the -shopkeepers who would naturally live within the walls near the camp. It -may have been closed when the camp was abolished by Constantine, and that -part of the city became comparatively empty, and it would thus in the time -of Procopius, or the anonymous writer of Einsiedlen, have been long -blocked up and forgotten or perhaps concealed by other buildings. This may -account for their silence. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE AVENTINE AND CAELIAN HILLS. - - -[Sidenote: The Servian walls.] - -Before the end of the regal period there was an enlargement of the limits -of the city in which the Aventine and Caelian were comprehended. Dionysius, -Livy, and Aurelius Victor all relate that Tarquinius Priscus undertook the -building of a new stone wall for the defence of the whole of the new -quarters of the city, but that he did not live to finish it. The design -was carried out by Servius Tullius, who also constructed the enormous -agger called by his name, and still partly remaining at the back of the -Esquiline, Viminal and Quirinal Hills. Before this great work was -accomplished we must suppose that each suburb, as it grew out of the -original settlement, was defended by a new piece of fortification, but -these fortifications were, as Dionysius describes them, only temporary and -hastily erected for the nonce. The expressions of Livy and Aurelius would -lead us also to the conclusion that they were not of stone, but probably -were entrenchments of earth. Rome then became the capital of Latium; she -had lately united all her citizens, the Montani, the Collini, and the -other freeholders living within the districts of Servius by a complete -military organisation, and her powers were directed by a form of -government which has always proved best calculated for the production of -great public works. A new stone wall was accordingly planned on a vast -scale, and the drainage of the low-lying parts of the city was effected -about the same time by colossal sewers. The king having the whole control -of the finances of the state could appropriate large sums of money for -works of public utility, and could also doubtless command the labour of -immense gangs of workmen. The Servian walls and the Cloacae of Rome are to -be looked upon as the parallels in the History of Rome to the pyramids of -Egypt, the walls of Babylon, and of Mycenae and Tiryns. They point to a -time of concentrated power and unresisting obedience, when the will of one -man could direct the whole resources of the community to the -accomplishment of a comprehensive design. - -With the exception of a small portion which has been discovered in the -depression between the north-western and south-eastern parts of the -Aventine, another portion upon the Servian Agger, and a few remnants on -the Quirinal in the Barberini and Colonna Gardens,[113] no remnants of the -Servian walls are now to be seen, and we have to infer their probable -extent from the nature of the ground, the rough estimate given by -Dionysius of the space which they enclose, and the positions of the gates -as described by various ancient authors. It may be safely concluded that, -wherever it was possible, advantage would be taken of the sides of the -hills, and the wall would be made to run along their edges. Thus the -course of the wall on the outer side of the Capitoline, Quirinal, -Esquiline and north-eastern part of the Aventine can be ascertained with -tolerable certainty, and the agger serves as a guide along the back of the -Viminal and Quirinal. The principal difficulty lies in the portions -between the Capitoline and Aventine along the river bank, in the space to -the south of the Caelian, and at the Hill of S. Saba and S. Balbina, where -there is but little indication in the nature of the ground to guide us. - -In the time of Dionysius, who died about B.C. 10, the Servian Wall was -already so much covered with buildings of various kinds, that he speaks of -it as difficult to trace, and therefore, naturally enough, we find at the -present day that nearly the whole has disappeared under heaps of rubbish. -The portion brought to light in 1855 under the south-eastern slope of the -Aventine was accidentally discovered by digging in the vineyards not far -from the Porta S. Paolo, for the purpose of clearing the ground from -masses of brickwork. This portion, some of which has since been covered -with earth again, was 104 feet in length, 50 feet high, and 12 broad. The -breadth shows the great solidity and strength of the construction. The -original height was probably greater, as Mr. Braun remarks, and a parapet -was placed upon the top. Some parts of this ruin are covered with -reticulated work, and on others great masses of masonry have been placed -which belonged to dwelling-houses. Mr. J. H. Parker has since been able to -clear this fragment of wall, thus doing a very great service to Roman -Archaeology. No monumental antiquities have been found in these excavations -earlier than the imperial times. A stamp bearing an inscription was -discovered near one of the more modern arches, and dates from the reign of -Trajan. - -At the time when these walls were built, the stone generally used for such -purposes was the hard tufa. The greater part of the Cloaca Maxima, and the -remnants of these Servian walls, are composed of this material. It is hewn -into long rectangular blocks, which are placed (in builders' phrase -alternately headers and stretchers) sometimes across and sometimes along -the line of the wall, in order to gain greater strength. No cement is -used, but the stones are carefully fitted together and regularly shaped. - -It must here be observed that the rectangular shape and horizontal -position of the blocks in this stonework by no means disprove its high -antiquity. It is true that the so-called Pelasgian walls are built in a -totally different style, for the stones in them are polygonal. But this -difference of shape in the stones arises from a difference in the -material. All the so-called Pelasgian walls in Italy are built of a stone -which naturally breaks into polygonal masses; but tufa stone is found in -the quarry in horizontal layers, and is most easily cut into a rectangular -shape. The inference sometimes drawn from horizontally laid masonry that -it indicates a more advanced state of art than polygonal cannot be relied -upon as certain. The arch in this ruin is of a later date and may have -been an embrasure for a catapult.[114] - -[Sidenote: Porta Capena.] - -The situation of no gate in the Servian Avails can be determined so -completely as that of the Porta Capena. We know that part of the Aqua -Marcia passed over it, whence it was called the dripping gate (Madida -Capena) by Martial and Juvenal. It was therefore in the valley below the -Caelian Hill, and we should, judging from the form of the ground, naturally -place it where the hill, on which S. Balbina stands, approaches the Caelian -most nearly. A striking confirmation of this conjecture has been -discovered. The first milestone on the Appian Road was found in 1584 in -the first vineyard beyond the present Porta S. Sebastiano--the Vigna -Naro--and, measuring back one mile from it, we come exactly to this spot. -This milestone is now placed on the steps leading up to the Capitoline -Museum. Milestones and horse-blocks were erected on all the great roads by -Caius Gracchus before the milliarium aureum was put up in the Forum by -Augustus, and it is probable that the distances were always measured from -the gates. Mr. Parker carried on excavations for some time to find the -exact position of the Porta Capena, and he discovered some of the piers of -the aqueduct which passed over the gate in the garden of the Convent of S. -Gregorio. These excavations have unfortunately been more or less filled up -again. - -[Sidenote: Monte Testaccio.] - -Near the Porta S. Paolo, between the Aventine and the river, stands the -hill called Monte Testaccio from its being composed almost entirely of -potsherds mixed with rubbish. The hill is 150 feet high, and one-third of -a mile in circumference. Many conjectures have been hazarded about its -origin, which still, however, remains a mystery. - -The hypothesis which has gained most credit rests upon a passage in -Tacitus, in which that historian, after giving an account of the Neronian -fire, proceeds to say that Nero intended to have the rubbish carried to -the Ostian marshes, and, therefore, gave orders that the corn-ships, after -discharging their freight at the Emporium, should take a load of rubbish -on their return to Ostia. This explanation appears satisfactory until the -peculiar composition of the hill is examined. Nearly the whole mass -consists of pieces of broken earthenware, and is not such as we should -expect the rubbish left after a fire to be. The absence of bricks may -perhaps be explained by the supposition that they were saved in order to -be used a second time; but the immense quantity of potsherds still -remains to be accounted for. Further, it is said that a coin of Gallienus -has been found in such a position on the smaller portion of the hill as to -leave no doubt that the accumulation of that part could not have been -anterior to Gallienus. A medal of Constantine has also been found in the -interior of the larger portion. Bunsen's explanation that the hill is -composed of the rubbish cleared away by Honorius when he restored the -walls of Aurelian, and other ingenious hypotheses of the same kind, do not -sufficiently account for the peculiar composition of the hill. - -M. Reifferscheid, in a paper communicated to the Roman Archaeological -Institute, has propounded the most natural and proper solution of the -problem.[115] He observes that it is not necessary to go farther than the -magazines of the neighbouring Emporium for an explanation of this immense -mass of potsherds. Every kind of provisions brought to Rome in ancient -times was stored in earthenware jars, not only wine, but corn, oil, and -other articles of commerce. A fire, therefore, which consumed any part of -the Emporium would leave rubbish composed in great part of fragments of -earthen jars (dolia); and, since many such fires must have taken place in -the course of ages, and immense quantities of earthen jars must have been -broken in the process of unloading, it does not seem at all impossible -that so large an accumulation of matter should have taken place. At -Alexandria and at Cairo similar heaps of potsherds are to be seen outside -the walls, and their extent, though less, as might be expected, than that -at Rome, is such as to create astonishment in the traveller's mind when he -sees them for the first time. An attempt has been made by M. Reifferscheid -to determine the earliest date at which we can suppose this gradual -deposition of potsherds to have taken place, but the data upon which he -builds his conclusion, that the accumulation forming the Monte Testaccio -first began to be deposited in the time of the decay of the Empire, about -the third century, are not by any means such as to produce conviction. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Cestius.] - -Near the Monte Testaccio, and close to the Porta S. Paolo, stands a -pyramidal monument, measuring about 97 feet on each side, and 120 feet in -height. It is placed upon a square basement of travertine, and the rest of -the building is of rubble, with a casing of white marble. It is built into -the Aurelian Wall, no pains having been taken to avoid the injury which -this might cause to the building. It has, however, suffered but little -from this except in appearance. The ancient entrance, which was probably -on the north-east side, has been walled up. No trace is now to be seen of -it, and the present entrance on the north-west was made in 1663. The -interior consists of a small plastered chamber 16 feet long by 13, and 12 -feet high, the corners of which are ornamented with paintings of winged -genii. No coffin or sarcophagus was found when the tomb was opened, but -the inscription on the outside gives the name of C. Cestius, the son of L. -Cestius, of the Publilian tribe, as the person who was buried in it. It -further appears that this C. Cestius had been Praetor and Tribune of the -commons, and one of the seven epulones who superintended the sacrificial -banquets to the gods. The date of his burial has been discovered by means -of two marble pedestals containing inscriptions which were found near the -pyramid. On one of these the foot of a colossal bronze statue is still -fixed. They show that C. Cestius's death took place in the time of M. -Agrippa, and, therefore, of the Emperor Augustus, and that the statues -were erected from the proceeds of the sale of some costly robes of cloth -of gold (attalica), which Cestius had by his will ordered to be buried -with him. Such burial being forbidden by law, the robes were sold and the -statues erected from the proceeds by order of his heirs. They probably -stood at the corners of the pyramid. Two fluted Doric pillars, the -fragments of which were found near the spot, have now been placed at these -corners. Cestius may possibly have been the same person who is mentioned -by Cicero as a Roman knight. - -[Sidenote: Baths of Caracalla.] - -To the south-east of the hills of S. Saba and S. Balbina, between the -Aurelian walls and the Via Appia, lie the most colossal ruins in Rome, -covering a space each side of which measures more than a thousand feet. It -is certain, from the arrangement of these buildings, that they were -destined for public baths; and as tradition and the catalogue of the -twelfth region both assign the name of the Thermae Antoninianae to them, and -the style of the masonry is that of the Antonine era, we may feel -satisfied that they belonged to the baths mentioned by Cassiodorus and -Hieronymus as already partially built by Caracalla in the year A.D. 216, -and finished by Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus.[116] - -[Illustration: THE BATHS OF CARACALLA] - -This enormous mass of building consisted of a central oblong block, -containing all the halls and chambers appropriated more immediately to the -baths, and a surrounding court, the sides of which were formed by gymnasia -and other places of amusement, and the area of which was laid out in -gardens, with shrubberies, ornamental colonnades, and fountains. A similar -arrangement is found in the Thermae of Titus and Diocletian. - -The central block of buildings contained four immense halls and a rotunda, -around which numerous smaller rooms were grouped. The first of these large -halls (a) was entered from the north-eastern side by two wide doorways. -Rows of niches for sculpture broke the broad inner surfaces of its walls, -and it communicated with the chambers on each side by open passages filled -with columns of splendid marble and granite. The floor formed an immense -basin shaped hollow, showing that the purpose for which it was used was -that of a cold swimming-bath. The steps by which the bathers descended -into it have been found at the two shorter sides, and on both sides are -chambers for dressing and undressing. - -In the centre of the group of buildings is another hall (b) of nearly the -same dimensions as the cold bath, with large recesses at both ends. The -floor of this was paved with the richest marbles. The four lateral -circular recesses formed hot baths, and were fitted with steps and seats -of various kinds for bathers. In the recesses at the ends stood two -enormous porphyry basins, one of which is now preserved in the Museum at -Naples. This hall was probably the tepidarium and had a very lofty roof -supported by eight granite pillars of colossal size, and by a network of -brazen or copper rods. One of the pillars was given to Duke Cosmo I. by -Pius IV., and stands in the Piazza di Trinita in Florence. The smaller -chambers (c) (d) (e), at the western and southern angles of the -tepidarium, contained the apparatus for heating water. - -These chambers, the purpose of which is unknown, separate the tepidarium -from the rotunda (f). The position of this latter and its shape would seem -to indicate that it was a laconicum or hot-air room, but the state of the -ruins is at present such as to preclude any positive assertion as to its -purpose. - -On each side of the above-mentioned three chambers is a similar range of -halls. The south-eastern wing (g), being the most perfect, serves as the -better guide to the arrangement of this part of the building. We pass -through two chambers (h) (i) containing fine mosaic pavement, and then -reach a large long hall (g), which apparently consisted of three aisles -and two semicircular tribunes, divided from each other by rows of columns, -somewhat in the manner of a basilica. A considerable portion of the -mosaics on the floor of this hall have been laid bare and may be seen -amongst the ruins of the roof and upper part. In the larger tribune was -discovered the great mosaic pavement of the Athletes, now preserved in the -Lateran Museum, whence it has been inferred that this side hall as well as -the corresponding one on the north-west side were used as gymnasia or ball -courts (sphaeristeria), with galleries for spectators. The purpose of the -rooms situated on each side of the rotunda is not known, but it has been -conjectured that they were additional tepidaria, since even the -magnificent central tepidarium is hardly large enough to furnish the -accommodation spoken of by Olympiodorus, who stated that there were 1600 -marble seats for bathers in the Antonine Baths.[117] - -There were numerous chambers in the upper stories in and about these large -halls, to which the staircases led, one of which has been restored. These -were perhaps used as libraries, picture galleries, and museums of -curiosities. - -The whole north-eastern side of the court which surrounded these central -halls consists of ranges of rooms built of brick and opening outwards. -Many of these are still standing, and the traces of an upper story are to -be seen over some of them (j, j). Different opinions have been held as to -their use. Some writers think that they were offices and rooms for the -slaves belonging to the establishment, others that they were separate -baths for women. The principal entrance to the enclosure was in the centre -of this side of the court. - -On the north-western side of the court the remains can be traced of a -large shallow tribune in the shape of a segment of a circle and surrounded -by a vaulted corridor or cloister (k). Within this were three large -apartments, probably used as lecture and conversation rooms. The rest of -this side has entirely disappeared, as has also the opposite south-eastern -side with the exception of one of the large apartments. These two sides of -the court probably correspond in the same way as the wings of the central -building. - -The fourth side of the court was occupied by an immense reservoir of water -divided into numerous compartments (l), in front of which was the cavea of -a stadium (m), and on each side two large halls, possibly used as -dressing-rooms and gymnasia (n, n). - -The reservoir was supplied with water by a branch aqueduct from the Aqua -Marcia. - -The numerous magnificent works of art, sculptures, bronzes, lamps, cameos, -and coins, which have from time to time been discovered in these ruins, -are now dispersed through the museums of Italy. Some of the larger -sculptures, including the Hercules of Glykon and the group called the Toro -Farnese are in the Naples Museum, and two large porphyry fountain-basins -are in the Piazza Farnese at Rome. - -Some excavations have been lately made in the Vigna Guidi, a vineyard on -the south-east side of the Court of these Thermae. The ruins of a large -house have been found which had been demolished and covered with earth, to -make room for the Thermae. Nothing is known of the history of this house, -but various conjectures have been hazarded, taken from the catalogues of -the Regionaries. - -The vast Necropolis of Rome stretched along both sides of the Appian Road -from the Porta Capena nearly as far as the Alban Hills. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of the Cornelian Scipios.] - -Conspicuous among these burial-places is the tomb which remained in -possession of the great family of the Cornelian Scipios for nearly four -centuries.[118] The entrance to this is near the gate of one of the -vineyards, on the north-east side of the Appian Road, about two hundred -and fifty yards from the Porta S. Sebastiano. The tomb itself consists of -a number of passages roughly hewn in the tufa stone, as the catacombs are, -without any apparent plan of arrangement. Unfortunately, the original -state of the catacomb has been so altered by the substructions which have -been found necessary to support the roof that it can hardly be recognised -at the present day, and the sarcophagi and inscriptions have been removed, -and placed for greater security in the Vatican Museum. Those now seen in -situ are modern copies. Anciently there were two entrances, one from the -Via Appia, and the other from the road which here unites the Via Appia and -Via Latina. The present entrance has been cut for the convenience of -access from the Appian Road. - -[Sidenote: Columbaria.] - -The catacomb of the Scipios differs from most of the other burial places -which surround it, on account of the retention by the gens Cornelia of the -old Latin custom of burying in coffins, instead of burning the corpse of -the deceased. Most of the burying places on the Monte d'Oro are arranged -in the manner called a columbarium by the Romans, from the resemblance of -the niches in it to the holes in a pigeon-house.[119] Four of these -columbaria have been excavated in the Vigna Codini, near the Porta S. -Sebastiano, and are now to be seen in almost perfect preservation. They -consist of a square pit roofed over, and entered by a staircase. The roof -is supported by a massive square central column, and the whole of the -sides of the pit and of the central column are pierced with semicircular -niches, containing earthenware jars filled with ashes. In one of the -columbaria in the Vigna Codini there is room for 900 jars. Most of the -names which are inscribed above each niche upon a marble tablet are those -of imperial freedmen, or servants of great families or public officers, -and other persons of the middle class of life, and are therefore of -little historical interest. The ashes of some few of a somewhat higher -grade, are placed in small marble sarcophagi or urns, but no persons of -distinguished rank appear to have been buried in this way. There are, -however, few places in Rome where the ordinary manners and customs of the -ancient Romans are more vividly placed before the eye than here, and the -very insignificance of some of the details exhibited is somewhat striking. -In one corner we find the ashes of a lady's maid attached to one of the -imperial princesses; in another, those of the royal barber; and in -another, a favourite lapdog has been admitted to take his place among his -mistress's other faithful servants. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Drusus.] - -Not far from these columbaria, and close to the Porta S. Sebastiano, the -Via Appia is spanned by a half ruinous archway, of which little but the -core remains, the marble casing having long been torn off. It was probably -originally ornamented with eight columns, two only of which now remain -standing on the side next the modern gateway. These have shafts of -Numidian marble (giallo antico), and composite capitals with Corinthian -bases. - -Upon the top of this arch is a brick ruin apparently belonging to the -Middle Ages, as the style of building is similar to that called opera -saracenica by the Italians. It was probably a part of a fortified tower, -placed upon the arch, resembling that which formerly surmounted the Arch -of Titus. - -On each side of the arch are some remains of the branch aqueduct, which -brought water from the Aqua Marcia to the Baths of Caracalla, and it is -natural to conclude that this arch carried the aqueduct over the Via -Appia, and was built by Caracalla for that purpose. The costly nature of -the materials used has, however, induced most topographers to reject this -explanation, and to assume that the arch is one of the three mentioned by -the Notitia in the first region, as built in honour respectively of -Drusus, Trajan, and Verus. The composite capitals seem to point to the -earliest date of these three, and as the building bears a resemblance to a -representation of the Arch of Drusus, which has been discovered upon a -coin,[120] the arch has been thought identical with that erected to -Drusus, the father of Claudius, mentioned by Suetonius. - -[Sidenote: Sessorium and Amphitheatrum Castrense.] - -Two ruins standing near the Basilica of S. Croce in Gerusalemme may be -reckoned as belonging to the district of the Caelian Hill They are called -by the topographers the Sessorium and the Amphitheatrum Castrense. The -first of these consists of a ruin built of brick, containing a large -semicircular apse with round-headed windows, from which two walls project. -No excavations having been made in order to ascertain the further extent -of the buildings, any opinion formed as to their purpose must necessarily -be highly uncertain. The most probable conjecture which has been made is -that they are the ruins of a tribunal called the Sessorium. Such a court -of justice is mentioned by the Scholiast on Horace as situated on the -Esquiline near the place where criminals and paupers were buried. Further -notices of the same name as applied to an edifice in the neighbourhood of -the Basilica of S. Croce are to be found in Anastasius's Life of S. -Silvester, and in a fragmentary history of certain passages in the Life of -Theodoric, printed at the end of the work of Ammianus Marcellinus. -Theodoric is there said to have ordered a criminal to be beheaded in -palatio quod appellatur Sessorium, using the same phrase which Anastasius -also employs. - -The authors of the Beschreibung Roms supposed that this ruin was the -Nymphaeum Alexandri of the Notitia, but this has been disproved by Becker, -who shows that the Nymphaeum was near the Villa Altieri. - -The opinion that it was the Temple of Spes Vetus, which Frontinus places -near the commencement of the branch aqueduct of Nero, is more likely to be -correct, but the shape of the building, so far as it is at present known, -does not agree with such a supposition. The ruins are commonly known by -the name of the Temple of Venus and Cupid, a name which was given to them -from the discovery of a statue near them representing a female figure. But -it is a fatal objection to this that the name of the Roman matron -(Sallustia) whose statue was supposed to be that of Venus, has been -discovered to be engraved upon the pedestal. The statue may be seen in -the Museo Pio Clementino. - -[Sidenote: Amphitheatrum Castrense.] - -On the other side of the Basilica, and forming a part of the Aurelian -wall, is a portion of an amphitheatre. The interior, now used as a garden, -may be seen by entering the door on the right hand of the basilica. The -larger axis of the amphitheatre was apparently about one hundred and ten -yards, and the shorter eighty-five or thereabouts. It is entirely -constructed of brick, even to the Corinthian capitals which ornament the -exterior, and the workmanship shows it to belong to the best age of Roman -architectural art. The second tier of arches has almost entirely -disappeared, and of the lowest tier only those are left which are built -into the city wall. But to suppose, as Becker does, that it was not an -amphitheatre, but the vivarium, where the wild beasts used in the games -were kept, seems out of the question. The only difficulty is to determine -what the special history and purpose of the building, manifestly an -amphitheatre, placed so far from the populous parts of the city, was. The -Notitia here comes to our aid, for it records the existence of an -amphitheatrum castrense in the fifth region; and there can be little doubt -that we have here the remains of the amphitheatre built for the -entertainment of the praetorian troops quartered in a fortified camp beyond -the Porta S. Lorenzo. Aurelian made use of the outer side of the building -as a part of his walls, and it is most probable that when Constantine -pulled down the inner portion of the praetorian camp, he also destroyed the -greater part of this amphitheatre. - -[Sidenote: House of the Laterani.] - -In consequence of the sinking of part of the wall which supports the apse -of the Basilica of St. John Lateran, excavations became necessary in the -year 1876 which disclosed the foundations of some ancient buildings -between the baptistery and the Via della Ferratella, and of some others -under the apse itself. These were carefully examined, and it became -evident that they belonged to the extended ruins of a large villa, -probably that called the House of the Laterani, which was occupied and -enlarged by the emperors of the second and third centuries, and finally -given by Constantine to the Bishop of Rome. The House of Verus, also -mentioned by Julius Capitolinus, was probably on this site. - -[Sidenote: Claudian Aqueduct.] - -Not far from the Sessorium, and springing out of the angle of the wall -close to the Porta Maggiore, a series of lofty arches begins which extends -throughout the whole length of the Caelian Hill. This is a branch aqueduct -of the Aqua Claudia, built by Nero to supply the Caelian and Aventine Hills -at a higher level than the Aqua Marcia and Aqua Julia, on which they had -previously depended for their supply. It passed over the road leading from -the Porta Maggiore to the Basilica of S. Croce, and thence ran along the -higher ground through the vineyards of the Scala Santa, whence it skirted -the Via di S. Stefano, and, at the Arch of Dolabella, was divided into -three branches, one of which crossed the valley to the Palatine, the -second ran towards the edge of the hill over the Coliseum, and a third -towards the Porta Capena. - -[Sidenote: Arch of Dolabella.] - -The arch of Dolabella stands a little to the north-west of the Piazza -della Navicella, and spans the road leading down from thence into the -valley between the Caelian and Palatine, formerly called the Clivus Scauri. -The archway consists of a single arch of travertine, without any -ornamentation, but carrying an inscription to the effect that Publius -Cornelius Dolabella, when consul, and Caius Julius Silanus, when Flamen -Martialis, erected the arch by order of the Senate. The consulship of this -Dolabella falls in the reign of Augustus A.D. 10, and therefore the arch -can originally have had no connection with the Neronian aqueduct. It is -possible, however, as Becker and Reber suggest, that the arch may have -been originally built to carry the Aqua Marcia and Julia, which, as we -know from Frontinus, supplied the Caelian before the building of the -Neronian branch of the Aqua Claudia.