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diff --git a/old/41266.txt b/old/41266.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d1c5d6b..0000000 --- a/old/41266.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19268 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Revolution, by John Fiske - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The American Revolution - -Author: John Fiske - -Release Date: November 2, 2012 [EBook #41266] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, KD Weeks, Charles Franks and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - -Transcriber's Note - -The text version of this volume cannot reproduce the many illustrations -it contains. Please see the Note at the end of this text for a brief -discussion of the conventions adopted. All illustrations can be seen by -consulting the HTML version of this text at Project Gutenberg. - -Very few corrections were made, and were due to obvious printer's errors, -and are cataloged in a note at the end of this text. A few instances of -missing punctuation have been silently added, where space for it can be -seen on the printed page. - -Footnotes have been re-numbered sequentially and moved to the end of -their respective chapters. - -All sidenotes (paragraph descriptions) have been gathered at the -beginning of each paragraph, and can be considered as an outline. - -Italics are rendered using the '_' character as _italics_. Text printed -in a bold font is rendered using the '=' character as =bold=. The oe -ligatures in the original text have been replaced by the separate -letters oe in this version, e.g. manoeuvres. Superscripts have been -denoted as, for example, B^{ar}. - - - - - [Illustration: WASHINGTON AT TRENTON By John Trumbull] - - - - - THE - AMERICAN REVOLUTION - - BY - JOHN FISKE - - _With Many Illustrations_ - - - TWO VOLUMES IN ONE - - [Publisher's Logo] - - _Published for_ - THE EDUCATIONAL PRESS - _By_ - HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY - BOSTON - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1891, BY JOHN FISKE - - COPYRIGHT, 1896, BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY - - COPYRIGHT, 1919, BY ABBY M. FISKE - - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THE RIGHT TO REPRODUCE - THIS BOOK OR PARTS THEREOF IN ANY FORM - - - TO - MRS. MARY HEMENWAY - - IN RECOGNITION OF THE RARE FORESIGHT AND PUBLIC SPIRIT - WHICH SAVED FROM DESTRUCTION ONE OF THE NOBLEST - HISTORIC BUILDINGS IN AMERICA, AND MADE IT A - CENTRE FOR THE TEACHING OF AMERICAN - HISTORY AND THE PRINCIPLES OF - GOOD CITIZENSHIP - - _I DEDICATE THIS BOOK_ - - [DECORATION] - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I - - THE BEGINNINGS - - PAGE - - Relations between the American colonies and the British government - in the first half of the eighteenth century 1 - - The Lords of Trade 2 - - The governors' salaries 3 - - Sir Robert Walpole 4 - - Views of the Lords of Trade as to the need for a union of the - colonies 5 - - Weakness of the sentiment of union 6 - - The Albany Congress 6 - - Franklin's plan for a federal union (1754) 7, 8 - - Rejection of Franklin's plan 9 - - Shirley recommends a stamp act 10 - - The writs of assistance 11 - - The chief justice of New York 12 - - Otis's "Vindication" 13 - - Expenses of the French War 14 - - Grenville's resolves 15 - - Reply of the colonies 16 - - Passage of the Stamp Act 17 - - Patrick Henry and the Parsons' Cause 18 - - Resolutions of Virginia concerning the Stamp Act 19, 20 - - The Stamp Act Congress 20-22 - - Declaration of the Massachusetts assembly 22 - - Resistance to the Stamp Act in Boston 23 - - And in New York 24 - - Debate in the House of Commons 25, 26 - - Repeal of the Stamp Act 26, 27 - - The Duke of Grafton's ministry 28 - - Charles Townshend and his revenue acts 29-31 - - Attack upon the New York assembly 32 - - Parliament did not properly represent the British people 32, 33 - - Difficulty of the problem 34 - - Representation of Americans in Parliament 35 - - Mr. Gladstone and the Boers 36 - - Death of Townshend 37 - - His political legacy to George III. 37 - - Character of George III. 38, 39 - - English parties between 1760 and 1784 40, 41 - - George III. as a politician 42 - - His chief reason for quarrelling with the Americans 42, 43 - - - CHAPTER II - - THE CRISIS - - Character of Lord North 44 - - John Dickinson and the "Farmer's Letters" 45 - - The Massachusetts circular letter 46, 47 - - Lord Hillsborough's instructions to Bernard 48 - - The "Illustrious Ninety-Two" 48 - - Impressment of citizens 49 - - Affair of the sloop Liberty 49-51 - - Statute of Henry VIII. concerning "treason committed abroad" 52 - - Samuel Adams makes up his mind (1768) 53-56 - - Arrival of troops in Boston 56, 57 - - Letters of "Vindex" 58 - - Debate in Parliament 59, 60 - - All the Townshend acts, except the one imposing a duty upon tea, - to be repealed 61 - - Recall of Governor Bernard 61 - - Character of Thomas Hutchinson 61, 62 - - Resolutions of Virginia concerning the Townshend acts 63 - - Conduct of the troops in Boston 64 - - Assault on James Otis 64 - - The "Boston Massacre" 65-68 - - Some of its lessons 69-72 - - Lord North becomes prime minister 72 - - Action of the New York merchants 73 - - Assemblies convened in strange places 74 - - Taxes in Maryland 74 - - The "Regulators" in North Carolina 74 - - Affair of the schooner Gaspee 75, 76 - - The salaries of the Massachusetts judges 76 - - Jonathan Mayhew's suggestion (1766) 77 - - The committees of correspondence in Massachusetts 78 - - Intercolonial committees of correspondence 79 - - Revival of the question of taxation 80 - - The king's ingenious scheme for tricking the Americans into - buying the East India Company's tea 81 - - How Boston became the battle-ground 82 - - Advice solemnly sought and given by the Massachusetts towns 82-84 - - Arrival of the tea; meeting at the Old South 84, 85 - - The tea-ships placed under guard 85 - - Rotch's dilatory man[oe]uvres 86 - - Great town meeting at the Old South 87, 88 - - The tea thrown into the harbour 88, 89 - - Moral grandeur of the scene 90, 91 - - How Parliament received the news 91-93 - - The Boston Port Bill 93 - - The Regulating Act 93-95 - - Act relating to the shooting of citizens 96 - - The quartering of troops in towns 96 - - The Quebec Act 96 - - General Gage sent to Boston 97, 98 - - - CHAPTER III - - THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS - - Protest of the Whig Lords 99 - - Belief that the Americans would not fight 100 - - Belief that Massachusetts would not be supported by the other - colonies 101 - - News of the Port Bill 101, 102 - - Samuel Adams at Salem 103, 104 - - Massachusetts nullifies the Regulating Act 105 - - John Hancock and Joseph Warren 106, 107 - - The Suffolk County Resolves 108 - - Provincial Congress in Massachusetts 109 - - First meeting of the Continental Congress (September 5, - 1774) 110, 111 - - Debates in Parliament 112, 113 - - William Howe appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in - America 113 - - Richard, Lord Howe, appointed admiral of the fleet 114 - - Franklin returns to America 115 - - State of feeling in the middle colonies 116 - - Lord North's mistaken hopes of securing New York 117 - - Affairs in Massachusetts 118 - - Dr. Warren's oration at the Old South 119 - - Attempt to corrupt Samuel Adams 120 - - Orders to arrest Adams and Hancock 121 - - Paul Revere's ride 122, 123 - - Pitcairn fires upon the yeomanry at Lexington 124, 125 - - The troops repulsed at Concord; their dangerous situation 126, 127 - - The retreating troops rescued by Lord Percy 128 - - Retreat continued from Lexington to Charlestown 129 - - Rising of the country; the British besieged in Boston 130 - - Effects of the news in England and in America 130-133 - - Mecklenburg County Resolves 133 - - Legend of the Mecklenburg "Declaration of Independence" 133-135 - - Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen 135 - - Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point 136-140 - - Second meeting of the Continental Congress 141 - - Appointment of George Washington to command the Continental - army 142-144 - - The siege of Boston 145 - - Gage's proclamation 145 - - The Americans occupy Bunker's and Breed's hills 146 - - Arrival of Putnam, Stark, and Warren 147 - - Gage decides to try an assault 148, 149 - - First assault repulsed 149 - - Second assault repulsed 150 - - Prescott's powder gives out 150 - - Third assault succeeds; the British take the hill 151 - - British and American losses 151, 152 - - Excessive slaughter; significance of the battle 153 - - Its moral effects 154 - - - CHAPTER IV - - INDEPENDENCE - - Washington's arrival in Cambridge 155 - - Continental officers: Daniel Morgan 156 - - Benedict Arnold, John Stark, John Sullivan 157 - - Nathanael Greene, Henry Knox 158 - - Israel Putnam 159 - - Horatio Gates and Charles Lee 160 - - Lee's personal peculiarities 161, 162 - - Dr. Benjamin Church 163 - - Difficult work for Washington 164 - - Absence of governmental organization 165 - - New government of Massachusetts (July, 1775) 166 - - Congress sends a last petition to the king 167 - - The king issues a proclamation, and tries to hire troops - from Russia 168-170 - - Catherine refuses; the king hires German troops 170 - - Indignation in Germany 171 - - Burning of Falmouth (Portland) 171 - - Effects of all this upon Congress 172, 173 - - Montgomery's invasion of Canada and capture of Montreal 174, 175 - - Arnold's march through the wilderness of Maine 176 - - Assault upon Quebec (December 31, 1775) 177 - - Total failure of the attempt upon Canada 178 - - The siege of Boston 179 - - Washington seizes Dorchester Heights (March 4, 1776) 180, 181 - - The British troops evacuate Boston (March 17) 182, 183 - - Movement toward independence; a provisional flag (January 1, - 1776) 184 - - Effect of the hiring of "myrmidons" 185 - - Thomas Paine 185 - - His pamphlet entitled "Common Sense" 186, 187 - - Fulminations and counter-fulminations 188 - - The Scots in North Carolina 188 - - Sir Henry Clinton sails for the Carolinas 189 - - The fight at Moore's Creek; North Carolina declares for - independence 189 - - Action of South Carolina and Georgia 190 - - Affairs in Virginia; Lord Dunmore's proclamation 190 - - Skirmish at the Great Bridge, and burning of Norfolk 191 - - Virginia declares for independence 192 - - Action of Rhode Island and Massachusetts 192 - - Resolution adopted in Congress May 15 193 - - Instructions from the Boston town meeting 194 - - Richard Henry Lee's motion in Congress 194 - - Debate on Lee's 195, 196 - - Action of the other colonies; Connecticut and New Hampshire 196 - - New Jersey 197 - - Pennsylvania and Delaware 197-199 - - Maryland 199 - - The situation in New York 200 - - The Tryon plot 201 - - Final debate on Lee's motion 202 - - Vote on Lee's motion 203 - - Form of the Declaration of Independence 204 - - Thomas Jefferson 204, 205 - - The declaration was a deliberate expression of the sober - thought of the American people 206, 207 - - - CHAPTER V - - FIRST BLOW AT THE CENTRE - - Lord Cornwallis arrives upon the scene 208 - - Battle of Fort Moultrie (June 28, 1776) 209-211 - - British plan for conquering the valley of the Hudson, and - cutting the United Colonies in twain 212 - - Lord Howe's futile attempt to negotiate with Washington - unofficially 213, 214 - - The military problem at New York 214-216 - - Importance of Brooklyn Heights 217 - - Battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776) 218-220 - - Howe prepares to besiege the Heights 220 - - But Washington slips away with his army 221 - - And robs the British of the most golden opportunity ever - offered them 221-223 - - The conference at Staten Island 223, 224 - - General Howe takes the city of New York September 15 224 - - But Mrs. Lindley Murray saves the garrison 225 - - Attack upon Harlem Heights 225 - - The new problem before Howe 225, 226 - - He moves upon Throg's Neck, but Washington changes base 227 - - Baffled at White Plans, Howe tries a new plan 228 - - Washington's orders in view of the emergency 228 - - Congress meddles with the situation and muddles it 229 - - Howe takes Fort Washington by storm (November 16) 230 - - Washington and Greene 231 - - Outrageous conduct of Charles Lee 231, 232 - - Greene barely escapes from Fort Lee (November 20) 233 - - Lee intrigues against Washington 233, 234 - - Washington retreats into Pennsylvania 234 - - Reinforcements come from Schuyler 235 - - Fortunately for the Americans, the British capture Charles Lee - (December 13) 235-238 - - The times that tried men's souls 238, 239 - - Washington prepares to strike back 239 - - He crosses the Delaware, and pierces the British centre at - Trenton (December 26) 240, 241 - - Cornwallis comes up to retrieve the disaster 242 - And thinks he has run down the "old fox" at the Assunpink - (January 2, 1777) 242 - - But Washington prepares a checkmate 243 - - And again severs the British line at Princeton (January 3) 244 - - General retreat of the British upon New York 245 - - The tables completely turned 246 - - Washington's superb generalship 247 - - Effects in England 248 - - And in France 249 - - Franklin's arrival in France 250 - - Secret aid from France 251 - - Lafayette goes to America 252 - - Efforts toward remodelling the Continental army 252-255 - - Services of Robert Morris 255 - - Ill feeling between the states 256 - - Extraordinary powers conferred upon Washington 257-258 - - - CHAPTER VI - - SECOND BLOW AT THE CENTRE - - Invasion of New York by Sir Guy Carleton 259 - - Arnold's preparations 260 - - Battle of Valcour Island (October 11, 1776) 260-262 - - Congress promotes five junior brigadiers over Arnold (February - 19, 1777) 262 - - Character of Philip Schuyler 263 - - Horatio Gates 264 - - Gates intrigues against Schuyler 265 - - His unseemly behaviour before Congress 266 - - Charges against Arnold 267, 268 - - Arnold defeats Tryon at Ridgefield (April 27, 1777) 269 - - Preparations for the summer campaign 269 - - The military centre of the United States was the state of New - York 270 - - A second blow was to be struck at the centre; the plan of - campaign 271 - - The plan was unsound; it separated the British forces too - widely, and gave the Americans the advantage of interior - lines 272-274 - - Germain's fatal error; he overestimated the strength of the - Tories 274 - - Too many unknown quantities 275 - - Danger from New England ignored 276 - - Germain's negligence; the dispatch that was never sent 277 - - Burgoyne advances upon Ticonderoga 277, 278 - - Phillips seizes Mount Defiance 279 - - Evacuation of Ticonderoga 279 - - Battle of Hubbardton (July 7) 280 - - One swallow does not make a summer 280-282 - - The king's glee; wrath of John Adams 282 - - Gates was chiefly to blame 282 - - Burgoyne's difficulties beginning 283 - - Schuyler wisely evacuates Fort Edward 284 - - Enemies gathering in Burgoyne's rear 285 - - Use of Indian auxiliaries 285 - - Burgoyne's address to the chiefs 286 - - Burke ridicules the address 286 - - The story of Jane McCrea 287, 288 - - The Indians desert Burgoyne 289 - - Importance of Bennington; Burgoyne sends a German force - against it 290 - - Stark prepares to receive the Germans 291 - - Battle of Bennington (August 16); nearly the whole German - army captured on the field 292, 293 - - Effect of the news; Burgoyne's enemies multiply 294 - - Advance of St. Leger upon Fort Stanwix 294, 295 - - Herkimer marches against him; Herkimer's plan 296 - - Failure of the plan 297 - - Thayendanegea prepares an ambuscade 298 - - Battle of Oriskany (August 6) 298-300 - - Colonel Willett's sortie; first hoisting of the stars and - stripes 300-301 - - Death of Herkimer 301 - - Arnold arrives at Schuyler's camp 302 - - And volunteers to retrieve Fort Stanwix 303 - - Yan Yost Cuyler and his stratagem 304 - - Flight of St. Leger (August 22) 305 - - Burgoyne's dangerous situation 306 - - Schuyler superseded by Gates 306 - - Position of the two armies (August 19-September 12) 307 - - - CHAPTER VII - - SARATOGA - - Why Sir William Howe went to Chesapeake Bay 308 - - Charles Lee in captivity 308-310 - - Treason of Charles Lee 311-314 - - Folly of moving upon Philadelphia as the "rebel capital" 314, 315 - - Effect of Lee's advice 315 - - Washington's masterly campaign in New Jersey (June, 1777) 316, 317 - - Uncertainty as to Howe's next movements 317, 318 - - Howe's letter to Burgoyne 318 - - Comments of Washington and Greene 319, 320 - - Howe's alleged reason trumped up and worthless 320 - - Burgoyne's fate was practically decided when Howe arrived at - Elkton 321 - - Washington's reasons for offering battle 321 - - He chooses a very strong position 322 - - Battle of the Brandywine (September 11) 322-326 - - Washington's skill in detaining the enemy 326 - - The British enter Philadelphia (September 26) 326 - - Significance of Forts Mercer and Mifflin 327 - - The situation at Germantown 327, 328 - - Washington's audacious plan 328 - - Battle of Germantown (October 4) 329-332 - - Howe captures Forts Mercer and Mifflin 333 - - Burgoyne recognizes the fatal error of Germain 333 - - Nevertheless he crosses the Hudson River 334 - - First battle at Freeman's Farm (September 19) 335 - - Quarrel between Gates and Arnold 336-337 - - Burgoyne's supplies cut off 338 - - Second battle at Freeman's Farm (October 7); the British - totally defeated by Arnold 338-340 - - The British army is surrounded 341 - - Sir Henry Clinton comes up the river, but it is too late 342 - - The silver bullet 343 - - Burgoyne surrenders (October 17) 343, 344 - - Schuyler's magnanimity 345 - - Bad faith of Congress 346-349 - - The behaviour of Congress was simply inexcusable 350 - - What became of the captured army 350, 351 - - - - - THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION - - - - - CHAPTER I - - THE BEGINNINGS - - - [Sidenote: The Lords of Trade] - - [Sidenote: The governor's salary] - -During the seventy years which elapsed between the overthrow of the -Stuart dynasty and the victory of Wolfe on the Heights of Abraham, the -relations between the American colonies and the British government were, -on the whole, peaceful; and the history of the colonies, except for the -great and romantic struggle with New France, would have been almost -destitute of striking incidents. In view of the perpetual menace from -France, it was clearly unwise for the British government to irritate the -colonies, or do anything to weaken their loyalty; and they were -accordingly left very much to themselves. Still, they were not likely to -be treated with any great liberality,--for such was not then, as it is -hardly even yet, the way of governments,--and if their attachment to -England still continued strong, it was in spite of the general demeanour -of the mother-country. Since 1675 the general supervision of the -colonies had been in the hands of a standing committee of the Privy -Council, styled the "Lords of the Committee of Trade and Plantations," -and familiarly known as the "Lords of Trade." To this board the -governors sent frequent and full reports of the proceedings in the -colonial legislatures, of the state of agriculture and trade, of the -revenues of the colonies, and of the way in which the public money was -spent. In private letters, too, the governors poured forth their -complaints into the ears of the Lords of Trade, and these complaints -were many and loud. Except in Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were like -hereditary monarchies, and in Connecticut and Rhode Island, where the -governors were elected by the people, the colonial governors were now -invariably appointed by the Crown. In most cases they were inclined to -take high views regarding the royal prerogative, and in nearly all cases -they were unable to understand the political attitude of the colonists, -who on the one hand gloried in their connection with England, and on the -other hand, precisely because they were Englishmen, were unwilling to -yield on any occasion whatsoever one jot or tittle of their ancient -liberties. Moreover, through the ubiquity of the popular assemblies and -the directness of their control over the administration of public -affairs, the political life of America was both really and ostensibly -freer than that of England was at that time; and the ancient liberties -of Englishmen, if not better preserved, were at least more conspicuously -asserted. As a natural consequence, the royal governors were continually -trying to do things which the people would not let them do, they were in -a chronic state of angry warfare with their assemblies, and they were -incessant in their complaints to the Lords of Trade. They represented -the Americans as a factious and turbulent people, with their heads -turned by queer political crotchets, unwilling to obey the laws and -eager to break off their connection with the British Empire. In this way -they did much to arouse an unfriendly feeling toward the colonies, -although eminent Englishmen were not wanting who understood American -affairs too well to let their opinions be thus lightly influenced. Upon -the Lords of Trade these misrepresentations wrought with so much effect -that now and then they would send out instructions to suspend the writ -of _habeas corpus_, or to abridge the freedom of the press. Sometimes -their acts were absurdly arbitrary. In New Hampshire, the people -maintained that as free-born Englishmen they had the right to choose -their representatives; but the governor held, on the contrary, that -this was no right, but only a privilege, which the Crown might withhold, -or grant, or revoke, all at its own good pleasure. To uphold the royal -prerogative, the governor was instructed to issue writs for elections to -some of the towns, while withholding them from others; but the -resistance of the people to this piece of tyranny was so determined that -the Lords of Trade thought it best to yield. In Massachusetts, for more -than thirty years, there went on an unceasing controversy between the -General Court and the successive royal governors, Shute, Burnet, and -Belcher, with reference to the governor's salary. The Lords of Trade -insisted that the governor should be paid a fixed salary; but lest this -should make the governor too independent, the General Court obstinately -refused to establish a salary, but made grants to the governor from year -to year, in imitation of the time-honoured usage of Parliament. This -method was, no doubt, inconvenient for the governors; but the colonists -rightly valued it as one of the safeguards of popular liberty, and to -their persistent refusal the Crown was obliged to give way. Similar -controversies, in New York and South Carolina, were attended with -similar results; while in Virginia the assembly more than once refused -to vote supplies, on the ground that the liberties of the colony were in -danger. - - [Portrait: SIR ROBERT WALPOLE] - - [Sidenote: Sir Robert Walpole] - -Such grievances as these, reported year by year to the Lords of Trade, -and losing nothing in the manner in which they were told, went far to -create in England an opinion that America was a lawless country, and -sorely in need of a strong government. From time to time various schemes -were proposed for limiting the powers of the colonial assemblies, for -increasing the power of the governors, for introducing a titled -nobility, for taxing the colonists by act of Parliament, or for -weakening the feeling of local independence by uniting several colonies -into one. Until after the French troubles had been disposed of, little -came of any of these schemes. A plan for taxing the colonies was once -proposed to Sir Robert Walpole, but the sagacious old statesman -dismissed it with a laugh. "What!" said he. "I have half of Old England -set against me already, and do you think I will have all New England -likewise?" From time to time the liberal charters of Rhode Island and -Connecticut were threatened, but nothing came of this. But in one -direction the Lords of Trade were more active. One of their most -cherished plans was to bring about a union of all the colonies under a -single head; but this was not to be a union of the kind which the -Americans, with consummate statesmanship, afterward wrought out for -themselves. It was not to be a union based upon the idea of the -sacredness of local self-government, but it was a union to be achieved, -as far as possible, at the expense of local self-government. To bring -all the colonies together under a single viceroy would, it was thought, -diminish seriously the power of each local assembly, while at the same -time such a union would no doubt make the military strength of the -colonies much more available in case of war. In 1764, Francis Bernard, -Governor of Massachusetts, wrote that "to settle the American -governments to the greatest possible advantage, it will be necessary to -reduce the number of them; in some places to unite and consolidate; in -others to separate and transfer; and in general to divide by natural -boundaries instead of imaginary lines. If there should be but one form -of government established for the North American provinces, it would -greatly facilitate the reformation of them." As long ago as 1701, Robert -Livingston of New York had made similar suggestions; and in 1752, -Dinwiddie of Virginia recommended that the Northern and Southern -colonies be united respectively into two great confederacies. - - [Signature: R Walpole] - - [Sidenote: Weakness of the sentiment of union] - -The desirableness of bringing about a union of the colonies was also -recognized by all the most liberal-minded American statesmen, though -from a very different point of view. They agreed with the royal -governors and with the Lords of Trade as to the urgent need for -concentrating the military strength of the colonies, and they thought -that this end could best be subserved by some kind of federal union. But -at the same time they held that the integrity of the local -self-government of each colony was of the first importance, and that no -system of federation would be practicable which should in any degree -essentially impair that integrity. To bring about a federal union on -such terms was no easy matter; it was a task fitted to tax the greatest -of statesmen at any time. At that time it was undoubtedly a hopeless -task. The need for union was not generally felt by the people. The -sympathies between the different colonies were weak and liable to be -overborne by prejudices arising from rivalry or from differences in -social structure. To the merchant of Boston, the Virginian planter was -still almost a foreigner, though both the one and the other were -pure-blooded Englishmen. Commercial jealousies were very keen. Disputes -about boundaries were not uncommon. In 1756, Georgia and South Carolina -actually came to blows over the navigation of the Savannah river. -Jeremiah Dummer, in his famous "Defence of the New England Charters," -said that it was impossible that the colonies should ever be brought to -unite; and Burnaby thought that if the hand of Great Britain were once -taken off, there would be chronic civil war all the way from Maine to -Georgia. - - [Sidenote: The Albany Congress] - -In 1754, the prospect of immediate war with the French led several of -the royal governors to call for a congress of all the colonies, to be -held at Albany. The primary purpose of the meeting was to make sure of -the friendship of the Six Nations, and to organize a general scheme of -operations against the French. The secondary purpose was to prepare some -plan of confederation which all the colonies might be persuaded to -adopt. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New -York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland--only seven colonies of the -thirteen--sent commissioners to this congress. The people showed little -interest in the movement. It does not appear that any public meetings -were held in favour of it. Among the newspapers, the only one which -warmly approved of it seems to have been the "Pennsylvania Gazette," -edited by Benjamin Franklin, which appeared with a union device and the -motto "Unite or Die!" - -[Illustration: Unite or Die] - - [Sidenote: Franklin's plan of union, 1754] - -The circumstances of Franklin's life, no less than the wide sweep of his -intelligence, had fitted him for sounder views of the political needs of -the time than were taken by most of his contemporaries. As a native of -Massachusetts who dwelt in Pennsylvania, he may be said to have belonged -to two very different colonies; and he had spent time enough in London -to become well acquainted with British ideas. During the session of the -Albany Congress, a first attempt was made to establish a permanent union -of the thirteen colonies. It was to Franklin that the plan was chiefly -due. The legislative assembly of each colony was to choose, once in -three years, representatives to attend a federal Grand Council; which -was to meet every year at Philadelphia, a town which could be reached by -a twenty days' journey either from South Carolina or from New Hampshire. -This Grand Council was to choose its own speaker, and could neither be -dissolved nor prorogued, nor kept sitting longer than six weeks at any -one time, except by its own consent or by especial order of the Crown. -The Grand Council was to make treaties with the Indians and to regulate -the Indian trade; and it was to have sole power of legislation on all -matters concerning the colonies as a whole. To these ends, it could levy -taxes, enlist soldiers, build forts, and nominate all civil officers. -Its laws were to be submitted to the king for approval, and the royal -veto, in order to be of effect, must be exercised within three years. - -To this Grand Council each colony was to send a number of -representatives, proportioned to its contributions to the continental -military service; yet no colony was to send less than two or more than -seven representatives. With the exception of such matters of general -concern as were to be managed by the Grand Council, each colony was to -retain its powers of legislation intact. On an emergency, any colony -might singly defend itself against foreign attack, and the federal -government was prohibited from impressing soldiers or seamen without the -consent of the local legislature. - -The supreme executive power was to be vested in a president or -governor-general, appointed and paid by the Crown. He was to nominate -all military officers, subject to the approval of the Grand Council, -and was to have a veto on all the acts of the Grand Council. No money -could be issued save by joint order of the governor-general and the -council. - -This plan, said Franklin, "is not altogether to my mind, but it is as I -could get it." It should be observed, to the credit of its author, that -this scheme, long afterward known as the "Albany Plan," contemplated the -formation of a self-sustaining federal government, and not of a mere -league. As Frothingham well says, "It designed to confer on the -representatives of the people the power of making laws acting directly -on individuals, and appointing officers to execute them, and yet not to -interfere with the execution of the laws operating on the same -individuals by the local officers." It would have erected "a public -authority as obligatory in its sphere as the local governments were in -their spheres." In this respect it was much more complete than the -scheme of confederation agreed on in Congress in 1777, and it afforded a -valuable precedent for the more elaborate and perfect Federal -Constitution of 1787. It was in its main features a noble scheme, and -the great statesman who devised it was already looking forward to the -immense growth of the American Union, though he had not yet foreseen the -separation of the colonies from the mother-country. In less than a -century, he said, the great country behind the Alleghanies must become -"a populous and powerful dominion;" and he recommended that two new -colonies should at once be founded in the West,--the one on Lake Erie, -the other in the valley of the Ohio,--with free chartered governments -like those of Rhode Island and Connecticut. - - [Portrait: W Shirley] - - [Sidenote: Rejection of the plan] - - [Sidenote: Shirley recommends a stamp act] - -But public opinion was not yet ripe for the adoption of Franklin's bold -and comprehensive ideas. Of the royal governors who were anxious to see -the colonies united on any terms, none opposed the plan except Delancey -of New York, who wished to reserve to the governors a veto upon all -elections of representatives to the Grand Council. To this it was -rightly objected that such a veto power would virtually destroy the -freedom of elections, and make the Grand Council an assembly of -creatures of the governors. On the popular side the objections were -many. The New England delegates, on the whole, were the least -disinclined to union; yet Connecticut urged that the veto power of the -governor-general might prove ruinous to the whole scheme; that the -concentration of all the military forces in his hands would be fraught -with dangers to liberty; and that even the power of taxation, lodged in -the hands of an assembly so remote from local interests, was hardly -compatible with the preservation of the ancient rights of Englishmen. -After long debate, the assembly at Albany decided to adopt Franklin's -plan, and copies of it were sent to all the colonies for their -consideration. But nowhere did it meet with approval. The mere fact that -the royal governors were all in favour of it--though their advocacy was -at present, no doubt, determined mainly by sound military reasons--was -quite enough to create an insuperable prejudice against it on the part -of the people. The Massachusetts legislature seems to have been the only -one which gave it a respectful consideration, albeit a large town -meeting in Boston denounced it as subversive of liberty. Pennsylvania -rejected it without a word of discussion. None of the assemblies -favoured it. On the other hand, when sent over to England to be -inspected by the Lords of Trade, it only irritated and disgusted them. -As they truly said, it was a scheme of union "complete in itself;" and -ever since the days of the New England confederacy the Crown had looked -with extreme jealousy upon all attempts at concerted action among the -colonies which did not originate with itself. Besides this, the Lords of -Trade were now considering a plan of their own for remodelling the -governments of the colonies, establishing a standing army, enforcing the -navigation acts, and levying taxes by authority of Parliament. -Accordingly little heed was paid to Franklin's ideas. Though the royal -governors had approved the Albany plan, in default of any scheme of -union more to their minds, they had no real sympathy with it. In 1756, -Shirley wrote to the Lords of Trade, urging upon them the paramount -necessity for a union of the American colonies, in order to withstand -the French; while at the same time he disparaged Franklin's scheme, as -containing principles of government unfit even for a single colony like -Rhode Island, and much more unfit for a great American confederacy. The -union, he urged, should be effected by act of Parliament, and by the -same authority a general fund should be raised to meet the expenses of -the war,--an end which Shirley thought might be most speedily and -quietly attained by means of a "stamp duty." As Shirley had been for -fifteen years governor of Massachusetts, and was now commander-in-chief -of all the troops in America, his opinion had great weight with the -Lords of Trade; and the same views being reiterated by Dinwiddie of -Virginia, Sharpe of Maryland, Hardy of New York, and other governors, -the notion that Parliament must tax the Americans became deeply rooted -in the British official mind. - - [Sidenote: Writs of assistance] - -Nothing was done, however, until the work of the French war had been -accomplished. In 1761, it was decided to enforce the Navigation Act, and -one of the revenue officers at Boston applied to the superior court for -a "writ of assistance," or general search-warrant, to enable him to -enter private houses and search for smuggled goods, but without -specifying either houses or goods. Such general warrants had been -allowed by a statute of the bad reign of Charles II., and a statute of -William III., in general terms, had granted to revenue officers in -America like powers to those they possessed in England. But James Otis -showed that the issue of such writs was contrary to the whole spirit of -the British constitution. To issue such universal warrants allowing the -menials of the custom house, on mere suspicion, and perhaps from motives -of personal enmity, to invade the home of any citizen, without being -held responsible for any rudeness they might commit there,--such, he -said, was "a kind of power, the exercise of which cost one king of -England his head and another his throne;" and he plainly declared that -even an act of Parliament which should sanction so gross an infringement -of the immemorial rights of Englishmen would be treated as null and -void. Chief Justice Hutchinson granted the writs of assistance, and as -an interpreter of the law he was doubtless right in so doing; but Otis's -argument suggested the question whether Americans were bound to obey -laws which they had no share in making, and his passionate eloquence -made so great an impression upon the people that this scene in the court -room has been since remembered--and not unjustly--as the opening scene -of the American Revolution. - - [Portrait: James Otis] - - [Sidenote: The chief justice of New York] - -In the same year the arbitrary temper of the government was exhibited in -New York. Down to this time the chief justice of the colony had held -office only during good behaviour, and had been liable to dismissal at -the hands of the colonial assembly. The chief justice was now made -removable only by the Crown, a measure which struck directly at the -independent administration of justice in the colony. The assembly tried -to protect itself by refusing to assign a fixed salary to the chief -justice, whereupon the king ordered that the salary should be paid out -of the quit-rents for the public lands. At the same time instructions -were sent to all the royal governors to grant no judicial commissions -for any other period than "during the king's pleasure;" and to show that -this was meant in earnest, the governor of New Jersey was next year -peremptorily dismissed for commissioning a judge "during good -behaviour." - - [Sidenote: Otis's "Vindication"] - -In 1762, a question distinctly involving the right of the people to -control the expenditure of their own money came up in Massachusetts. -Governor Bernard, without authority from the assembly, had sent a couple -of ships to the northward, to protect the fisheries against French -privateers, and an expense of some L400 had been thus incurred. The -assembly was now ordered to pay this sum, but it refused to do so. "It -would be of little consequence to the people," said Otis, in the debate -on the question, "whether they were subject to George or Louis, the king -of Great Britain or the French king, if both were arbitrary, as both -would be, if both could levy taxes without Parliament." A cry of -"Treason!" from one of the less clear-headed members greeted this bold -statement; and Otis, being afterward taken to task for his language, -published a "Vindication," in which he maintained that the rights of a -colonial assembly, as regarded the expenditure of public money, were as -sacred as the rights of the House of Commons. - - [Portrait: George Grenville] - - [Sidenote: Expenses of the French war] - - [Sidenote: Grenville's Resolves] - -In April, 1763, just three years after the accession of George III., -George Grenville became Prime Minister of England, while at the same -time Charles Townshend was First Lord of Trade. Townshend had paid -considerable attention to American affairs, and was supposed to know -more about them than any other man in England. But his studies had led -him to the conclusion that the colonies ought to be deprived of their -self-government, and that a standing army ought to be maintained in -America by means of taxes arbitrarily assessed upon the people by -Parliament. Grenville was far from approving of such extreme measures -as these, but he thought that a tax ought to be imposed upon the -colonies, in order to help defray the expenses of the French war. Yet in -point of fact, as Franklin truly said, the colonies had "raised, paid, -and clothed nearly twenty-five thousand men during the last war,--a -number equal to those sent from Great Britain, and far beyond their -proportion. They went deeply into debt in doing this; and all their -estates and taxes are mortgaged for many years to come for discharging -that debt." That the colonies had contributed more than an equitable -share toward the expenses of the war, that their contributions had even -been in excess of their ability, had been freely acknowledged by -Parliament, which, on several occasions between 1756 and 1763, had voted -large sums to be paid over to the colonies, in partial compensation for -their excessive outlay. Parliament was therefore clearly estopped from -making the defrayal of the war debt the occasion for imposing upon the -colonies a tax of a new and strange character, and under circumstances -which made the payment of such a tax seem equivalent to a surrender of -their rights as free English communities. In March, 1764, Grenville -introduced in the House of Commons a series of Declaratory Resolves, -announcing the intention of the government to raise a revenue in America -by requiring various commercial and legal documents, newspapers, etc., -to bear stamps, varying in price from threepence to ten pounds. A year -was to elapse, however, before these resolutions should take effect in a -formal enactment. - -It marks the inferiority of the mother-country to the colonies in -political development, at that time, that the only solicitude as yet -entertained by the British official mind, with regard to this measure, -seems to have been concerned with the question how far the Americans -would be willing to part with their money. With the Americans it was as -far as possible from being a question of pounds, shillings, and pence; -but this was by no means correctly understood in England. The good -Shirley, although he had lived so long in Massachusetts, had thought -that a revenue might be most easily and quietly raised by means of a -stamp duty. Of all kinds of direct tax, none, perhaps, is less annoying. -But the position taken by the Americans had little to do with mere -convenience; it rested from the outset upon the deepest foundations of -political justice, and from this foothold neither threatening nor -coaxing could stir it. - -[Illustration: A Stamp] - - [Sidenote: Reply of the colonies] - -The first deliberate action with reference to the proposed Stamp Act was -taken in the Boston town meeting in May, 1764. In this memorable town -meeting Samuel Adams drew up a series of resolutions, which contained -the first formal and public denial of the right of Parliament to tax -the colonies without their consent; and while these resolutions were -adopted by the Massachusetts assembly, a circular letter was at the same -time sent to all the other colonies, setting forth the need for -concerted and harmonious action in respect of so grave a matter. In -response, the assemblies of Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, -Virginia, and South Carolina joined with Massachusetts in remonstrating -against the proposed Stamp Act. All these memorials were remarkable for -clearness of argument and simple dignity of language. They all took -their stand on the principle that, as free-born Englishmen, they could -not rightfully be taxed by the House of Commons unless they were -represented in that body. But the proviso was added, that if a letter -from the secretary of state, coming in the king's name, should be -presented to the colonial assemblies, asking them to contribute -something from their general resources to the needs of the British -Empire, they would cheerfully, as heretofore, grant liberal sums of -money, in token of their loyalty and of their interest in all that -concerned the welfare of the mighty empire to which they belonged. These -able and temperate memorials were sent to England; and in order to -reinforce them by personal tact and address, Franklin went over to -London as agent for the colony of Pennsylvania. - - [Portrait: Cha Thomson] - - [Sidenote: The Stamp Act] - -The alternative proposed by the colonies was virtually the same as the -system of requisitions already in use, and the inefficiency of which, in -securing a revenue, had been abundantly proved by the French war. -Parliament therefore rejected it, and early in 1765 the Stamp Act was -passed. It is worthy of remark that the idea that the Americans would -resist its execution did not at once occur to Franklin. Acquiescence -seemed to him, for the present, the only safe policy. In writing to his -friend Charles Thomson, he said that he could no more have hindered the -passing of the Stamp Act than he could have hindered the sun's setting. -"That," he says, "we could not do. But since it is down, my friend, and -it may be long before it rises again, let us make as good a night of it -as we can. We may still light candles. Frugality and industry will go a -great way towards indemnifying us." But Thomson, in his answer, with -truer foresight, observed, "I much fear, instead of the candles you -mentioned being lighted, you will hear of the works of darkness!" The -news of the passage of the Stamp Act was greeted in America with a burst -of indignation. In New York, the act was reprinted with a death's-head -upon it in place of the royal arms, and it was hawked about the streets -under the title of "The Folly of England and the Ruin of America." In -Boston, the church-bells were tolled, and the flags on the shipping put -at half-mast. - -[Illustration: SPEAKER'S CHAIR, HOUSE OF BURGESSES] - - [Sidenote: The Parson's Cause] - -But formal defiance came first from Virginia. A year and a half before, -a famous lawsuit, known as the "Parsons' Cause," had brought into public -notice a young man who was destined to take high rank among modern -orators. The lawsuit which made Patrick Henry's reputation was one of -the straws which showed how the stream of tendency in America was then -strongly setting toward independence. Tobacco had not yet ceased to be a -legal currency in Virginia, and by virtue of an old statute each -clergyman of the Established Church was entitled to sixteen thousand -pounds of tobacco as his yearly salary. In 1755 and 1758, under the -severe pressure of the French war, the assembly had passed relief acts, -allowing all public dues, including the salaries of the clergy, to be -paid either in kind or in money, at a fixed rate of twopence for a pound -of tobacco. The policy of these acts was thoroughly unsound, as they -involved a partial repudiation of debts; but the extreme distress of the -community was pleaded in excuse, and every one, clergy as well as -laymen, at first acquiesced in them. But in 1759 tobacco was worth -sixpence per pound, and the clergy became dissatisfied. Their complaints -reached the ears of Sherlock, the Bishop of London, and the act of 1758 -was summarily vetoed by the king in council. The clergy brought suits to -recover the unpaid portions of their salaries; in the test case of Rev. -James Maury, the court decided the point of the law in their favour, on -the ground of the royal veto, and nothing remained but to settle before -a jury the amount of the damages. On this occasion, Henry appeared for -the first time in court, and after a few timid and awkward sentences -burst forth with an eloquent speech, in which he asserted the -indefeasible right of Virginia to make laws for herself, and declared -that in annulling a salutary ordinance at the request of a favoured -class in the community "a king, from being the father of his people, -degenerates into a tyrant, and forfeits all right to obedience." Cries -of "Treason!" were heard in the court room, but the jury immediately -returned a verdict of one penny in damages, and Henry became the popular -idol of Virginia. The clergy tried in vain to have him indicted for -treason, alleging that his crime was hardly less heinous than that which -had brought old Lord Lovat to the block. But the people of Louisa county -replied, in 1765, by choosing him to represent them in the colonial -assembly. - -[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY MAKING HIS TARQUIN AND CAESAR SPEECH] - - [Sidenote: Patrick Henry's resolutions] - -Hardly had Henry taken his seat in the assembly when the news of the -Stamp Act arrived. In a committee of the whole house, he drew up a -series of resolutions, declaring that the colonists were entitled to all -the liberties and privileges of natural-born subjects, and that "the -taxation of the people by themselves, or by persons chosen by themselves -to represent them, ... is the distinguishing characteristic of British -freedom, without which the ancient constitution cannot exist." It was -further declared that any attempt to vest the power of taxation in any -other body than the colonial assembly was a menace to British no less -than to American freedom; that the people of Virginia were not bound to -obey any law enacted in disregard of these fundamental principles; and -that any one who should maintain the contrary should be regarded as a -public enemy. It was in the lively debate which ensued upon these -resolutions, that Henry uttered those memorable words commending the -example of Tarquin and Caesar and Charles I. to the attention of George -III. Before the vote had been taken upon all the resolutions, Governor -Fauquier dissolved the assembly; but the resolutions were printed in the -newspapers, and hailed with approval all over the country. - - =STAMP-OFFICE=, - - _Lincoln's-Inn_, 1765. - - A - - =TABLE= - - Of the Prices of Parchment and Paper for the Service of _America_. - - Parchment. - - Skins 18 Inch by 13, at Fourpence } - 22 ---- by 16, at Six-pence } - 26 ---- by 20, at Eight-pence } each. - 28 ---- by 23, at Ten-pence } - 31 ---- by 26, at Thirteen-pence } - - Paper. - - Horn at Seven-pence } - Fools Cap at Nine-pence } - D^o with printed Notices } at } - for Indentures } 1 s. } - Folio Post at One Shilling } each Quire. - Demy ---- at Two Shillings } - Medium at Three Shillings } - Royal ---- at Four Shillings } - Super Royal at Six Shillings } - - Paper for Printing - - News. - - Double Crown at 14s. } each Ream - Double Demy at 19s. } - - Almanacks. - - Book--Crown Paper at 10s. 6d. } - Book----Fools Cap at 6s. 6d. } each Ream. - Pocket----Folio Post at 20s. } - Sheet----Demy at 13s. } - - [Sidenote: The Stamp Act Congress] - -Meanwhile, the Massachusetts legislature, at the suggestion of Otis, had -issued a circular letter to all the colonies, calling for a general -congress, in order to concert measures of resistance to the Stamp Act. -The first cordial response came from South Carolina, at the instance of -Christopher Gadsden, a wealthy merchant of Charleston and a scholar -learned in Oriental languages, a man of rare sagacity and most liberal -spirit. On the 7th of October, the proposed congress assembled at New -York, comprising delegates from Massachusetts, South Carolina, -Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, -and New York, in all nine colonies, which are here mentioned in the -order of the dates at which they chose their delegates. In Virginia, the -governor succeeded in preventing the meeting of the legislature, so that -this great colony did not send delegates; and, for various reasons, New -Hampshire, North Carolina, and Georgia were likewise unrepresented at -the congress. But the sentiment of all the thirteen colonies was none -the less unanimous, and those which did not attend lost no time in -declaring their full concurrence with what was done at New York. At this -memorable meeting, held under the very guns of the British fleet and -hard by the headquarters of General Gage, the commander-in-chief of the -regular forces in America, a series of resolutions were adopted, echoing -the spirit of Patrick Henry's resolves, though couched in language -somewhat more conciliatory, and memorials were addressed to the king and -to both Houses of Parliament. Of all the delegates present, Gadsden took -the broadest ground, in behalf both of liberty and of united action -among the colonies. He objected to sending petitions to Parliament, lest -thereby its paramount authority should implicitly and unwittingly be -acknowledged. "A confirmation of our essential and common rights as -Englishmen," said he, "may be pleaded from charters safely enough; but -any further dependence on them may be fatal. We should stand upon the -broad common ground of those natural rights that we all feel and know as -men and as descendants of Englishmen. I wish the charters may not -ensnare us at last, by drawing different colonies to act differently in -this great cause. Whenever that is the case, all will be over with the -whole. There ought to be no New England man, no New Yorker, known on the -continent; but all of us Americans." So thought and said this -broad-minded South Carolinian. - - [Sidenote: Declaration of the Massachusetts assembly] - -While these things were going on at New York, the Massachusetts -assembly, under the lead of Samuel Adams, who had just taken his seat in -it, drew up a very able state paper, in which it was declared, among -other things, that "the Stamp Act wholly cancels the very conditions -upon which our ancestors, with much toil and blood and at their sole -expense, settled this country and enlarged his majesty's dominions. It -tends to destroy that mutual confidence and affection, as well as that -equality, which ought ever to subsist among all his majesty's subjects -in this wide and extended empire; and what is the worst of all evils, if -his majesty's American subjects are not to be governed according to the -known and stated rules of the constitution, their minds may in time -become disaffected." This moderate and dignified statement was applauded -by many in England and by others derided as the "raving of a parcel of -wild enthusiasts," but from the position here taken Massachusetts never -afterward receded. - -[Illustration: Stamp] - - [Sidenote: Resistance to the Stamp Act in Boston] - - [Sidenote: and in New York] - -But it was not only in these formal and decorous proceedings that the -spirit of resistance was exhibited. The first announcement of the Stamp -Act had called into existence a group of secret societies of workingmen -known as "Sons of Liberty," in allusion to a famous phrase in one of -Colonel Barre's speeches. These societies were solemnly pledged to -resist the execution of the obnoxious law. On the 14th of August, the -quiet town of Boston witnessed some extraordinary proceedings. At -daybreak, the effigy of the stamp officer, Oliver, was seen hanging from -a great elm-tree, while near it was suspended a boot, to represent the -late prime minister, Lord Bute; and from the top of the boot-leg there -issued a grotesque head, garnished with horns, to represent the devil. -At nightfall the Sons of Liberty cut down these figures, and bore them -on a bier through the streets until they reached King Street, where they -demolished the frame of a house which was supposed to be erecting for a -stamp office. Thence, carrying the beams of this frame to Fort Hill, -where Oliver lived, they made a bonfire of them in front of his house, -and in the bonfire they burned up the effigies. Twelve days after, a mob -sacked the splendid house of Chief Justice Hutchinson, threw his plate -into the street, and destroyed the valuable library which he had been -thirty years in collecting, and which contained many manuscripts, the -loss of which was quite irreparable. As usual with mobs, the vengeance -fell in the wrong place, for Hutchinson had done his best to prevent the -passage of the Stamp Act. In most of the colonies, the stamp officers -were compelled to resign their posts. Boxes of stamps arriving by ship -were burned or thrown into the sea. Leading merchants agreed to import -no more goods from England, and wealthy citizens set the example of -dressing in homespun garments. Lawyers agreed to overlook the absence of -the stamp on legal documents, while editors derisively issued their -newspapers with a death's-head in the place where the stamp was required -to be put. In New York, the presence of the troops for a moment -encouraged the lieutenant-governor, Colden, to take a bold stand in -behalf of the law. He talked of firing upon the people, but was warned -that if he did so he would be speedily hanged on a lamp-post, like -Captain Porteous of Edinburgh. A torchlight procession, carrying images -of Colden and of the devil, broke into the governor's coach-house, and, -seizing his best chariot, paraded it about town with the images upon it, -and finally burned up chariot and images on the Bowling Green, in full -sight of Colden and the garrison, who looked on from the Battery, -speechless with rage, but afraid to interfere. Gage did not dare to have -the troops used, for fear of bringing on a civil war; and the next day -the discomfited Colden was obliged to surrender all the stamps to the -common council of New York, by whom they were at once locked up in the -City Hall. - - [Sidenote: Debate in the House of Commons] - - [Sidenote: Repeal of the Stamp Act] - -Nothing more was needed to prove the impossibility of carrying the Stamp -Act into effect. An act which could be thus rudely defied under the very -eyes of the commander-in-chief plainly could never be enforced without a -war. But nobody wanted a war, and the matter began to be reconsidered in -England. In July, the Grenville ministry had gone out of office, and the -Marquis of Rockingham was now prime minister, while Conway, who had been -one of the most energetic opponents of the Stamp Act, was secretary of -state for the colonies. The new ministry would perhaps have been glad to -let the question of taxing America remain in abeyance, but that was no -longer possible. The debate on the proposed repeal of the Stamp Act was -one of the keenest that has ever been heard in the House of Commons. -Grenville and his friends, now in opposition, maintained in all -sincerity that no demand could ever be more just, or more honourably -intended, than that which had lately been made upon the Americans. Of -the honest conviction of Grenville and his supporters that they were -entirely in the right, and that the Americans were governed by purely -sordid and vulgar motives in resisting the Stamp Act, there cannot be -the slightest doubt. To refute this gross misconception of the American -position, Pitt hastened from a sick-bed to the House of Commons, and -delivered those speeches in which he avowed that he rejoiced in the -resistance of the Americans, and declared that, had they submitted -tamely to the measures of Grenville, they would have shown themselves -only fit to be slaves. He pointed out distinctly that the Americans were -upholding those eternal principles of political justice which should be -to all Englishmen most dear, and that a victory over the colonies would -be of ill-omen for English liberty, whether in the Old World or in the -New. Beware, he said, how you persist in this ill-considered policy. "In -such a cause your success would be hazardous. America, if she fell, -would fall like the strong man with his arms around the pillars of the -Constitution." There could be no sounder political philosophy than was -contained in these burning sentences of Pitt. From all the history of -the European world since the later days of the Roman Republic, there is -no more important lesson to be learned than this,--that it is impossible -for a free people to govern a dependent people despotically without -endangering its own freedom. Pitt therefore urged that the Stamp Act -should instantly be repealed, and that the reason for the repeal should -be explicitly stated to be because the act "was founded on an erroneous -principle." At the same time he recommended the passage of a Declaratory -Act, in which the sovereign authority of Parliament over the colonies -should be strongly asserted with respect to everything except direct -taxation. Similar views were set forth in the House of Lords, with great -learning and ability, by Lord Camden; but he was vehemently opposed by -Lord Mansfield, and when the question came to a decision, the only peers -who supported Camden were Lords Shelburne, Cornwallis, Paulet, and -Torrington. The result finally reached was the unconditional repeal of -the Stamp Act, and the simultaneous passage of a Declaratory Act, in -which the views of Pitt and Camden were ignored and Parliament asserted -its right to make laws binding on the colonies "in all cases -whatsoever." By the people of London the repeal was received with -enthusiastic delight, and Pitt and Conway, as they appeared on the -street, were loudly cheered, while Grenville was greeted with a storm of -hisses. In America the effect of the news was electric. There were -bonfires in every town, while addresses of thanks to the king were voted -in all the legislatures. Little heed was paid to the Declaratory Act, -which was regarded merely as an artifice for saving the pride of the -British government. There was a unanimous outburst of loyalty all over -the country, and never did the people seem less in a mood for rebellion -than at that moment. - -The quarrel had now been made up. On the question of principle, the -British had the last word. The government had got out of its dilemma -remarkably well, and the plain and obvious course for British -statesmanship was not to allow another such direct issue to come up -between the colonies and the mother-country. To force on another such -issue while the memory of this one was fresh in everybody's mind was -sheer madness. To raise the question wantonly, as Charles Townshend did -in the course of the very next year, was one of those blunders that are -worse than crimes. - -[Illustration: FUNERAL PROCESSION OF THE STAMP ACT] - - [Signature: Grafton] - - [Portrait: CTownshend] - - [Sidenote: The Duke of Grafton's ministry] - - [Sidenote: The Townshend Acts] - -In July, 1766,--less than six months after the repeal of the Stamp -Act,--the Rockingham ministry fell, and the formation of a new ministry -was entrusted to Pitt, the man who best appreciated the value of the -American colonies. But the state of Pitt's health was not such as to -warrant his taking upon himself the arduous duties of prime minister. He -took the great seal, and, accepting the earldom of Chatham, passed into -the House of Lords. The Duke of Grafton became prime minister, under -Pitt's guidance; Conway and Lord Shelburne were secretaries of state, -and Camden became Lord Chancellor,--all three of them warm friends of -America, and adopting the extreme American view of the constitutional -questions lately at issue; and along with these was Charles Townshend, -the evil spirit of the administration, as chancellor of the exchequer. -From such a ministry, it might at first sight seem strange that a fresh -quarrel with America should have proceeded. But Chatham's illness soon -overpowered him, so that he was kept at home suffering excruciating -pain, and could neither guide nor even pay due attention to the -proceedings of his colleagues. Of the rest of the ministry, only Conway -and Townshend were in the House of Commons, where the real direction of -affairs rested; and when Lord Chatham was out of the way, as the Duke of -Grafton counted for nothing, the strongest man in the cabinet was -unquestionably Townshend. Now when an act for raising an American -revenue was proposed by Townshend, a prejudice against it was sure to be -excited at once, simply because every American knew well what -Townshend's views were. It would have been difficult for such a man even -to assume a conciliatory attitude without having his motives suspected; -and if the question with Great Britain had been simply that of raising a -revenue on statesmanlike principles, it would have been well to entrust -the business to some one like Lord Shelburne, in whom the Americans had -confidence. In 1767, Townshend ventured to do what in any English -ministry of the present day would be impossible. In flat opposition to -the policy of Chatham and the rest of his colleagues, trusting in the -favour of the king and in his own ability to coax or browbeat the House -of Commons, he brought in a series of new measures for taxing America. -"I expect to be dismissed for my pains," he said in the House, with -flippant defiance; and indeed he came very near it. As soon as he heard -what was going on, Chatham mustered up strength enough to go to London -and insist upon Townshend's dismissal. But Lord North was the only -person that could be thought of to take Townshend's place, and Lord -North, who never liked to offend the king, declined the appointment. -Before Chatham could devise a way out of his quandary, his malady again -laid him prostrate, and Townshend was not only not turned out, but was -left practically supreme in the cabinet. The new measures for taxing -America were soon passed. In the debates on the Stamp Act, it had been -argued that while Parliament had no right to impose a direct tax upon -the Americans, it might still properly regulate American trade by port -duties. The distinction had been insisted upon by Pitt, and had been -virtually acknowledged by the Americans; who had from time to time -submitted to acts of Parliament imposing duties upon merchandise -imported into the colonies. Nay, more, when charged with inconsistency -for submitting to such acts while resisting the Stamp Act, several -leading Americans had explicitly adopted the distinction between -internal and external taxation, and declared themselves ready to submit -to the latter while determined to resist the former. Townshend was now -ready, as he declared, to take them at their word. By way of doing so, -he began by laughing to scorn the distinction between internal and -external taxation, and declaring that Parliament possessed the undoubted -right of taxing the Americans without their own consent; but since -objections had been raised to a direct tax, he was willing to resort to -port duties,--a measure to which the Americans were logically bound to -assent. Duties were accordingly imposed on wine, oil, and fruits, if -carried directly to America from Spain or Portugal; on glass, paper, -lead, and painters' colours; and lastly on tea. The revenue to be -derived from these duties was to be devoted to paying a fixed salary to -the royal governors and to the justices appointed at the king's -pleasure. The Crown was also empowered to create a general civil list in -every colony, and to grant salaries and pensions at its arbitrary will. -A board of revenue commissioners for the whole country was to be -established at Boston, armed with extraordinary powers; and general -writs of assistance were expressly legalized and permitted. - -[Illustration: HOUSE OF COMMONS] - - [Sidenote: Attack on the New York assembly] - -Such was the way in which Townshend proceeded to take the Americans at -their word. His course was a distinct warning to the Americans that, if -they yielded now, they might expect some new Stamp Act or other measures -of direct taxation to follow; and so it simply invited resistance. That -no doubt might be left on this point, the purpose for which the revenue -was to be used showed clearly that the object of the legislation was not -to regulate trade, but to assert British supremacy over the colonies at -the expense of their political freedom. By providing for a civil list -in each colony, to be responsible only to the Crown, it aimed at -American self-government even a more deadly blow than had been aimed at -it by the Stamp Act. It meddled with the "internal police" of every -colony, and would thus have introduced a most vexatious form of tyranny -as soon as it had taken effect. A special act by which the Townshend -revenue acts were accompanied still further revealed the temper and -purposes of the British government. The colony of New York had been -required to provide certain supplies for the regular troops quartered in -the city, under command of General Gage; and the colonial assembly had -insisted upon providing these supplies in its own way, and in disregard -of special instructions from England. For this offence, Parliament now -passed an act suspending the New York assembly from its legislative -functions until it should have complied with the instructions regarding -the supplies to the army. It need not be said that the precedent -involved in this act, if once admitted, would have virtually annulled -the legislative independence of every one of the colonial assemblies. - -[Illustration: HOUSE OF LORDS] - - [Sidenote: Parliament did not properly represent the British people] - - [Sidenote: Difficulty of the problem] - -We may perhaps wonder that a British Parliament should have been -prevailed on to pass such audacious acts as these, and by large -majorities. But we must remember that in those days the English system -of representation was so imperfect, and had come to be so overgrown with -abuses, that an act of Parliament was by no means sure to represent the -average judgment of the people. The House of Commons was so far under -the corrupt influence of the aristocracy, and was so inadequately -controlled by popular opinion, that at almost any time it was possible -for an eloquent, determined, and unscrupulous minister to carry measures -through it such as could never have been carried through any of the -reformed Parliaments since 1832. It is not easy, perhaps, to say with -confidence what the popular feeling in England was in 1767 with -reference to the policy of Charles Townshend. The rural population was -much more ignorant than it is to-day, and its political opinions were -strongly influenced by the country squires,--a worthy set of men, but -not generally distinguished for the flexibility of their minds or the -breadth of their views. But as a sample of the most intelligent popular -feeling in England at that time, it will probably not be unfair to cite -that of the city of London, which was usually found arrayed on the side -of free government. No wiser advice was heard in Parliament, on the -subject of the New York dispute, than was given by Alderman Beckford, -father of the illustrious author of Vathek, when he said, "Do like the -best of physicians, and heal the disease by doing nothing." On many -other important occasions in the course of this unfortunate quarrel, the -city of London gave expression to opinions which the king and Parliament -would have done well to heed. But even if the House of Commons had -reflected popular feeling in 1767 as clearly as it has done since 1832, -it is by no means sure that it would have known how to deal successfully -with the American question. The problem was really a new one in -political history; and there was no adequate precedent to guide the -statesmen in dealing with the peculiar combination of considerations it -involved. As far as concerned the relations of Englishmen in England to -the Crown and to Parliament, the British Constitution had at last -reached a point where it worked quite smoothly. All contingencies likely -to arise seemed to have been provided for. But when it came to the -relations of Englishmen in America to the Crown and to Parliament, the -case was very different. The case had its peculiar conditions, which the -British Constitution in skilful hands would no doubt have proved elastic -enough to satisfy; but just at this time the British Constitution -happened to be in very unskilful hands, and wholly failed to meet the -exigencies of the occasion. The chief difficulty lay in the fact that -while on the one hand the American principle of no taxation without -representation was unquestionably sound and just, on the other hand the -exemption of any part of the British Empire from the jurisdiction of -Parliament seemed equivalent to destroying the political unity of the -empire. This could not but seem to any English statesman a most -lamentable result, and no English statesman felt this more strongly than -Lord Chatham. - - [Sidenote: Representation of Americans in Parliament] - - [Sidenote: Mr. Gladstone and the Boers] - -There were only two possible ways in which the difference could be -accommodated. Either the American colonies must elect representatives to -the Parliament at Westminster; or else the right of levying taxes must -be left where it already resided, in their own legislative bodies. The -first alternative was seriously considered by eminent political -thinkers, both in England and America. In England it was favourably -regarded by Adam Smith, and in America by Benjamin Franklin and James -Otis. In 1774, some of the loyalists in the first Continental Congress -recommended such a scheme. In 1778, after the overthrow of Burgoyne, the -king himself began to think favourably of such a way out of the quarrel. -But this alternative was doubtless from the first quite visionary and -unpractical. The difficulties in the way of securing anything like -equality of representation would probably have been insuperable; and -the difficulty in dividing jurisdiction fairly between the local -colonial legislature and the American contingent in the Parliament at -Westminster would far have exceeded any of the difficulties that have -arisen in the attempt to adjust the relations of the several States to -the general government in our Federal Union. Mere distance, too, which -even to-day would go far toward rendering such a scheme impracticable, -would have been a still more fatal obstacle in the days of Chatham and -Townshend. If, even with the vast enlargement of the political horizon -which our hundred years' experience of federalism has effected, the -difficulty of such a union still seems so great, we may be sure it would -have proved quite insuperable then. The only practicable solution would -have been the frank and cordial admission, by the British government, of -the essential soundness of the American position, that, in accordance -with the entire spirit of the English Constitution, the right of levying -taxes in America resided only in the colonial legislatures, in which -alone could American freemen be adequately represented. Nor was there -really any reason to fear that such a step would imperil the unity of -the empire. How mistaken this fear was, on the part of English -statesmen, is best shown by the fact that, in her liberal