[121] On one side the Arch of -Dolabella is still completely hidden by the brickwork of the Neronian -arches, and the other side was probably covered in a similar manner until -after 1670, as we find no mention of this arch in Donatus, who could not -have omitted to notice it in his description of the Neronian aqueduct had -it been visible in his time. - -[Sidenote: Navicella.] - -The marble representation of a ship, which stands now in the Piazza -della Navicella and gives its name to the place, was probably a votive -offering to Jupiter Redux, and there may be some connection between these -and the Castra Peregrinorum, as having perhaps been the place where the -troops employed on foreign service were quartered. An inscription seems to -allude to this connection between the Temple of Jupiter Redux and the -camp. - -[Illustration: Arch of Dolabella.] - -[Sidenote: Houses on the Caelian.] - -In the time of the empire many palaces of the richer classes stood upon -the Caelian. Among them we have distinct mention of the houses of Claudius -Centumalus, which was visible from the Arx, of Mamurra, and of Annius -Verus, in which Marcus Aurelius was born. Tetricus also, the unsuccessful -rival of Aurelian, built a magnificent residence on the Caelian, in which, -on his readmission to the emperor's favour, he entertained Aurelian. - -[Sidenote: Palace of Commodus.] - -It seems probable, as Bunsen has conjectured, that the Vectilian Palace in -which Commodus lived, occupied the part of the Caelian next to the -Coliseum. The ruins there consist of arches of travertine, forming a -rectangular space upon the northern end of the hill. They are massively -constructed, so as to bear a great superincumbent weight, and would be in -every way suitable for the terraces of a large imperial villa such as -Commodus may have built, when, as Lampridius tells us, he removed from the -Palatine, where he found himself unable to sleep, to the house of -Vectilius on the Caelian. He was afterwards murdered there. The position -may have pleased him from its immediate vicinity to the Coliseum, where he -was so fond of superintending the exhibitions, and displaying his own -skill in killing wild animals. The story that he had an underground -passage made from his villa to the Coliseum is also a strong confirmation -of the conjecture of Bunsen, and some additional probability is given to -it by the course of the branch aqueduct which leads from the Arch of -Dolabella in the direction of this garden, and would certainly be required -to supply the luxuries of a large Roman palace. - - - - -APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VIII. - -MONUMENTAL ANTIQUITIES IN THE MUSEUMS, PIAZZAS AND OTHER PLACES. - - -Besides the ruins which are still standing in Rome and the Campagna, many -historical monuments may be seen in the Roman museums, and in some of the -gardens and piazzas. The principal among these are as follows: - -[Sidenote: Egyptian antiquities.] - -1. Numerous Egyptian antiquities were found near the Churches of S. Maria -sopra Minerva and that of S. Stefano in Cacco, on the site of the ancient -Temples of Isis and Serapis. Of these the most remarkable are the two -obelisks, one of which now stands in front of the Pantheon, and the other -in the Piazza della Minerva. The statue of Isis, now in the Hall of the -Dying Gladiator at the Capitoline Museum, the Egyptian lions on the steps -of the Capitol, and the famous statue of the Nile now in the Braccio Nuovo -of the Vatican, were also found here. - -[Sidenote: Bas-reliefs from Arch of M. Aurelius.] - -2. At the corner where the Strada della Vite crosses the Corso is a tablet -recording the improvements made by Alexander VII. in the Corso at that -point, whence he removed the ruins of an ancient triumphal arch which -impeded the thoroughfare. A view of this is given by Donati, who calls it -the Arcus Domitiani. But Nardini and all topographers since his time are -agreed that the arch which stood here till 1662, must have been erected at -a later time in honour of M. Aurelius. When it was pulled down, for public -convenience as the inscription tells us, there were still four columns of -verde antico standing, two of which are now used to adorn the principal -altar in the Church of S. Agnese in Piazza Navona, and two are in the -Corsini Chapel of the Lateran Basilica. The keystone of the arch is -preserved in the Collegio della Sapienza; on each side of the arch there -were two reliefs, now placed in the Capitoline Palace of the Conservators -on the landing places at the top of the stairs. One of these represents M. -Aurelius standing on a suggestus to deliver an harangue, and the other the -apotheosis of the younger Faustina, his wife, who is being carried up to -heaven by a genius, while the emperor is seated below, and at his feet the -genius of Halala, a town at the foot of Mount Taurus where Faustina died. - -These two reliefs were removed into the Palace of the Conservators in -order that they might be placed near four other reliefs, which had been -found in the sixteenth century in the Church of S. Martina on the Capitol. -A fifth, also found in the same church, is now in the Palazzo Torlonia in -the Piazza di Venezia. The earlier history of the removal of these last -five reliefs is not known, but it seems certain, from their style and -subjects, that they belonged to the Arch of M. Aurelius. The four which -are now in the Conservators' Palace represent Marcus Aurelius on horseback -with his army, a group of barbarians kneeling before him, the goddess -Roma, receiving the emperor who comes on foot to the gates, and presenting -him with the globe, the symbol of empire, the triumphal procession of M. -Aurelius in a quadriga crowned by Victory, and his thanksgiving sacrifice -on the Capitol. The fifth relief, which is now in the Palazzo Torlonia, -represents either M. Aurelius, or his brother Lucius Verus in conference -with some barbarians who kneel as suppliants before him. Even supposing -that the last mentioned five reliefs do not belong to this arch, yet the -two first which are known to have stood upon it are quite sufficient to -prove that it was the arch of M. Aurelius. The similarity between the -representation of the apotheosis of the younger Faustina and that of -Antoninus Pius and the elder Faustina is too evident to be overlooked and -the whole style of sculpture and architecture points to the Antonine Age. - -3. With the bas-reliefs from the Arch of M. Aurelius must be compared that -on the pedestal of the column of Antoninus Pius now placed in the Giardino -della Pigna at the Vatican. On one side of this is an inscription -recording its dedication to Antoninus Pius, and on the other sides are -reliefs, the principal of which represents the apotheosis of Antoninus and -Faustina, while the others represent groups of cavalry and infantry.[122] -One fragment of the column now placed upon the pedestal has a Greek -inscription upon it showing that the stone of which the column was formed -was originally cut in the ninth year of Trajan, and after lying for a long -time in the imperial stoneyard was subsequently used for this column. In -the same place, the Giardino della Pigna, is to be seen the gigantic -bronze fir-cone which may have formed the summit of Hadrian's Mausoleum, -now the Castle of S. Angelo, and also the bronze peacocks which ornamented -the same building.[123] The colossal head of Hadrian from his mausoleum is -now in the Museo Pio Clementino. - -4. The inscription cut upon the pedestal of the urn of Agrippina, the -mother of Caligula, may still be seen in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei -Conservatori on the Capitol, and also the cippi recording the burials of -some of the imperial family. The pedestal was hollowed out and used as a -measure for corn in the Middle Ages, and hence it was called Rugitella di -grano. - -Other colossal fragments are also kept in this courtyard, and on the -staircase are the fragments of the inscription on the Duilian column found -near the arch of Septimius Severus, and a bas-relief of Curtius leaping -into the gulf, found in the Forum Romanum near the Church of S. Maria -Liberatrice. The bas-reliefs mentioned above, No. 2, are also there. - -[Illustration: Pedestal of Antonine Column.] - -5. The fragments of the ancient register of Consuls from A.U.C. 272 to the -end of Augustus' reign, which were found in the Forum Romanum, near the -Temple of Castor, are arranged on the wall of the fourth room in the Halls -of the Conservators on the Capitol. These are printed and discussed in the -Berlin 'Corpus Inscriptionum,' Vol. I. - -[Illustration: Cone from the top of Hadrian's Mausoleum.] - -6. The famous bronze figure of the wolf and twins is placed in the gallery -of bronzes on the Capitol. It was found, according to Flaminius Vacca, who -wrote in 1594, near the Arch of Janus Quadrifrons. Urlichs, who has -discussed the probable history of this figure in the Rheinisches Museum, -thinks that it is the figure dedicated by the Ogulnii, Aediles in B.C. 297, -and mentioned in the tenth book of Livy. - -7. A stupendous sarcophagus brought from Vico Varo, with a bas-relief -representing the Calydonian boar hunt, stands in the Museum of the -Capitol, and in the next room is the sepulchral monument found at the -Porta Salaria in 1871, recording the young Greek scholar who won the prize -at the Agon Capitolinus in A.D. 86. Another most interesting sarcophagus, -which was found at the Monte del Grano on the road to Frascati, and -contained the vase called the Portland Vase now in the British Museum, -stands in the Hall of the Urns in the Capitoline Museum. - -8. On the wall of the staircase in the Capitoline Museum are the fragments -of the celebrated marble plan of Rome cut in the time of Septimius -Severus, which shows the sites and ground plans of the Portico of Octavia, -the Theatre of Pompeius, the Basilica of Trajan, the Basilica Julia, and -the Theatre of Marcellus. - -9. The Dying Gladiator, or more properly the Dying Gaulish Herald, was -found in the gardens of Sallust, near the Porta Salaria. It now stands in -the room called the Hall of the Dying Gladiator at the Capitoline Museum. - -10. In the Hall of the Faun at the Capitoline Museum may be seen one of -the most beautiful ancient bas-reliefs in Rome, representing the battle of -Theseus, and the Amazons. This is on a sarcophagus which was found near -Torre Salona on the Via Collatina. - -11. In the Capitoline Museum, the Halls of Busts of the Emperors and of -Illustrious Men, the Venus of the Capitol, and the Doves of Pliny, are -monuments connected with several celebrated spots in Rome and the -Campagna. - -12. The places, however, at which most of the important antiquities have -been found are the Villa of Hadrian, near Tibur, and the ruins of Veii and -Ostia. The following is a list of the chief monuments which were found -there and are now placed in the Vatican Museum. - -A. From Hadrian's Villa. - - 1. Faun. No. 84. } - 2. A Vestal. No. 120. } - 3. A Niobid. No. 176. } Museo Chiaromonti. - 4. Clotho. No. 498. } - 5. Bacchic bas-reliefs. No. 642. } - 6. Hercules. No. 732. } - -7. Baths of granite and masses of alabaster in the 4th portico of the -Cortile di Belvedere. - -8. Mosaics on the wall in the Hall of the Animals and in the Cabinet of -the Masks. - -9. The Candelabra on each side of the Ariadne in the Gallery of Statues. - -10. Colossal bust of M. Aurelius in the Hall of the Busts. No. 288. - -11. Corinthian columns in the Hall of the Muses. - -12. Colossal Hermae at the entrance of the Rotonda and bust of Faustina, -No. 541 in the Rotonda. - -13. Granite statues at the doorway of the Hall of the Greek Cross. - -14. Discobolus, No. 618 in the Hall of the Biga. - -15. Ephesian Diana, No. 81, and Female Statue No. 222, in the Gallery of -Candelabra. - -16. Egyptian figures in the Egyptian Museum. - -B. From Veii and the North-Western Campagna. - - 1. Statue of Tiberius. No. 400. } Museo Chiaromonti. - 2. Head of Augustus. No. 401. } - -3. Statue of Augustus from Prima Porta, in the Braccio Nuovo. - -C. From Ostia. - - 1. Antoninus. No. 6. } - 2. Winter. No. 13. } - 3. Bust of young Augustus. No. 416. } - 4. Bust of Julia. No. 418. } - 5. Juno. No. 534. } Museo Chiaromonti. - 6. Head of Neptune. No. 606a. } - 7. Boy and Swan. No. 651. } - 8. Sarcophagus of Nonius Asprenas. No. 685. } - 9. Aesculapius. No. 684. } - 10. Bust of Antoninus Pius. No. 700. } - - 11. Ganymede. No. 38. } - 12. Ceres. No. 83. } Braccio Nuovo. - 13. Bust of Commodus. No. 121. } - -The other principal ancient monuments now in the Vatican Museum besides -those from the Villa of Hadrian, from Ostia, and Veii, above-mentioned, -are:-- - -1. The statue of Demosthenes from the neighbourhood of Cicero's Tusculan -villa. No. 62. Braccio Nuovo. - -2. The Torso Belvedere found near the ruins of the Theatre of Pompeius. -No. 3, Museo Pio Clementino. - -3. The Laocoon found near the Baths of Titus. Cortile di Belvedere. No. -74. - -4. The great porphyry basin found at the Baths of Diocletian. Rotonda. - -5. Sarcophagi of S. Constantia and S. Helena, and cippus of Syphax found -on the road to Tibur. Hall of the Greek Cross. - -6. Sarcophagus of L. Scipio Barbatus, from the Tomb of the Scipios, near -the Porta S. Sebastiano. Museo Pio Clementino. - -In the Capitoline Museum are placed:-- - -A. From Hadrian's Villa. - -1. Colossal head of Cybele. No. 9 in the courtyard, - - { Psyche. No. 53. } - 2. { Cupid of Praxiteles. No. 13. } In the Gallery. - { Euterpe. No. 32. } - - 3. Roman Matron. No. 3. } - 4. An Amazon. No. 5. } In the Hall of the Dying Gladiator. - 5. Flora. No. 11. } - 6. Antinous. No. 13. } - - 7. The Faun. No. 1 in the Hall of the Faun. - - 8. Centaurs in bigio antico. No. 2. } - 9. A Gymnasiarch. No. 27. } In the Saloon. - 10. Harpocrates. No. 34. } - -Some other great ancient monuments are placed as follows:-- - -1. The first milestone on the Appian Road, found in 1584, is now placed in -the Piazza del Campidoglio at the top of the steps leading up from the -Piazza d'Ara Coeli on the right hand. The seventh milestone is placed -opposite to it. - -On the stairs of the Capitol are also placed the marble sculptures called -the trophies of Marius which were brought from the ruin on the Campus -Esquilinus, not very far from the Arch of Gallienus. At the top of the -steps stand two equestrian figures of the Dioscuri, said to have come from -the neighbourhood of the Theatre of Balbus, and the statues of Constantine -and his son Constans from the Baths of Constantine on the Quirinal. At the -foot of the staircase are the two Egyptian lions found as above mentioned -near the Church of S. Stefano in Cacco. The history of the bronze -equestrian statue of M. Aurelius, now in the Piazza of the Capitol, cannot -be traced as Palladio states to the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, but -it was more probably found as Fea has recorded, near the Arch of Septimius -Severus. - -2. A bronze cista mistica found at Praeneste is in the Kircherian Museum. - -3. The wooden beams from the Villa of Caesar in the lake of Nemi, are kept -partly in the Kircherian Museum, and partly in the Gallery on the right -hand of the Vatican Library. - -4. The caricature of Alexamenos from the Palatine is in the Kircherian -Museum. - -5. The mosaics from the Baths of Caracalla are in the Hall of Mosaics at -the Lateran. - -6. One of the white marble columns from the Basilica of Constantine is -placed in front of the Basilica of S. Maria Maggiore. - -7. The history of the great pair of figures on the Piazza del Quirinale -called the Dioscuri and their horses, cannot be traced further back than -the time of Constantine, in whose baths they stood, as we are told by -Bufalini. The style of sculpture is of the Imperial Age of Rome, and the -inscriptions ascribing them to Phidias and Praxiteles are erroneous. - -8. Many good specimens of columns, ancient ornamental sculpture, and other -monuments may be seen in the following places. The Churches of S. Lorenzo -and S. Agnese fuori le Mura; S. Maria in Cosmedin, di Aracoeli, degli -Angeli, and in Trastevere. The Villas Ludovisi, Borghese, Albani, and -Spada. - -[Illustration: GEOLOGICAL MAP OF ROME] - - - - -INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER IX. - - -The geological strata found on the site of Rome and in its immediate -neighbourhood divide themselves into three principal groups. The oldest of -these is a marine formation, and exhibits itself upon the Vatican, -Janiculum, and Monte Mario. The second, of which all the hills on the -eastern bank and the district of the Campagna are composed, is of volcanic -origin, and consists chiefly of beds of tufaceous matter erupted from -submarine volcanoes and more or less solidified. The third, which appears -in the hollows of the Tiber valley, is a fresh-water formation, and is -found on the slope of the hills on both banks of the river. - -[Sidenote: Marine formation.] - -The oldest of these three groups belongs to the division of the tertiary -period, called by Lyell the older pleiocene, as having had a fauna and -flora in which the greater number of species were identical with those now -living on the earth. These strata are of marine formation, and are similar -to those which extend over a great breadth of Italy on both flanks of the -Apennine mountains, reaching as far south as the point of Reggio in -Calabria. Their lower bed consists of a bluish-grey clayey marl, which -will be found in the valley between the Janiculum and the Vatican. Its -marine origin is sufficiently proved by the fossils found in it, and the -remains of sea-weed. This bed of clay is of a plastic nature, and is still -used for making pottery, as it was in the time of Juvenal. Above it lies a -stratum of yellow calcareous sand, which sometimes takes the form of loose -sand with boulders, sometimes of a stratified arenaceous rock, and -sometimes of a rough conglomerate. This may be seen outside the Porta -Angelica, on the left, under the walls of the city, and in the Belvedere -Gardens on the Vatican Hill. The Church of S. Pietro in Montorio is said -to derive its name Montorio, monte aureo, from the yellow colour of this -sand. - -On Monte Mario an abundance of fossil shells, of the Ostrea hippopus and -other varieties of sea shells, may be seen, plainly indicating the marine -origin of this formation. - -The only places within the actual walls of Rome where these tertiary -marine strata are to be found, are the Vatican and the Janiculum. At the -base of the Capitoline, in the subterranean vaults of the Ospitale della -Consolazione, under the volcanic rock which forms the upper part of the -hill, Brocchi found a stratum of calcareous rock and clay, which he -affirms to be of marine origin, and to resemble the limestone of the -Apennines. - -[Sidenote: Volcanic formation.] - -The second group of strata found on the site of Rome is one which is not -confined to the neighbourhood of Rome, but is most extensively spread over -the whole of the Campagna, the district of Campania, and a considerable -part of southern Italy. The great mass of the Capitoline, Palatine, -Aventine, Esquiline, Caelian, Viminal, Quirinal, and Pincian Hills, is -composed of this formation. Geologists give it the general name of tufa, -and divide it into two kinds, the stony and the granular. It is -distinguished from lava by not having flowed in a liquid state from the -volcano, and is a mechanical conglomerate of scoriae, ashes, and other -volcanic products which have been carried to some distance from the crater -of eruption, and then consolidated by some chemical re-arrangement of -their constituent elements. The harder kind of tufa, the tufa litoide, is -a reddish brown, or tawny stone, with orange-coloured spots. These spots -are embedded fragments of scoriaceous lava. It is hard enough to be used -as a building stone, and has been quarried largely under the Aventine Hill -near S. Saba, at Monte Verde, on the southern end of the Janiculum, and at -other places near Rome, as at Torre Pignatara on the Via Labicana, at the -bridge over the Anio, on the Via Nomentana, and at the Tarpeian rock. - -This tufaceous stone presents itself in very thick banks, traversed by -long vertical and oblique fissures, probably produced by the contraction -of the mass on passing from a humid and soft to a dry and hard state. The -Arch of the Cloaca Maxima, near S. Giorgio in Velabro, is built of this -stone, and the inner part of the substruction of the so-called tabularium -on the Capitol. Portions of the Servian wall were also built of it, and -many stones which were taken from this wall are to be seen at the present -day in the walls of Aurelian, near the gate of S. Lorenzo; and others have -been laid bare by the railway excavations in the Servian Agger. -Brick-shaped masses of it are found in the ambulacra of the Theatre of -Marcellus, so that the use of it must not be restricted to the earliest -times of Roman architecture. In fact, several buildings of the Middle Ages -in or near Rome consist of this stone, as may be seen at the Fortress -Gaetani, near the Tomb of Caecilia Metella, and in the large tower at the -side of the palace of the Senator. - -[Sidenote: Freshwater formation.] - -Fresh-water formations cover the bottoms of all the valleys in the -district of Rome and in the whole of the Campus Martius, and ascend to a -considerable height on the flanks of the hills and into the Campagna. They -consist chiefly of sand, clay, gravel, and the stone called travertine, -and of tufa beds which have been disturbed and then re-deposited. This -re-deposited tufa has been the subject of some controversy. It was at one -time thought to indicate that the lower tufa was also a fresh-water -deposit, since it is sometimes found overlying the fresh-water formations. -But no doubt now remains that it must have been formed by a re-arrangement -in fresh water of previously deposited marine tufa beds. The water of the -Tiber, at the time when these fluviatile formations took place, stood at -such a height as to leave deposits upon the intermontium of the Capitol, -and as high as the Church of S. Isidoro on the Pincian, and it must have -partially removed and shifted the previously existing light and porous -volcanic soil of the sea-bottom. Even the top of the Pincian was covered -by this fresh water; for modules of calcareous matter, such as are -deposited in fresh water alone, were found in digging the excavations for -the fountain on the public promenade. - -The surface of the broad river which then existed, seems, in fact, to have -been at from 130 to 140 feet above the present surface level of the Tiber, -and its water must have been more surcharged with alluvium, derived from -sources with which the present river is no longer connected. - -Among the fluviatile deposits, argillaceous marl beds now play an -important part. They intercept the water as it descends from the hills, -and impede its descent to the river, thus furnishing supplies to the wells -in Rome, but rendering the soil less dry and healthy. The greater portion -of these strata consist of a mixture of sand and clay. The ridge between -the Campo Vaccino and the Coliseum, on which the Arch of Titus stands, is -formed almost entirely of these mixed strata of clay and sand. To prove -the fresh-water origin of these deposits, we need only refer to the -modules of travertine and the shells of lacustrine animals which they -contain. Such species of fresh-water shell-fish could not live in turbid -and rapid water like that of the Tiber as it now is, and we must therefore -conclude from their presence that the waters of the Tiber valley where -such fossils are found were once in a semi-stagnant state. That there was -also a period of violent movement during the prevalence of this lacustrine -era is testified by the quantities of matter brought from a distance and -accumulated at considerable altitudes, and by the size of the pebbles and -boulders which have been rolled along by the stream. But before a more -accurate investigation of facts shall have been made, it will be -impossible to distinguish these two periods of stagnation and rapid -movement from each other. - -[Sidenote: Tiber water.] - -The river water has no longer the power which it once possessed of -depositing the travertine which we find lying in thick beds upon the -slopes of some of the hills of Rome, and from which the larger ruins are -all built. This travertine is formed from carbonate of lime which the -waters take up as they pass through the soil containing it. In order to -give the water the power of holding this carbonate of lime in solution, a -certain quantity of carbonic acid gas must be present in it. When by means -of the rapid movement of the water or from other causes this gas becomes -disengaged, it leaves the carbonate of lime behind in the shape of a hard -stony deposit. This natural process of petrifaction is familiar to all who -have seen the Falls of the Anio at Tivoli, and the way in which the -artificial canals of running water in that neighbourhood are choked by -limestone concretions, and it may be seen in all vessels made use of to -boil water which is impregnated with lime. The more violent the agitation -of the water the more rapid is the disengagement of the carbonic acid gas, -and the consequent settlement of the lime. This process is accompanied, in -most places where it can be seen, by the presence of sulphuretted -hydrogen, which produces a white colour in the water by depositing the -sediment called gesso by the Italians. Hence an explanation of the ancient -name of Albula given to the Tiber is easy. In the period when the Tiber -had the power of depositing travertine, its waters were much more strongly -impregnated not only with carbonate of lime, but also with gesso, which -gave a white tinge to the water as it now does to the sulphureous waters -near Tivoli. The same colour was characteristic of "the white Nar, with -its sulphureous stream," Virgil's description of the chief stream of the -central Apennines. - -[Sidenote: Climate.] - -The subject of the climate of Rome is naturally connected with that of the -nature of the soil and configuration of the hills and valleys. - -It is not difficult to see why the peculiar geological formation of the -Campagna proves, without careful drainage, extremely deleterious to -health. We have there a district containing numerous closed valleys and -depressions in the soil without outlet for the waters which naturally -accumulate. The tufa which composes the surface seems commonly to take the -shape of isolated hills with irregular hollows between them, so as to -impede the formation of natural watercourses. Under this tufa is a -quantity of marl and stiff clay, which retains the water after it has -filtered through the tufa, and sends it oozing out into the lower parts of -the country, where it accumulates, and, mixed with putrescent vegetable -matter, taints the surrounding atmosphere. A want of movement in the air -caused by the mountainous barriers by which the Campagna is enclosed is -another source of malaria. - -The sites of Veii, Fidenae and Gabii, once the rivals and equals of Rome -are now entirely deserted except by a few shepherds and cattle stalls. -Along the coast stood Ardea, Laurentum, Lavinium and Ostia, all of them -towns apparently with a considerable number of inhabitants. Of these Ostia -is now a miserable village, Ardea contains about sixty inhabitants, while -Laurentum and Lavinium are represented by single towers. During a part of -the year the ancient Roman nobility lived in great numbers on these very -shores now found so deadly. Pliny the younger describes the appearance of -their villas near Laurentum as that of a number of towns placed at -intervals along the beach, and he writes an enthusiastic letter in praise -of the salubrity and convenience of his own house there.