and -enlightened dealings with her colonies at the present day, England has -consistently adopted the very course of action which alone would have -conciliated such men as Samuel Adams in the days of the Stamp Act. By -pursuing such a policy, the British government has to-day a genuine hold -upon the affections of its pioneers in Australia and New Zealand and -Africa. If such a statesman as Gladstone could have dealt freely with -the American question during the twelve years following the Peace of -Paris, the history of that time need not have been the pitiable story of -a blind and obstinate effort to enforce submission to an ill-considered -and arbitrary policy on the part of the king and his ministers. The -feeling by which the king's party was guided, in the treatment of the -American question, was very much the same as the feeling which lately -inspired the Tory criticisms upon Gladstone's policy in South Africa. -Lord Beaconsfield, a man in some respects not unlike Charles Townshend, -bequeathed to his successor a miserable quarrel with the Dutch farmers -of the Transvaal; and Mr. Gladstone, after examining the case on its -merits, had the moral courage to acknowledge that England was wrong, and -to concede the demands of the Boers, even after serious military defeat -at their hands. Perhaps no other public act of England in the nineteenth -century has done her greater honour than this. But said the Jingoes, All -the world will now laugh at Englishmen, and call them cowards. In order -to vindicate the military prestige of England, the true policy would be, -forsooth, to prolong the war until the Boers had been once thoroughly -defeated, and then acknowledge the soundness of their position. Just as -if the whole world did not know, as well as it can possibly know -anything, that whatever qualities the English nation may lack, it -certainly does not lack courage, or the ability to win victories in a -good cause! All honour to the Christian statesman who dares to leave -England's military prestige to be vindicated by the glorious records of -a thousand years, and even in the hour of well-merited defeat sets a -higher value on political justice than on a reputation for dealing hard -blows! Such incidents as this are big with hope for the future. They -show us what sort of political morality our children's children may -expect to see, when mankind shall have come somewhat nearer toward being -truly civilized. - - [Sidenote: Death of Townshend] - -In the eighteenth century, no such exhibition of good sense and good -feeling, in the interest of political justice, could have been expected -from any European statesman, unless from a Turgot or a Chatham. But -Charles Townshend was not even called upon to exercise any such -self-control. Had he simply taken Alderman Beckford's advice, and done -nothing, all would have been well; but his meddling had now put the -government into a position which it was ruinous to maintain, but from -which it was difficult to retreat. American tradition rightly lays the -chief blame for the troubles which brought on the Revolutionary War to -George III.; but, in fairness, it is well to remember that he did not -suggest Townshend's measures, though he zealously adopted and cherished -them when once propounded. The blame for wantonly throwing the apple of -discord belongs to Townshend more than to any one else. After doing -this, within three months from the time his bill had passed the House of -Commons, Townshend was seized with a fever and died at the age of -forty-one. A man of extraordinary gifts, but without a trace of earnest -moral conviction, he had entered upon a splendid career; but his -insincere nature, which turned everything into jest, had stamped itself -upon his work. He bequeathed to his country nothing but the quarrel -which was soon to deprive her of the grandest part of that empire upon -which the sun shall never set. - -[Illustration: George III] - - [Signature: George R] - - [Sidenote: His political legacy to George III.] - - [Sidenote: Character of George III.] - -If Townshend's immediate object in originating these measures was to -curry favour with George III., and get the lion's share in the disposal -of the king's ample corruption-fund, he had doubtless gone to work in -the right way. The king was delighted with Townshend's measures, and -after the sudden death of his minister he made them his own, and staked -his whole political career as a monarch upon their success. These -measures were the fatal legacy which the brighter political charlatan -left to the duller political fanatic. The fierce persistency with which -George now sought to force Townshend's measures upon the Americans -partook of the nature of fanaticism, and we shall not understand it -unless we bear in mind the state of political parties in England between -1760 and 1784. When George III. came to the throne, in 1760, England had -been governed for more than half a century by the great Whig families -which had been brought into the foreground by the revolution of 1688. -The Tories had been utterly discredited and cast out of political life -by reason of their willingness to conspire with the Stuart pretenders -in disturbing the peace of the country. Cabinet government, in its -modern form, had begun to grow up during the long and prosperous -administration of Sir Robert Walpole, who was the first English prime -minister in the full sense. Under Walpole's wise and powerful sway, the -first two Georges had possessed scarcely more than the shadow of -sovereignty. It was the third George's ambition to become a real king, -like the king of France or the king of Spain. From earliest babyhood, -his mother had forever been impressing upon him the precept, "George, be -king!" and this simple lesson had constituted pretty much the whole of -his education. Popular tradition regards him as the most ignorant king -that ever sat upon the English throne; and so far as general culture is -concerned, this opinion is undoubtedly correct. He used to wonder what -people could find to admire in such a wretched driveller as -Shakespeare, and he never was capable of understanding any problem which -required the slightest trace of imagination or of generalizing power. -Nevertheless, the popular American tradition undoubtedly errs in -exaggerating his stupidity and laying too little stress upon the worst -side of his character. George III. was not destitute of a certain kind -of ability, which often gets highly rated in this not too clear-sighted -world. He could see an immediate end very distinctly, and acquired -considerable power from the dogged industry with which he pursued it. In -an age when some of the noblest English statesmen drank their gallon of -strong wine daily, or sat late at the gambling-table, or lived in -scarcely hidden concubinage, George III. was decorous in personal habits -and pure in domestic relations, and no banker's clerk in London applied -himself to the details of business more industriously than he. He had a -genuine talent for administration, and he devoted this talent most -assiduously to selfish ends. Scantily endowed with human sympathy, and -almost boorishly stiff in his ordinary unstudied manner, he could be -smooth as oil whenever he liked. He was an adept in gaining men's -confidence by a show of interest, and securing their aid by dint of fair -promises; and when he found them of no further use, he could turn them -adrift with wanton insult. Any one who dared to disagree with him upon -even the slightest point of policy he straightway regarded as a natural -enemy, and pursued him ever afterward with vindictive hatred. As a -natural consequence, he surrounded himself with weak and short-sighted -advisers, and toward all statesmen of broad views and independent -character he nursed the bitterest rancour. He had little faith in human -honour or rectitude, and in pursuing an end he was seldom deterred by -scruples. - - [Sidenote: English parties between 1760 and 1784] - -Such was the man who, on coming to the throne in 1760, had it for his -first and chiefest thought to break down the growing system of cabinet -government in England. For the moment circumstances seemed to favour -him. The ascendancy of the great Whig families was endangered on two -sides. On the one hand, the Tory party had outlived that idle, romantic -love for the Stuarts upon which it found it impossible to thrive. The -Tories began coming to court again, and they gave the new king all the -benefit of their superstitious theories of high prerogative and divine -right. On the other hand, a strong popular feeling was beginning to grow -up against parliamentary government as conducted by the old Whig -families. The House of Commons no longer fairly represented the people. -Ancient boroughs, which possessed but a handful of population, or, like -Old Sarum, had no inhabitants at all, still sent their representatives -to Parliament, while great cities of recent growth, such as Birmingham -and Leeds, were unrepresented. To a great extent, it was the most -progressive parts of the kingdom which were thus excluded from a share -in the government, while the rotten boroughs were disposed of by secret -lobbying, or even by open bargain and sale. A few Whig families, the -heads of which sat in the House of Lords, thus virtually owned a -considerable part of the House of Commons; and, under such -circumstances, it was not at all strange that Parliament should -sometimes, as in the Wilkes case, array itself in flat opposition to the -will of the people. The only wonder is that there were not more such -scandals. The party of "Old Whigs," numbering in its ranks some of the -ablest and most patriotic men in England, was contented with this state -of things, upon which it had thrived for two generations, and could not -be made to understand the iniquity of it,--any more than an old -cut-and-dried American politician in our time can be made to understand -the iniquity of the "spoils system." Of this party the Marquis of -Rockingham was the political leader, and Edmund Burke was the great -representative statesman. In strong opposition to the Old Whig policy -there had grown up the party of New Whigs, bent upon bringing about some -measure of parliamentary reform, whereby the House of Commons might -truly represent the people of Great Britain. In Parliament this party -was small in numbers, but weighty in character, and at its head was the -greatest Englishman of the eighteenth century, the elder William Pitt, -under whose guidance England had won her Indian empire and established -her dominion over the seas, while she had driven the French from -America, and enabled Frederick the Great to lay the foundations of -modern Germany. - - [Portrait: Edmund Burke.] - - [Sidenote: George III. as a politician] - -Now when George III. came to the throne, he took advantage of this -division in the two parties in order to break down the power of the Old -Whig families, which so long had ruled the country. To this end he used -the revived Tory party with great effect, and bid against the Old Whigs -for the rotten boroughs; and in playing off one set of prejudices and -interests against another, he displayed in the highest degree the -cunning and craft of a self-seeking politician. His ordinary methods -would have aroused the envy of Tammany. While engaged in such work, he -had sense enough to see that the party from which he had most to fear -was that of the New Whigs, whose scheme of parliamentary reform, if ever -successful, would deprive him of the machinery of corruption upon which -he relied. Much as he hated the Old Whig families, he hated Pitt and his -followers still more heartily. He was perpetually denouncing Pitt as a -"trumpeter of sedition," and often vehemently declared in public, and in -the most offensive manner, that he wished that great man were dead. Such -had been his eagerness to cast discredit upon Pitt's policy that he had -utterly lost sight of the imperial interests of England, which indeed -his narrow intelligence was incapable of comprehending. One of the first -acts of his reign had been to throw away Cuba and the Philippine -Islands, which Pitt had just conquered from Spain; while at the same -time, by leaving Prussia in the lurch before the Seven Years' War had -fairly closed, he converted the great Frederick from one of England's -warmest friends into one of her bitterest enemies. - - [Sidenote: His chief reason for quarrelling with the Americans] - -This political attitude of George III. toward the Whigs in general, and -toward Pitt in particular, explains the fierce obstinacy with which he -took up and carried on Townshend's quarrel with the American colonies. -For if the American position, that there should be no taxation without -representation, were once to be granted, then it would straightway -become necessary to admit the principles of parliamentary reform. The -same principle that applied to such commonwealths as Massachusetts and -Virginia would be forthwith applied to such towns as Birmingham and -Leeds. The system of rotten boroughs would be swept away; the chief -engine of kingly corruption would thus be destroyed; a reformed House of -Commons, with the people at its back, would curb forever the pretensions -of the Crown; and the detested Lord Chatham would become the real ruler -of a renovated England, in which George III. would be a personage of -very little political importance. - -In these considerations we find the explanation of the acts of George -III. which brought on the American Revolution, and we see why it is -historically correct to regard him as the person chiefly responsible for -the quarrel. The obstinacy with which he refused to listen to a word of -reason from America was largely due to the exigencies of the political -situation in which he found himself. For him, as well as for the -colonies, it was a desperate struggle for political existence. He was -glad to force on the issue in America rather than in England, because it -would be comparatively easy to enlist British local feeling against the -Americans as a remote set of "rebels," with whom Englishmen had no -interests in common, and thus obscure the real nature of the issue. -Herein he showed himself a cunning politician, though an ignoble -statesman. By playing off against each other the two sections of the -Whig party, he continued for a while to carry his point; and had he -succeeded in overcoming the American resistance and calling into England -a well-trained army of victorious mercenaries, the political quarrel -there could hardly have failed to develop into a civil war. A new -rebellion would perhaps have overthrown George III. as James II. had -been overthrown a century before. As it was, the victory of the -Americans put an end to the personal government of the king in 1784, so -quietly that the people scarcely realized the change.[1] A peaceful -election accomplished what otherwise could hardly have been effected -without bloodshed. So while George III. lost the fairest portion of the -British Empire, it was the sturdy Americans who, fighting the battle of -freedom at once for the Old World and for the New, ended by overwhelming -his paltry schemes for personal aggrandizement in hopeless ruin, leaving -him for posterity to contemplate as one of the most instructive examples -of short-sighted folly that modern history affords. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See my _Critical Period of American History_, chap. i. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - THE CRISIS - - -[Illustration: LORD NORTH] - -Townshend was succeeded in the exchequer by Lord North, eldest son of -the Earl of Guildford, a young man of sound judgment, wide knowledge, -and rare sweetness of temper, but wholly lacking in sympathy with -popular government. As leader of the House of Commons, he was -sufficiently able in debate to hold his ground against the fiercest -attacks of Burke and Fox, but he had no strength of will. His lazy -good-nature and his Tory principles made him a great favourite with the -king, who, through his influence over Lord North, began now to exercise -the power of a cabinet minister, and to take a more important part than -hitherto in the direction of affairs. Soon after North entered the -cabinet, colonial affairs were taken from Lord Shelburne and put in -charge of Lord Hillsborough, a man after the king's own heart. Conway -was dismissed from the cabinet, and his place was taken by Lord -Weymouth, who had voted against the repeal of the Stamp Act. The Earl of -Sandwich, who never spoke of the Americans but in terms of abuse, was -at the same time made postmaster-general; and in the following year Lord -Chatham resigned the privy seal. - - [Signature: North] - - [Sidenote: John Dickinson] - -While the ministry, by these important changes, was becoming more and -more hostile to the just claims of the Americans, those claims were -powerfully urged in America, both in popular literature and in -well-considered state papers. John Dickinson, at once a devoted friend -of England and an ardent American patriot, published his celebrated -Farmer's Letters, which were greatly admired in both countries for their -temperateness of tone and elegance of expression. In these letters, -Dickinson held a position quite similar to that occupied by Burke. -Recognizing that the constitutional relations of the colonies to the -mother-country had always been extremely vague and ill-defined, he urged -that the same state of things be kept up forever through a genuine -English feeling of compromise, which should refrain from pushing any -abstract theory of sovereignty to its extreme logical conclusions. At -the same time, he declared that the Townshend revenue acts were "a most -dangerous innovation" upon the liberties of the people, and -significantly hinted, that, should the ministry persevere in its -tyrannical policy, "English history affords examples of resistance by -force." - - [Portrait: John Dickinson] - - [Sidenote: The Massachusetts circular letter] - -While Dickinson was publishing these letters, Samuel Adams wrote for the -Massachusetts assembly a series of addresses to the ministry, a petition -to the king, and a circular letter to the assemblies of the other -colonies. In these very able state papers, Adams declared that a proper -representation of American interests in the British Parliament was -impracticable, and that, in accordance with the spirit of the English -Constitution, no taxes could be levied in America except by the colonial -legislatures. He argued that the Townshend acts were unconstitutional, -and asked that they should be repealed, and that the colonies should -resume the position which they had occupied before the beginning of the -present troubles. The petition to the king was couched in beautiful and -touching language, but the author seems to have understood very well how -little effect it was likely to produce. His daughter, Mrs. Wells, used -to tell how one evening, as her father had just finished writing this -petition, and had taken up his hat to go out, she observed that the -paper would soon be touched by the royal hand. "More likely, my dear," -he replied, "it will be spurned by the royal foot!" Adams rightly -expected much more from the circular letter to the other colonies, in -which he invited them to cooperate with Massachusetts in resisting the -Townshend acts, and in petitioning for their repeal. The assembly, -having adopted all these papers by a large majority, was forthwith -prorogued by Governor Bernard, who, in a violent speech, called them -demagogues to whose happiness "everlasting contention was necessary." -But the work was done. The circular letter brought encouraging replies -from the other colonies. The condemnation of the Townshend acts was -unanimous, and leading merchants in most of the towns entered into -agreements not to import any more English goods until the acts should be -repealed. Ladies formed associations, under the name of Daughters of -Liberty, pledging themselves to wear homespun clothes and to abstain -from drinking tea. The feeling of the country was thus plainly enough -expressed, but nowhere as yet was there any riot or disorder, and no one -as yet, except, perhaps, Samuel Adams, had begun to think of a -political separation from England. Even he did not look upon such a -course as desirable, but the treatment of his remonstrances by the king -and the ministry soon led him to change his opinion. - -[Illustration: A List of Names of _those_ who AUDACIOUSLY continue -to counteract the UNITED SENTIMENTS of the BODY of Merchants thro' out -NORTH-AMERICA; by importing British Goods contrary to the Agreement.] - - [Sidenote: Lord Hillsborough's instructions to Bernard] - -The petition of the Massachusetts assembly was received by the king with -silent contempt, but the circular letter threw him into a rage. In -cabinet meeting, it was pronounced to be little better than an overt act -of rebellion, and the ministers were encouraged in this opinion by -letters from Bernard, who represented the whole affair as the wicked -attempt of a few vile demagogues to sow the seeds of dissension -broadcast over the continent. We have before had occasion to observe the -extreme jealousy with which the Crown had always regarded any attempt at -concerted action among the colonies which did not originate with itself. -But here was an attempt at concerted action in flagrant opposition to -the royal will. Lord Hillsborough instructed Bernard to command the -assembly to rescind their circular letter, and, in case of their -refusal, to send them home about their business. This was to be repeated -year after year, so that, until Massachusetts should see fit to declare -herself humbled and penitent, she must go without a legislature. At the -same time, Hillsborough ordered the assemblies in all the other colonies -to treat the Massachusetts circular with contempt,--and this, too, under -penalty of instant dissolution. From a constitutional point of view, -these arrogant orders deserve to be ranked among the curiosities of -political history. They serve to mark the rapid progress the ministry -was making in the art of misgovernment. A year before, Townshend had -suspended the New York legislature by an act of Parliament. Now, a -secretary of state, by a simple royal order, threatened to suspend all -the legislative bodies of America unless they should vote according to -his dictation. - - [Sidenote: The "Illustrious Ninety-Two"] - -When Hillsborough's orders were laid before the Massachusetts assembly, -they were greeted with scorn. "We are asked to rescind," said Otis. "Let -Britain rescind her measures, or the colonies are lost to her forever." -Nevertheless, it was only after nine days of discussion that the -question was put, when the assembly decided, by a vote of ninety-two to -seventeen, that it would not rescind its circular letter. Bernard -immediately dissolved the assembly, but its vote was hailed with delight -throughout the country, and the "Illustrious Ninety-Two" became the -favourite toast on all convivial occasions. Nor were the other colonial -assemblies at all readier than that of Massachusetts to yield to the -secretary's dictation. They all expressed the most cordial sympathy -with the recommendations of the circular letter; and in several -instances they were dissolved by the governors, according to -Hillsborough's instructions. - -[Illustration: FANEUIL HALL, "THE CRADLE OF LIBERTY"] - - [Sidenote: Impressment of citizens] - -While these fruitless remonstrances against the Townshend acts had been -preparing, the commissioners of the customs, in enforcing the acts, had -not taken sufficient pains to avoid irritating the people. In the spring -of 1768, the fifty-gun frigate Romney had been sent to mount guard in -the harbour of Boston, and while she lay there several of the citizens -were seized and impressed as seamen,--a lawless practice long afterward -common in the British navy, but already stigmatized as barbarous by -public opinion in America. As long ago as 1747, when the relations -between the colonies and the home government were quite harmonious, -resistance to the press-gang had resulted in a riot in the streets of -Boston. Now while the town was very indignant over this lawless -kidnapping of its citizens, on the 10th of June, 1768, John Hancock's -sloop Liberty was seized at the wharf by a boat's crew from the Romney, -for an alleged violation of the revenue laws, though without official -warrant. Insults and recriminations ensued between the officers and the -citizens assembled on the wharf, until after a while the excitement grew -into a mild form of riot, in which a few windows were broken, some of -the officers were pelted, and finally a pleasure boat, belonging to the -collector, was pulled up out of the water, carried to the Common, and -burned there, when Hancock and Adams, arriving upon the scene, put a -stop to the commotion. A few days afterward, a town meeting