[124] Laelius and -Scipio used to make the seaside at Laurentum their resort, and to amuse -themselves there with collecting shells.[125] Nor was it only on the -seacoast that the country villas were placed. Six miles from Rome on the -Flaminian Road, at the spot now called Prima Porta, there stood a -well-known country house belonging to the Empress Livia, part of which has -lately been excavated.[126] This was a highly decorated and commodious -house, as the rooms which have been discovered, in which was found a -splendid statue of Augustus, and the busts of several members of the -imperial family, amply testify. The views from this spot over the Campagna -and the Sabine Hills are most lovely, but the contrast between the beauty -of nature and the haggard and fever-stricken appearance of the modern -inhabitants is melancholy enough. A few squalid houses occupied by -agricultural labourers stand by the roadside. Among their tenants not a -single healthy face is to be seen, and even the children are gaunt, -hollow-cheeked, and sallow in complexion. No wealthy Roman would now -consent to live on the site of Hadrian's stately villa in the Campagna -near Tivoli. Tivoli itself, which Horace wished might be the retreat of -his old age, and which was celebrated as a healthy place in Martial's -time, has now lost its reputation for salubrity, and is known as-- - - Tivoli di mal conforto, - O piove, o tira vento, o suona amorto. - -Strabo speaks of the now desolate district between Tusculum and Rome as -having been convenient to live in. But there is no need to multiply proofs -which might be gathered from all sides of what is an acknowledged fact, -that the malarian fevers of the present day were not nearly so deadly in -the classic times of Rome, or even in the Middle Ages. The troops of -labourers who, fearing to pass the night in the country, are met returning -to Rome every evening, the forsaken towers and buildings which stand -rotting everywhere about the Campagna, all tell the same tale of a -pestilence-stricken district. - -The peculiar physical features of the district have had no little -influence in determining the mode in which the population was grouped in -ancient times. Everywhere we find the hills of Rome reproduced on a -reduced scale. Small isolated flat-topped hills, irregularly divided by -deeply cut watercourses, and edged with steep low cliffs, afford numerous -sites for the settlement of limited independent communities. Such are the -hills on which Laurentum, Lavinium, Fidenae Antemnae, Ficulea, Crustumerium -and Gabii stood, and similar places abound in many parts of the district. -Such hills afforded suitable sites for the small fortified towns with -which ancient Latini was thickly studded. Their sides can be easily -scarped so as to afford a natural line of defence, and they are in general -fairly supplied with water from numerous land springs. - -Thus, although the general aspect of the Campagna is that of a plain -country, yet the main level of its surface is broken by numerous deep -gullies and groups of hillocks. - -The tertiary marine strata, already described as forming the Janiculum and -other hills upon the right bank of the Tiber, do not rise to the surface -in the Campagna, except on the flanks of the Aequian and Sabine hills. -These hills themselves consist of great masses of Apennine limestone -jutting out here and there into the spurs upon which some of the more -considerable cities of the Latin confederacy stood, as Tibur, Praeneste, -Bola and Cameria. - -The Alban Hills form a totally distinct group, consisting of two principal -extinct volcanic craters somewhat resembling, in their relations to each -other, the great Neapolitan craters of Vesuvius and Somma. One of them -lies within the embrace of the other, just as Vesuvius lies half enclosed -by Monte Somma. The walls of the outer Alban crater are of peperino, while -those of the inner are basaltic. Both are broken away on the northern side -towards Grotta Ferrata and Marino, but on the southern side they are -tolerably perfect. - -From the legendary times, when Latinus, Evander, Aeneas, and the rest of -Virgil's heroes are supposed to have occupied the great plain of Latium, -down to the final settlement of the district by its subjection to Rome in -B.C. 338, the Roman Campagna was peopled by communities chiefly living in -towns. Etruria on one side and Latium on the other, contained -confederacies of independent cities, with one or other of which the Romans -were constantly at war. Etruria gave way first, and after the fall of Veii -in B.C. 395, the Roman dominions extended northwards as far as the Lago -Bracciano and Civita Castellana. - -At that time the great confederacy of Latium, though Alba was destroyed, -still existed under the Hegemony of Rome as the successor of Alba, and -numbered Tibur, Praeneste, Tusculum, Aricia, Antium, Lanuvium, Velitrae, -Pedum, and Nomentum among its members. But after the victories gained by -the consuls of the year B.C. 338, the absorption of the Latin cities made -rapid progress, and the character of the population of the Campagna began -to be completely changed.[127] In this, the second period of the history -of the Campagna, the towns were gradually reduced to mere villages, the -small farmers disappeared, and the land was occupied by the immense -estates (latifundia) of rich proprietors cultivated by hordes of slaves. -Such is the condition in which we find the Campagna in the time of -Cicero.[128] The great villas which strew the ground everywhere in the -neighbourhood of Rome with their ruins were then constructed, and the -colossal aqueducts which served not only to supply Rome with water but -also to irrigate the farms and country seats of the Campagna. - -There seems to have been a constant tendency during the later republic and -early empire to reduce the amount of arable land, and to increase the -extent of pasturage in the Campagna. Thus the country was rendered less -and less healthy, and Rome became gradually more dependent than ever on -foreign countries for her supply of corn. - -The last phase of the history of the Roman Campagna is the most -melancholy. The aqueducts were nearly all destroyed by the Gothic army at -the siege of Rome under Vitiges in A.D. 536, and the great country seats -of the Roman nobles and princes must have been ruined by the successive -devastations of Roman territory during the fifth and sixth centuries in -which the Lombards were the principal actors. Agriculture ceased, and the -few villages and country houses which remained soon became uninhabitable -during a great part of the year, in consequence of the increase of -malarious exhalations arising from the uncultivated state of the soil, or -were rendered unsafe by the lawless bands of ruffian marauders who -infested the open country. Such is in the main the condition of the Roman -Campagna at the present day, for the most part a waste of ragged pastures -without human habitations, and wild jungles tenanted only by foxes, bears, -and other wild animals. - -The above remarks will serve to show that after B.C. 338 the Campagna -became deprived of all historical interest except as the summer residence -of the great Roman proprietors. Its history belongs almost entirely to the -early times of the Roman Republic. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -(A) THE VIA APPIA AND THE ALBAN HILLS. - - -[Sidenote: The Appian Road.] - -Of the great roads along which the principal traffic from ancient Rome -passed, the Appian Road may perhaps be said to have been the most -important, as it led to the southern and oriental provinces of the great -empire; and it is on the line of this ancient road that the greatest -number of ruined tombs and other buildings are still left. Two hundred -ruins are said to stand on the sides of the Appian Road between the site -of the Porta Capena, by which this road left the Servian walls, and -Albano, a distance of fourteen miles. The tombs were of the most varied -and fantastic shapes and designs, the most common forms being those with -square or circular bases, cylindrical superstructure, and conical roof. -Some were square with several floors, and surmounted by a pyramid, others -consisted of chapels in brick, placed upon a cubical base, or of -sarcophagi in various shapes, mounted upon brick substructions. - -Many fragmentary inscriptions have been found which once belonged to these -tombs, but not one of any historical importance. The greater part of them -record the names of freedmen, and other obscure people, as the larger and -more highly decorated tombs were plundered first, and their marble casing -and inscriptions completely destroyed at an early period. The older -fragments which have been saved may be studied in the Berlin Collection of -Inscriptions where they are learnedly and ably edited by Th. Mommsen. - -There were also many fountains and semicircular ranges of seats by the -side of the road designed as resting-places for travellers. - -The commencement of the ancient Appian Road now lies between the Porta S. -Sebastiano and the site of the old Porta Capena. From this part of the -road the Via Latina diverged on the left, and the Via Ardeatina on the -right. Beyond the Porta S. Sebastiano, the first monument now visible is a -mass of stonework on the left hand, about one hundred yards from the gate. -From its form and the style of masonry there can be little doubt that it -was a pyramidal tomb similar to that of Caius Cestius at the Porta S. -Paolo, and that it was built in the Augustan era. The road then crosses -the Almo, and the remains of another pyramidal tomb are to be seen on the -left. This is sometimes called the Tomb of Priscilla, mentioned by -Statius, but that name more probably belongs to the larger tomb further -on, beyond the Church of Domine quo Vadis. This latter ruin agrees better -with the description of Statius, as it had a cupola and loculi for the -reception of unburnt corpses. The immense number of ruined tombs and other -buildings which crowd the sides of the road beyond this point, make it -necessary to restrict our remarks as much as possible, and we shall -therefore only notice a few of the most prominent ruins upon the road or -in the immediate neighbourhood. - -[Sidenote: Divus Rediculus.] - -The brick building called the Temple of the Divus Rediculus stands half a -mile to the left of the road at the second milestone in the Caffarella -valley. The legend which connects it with Hannibal's march on Rome is -altogether unworthy of credit,[129] and it is plain that the building, -which had no rows of surrounding columns, but is constructed with -Corinthian pilasters, had two stories, and cannot therefore have been a -temple. Professor Reber considers that it was a chapel tomb similar to -that to be seen further on the road at S. Urbano, near the Tomb of Caecilia -Metella. - -[Sidenote: Grotto of Egeria.] - -The Grotto of Egeria, as it is called, lies in the valley of the Almo -about half a mile above the building just mentioned. It is an arched -nymphaeum of brick, at the back of which a plentiful stream of clear water -issues. The mutilated statue of the nymph still remains, but no other -parts of the decorations. There is little doubt that it was the nymphaeum -of some suburban villa. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Bacchus or Honos.] - -On the hill above it stands the Church of S. Urbano, probably an ancient -tomb in the shape of a chapel. It is commonly called the Temple of Bacchus -from the discovery under it of an altar of Dionysus with a Greek -inscription. But this altar seems to have been moved here from some other -spot. The building is in the form which has a projecting porch with four -Corinthian columns and capitals. These are now built up into the modern -wall. The whole, except the entablature and columns, is of brickwork of -the Antonine era, as appears from the stamps of the bricks. The triple -frieze, forming a kind of attica between the architrave and cornice, seems -to contradict the notion that this was a temple, though the great -antiquary E. Q. Visconti considered that it was the Temple of Honour built -by Marius outside the Porta Capena.[130] The interior is tolerably well -preserved, and has a vaulted roof with coffers and reliefs in the form of -trophies. - -[Sidenote: The Circus of Maxentius and Temple of Romulus.] - -On the left of the Appian Road, where it dips suddenly into a valley near -the Church of S. Sebastian, lies a group of ruins, the principal of which -consist of a circus, a building enclosed in a large square court, and some -remains of rooms apparently belonging to an ancient villa. The walls of -the circus are still in such preservation that they can be easily traced -round the whole enclosure, and are in some parts nearly of the original -height. They are built of rubble mixed with brickwork, and with jars of -terra-cotta to lighten their weight, as in the case of the masonry in -other walls of the same date. The towers at each side of the Carceres, or -starting post, the curved line of Carceres themselves, and the spina, or -central division line, can be easily traced. An inscription in honour of -Romulus, son of Maxentius, found here in 1825, and now placed at the -entrance to the ruins, seems to show the circus was built in honour of -Romulus, son of Maxentius, who died before his father, A.D. 309. This is -confirmed by a statement in one of the ancient chronicles published by -Roncalli, in which it is said that Maxentius built a circus near the -catacombs, evidently referring to the neighbouring catacombs of S. -Sebastian and others, and also by the style of masonry used in the circus. -The adjoining ruined temple, with its enclosing court, seems to belong to -a somewhat earlier style of construction, but some reasons derived from -the coins of Maxentius and Romulus have been given for supposing that it -was the temple dedicated to Romulus after his apotheosis by his -father.[131] The ruins are not sufficiently preserved to make it certain -that the building was a temple, and there is nothing to contradict the -hypothesis that it was a tomb. Nor is anything whatever known about the -adjoining villa. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Caecilia Metella.] - -On the end of the mound formed by the great lava stream which ages ago -flowed down from the Alban Hills, and along the top of which the Via Appia -runs from this point, stands the conspicuous Tomb of Caecilia Metella, the -daughter of Metellus Creticus, and wife of Crassus, but whether of the -Triumvir Crassus, or of the orator, or of some other less well known -Crassus is uncertain. The inscription on the tomb is Caeciliae, Q. Cretici -Filiae, Metellae Crassi. The shape of the tomb is the same as that of the -Mausoleum of Hadrian, and the Tomb of the Plautii at Tivoli; a cylindrical -towerlike edifice, resting on a square base of concrete with massive -blocks of travertine. The upper part has been destroyed, and the marble -casing stripped off, with the exception of a band of ox skulls and -garlands which surrounds it, and some trophies carved in relief above the -inscription. The roof was probably conical. Mediaeval battlements, erected -by the Caetani family, who held it as a fortress in the 13th century, now -crown the upper edge. The remains of their castle are still visible on -each side of the road beyond the tomb. - -[Sidenote: Roma Vecchia, Villa of Seneca.] - -After passing the third milestone, the Appian Road is fringed with ruins -of innumerable tombs, and here and there the relics of a suburban villa. -Scarcely any of these can have names attached to them with any certainty. -The spot is now called Roma Vecchia, and the Campus sacer Horatiorum, the -Fossa Cluilia, and the Villa Quintiliana Commodi lay here. The suburban -villa in which Seneca committed suicide by opening his veins was at the -fourth milestone, as we learn from Tacitus, and near this was found in -1824, by Nibby, a marble slab with the name of Granius, a military -tribune. A tribune of this name was employed by Nero to compel Seneca to -kill himself, but whether the stone refers to him or not is of course -doubtful. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Atticus.] - -At the fifth milestone on the right hand of the road is a round mass of -ruins with a rectangular chamber inside, which has been supposed to be the -tomb mentioned by Cornelius Nepos, as the burial place of Atticus, -Cicero's friend. Near this is the great platform of peperino blocks which -are thought to have been used as a burning place (ustrina) for the bodies -interred at the sides of the road. - -[Sidenote: Villa Quintiliana.] - -On the left hand, a little way beyond the fifth milestone, the remains of -the Villa Quintiliana of Commodus begin, and reach along the side of the -road for at least half a mile, extending also towards the left into the -adjoining fields as far as the edge of the great lava current, on the top -of which the Via Appia is here carried. The whole of this space, nearly -two miles in circumference, is covered with fragments of costly marbles, -of sculpture, and bits of mosaic, showing that it was covered with -handsomely decorated buildings. The style of construction, says Nibby, -belongs to three different epochs. The buildings nearest to the Appian -Road, comprising the great reservoir, on the foundation of which the -farmhouse of S. Maria Nuova is built, are of brickwork and reticulated -work of the time of Hadrian, the great mass of the ruins which lies on the -left towards the new road to Albano, exhibits workmanship of the Antonine -era, and amongst them have been found numerous fragments of sculpture, -also belonging to the reigns of the Antonines. The third style of building -is that called opera mista by the Italian antiquarians, which prevailed in -the Constantinian times, at the beginning of the fourth century. The -buildings of the Antonines have been repaired and overlaid in many places -by this later work. The stamps of most of the bricks found here belong to -the reigns of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus, and were made -chiefly in the imperial brickyards. Thus the date of the principal parts -of the building is decided, and it is seen that the villa was most -probably an imperial villa. But all doubt on this point was completely -cleared away by the discovery in 1828, of a number of large leaden pipes -bearing the inscription, II. QUINTILIORUM CONDINI ET MAXIMI, from which it -became evident that the villa was the same place which Vopiscus and Dion -Cassius mention as the property of the Quintilii, consuls in the year A.D. -151, under Antoninus Pius, and victims of the spite of Commodus in A.D. -182.[132] Commodus seized their property, and the villa became one of his -favourite residences. The great extent of the ruins explains the -circumstance related by Herodian, that the emperor, being in the back part -of the villa, could not hear the shouts of the infuriated mob on the -Appian Road, who were demanding the life of Cleander.[133] - -The ruins which extend along the side of the road, are plainly fragments -of a kind of vestibule or grand entrance to the imperial villa. They -consist of a nymphaeum or grand fountain, and a row of chambers intended -for slaves' lodgings. The fountain is supplied with water by an aqueduct, -the arches of which can be seen at the seventh milestone, where it leaves -the lava rocks, and crosses the country towards Marino, at a higher level -than even the Aqua Claudia. This nymphaeum and aqueduct are built of opera -mista, which shows that they are probably the work of the Constantinian -Age. - -The principal mass of the villa itself stood nearly half a mile from the -old Appian Road, on the edge of the rocks of basaltic lava. Between them -and the road the space was occupied by gardens and ornamental -summer-houses and ponds. Nibby describes the chief ruins as having -belonged to a richly ornamented fountain, and a suite of bathing-rooms of -great grandeur. - -One spacious saloon, the walls of which form a picturesque ruin, as seen -from the new post road to Albano, stands on the edge of the rising ground, -and commands a magnificent view of the whole of the Alban and Sabine Hills -and the city of Rome. Near this was a small theatre, from which the -cipollino columns of the entrance to the Tordinone Theatre in Rome were -taken. - -An immense quantity of valuable sculpture, now in the Roman museums and -palaces, was discovered by excavations here in 1787 and 1792. Among these -sculptures was a splendid statue of Euterpe, now in the Galleria dei -Candelabri, a tiger now in the Hall of Animals; and the busts of Lucius -Verus, Diocletian, and Epicurus, Socrates, the Isis and Antinous in the -Vatican, with numerous Sileni, Fauns, and Nereids. - -[Sidenote: Casale Rotondo.] - -Between the sixth and seventh milestones from the Porta Capena there is a -large round ruin 300 feet in diameter, called Casale Rotondo, now -supporting a house and olive orchard upon the top. The fragments of -sculpture found here have been arranged on the face of a wall, close to -the pile of ruins. The name Cotta was found on an inscription belonging to -this, and hence it has been supposed to be the tomb of the gens Aurelia, -who bore the surname of Cotta. On the left are the arches of the aqueduct -which supplied the Villa of Commodus. - -At the eighth milestone there was a Temple of Hercules erected by -Domitian. Martial mentions this temple in several passages. There are -considerable remains of a tetra-style temple on the right hand of the -road, consisting of columns of Alban peperino; but this, which was once -supposed to be the Temple of Hercules, is now said to have contained an -altar to Silvanus. - -[Sidenote: Bovillae.] - -The Villa and Farm of Persius the poet is said by his biographer to have -been near the eighth milestone. At the ninth stood the Tomb of Gallienus, -and perhaps the ruins there belong to his suburbanum. At the tenth -milestone, the Rivus Albanus, formerly the Aqua Terentina, is crossed; and -at the eleventh, the road begins to ascend the slope towards Albano. At -the twelfth, the circuit of the walls of the ancient town of Bovillae is -approached. Dionysius says that Bovillae was situated where the hill before -reaching Albano first begins to be steep, and this answers to the position -of the modern Osteria delle Frattocchie. The ruins which are now generally -held to be those of Bovillae lie on the cross road, called Strada di -Nettuno, a little way above Frattocchie.[134] They consist of a small -theatre built of brickwork and opus reticulatum, and a somewhat larger -circus, the enclosure of which and the carceres are still pretty well -preserved. The town did not lie close to the road. It was founded by a -colony from Alba Longa, and was a flourishing place until Coriolanus -destroyed it. For centuries afterwards we find but little notice taken of -it. In Cicero's time it was a very insignificant village, and had it not -been immortalised by the assassination of Clodius there, which led to such -important results, it could hardly excite any interest in later -times.[135] - -The honour of being the native place of the gens Julia gave it some -artificial importance in the imperial times. Tiberius is mentioned by -Tacitus as erecting a sacrarium of the Julian family and a statue of -Augustus there, and founding Circensian games in honour of the gens Julia. -Some inscriptions found on the spot show the town still existed in the 2nd -century A.D. It is now occupied by plots of land laid out as gardens. The -Villa of Clodius, Cicero's enemy, appears to have been at or near the -thirteenth milestone from Rome, close to the left side of the Appian Road, -between Bovillae and the modern Albano. It was raised on immense -substructions, the arches of which were capable of concealing a thousand -men, and Cicero declares that Clodius had not respected even the confines -of the Temple of Jupiter Latiaris or the sacred groves of Alba.[136] The -ruins which lie under Castel Gandolfo, on the left side of the road -towards the Porta Romana of Albano, may have formed part of the -substruction of which Cicero speaks. The estate of Clodius passed after -his death, when the family of the Claudii Pulcri became extinct, into the -hands of the Claudii Nerones, from whom Tiberius inherited it, and thus it -became imperial property. - -[Sidenote: Villa of Pompey.] - -The Villa of Pompey was between that of Clodius and Aricia, and therefore -occupied the site of the present town of Albano. Nibby thinks that the -walls of reticulated work in the Villa Doria belonged to Pompey's house, -and that the great tomb, near the Roman gate of Albano was Pompey's burial -place. Plutarch states that Pompey was buried at his Alban villa. The -tomb, with five truncated cones, usually called the Tomb of the Horatii -and Curiatii, has also been called the Tomb of Pompey. It is more probably -an imitation of the old Etruscan tombs executed at a later time. After the -death of that great general, the estate became the property of Dolabella, -and subsequently of Antony, who held it till the battle of Actium, when -Augustus took possession of it. After the adoption of Tiberius, it was -united with the Clodian grounds, and thus formed the nucleus of the -Albanum Caesarum. - -[Sidenote: Albanum Caesarum.] - -Augustus and some of the early emperors found the Albanum a convenient -halting-place on their journeys to the south, but it was in the time of -Domitian that the place was extended so much as to contain a military -camp, enormous reservoirs of water, thermae, a theatre, an amphitheatre, -and a circular temple. It is called Arx Albana by Juvenal, Tacitus and -Martial. - -The plan of the camp can still be traced. It resembled that of the -Praetorian camp at Rome, in being a quadrangular space rounded off at the -corners. The two longer sides extend from the Church of S. Paolo at Albano -to the round Temple, now the Church of S. Maria. One of the shorter sides -was parallel to the Appian Road, and the other ran near the Church of S. -Paolo. There were four terraces or levels in the camp rising towards the -hill behind. The Porta Decumana was in the north-eastern side, and the -Porta Praetoria on the south-western. The great reservoirs for water stand -on the northern side near S. Paolo, and the thermae towards the south-east -on the opposite side of the Appian Road. At the western corner is the -round building usually called the Temple of Minerva, and supposed to be -that alluded to by Suetonius as annually visited by Domitian. This round -building is in good preservation, but its purpose cannot be determined -with certainty. Nibby says that the ancient mosaic pavement still remains -at a depth of six feet below the present surface. The amphitheatre is -situated between the Church of S. Paolo and that of the Capuchin Convent. -It is principally constructed of opus quadratum, but the interior parts -are of a mixed masonry, consisting of bricks and fragments of the local -stone. This amphitheatre is supposed to have been the scene of the feats -performed by Domitian, in killing with his own hand hundreds of wild -beasts with arrows and javelins, and also of the degradation of Acilius -Glabrio, who was forced, according to Juvenal, by Domitian to join him in -these sports of the arena. - -[Illustration: Plan of the ALBAN HILLS & GABII] - -Between Castel Gandolfo and Albano four magnificent terraces, rising one -above the other, were traced by Cav. Rosa as forming part of the Albanum -Caesarum, and in the Villa Barberini there is a considerable part of a -cryptoporticus, ornamented with stucco reliefs, which probably stands over -the old substructions of the Villa Clodi.[137] On the side towards the -lake there were open balconies for viewing the mock naval engagements; and -near the entrance of the Barberini Villa the ruins of a theatre have been -discovered. It appears probable from the numerous ruins found upon the -edge of the lake that the whole of it was surrounded with quays and tiers -of stone seats, and chapels of Nymphs, making it resemble a gigantic -natural naumachia, or sheet of water for sham naval fights. These ruins -may possibly, however, have belonged to separate private villas placed at -different points round the water. - -To the south of Albano, in the grounds of the Villa Doria, there are the -ruins of an extensive Roman villa. Whether this was a part of the Albanum -Caesarum or not, is uncertain. Some of the bricks bear the stamps of -Domitian, others those of the third consulship of Servianus (A.D. 134), -Hadrian's brother-in-law, others of Commodus.[138] - -[Sidenote: Lago Albano or Di Castello.] - -The Alban lake belongs to the water system of the Tiber, and has most of -its outlets on the western side. It has been supposed that a subterranean -communication exists between this lake and that of Nemi, but Nibby asserts -that this is impossible, as the level of the lake of Nemi is higher than -that of the Alban lake. The circumference of this sheet of water is more -than six miles, and it is nearly elliptical in shape. The story of the -sudden rise of its waters in the sixth year of the siege of Veii is well -known, and the response of the Delphic oracle as given in Livy. - -Cicero gives a distinct account of the drainage of the lake. "We are told, -he says, by the Annalists, that during the siege of Veii, when the Alban -lake had risen to an unusual height, a Veientine noble fled to Rome as a -deserter, and declared that it was written in the books of fate which were -kept at Veii, that Veii could not be taken, so long as the lake was -overflowing its banks, and that if the lake were tapped, and flowed into -the sea by its own channel and stream, it would be fatal to the Roman -nation, but that if the water were so discharged as to make it impossible -for it to reach the sea, then the Romans would be victorious. In -consequence of this our ancestors contrived that admirable plan for -drawing off and dispersing the water of the lake." - -From this passage it would seem likely that the whole object of the -drainage of the lake was to obtain a constant supply of water for the -irrigation of the Campagna. In another passage Cicero states his opinion -still more clearly, that the work was really undertaken for the benefit of -suburban agriculture. "The Veientine prophecy that if the water of the -Alban lake rose above its margin and flowed into the sea, Rome would -perish; but that if it were checked, Veii would be taken, in consequence -of which the Alban water was diverted, was intended to benefit the -suburban farms, and not to secure the safety of Rome." What appears -strange, is that it should have been necessary to appeal to a -superstitious motive in the case of a people evidently so far advanced in -civilization as to be capable of carrying out an engineering work of such -difficulty in a single year.[139] - -[Sidenote: Emissarium of the Alban lake.] - -The tunnel which still carries off the superfluous water of the lake is -cut through solid peperino and occasional masses of still harder basaltic -lava. It is more than a mile and a half in length, from seven to ten feet -in height, and never less than four feet in breadth. The height of the -edge of the lake basin above the level of its water at the part which is -pierced by the tunnel is 430 feet. Three vertical shafts are still -discoverable, by which a draft of air was created and the rubbish was -removed, and one slanting shaft for the entrance and exit of the miners. -The rock was cut with a chisel an inch wide, as may be seen from the marks -left upon the sides of the tunnel. - -At the points where the water enters and leaves the tunnel, considerable -pains have been taken to regulate the flow. The channel of stonework at -the mouth is placed in a slanting direction so as to break the force of -the rush of water. At the end of this first channel is a cross wall with -openings, protected by gratings to catch the leaves and floating rubbish. -Behind this is a reservoir, similar to the cisterns in use in the Roman -aqueducts, allowing the mud to settle before the water entered the tunnel. -Next to the tunnel itself there is a closed building to protect the canal -from the fall of rocks and stones, and the actual entrance into the rock -is faced with a massive portal of wedge-shaped blocks of stone. The water -in this enclosure is now used by the fishermen of the lake as a receptacle -for keeping fish, and is for this purpose provided with sluices. Hirt -thinks that these arrangements at the mouth are very ancient.[140] Others -ascribe them to the imperial era. - -The point where the tunnel emerges from the mountain on the west of Castel -Savelli, nearly a mile from Albano, is called Le Mole. The water was there -received in a long troughlike reservoir arched over with a stone vaulted -roof. From this it ran through five smaller openings into five separate -channels, and was so dispersed into the fields for irrigation. At the -present time the whole stream is united, and after passing the road to -Anzio, thirteen miles from Rome, takes the name of Rio d'Albano, receives -the brook from the valley of Apiolae, and joining the Acqua Acetosa and -Cornacciola crosses the Ostian way near Tor di Valle, three miles and a -half from Rome, and then discharges itself into the Tiber. - -It is the opinion of some archaeologists that the Romans brought engineers -from Greece to superintend the Alban tunnel. This supposition, however, is -not necessary. If the Italian engineers could construct the Cloaca Maxima -they would be fully equal to the task of tapping the Alban lake. - -The physical conformation of Central Italy compelled its inhabitants to -turn their attention at an early period to the construction of drains and -other hydraulic works. Considerable artificial channels were rendered -necessary in order to regulate the flow of the Arno and Tiber in the -neighbourhood of Chiusi. In southern Etruria, the district now known as -the pestilent Maremma, could only have been rendered healthy by systematic -artificial drainage. The sites of Populonia, Saturnia, Cosa, Veii, and -Caere were thus rendered habitable and fertile, and a great part of Latium -Maritimum, the Pomptine marshes, and the tract about Suessa Pometia must -have been artificially and skilfully drained at the time of the greatest -prosperity of those places. Many of the ancient cities of Central Italy -had tunnels bored underneath their streets which served as thoroughfares -connecting the different parts of the city, or as secret passages leading -out into the country. Such tunnels are found at Praeneste and Alba -Fucensis. An account of the attempted escape of Marius from Praeneste, by -means of the tunnels, is given by Velleius. The catacombs show that the -same genius for tunnelling operations existed at a later time among the -Italians of the empire. - -[Sidenote: Alban Mount.] - -The triumphal route by which the festal processions from Rome ascended the -Alban Mount diverged from the Appian road at the ninth milestone. It -probably passed by Marino to Palazzuolo and thence ascended to the summit -by a series of zigzags. The stones which mark its course have the letters -N V. (numinis via) cut upon them. On the summit stood the Temple of -Jupiter Latiaris, the ancient sanctuary of the Latin league. The sole -remains of this famous building are now built into the wall of the -reservoir of the convent of Palazzuolo. They consist of fragments only. - -Most of the stones employed by Cardinal York in 1783 in the erection of -the convent of Palazzuolo and the church of the Trinity, on the site of -the temple, were taken from the ruins, but nothing can be learnt from them -regarding the ancient buildings. The summit of the hill is not broad -enough to have supported any large building, and we may therefore conclude -that the temple was of small size, and that the great festival games at -the Feriae Latinae were held in the Prati d'Annibale below. The inscriptions -on some of the stones are merely the freaks of some modern stonemasons. -The fragments which remain were probably used for the area round the -temple. - -[Illustration: Plan of the Area OF THE TEMPLE of JUPITER ON MONTE CAVO] - -The explorations carried out in 1876 seem to have proved that the -buildings consecrated to Jupiter Latiaris on Monte Cavo were a walled area -of about sixty-five yards long, and fifty wide, a fragment of the wall of -which was found; a chapel dedicated to Jupiter, one corner of which was -excavated; a large altar, and some other chapels dedicated as votive -offerings. A tracing of the shape and position of the area, chapels and -altar was found by M. S. De Rossi in a seventeenth century MS. in the -Barberini Library, and was published in the Annali dell' Instituto for -1876. This traced sketch agrees with the excavations. (See Plan.) - -[Sidenote: Alba Longa.] - -The early destruction of Alba Longa, so famous in Roman legendary lore, -has completely deprived us of the means of tracing its site by the -discovery of any remains of the walls or buildings which it contained. It -was razed to the ground by Tullus Hostilius in B.C. 667 and never rebuilt. -Dionysius thus describes the site: "The city was built close to the -mountain and lake, upon a site between the two. They serve as defences to -it, and make it almost impregnable, for the mountain is very steep and -lofty and the lake deep and wide." Livy says that the city was named Longa -because it extended along a ridge of the Alban hills. The words of -Dionysius seem to imply that Alba stood immediately between Monte Cavo and -the lake on the site of the convent of Palazzuolo, and Cav. Rosa, the -highest modern authority on the topography of the Campagna, who has made -the neighbourhood of Albano and Nemi the subject of special study, holds -this opinion. Nibby thought that the whole edge of the crater from -Palazzuolo nearly to Marino, a distance of more than two miles, was -occupied by the city of Alba. Sir William Gell discovered an ancient road -running along the edge of the crater above Monte Cuccu, and a few blocks -of stone on the top of the precipice bordering the lake further eastwards, -which he thought must have belonged to the gate of Alba. - -At the sixteenth milestone on the Appian road beyond Albano, in the valley -below the modern town of Ariccia, is the massive causeway 700 feet in -length and 40 in width, upon which the old Appian road was raised. It is -built of blocks of peperino and is a solid mass of masonry, except where -three archways give passage to the water which descends from the Alban -hills and the neighbourhood of Nemi. - -[Sidenote: Lake of Nemi.] - -Beyond the ancient viaduct we come to the tunnel through which the lake of -Nemi discharges its waters. - -The name of this lake and of the village on its margin, is derived from -the great grove of Diana (Nemus Dianae) whose temple probably stood on the -site of the present village of Nemi. The wooded cliffs which surround the -crater here are steep and descend immediately into the water, except on -the side near Genzano, where they slope magnificently and are planted with -vines. Their average height is 300 feet. In the Latin poets frequent -mention is made of this lake as one of the principal ornaments of the -neighbourhood of Rome, and in connection with the widely celebrated temple -of Diana. Hence it was called Speculum Dianae, lacus Triviae and Stagnum -Dianae. - -Whether the name Lacus Aricinus also belonged to this lake is doubtful, -for Pliny speaks of a lake which formerly occupied the valley of Ariccia, -and the water in this valley was certainly called Lacus Aricinus in the -middle ages. - -The water of the lake is supplied partially at least from a small spring -near the road from Genzano to Nemi, and also from the copious stream which -turns the mills of the village of Nemi. The latter is probably alluded to -by Strabo when he says that the sources whence the lake is filled are -visible, and are near the temple of Diana. - -Nibby gives the following account of the Lake of Nemi, and of the -investigations carried on in his time for the purpose of discovering the -real nature of the curious wooden fabrics said to have been found at the -bottom of the lake: - -"The situation of Nemi is picturesque, and the view from it of the crater, -and of the lake, which resembles an enormous mirror spread below, is -magnificent. But beyond the historical reminiscences of the Temple of -Diana, it presents nothing worth particular mention. The baronial castle -near it has all the appearance of a feudal fortress. It was built by the -famous Colonna family, once the lords of the estate, who also built the -round tower or keep which surmounts it. By ascending the side of the -mountain which rises above it, a splendid panoramic view of the coast of -Latium and of the adjacent Rutulian and Volscian territory may be enjoyed. -The eye ranges along the whole coast line of the Tyrrhenian Sea, from the -Circaean promontory to the mouths of the Tiber, and the situations of -Astura, Antium, Ardea, Lavinium, Laurentum, Ostia and Porto are clearly -distinguishable, together with many other points." - -"The crater is surrounded in parts by rocks of the hardest basaltic lava, -in others by conglomerated cinders and scoriae, and in some places by banks -of tufa. Its circumference is about five miles; and the level of the water -is higher than that of the Alban Lake. The story of the ship discovered at -the bottom of this lake and said by some authors to have belonged to the -time of Tiberius, by others to that of Trajan, is well known. Biondo, Leon -Battista Alberti, and particularly Francesco Marchi a celebrated architect -and military engineer of the sixteenth century, who went down into the -lake himself, have spoken of it.[141] Fresh investigations have been -carried on of late, at which I was present, and saw and examined -everything which was brought to the surface, and inquired of those who -went down what they saw there. I consider myself in a position to assert -that the pretended ship was nothing more than the wooden piles and timbers -used in the foundations of a building. The beams are of fir and larch, and -are joined by metal nails of various sizes. The pavement, or at least the -lowest stratum, of the remains is formed of large tiles placed upon a kind -of grating of iron, on which the name CAISAR, in ancient letters, is -marked. Some of these tiles and nails and gratings are now kept in the -Vatican Library. - -"The name Caisar seems to explain the history of the building, for -Suetonius in his 'Life of Julius Caesar,' as an illustration of Julius -Caesar's extravagance, asserts that after having built a villa on the lake -of Nemi at an enormous expense, he had the whole destroyed because it did -not quite suit his taste. It is my belief that the pretended ship was -nothing else than the piles and wooden framework upon which this villa was -supported, and that after the upper part was destroyed the foundations -under the water still remained, partly covered by the fragments of the -demolished building above."[142] - -The mention of paving tiles, marbles, and leaden pipes as among the -objects raised from the bottom of the lake, renders the notion that they -belonged to a ship improbable, and Nibby's conjecture that a Roman villa, -partly built out into the water, stood here, seems much more likely, -though his application of the passage of Suetonius is very doubtful. - -Cav. Rosa, who examined the neighbourhood of Nemi and Genzano with a -special view to the solution of the question of the site of the Temple of -Artemis, has given a careful account both of the ruins under Genzano and -those to the west of Nemi. The former he pronounces undoubtedly to belong -to a villa, the latter he thinks belonged to a temple with a large court -in front, and an ancient road leading to it from the western side of the -lake. These ruins are just above the lower road leading from the Capuccini -convent at Genzano to Nemi, at the point where a cross road leads to the -left and joins the higher road to Nemi, not far from the place called le -Mole.[143] Genzano is a town of mediaeval origin. - - -(B) THE VIA LATINA AND TUSCULUM. - -[Sidenote: Latin road.] - -The modern Porta Giovanni is now the point at which the new road to -Albano, and also that to Frascati, leave Rome. The Latin road anciently -diverged, after passing the Porta Capena, from the Alban road and had a -gate of its own in the Aurelian wall, called the Porta Latina, now walled -up. - -[Sidenote: Tombs on Latin road.] - -The old Via Latina is unfortunately now almost lost, and can only be -traced by the lines of ruined tombs which mark its former course. After -leaving the old Porta Latina it runs along the edge of the hills which -fringe the right bank of the Caffarelli valley, and crosses the new road -to Albano at the second milestone, at a point on the other side of the -valley almost opposite to the so-called fountain of Egeria. Not far from -this spot some very interesting tombs were excavated in 1860. A full -account of them has been given in the 'Annali dell' Instituto di -Corrispondenza Archeologica' for 1860. The sarcophagi and stucco ornaments -are the most perfect remains of the kind in the neighbourhood of Rome. -These sepulchral monuments are near the remains of the Basilica of S. -Stefano, a ruin of the fifth century, and on the farm which bears the name -of Arco Travertino from the travertine arches of the Claudian Aqueduct -which cross it. The ancient pavement of the Latin road has been uncovered -in some places near the tombs, and also some traces of a villa, which -probably belonged to the Servilian and Anician families, have been -excavated. The portico of the tomb which faces the southern side of the -road leads down to two large vaults, in the outer of which stand the -mutilated remains of a marble sarcophagus in a niche, while the inner -vault is decorated with well-preserved stucco ornaments in relief, -representing sea-monsters and nymphs. Some of the marble casing which -covered the walls remains, but no name has been found on the bricks or -stones. In the tomb on the opposite side of the road there is a -well-preserved mosaic with figures of sea-monsters at the entrance, and -below are paintings of birds upon the arches which support the sarcophagi -in the outer chamber, and an inscription which gives the name of the -Pancratii as the owners of the tomb. The family figures and profiles are -only sketched roughly in outline, as is common in the catacombs. The roof -of the inner chamber in this second tomb is exquisitely ornamented with -paintings and stucco reliefs, representing mythological subjects and -landscapes. In the centre a large marble sarcophagus containing places for -two bodies is left standing. This sarcophagus is plain and without any -decoration. The date of this tomb cannot precede the Antonine era, as -there are no cinerary urns in it. - -[Sidenote: Torre Fiscale.] - -At the fourth milestone from the Porta Capena, the Latin road passed under -the arches of the Claudian and Marcian aqueducts, at the tower now called -Torre Fiscale. At this point the two aqueducts cross each other, and -present a most magnificent series of arcades running along the side of the -old Latin road for more than a mile. The arches of the Claudian aqueduct -are here more than fifty feet in height. The railway to Naples runs very -close to the line of the old Latin road here. - -A great number of ruins are still to be seen at a place called Sette -Bassi, four miles and a half from the Porta S. Giovanni and near the -Osteria del Curato. This spot, as well as the district near it on the -Appian road, bears the name of Roma Vecchia. The scattered ruins occupy a -space of nearly three-quarters of a mile in circumference, and appear to -have been built at two different epochs. The bricks of which one portion -of them is constructed have the dates A.D. 123 and 134 upon them, the -years when Poetinus and Africanus and Servianus and Juventius were -consuls. The other part of the building is evidently contemporaneous with -the ruins on the Appian road and belongs to the Antonine era. All the -bricks were made at one of the imperial kilns, and it has therefore been -generally supposed that the villa was an imperial residence, forming a -part of the already-mentioned Suburbanum Commodi. The marbles found on the -spot show that it was decorated with great magnificence, and a particular -kind of breccia, numerous fragments of which have been picked up there, -obtains its name, Breccia di Sette Bassi from the place. - -The plan, according to Nibby, was that of a large oblong area, the longer -sides of which ran north and south. In the centre there was room for a -large pleasure garden. The front of the buildings was at the northern end -towards Rome, and the remains of a portico can be traced, which supported -a terrace on a level with the first floor rooms of the mansion. One of -these rooms with three doors and the same number of windows can still be -traced. In some of the walls the remains may be seen of terra-cotta pipes -for heating the rooms. The ground floor apartments were without -decorations, and are therefore supposed to have served as storehouses for -grain and farm produce.[144] - -[Illustration: Circus of Maxentius, with Torre Fiscale beyond it and the -hills above Praeneste and Tusculum.] - -Behind this front building, on the eastern and western sides, are long -ranges of building, the eastern consisting of two suites of rooms, -probably intended for baths or for gymnasia, and the western forming a -long ambulacrum terminated by an exedra. On the south side there is a -cryptoporticus and a reservoir for water which was supplied by a branch of -the Claudian aqueduct. - -About a quarter of a mile farther south, near the Latin road, there is an -outlying building which seems to have been intended to command a view of -that road. The railway to Frascati now runs between the Claudian aqueduct -and these ruins. - -The castella of the Aqua Marcia, the Tepula, the Julia, the Claudia, the -Anio Vetus, and the Anio Nova lie on the right of the old Latin road here, -at the sixth milestone, where the arcades make a right angle. The old road -then runs to the right of the present road to Frascati, nearly on the line -of the modern Strada di Grotta Ferrata, and ascending the slopes of the -Alban Hills, passes behind Tusculum and Corbio, along the valley called -Vallis Albana. - -[Sidenote: Tusculum.] - -Since the excavations carried out by Lucien Bonaparte at the beginning of -this century, there has been no doubt left as to the site of the ancient -city of Tusculum. The ruins lie from about a mile and a half to two miles -above Frascati, upon the ridge forming the edge of the most ancient crater -of the Alban Hills. Between this ridge, which bore the name of Tusculani -Colles, and the hills upon which Marino and Rocca di Papa stand, the great -Latin road ran. Tusculum stands just over this road and was approached -from it by a steep path ascending the northern side of the valley. The -main road entered the city on the other side, from the direction of -Frascati and Rufinella, leaving the Via Latina at the tenth milestone, -between Morena and Ciampino. The ancient pavement of this road can be -clearly traced on the slope of the hill above Frascati, and it leads us -along the top of the hill through what has plainly been the main street of -the town to the citadel, which stood at the eastern extremity. - -[Sidenote: Theatre.] - -The site of the citadel is a platform nearly square and 2700 feet in -circuit, standing about 200 feet above the level of the surrounding parts -of the hill. Its walls were completely demolished By the Romans in 1191 -and not a vestige of them is left. Sir William Gell thought, however, that -he could discover the traces of four ancient gates, one on the west, -another on the side of the Alban valley, a third on the eastern side, and -not far from this last, a postern communicating with a steep and rocky -path which descended to the Alban valley. Most of the ruins now visible -belong to the mediaeval fortress of the Dukes of Tusculum, and a few only -of the quadrilateral blocks of the ancient enclosure are visible. In the -Aequian and Volscian wars this citadel played an important part. It must -therefore have been a fortress of considerable strength from very early -times. Dionysius describes it as a very strong position, requiring but a -small garrison to hold it, and adds that the whole country as far as the -gates of Rome, is plainly visible from it, so that the defenders could see -the Roman forces issuing from the Porta Latina. The city itself lay on the -ridge of the hill westwards from the citadel. The area which it occupied -is an oblong strip of ground about 3000 feet long, and from 500 to 1000 -feet in width. On the north and south sides the limits of the city are -clearly marked by the edges of the hill, but on the west they are not so -easily defined. At the foot of the descent from the citadel are the ruins -of a large water tank of an oblong shape divided into four compartments by -three rows of piers, and immediately under this tank is a small theatre -built of peperino, which was excavated by the dowager Queen of Sardinia -Maria Christina in 1839 and 1840. This, with the exception of the theatres -at Pompeii, is the most perfectly preserved in Italy. The walls of the -scena are unfortunately destroyed, but the ground plan of it can still be -traced. The stage, which abuts closely on the western side of the -semicircular cavea, is 110 feet in length, and 20 feet in depth. It has -the three usual entrances from the back, and one at each end. These open -into a corridor and communicate with two chambers, probably used as -dressing rooms by the actors. Nearly the whole of the fifteen rows of -seats in the lower division are still preserved unbroken, but the upper -part which contained, to judge by the height of the outer walls still -remaining, about nine rows of seats, is entirely destroyed. - -[Sidenote: Other ruins.] - -[Sidenote: Gate and walls.] - -The curved walls on the northern side of the theatre were supposed by -Nibby to have belonged to another theatre, but are now generally believed -to have been a part of a fountain connected with the above-mentioned -reservoir. Along the northern side of the reservoir are two parallel -walls, which apparently enclosed the street leading to the citadel. The -roadway must have been here carried by an arched corridor under the side -of the theatre. Near the ancient road from the theatre westwards is a mass -of ruins the plan of which cannot be determined, and beyond these, not far -from the point where the road divides, and on its right-hand branch, is -one of the gates of the city, marked by two fragments of ancient fluted -columns which perhaps formed a part of its architecture. Near this are the -remains of the ancient north wall of the city, consisting of blocks of -peperino of great size more or less regularly laid, and of restorations -here and there in reticulated work, partly of the later republic, and -partly of more modern times. The pavement of the street is here