was held in -Faneuil Hall; but as the crowd was too great to be contained in the -building, it was adjourned to the Old South Meeting-House, where Otis -addressed the people from the pulpit. A petition to the governor was -prepared, in which it was set forth that the impressment of peaceful -citizens was an illegal act, and that the state of the town was as if -war had been declared against it; and the governor was requested to -order the instant removal of the frigate from the harbour. A committee -of twenty-one leading citizens was appointed to deliver this petition to -the governor at his house in Jamaica Plain. In his letters to the -secretary of state Bernard professed to live in constant fear of -assassination, and was always begging for troops to protect him against -the incendiary and blackguard mob of Boston. Yet as he looked down the -beautiful road from his open window, that summer afternoon, what he saw -was not a ragged mob, armed with knives and bludgeons, shouting -"Liberty, or death!" and bearing the head of a revenue collector aloft -on the point of a pike, but a quiet procession of eleven chaises, from -which there alighted at his door twenty-one gentlemen, as sedate and -stately in demeanour as those old Roman senators at whom the Gaulish -chief so marvelled. There followed a very affable interview, during -which wine was passed around. The next day the governor's answer was -read in town meeting, declining to remove the frigate, but promising -that in future there should be no impressment of Massachusetts citizens; -and with this compromise the wrath of the people was for a moment -assuaged. - - [Portrait: Fra. Bernard] - -Affairs of this sort, reported with gross exaggeration by the governor -and revenue commissioners to the ministry, produced in England the -impression that Boston was a lawless and riotous town, full of -cutthroats and blacklegs, whose violence could be held in check only by -martial law. Of all the misconceptions of America by England which -brought about the American Revolution, perhaps this notion of the -turbulence of Boston was the most ludicrous. During the ten years of -excitement which preceded the War of Independence there was one -disgraceful riot in Boston,--that in which Hutchinson's house was -sacked; but in all this time not a drop of blood was shed by the people, -nor was anybody's life for a moment in danger at their hands. The -episode of the sloop Liberty, as here described, was a fair sample of -the disorders which occurred at Boston at periods of extreme excitement; -and in any European town in the eighteenth century it would hardly have -been deemed worthy of mention. - - [Sidenote: Statute of Henry VIII. concerning "treason committed abroad"] - -Even before the affair of the Liberty, the government had made up its -mind to send troops to Boston, in order to overawe the popular party and -show them that the king and Lord Hillsborough were in earnest. The news -of the Liberty affair, however, served to remove any hesitation that -might hitherto have been felt. Vengeance was denounced against the -insolent town of Boston. The most seditious spirits, such as Otis and -Adams, must be made an example of, and thus the others might be -frightened into submission. With such intent, Lord Hillsborough sent -over to inquire "if any person had committed any acts which, under the -statutes of Henry VIII. against treason committed abroad, might justify -their being brought to England for trial." This raking-up of an obsolete -statute, enacted at one of the worst periods of English history, and -before England had any colonies at all, was extremely injudicious. But -besides all this, continued Hillsborough, the town meeting, that nursery -of sedition, must be put down or overawed; and in pursuance of this -scheme, two regiments of soldiers and a frigate were to be sent over to -Boston at the ministry's earliest convenience. To make an example of -Boston, it was thought, would have a wholesome effect upon the temper of -the Americans. - -[Illustration: LANDING OF THE TROOPS IN BOSTON, 1768] - -[Illustration: CASTLE WILLIAM, BOSTON HARBOUR] - - [Sidenote: Samuel Adams makes up his mind, 1768] - -It was now, in the summer of 1768, that Samuel Adams made up his mind -that there was no hope of redress from the British government, and that -the only remedy was to be found in the assertion of political -independence by the American colonies. The courteous petitions and -temperate remonstrances of the American assemblies had been met, not by -rational arguments, but by insulting and illegal royal orders; and now -at last an army was on the way from England to enforce the tyrannical -measures of government, and to terrify the people into submission. -Accordingly, Adams came to the conclusion that the only proper course -for the colonies was to declare themselves independent of Great Britain, -to unite together in a permanent confederation, and to invite European -alliances. We have his own word for the fact that from this moment until -the Declaration of Independence, in 1776, he consecrated all his -energies, with burning enthusiasm, upon the attainment of that great -object. Yet in 1768 no one knew better than Samuel Adams that the time -had not yet come when his bold policy could be safely adopted, and that -any premature attempt at armed resistance on the part of Massachusetts -might prove fatal. At this time, probably no other American statesman -had thought the matter out so far as to reach Adams's conclusions. No -American had as yet felt any desire to terminate the political -connection with England. Even those who most thoroughly condemned the -measures of the government did not consider the case hopeless, but -believed that in one way or another a peaceful solution was still -attainable. For a long time this attitude was sincerely and patiently -maintained. Even Washington, when he came to take command of the army at -Cambridge, after the battle of Bunker Hill, had not made up his mind -that the object of the war was to be the independence of the colonies. -In the same month of July, 1775, Jefferson said expressly, "We have not -raised armies with designs of separating from Great Britain and -establishing independent states. Necessity has not yet driven us into -that desperate measure." The Declaration of Independence was at last -brought about only with difficulty and after prolonged discussion. Our -great-great-grandfathers looked upon themselves as Englishmen, and felt -proud of their connection with England. Their determination to resist -arbitrary measures was at first in no way associated in their minds with -disaffection toward the mother-country. Besides this, the task of -effecting a separation by military measures seemed to most persons quite -hopeless. It was not until after Bunker Hill had shown that American -soldiers were a match for British soldiers in the field, and after -Washington's capture of Boston had shown that the enemy really could be -dislodged from a whole section of the country, that the more hopeful -patriots began to feel confident of the ultimate success of a war for -independence. It is hard for us now to realize how terrible the -difficulties seemed to the men who surmounted them. Throughout the war, -beside the Tories who openly sympathized with the enemy, there were many -worthy people who thought we were "going too far," and who magnified our -losses and depreciated our gains,--quite like the people who, in the War -of Secession, used to be called "croakers." The depression of even the -boldest, after such defeats as that of Long Island, was dreadful. How -inadequate was the general sense of our real strength, how dim the -general comprehension of the great events that were happening, may best -be seen in the satirical writings of some of the loyalists. At the time -of the French alliance, there were many who predicted that the result of -this step would be to undo the work of the Seven Years' War, to -reinstate the French in America with full control over the thirteen -colonies, and to establish despotism and popery all over the continent. -A satirical pamphlet, published in 1779, just ten years before the -Bastille was torn down in Paris, drew an imaginary picture of a Bastille -which ten years later was to stand in New York, and, with still further -license of fantasy, portrayed Samuel Adams in the garb of a Dominican -friar. Such nonsense is of course no index to the sentiments or the -beliefs of the patriotic American people, but the mere fact that it -could occur to anybody shows how hard it was for people to realize how -competent America was to take care of herself. The more we reflect upon -the slowness with which the country came to the full consciousness of -its power and importance, the more fully we bring ourselves to realize -how unwilling America was to tear herself asunder from England, and how -the Declaration of Independence was only at last resorted to when it had -become evident that no other course was compatible with the preservation -of our self-respect; the more thoroughly we realize all this, the nearer -we shall come toward duly estimating the fact that in 1768, seven years -before the battle of Lexington, the master mind of Samuel Adams had -fully grasped the conception of a confederation of American states -independent of British control. The clearness with which he saw this, as -the inevitable outcome of the political conditions of the time, gave to -his views and his acts, in every emergency that arose, a commanding -influence throughout the land. - - [Sidenote: Arrival of troops in Boston] - -In September, 1768, it was announced in Boston that the troops were on -their way, and would soon be landed. There happened to be a legal -obstacle, unforeseen by the ministry, to their being quartered in the -town. In accordance with the general act of Parliament for quartering -troops, the regular barracks at Castle William in the harbour would have -to be filled before the town could be required to find quarters for any -troops. Another clause of the act provided that if any military officer -should take upon himself to quarter soldiers in any of his Majesty's -dominions otherwise than as allowed by the act, he should be straightway -dismissed the service. At the news that the troops were about to arrive, -the governor was asked to convene the assembly, that it might be decided -how to receive them. On Bernard's refusal, the selectmen of Boston -issued a circular, inviting all the towns of Massachusetts to send -delegates to a general convention, in order that deliberate action might -be taken upon this important matter. In answer to the circular, -delegates from ninety-six towns assembled in Faneuil Hall, and, laughing -at the governor's order to "disperse," proceeded to show how, in the -exercise of the undoubted right of public meeting, the colony could -virtually legislate for itself, in the absence of its regular -legislature. The convention, finding that nothing was necessary for -Boston to do but insist upon strict compliance with the letter of the -law, adjourned. In October, two regiments arrived, and were allowed to -land without opposition, but no lodging was provided for them. Bernard, -in fear of an affray, had gone out into the country; but nothing could -have been farther from the thoughts of the people. The commander, -Colonel Dalrymple, requested shelter for his men, but was told that he -must quarter them in the barracks at Castle William. As the night was -frosty, however, the Sons of Liberty allowed them to sleep in Faneuil -Hall. Next day, the governor, finding everything quiet, came back, and -heard Dalrymple's complaint. But in vain did he apply in turn to the -council, to the selectmen, and to the justices of the peace, to grant -quarters for the troops; he was told that the law was plain, and that -the Castle must first be occupied. The governor then tried to get -possession of an old dilapidated building which belonged to the colony; -but the tenants had taken legal advice, and told him to turn them out if -he dared. Nothing could be more provoking. General Gage was obliged to -come on from his headquarters at New York; but not even he, the -commander-in-chief of his Majesty's forces in America, could quarter the -troops in violation of the statute without running the risk of being -cashiered, on conviction before two justices of the peace. So the -soldiers stayed at night in tents on the Common, until the weather grew -so cold that Dalrymple was obliged to hire some buildings for them at -exorbitant rates, and at the expense of the Crown. By way of insult to -the people, two cannon were planted on King Street, with their muzzles -pointing toward the Town House. But as the troops could do nothing -without a requisition from a civil magistrate, and as the usual strict -decorum was preserved throughout the town, there was nothing in the -world for them to do. In case of an insurrection, the force was too -small to be of any use; and so far as the policy of overawing the town -was concerned, no doubt the soldiers were more afraid of the people than -the people of the soldiers. - - [Sidenote: Letters of "Vindex"] - -No sooner were the soldiers thus established in Boston than Samuel Adams -published a series of letters signed "Vindex," in which he argued that -to keep up "a standing army within the kingdom in time of peace, without -the consent of Parliament, was against the law; that the consent of -Parliament necessarily implied the consent of the people, who were -always present in Parliament, either by themselves or by their -representatives; and that the Americans, as they were not and could not -be represented in Parliament, were therefore suffering under military -tyranny over which they were allowed to exercise no control." The only -notice taken of this argument by Bernard and Hillsborough was an attempt -to collect evidence upon the strength of which its author might be -indicted for treason, and sent over to London to be tried; but Adams had -been so wary in all his proceedings that it was impossible to charge him -with any technical offence, and to have seized him otherwise than by due -process of law would have been to precipitate rebellion in -Massachusetts. - - [Portrait: GENERAL HENRY CONWAY] - - [Portrait: Isaac Barre] - - [Sidenote: Debate in Parliament] - - [Sidenote: Colonel Barre's speech] - -In Parliament, the proposal to extend the act of Henry VIII. to America -was bitterly opposed by Burke, Barre, Pownall, and Dowdeswell, as well -as by Grenville, who characterized it as sheer madness; but the measure -was carried, nevertheless. Burke further maintained, in an eloquent -speech, that the royal order requiring Massachusetts to rescind her -circular letter was unconstitutional; and here again Grenville agreed -with him. The attention of Parliament, during the spring of 1769, was -occupied chiefly with American affairs. Pownall moved that the Townshend -acts should be repealed, and in this he was earnestly seconded by a -petition of the London merchants; for the non-importation policy of -Americans had begun to bear hard upon business in London. After much -debate, Lord North proposed a compromise, repealing all the Townshend -acts except that which laid duty on tea. The more clear-headed members -saw that such a compromise, which yielded nothing in the matter of -principle, would do no good. Beckford pointed out the fact that the -tea-duty did not bring in L300 to the government; and Lord Beauchamp -pertinently asked whether it were worth while, for such a paltry -revenue, to make enemies of three millions of people. Grafton, Camden, -Conway, Burke, Barre, and Dowdeswell wished to have the tea-duty -repealed also, and the whole principle of parliamentary taxation given -up; and Lord North agreed with them in his secret heart, but could not -bring himself to act contrary to the king's wishes. "America must fear -you before she can love you," said Lord North.... "I am against -repealing the last act of Parliament, securing to us a revenue out of -America; I will never think of repealing it until I see America -prostrate at my feet." "To effect this," said Barre, "is not so easy as -some imagine; the Americans are a numerous, a respectable, a hardy, a -free people. But were it ever so easy, does any friend to his country -really wish to see America thus humbled? In such a situation, she would -serve only as a monument of your arrogance and your folly. For my part, -the America I wish to see is America increasing and prosperous, raising -her head in graceful dignity, with freedom and firmness asserting her -rights at your bar, vindicating her liberties, pleading her services, -and conscious of her merit. This is the America that will have spirit to -fight your battles, to sustain you when hard pushed by some prevailing -foe, and by her industry will be able to consume your manufactures, -support your trade, and pour wealth and splendour into your towns and -cities. If we do not change our conduct towards her, America will be -torn from our side.... Unless you repeal this law, you run the risk of -losing America." But the ministers were deaf to Barre's sweet -reasonableness. "We shall grant nothing to the Americans," said Lord -Hillsborough, "except what they may ask with a halter round their -necks." "They are a race of convicted felons," echoed poor old Dr. -Johnson,--who had probably been reading Moll Flanders,--"and they ought -to be thankful for anything we allow them short of hanging." - - [Portrait: Thos. Hutchinson] - - [Sidenote: Thomas Hutchinson] - -As the result of the discussion, Lord North's so-called compromise was -adopted, and a circular was sent to America, promising that all the -obnoxious acts, except the tea duty, should be repealed. At the same -time, Bernard was recalled from Massachusetts to appease the indignation -of the people, and made a baronet to show that the ministry approved of -his conduct as governor. His place was filled by the -lieutenant-governor, Thomas Hutchinson, a man of great learning and -brilliant talent, whose "History of Massachusetts Bay" entitles him to a -high rank among the worthies of early American literature. The next year -Hutchinson was appointed governor. As a native of Massachusetts, it was -supposed by Lord North that he would be less likely to irritate the -people than his somewhat arrogant predecessor. But in this the -government turned out to be mistaken. As to Hutchinson's sincere -patriotism there can now be no doubt whatever. There was something -pathetic in the intensity of his love for New England, which to him was -the goodliest of all lands, the paradise of this world. He had been -greatly admired for his learning and accomplishments, and the people of -Massachusetts had elected him to one office after another, and shown him -every mark of esteem until the evil days of the Stamp Act. It then began -to appear that he was a Tory on principle, and a thorough believer in -the British doctrine of the absolute supremacy of Parliament, and -popular feeling presently turned against him. He was called a turncoat -and traitor, and a thankless dog withal, whose ruling passion was -avarice. His conduct and his motives were alike misjudged. He had tried -to dissuade the Grenville ministry from passing the Stamp Act; but when -once the obnoxious measure had become law, he thought it his duty to -enforce it like other laws. For this he was charged with being recreant -to his own convictions, and in the shameful riot of August, 1765, he was -the worst sufferer. No public man in America has ever been the object of -more virulent hatred. None has been more grossly misrepresented by -historians. His appointment as governor, however well meant, turned out -to be anything but a wise measure. - -[Illustration: CAPITOL AT WILLIAMSBURGH, VIRGINIA] - - [Sidenote: Virginia resolutions, 1769] - -While these things were going on, a strong word of sympathy came from -Virginia. When Hillsborough made up his mind to browbeat Boston, he -thought it worth while to cajole the Virginians, and try to win them -from the cause which Massachusetts was so boldly defending. So Lord -Botetourt, a genial and conciliatory man, was sent over to be governor -of Virginia, to beguile the people with his affable manner and sweet -discourse. But between a quarrelsome Bernard and a gracious Botetourt -the practical difference was little, where grave questions of -constitutional right were involved. In May, 1769, the House of Burgesses -assembled at Williamsburgh. Among its members were Patrick Henry, -Washington, and Jefferson. The assembly condemned the Townshend acts, -asserted that the people of Virginia could be taxed only by their own -representatives, declared that it was both lawful and expedient for all -the colonies to join in a protest against any violation of the rights of -Americans, and especially warned the king of the dangers that might -ensue if any American citizen were to be carried beyond sea for trial. -Finally, it sent copies of these resolutions to all the other colonial -assemblies, inviting their concurrence. At this point Lord Botetourt -dissolved the assembly; but the members straightway met again in -convention at the famous Apollo room of the Raleigh tavern, and adopted -a series of resolutions prepared by Washington, in which they pledged -themselves to continue the policy of non-importation until all the -obnoxious acts of 1767 should be repealed. These resolutions were -adopted by all the southern colonies. - -[Illustration: APOLLO ROOM IN THE RALEIGH TAVERN] - -[Illustration: STOVE USED IN THE HOUSE OF BURGESSES] - - [Sidenote: Assault on James Otis] - -All through the year 1769, the British troops remained quartered in -Boston at the king's expense. According to Samuel Adams, their principal -employment seemed to be to parade in the streets, and by their -merry-andrew tricks to excite the contempt of women and children. But -the soldiers did much to annoy the people, to whom their very presence -was an insult. They led brawling, riotous lives, and made the quiet -streets hideous by night with their drunken shouts. Scores of loose -women, who had followed the regiments across the ocean, came to -scandalize the town for a while, and then to encumber the almshouse. On -Sundays the soldiers would race horses on the Common, or play Yankee -Doodle just outside the church-doors during the services. Now and then -oaths, or fisticuffs, or blows with sticks, were exchanged between -soldiers and citizens, and once or twice a more serious affair occurred. -One evening in September, a dastardly assault was made upon James Otis, -in the British Coffee House, by one Robinson, a commissioner of customs, -assisted by half a dozen army officers. It reminds one of the assault -upon Charles Sumner by Brooks of South Carolina, shortly before the War -of Secession. Otis was savagely beaten, and received a blow on the head -with a sword, from the effects of which he never recovered, but finally -lost his reason. The popular wrath at this outrage was intense, but -there was no disturbance. Otis brought suit against Robinson, and -recovered L2,000 in damages, but refused to accept a penny of it when -Robinson confessed himself in the wrong, and humbly asked pardon for -his irreparable offence. - -[Illustration: OLD BRICK MEETING-HOUSE] - -[Illustration: PAUL REVERE'S PLAN OF KING STREET IN 1770 - (_Used in the trial of the soldiers_)] - - [Sidenote: The "Boston Massacre"] - -On the 22d of February, 1770, an informer named Richardson, being pelted -by a party of schoolboys, withdrew into his house, opened a window, and -fired at random into the crowd, killing one little boy and severely -wounding another. He was found guilty of murder, but was pardoned. At -last, on the 2d of March, an angry quarrel occurred between a party of -soldiers and some of the workmen at a ropewalk, and for two or three -days there was considerable excitement in the town, and people talked -together, standing about the streets in groups; but Hutchinson did not -even take the precaution of ordering the soldiers to be kept within -their barracks, for he did not believe that the people intended a riot, -nor that the troops would dare to fire on the citizens without express -permission from himself. On the evening of March 5th, at about eight -o'clock, a large crowd collected near the barracks, on Brattle Street, -and from bandying abusive epithets with the soldiers began pelting them -with snow-balls and striking at them with sticks, while the soldiers now -and then dealt blows with their muskets. Presently Captain Goldfinch, -coming along, ordered the men into their barracks for the night, and -thus stopped the affray. But meanwhile some one had got into the Old -Brick Meeting-House, opposite the head of King Street, and rung the -bell; and this, being interpreted as an alarm of fire, brought out many -people into the moonlit streets. It was now a little past nine. The -sentinel who was pacing in front of the