perfectly -preserved, and near the gateway there is a wide space left, probably as a -turning place for carts or carriages. - -[Sidenote: Tank and fountain.] - -In the walls near this point is a stone doorway leading into a stone -water-tank, with a pointed roof formed by overlapping stones, on the same -principle as the roof of the so-called Mamertine prison at Rome, the gate -of Arpinum and the treasuries of Mycenae and Orchomenos. The doorway is -about ten feet high and five wide, and the tank of the same dimensions. In -the interior are three divisions or basins for water, and at the back an -aqueduct enters by means of which the water was supplied. At the side of -this tank there is a small ancient fountain under the wall which was -supplied from the tank by a leaden pipe. An inscription on the fountain -records that it was made by the Aediles Quintus Caelius Latinus, son of -Quintus, and Marcus Decumo, by command of the Senate of Tusculum. Not far -from the fountain was found the fifteenth milestone from Rome. - -On the road to Frascati, near the point where the western gate of the -city has been supposed to have stood, the remains of an amphitheatre can -be discovered. The seats are entirely destroyed, and it is only by the -oval shape and by the position of the substruction that the ruins can be -recognized as those of an amphitheatre. A round tomb stands a little above -the amphitheatre, and beyond this the ruins of a large villa called Scuola -di Cicerone cover the side of the hill towards the Alban valley. - -The legend which ascribes the foundation of Tusculum to Telegonus, the son -of Circe and Ulysses, is familiar to all readers of the Latin poets. It is -remarkable, however, that Virgil, who mentions most of the towns of -Latium, has entirely omitted to notice Tusculum. This may be mere -accident, or it may be attributable to a grudge similar to that which led -him, according to Aulus Gellius, to omit Nola from the lines in the -Georgics celebrating the fertility of Campania, but it certainly cannot be -due to the fear of making an anachronism, as Nibby supposes. In the times -of the Latin league, from the fall of Alba to the battle of the Lake -Regillus, Tusculum was the most prominent town in Latium. It suffered, -like the other towns of Latium, a complete eclipse during the later -republic and the imperial times, but in the ninth, tenth, eleventh and -twelfth centuries under the counts of Tusculum it became again a place of -great importance and power, no less than seven Popes of their house having -sat in the chair of St. Peter. The final destruction of the city is placed -by Nibby, following the account given in the records of the Podesta of -Reggio, on the 1st of April, A.D. 1191, in which year the city was given -up to the Romans by the Emperor Henry VI., and after the withdrawal of the -German garrison, was sacked and razed to the ground. Those of the -inhabitants who escaped collected round the church of S. Sebastian on the -foot of the hill, in the district called Frascati, whence the town of -Frascati took its origin and name. They founded their new town upon the -remains of an ancient villa, which stood near the round tomb which still -remains on the road to the Villa della Ruffinella. The name of Lucullus -has been attached to this villa and tomb from the statement of Plutarch -that Lucullus was buried by his brother at his Tusculan villa. It is -however, much more probable that the larger round tomb in the vigna -Angelotti on the road towards Rome was the burial-place of Lucullus. - -[Sidenote: Scuola di Cicerone.] - -The building now called Scuola di Cicerone is not far from the ruins of -the western gate of Tusculum. The ground floor is apparently about 270 -feet in length and 100 in depth, but the upper parts of the buildings have -now completely disappeared. The materials were of brick and reticulated -work, similar to that now found in the gardens of Sallust at Rome, and -generally considered as belonging to the last age of the Republic or the -early Empire. The ground floor had a cryptoporticus along its whole -length, and above this on the first floor was probably an open portico -with a colonnade. Eight large rooms opened out behind the cryptoporticus, -in the second of which are the remains of some stairs, and at the back of -the eighth a recess. At the ends of the cryptoporticus are the remains of -some more rooms. There are no signs of decoration on any of the walls, and -therefore this lowest story of the building is supposed to have been used -as a storehouse for corn and farm produce. - -There is, however, no evidence whatever to connect these ruins with -Cicero's Villa. The only indication we have of its site is given by the -Scholiast on Horace, who speaks of it as situated near Tusculum on the -upper slopes of the hill.[145] - -[Sidenote: Villa of Gabinius.] - -This will agree either with the ruins just described or with those found -in 1741 under the modern Villa Rufinella, which is a little way lower down -the western slope. That Cicero's Villa was upon the upper part of the hill -is confirmed by his own statement that it was so near that of the consul -Gabinius, that at the time of Cicero's exile, not only the furniture but -the trees in his garden were transferred to the Villa of Gabinius, and we -also find that this latter villa was upon the upper part of the hill. -Nibby accordingly places the Villa of Gabinius on the site of the modern -Villa Falconieri close to the Rufinella. - -Several particulars about his villa are mentioned by Cicero himself. It -contained two rooms called gymnasia, to the upper of which he gave the -name of Lyceum, and which contained his library. The lower gymnasium was -called the Academy in honour of Plato. - -The Lyceum seems to have been used in the morning, and the Academia in the -afternoon, as being more sheltered from the heat of the sun. - -The Hermathena, a double-headed bust of Hermes and Athena, mentioned in -the letters to Atticus, was probably placed in the Lyceum, for the phrase -he uses there seems to refer to Apollo as the patron of the gymnasium, in -which it was placed. There were also some Hermae of Pentelic marble, bronze -busts, and Megarian statues placed in the gymnasia, and Atticus had a -general commission to buy up anything which he might think suitable for -these rooms. - -Another part of the villa was called the atriolum. Nibby has shown from -one of the letters to Quintus that the atriolum of a villa was a small -courtyard surrounded with bedchambers and offices. The Tusculan atriolum -was decorated with stucco reliefs on the walls, like those in the tombs on -the Latin Road. - - -(C) GABII AND PRAENESTE. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of Atta.] - -[Sidenote: Villa Gordiana.] - -The road to Gabii and Praeneste leaves Rome at the Porta Maggiore. The most -conspicuous ruin, which it passes at about one mile from the walls of -Rome, is a very large circular sepulchral monument more than a hundred -feet in diameter, to which the name of Quintus Atta has been attached. -Beyond this, at a distance of two miles and a half from Rome, we come to -the remains of a vast villa, which has been identified with that spoken of -by Julius Capitolinus in his history of the Gordian family. That historian -says that their "country house was situated on the road to Praeneste, and -was remarkable for the magnificence of a portico with four ranges of -columns, fifty of which were of Carystian, fifty of Claudian, fifty of -Synnadan and fifty of Numidian marble. There were also three basilicas in -it, each of a hundred feet in length, and other buildings of corresponding -size, in particular some Thermae more magnificent than any others in the -world except those at Rome." The ruins of this great imperial villa extend -for nearly a mile along the road, consisting chiefly of some huge -reservoirs for water, two spacious halls belonging to the Thermae, a round -temple or Heroon, and a stadium surrounded with arcades. The style of -construction in most of these is the irregular brickwork with thick layers -of mortar which is known to be characteristic of the third century. -Gordian III. was killed in A.D. 244. The great reservoirs are close to the -road, two on the left and two on the right-hand side, beyond the -depression in which the stream called Acqua Bollicante runs, where the -ground rises towards the hill of Torre de' Schiavi. Some of them appear to -be of an earlier date than the reigns of the Gordians, and are referred by -Nibby to the Antonine epoch. The brickwork of these last is more regular, -and they contain a good deal of reticulated work and layers of squared -tufa stones. The two large halls which belonged to the Thermae are to the -east of the reservoirs. One of them was a spacious octagonal building with -round windows. It was occupied as a fortress or watch-tower in the middle -ages, and has been repaired in the style called Saracenesca. In the walls -of this may be seen the earliest instances of a mode of construction -afterwards, as in the Circus of Maxentius, very common, the introduction -of jars of terra-cotta in the walls to make the work lighter. The interior -is ornamented with niches alternately square and circular headed, and -retaining some of their ancient stucco decorations. - -The other hall of the Thermae stands not far off, and is circular with a -domed roof. - -The Heroon, or circular temple, of which mention has been made, is similar -to that near the Circus of Maxentius. The diameter of this is fifty-six -feet, and it was lighted by four large round windows. The front was turned -towards the road according to the rule laid down by the architect -Vitruvius. Underneath, there is a crypt supported by a massive round -pillar, and containing six niches. In this, Nibby thinks that the ashes of -the dead were placed, as their statues were in the temple above, and that -the building was the Heroon of the reigning family. In the middle ages -this Heroon was used as a church, and some of the paintings then -introduced are still visible on the interior walls. Not far from the -Heroon are the ruins of the arcades which surrounded the stadium and -bounded the domain of the villa on the east side. - -[Sidenote: Torre Pignatara.] - -In this district, but along the ancient Via Labicana which runs in the -direction of Frascati, stands the conspicuous tower now called Torre -Pignatara from its construction with pigne or earthen pots. It surmounts a -large circular hall and a catacomb to which the titles of S. Helena's -Mausoleum and the Chapels of SS. Peter and Marcellinus have been given, -but the real history of the building is unknown. - -[Sidenote: Ponte di Nono.] - -At the ninth milestone on the road to Palestrina, where the road crosses a -small brook, is a magnificent monument of ancient Roman architecture, -consisting of an arched viaduct built of peperino and tufa blocks. The -length of this viaduct is 105 yards, and the highest of the seven arches -about fifty feet. The blocks of stone used are in some cases ten feet in -length, and they are firmly fitted together without any kind of cement. -This viaduct is now called Ponte di Nono.[146] The ancient roadway of -polygonal fragments of basalt still remains, but the parapet on each side -has been destroyed. - -[Sidenote: Gabii.] - -At a distance of about three miles beyond the Ponte di Nono are the ruins -of Gabii on the edge of the lake called Lago di Pantano in the district of -Castiglione. Numerous traces of the ancient city are still visible. It -occupied a long strip of ground extending from the sepulchral mound on the -right of the road near the outlet of the lake to the tower of Castiglione. -Nibby thinks that this tower stands on the spot formerly occupied by the -citadel of Gabii, the original stronghold founded according to the legend -by a colony from Alba. In the year 1792 extensive excavations were made on -the site by Prince Marcantonio Borghese at the suggestion of Mr. Hamilton -a Scotch painter, and a quantity of sculptures and inscriptions now in the -Louvre at Paris were discovered. The principal ruins now remaining are -those of the cella of a temple built of the famous lapis Gabinus, and some -steps in a semicircular form, probably the remains of a theatre. The -temple is generally supposed to have been that of Juno alluded to by -Virgil. - -The form of this temple was almost identical with that at Aricia. The -interior of the cella was twenty-seven feet wide and forty-five feet long. -It had columns of the Doric order in front and at the sides, but none at -the back. The walls of the chamber at the back were here, as at Aricia, -prolonged on each side, so as to close the side porticoes at the back. The -surrounding area was about fifty-four feet in breadth at the sides, but in -front a space of only eight feet was left open, in consequence of the -position of the theatre, which abutted closely upon the temple. On the -eastern side of the cella are traces of the rooms where the priests in -charge of the temple lived. - -The shape of the forum can only be partially made out. From the plan -published in the 'Monumenti Gabinoborghesiani,' it appears that it was a -rectangular quadrilateral space, traversed by the Via Praenestina at the -southern end, and that it was surrounded with a portico of Doric columns -except at the end along which the Via Praenestina was carried. It was -believed at the time when the excavations were made that the Curia and -Augusteum could be distinguished among the surrounding buildings, but this -seems now to be very doubtful. In the centre stood the statue of Titus -Flavius Aelianus, the patron of the borough town. The pedestal of this -statue with its inscription was found in situ in 1792. - -"The stone of Gabii quarried near the lake and the product of its extinct -volcano, is used in many of the Roman buildings and especially in the -building called the tabularium at the head of the Forum Romanum. It is a -hard species of peperino, of a brownish-grey colour, which when exposed to -the air becomes paler than the common peperino of Albano. It resists the -action of fire, and is a compound of volcanic ashes mixed with small -fragments of black, brown, and reddish lava, scales of mica, and bits of -Apennine limestone."[147] - -The city of Gabii lost its independence soon after the beginning of the -Republican era of Rome. It was restored as a colony of veterans by Sylla, -but sank into obscurity, and became almost proverbial for its desolate -condition in the Augustan era. It afterwards recovered its prosperity in -some degree by means of the celebrity of its cold baths, and in the time -of Hadrian was patronised by the Emperor, who built an aqueduct and a -Curia Aelia there. The inscriptions found on the spot belong chiefly to the -Antonine era, and the busts of Severus and Geta also found there show that -in the first part of the third century Gabii was still a flourishing -borough town. - -[Sidenote: Labicum.] - -The most conspicuous outlying hill of the volcanic district not far from -Gabii is that of La Colonna, about three miles below Rocca Priora. It -stands apart from the rest of the range, and is easily seen from Rome. -From Strabo's description of the site of Labicum there can be but little -doubt that this hill must be considered to be the place to which he refers -in his account of the Via Labicana. "That road," he says, "begins at the -Esquiline Gate, at which the Praenestine Road also leaves the city, and -leaving both this latter and the Esquiline plain on the left, proceeds for -more than a hundred and twenty stadia (fifteen and a half Roman miles) -till it reaches Labicum, an old, dismantled city, lying on a mount. The -road leaves it and Tusculum on the right, and ends at the station called -ad Pictas, where it joins the Latin Road." There are no ancient ruins now -on the spot. In Strabo's time it was apparently ruined and deserted, and -at an earlier date Cicero says that it was difficult to find any -inhabitant to represent Labicum at the Feriae Latinae. It seems probable, -therefore, that it suffered severely in the civil wars of Sylla and -Marius, and did not recover itself until the establishment of an imperial -villa there gave it some importance. - -[Sidenote: Praeneste.] - -Beyond La Colonna, the ancient Labicum, by far the most important place on -the Aequian frontier was the strong fortress-town of Praeneste, now -Palestrina, which commands the passage from Latium into the valley of the -Sacco. Praeneste is placed on one of the projecting spurs of the -mountainous district which intervenes between the Anio and the Sacco. -Standing, as the city does, more than 2100 feet above the sea level, it -forms a very conspicuous object in the view from the hills of Rome. - -After its eventful history as the great border fortress of Latium, we can -only wonder that it has been found possible to restore the ancient plan of -Praeneste with tolerable accuracy, as has been done by Nibby and other -archaeologists. The modern town, an agglomeration of filthy narrow alleys, -occupies little more than the space on which stood the great Temple of -Fortune and its approaches. Nearly a mile distant from this, on the summit -of the hill, stood the citadel united with the town by two long walls of -polygonal masonry, traces of which are still to be seen, though they do -not rise to any height above the ground. The site of the citadel is now -occupied by a wretched little suburb called Borgo di S. Pietro, and by a -ruined mediaeval castle of the Colonnas built in the style called opera -Saracenesca. On the side towards the town the walls of the citadel are -still easily traced, and present admirable examples of polygonal -structure, rising in some places to a considerable height. On the other -side, where the steepness of the hill made artificial defences less -necessary, the walls have almost disappeared. - -The original fortifications of the city may be followed from the Porta del -Sole, where the ancient polygonal masonry is visible. "In this part of the -walls," says Nibby, "are some towers of opus incertum, standing between -the Porta delle Monache and the Porta Portella. Near the latter gate the -polygonal wall is nearly fifteen feet in height, and on one great block -may be read in very ancient letters the words PED. XXX. After having -surrounded the summit of the hill of S. Pietro, the wall descends to the -Porta S. Martino, where it was strengthened at the time of the Punic wars -with additions of quadrilateral structure, and where an ancient gate now -closed may be seen. From this point the wall proceeds in a nearly straight -line in the direction of the upper garden of the Barberini Palace and the -Via di S. Girolamo towards the Porta del Sole. This circuit of about three -miles in length was intersected at different points by at least three -other lines of fortifications above the Contrada della Cortina, and hence -perhaps the city bore the name of 'many crowns,' given it by Strabo, -forming, as it were, four separate inclosures, besides the various -terraces of the great temple, which could almost be regarded as so many -divisions of the town."[148] - -[Illustration: PLAN OF TEMPLE OF FORTUNE as rebuilt by Sylla. AT -PRAENESTE.] - -The original foundation of the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia at Praeneste is -lost in obscurity; but the ancient polygonal substructions which support -it show that it was a very large temple even in early times. - -Cicero in his description of the Praenestine lots, calls it a splendid and -ancient temple, and Valerius Maximus speaks of it as the most celebrated -oracle of Latium at the end of the first Punic war. - -The original extent of the temple appears to have included only that part -of the lower town, which lies between the modern streets of the Corso and -the Borgo, and the ancient city principally lay on the side towards the -citadel. But after Sylla had rebuilt the temple, its precincts reached as -far downwards as the modern Contrada degli Arconi, and upwards to the -Contrada Scacciato behind the baronial palace. The whole of this space was -filled with a gradually ascending series of flights of marble stairs and -terraces, arranged in a pyramidal form, at the summit of which stood the -tholus or round temple of the goddess, 450 feet above the lowest terrace. -The base of this pyramidal approach was 1275 feet broad, and the upper -terraces gradually diminished in width. The temple faced the south, like -those of Diana at Aricia, of Juno at Gabii and Lanuvium, and of Jupiter -Capitolinus at Rome. The modes of construction found in the ruins are -referred by Nibby to four different epochs--the polyhedral stonework of -the primitive temple, which was incorporated in the buildings of the new; -the squared stonework of the time of the Punic wars; the structures -composed of smaller polygonal stones erected by Sylla; and the brickwork -of the imperial times. There were five principal terraces or platforms -rising one above the other. Nibby calls these the terrace of the cisterns, -the terrace of the halls, the central terrace, the terrace of the -recesses, and the terrace of the hemicycle. In front of the lowest terrace -was a large open space on which the boundary of the sacred precincts was -marked out by stone landmarks, some of which have been found on the spot. -This open area was on the right of the Contrada degli Arconi, which takes -its name from the arches still remaining. The sides of the area were -bordered by two immense reservoirs. One of these is still entirely -preserved, but the other is filled with rubbish. On the side of the open -area towards the hill were twenty-nine arches, five of which in the centre -projected, forming a kind of portico with fountains in niches, while the -other twenty-four completed the sides towards the reservoirs. The style of -these arches seems to indicate that they were built by Sylla as an -addition to the older temple precincts. One arch on the left hand, and all -the twelve on the right, still remain intact. They were probably used as -rooms for the slaves belonging to the temple. - -[Sidenote: Reservoirs.] - -The two reservoirs, as may be seen by the brickwork of which they consist, -were added after Sylla's time. They served to collect and keep the water -which flowed from the fountains of the upper terraces, and to distribute -it to those parts of the city which lay below the temple. The western -reservoir, which can still be seen, is one of the most remarkable of such -edifices now extant. It is 320 feet in length and 100 in width, and is -divided internally into ten compartments, in the same manner as the Sette -Sale at Rome, each communicating with the next to it by three apertures, -and each lighted by two openings in the roof covered with circular -well-mouths of stone. The interior walls of this reservoir are covered -with the finest cement. On the exterior to the south, the walls are -decorated with niches, one of which, with a square head, was intended to -contain the inscription stating the names and titles of the builder of the -reservoir.[149] The brickwork, which is similar to that of the Praetorian -camp at Rome, and the fact that an inscription dated A.D. 18, when -Tiberius was consul-designate for the third time, has been found near, -seem to point to Tiberius as the builder. On the western side there are no -niches, but a doorway, with a stair leading down to the bottom of the -reservoir, and ornamented with two brick half-columns of the Doric order. - -[Sidenote: Terrace of cisterns.] - -From the area between the reservoirs just described, two staircases built -by Sylla ascended to the level of the first principal terrace 1275 feet in -breadth, containing two large basins for water, of rectangular shape, each -250 feet by 90 in size. They were intended for the purpose of the -ceremonial ablutions commanded by the religious rites of the temple. That -on the western side can still be seen in the Barberini garden, though it -is now filled with rubbish. The rim or edging of these basins was of white -mosaic. - -[Sidenote: Terrace of halls.] - -Above this terrace two flights of stairs conducted to the next principal -esplanade, which was of the same length as the first, but narrower. At the -back of this esplanade, against the side of the hill, stood two -magnificent halls, with an open area between them. The eastern hall is now -entirely destroyed, but that on the western side, now serving as the -kitchen of the modern seminario, is partly preserved. The front, which may -be seen near the cathedral in the Piazza Tonda, was decorated with four -Corinthian half-columns, the capitals of which still remain in their -original position. The interior had seven recesses on each side, separated -by half-columns and pilasters, and probably intended for statues. In front -of the side recesses ran a low wall or podium, ornamented with triglyphs -like a Doric frieze. These decorations are executed in a style which Nibby -considers equal to that of any of the ancient Doric buildings now extant. -At the end of the hall there was a large rectangular recess, with niches -for statues. In the easternmost of these recesses was found the celebrated -Praenestine mosaic, now in the Barberini Palace at Palestrina. The rest of -the floor was composed of white mosaic work. Between the fronts of the two -halls ran a row of columns, three of which still stand in their original -positions in the wall of one of the chapels near the cathedral, and at the -back of the area between them was a corridor with nine windows, some of -which may still be seen in the court of the seminario. - -[Sidenote: Central terrace.] - -Above the terrace of the halls rose the central grand terrace, supported -by a great wall of polygonal masonry, which at the point called the -Rifolta still stands at its full height. This terrace is now occupied by -the Contrada del Borgo. On the eastern side it reached to the wall of the -city, where the ancient gate, now closed, near the Porta Portella, stands. -Two lofty arches stood, one at each end of the back of this terrace, -containing fountains and statues. - -It was upon this level, according to Nibby, that the original temple -stood, before the alterations made by Sylla. - -[Sidenote: Terrace of Recesses.] - -The whole of the two uppermost terraces were the work of the great -dictator. They were supported by walls of opus incertum, and the lower of -them contained two large semicircular recesses, for the accommodation of -the persons who came to consult the oracle. Hence it may be called the -terrace of the recesses. The eastern recess is still remaining under the -name of the Grotta Petrelli. It is supported in the interior by four -Corinthian columns, and the roof preserves the traces of decorative -designs in bronze. It is probable that the chamber in the centre, between -the two recesses, was the spot where, as Cicero narrates, the mysterious -Praenestine lots were originally discovered by Numerius Suffucius, and -where the statue of Fortuna, mentioned by him, stood. On each side of the -recesses were arched chambers, probably appropriated to the priests of the -temple and the interpreters of the lots. - -[Sidenote: Terrace of Hemicycle.] - -Above the terrace of the recesses, rose that of the Hemicycle. This was -divided into two parts, the lower consisting of a great rectangular -sacrificial court, with porticoes surrounding it, and the upper, of a -semicircular recess, somewhat similar to those which existed in the fora -of the emperors at Rome, having at the back of it a smaller raised terrace -on which stood the actual aedes, or shrine of the goddess Fortune. This -must have been the place where, according to the legend as told by Cicero, -the olive-tree which yielded honey grew, from which the casket was made -for the Praenestine lots. - -Fragments of an inscription which are still visible on the frieze, -surmounting two arched chambers under the hemicycle, seem to show that -this part was rebuilt by the civic officials and the municipality, but at -what period is not discoverable. No traces are now left of this part of -the building except the ground-plan of the hemicycle, which may be -traced in front of the Barberini Palace, and a few columns belonging to -the portico of the great square court. These stand in the public prison, -and the house of the sacristan of S. Rosalia.