Custom House had a few minutes -before knocked down a barber's boy for calling names at the captain, as -he went up to stop the affray on Brattle Street. The crowd in King -Street now began to pelt the sentinel, and some shouted, "Kill him!" -when Captain Preston and seven privates from the twenty-ninth regiment -crossed the street to his aid: and thus the file of nine soldiers -confronted an angry crowd of fifty or sixty unarmed men, who pressed up -to the very muzzles of their guns, threw snow at their faces, and dared -them to fire. All at once, but quite unexpectedly and probably without -orders from Preston, seven of the levelled pieces were discharged, -instantly killing four men and wounding seven others, of whom two -afterwards died. Immediately the alarm was spread through the town, and -it might have gone hard with the soldiery, had not Hutchinson presently -arrived on the scene, and quieted the people by ordering the arrest of -Preston and his men. Next morning the council advised the removal of one -of the regiments, but in the afternoon an immense town meeting, called -at Faneuil Hall, adjourned to the Old South Meeting-House; and as they -passed by the Town House (or what we now call the Old State House), the -lieutenant-governor, looking out upon their march, judged "their spirit -to be as high as was the spirit of their ancestors when they imprisoned -Andros, while they were four times as numerous." All the way from the -church to the Town House the street was crowded with the people, while a -committee, headed by Samuel Adams, waited upon the governor, and -received his assurance that one regiment should be removed. As the -committee came out from the Town House, to carry the governor's reply to -the meeting in the church, the people pressed back on either side to let -them pass; and Adams, leading the way with uncovered head through the -lane thus formed, and bowing first to one side and then to the other, -passed along the watchword, "Both regiments, or none!" When, in the -church, the question was put to vote, three thousand voices shouted, -"Both regiments, or none!" and armed with this ultimatum the committee -returned to the Town House, where the governor was seated with Colonel -Dalrymple and the members of the council. Then Adams, in quiet but -earnest tones, stretching forth his arm and pointing his finger at -Hutchinson, said that if as acting governor of the province he had the -power to remove one regiment he had equally the power to remove both, -that the voice of three thousand freemen demanded that all soldiery be -forthwith removed from the town, and that if he failed to heed their -just demand, he did so at his peril. "I observed his knees to tremble," -said the old hero afterward, "I saw his face grow pale,--and I enjoyed -the sight!" That Hutchinson was agitated we may well believe; not from -fear, but from a sudden sickening sense of the odium of his position as -king's representative at such a moment. He was a man of invincible -courage, and surely would never have yielded to Adams, had he not known -that the law was on the side of the people and that the soldiers were -illegal trespassers in Boston. Before sundown the order had gone forth -for the removal of both regiments to Castle William, and not until then -did the meeting in the church break up. From that day forth the -fourteenth and twenty-ninth regiments were known in Parliament as "the -Sam Adams regiments." - -[Illustration: OLD STATE HOUSE, WEST FRONT] - - [Sidenote: Some lessons of the "Massacre"] - -Such was the famous Boston Massacre. All the mildness of New England -civilization is brought most strikingly before us in that truculent -phrase. The careless shooting of half a dozen townsmen is described by a -word which historians apply to such events as Cawnpore or the Sicilian -Vespers. Lord Sherbrooke, better known as Robert Lowe, declared a few -years ago, in a speech on the uses of a classical education, that the -battle of Marathon was really of less account than a modern colliery -explosion, because only one hundred and ninety-two of the Greek army -lost their lives! From such a point of view, one might argue that the -Boston Massacre was an event of far less importance than an ordinary -free fight among Colorado gamblers. It is needless to say that this is -not the historical point of view. Historical events are not to be -measured with a foot-rule. This story of the Boston Massacre is a very -trite one, but it has its lessons. It furnishes an instructive -illustration of the high state of civilization reached by the people -among whom it happened,--by the oppressors as well as those whom it was -sought to oppress. The quartering of troops in a peaceful town is -something that has in most ages been regarded with horror. Under the -senatorial government of Rome, it used to be said that the quartering of -troops, even upon a friendly province and for the purpose of protecting -it, was a visitation only less to be dreaded than an inroad of hostile -barbarians. When we reflect that the British regiments were encamped in -Boston during seventeen months, among a population to whom they were -thoroughly odious, the fact that only half a dozen persons lost their -lives, while otherwise no really grave crimes seem to have been -committed, is a fact quite as creditable to the discipline of the -soldiers as to the moderation of the people. In most ages and countries, -the shooting of half a dozen citizens under such circumstances would -either have produced but a slight impression, or, on the other hand, -would perhaps have resulted on the spot in a wholesale slaughter of the -offending soldiers. The fact that so profound an impression was made in -Boston and throughout the country, while at the same time the guilty -parties were left to be dealt with in the ordinary course of law, is a -striking commentary upon the general peacefulness and decorum of -American life, and it shows how high and severe was the standard by -which our forefathers judged all lawless proceedings. And here it may -not be irrelevant to add that, throughout the constitutional struggles -which led to the Revolution, the American standard of political right -and wrong was so high that contemporary European politicians found it -sometimes difficult to understand it. And for a like reason, even the -most fair-minded English historians sometimes fail to see why the -Americans should have been so quick to take offence at acts of the -British government which doubtless were not meant to be oppressive. If -George III. had been a bloodthirsty despot, like Philip II. of Spain; if -General Gage had been another Duke of Alva; if American citizens by the -hundred had been burned alive or broken on the wheel in New York and -Boston; if whole towns had been given up to the cruelty and lust of a -beastly soldiery, then no one--not even Dr. Johnson--would have found it -hard to understand why the Americans should have exhibited a rebellious -temper. But it is one signal characteristic of the progress of political -civilization that the part played by sheer brute force in a barbarous -age is fully equalled by the part played by a mere covert threat of -injustice in a more advanced age. The effect which a blow in the face -would produce upon a barbarian will be wrought upon a civilized man by -an assertion of some far-reaching legal principle, which only in a -subtle and ultimate analysis includes the possibility of a blow in the -face. From this point of view, the quickness with which such acts as -those of Charles Townshend were comprehended in their remotest bearings -is the must striking proof one could wish of the high grade of political -culture which our forefathers had reached through their system of -perpetual free discussion in town meeting. They had, moreover, reached a -point where any manifestation of brute force in the course of a -political dispute was exceedingly disgusting and shocking to them. To -their minds, the careless slaughter of six citizens conveyed as much -meaning as a St. Bartholomew massacre would have conveyed to the minds -of men in a lower stage of political development. It was not strange, -therefore, that Samuel Adams and his friends should have been ready to -make the Boston Massacre the occasion of a moral lesson to their -contemporaries. As far as the poor soldiers were concerned, the most -significant fact is that there was no attempt to wreak a paltry -vengeance on them. Brought to trial on a charge of murder, after a -judicious delay of seven months, they were ably defended by John Adams -and Josiah Quincy, and all were acquitted save two, who were convicted -of manslaughter, and let off with slight punishment. There were some -hotheads who grumbled at the verdict, but the people of Boston generally -acquiesced in it, as they showed by immediately choosing John Adams for -their representative in the assembly--a fact which Mr. Lecky calls very -remarkable. Such an event as the Boston Massacre could not fail for a -long time to point a moral among a people so unused to violence and -bloodshed. One of the earliest of American engravers, Paul Revere, -published a quaint coloured engraving of the scene in King Street, which -for a long time was widely circulated, though it has now become very -scarce. At the same time, it was decided that the fatal Fifth of March -should be solemnly commemorated each year by an oration to be delivered -in the Old South Meeting-House; and this custom was kept up until the -recognition of American independence in 1783, when the day for the -oration was changed to the Fourth of July. - - [Sidenote: Lord North's ministry] - - [Sidenote: The merchants of New York] - -Five weeks before the Boston Massacre the Duke of Grafton had resigned, -and Lord North had become prime minister of England. The colonies were -kept under Hillsborough, and that great friend of arbitrary government, -Lord Thurlow, as solicitor-general, became the king's chief legal -adviser. George III was now, to all intents and purposes, his own prime -minister, and remained so until after the overthrow at Yorktown. The -colonial policy of the government soon became more vexatious than ever. -The promised repeal of all the Townshend acts, except the act imposing -the tea-duty, was carried through Parliament in April, and its first -effect in America, as Lord North had foreseen, was to weaken the spirit -of opposition, and to divide the more complaisant colonies from those -that were most staunch. The policy of non-importation had pressed with -special severity upon the commerce of New York, and the merchants there -complained that the fire-eating planters of Virginia and farmers of -Massachusetts were growing rich at the expense of their neighbours. In -July, the New York merchants broke the non-importation agreement, and -sent orders to England for all sorts of merchandise except tea. Such a -measure, on the part of so great a seaport, virtually overthrew the -non-importation policy, upon which the patriots mainly relied to force -the repeal of the Tea Act. The wrath of the other colonies was intense. -At the Boston town meeting the letter of the New York merchants was torn -in pieces. In New Jersey, the students of Princeton College, James -Madison being one of the number, assembled on the green in their black -gowns and solemnly burned the letter, while the church-bells were -tolled. The offending merchants were stigmatized as "Revolters," and in -Charleston their conduct was vehemently denounced. "You had better send -us your old liberty-pole," said Philadelphia to New York, with bitter -sarcasm, "for you clearly have no further use for it." - - [Sidenote: Assemblies convened at strange places] - - [Sidenote: Taxes in Maryland] - - [Sidenote: The North Carolina "Regulators"] - -This breaking of the non-importation agreement by New York left no -general issue upon which the colonies could be sure to unite unless the -ministry should proceed to force an issue upon the Tea Act. For the -present, Lord North saw the advantage he had gained, and was not -inclined to take any such step. Nevertheless, as just observed, the -policy of the government soon became more vexatious than ever. In the -summer of 1770, the king entered upon a series of local quarrels with -the different colonies, taking care not to raise any general issue. -Royal instructions were sent over to the different governments, -enjoining courses of action which were unconstitutional and sure to -offend the people. The assemblies were either dissolved, or convened at -strange places, as at Beaufort in South Carolina, more than seventy -miles from the capital, or at Cambridge in Massachusetts. The local -governments were as far as possible ignored, and local officers were -appointed, with salaries to be paid by the Crown. In Massachusetts, -these officers were illegally exempted from the payment of taxes. In -Maryland, where the charter had expressly provided that no taxes could -ever be levied by the British Crown, the governor was ordered to levy -taxes indirectly by reviving a law regulating officers' fees, which had -expired by lapse of time. In North Carolina, excessive fees were -extorted, and the sheriffs in many cases collected taxes of which they -rendered no account. The upper counties of both the Carolinas were -peopled by a hardy set of small farmers and herdsmen, Presbyterians, of -Scotch-Irish pedigree, who were known by the name of "Regulators," -because, under the exigencies of their rough frontier life, they formed -voluntary associations for the regulation of their own police and the -condign punishment of horse-thieves and other criminals. In 1771, the -North Carolina Regulators, goaded by repeated acts of extortion and of -unlawful imprisonment, rose in rebellion. A battle was fought at -Alamance, near the headwaters of the Cape Fear river, in which the -Regulators were totally defeated by Governor Tryon, leaving more than a -hundred of their number dead and wounded upon the field: and six of -their leaders, taken prisoners, were summarily hanged for treason. After -this achievement Tryon was promoted to the governorship of New York, -where he left his name for a time upon the vaguely defined wilderness -beyond Schenectady, known in the literature of the Revolutionary War as -Tryon County. - - [Signature: Wm Tryon] - - [Portrait: Step Hopkins] - - [Sidenote: Affair of the Gaspee] - -In Rhode Island, the eight-gun schooner Gaspee, commanded by Lieutenant -Duddington, was commissioned to enforce the revenue acts along the -coasts of Narragansett Bay, and she set about the work with reckless and -indiscriminating zeal. "Thorough" was Duddington's motto, as it was Lord -Stafford's. He not only stopped and searched every vessel that entered -the bay, and seized whatever goods he pleased, whether there was any -evidence of their being contraband or not, but, besides this, he stole -the sheep and hogs of the farmers near the coast, cut down their trees, -fired upon market-boats, and behaved in general with unbearable -insolence. In March, 1772, the people of Rhode Island complained of -these outrages. The matter was referred to Rear-Admiral Montagu, -commanding the little fleet in Boston harbour. Montagu declared that the -lieutenant was only doing his duty, and threatened the Rhode Island -people in case they should presume to interfere. For three months longer -the Gaspee kept up her irritating behaviour, until one evening in June, -while chasing a swift American ship, she ran aground. The following -night she was attacked by a party of men in eight boats, and captured -after a short skirmish, in which Duddington was severely wounded. The -crew was set on shore, and the schooner was burned to the water's edge. -This act of reprisal was not relished by the government, and large -rewards were offered for the arrest of the men concerned in it; but -although probably everybody knew who they were, it was impossible to -obtain any evidence against them. By a royal order in council, the Rhode -Island government was commanded to arrest the offenders and deliver them -to Rear-Admiral Montagu, to be taken over to England for trial; but -Stephen Hopkins, the venerable chief justice of Rhode Island, flatly -refused to take cognizance of any such arrest if made within the colony. - - [Portrait: Jonathan Mayhew] - - [Sidenote: The salaries of the judges] - - [Sidenote: Jonathan Mayhew's suggestion] - - [Sidenote: The committees of correspondence in Massachusetts] - -The black thunder clouds of war now gathered quickly. In August, 1772, -the king ventured upon an act which went further than anything that had -yet occurred toward hastening on the crisis. It was ordered that all the -Massachusetts judges, holding their places during the king's pleasure, -should henceforth have their salaries paid by the Crown, and not by the -colony. This act, which aimed directly at the independence of the -judiciary, aroused intense indignation. The people of Massachusetts were -furious, and Samuel Adams now took a step which contributed more than -anything that had yet been done toward organizing the opposition to the -king throughout the whole country. The idea of establishing committees -of correspondence was not wholly new. The great preacher Jonathan Mayhew -had recommended such a step to James Otis in 1766, and he was led to it -through his experience of church matters. Writing in haste, on a Sunday -morning, he said, "To a good man all time is holy enough; and none is -too holy to do good, or to think upon it. Cultivating a good -understanding and hearty friendship between these colonies appears to me -so necessary a part of prudence and good policy that no favourable -opportunity for that purpose should be omitted.... You have heard of the -_communion of churches_: ... while I was thinking of this in my bed, the -great use and importance of a _communion of colonies_ appeared to me in -a strong light, which led me immediately to set down these hints to -transmit to you." The plan which Mayhew had in mind was the -establishment of a regular system of correspondence whereby the colonies -could take combined action in defence of their liberties. In the grand -crisis of 1772, Samuel Adams saw how much might be effected through -committees of correspondence that could not well be effected through -the ordinary governmental machinery of the colonies. At the October town -meeting in Boston, a committee was appointed to ask the governor whether -the judges' salaries were to be paid in conformity to the royal order; -and he was furthermore requested to convoke the assembly, in order that -the people might have a chance to express their views on so important a -matter. But Hutchinson told the committee to mind its own business: he -refused to say what would be done about the salaries, and denied the -right of the town to petition for a meeting of the assembly. -Massachusetts was thus virtually without a general government at a -moment when the public mind was agitated by a question of supreme -importance. Samuel Adams thereupon in town meeting moved the appointment -of a committee of correspondence, "to consist of twenty-one persons, to -state the rights of the colonists and of this province in particular, as -men and Christians and as subjects; and to communicate and publish the -same to the several towns and to the world as the sense of this town, -with the infringements and violations thereof that have been, or from -time to time may be, made." The adoption of this measure at first -excited the scorn of Hutchinson, who described the committee as composed -of "deacons," "atheists," and "black-hearted fellows," whom one would -not care to meet in the dark. He predicted that they would only make -themselves ridiculous, but he soon found reason to change his mind. The -response to the statements of the Boston committee was prompt and -unanimous, and before the end of the year more than eighty towns had -already organized their committees of correspondence. Here was a new -legislative body, springing directly from the people, and competent, as -events soon showed, to manage great affairs. Its influence reached into -every remotest corner of Massachusetts, it was always virtually in -session, and no governor could dissolve or prorogue it. Though unknown -to the law, the creation of it involved no violation of law. The right -of the towns of Massachusetts to ask one another's advice could no more -be disputed than the right of the freemen of any single town to hold a -town meeting. The power thus created was omnipresent, but intangible. -"This," said Daniel Leonard, the great Tory pamphleteer, two years -afterwards, "is the foulest, subtlest, and most venomous serpent ever -issued from the egg of sedition. It is the source of the rebellion. I -saw the small seed when it was planted: it was a grain of mustard. I -have watched the plant until it has become a great tree. The vilest -reptiles that crawl upon the earth are concealed at the root; the -foulest birds of the air rest upon its branches. I would now induce you -to go to work immediately with axes and hatchets and cut it down, for a -twofold reason,--because it is a pest to society, and lest it be felled -suddenly by a stronger arm, and crush its thousands in its fall." - - [Signature: Danl Leonard] - - [Sidenote: Intercolonial committees of correspondence] - -The system of committees of correspondence did indeed grow into a mighty -tree; for it was nothing less than the beginning of the American Union. -Adams himself by no means intended to confine his plan to Massachusetts, -for in the following April he wrote to Richard Henry Lee of Virginia -urging the establishment of similar committees in every colony. But -Virginia had already acted in the matter. When its assembly met in -March, 1773, the news of the refusal of Hopkins to obey the royal order, -of the attack upon the Massachusetts judiciary, and of the organization -of the committees of correspondence was the all-exciting subject of -conversation. The motion to establish a system of intercolonial -committees of correspondence was made by the youthful Dabney Carr, and -eloquently supported by Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee. It was -unanimously adopted, and very soon several other colonies elected -committees, in response to the invitation from Virginia. - - [Sidenote: The question of taxation revived] - -This was the most decided step toward revolution that had yet been taken -by the Americans. It only remained for the various intercolonial -committees to assemble together, and there would be a Congress speaking -in the name of the continent. To bring about such an act of union, -nothing more was needed than some fresh course of aggression on the part -of the British government which should raise a general issue in all the -colonies; and, with the rare genius for blundering which had possessed -it ever since the accession of George III., the government now went on -to provide such an issue. It was preeminently a moment when the question -of taxation should have been let alone. Throughout the American world -there was a strong feeling of irritation, which might still have been -allayed had the ministry shown a yielding temper. The grounds of -complaint had come to be different in the different colonies, and in -some cases, in which we can clearly see the good sense of Lord North -prevailing over the obstinacy of the king, the ministry had gained a -point by yielding. In the Rhode Island case, they had seized a -convenient opportunity and let the matter drop, to the manifest -advantage of their position. In Massachusetts, the discontent had come -to be alarming, and it was skilfully organized. The assembly had offered -the judges their salaries in the usual form, and had threatened to -impeach them if they should dare to accept a penny from the Crown. The -recent action of Virginia had shown that these two most powerful of the -colonies were in strong sympathy with one another. It was just this -moment that George III. chose for reviving the question of taxation, -upon which all the colonies would be sure to act as a unit, and sure to -withstand him to his face. The duty on tea had been retained simply as a -matter of principle. It did not bring three hundred pounds a year into -the British exchequer. But the king thought this a favourable time for -asserting the obnoxious principle which the tax involved. - - [Signature: Dartmouth] - - [Sidenote: The king's ingenious scheme] - -Thus, as in Mrs. Gamp's case, a teapot became the cause or occasion of a -division between friends. The measures now taken by the government -brought matters at once to a crisis. None of the colonies would take -tea on its terms. Lord Hillsborough had lately been superseded as -colonial secretary by Lord Dartmouth, an amiable man like the prime -minister, but like him wholly under the influence of the king. Lord -Dartmouth's appointment was made the occasion of introducing a series of -new measures. The affairs of the East India Company were in a bad -condition, and it was thought that the trouble was partly due to the -loss of the American trade in tea. The Americans would not buy tea -shipped from England, but they smuggled it freely from Holland, and the -smuggling could not be stopped by mere force. The best way to obviate -the difficulty, it was thought, would be to make English tea cheaper in -America than foreign tea, while still retaining the duty of threepence -on a pound. If this could be achieved, it was supposed that the -Americans would be sure to buy English tea by reason of its cheapness, -and would thus be ensnared into admitting the principle involved in the -duty. This ingenious scheme shows how unable the king and his ministers -were to imagine that the Americans could take a higher view of the -matter than that of pounds, shillings, and pence. In order to enable the -East India Company to sell its tea cheap in America, a drawback was -allowed of all the duties which such tea had been wont to pay on -entering England on its way from China. In this way, the Americans would -now find it actually cheaper to buy the English tea with the duty on it -than to smuggle their tea from Holland. To this scheme, Lord North said, -it was of no use for any one to offer objections, for the king would -have it so. "The king meant to try the question with America." In -accordance with this policy, several ships loaded with tea set sail in -the autumn of 1773 for the four principal ports, Boston, New York, -Philadelphia, and Charleston. Agents or consignees of the East India -Company were appointed by letter to receive the tea in these four towns. - - [Sidenote: How Boston became the battle-ground] - -As soon as the details of this scheme were known in America, the whole -country was in a blaze, from Maine to Georgia. Nevertheless, only legal -measures of resistance were contemplated. In Philadelphia, a great -meeting was held in October at the State House, and it was voted that -whosoever should lend countenance to the receiving or unloading of the -tea would be regarded as an enemy to his country. The consignees were -then requested to resign their commissions, and did so. In New York and -Charleston, also, the consignees threw up their commissions. In Boston, -a similar demand was made, but the consignees doggedly refused to -resign; and thus the eyes of the whole country were directed toward -Boston as the battlefield on which the great issue was to be tried. - -[Illustration: LORD NORTH POURING TEA DOWN COLUMBIA'S THROAT] - - [Sidenote: The five towns ask advice] - -During the month of November many town meetings were held in Faneuil -Hall. On the 17th, authentic intelligence was brought that the tea-ships -would soon arrive. The next day, a committee, headed by Samuel Adams, -waited upon the consignees, and again asked them to resign. Upon their -refusal, the town meeting instantly dissolved itself, without a word of -comment or debate; and at this ominous silence the consignees and the -governor were filled with a vague sense of alarm, as if some storm were -brewing whereof none could foresee the results. All felt that the -decision now rested with the committees of correspondence. Four days -afterward, the committees of Cambridge, Brookline, Roxbury, and -Dorchester met the Boston committee at Faneuil Hall, and it was -unanimously resolved that on no account should the tea be landed. The -five towns also sent a letter to all the other towns in the colony, -saying, "Brethren, we are reduced to this dilemma: either to sit down -quiet under this and every other burden that our enemies shall see fit -to lay upon us, or to rise up and resist this and every plan laid for -our destruction, as becomes wise freemen. In this extremity we -earnestly request your advice." There was nothing weak or doubtful in -the response. From Petersham and Lenox perched on their lofty hilltops, -from the valleys of the Connecticut and the Merrimack, from Chatham on -the bleak peninsula of Cape Cod, there came but one message,--to give up -life and all that makes life dear, rather than submit like slaves to -this great wrong. Similar words of encouragement came from other -colonies. In Philadelphia, at the news of the bold stand Massachusetts -was about to take, the church-bells were rung, and there was general -rejoicing about the streets. A letter from the men of Philadelphia to -the men of Boston said, "Our only fear is lest you may shrink. May God -give you virtue enough to save the liberties of your country." - - [Sidenote: Arrival of the tea; meeting at the Old South] - -On Sunday, the 28th, the Dartmouth, first of the tea-ships, arrived in -the harbour. The urgency of the business in hand overcame the -sabbatarian scruples of the people. The committee of correspondence met -at once, and obtained from Francis Rotch, the owner of the vessel, a -promise that the ship should not be entered before Tuesday. Samuel Adams -then invited the committees of the five towns, to which Charlestown was -now added, to hold a mass-meeting the next morning at Faneuil Hall. More -than five thousand people assembled, but as the Cradle of Liberty could -not hold so many, the meeting was adjourned to the Old South -Meeting-House. It was voted, without a single dissenting voice, that the -tea should be sent back to England in the ship which had brought it. -Rotch was forbidden to enter the ship at the Custom House, and Captain -Hall, the ship's master, was notified that "it was at his peril if he -suffered any of the tea brought by him to be landed." A night-watch of -twenty-five citizens was set to guard the vessel, and so the meeting -adjourned till next day, when it was understood that the consignees -would be ready to make some proposals in the matter. Next day, the -message was brought from the consignees that it was out of their power -to send back the tea; but if it should be landed, they declared -themselves willing to store it, and not expose any of it for sale until -word could be had from England. Before action could be taken upon this -message, the sheriff of Suffolk county entered the church and read a -proclamation from the governor, warning the people to disperse and -"surcease all further unlawful proceedings at their utmost peril." A -storm of hisses was the only reply, and the business of the meeting went -on. The proposal of the consignees was rejected, and Rotch and Hall, -being present, were made to promise that the tea should go back to -England in the Dartmouth, without being landed or paying duty. -Resolutions were then passed, forbidding all owners or masters of ships -to bring any tea from Great Britain to any part of Massachusetts, so -long as the act imposing a duty on it remained unrepealed. Whoever -should disregard this injunction would be treated as an enemy to his -country, his ships would be prevented from landing--by force, if -necessary--and his tea would be sent back to the place whence it came. -It was further voted that the citizens of Boston and the other towns -here assembled would see that these resolutions were carried into -effect, "at the risk of their lives and property." Notice of these -resolutions was sent to the owners of the other ships, now daily -expected. And, to crown all, a committee, of which Adams was chairman, -was appointed to send a printed copy of these proceedings to New York -and Philadelphia, to every seaport in Massachusetts, and to the British -government. - - [Sidenote: The tea-ships placed under guard] - -Two or three days after this meeting, the other two ships arrived, and, -under orders from the committee of correspondence, were anchored by the -side of the Dartmouth, at Griffin's Wharf, near the foot of Pearl -Street. A military watch was kept at the wharf day and night, sentinels -were placed in the church belfries, chosen post-riders, with horses -saddled and bridled, were ready to alarm the neighbouring towns, -beacon-fires were piled all ready for lighting upon every hilltop, and -any attempt to land the tea forcibly would have been the signal for an -instant uprising throughout at least four counties. Now, in accordance -with the laws providing for the entry and clearance of shipping at -custom houses, it was necessary that every ship should land its cargo -within twenty days from its arrival. In case this was not done, the -revenue officers were authorized to seize the ship and land its cargo -themselves. In the case of the Dartmouth, the captain had promised to -take her back to England without unloading; but still, before she could -legally start, she must obtain a clearance from the collector of -customs, or, in default of this, a pass from the governor. At sunrise of -Friday, the 17th of December, the twenty days would have expired. - -[Illustration: THE OLD SOUTH MEETING-HOUSE] - -On Saturday, the 11th, Rotch was summoned before the committee of -correspondence, and Samuel Adams asked him why he had not kept his -promise, and started his ship off for England. He sought to excuse -himself on the ground that he had not the power to do so, whereupon he -was told that he must apply to the collector for a clearance. Hearing of -these things, the governor gave strict orders at the Castle to fire upon -any vessel trying to get out to sea without a proper permit; and two -ships from Montagu's fleet, which had been laid up for the winter, were -stationed at the entrance of the harbour, to make sure against the -Dartmouth's going out. Tuesday came, and Rotch, having done nothing, was -summoned before the town meeting, and peremptorily ordered to apply for -a clearance. Samuel Adams and nine other gentlemen accompanied him to -the Custom House to witness the proceedings, but the collector refused -to give an answer until the next day. The meeting then adjourned till -Thursday, the last of the twenty days. On Wednesday morning, Rotch was -again escorted to the Custom House, and the collector refused to give a -clearance unless the tea should first be landed. - -[Illustration: TABLE AND CHAIR FROM GOVERNOR HUTCHINSON'S HOUSE AT -MILTON] - - [Sidenote: Town meeting at the Old South] - - [Sidenote: The tea thrown into the harbour] - -On the morning of Thursday, December 16th, the assembly which was -gathered in the Old South Meeting-House, and in the streets about it, -numbered more than seven thousand people. It was to be one of the most -momentous days in the history of the world. The clearance having been -refused, nothing now remained but to order Rotch to request a pass for -his ship from the governor. But the wary Hutchinson, well knowing what -was about to be required of him, had gone out to his country house at -Milton, so as to foil the proceedings by his absence. But the meeting -was not to be so trifled with. Rotch was enjoined, on his peril, to -repair to the governor at Milton, and ask for his pass; and while he was -gone, the meeting considered what was to be done in case of a refusal. -Without a pass it would be impossible for the ship to clear the harbour -under the guns of the Castle; and by sunrise, next morning, the revenue -officers would be empowered to seize the ship, and save by a violent -assault upon them it would be impossible to prevent the landing of the -tea. "Who knows," said John Rowe, "how tea will mingle with salt water?" -And great applause followed the suggestion. Yet the plan which was to -serve as a last resort had unquestionably been adopted in secret -committee long before this. It appears to have been worked out in detail -in a little back room at the office of the "Boston Gazette," and there -is no doubt that Samuel Adams, with some others of the popular leaders, -had a share in devising it. But among the thousands present at the town -meeting, it is probable that very few knew just what it was designed to -do. At five in the afternoon, it was unanimously voted that, come what -would, the tea should not be landed. It had now grown dark, and the -church was dimly lighted with candles. Determined not to act until the -last legal method of relief should have been tried and found wanting, -the great assembly was still waiting quietly in and about the church -when, an hour after nightfall, Rotch returned from Milton with the -governor's refusal. Then, amid profound stillness, Samuel Adams arose -and said, quietly but distinctly, "This meeting can do nothing more to -save the country." It was the declaration of war; the law had shown -itself unequal to the occasion, and nothing now remained but a direct -appeal to force. Scarcely had the watchword left his mouth when a -war-whoop answered from outside the door, and fifty men in the guise of -Mohawk Indians passed quickly by the entrance, and hastened to Griffin's -Wharf. Before the nine o'clock bell rang, the three hundred and -forty-two chests of tea laden upon the three ships had been cut open, -and their contents emptied into the sea. Not a person was harmed; no -other property was injured; and the vast crowd, looking upon the scene -from the wharf in the clear frosty moonlight, was so still that the -click of the hatchets could be distinctly heard. Next morning, the -salted tea, as driven by wind and wave, lay in long rows on Dorchester -beach, while Paul Revere, booted and spurred, was riding post-haste to -Philadelphia, with the glorious news that Boston had at last thrown down -the gauntlet for the king of England to pick up. - - [Portrait: John Adams] - -This heroic action of Boston was greeted with public rejoicing -throughout all the thirteen colonies, and the other principal seaports -were not slow to follow the example. A ship laden with two hundred and -fifty-seven chests of tea had arrived at Charleston on the 2d of -December; but the consignees had resigned, and after twenty days the -ship's cargo was seized and landed; and so, as there was no one to -receive it, or pay the duty, it was thrown into a damp cellar, where it -spoiled. In Philadelphia, on the 25th, a ship arrived with tea; but a -meeting of five thousand men forced the consignees to resign, and the -captain straightway set sail for England, the ship having been stopped -before it had come within the jurisdiction of the custom house. - - [Sidenote: Grandeur of the Boston Tea Party] - -In Massachusetts, the exultation knew no bounds. "This," said John -Adams, "is the most magnificent movement of all. There is a dignity, a -majesty, a sublimity, in this last effort of the patriots that I greatly -admire." Indeed, often as it has been cited and described, the Boston -Tea Party was an event so great that even American historians have -generally failed to do it justice. This supreme assertion by a New -England town meeting of the most fundamental principle of political -freedom has been curiously misunderstood by British writers, of whatever -party. The most recent Tory historian, Mr. Lecky,[2] speaks of "the -Tea-riot at Boston," and characterizes it as an "outrage." The most -recent Liberal historian, Mr. Green, alludes to it as "a trivial riot." -Such expressions betray most profound misapprehension alike of the -significance of this noble scene and of the political conditions in -which it originated. There is no difficulty in defining a riot. The -pages of history teem with accounts of popular tumults, wherein passion -breaks loose and wreaks its fell purpose, unguided and unrestrained by -reason. No definition could be further from describing the colossal -event which occurred in Boston on the 16th of December, 1773. Here -passion was guided and curbed by sound reason at every step, down to the -last moment, in the dim candle-light of the old church, when the noble -Puritan statesman quietly told his hearers that the moment for using -force had at last, and through no fault of theirs, arrived. They had -reached a point where the written law had failed them; and in their -effort to defend the eternal principles of natural justice, they were -now most reluctantly compelled to fall back upon the paramount law of -self-preservation. It was the one supreme moment in a controversy -supremely important to mankind, and in which the common-sense of the -world has since acknowledged that they were wholly in the right. It was -the one moment of all that troubled time in which no compromise was -possible. "Had the tea been landed," says the contemporary historian, -William Gordon, "the union of the colonies in opposing the ministerial -scheme would have been dissolved; and it would have been extremely -difficult ever after to have restored it." In view of the stupendous -issues at stake, the patience of the men of Boston was far more -remarkable than their boldness. For the quiet sublimity of reasonable -but dauntless moral purpose, the heroic annals of Greece and Rome can -show us no greater scene than that which the Old South Meeting-House -witnessed on the day when the tea was destroyed. - - [Portrait: Geo. Germain] - - [Sidenote: How Parliament received the news] - -When the news of this affair reached England, it was quite naturally -pronounced by Lord North a fitting culmination to years of riot and -lawlessness. This, said Lord George Germain, is what comes of their -wretched old town meetings. The Americans have really no government. -These "are the proceedings of a tumultuous and riotous rabble, who -ought, if they had the least prudence, to follow their mercantile -employments, and not trouble themselves with politics and government, -which they do not understand. Some gentlemen say, 'Oh, don't break their -charter; don't take away rights granted them by the predecessors of the -Crown.' Whoever wishes to preserve such charters, I wish him no worse -than to govern such subjects." "These remarks," said Lord North, "are -worthy of a great mind." "If we take a determined stand now," said Lord -Mansfield, "Boston will submit, and all will end in victory without -carnage." "The town of Boston," said Mr. Venn, "ought to be knocked -about their ears and destroyed. You will never meet with proper -obedience to the laws of this country until you have destroyed that -nest of locusts." General Gage, who had just come home on a visit, -assured the king that the other colonies might speak fair words to -Massachusetts, but would do nothing to help her; and he offered with -four regiments to make a speedy end of the whole matter. "They will be -lions," said Gage, "while we are lambs; but if we take the resolute -part, they will prove very meek, I promise you." It was in this spirit -and under the influence of these ideas that the ministry took up the -business of dealing with the refractory colony of Massachusetts. Lord -North proposed a series of five measures, which from the king's point of -view would serve, not only to heal the wounded pride of Great Britain, -but also to prevent any more riotous outbreaks among this lawless -American people. Just at this moment, the opposition ventured upon a -bold stroke. Fox said truly that no plan for pacifying the colonies -would be worth a rush unless the unconditional repeal of the Tea Act -should form part of it. A bill for the repealing of the Tea Act was -brought in by Fuller, and a lively debate ensued, in the course of which -Edmund Burke made one of the weightiest speeches ever heard in the House -of Commons; setting forth in all the wealth of his knowledge the extreme -danger of the course upon which the ministry had entered, and showing -how little good fruit was to be expected from a coercive policy, even if -successful. Burke was ably supported by Fox, Conway, Barre, Savile, -Dowdeswell, Pownall, and Dunning. But the current had set too strongly -against conciliation. Lord North sounded the keynote of the whole -British policy when he said, "To repeal the tea-duty would stamp us with -timidity." Come what might, it would never do for the Americans to get -it into their heads that the government was not all-powerful. They must -be humbled first, that they might be reasoned with afterwards. The -tea-duty, accordingly, was not repealed, but Lord North's five acts for -the better regulation of American affairs were all passed by Parliament. - - [Sidenote: The Boston Port Bill] - -By the first act, known as the Boston Port Bill, no ships were to be -allowed to enter or clear the port of Boston until the rebellious town -should have indemnified the East India Company for the loss of its tea, -and should otherwise have made it appear to the king that it would -hereafter show a spirit of submission. Marblehead was made a port of -entry instead of Boston, and Salem was made the seat of government. - - [Sidenote: The Regulating Act] - -By the second act, known as the Regulating Act, the charter of -Massachusetts was annulled without preliminary notice, and her free -government was destroyed. Under the charter, the members of the council -for each year were chosen in a convention consisting of the council of -the preceding year and the assembly. Each councillor held office for a -year, and was paid out of an appropriation made by the assembly. Now, -hereafter, the members of the council were to be appointed by the -governor on a royal writ of _mandamus_, their salaries were to be paid -by the Crown, and they could be removed from office at the king's -pleasure. The governor was empowered to appoint all judges and officers -of courts, and all such officers were to be paid by the king and to hold -office during his pleasure. The governor and his dependent council could -appoint sheriffs and remove them without assigning any reason, and these -dependent sheriffs were to have the sole right of returning juries. But, -worse than all, the town-meeting system of local self-government was -ruthlessly swept away. Town meetings could indeed be held twice a year -for the election of town officers, but no other business could be -transacted in them. The effect of all these changes would, of course, be -to concentrate all power in the hands of the governor, leaving no check -whatever upon his arbitrary will. It would, in short, transform the -commonwealth of Massachusetts into an absolute despotism, such as no -Englishman had ever lived under in any age. And this tremendous act was -to go into operation on the first day of the following June. - - [Illustration: VIRTUAL REPRESENTATION. _1775._ - - April 1 1775 Price 6.^{d} - - 1. One String Jack. Deliver your Property. - 2. Began Just so in France } Accomplices - 3. Te Deum } - 4. I Give you that man's money for my use - 5. I will not be Robbed - 6. I shall be wounded with you - 7. I am Blinded - 8. The French Roman Cathlick Town of Quebeck - 9. The English Protestant Town of Boston - - The king's friends were fond of asserting that the Americans were - "virtually represented" in Parliament, through their British - friends in that body. On the back of the copy of this broadside, - "Virtual Representation," in the possession of the Massachusetts - Historical Society, is the following explanation, in the - handwriting of the time:-- - - "A full explanation of the within print.