[150] - -[Illustration: Plan of Ostia & Porto] - -The ancient town extended to a considerable distance beyond the precincts -of the temple. Outside the Porta S. Francesco of the modern town, at about -the distance of half a mile, are two huge reservoirs, similar to those -described as placed at the foot of the Temple of Fortune; and in the -Contrada degli Arconi is the cistern of an aqueduct. This, with other -ruins near it, belonged to that part of the town founded by Sylla, which -extended to a distance of a mile and a half from the lowest terrace of the -great temple. - -The forum of the city lay between the western reservoir of the temple, and -the churches of S. Lucia and S. Madonna dell' Aquila. This is inferred -from numerous inscriptions, and some commemorative pillars and altars -found there. The Praenestine Registers of Verrius Flaccus were found in the -Contrada delle Quadrelle, a mile and a half from this spot. They may, -however, as Nibby suggests, have been moved from the forum, where we -should naturally expect to find them. - - -(D) OSTIA AND PORTO. - -[Sidenote: Ostia.] - -Ostia is fifteen miles distant from the Porta di S. Paolo of Rome. The -site of the old town is plainly discernible by the hillocks of rubbish -with which it is covered, and the ruined brick walls which protrude here -and there. - -On approaching from the modern village, which is half a mile nearer Rome -than the ruins of the old town, we pass between lines of tombs on each -side of the road, similar to those which have been excavated at Pompeii. -The tombs are very closely packed together, and of different sizes and -shapes. On the left-hand side, two sarcophagi remain, with the names of -Sex. Carminius Parthenopaeus Eq., and T. Flavius Verus Eq., and a -terra-cotta inscription on the tomb of Flavia Caecilia, priestess of Isis -at Ostia.[151] - -At the end of this street of tombs, the gate of the city has been laid -bare, and its foundations can be easily traced together with those of a -guard-house on the left-hand side, having a rude tabula lusoria marked on -the pavement, where the soldiers whiled away their time at some game -resembling skittles. - -The street which is then entered passes between the ruins of private -houses, without anything more remarkable about them than a few common -mosaic pavements and two fountains. The principal public buildings which -have been excavated, are, I. The house of the priests of Mithras, in which -a well-preserved altar still stands with the inscription: - - C CAELIVS . HERMAEROS - ANTISTES . HVIVS . LOCI - FECIT - -II. The Thermae, consisting of a large court, and several smaller side -rooms for vapour-baths, with mosaic pavements of various designs. These -baths may possibly be the lavacrum Ostiense of Antoninus Pius. The stamps -on the bricks are said to be of the Antonine era. - -III. A large rectangular brick edifice with three windows on each side. In -the interior are the remains of ornamental niches, Corinthian capitals, -and a marble cornice. The walls have rivets upon them, by which it appears -that they were covered with a marble casing, and the magnificent block of -African marble which serves as the threshold shows that the building was -of a costly description. Traces have been found of a front chamber with a -portico of grey granite columns. Whether this was a temple or not is -uncertain, but it has been supposed that the arrangements in the interior -would agree with such a supposition. The masonry may be assigned to the -age of Trajan or Hadrian. The name of Vulcan has been usually given to -this temple, which was at one end of the ancient forum. Many excavations -have been made here within the last ten years, and some valuable works of -art have been discovered, and numerous stores and shops of various kinds -have been uncovered. - -IV. The ruins of a theatre supposed by Nibby to be that mentioned in the -Acta Martyrum, near which S. Quiriacus and S. Maximus, and S. Archelaus, -and a number of others were martyred. It is built partly of yellow and red -brickwork, and partly of opus reticulatum, and apparently belongs to the -restorations and additions made by Hadrian to the city. - -V. The ruins of an extensive building, probably an emporium, on the bank -of the river near Torre Bovacciano. In this place a great number of works -of art were discovered by Fagan in 1797, showing the magnificent -decorations with which the building was ornamented; and several -inscriptions with the names of Severus and Caracalla found here are given -by Nibby.[152] - -[Sidenote: Grove of the Arval College.] - -Fiumicino at the present mouth of the Tiber, and Porto which stands at the -site of the ports formed by Claudius and Trajan, may be reached from Rome -by steamer down the river, or by carriage. The road which leads to -Fiumicino and Porto leaves the city walls at the Porta Portese, and at -about the fifth milestone reaches the celebrated grove of the Dea Dia, -where the worship of the great collegiate priesthood of the Fratres -Arvales was carried on. The railway to Civita Vecchia crosses the road at -this spot, to which the modern names of the Monte delle Piche and the -Vigna Ceccarelli are given. Discoveries of inscriptions had been made here -since the year 1570, but no formal collection of them was made until the -publication of Marini's great work in 1785. No effective investigations -were, however, carried on until April 1868. The remains of a Christian -cemetery were then disinterred on the slope of the hill above the Vigna -Ceccarelli, where many of the marble tablets upon which the Arval Brothers -had inscribed their records were found to have been used in the graves in -lieu of coffins and as gravestones. One tomb was covered with a slab -containing the records of the year A.D. 155, and numerous fragments of -inscriptions were found scattered in all directions. The cemetery was -ascertained to have been adjacent to an oratory founded by Pope Damasus -(A.D. 1048), and a subterranean catacomb was found to have been formed, -which is mentioned in the Acta Martyrum as the Cemeterium Generosae. The -inscriptions obtained from this spot refer chiefly to the year A.D. 90, -but some fragments belonging to the years 38, 87, and 59 were also found. - -These inscriptions are of great interest both archaeologically, as -containing authentic particulars about the worship of the Arval Brothers, -and the places at Rome or elsewhere in which it was held, and also -historically, since many of them give the titles of eminent persons, or -fix the dates of consuls and other ministers of state, and enable us -thereby to correct and compare the statements of Tacitus and Suetonius -with those of Dion Cassius. Many points of mythology are also illustrated -by the mention of the divinities whom the college worshipped in their -ritual. - -An instance of the value of these inscriptions in determining the relative -accuracy of Dion and Suetonius is afforded by the inscription belonging to -the year A.D. 39, which gives us some historical facts about the reign of -Caius, a portion of Roman history rendered difficult and obscure by the -loss of the central books of the Annals of Tacitus. Suetonius states that -the title of Augusta was conferred on Antonia by Claudius, whereas Dion on -the contrary attributes the conference of this title to Caius. The -inscription decides the question in favour of the account of Dion Cassius. -Again, the date of the recognition of Caius by the Senate is fixed by the -same inscription as having occurred on the 18th of March, and not on the -16th as recorded by Tacitus and Suetonius, nor the 26th, as Dion Cassius -states. Many other interesting corrections or elucidations of the Latin -historians will be found in Henzen's learned treatises, or in his articles -in the 'Annali dell' Instituto' for 1867, and the 'Hermes' 1867. Besides -the grove of the Arval College, which was an extensive wood, four -buildings are mentioned in the Records--the Aedes Deae Diae, the Cesareum, -the Tetrastylon and the Circus. - -With regard to the position of these, Pellegrini is of opinion that the -Circus was situated on the ridge of the hill on the western side of the -Vigna Ceccarelli, in which place some remains apparently belonging to a -circus have been found. Henzen leaves the site of the Circus -undetermined, thinking that there is not sufficient evidence. The -Tetrastylon and the Cesareum were supposed by Mommsen to have been names -of the same building, but Henzen thinks that they are mentioned as -separate places in the same inscription. The college feasts and meetings -were held in one or other of these, which must therefore have been large -enough to contain, besides the dining hall, an assembly-room, as the -Brothers are said to have met there and to have sat in rows of seats. The -Cesareum was a quadrangular building, as the form of the inscriptions -which were attached to its walls seems to show, since they could not have -been placed on a round surface. The temple of the Dea Dia stood upon a -hill, for the priests are described as ascending in order to perform the -sacrifices, and descending afterwards. Yet there are no vestiges of a -building upon the top of the hill. Henzen therefore concludes that the -ruins of the round building, upon which the modern Casa rustica in the -Ceccarelli vineyard is placed, must have belonged to this Aedes. It was not -decorated with columns but with Corinthian pilasters, and the inscriptions -were affixed to the interior until the year 81, when it became necessary -from want of space to place them on the pedestals of the columns.[153] - -[Sidenote: Porto.] - -Beyond the site of the Arval Chapel, the road passes by the relics of the -papal palace of La Magliana, and then along a causeway six miles in length -to Porto. The site of the ancient Portus Trajani on the right branch of -the Tiber is now occupied by the town of Porto, mainly consisting of the -cathedral, the Villa Pallavicini, and some farm buildings. The sea has -here continuously receded for many centuries, and the river deposits of -sand and marl have extended. Fiumicino at the present mouth of the river -is two miles distant from Porto, and its site was entirely covered by the -sea at the time when Claudius, and Trajan after him, constructed their new -ports. The large marshy tract to the north of Porto marks the site of the -port of Claudius. The hexagonal basin of Trajan lies between this marsh -and the town of Porto. - -It is not at all clear when the right arm of the Tiber, or rather the -canal which now serves for communication between the sea and the Tiber -proper, assumed its present shape. Inundations and occasional repairs and -alterations have changed its course, and the constant retreat of the sea -must have lengthened it considerably. - -Nibby's opinion is that, besides the large harbour, Claudius constructed -an inner basin between the harbour and the old course of the river. Into -this basin he cut a canal from the bend of the river near modern Ostia, -and thus allowed the superfluous waters of the Tiber to escape through the -harbour, and at the same time gained a supply of water for his docks. The -inscription found in 1837, and now placed by the roadside near the Villa -Pallavicini, alludes to this canal. The words of this inscription seem to -show that the primary object of the canal was to supply the port with -water, and that the advantage of preventing inundations at Rome was only -secondary. Trajan probably enlarged and reconstructed the inner basin of -Claudius, and surrounded it with the massive quays and warehouses, the -ruins of which still remain. This inner basin is referred to by Juvenal. - -At the same time the canal was probably enlarged, and it is to this -enlargement that Pliny alludes when he speaks of the canal formed by the -most provident of all emperors.[154] - -[Sidenote: Ruins at Torre Paterno.] - -Passing from Ostia along the sea coast through the woods of Castel Fusano -to Torre Paterno, we find the ruins of a large villa, which have been -supposed by some to belong to Pliny's Laurentinum. But they are more -probably the relics of an imperial villa mentioned by Herodian as the -retreat to which Commodus withdrew, by the advice of his physicians, at -the time of the great plague in Rome, in the year 187. The neighbourhood -of Laurentum was recommended, says the historian, on account of its being -cooler than Rome, and also because it was shaded with large woods of -laurel and bay trees, the strong scent from which was supposed to -counteract the influence of the deadly malaria which was devastating the -capital.[155] The present ruins at Torre Paterno consist of brick walls -in two styles, one of which Nibby refers to the age of Nero, and the other -to the reign of Commodus or Severus. The central building, which contained -the grand suite of rooms, is the only part where work of the first -century, analogous to that of Nero's buildings at Rome, is to be seen; the -rest, says Nibby, is composed of various courtyards in the style of the -Antonine era, which have been altered and partly concealed by later modern -edifices. On one side of the ruins are two large cisterns, supplied by an -aqueduct which comes from the Tenimento la Santola. The brickwork of this -is apparently contemporaneous with other works which we know to have -belonged to the age of Commodus or Severus as having very thin bricks and -a great quantity of mortar. Near these reservoirs is an enclosed space -which was probably a courtyard or garden of a rectangular shape. On the -north side it has some ruins in the mode of construction called opus -mixtum of the fourth century; and on the east is the principal part of the -villa built of large and thick triangular bricks, with thin layers of -mortar beautifully laid, and evidently of an early date. On the west there -is a large dining-hall looking towards the sea, like that described in -Pliny's Laurentinum. Various other rooms and the foundations of a tower -can be traced on the sites occupied by the modern guardhouse and the -Chapel of S. Filippo.[156] - - -(E) TIBUR. - -The Via Valeria or Tiburtina leading to Tivoli, the ancient Tibur, now -leaves Rome at the Porta S. Lorenzo. Traces of the polygonal pavement of -the old road can be seen at intervals along the modern road to Tivoli, -especially between the eighth and ninth milestones, and here and there -elsewhere. In the Basilica of S. Lorenzo, a mile from the gate, are many -ancient fragments of architecture. The Ponte Mammolo, by which the Anio is -crossed at three and a half miles from Rome, is modern and there are -scarcely any relics of the old bridge. Here and there on the road are the -naked cores of tombs, but nothing of any interest offers itself to an -archaeologist until the Aquae Albulae are reached. Some few remains of an -ancient building, which may have belonged to the Thermae here, have been -discovered. They are now built into the walls of a modern farmhouse. These -ruins may have belonged to the Thermae of Agrippa, which Augustus -frequented. - -The ancient quarries of travertine mentioned by Strabo, whence the stone -of the Coliseum came, lie on the right of the road beyond the Solfatara, -and the modern quarries on the left. The road then crosses the Anio over -an ancient bridge still called the Ponte Lucano, from Marcus Plautius -Lucanus, a Tiburtine magistrate, whose memory is preserved in an -inscription discovered upon the ancient fourteenth milestone on this road. - -The bridge was originally composed of three travertine arches, of which -the one next to the left bank remains entire. The central arch has been -restored with masonry of the sixth century, similar to that in the Ponte -Nomentano and the Ponte Salario. The arch on the right bank was restored -in the fifteenth century, and the whole bridge was repaired again about -1836. This bridge was broken down by Totila when he was encamped at Tibur, -and Nibby thinks that he destroyed the middle arch, which was then -restored by Narses. - -[Sidenote: Tomb of the Plautian family.] - -Just on the other side of the bridge is the tomb of the gens Plautia, well -known from numerous paintings and photographs. It is very similar to that -of Caecilia Metella on the Appian Road, and to the Mausoleum of Hadrian, in -its main features. A cylindrical tower of travertine, based on a square -foundation, and capped with a cone, was the original design, but a -mediaeval tower built upon the top now disfigures it. - -Two inscriptions placed in a projecting front with Ionic pilasters record -the names of M. Plautius Silvanus, consul with Augustus in the year B.C. -2, and his son Ti. Plautius Silvanus, prefect of the city in A.D. 73. A -third inscription, which is now destroyed, commemorated a P. Plautius -Pulcher. The longer inscription is given with notes in Wilmann's Inscr. -Lat. No. 1145. The person whose memory it preserves was the pontifex who -officiated at the rebuilding of the Capitoline Temple in A.D. 70, as -recorded by Tacitus. - -[Illustration: PLAN OF HADRIANEUM (_NEAR TIVOLI_)] - -[Sidenote: Hadrian's Villa.] - -Beyond the Ponte Lucano to the right are the ruins of Hadrian's great -Tiburtine Villa. They occupy the slopes of a hill of volcanic tufa, which -may be called an outlying part of Monte Affliano, extending for about -three miles in a direction from south-east to north-west. The various -levels afforded by the ground have been formed into terraces adapted to -the buildings they were intended to support by means of substructions, -which in some places are of vast solidity and gigantic height. "From these -terraces," says Nibby, "the views are most varied and picturesque. On one -side the horizon is bounded by the pointed heights of the Montes -Corniculani, and by the ridges of the Peschiatore, the Ripoli, and the -Affliano, and on the other, the eye ranges over the gently undulating -expanse of the Ager Romanus, from which rise the towers of the Eternal -City; while beyond, the long streak of light reflected from the waters of -the Etruscan and Laurentine Sea seems to encircle the whole with a silvery -zone. The situation of the villa is open to the healthy breezes of the -west wind, but is sheltered by the mountains from the fury of the north -wind, the piercing chills of the north-east, and the unwholesome hot -summer blasts of the south." - -The high ground on which the villa stands rises between two valleys, which -may be called from their position the north and south valleys. They run -down into the plain through which the Anio cuts its bed. The northern -valley has been artificially altered, with the view of increasing its -picturesque appearance, by cutting the sides so as form perpendicular -cliffs of reddish stone. The tints of these rocks, the soft verdure of the -plants and trees which grow luxuriantly upon them, the bright colours of -the wild flowers scattered here and there, and the lovely hills which rise -as a screen behind them, give this valley such a character of soothing and -enchanting retirement and beauty, that it has been universally regarded as -the spot to which the name of the Vale of Tempe was given by the emperor. -The southern valley is less deep and bold, and from its monotonous and -severe aspect it may perhaps have been the spot where Hadrian placed his -imitation of the infernal regions.[157] - -The brook which runs at the bottom of the northern valley (Fosso dell' -Acqua Ferrata) has received the name of the Peneius from antiquaries, and -that in the southern valley is called Fosso di Risicoli by the modern -inhabitants. These streams are now very scantily supplied with water, but -in ancient times, when the villa was watered by a constant flow from its -aqueducts, they must have been of considerable volume. The ruins, now -overgrown with clumps of cypress and other trees, extend for a space of -seven miles in circumference, and in the middle ages were known as Tivoli -Vecchio, from a vague and unfounded idea that the ancient city of Tibur -stood here. It has been remarked that the Coliseum is strikingly -characteristic of the Flavian emperors who planned and executed it, and -with equal truth it may be said that the Tiburtinum of Hadrian gives a -marvellous picture of the many-sided genius of the great man who was at -once the ruler of the whole known world and had travelled throughout his -vast domains from Britain to the Euphrates, organising and controlling -everywhere, and at the same time showing an appreciation of and value for -literature, philosophy, and the fine arts, which was generally foreign to -the Roman character. Hadrian constructed in his villa at Tibur a panorama -of all the sights which had struck him most in his world-wide travels, in -order that he might in this realm of enchantment, when no longer able to -travel, have the sights and thoughts in which he had taken such pleasure, -revived for his imagination to feed upon. Considering the size and -magnificence of the place, which almost resembles a town in its vast -extent, it is surprising that so few notices of it should be found among -the Roman historians and biographers. Dion Cassius, or rather his -epitomiser Xiphilinus, does not even mention it, and Spartianus and -Aurelius Victor pass it over without such special remark as we should -expect. As, however, a great part of the building consisted of the -familiar Thermae, stadia, theatres and gymnasium, which were constructed in -every large Roman villa, they were perhaps not noticed, as matters of -course, and only the peculiarities of the villa were recorded. After -Hadrian's return to Rome at the end of his last journey to the East in -A.D. 135, he resigned the care of the empire to Lucius Aelius Verus and -retired to this villa, which had probably been built during his absence, -and may have been begun in 125 when he returned to Rome from his first -journey, and finished during the last three years of his life from 135 to -138. - -This opinion as to the date at which the villa was built is confirmed by -the stamps found on the bricks, which range from the year 123 to the year -A.D. 137, and that the ruins belong to Hadrian's villa is sufficiently -attested by universal tradition, and by the number of statues of Antinous, -and other works of art found here unquestionably belonging to the reign of -Hadrian. - -The ruins contain specimens of almost every kind of construction. The most -ancient part is a wall of opus incertum, composed of small polygonal -fragments of tufa, which stands near the Casino Fede. This wall is -probably a remnant of some older villa rustica or farmhouse which occupied -the site before Hadrian's time, and may have belonged to the gens Aelia. It -apparently belongs to the first half of the first century B.C. The most -common mode of construction is opus reticulatum, with squares of tawny -coloured tufa cut in the valley adjoining and bonded at the corners with -blocks of the same rock, or with red bricks. In those parts of the -buildings, which require great durability from being exposed to the action -of water, brickwork is used throughout. The Greek theatre and parts of the -academy are built of small squared blocks of tufa, or in some cases of -irregular fragments of tufa resembling the later opera Saracenesca. These -are sometimes strengthened with bands of reticulated work. In most cases -the outer covering of the walls has been removed, especially where it -consisted of marble slabs. Some of the stucco ornaments are still very -beautiful and well preserved. - -Each part of the buildings is complete in itself, but they do not seem to -have been arranged on any general plan, and now that the roads which -conducted from one part to another have disappeared, they present a -confused mass which requires some careful attention to unravel. I have -been obliged to confine myself to a very general and cursory account of -each main feature. To notice every detail would be far beyond the compass -of this book. In Ligorio's plan 334 different parts of the villa are -marked and separately described, and he spent a year in his investigation -of the ruins. - -Spartianus gives us the names of the Lyceum, the Academy, the Prytaneum, -the Canopus, the Poecile, the Tempe and the Inferi as the parts of the -villa made by Hadrian in imitation of their foreign originals. To these -Ligorio has added the name Cynosarges found upon a brick stamp. The sites -of the Canopus, the Poecile, the Academy, Tempe, and the Inferi may be -said to be ascertained with tolerable certainty, but those of the Lyceum -and Prytaneum have not been discovered. - -The other names given by antiquarians to the different buildings are -generally founded upon some definite evidence drawn from their shape and -situation, and are probably upon the whole fairly applicable. They are the -Theatres, the Palaestra, the Nymphaeum, the Library, the Imperial Palace, -the Hospitals, the Stadium, the Camp, and the Thermae. - -Proceeding from north to south, the ruins may be divided, for the -convenience of description, into ten grand groups--A, the Palaestra, -including the Greek and Latin Theatres and the Nymphaeum; B, the Poecile; -C, the Guards' Barracks; D, the Library; E, the Imperial Palace; F, the -Stadium; G, the Thermae; H, the Canopus; I, the Academy, including the -third theatre or Odeum; K, the Inferi. In giving these general divisions, -some attempt is made to represent the parts of the villa as they -were in Hadrian's time. The ruins are in such different states of -preservation--some being entirely destroyed and the ground-plan barely -traceable, while others are almost entire--that their real relative -importance is completely obscured. The modern alleys and walks also create -much confusion, and render the recognition of the ancient arrangement much -more difficult. - -The ancient grand entrance to the grounds was at the north-western end of -the ruins, on the road towards Tibur, about a quarter of a mile beyond -the Ponte Lucano. It seems to have consisted of two large pedestals of -white marble, between which the carriage-road passed, and which were -pierced with arched passages for the footways on each side. One of these -is still traceable in the Vigna Gentili, and has the remains of a -bas-relief upon it, while the other has been destroyed, and its -corresponding bas-relief placed in the Villa Albani at Rome. This gateway -has been imitated by the architect of the gateway at the old Villa -Borghese. It is erroneously called a tomb by Piranesi and Ligorio (see -Piranesi, Ant. Rom. tom. ii. tav. 39.) - -The modern entrance to the ruins is at the gate of the Villa Braschi, and -leads, through an avenue of cypress-trees, in a direction at right angles -to the ancient road of approach. The avenue runs across a space which was -formerly a large quadrilateral court, 350 feet by 250 feet, surrounded -with porticoes, attached to the theatre which stands a little to the side -at the end of the avenue. The ancient road from the Ponte Lucano entered -this court at the northern angle. The porticoes have now nearly -disappeared, but part of them was remaining in Ligorio's time. They served -the same purposes as the great colonnades behind the Theatres of Pompey -and Balbus at Rome. The theatre is an oval building, sunk in the slope of -the rising ground, the southern side containing the seats for spectators, -and the northern being occupied by the orchestra and scena, which has a -stage in the form of a long and narrow parallelogram. The plan corresponds -exactly to the description by Vitruvius of a Greek theatre, and has, -therefore, been called the Greek Theatre by the antiquaries. The Greeks -had the orchestra wider and the actual stage much narrower than the -Latins. Fragments of the travertine substructions of the scena still -remain. - -At some distance from this theatre, towards the east, and on the other -side of the stream which runs along the Valley of Tempe, is the Latin -Theatre, so called because the stage is much broader than that of the -theatre just described. Externally it was surrounded with arched porticoes -decorated, like the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome, with half-columns, -There were probably two tiers of these arches, corresponding to the two -divisions of seats. At the sides of the scena there were rooms for the use -of the actors and for the machinery, and behind the scena are three rooms, -probably corresponding to the three doors in the wall behind the stage. -The spectators' seats are turned towards the south, contrary to the rules -of Vitruvius. - -Between the two theatres there is a natural rise in the ground, which has -been further heightened by the rubbish heaped upon the spot. The ruins -here occupy a space in the form of a trapezium, the largest side of which -lies towards the north-west, and the shortest towards the south-west. They -are now covered with modern buildings belonging to the Villa Braschi. - -[Sidenote: Palaestra.] - -The northern angle of these ruins shows the remains of a quadrilateral -area surrounded by a covered way; and at the eastern angle there is -another smaller court, surrounded with a portico, which has a double row -of columns on the south-west side. This court is called the Palaestra by -Ligorio and Piranesi, and it is supposed by them that the double portico -was intended to be used in bad weather, when the athletes could not take -their exercise in the unsheltered part of the court. Several statues of -athletes, the colossal bust of Isis, now in the Museo Chiaromonti, and a -statue of Ceres, were found here. There is a suite of rooms on the -north-west side, intended, perhaps, for anointing-rooms, dust rooms, or -sparring-courts. On the southern side there is a spacious recess, with -niches for statues, and attached to it are two large halls, in the form of -a Greek cross, with small recesses at the sides, still retaining some -marks of their ancient decorations in stucco and paint. The western angle -of these ruins is conjectured to have been the site of the Xystus or -covered Palaestra, a cloistered court, with a small square opening in the -centre. - -The ruins of the Nymphaeum lie on the south side of the Palaestra, and are -connected with it by some chambers in which the stucco ornaments are still -well preserved, and show what elegance of design and workmanship was -bestowed even on the inferior parts of the villa. The curved basin of the -Nymphaeum can be traced, though it is now overgrown with trees, and some of -the niches still covered with stucco-work remain. The western side of one -of the adjacent rooms, now used as a granary, is ornamented with niches, -and Nibby thinks that this, which was the back of the Nymphaeum, was -arranged so as to present a fountain supplied from the main pipe of the -aqueduct. A similar arrangement, he says, may be seen in the remains of -the Nymphaeum at Ampiglione. The great vase now at Warwick Castle came from -Hadrian's Villa. - -[Sidenote: Poecile.] - -The Poecile lies to the south of the Nymphaeum. Between them is a reservoir -and the remains of a fountain belonging to some building now entirely -destroyed. - -[Sidenote: Castra.] - -The Athenian Poecile, of which this is an imitation, was a portico, the -walls of which were decorated with the paintings of Polygnotus and Micon. -From the description given of it by Pausanias, the Athenian building -appears to have been a portico with three sides at least, on one of which -the battle of Oenoe was represented; on the second, and longest, the wars -of Theseus against the Amazons, and the council of the Greek chiefs after -the capture of Troy; and on the third, the battle of Marathon. It thus -appears that one of the sides was much longer than the others; and this is -the case with the ruin in the Villa of Hadrian, which has three sides, -one, 640, on the north, and the others, on the east and west, each 240 -feet in length. In Ligorio's time, 1550, a part of the porticoes, which -were of brick, still remained, and some of the paintings corresponding to -the Athenian pattern. It is not certain whether there was a similar wall -and portico on the southern side. The wall of the northern side, which is -the longest, still remains entire. It had a portico on the exterior, which -terminated in two circular buildings; and in the centre was the principal -entrance to the Poecile. The present entrance is modern. Both the eastern -and western sides are slightly curved. The former contains a recess in the -centre connected with the buildings behind. In the centre was an open -reservoir of the same shape as the building surrounding it. On the western -and southern sides the area of the Poecile is supported by substructions -of masonry, against which are built a number of soldiers' rooms commonly -called the Cento Camarelle. At the corner towards the south-west is a -public washhouse, the tubes of which are still in good preservation. - -Attached to the north-eastern corner of the Poecile is a fine building, in -the form of a recess, with a semicircular niche turned towards the north, -which, from the connection of the Stoic philosophy with the Stoa Poecile -at Athens, has been called the Temple or School of the Stoics. It was -possibly a hall for conversation and discussion. - -[Sidenote: Library.] - -Opening from this school, towards the north-east, is a building in the -form of two concentric circles. Between the two circular parts there was a -canal filled with water. This edifice was probably a swimming-bath. It -appears to have been very highly ornamented with precious marbles and -sculptures, most of which were taken to Rome by Cardinal Alessandro -Farnese, and others to Tivoli by Cardinal Ippolito d'Este. The ruin -commonly goes by the name of Theatrum Maritimum. A little farther to the -north-east is a quadrilateral court, 200 feet wide, which was surrounded -by a portico with Corinthian columns. On the north-west side of this court -are the buildings usually supposed to belong to the library, and called -the Greek and Latin libraries. They consist of a large number of rooms, -more or less preserved, which may have been ante-rooms and chambers for -the attendants and librarians. In the centre of the north-western side of -the court is a well-preserved Nymphaeum, and on the north-east a long -corridor with windows towards the south, which may be called a Helio -Caminus, or room for basking in the sun, from its resemblance to the place -so called by Pliny at his Laurentine villa. The ruins to the north-east of -these, towards the Valley of Tempe, are thought by Nibby to be the remains -of a suite of rooms belonging to one wing of the imperial palace, but -their plan is very imperfectly known. - -[Sidenote: Palace.] - -The great mass of the imperial apartments were farther to the south-east, -and were grouped round three large courts of dazzling magnificence. The -most splendid of those, which afforded spoil for generations of -plunderers, is called by Piranesi, from the richness of its decorative -work, the Piazza d'Oro. Round the courts were numberless suites of rooms -and several large recesses, a basilica, and a great hall now called Eco -Corintio, formerly supported on vast granite columns, and cased with slabs -of the choicest marbles. - -[Sidenote: Stadium.] - -The Stadium lies in a direction at right-angles to the southern side of -the Poecile. The curved end is towards the south. Between the -swimming-bath and the northern, or square end of the Stadium, are some -bath-rooms for the use of the athletes, and on the west side stands a -temple surrounded by a sacred enclosure formed by two vast semicircular -walls ornamented with niches. On the eastern side are more rooms, and a -magnificent quadrilateral covered way. - -[Sidenote: Thermae.] - -The Thermae stand between the Stadium and the Canopus. Numerous pipes and -conduits for water, and also the arrangement of the various parts of the -buildings, show that they have been rightly placed here. There seem to -have been two distinct sets of bath-rooms, which are generally called the -Terme virili and the Terme muliebri by the Italian antiquaries. The -northern group of buildings is connected with the curved end of the -Stadium, and contains the usual number of halls and an elliptical -Laconicum. The Laconicum of the southern wing is circular, and is -connected with a grand central hall similar to that in the Baths of -Caracalla at Rome. - -[Sidenote: Canopus.] - -The place called Canopus lies to the south of the Thermae, and close to a -mass of buildings now utterly destroyed, but in Piranesi's time thought to -be a vestibule of the villa. The Canopus itself consists of an oblong pool -of water or euripus excavated in the tufa, with a row of buildings on the -west side, and a magnificent nymphaeum at the southern end, containing a -great number of niches for statuary, and holes for jets of water. At the -back of the Nymphaeum is a hall called the Sacrarium, in which it is -supposed the statue of Serapis stood. A passage of Strabo explains the -idea which Hadrian had in forming this canal and Nymphaeum. He says that on -the grand festival of Serapis, whose temple and oracle were at Canopus, -120 stadia from Alexandria, immense crowds of men and women go down to -Canopus from Alexandria by boats on the canal, on the banks of which are -pleasant houses of entertainment, where the worshippers stop on their way -to feast and dance.[158] The long, broad pool was intended to represent -the Canopic canal, and the rooms ranged along the side, the houses of -refreshment. A confirmation of this is derived from the character of the -statues found here which were almost all those of Egyptian deities. - -[Sidenote: Academy.] - -To the south-west of the Canopus rise the immense substructions, 1755 feet -in length, which supported the highest terrace on this side of the villa. -They extend as far as the square tower called Rocca Bruna in Ligorio's -plan. This terrace and hill are supposed to have been the imitation of the -Athenian Academy mentioned by Spartianus. There was a gymnasium here, the -ruins of which are to be seen in a vineyard at the southern end of the -hill, consisting of a large court, a circular temple, and a large recess. -Beyond these there was a large square block of buildings supposed by Nibby -to have been used for the students and masters of the School of Art -maintained by Hadrian, and beyond this again was a spacious Odeum or -theatre for musical performances. The raised seat of this is now converted -into a vineyard, but the stage is still well preserved. There were, as in -the Odeum of Catania, two divisions, and at the top of the central -division was a round temple dedicated to the presiding genius of the -Odeum; just as in the Theatre of Pompey the Chapel of Victory stood above -the seats. - -Close to this Odeum are the vast subterranean passages supposed to be the -Inferi which Spartianus mentions. The depth at which these lie is only -fourteen feet, but they occupy a trapezoidal area, the longest side of -which is about one thousand and fifty feet, and the shortest two hundred. -Most of these corridors are excavated like catacombs in the natural rock. -A brick stamped with the name Cynosarges was found near the aqueduct which -runs to the south of the Inferi. There are two other names found in -Spartianus, the Lyceum, and the Prytaneum, and Piranesi identifies the -Lyceum with a ruined portico at a little distance to the south of the -Inferi, and the Prytaneum with some more extensive ruins to the -south-east. - -After Constantine's time, the Villa of Hadrian remained in a desolate -state, and was abandoned to the caprices of the imbecile Caesars, who -tormented the empire in the fourth and fifth centuries, and to occasional -visits from the plundering hordes of Goths, Vandals, and Heruli, who -successively ravaged the neighbouring country. In the middle of the sixth -century it was completely pillaged and ruined. In the Gothic wars of -546-556 Totila took Tibur after a siege of some months, and revenged -himself for the resistance of the Isaurian garrison by putting all to the -sword without sparing even the bishop. At the same time Totila broke down -all the bridges on the Anio. During that long siege, the Villa of Hadrian -with its enormous halls, its vast ranges of rooms, and its advantageous -and commanding site at the junction of several roads, offered convenient -quarters to the barbarian king and his host. It may be imagined what -devastation such tenants would inflict upon the place. In the sixth -century the villa fell more and more into ruins; to the disasters of the -Gothic wars were added those incurred during the Lombard wars under -Astulf. The Lombards were a more savage horde than the Goths, and their -object was to destroy the Roman empire utterly, and to divide Italy into -dukedoms. These barbarians attacked Rome many times, and ravaged the -Campagna, but Astulf distinguished himself above all the rest in these -incursions, massacring and burning everywhere without distinction. As we -hear that he was encamped near Tivoli, we may conclude that the Villa of -Hadrian suffered severely in or about the year 755. - -The wars between emperors and popes, and the quarrels between the factions -in Rome itself which followed, injured Rome perhaps rather more than the -cities of the Campagna. But the greatest damage of all was done to the -villa by its being made the quarry whence the churches, the monasteries, -and the houses of the wealthy Tiburtines were decorated with marbles, -columns, and costly stonework, and when these were filled and could hold -no more of the innumerable marble sculptures and statues, they were -condemned to the lime-kiln and converted into mortar. After the revival -of letters and arts in the fifteenth century, the lamentations poured out -in the time of Pius II. (A.D. 1458) over the ruins of the villa are most -pathetic. "The lofty vaults of the temples are still standing, and the -wonderful columns of the cloisters and magnificent porticoes. The -swimming-baths and Thermae can be traced, where the water of the Anio once -mitigated the summer heats. But the hand of time has defaced all these, -and the walls once draped with embroidered tapestry and cloth of gold are -now clad with ivy; the thorns and briar grow where tribunes sat in purple -robes, and serpents crawl, in their kings' chambers." In spite of the -existence here and there of such love of antiquity, the burning of the -Tiburtine marbles into lime continued throughout the sixteenth century, -and the levelling of the ground for cultivation has gone on even to the -present century.[159] - -The same fate attended all the other grand monuments of the Campagna. -Rutilius Numatianus, writing probably in 417 in the reign of Honorius, -speaks of the buildings of Rome and the aqueducts of the Campagna as if -they were still uninjured, but he prefers to return to his native home in -Gaul by sea, on account of the bad state of the roads on the coast caused -by the Gothic devastations. - -[Illustration: ENVIRONS OF TIVOLI.] - -[Sidenote: Tibur.] - -Ascending from Hadrian's Villa to the point where the Anio issues from a -valley dividing the Aequian from the Sabine Mountains, we find the river -winding round a considerable hill, partly clothed with groves of olive, -and rising to the height of 830 feet. At the back of this hill the river -has forced a passage for itself through the limestone rocks which threaten -to impede its exit from the upper valley, and falls in a tremendous -cataract down a precipitous cliff of 320 feet in height to the lower -level. The water is strongly charged with carbonate of lime, which is -constantly being deposited in the shape of masses of travertine in the -channels through which the stream runs, especially where the water, in -consequence of the violent agitation caused by its rapid descent, parts -quickly with the carbonic acid gas contained in it. The course of the -stream is from time to time blocked up by its own formations of stone, -and it is forced to open new passages for itself. From this cause the city -of Tibur, which stands on the hill, close to the point where the river -falls to its lower level, has always been subject to violent and dangerous -inundations. The great inundation of 1826 proved so formidable that it was -at once resolved to divert the course of part of the river and provide it -with an artificial outlet. This was effected by boring two tunnels through -Monte Catillo on the east of the city, through which any rush of water can -be allowed to pass and fall harmlessly into the lower valley. A part of -the river water is always allowed to pass through these tunnels, and forms -at their lower end a magnificent cascade. Another part passes under the -bridge called Ponte S. Gregorio and then rushes through a fantastic grotto -of travertine blocks called by the local guides Grotta di Nettuno, and -joins the stream from the tunnels at the bottom of the valley. A third -portion of the Anio is diverted just above the bridge into canals -apparently of very ancient date, which, passing completely through the -centre of the town, are used as the motive power of watermills and -factories of various kinds, and then fall again into the main stream at -various points of the romantic cliffs on the western hill side. These form -the wreaths of "snow white foam" so celebrated as the cascades of the -Anio, and explain perfectly the expression of Horace: - - O headlong Anio, O Tiburnian groves, - And orchards saturate with shifting streams. - -But few traces of the ancient walls of the city are left. Nibby is however -doubtless right in saying that there can be no question about their course -along the northern and eastern sides of the city, where the brow of the -hill is steep and perfectly adapted for defence by a wall placed on the -edge of the rocky valley of the Anio. The citadel was probably situated in -the quarter called Castro Vetere--where the two temples commonly called -the temples of the Sibyl and of Drusilla stand, for it is plain that some -pains have been taken to isolate this from the remainder of the site. On -the western side the limit of the ancient walls is marked by the old -gate, and by the fragments of walls which still exist at the point where -the direct road from Rome enters the city by the modern Porta del Colle. -The course of the walls then excludes the Villa d'Este, and runs across -the hill to the Church of the Annunziata and the Porta Santa Croce and the -citadel built by Pius II. on the site of the ancient amphitheatre. From -thence the walls passed in a straight line down to the river near the -Church of S. Bartolommeo. The ancient town did not extend to the right -bank of the Anio. - -[Illustration: Temple of Vesta at Tibur.] - -[Sidenote: Temple of Vesta.] - -Two ancient temples are still standing in tolerable preservation at Tibur. -The first of these is a small round temple perched on the very edge of the -precipitous ravine through which the Anio dashes. It has been protected -against the violence of the furious torrent by massive substructions, -which apparently existed in ancient times and have often been renewed. Ten -of the eighteen columns which formerly surrounded the inner chamber still -remain. - -The details of this temple are rather peculiar in style, and show an -originality of invention very rare in Roman architecture. The columns have -Attic bases, but the grooves of the fluting are cut in a style which is -neither Doric nor Ionic. They terminate above in an abrupt horizontal -line, and reach at the foot of the column quite down to the base without -any intermediate cylinder. The capitals exhibit a fantastic variety of the -Corinthian order, having the second row of acanthus leaves nearly hidden -behind the first, and a lotus blossom as the decoration of the abacus. The -frieze is ornamented with the skulls of oxen and festoons, in the loops of -which are rosettes and paterae placed alternately. The inner chamber, which -is built of opus incertum, is partly destroyed, but the lower half of the -door and a window still remain. - -From the above description it will be seen that the architecture of the -temple appears to belong to the end of the Republican era, but the -inscription on the architecture gives us no further hint of the exact -date, as the whole of it: with the exception of the words L. CELLIO. L. -F., has disappeared. The most probable conjecture as to the deity to whom -it was dedicated is that based upon the fact that Vesta was worshipped at -Tibur, as is shown not only by two inscriptions found near the spot, but -also by the mediaeval name of this quarter of the town. The form of the -temple also confirms such an opinion. - -[Sidenote: Temple of Albunea.] - -The second temple stands quite close to this round building, and is now -consecrated as the Church of S. Giorgio. Its shape was that of a -pseudoperipteral temple, i.e. with the side columns half sunk in the -walls, raised on a meagre base of tufa blocks. It had a front, with four -Ionic columns, one of which still remains, forming a support to the -Campanile. An inscription dedicated to Drusilla, the sister of Caligula, -was found here, but no reference as to the name of the temple can be drawn -from it. A bas-relief, also found on the spot, represents the Tiburtine -Sibyl sitting, and in the act of delivering an oracle. Hence it has been -thought that we have in the Church of S. Giorgio the Temple of the Sibyl -Albunea mentioned by Horace, Tibullus, and Lactantius, and this seems to -be the most probable of the various conjectures which have been hazarded -on the subject. The Grove of Tiburnus mentioned by Horace was probably on -the right bank of the Anio, but further than this it is impossible to -determine its exact position. There was also a grove dedicated to Diana. -The Mons Catillus, now Monte Catillo or Monte della Croce, is the height -on the right bank of the Anio. The name is at least as early as the time -of Servius. - -[Sidenote: Villas.] - -As may easily be imagined there are numerous remains of ancient villas -scattered about the immediate neighbourhood of Tibur, and the local -guides, in order to please travellers but without the slightest evidence -in support of their assertions, have dubbed them the Villas of Catullus, -Horace, Ventidius, Quintilius Varus, Maecenas, Sallust, Piso, Capito, -Brutus, Popillius, and other celebrated Romans. - -The most remarkable ruins are those to which the name of Maecenas has been -attached. The greater part of these have been now unfortunately concealed -by new buildings and by an iron manufactory, but a fine terrace and parts -of the porticoes still remain on the lofty bank of the Anio. The rest is -a mere confused mass of vaulted chambers and archways. The Via Tecta, or -Porta Oscura, as it is sometimes called, by which the road passes -underneath these ruins, was built, as we learn from an inscription now in -the Vatican collection, by O. Vitulus and Rustius Flavos. The materials -and style show that it can hardly be of a later date than the first -century A.D. - -[Sidenote: Tempio della Tosse.] - -The Tempio della Tosse which probably obtains its name from a vulgar -interpretation of the name of the gens Tossia, is a ruin standing in a -vineyard at the side of the old road, called the Via Constantina, below -the Villa d'Este. It has none of the characteristic marks of an ancient -temple, and the large number of windows it contains forbid us to suppose -it to be a tomb. The interior of the building is round, the exterior -octagonal. It is built of layers of small fragments of tufa intermixed -with courses of bricks, materials which point to the fourth century as the -earliest possible date of its erection. On the walls are the remains of -frescoes of the Saviour and the Virgin, dating probably from the 13th -century. These show that, if it was not originally a Christian Church, it -was used as one at the time the frescoes were painted. - -[Sidenote: Villa of Cassius.] - -The ruins of a considerable villa lie near the Porta S. Croce of Tivoli, -in the estate called Carciano, from the mediaeval name of the Fundus -Cassianus, which is stated in a list of the estates belonging to the -cathedral at Tivoli to have been the site of a villa of Caius Cassius. -Part of these ruins consist of a very ancient structure of polygonal work, -but the rest is pronounced by Nibby to belong to the time of the later -republic. The casino of the Collegio Greco is now built on the spot, but -the plan of the ancient villa can be so far traced as to show that it had -several terraces, and looked towards the south-west. In the 16th century -there were still eighteen large apartments existing, surrounded with a -portico of Doric columns, and also some temples, a theatre, some -fountains, and fish ponds. The opus reticulatum of these ruins is peculiar -for the alternate arrangement of coloured tufa in its lozenges. An immense -number of works of art were dug up here, and the nearly complete -destruction of what still remained of the villa in the 16th century, is -probably due to the fact of its having been found to be so rich a mine of -sculpture. - -[Sidenote: Sabine Farm of Horace.] - -The Sabine farm of Horace can hardly be passed over here, though it is not -strictly included within the district of Tibur. There is no evidence to -show that Horace ever had any villa at Tibur in addition to his Sabine -farm; indeed his own words seem expressly to imply the contrary. The -estate he had was plainly usually called a Sabinum, not a Tiburtinum, and -must therefore be looked for at some distance from Tibur. Horace mentions -two places in its neighbourhood, Varia, and Mandela, the sites of which -can be exactly determined. The ancient list of towns places Varia on the -Via Valeria, eight miles beyond Tibur, and precisely at this distance are -the remains of an ancient town now covered by the modern village of Vico -Varo. But the position of Mandela is more important for ascertaining the -site of Horace's farm, because if we can fix upon it, we then can discover -to which of the mountain streams which flow into the Anio the name -Digentia belonged. An inscription dug up in 1757 near the Church of S. -Cosimato on the Via Valeria, two miles from the village of Bardella, shows -that an estate in the modern district formed by the union of Cantalupo and -Bardella was called in the later imperial times, or the early Middle Ages, -Massa Mandelana. - -From this it is plain that the Digentia was the torrent called Mariscella, -which joins the Anio between Cantalupo, Bardella and Vico Varo, descending -from near Licenza, a small village about six miles from Vico Varo. As to -the exact spot where the farm of Horace itself stood in the valley of the -Digentia, we cannot be quite certain. The ruins usually pointed out are on -a little knoll opposite to the village of Licenza, and on the other side -of the stream. These are possibly situated on the spot on which the -farmhouse stood, if they do not date so far back as the lifetime of the -poet himself. Dennis in Milman's Horace says, "The ruins consist only of a -mosaic pavement, and of two capitals and two fragments of Doric columns -lying among the bushes. The pavement has been much ruined by the planting -of a vineyard, and can only be seen on removing the earth which covers -it. The groundwork is white with a border of animals in black. These are -the sole traces now visible (1842), but some fifty years ago, the mosaic -floors of six chambers were brought to light, but were covered again with -earth, as nothing was found to tempt any further excavation. The farm is -situated on a rising ground which sinks with a gentle slope to the stream, -leaving a level intervening strip now yellow with the harvest. In this I -recognised the sunny meadow which, as the poet says, was in danger of -being inundated. The sunny fields were probably then, as now, sown with -corn. Here it must have been that the poet was wont to repose on the grass -after his meal, and here his personal efforts perhaps to dam out the -stream provoked his neighbours' smiles." The place is surrounded on all -sides by hills, except where the main valley of the Digentia separates -them, running nearly due north and south, so that facing down the valley, -the sun before midday rests on the right-hand slopes, and in the afternoon -on the left hand, thus corresponding exactly to the poet's description of -the site.[160] - -[Illustration: Vico Varo and Lucretilis.] - -The other spots mentioned by Horace as near his farm, are the Chapel of -Vacuna, the slopes of Ustica, and the mountain of Lucretilis. The first of -these has been placed by the Italian topographers at Rocca Giovane, a -village perched on a hill on the west side of the valley about two miles -above Cantalupo Bardella. The evidence for this identification is, -however, very doubtful. - -The Ustica cubans of the poet is commonly with some probability supposed -to be La Rustica, which lies on the hill close to Licenza on the eastern -side of the valley. Lucretilis is probably a name applied to the whole -range of hills connected with Monte Gennaro. Cav. Rosa, however, places it -at Monte del Corynaleto just above Rocca Giovane. The name of Fons -Bandusiae has been given to most of the springs in this valley by the -enthusiastic admirers of Horace, but it is quite uncertain whether the -Fons Bandusiae was not in Apulia. - - -(F) THE NORTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. - -The principal roads which traversed the Campagna to the north and -north-west of Rome are the Nomentana, the Salaria and the Flaminia. -These roads offer but little, within the bounds of ancient Latium, which -calls for remark. - -[Illustration: AGRI ROMANI TABULA] - -The Via Nomentana diverged from the Via Salaria at the Collina gate in the -Servian walls, and passed through the Aurelian wall at a gate which now -stands a little to the south of the modern Porta Pia. The present road -follows the line of the ancient Via Nomentana, as may be seen by the ruins -of tombs which fringe it beyond S. Agnese. The Chapel of S. Constanza, -opposite S. Agnese, is an interesting building of the Constantinian epoch, -and the mosaics it contains, including a mixture of Christian and pagan -emblems, are very remarkable. The Mons Sacer stands just beyond the bridge -over the Anio, and the Villa of Phaon, where Nero ended his life, was at -the Vigne Nuove, on a side road which branches off to the right, just -beyond the Ponte Nomentano. - -The Via Salaria is said to have been so named from the supplies of salt -conveyed along it to the Sabine district at the time when the Romans and -Sabines were confederates. It is first mentioned in history as the scene -of the single combat between Manlius and the gigantic Gaul. The ancient -road passed out at the Collina gate, and followed very nearly the same -line as the present road along the left bank of the Tiber, as may be seen -by the ruins near Serpentara, and by the position of the ancient bridge, -the Ponte Salaro, which carries it over the Anio close to Antemnae. Beyond -this, Fidenae and the Allia are the most remarkable points of interest upon -the road in the neighbourhood of Rome. Beyond Malpasso, the ancient road, -according to Nibby, diverges to the right, crossing the railway to Ancona. - -The Via Flaminia, after passing through the Porta Ratumena at the Tomb of -Bibulus, left the Aurelian fortifications at the Porta Flaminia, which -stood a little nearer the slope of Monte Pincio than the present Porta del -Popolo. It ran to the right of the present street, and then crossed the -Tiber at the well-known Milvian bridge, and then diverged to the right -along the Tiber valley, while the Via Cassia ascended to the left among -the Etruscan hills towards Veii, which lay to the right at the twelfth -milestone. The old Flaminian Road lay closer to the river than the -modern, which is carried through a cutting in the hills and rejoins it at -Tor di Quinto. There are a few rock tombs on the left hand, between the -fifth and sixth milestones. One of them has been connected with the poet -Ovid by a mistaken inference drawn from the inscription found upon it -which bears the name of Q. Nasonius Ambrosius. - -[Illustration: Ponte Nomentano.] - -The Ponte Molle, which derives its name from an unknown Roman Mulvius, or -from the neighbouring hills, carries the Flaminian Road over the Tiber at -a distance of two miles from the Porta del Popolo. Some of the foundations -of the bridge, and parts of the peperino and travertine stonework in the -smaller arches, are ancient. The victory of Constantine over Maxentius, -which is usually called the battle of the Pons Mulvius, was gained six -miles further along the road. - -An inscription cut in a block of travertine has been fixed in the -right-hand parapet of the bridge. This inscription records the inspection -of the banks of the Tiber by the Censors of M. Valerius and Publius -Serveilius, who were Censors in the year B.C. 55. - -[Sidenote: Villa of Livia at Prima Porta.] - -One of the imperial villas of an early date was placed on the right bank -of the Tiber at the ninth milestone on the Via Flaminia in the Veientine -territory. - -The Via Flaminia is here bordered for a long distance on the left-hand -side by tufa rocks of a reddish hue, whence the district had obtained, in -Livy's time, the name of Saxa Rubra. The Cremera, now the Valca, is one of -the streams which enter the Tiber in this district, and beyond it, where -the road turns to the left, and, leaving the valley of the Tiber, ascends -the hill through a cutting, is the stream and hamlet of Prima Porta. On -the right of the road here, and between it and the Tiber, lie the ruins of -a large villa, the various terraces of which, raised one above the other, -occupy the whole of the top of the hill, and command magnificent views of -the Sabine and Aequian highlands. There can be no doubt that these ruins -are the remains of the villa of Livia called ad Gallinas, mentioned by -Pliny and by Suetonius as situated at the ninth milestone on the Via -Flaminia. The style of construction in the walls which remain corresponds -to that of the Mausoleum of Augustus in the Campus Martius. The -reticulated work has that peculiar irregularity about it which indicates -the transition from the opus incertum to the more regularly formed opus -reticulatum. Nibby had pointed out this spot in 1837 as one in which a -rich harvest might be reaped from excavating, but it was not till 1863 -that the splendid Statue of Augustus, now in the Braccio Nuovo of the -Vatican with other interesting sculptures, was dug up here.[161] - -At the same time some rooms were excavated at a depth of ten feet, under -the level of the ancient villa. They had apparently been closed at a very -early time and filled with earth, in order to erect a building over them. -The largest of these was apparently intended as a cool retreat during the -summer heats, and the walls are painted with trees and birds, in imitation -of a rustic bower. These paintings have attracted great attention as being -some of the most ancient now in existence, and also on account of their -intrinsic beauty, and the wonderful way in which they have preserved their -freshness of colour. The pavement of this painted room was of marble, -which was, however, removed when the earth was thrown in at the time of -building the rooms above. - -The legend about this villa connects it with the death of Nero, relating -that the laurel bushes and the white fowls, for which the villa had been -celebrated since the days of Livia, withered and died out during Nero's -last days. - -[Sidenote: Veii.] - -Beyond Prima Porta, to the west, is the site of Veii. This is about twelve -miles from Rome, and now bears the name of Isola Farnese. But little -remains of the ancient city have been found, but no doubt is now felt by -antiquaries that the city occupied the rocky ground between the Cremera -and the Fosso de' due Fossi. - -Inscriptions bearing the names of some Etruscan families, especially the -Tarquitii, have been found here, and the remains of the ancient citadel, -on the spot now called the Piazza d'Armi, are mentioned in some old -ecclesiastical documents. - -[Illustration: _ICHNOGRAPHIA._ ROMAE VETERIS.] - -One of the gates must have been at the spot now called the Porta de' Sette -Pagi as the road from Veii to Sutri probably passed out here, and another -gate was opposite Isola called the Porta dell' Arco. A third may have -stood towards Fidenae, where the ancient postern and flight of steps is -now to be seen, called La Scaletta. Other remains are to be seen near -the site of a gate called by Canina La Spezieria. The Ponte Sodo and the -tombs near it are worth attention, as is also the ancient Etruscan tomb -called the Grotta Campana, in which a most interesting set of sepulchral -ornamentations and cinerary urns has been preserved. The chief monuments -of Veii, which have been taken to Rome, are the Ionic columns in front of -the Post Office in the Piazza Colonna, the Statue of Tiberius, and the -colossal heads of Tiberius and Augustus, now in the Vatican Museum.[162] - - - - -INDEX. - - - A. - - Academia, 21, 246 - - Aedes Publican, Flavian, 22, 24 - - Aesculapius, temple of, 116 - - Agger of Servius, 157 - - Agon Capitolinus, 181 - - Agrippina, pedestal of, 146, 178 - - Alba Longa, 207 - - Alban Hills, 192, 194; - Emissarium or tunnel of, 204 - - ---- Lake, 203 - - ---- Mount, 206 - - Albanum Caesarum, 202 - - Albula, 189 - - Albulae Aquae, 236 - - Alexamenus, 18 - - Allia, 257 - - Altar of Sextius, 16 - - Amphitheatrum Castrense, 173 - - Ancient stone work, 163 - - Anio, falls of, 249 - - Antoninus Pius, pedestal of column, 178 - - Appian Road, 194 - - Aqua Virgo, 135 - - Arches, 9 - - Arch of Constantine, 59 - - ---- Dolabella, 174 - - ---- Drusus, 171 - - ---- Gallienus, 77 - - ---- M. Aurelius, 177 - - ---- Severus, 52 - - ---- Silversmiths, 104 - - ---- Tiberius, 46 - - ---- Titus, 31 - - Architectural styles, 5, 11 - - Arco dei Pantani, 92 - - Area Flacciana, 15 - - Arena of Coliseum, 67 - - Arricia, causeway at, 208 - - Arval College, 231 - - Atta, tomb of, 219 - - Atticus, tomb of, 198 - - Atrium, Palatine, 23 - - Auguratorium, on Palatine, 30 - - Augustan buildings, 21 - - Aurelius, M., bas-reliefs from arch, 177 - - Aventine and Caelian Hills, 161. - - - B. - - Bandusiae Fons, 256 - - Basilica, Constantine, 34, 35, 183 - - ---- Julia, 44 - - ----, Palatine, 24 - - ----, Ulpia, 83 - - Bas-reliefs in Forum, 42, 43 - - Baths of Agrippa, 134 - - ---- Caracalla, 166, 183 - - ---- Constantine, 100, 183 - - ---- Diocletian, 153 - - ---- Titus, 75 - - Bibliotheca, 21 - - Bibulus, tomb of, 97 - - Brickwork, 12 - - Bronze cone, 149, 178; - peacocks, 150, 178 - - Bovillae, 200 - - - C. - - Caecilia Metella, tomb of, 197 - - Caelian, houses on, 176 - - Caffarelli Palace, 98 - - Caligula, Palace of, 31 - - Calydonian boar hunt, 181 - - Campagna, hills of, 191; - population, 192 - - Capitoline map, 120, 181 - - Capitolium, 98 - - Casale Rotondo, 200 - - Cestius, tomb of, 165 - - Cicero's Villa, 218 - - Circus Flaminius, 123; - - ---- Maximus, Carceres of, 112 - - Claudian Aqueduct, 20, 81, 174 - - Climate, 189 - - Clivus Victoriae, 14 - - Cloaca Maxima, 46, 105 - - Clodius, Villa of, 201 - - Cluilia Fossa, 197 - - Coliseum, 61; - architecture of, 72; - characteristic of builder, 70 - - Colonnacce, 94 - - Colossus of Nero, 63 - - Columbaria, 73, 170 - - Columns, 10 - - Column of Marcus Aurelius, 138 - - ---- Phocas, 41 - - ---- Trajan, 84; - cast of, 89 - - Columna Centenaria, 142 - - Commodus, Palace of, 176 - - Constantine, Baths of, 100 - - Cornelia Gracchorum, 121 - - Cosmedin, S. Maria in, 111 - - Cremera, 259 - - Cryptoporticus, 25 - - Curtius, bas-relief, 179 - - - D. - - Dacian campaigns, Trajan's, 87 - - Decebalus, 88 - - Demosthenes, statue of, 182 - - Digentia, 254 - - Dii Consentes, area of, 48 - - Dogana, in Piazza di Pietra, 136 - - Domitius Calvinus, pedestal, 26, 28 - - Domus Aurea of Nero, 73 - - Doria Palace, 127 - - Duilian column, inscription on, 179 - - - E. - - Egeria, grotto of, 195 - - Egyptian antiquities, 129, 177 - - Einsiedlen MS., 51, 76, 100, 125, 138, 148 - - Eurysaces, tomb of, 81 - - - F. - - Fasti Consulares, 179 - - ---- Praenestini, 229 - - Faustina, the younger, 178 - - Fidenae, 257 - - Fiumicino, 231 - - Flaminia, Via, 257 - - Forum Augusti, 92 - - ---- Julium, 91 - - ----, Nerva's, 94 - - ---- Romanum, 38 - - ----, Trajan's, 83 - - Fratres Arvales, 231; - buildings of, 232 - - Freshwater strata, 187 - - Frontispicium Neronis, 100 - - - G. - - Gabii, 221 - - Gabinius, Villa of, 218 - - Galuzze, 79 - - Gelotiana, Domus, 17 - - Geology of Campagna, 185 - - Germalus, 17, 29 - - Germanicus, House of, 26 - - Geta, erased, 104, 119 - - Gladiator or Gaul, dying, 181 - - Gnomon Obelisk, 137 - - Gordiana, Villa, 219 - - Gradus Concordiae, 51 - - Graffiti, 18, 70 - - - H. - - Hadrian, colossal head of, 178 - - Hadrian's Villa, 237; - antiquities from, 181, 183 - - Heliogabalus, Lavacrum, 36, 58 - - Horace, Sabine farm, 254 - - House of Laterani, 173 - - - I. - - Imperial monuments, 3 - - - J. - - Janus Quadrifrons, 103 - - Julius Caesar, Heroon of, 39 - - Jupiter Pluvius, 141 - - ---- Propugnator, 28 - - ---- Redux, 176 - - ---- Stator, 25 - - ---- Victor, 28 - - - L. - - Labicum, 223 - - Laconicum, 134, 155, 168 - - Laocoon, 182 - - Lararium, Palatine, 24 - - Latifundia, 192 - - Latin road, tombs on, 211 - - Latium, towns of, 191, 192 - - Lautumiae, 56 - - Legio fulminata, 141 - - Lucretilis, 256 - - - M. - - Maecenas, Auditorium of, 80; - Tower of, 102 - - Mamertine Prison, 55 - - Mandela, 254 - - Marcus Aurelius, statue of, 183 - - Marine strata, 185 - - Masonry, Roman, 4 - - Mausoleum of Augustus, 143 - - ---- Hadrian, 148 - - Maxentius, Circus of, 196 - - Meta Sudans, 58 - - Milestones on Appian Road, 183 - - Miliarium Aureum, 54 - - Minerva Medica, 78 - - Mons Sacer, 257 - - Monte Cavallo, 183 - - ---- Testaccio, 164 - - Monumental History, 2 - - Monumentum Ancyranum, 145 - - Muro Torto, 147 - - Museum, Kircherian, antiquities in, 183 - - - N. - - Navicella, 174 - - Nemi, Lake of, 208; - Caesar's Villa at, 210 - - Nomentana, Via, 257 - - Nymphaeum, Palatine, 23 - - - O. - - Obelisks, 12, 129, 145 - - Oligarchical monuments, 2 - - Ostia, 229; - antiquities from, 182 - - - P. - - Palatine, Belvedere on, 20; - entrance, 14; - paintings on peristylium, 23, 27; - walls, 16, 17 - - Pantheon, 130; - plundered, 135 - - Pedestals, in Forum, 41, 42 - - Phaon, Villa of, 257 - - Piazza Navona, 143 - - Pillar of Antoninus Pius, 138 - - Plautian Tomb, 236 - - Pompey, Villa and Tomb of, 201 - - Pons Aelius, 148 - - Ponte Lucano, 236 - - ---- Molle, or Milvian bridge, 257 - - ---- di Nono, 221 - - ---- Rotto, 115 - - ---- S. Sisto, 126 - - Porphyry basin, 182 - - Porta Capena, 163 - - ---- Chiusa, 159 - - ---- Collina, 257 - - ---- Maggiore, 81 - - ---- Mugionia, 24 - - ---- Ratumena, 97 - - ---- Romanula, 15 - - ---- S. Lorenzo, 81 - - ---- Viminalis, 153 - - Porticus Catuli, 15 - - ---- Metelli, 120 - - ---- Octaviae, 119 - - Portland Vase, 181 - - Porto, 233 - - Praeneste, 223 - - Praetorian Camp, 158 - - Prima Porta, statue of Augustus from, 260; - Villa of Livia, 259 - - Puteal, in Forum, 39 - - - Q. - - Quintiliana, Villa of Commodus, 198, 212; - sculpture from, 200 - - Quirinal Hill, 101 - - Quirinale, or Monte Cavallo, Piazza, 101, 183 - - - R. - - Rediculus, Divus, 195 - - Regal Monuments, 2 - - Republican Monuments, 2 - - Rienzi, 147 - - Roma Vecchia, 197, 212 - - Rostra of Empire, 54 - - Rutilius, 248 - - - S. - - Salaria Via, 257 - - Salita del Grillo, ruin in, 83 - - Sallustia, statue of, 172 - - S. Andrea della Valle, 123 - - S. Angelo, bridge of, 148 - - S. Constanza, Chapel of, 257 - - SS. Cosma and Damiano, 36 - - S. Maria degli Angeli, 153, 155 - - S. Maria in Via Lata, 127 - - S. Nicola in Carcere, ruins in, 117 - - S. Urbano, 195 - - Sarcophagi and cippus, 182 - - Saxa Rubra, 259 - - Scala Coeli, 29 - - Schola Xanthi, 49 - - Scipio, Sarcophagus, 182 - - Scipios, Tomb of, 170 - - Sculpture, ancient specimens of, 184 - - Seneca, Villa of, 197 - - Septa, 127 - - Septizonium, 20, 151 - - Servian Walls, 161 - - Sessorium, 172 - - Sette Basse, 212 - - ---- Sale, 75 - - Site of Rome, 1 - - Sortes Praenestinae, 225, 228 - - Stadium Palatinum, 18 - - Suovetaurilia, 42, 60, 88 - - - T. - - Tabularium, 56 - - Tarpeian Rock, 99 - - Tarquin Dynasty, 106, 157, 161 - - Teatro Correa, 143 - - Temple of Albunea at Tivoli, 252 - - ---- Antoninus and Faustina, 40 - - ---- Artemis at Nemi, 210 - - ---- Bacchus or Honos, 195 - - ---- Castor, 38 - - ---- Ceres, 110 - - ---- Concord, 50 - - ---- Cybele, 29 - - ---- Fortuna Praenestina, 225 - - ---- Fortuna Virilis, 107 - - ---- Hadrian, 137 - - ---- Isis, 128 - - ---- Jupiter Capitolinus, 98 - - ---- Jupiter Feretrius, 29 - - ---- Jupiter Latiaris, 207 - - ---- Lares Praestites, 29 - - ---- Marcus Aurelius, 139 - - ---- Mars Ultor, 92 - - ---- Minerva, 96 - - ---- Penates, 36 - - ---- Romulus, 196 - - ---- Saturn, 46 - - ---- Serapis, 128 - - ---- Sibyl, or Vesta, at Tivoli, 251 - - ---- Sun, Aurelian's, 100 - - ---- Venus and Cupid, 172 - - ---- Venus and Rome, 32 - - ---- Vespasian, 49 - - ---- Vesta, 39 - - ---- Vesta or Hercules, 108 - - Temples, on Palatine, 28 - - Theatre of Balbus, 122, 183 - - ---- Marcellus, 112 - - ---- Pompey, 123 - - Theseus and Amazons, 181 - - Tiber, Island of, 115; - bridges, 116; - water of, 188 - - Tiberius, House of, 26, 30 - - Tivoli, or Tibur, 235; - Villas at, 252 - - Torre Fiscale, 212 - - ---- Paterno, ruins at, 234 - - ---- Pignatara, 221 - - Torso Belvedere, 182 - - Totilas, 152, 236, 247 - - Transitoria, Domus, 34 - - Transtiberine Walls, 4 - - Travertine, quarries, 236 - - Triclinium, Palatine, 22 - - Trophies, of Marius, 76, 183 - - Tufaceous stone, 186 - - Tunnels, subterranean, 206 - - Tusculum, 214; - gate and walls, 216; - history of city, 217; - theatre at, 215 - - - U. - - Ustica, 256 - - Ustrina Caesarum, 144, 146 - - - V. - - Vacuna, Chapel of, 256 - - Varia, 254 - - Vatican Hill, enclosed, 4 - - V. D. N., 18 - - Veii, 260 - - Veii and Campagna, antiquities from, 182 - - Velabrum, 103 - - Velia, 31 - - Vettius Praetextatus, 49 - - Vicus Tuscus, 39 - - Vigna Guidi, 169 - - Villa Mills, 21 - - Villas, ancient, 190, 193 - - Vitiges, 149, 152, 193 - - Volcanic strata, 186 - - Vota, 60 - - - W. - - Wolf, bronze figure, 17, 180 - - - LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET - AND CHARING CROSS. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] See Corp. Inscr. Lat. vol. vi. 1, No. 1158. - -[2] Cic. de Har. Resp. xv., 33. Vettius, in Cic. ad Att. ii. 24, calls -Cicero "vicinus consulis," i.e. near the Regia. - -[3] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' ch. viii. p. 160. - -[4] Festus, p. 262, "infimo clivo Victoriae." - -[5] A descent to the right to the Forum has been observed by a French -architect. See 'Le Forum Romain,' par Dutert; Levy, Paris, 1876, p. 14. -'Guida del Palatino,' p. 71. Valerius Maximus, vi. 3, 1. Cic. pro Dom. 38. -102. - -[6] Cic. de Div. i. 45; ii. 32. Liv. v. 32. - -[7] Corp. Inscr. i. 632. Wordsworth, Frag. of early Latin, p. 167, 410. - -[8] Cic. de Orat. ii. 249. - -[9] Cic. ad Att. iv. 3, 3. Liv. xxxiii. 26. - -[10] Vacca Memorie 3, Urlichs, in Rheinisches Museum, 1846. - -[11] See Henzen, in Bull. dell. Inst., 1867. The name of Domus Gelotiana -has been given to this ruin by Visconti. See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. -181. - -[12] The marks on the bricks found here bear the names of Clonius and -Ermetes, freedmen of the Gens Domitia, but the walls which stand near the -meta are constructed of materials which show that they are of later date, -and belong to the Restoration of Theodoric, A.D. 500. - -[13] Hist. Aug. Severus, 19, 24. See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 180. - -[14] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' pp. 174, 200. - -[15] Plin. Ep. I. 13. - -[16] See 'The Journal of Philology,' Cambridge 1869, vol. ii. p. 89. - -[17] Stat. Silv., iv. 2, 26. - -[18] The name Basilica Jovis, placed here by Rosa, probably refers to a -temple and not to this tribunal. - -Plin. Panegyr., 47. - -[19] 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 34. - -[20] Josephus, Ant. Jud. xix. 1, 15. - -[21] Gell, N. A. xx. 1, 2. - -[22] Suet. Tib. 5. - -[23] Orelli, Inscr. 6057, 6058. - -[24] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 178. - -[25] Solinus, i. 18. - -[26] Orelli, 2286. - -[27] Tac. Hist. i. 27. - -[28] Hist. Aug. Ant. Pius, 10; Ant. Phil. 6; Gell. xiii. 20. - -[29] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 160, Note 1. - -[30] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 162. - -[31] Josephus, Bell. Jud. vii. 5, 7. - -[32] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 170. - -[33] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 171. - -[34] Parker's 'Archaeology of Rome,' vol. ii. p. 98. Jordan, 'Forma urbis -Romae'; Berlin, 1874, p. 37. - -[35] 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 169. - -[36] Aur. Vict. Caes. xl. 26. See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 166. - -[37] Vitruv. v. 1. - -[38] 'Archaeology of Rome,' vol. ii. p. 75. - -[39] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 163. - -[40] Lampridius, Hist. Aug. Ant. Hel. 8, 17, in aedibus aulicis. Parker, -'Archaeology of Rome,' vol. ii. p. 92. - -[41] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 100. - -[42] Ibid. p. 103. - -[43] Eckhel, vii. 37. On the mistaken appropriation of the temple to M. -Aurelius, see 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 114. - -[44] See Reber's 'Ruinen Roms,' p. 132. - -[45] Corp. Inscr. Lat. vol. vi. pt. 1, No. 1200. "Indictionis undecimo -Post Consulatum pietatis ejus anno quinto" are the last words of the -inscription. "In the eleventh year of his appointment and the fifth year -of his reverence the emperor." See Nibby, 'Roma antica,' p. 152; Zell. -Epigr. 1226. A D = A Deo. - -[46] See Clinton, Fast. Rom. A.D. 608. - -[47] Stat. Silv. i. 1. Mr. Parker thinks that this was the pedestal of a -statue of Constantine. Archaeol. vol. ii. pl. xix. - -[48] Nichols, 'The Roman Forum,' p. 78. - -[49] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' Appendix, p. 452. - -[50] Gardhausen, 'Hermes,' viii. 129. Nichols, 'Roman Forum,' p. 67. Ann. -dell. Inst. 1872. Mr. Nichols's explanation does not account for the -position of the fig-tree and Marsyas satisfactorily. - -[51] Jordan, 'Forma urbis Romae,' pp. 4, 25. The proportion of the length -to the breadth is nearly that given by Vitruvius as proper for a basilica. - -[52] Juv. Sat. v. 104. - -[53] Tac. Ann. ii. 41. - -[54] Jordan, 'Forma urbis Romae,' p. 26. - -[55] Cic. Phil. ii. 7. - -[56] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 58. - -[57] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 91. - -[58] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. xxix. - -[59] Cic. Phil. vii. ch. 8. The third Catilinarian oration was delivered -here. - -[60] Dion. Cass. lxxvii. 12. - -[61] Herodian iii. 9, 10, 11. Hist. Aug. Vit. Sev. 9, 16, 17. - -[62] See Parker's Archaeol. vol. ii. pl. xi. - -[63] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 354, Appendix. - -[64] See Jordan, Top. Rom. p. 13, Note 20. - -[65] Liv. xxxvii. 3. Seneca, Contr. ix. 4, 21. - -[66] Corp. Inscr. Lat. i. 591, 592. Mommsen, Ann. Inst. 1858, p. 211. -Canina, Rom. Ant. p. 290. Virgil's use of the plural tabularia is not, -therefore, merely poetical: Georg. ii. 502. - -[67] Seneca's letter was written from Baiae, which seems to place the -building he speaks of there and not at Rome. The word "meta" was used by -the Latin classical writers in speaking of haystacks or cream-cheeses made -in a conical shape. Columella, ii. 19; Mart. i. 44. - -[68] See Casaubon's note on Spartian, Hist. Aug. p. 40; B.C. Tac. Ann. vi. -17; xvi. 22. - -[69] The great amphitheatre at El Djemm in Tunis is 480 feet by 420 and -102 feet in height, that at Pola in Istria 437 by 346 feet and 97 feet in -height. Shaw's 'Travels,' i. p. 220. Ann. dell' Inst. 1852. Allason's -Pola. - -[70] The tomb of Scipio Barbatus in the Vatican is another curious -instance of this mixture of Doric and Ionic decorative forms. - -[71] This portico is shown in the medals of Titus and Alexander Severus. -The remains of a similar portico exist in the amphitheatre at Thysdrus (El -Djemm) in Tunis. See Canina in the Ann. dell' Inst. 1852, tav. d'Agg. U. - -[72] Suet. Vesp. viii. 13. - -[73] Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' ch. lxxi. - -[74] Suet. Jul. ii. Propert. iv. ii. 46. - -[75] Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' ch. x. - -[76] See Dion Cassius, lxviii. 9-13. - -[77] Dion Cass. lvi. 27. - -[78] The frieze is described and representations of it are given in the -Annali and Monumenti dell' Inst. 1877. - -[79] See 'Rome and the Campagna,' p. xlii. - -[80] See the Annali and Monumenti of the Inst. di Corr. arch. 1876. - -[81] Dionys. iv. 27. - -[82] Tac. Ann. ii. 49. Dionys. vi. 7, 94. Vitruv. iii. 3, 5. Plin. N. H. -xxxv. 4, 24. 10, 99. 12. 154. - -[83] Auson. Sept. Sap. prol. 22. Mon. Ancyr. tab. iv. Hist. Aug. Alex. -Sev. 44. - -[84] See Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 316. Eckhel, Num. Vet. tom. v. p. 210. - -[85] Ann. dell' Inst. 1850, p. 347. Monum. v. xxiv. - -[86] Festus, p. 178, ed. Mueller. Velleius, i. 1, 3; ii. 1, 2. - -[87] Vitruv. v. 9. - -[88] Tac. Ann. xiv. 20. - -[89] Hier. Chron. ed. Ronealli, i. 475; ii. 247. - -[90] Grut. Inser. cxi. 6. Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. - -[91] Juv. Sat. vi. 529. Joseph. B. J. vii. 5, 4. - -[92] Fea, Misc. lxvi. 26; cxxv. 17; ccliv. 112. - -[93] Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. Seneca de Ben. iii. 32. - -[94] Dion. Cass. liii. 27. - -[95] In the Curiosum the temple and column are placed together in the -ninth region. - -[96] Plin. N. H. xxxvi. 9, 71, 72. - -[97] Annali dell' Inst. 1852, p. 338. - -[98] Dion. Cass. lv. 23. Orelli, Inscr. 517, 5447. - -[99] Gruter, Inscr. 466. - -[100] Strabo, v. 3, 8. - -[101] Dion. Cass. liii. 32, liv. 26. - -[102] Dion. Cass. lxix. 23. - -[103] Reumont, Gesch. Roms, vol. ii. p. 917, A.D. 1354; Gibbon, ch. lxx. - -[104] Procop. Bell. Goth. 22. - -[105] Bunsen's Memoirs, vol. i. p. 208. Hirt. Gesch. der Bauk, ii. p. 373. - -[106] Hist. Aug. Sept. Sev. 19, 24. Herodian iv. 1, 4. - -[107] Gibbon, ch. xlix. - -[108] Donati 'Roma vetus ac recens,' 1665, p. 476. - -[109] Dionys. ix. 68. Brocchi, Suolo di Roma, p. 144. - -[110] Ann. dell' Inst. xxxiv. 133. Festus, p. 261. Varro, L. L. v. Sec. 49. - -[111] Herodian, ii. 6. - -[112] Bunsen, Beschreibung Roms, iii. 2, 359. - -[113] Bull. dell' Inst. 1855, p. 87. - -[114] Abeken. 'Mittelitalien,' p. 143. - -[115] Bull. dell' Inst. xxv. 85, 116; xxxvii. 235. - -[116] Hist. Aug. Car. 9. Hel. 17. Al. Sev. 25. - -[117] Olymp. ap. Phot. Bibl. 80, p. 63. Bekker. - -[118] Cor. Insc. Lat. vol. i. p. 12. - -[119] Marini, Frat. Arv. p. 674. - -[120] Eckhel, Num. Vet. ii. 6. 176. - -[121] Frontin. 76. - -[122] See Woodcut on p. 179. - -[123] Ibid. p. 180. - -[124] Plin. Ep. ii. 17. The depopulation of the Campagna began even in the -time of the later Republic. See Appian, B.C., i. 7. In the Antonine era -and the following reigns, pestilence and famine swept off millions of -inhabitants. Zumpt, 'Stand der Bevoelkerung,' p. 84, quoted by Merivale, -vol. vii. p. 610. - -[125] Cic. de Or. ii. 6. Val. Max. viii. 8. See Mommsen, R. H. i. 13, p. -200. - -[126] Suet. Galb. i. Plin. N. H. xv. 40, 136, 137. - -[127] Plin. N. H. xxxiv. Sec. 20. Rutilius de Red. 224. Strabo, v. 3. - -[128] Cic. pro Planc. 9. De Leg. Agr. ii. 35. - -[129] Festus, p. 232. - -[130] Visconti, op. Milan 1829, vol. ii. p. 387. - -[131] Hobler, Roman coins, p. 821. No. 2035. Eckhel, Num. Vet. viii. p. -59. - -[132] Hist. Aug. Flor. 16. Dion Cass. lxxii. 5, 13. - -[133] Herodian, i. 12. - -[134] Ann. dell' Inst. 1853, 1854. - -[135] Cic. pro Planc. 9; Propert. v. 1, 33. - -[136] Cic. pro Mil. 10, 19, 20, 31. - -[137] The mock council held over the gigantic turbot described in the -Fourth Satire of Juvenal was at the Albanum. - -[138] Ann. and Mon. dell' Inst. 1854, p. 101. - -[139] Cic. de Div. i. 44; ii. 32. - -[140] Hirt, Gesch. der Bau, ii. p. 106. - -[141] Fea, Miscellanea, pp. cccxvii. cclxxiv. - -[142] Nibby, Analisi, ii. 305. - -[143] Annali and Monumenti dell' Inst. 1856. - -[144] Nibby, Anal. iii. p. 736. - -[145] Schol. ad Hor. Ep. i. 29. - -[146] Canina, Mon. dell' Arch. ant. tav. 183. - -[147] Nibby, Anal. vol. ii. p. 87. - -[148] Nibby, Anal. ii. 496. - -[149] Cecconi, 'Storia di Palestrina,' p. 162. - -[150] See 'Tempio di Fortuna Praenestina,' Thon and Nibby, Roma 1825. - -[151] Mon. dell' Inst. VI. tav. xi. Ann. dell' Inst. 1857 p. 281. - -[152] Nibby, Anal. II. 468. - -[153] Lanciani, 'Scavi nel Bosco Sacro,' Roma 1868. - -[154] Plin. Ep. viii. 17. - -[155] Herodian i. 12, 2. - -[156] Nibby, Anal. ii. p. 205. - -[157] Hist. Aug. Hadrian 26. Aur. Vict. Epit. xiv. Tertull. Apol. 5. - -[158] Strabo, xvii. 17. - -[159] Nibby, Anal. iii. 655. - -[160] Dennis in Milman's Horace, p. 101; pratum apricum, Ep. i. 14, 30; -aprica rura, Od. iii. 18, 2. See also, Od. iii. 16, 30; Ep. i. 14, 35, 39. -'Rome and the Campagna,' p. 430. - -[161] Nibby, Anal. iii. 31. Bull. dell' Inst. 1863, pp. 72, 81. - -[162] See Dennis, 'Etruria,' ch. i. - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Footnote 16 appears on page 21 of the text, but there is no corresponding -marker on the page. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD ROME*** - - -******* This file should be named 41409.txt or 41409.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/1/4/0/41409 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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