--No. 1 intends the K--g of - G. B., to whom the House of Commons (4) gives the Americans' money - for the use of that very H. of C., and which he is endeavouring to - take away with the power of cannon. No. 2, by a Frenchman signifies - the tyranny that is intended for America. No. 3, the figure of a - Roman Catholic priest with his crucifix and gibbet, assisting - George in enforcing his tyrannical system of civil and religious - government. Nos. 5 and 6 are honest American yeomen, who oppose an - oaken staff to G----'s cannon, and determine they will not be - robbed. No. 7 is poor Britannia blindfolded, falling into the - bottomless pit which her infamous rulers have prepared for the - Americans. Nos. 8, 9 represent Boston in flames and Quebec - triumphant, to show the probable consequence of submission to the - present wicked ministerial system, that popery and tyranny will - triumph over true religion, virtue, and liberty."] - - [Sidenote: The shooting of citizens] - -By the third act--a pet measure of George III., to which Lord North -assented with great reluctance--it was provided that if any magistrate, -soldier, or revenue officer in Massachusetts should be indicted for -murder, he should be tried, not in Massachusetts, but in Great Britain. -This measure--though doubtless unintentionally--served to encourage the -soldiery in shooting down peaceful citizens, and it led by a natural -sequence to the bloodshed on Lexington green. It was defended on the -ground that in case of any chance affray between soldiers and citizens, -it would not be possible for the soldiers to obtain a fair trial in -Massachusetts. Less than four years had elapsed since Preston's men had -been so readily acquitted of murder after the shooting in King Street, -but such facts were of no avail now. The momentous bill passed in the -House of Commons by a vote of more than four to one, in spite of Colonel -Barre's ominous warnings. - -By the fourth act all legal obstacles to the quartering of troops in -Boston or any other town in Massachusetts were swept away. - - [Sidenote: The Quebec Act] - -By the fifth act, known as the Quebec Act, the free exercise of the -Catholic religion was sanctioned throughout Canada,--a very judicious -measure of religious toleration, which concerned the other colonies but -little, however it might in some cases offend their prejudices. But this -act went on to extend the boundaries of Canada southward to the Ohio -river, in defiance of the territorial claims of Massachusetts, -Connecticut, New York, and Virginia. This extensive region, the part of -North America which was next to be colonized by men of English race, was -to be governed by a viceroy, with despotic powers; and such people as -should come to live there were to have neither popular meetings, nor -_habeas corpus_, nor freedom of the press. "This," said Lord Thurlow, -"is the only sort of constitution fit for a colony,"--and all the -American colonies, he significantly added, had better be reduced to this -condition as soon as possible. - - [Sidenote: Gage sent to Boston] - -When all these acts had been passed, in April, 1774, General Gage was -commissioned to supersede Hutchinson temporarily as governor of -Massachusetts, and was sent over with as little delay as possible, -together with the four regiments which were to scare the people into -submission. On the first day of June, he was to close the port of Boston -and begin starving the town into good behaviour; he was to arrest the -leading patriots and send them to England for trial; and he was -expressly authorized to use his own discretion as to allowing the -soldiers to fire upon the people. All these measures for enslaving -peaceful and law-abiding Englishmen the king of England now -contemplated, as he himself declared, "with supreme satisfaction." - -In recounting such measures as these, the historian is tempted to pause -for a moment, and ask whether it could really have been an _English_ -government that planned and decreed such things. From the autocratic -mouth of an Artaxerxes or an Abderrahman one would naturally expect such -edicts to issue. From the misguided cabinets of Spain and France, in -evil times, measures in spirit like these had been known to proceed. But -our dear mother-country had for ages stood before the world as the -staunch defender of personal liberty and of local self-government; and -through the mighty strength which this spirit of freedom, and nothing -else, had given her, she had won the high privilege of spreading her -noble and beneficent political ideas over the best part of the habitable -globe. Yet in the five acts of this political tragedy of 1774 we find -England arrayed in hostility to every principle of public justice which -Englishmen had from time immemorial held sacred. Upon the great -continent which she had so lately won from the French champions of -despotism, we see her vainly seeking to establish a tyrannical _regime_ -no better than that which but yesterday it had been her glory to -overthrow. Such was the strange, the humiliating, the self-contradictory -attitude into which England had at length been brought by the selfish -Tory policy of George III.! - -But this policy was no less futile than it was unworthy of the noble, -freedom-loving English people. For after that fated 1st of June, the -sovereign authority of Great Britain, whether exerted through king or -through Parliament, was never more to be recognized by the men of -Massachusetts. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [2] In his account of the American Revolution, Mr. Lecky inclines to - the Tory side, but he is eminently fair and candid. - - - - - CHAPTER III - - THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS - - - [Portrait: Tho.' Gage] - - [Illustration: FOX AND BURKE DENOUNCING LORD NORTH - (_A contemporary caricature_)] - - [Sidenote: Belief that the Americans would not fight] - -The unfortunate measures of April, 1774, were not carried through -Parliament without earnest opposition. Lord Rockingham and his friends -entered a protest on the journal of the House of Lords, on the grounds -that the people of Massachusetts had not been heard in their own -defence, and that the lives and liberties of the citizens were put -absolutely into the hands of the governor and council, who were thus -invested with greater powers than it had ever been thought wise to -entrust to the king and his privy council in Great Britain. They -concluded, therefore, that the acts were unconstitutional. The Duke of -Richmond could not restrain his burning indignation. "I wish," said he -in the House of Lords,--"I wish from the bottom of my heart that the -Americans may resist, and get the better of the forces sent against -them." But that the Americans really would resist, very few people in -England believed. The conduct of the ministry was based throughout upon -the absurd idea that the Americans could be frightened into submission. -General Gage, as we have seen, thought that four regiments would be -enough to settle the whole business. Lord Sandwich said that the -Americans were a set of undisciplined cowards, who would take to their -heels at the first sound of a cannon. Even Hutchinson, who went over to -England about this time, and who ought to have known of what stuff the -men of Massachusetts were made, assured the king that they could hardly -be expected to resist a regular army. Such blunders, however, need not -surprise us when we recollect how, just before the war of secession, the -people of the southern and of the northern states made similar mistakes -with regard to each other. In 1860, it was commonly said by Southern -people that Northern people would submit to anything rather than fight; -and in support of this opinion, it was sometimes asked, "If the Northern -people are not arrant cowards, why do they never have duels?" On the -other hand, it was commonly said at the North that the Southern people, -however bravely they might bluster, would never enter upon a war of -secession, because it was really much more for their interest to remain -in the Federal Union than to secede from it,--an argument which lost -sight of one of the commonest facts in human life, that under the -influence of strong passion men are unable to take just views of what -concerns their own interests. Such examples show how hard it often is -for one group of men to understand another group, even when they are all -of the same blood and speech, and think alike about most matters that do -not touch the particular subject in dispute. Nothing could have been -surer, either in 1860, or in 1774, than that the one party to the -quarrel was as bold and brave as the other. - - [Sidenote: Belief that Massachusetts would not be supported by the other -colonies] - -Another fatal error under which the ministry laboured was the belief -that Massachusetts would not be supported by the other colonies. Their -mistake was not unlike that which ruined the plans of Napoleon III., -when he declared war upon Prussia in 1870. There was no denying the fact -of strong jealousies among the American colonies in 1774, as there was -no denying the fact of strong jealousies between the northern and -southern German states in 1870. But the circumstances under which -Napoleon III. made war on Prussia happened to be such as to enlist all -the German states in the common cause with her. And so it was with the -war of George III. against Massachusetts. As soon as the charter of that -colony was annulled, all the other colonies felt that their liberties -were in jeopardy; and thence, as Fox truly said, "all were taught to -consider the town of Boston as suffering in the common cause." - - [Sidenote: News of the Port Bill] - -News of the Boston Port Bill was received in America on the 10th of May. -On the 12th the committees of several Massachusetts towns held a -convention at Faneuil Hall, and adopted a circular letter, prepared by -Samuel Adams, to be sent to all the other colonies, asking for their -sympathy and cooperation. The response was prompt and emphatic. In the -course of the summer, conventions were held in nearly all the colonies, -declaring that Boston should be regarded as "suffering in the common -cause." The obnoxious acts of Parliament were printed on paper with deep -black borders, and in some towns were publicly burned by the common -hangman. Droves of cattle and flocks of sheep, cartloads of wheat and -maize, kitchen vegetables and fruit, barrels of sugar, quintals of dried -fish, provisions of every sort, were sent overland as free gifts to the -people of the devoted city, even the distant rice-swamps of South -Carolina contributing their share. The over-cautious Franklin had -written from London, suggesting that perhaps it might be best, after -all, for Massachusetts to indemnify the East India Company; but Gadsden, -with a sounder sense of the political position, sent word, "Don't pay -for an ounce of the damned tea." Throughout the greater part of the -country the 1st of June was kept as a day of fasting and prayer; bells -were muffled and tolled in the principal churches; ships in the harbours -put their flags at half-mast. Marblehead, which was appointed to -supersede Boston as port of entry, immediately invited the merchants of -Boston to use its wharfs and warehouses free of charge in shipping and -unshipping their goods. A policy of absolute non-importation was -advocated by many of the colonies, though Pennsylvania, under the -influence of Dickinson, still vainly cherishing hopes of reconciliation, -hung back, and advised that the tea should be paid for. As usual, the -warmest sympathy with New England came from Virginia. "If need be," said -Washington, "I will raise one thousand men, subsist them at my own -expense, and march myself at their head for the relief of Boston." - - [Portrait: John Hancock] - - [Sidenote: Samuel Adams at Salem] - -To insure concerted action on the part of the whole country, something -more was required than these general expressions and acts of sympathy. -The proposal for a Continental Congress came first from the Sons of -Liberty in New York; it was immediately taken up by the members of the -Virginia House of Burgesses, sitting in convention at the Raleigh -tavern, after the governor had dissolved them as a legislature; and -Massachusetts was invited to appoint the time and place for the meeting -of the Congress. On the 7th of June the Massachusetts assembly was -convened at Salem by General Gage, in conformity with the provisions of -the Port Bill. Samuel Adams always preferred to use the ordinary means -of transacting public business so long as they were of avail, and he -naturally wished to have the act appointing a Continental Congress -passed by the assembly. But this was not easy to bring about, for upon -the first hint that any such business was to come up the governor would -be sure to dissolve the assembly. In such case it would be necessary for -the committees of correspondence throughout Massachusetts to hold a -convention for the purpose of appointing the time and place for the -Congress and of electing delegates to attend it. But Adams preferred to -have these matters decided in regular legislative session, and he -carried his point. Having talked privately with several of the members, -at last on the 17th of June--a day which a twelvemonth hence was to -become so famous--the favourable moment came. Having had the door -locked, he introduced his resolves, appointing five delegates to confer -with duly appointed delegates from the other colonies, in a Continental -Congress at Philadelphia on the 1st of September next. Some of the -members, astonished and frightened, sought to pass out; and as the -doorkeeper seemed uneasy at assuming so much responsibility, Samuel -Adams relieved him of it by taking the key from the door and putting it -into his own pocket, whereupon the business of the assembly went on. -Soon one of the Tory members pretended to be very sick, and being -allowed to go out, made all haste to Governor Gage, who instantly drew -up his writ dissolving the assembly, and sent his secretary with it. -When the secretary got there, he found the door locked, and as nobody -would let him in or pay any attention to him, he was obliged to content -himself with reading the writ, in a loud voice, to the crowd which had -assembled on the stairs. The assembly meanwhile passed the resolves by -117 to 12, elected Samuel and John Adams, Thomas Cushing, and Robert -Treat Paine as delegates, assessed the towns in the commonwealth for the -necessary expenses, passed measures for the relief of Boston, and -adjourned _sine die_. All the other colonies except Georgia, in the -course of the summer, accepted the invitation, and chose delegates, -either through their assemblies or through special conventions. Georgia -sent no delegates, but promised to adopt any course of action that -should be determined upon. - - [Sidenote: Massachusetts nullifies the Regulating Act] - -Before the time appointed for the Congress, Massachusetts had set the -Regulating Act at defiance. On the 16th of August, when the court -assembled at Great Barrington, a vast multitude of farmers surrounded -the court house and forbade the judges to transact any business. Two or -three of the councillors newly appointed on the king's writ of -_mandamus_ yielded in advance to public opinion, and refused to take -their places. Those who accepted were forced to resign. At Worcester -2,000 men assembled on the common, and compelled Timothy Paine to make -his resignation in writing. The councillor appointed from Bridgewater -was a deacon; when he read the psalm the congregation refused to sing. -In Plymouth one of the most honoured citizens, George Watson, accepted a -place on the council; as he took his seat in church on the following -Sunday, the people got up and began to walk out of the house. Overcome -with shame, for a moment his venerable gray head sank upon the pew -before him; then he rose up and vowed that he would resign. In Boston -the justices and barristers took their accustomed places in the court -house, but no one could be found to serve as juror in a court that was -illegally constituted. Gage issued a proclamation warning all persons -against attending town meeting, but no one heeded him, and town meetings -were more fully attended than ever. He threatened to send an armed force -against Worcester, but the people there replied that he would do so at -his peril, and forthwith began to collect powder and ball. At Salem the -people walked to the town house under the governor's nose and in the -very presence of a line of soldiers. On the 1st of September a party of -soldiers seized two hundred kegs of powder at Charlestown and two -field-pieces at Cambridge, and carried them to Castle William. As the -news spread about the country, rumour added that the troops had fired -upon the people, and within forty-eight hours at least 20,000 men were -marching on Boston; but they turned back to their homes on receiving -word from the Boston committee that their aid was not yet needed. - - [Portrait: Jos Warren] - - [Sidenote: John Hancock and Joseph Warren] - -During these stirring events, in the absence of Samuel Adams, who had -gone to attend the Congress at Philadelphia, the most active part in the -direction of affairs at Boston was taken by Dr. Joseph Warren. This -gentleman--one of a family which has produced three very eminent -physicians--was graduated at Harvard College in 1759. He had early -attracted the attention of Samuel Adams, had come to be one of his -dearest friends, and had been concerned with him in nearly all of his -public acts of the past seven years. He was a man of knightly bravery -and courtesy, and his energy and fertility of mind were equalled only by -his rare sweetness and modesty. With Adams and Hancock, he made up the -great Massachusetts triumvirate of Revolutionary leaders. The accession -of Hancock to the Revolutionary cause at an early period had been of -great help, by reason of his wealth and social influence. Hancock was -graduated at Harvard College in 1754. He was a gentleman of refinement -and grace, but neither for grasp of intelligence nor for strength of -character can he be compared with Adams or with Warren. His chief -weakness was personal vanity, but he was generous and loyal, and under -the influence of the iron-willed Adams was capable of good things. Upon -Warren, more than any one else, however, Adams relied as a lieutenant, -who, under any circumstances whatever, would be sure to prove equal to -the occasion. - - [Illustration: SUFFOLK RESOLVES HOUSE AT MILTON] - - [Illustration: - =BOSTON=, September, 27, 1774- - - GENTLEMEN, - - The committees of correspondence of this and several of the - neighbouring towns, having taken into consideration the vast - importance of withholding from the troops now here, labour, straw, - timber, slitwork, boards, and in short every article excepting - provisions necessary for their subsistance; and being under a - necessity from their conduct of considering them as real enemies, - we are fully satisfied that it is our bounden duty to withhold from - them everything but what meer humanity requires; and therefore we - must beg your close and serious attention to the inclosed resolves - which were passed unanimously; and as unanimity in all our measures - in this day of severe trial, is of the utmost consequence, we do - earnestly recommend your co-operation in this measure, as conducive - to the good of the whole. - - We are, - Your Friends and Fellow Countrymen, - Signed by Order of the joint Committee, - William Cooper Clerk. - - NOTICE OF THE COMMITTEE OF CORRESPONDENCE -] - - [Sidenote: The Suffolk County Resolves, Sept. 6, 1774] - -On the 5th of September Gage began fortifying Boston Neck, so as to -close the only approach to the city by land. Next day the county assize -was to be held at Worcester; but 5,000 armed men, drawn up in regular -military array, lined each side of the main street, and the -unconstitutionally appointed judges were forbidden to take their seats. -On the same day a convention of the towns of Suffolk county was held at -Milton, and a series of resolutions, drawn up by Dr. Warren, were -adopted unanimously. The resolutions declared that a king who violates -the chartered rights of his people forfeits their allegiance; they -declared the Regulating Act null and void and ordered all the officers -appointed under it to resign their offices at once; they directed the -collectors of taxes to refuse to pay over money to Gage's treasurer; -they advised the towns to choose their own militia officers; and they -threatened the governor that, should he venture to arrest any one for -political reasons, they would retaliate by seizing upon the Crown -officers as hostages. A copy of these resolutions, which virtually -placed Massachusetts in an attitude of rebellion, was forwarded to the -Continental Congress, which enthusiastically indorsed them, and pledged -the faith of all the other colonies that they would aid Massachusetts in -case armed resistance should become inevitable, while at the same time -they urged that a policy of moderation should be preserved, and that -Great Britain should be left to fire the first shot. - - [Sidenote: Provincial Congress in Massachusetts] - -On receiving these instructions from the Congress, the people of -Massachusetts at once proceeded to organize a provisional government in -accordance with the spirit of the Suffolk resolves. Gage had issued a -writ convening the assembly at Salem for the 1st of October, but before -the day arrived he changed his mind, and prorogued it. In disregard of -this order, however, the representatives met at Salem a week later, -organized themselves into a provincial congress, with John Hancock for -president, and adjourned to Concord. On the 27th they chose a committee -of safety, with Warren for chairman, and charged it with the duty of -collecting military stores. In December this Congress dissolved itself, -but a new one assembled at Cambridge on the 1st of February, and -proceeded to organize the militia and appoint general officers. A -special portion of the militia, known as "minute men," were set apart, -under orders to be ready to assemble at a moment's warning; and the -committee of safety were directed to call out this guard as soon as Gage -should venture to enforce the Regulating Act. Under these instructions -every village green in Massachusetts at once became the scene of active -drill. Nor was it a population unused to arms that thus began to marshal -itself into companies and regiments. During the French war one fifth of -all the able-bodied men of Massachusetts had been in the field, and in -1757 the proportion had risen to one third. There were plenty of men -who had learned how to stand under fire, and officers who had held -command on hard-fought fields; and all were practised marksmen. It is -quite incorrect to suppose that the men who first repulsed the British -regulars in 1775 were a band of farmers, utterly unused to fighting. -Their little army was indeed a militia, but it was made up of warlike -material. - - [Portrait: Peyton Randolph] - - [Illustration: CARPENTERS' HALL, PHILADELPHIA] - - [Sidenote: Meeting of the Continental Congress, Sept. 5, 1774] - -While these preparations were going on in Massachusetts, the Continental -Congress had assembled at the Hall of the Company of Carpenters, in -Philadelphia, on the 5th of September. Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, was -chosen president; and the Adamses, the Livingstons, the Rutledges, -Dickinson, Chase, Pendleton, Lee, Henry, and Washington took part in the -debates. One of their first acts was to dispatch Paul Revere to Boston -with their formal approval of the action of the Suffolk Convention. -After four weeks of deliberation they agreed upon a declaration of -rights, claiming for the American people "a free and exclusive power of -legislation in their provincial legislatures, where their rights of -legislation could alone be preserved in all cases of taxation and -internal polity." This paper also specified the rights of which they -would not suffer themselves to be deprived, and called for the repeal of -eleven acts of Parliament by which these rights had been infringed. -Besides this, they formed an association for insuring commercial -non-intercourse with Great Britain, and charged the committees of -correspondence with the duty of inspecting the entries at all custom -houses. Addresses were also prepared, to be sent to the king, to the -people of Great Britain, and to the inhabitants of British America. The -10th of May was appointed for a second Congress, in which the Canadian -colonies and the Floridas were invited to join; and on the 26th of -October the Congress dissolved itself. - - [Portrait: W. Howe] - - [Sidenote: Debates in Parliament] - - [Sidenote: William Howe] - -The ability of the papers prepared by the first Continental Congress has -long been fully admitted in England as well as in America. Chatham -declared them unsurpassed by any state papers ever composed in any age -or country. But the king's manipulation of rotten boroughs in the -election of November, 1774, was only too successful, and the new -Parliament was not in the mood for listening to reason. Chatham, -Shelburne, and Camden urged in vain that the vindictive measures of the -last April should be repealed and the troops withdrawn from Boston. On -the 1st of February, Chatham introduced a bill which, could it have -passed, would no doubt have averted war, even at the eleventh hour. -Besides repealing its vindictive measures, Parliament was to renounce -forever the right of taxing the colonies, while retaining the right of -regulating the commerce of the whole empire; and the Americans were to -defray the expenses of their own governments by taxes voted in their -colonial assemblies. A few weeks later, in the House of Commons, Burke -argued that the abstract right of Parliament to tax the colonies was not -worth contending for, and he urged that on large grounds of expediency -it should be abandoned, and that the vindictive acts should be repealed. -But both Houses, by large majorities, refused to adopt any measures of -conciliation, and in a solemn joint address to the king declared -themselves ready to support him to the end in the policy upon which he -had entered. Massachusetts was declared to be in a state of rebellion, -and acts were passed closing all the ports of New England, and -prohibiting its fishermen from access to the Newfoundland fisheries. At -the same time it was voted to increase the army at Boston to 10,000 men, -and to supersede Gage, who had in all these months accomplished so -little with his four regiments. As people in England had utterly failed -to comprehend the magnitude of the task assigned to Gage, it was not -strange that they should seek to account for his inaction by doubting -his zeal and ability. No less a person than David Hume saw fit to speak -of him as a "lukewarm coward." William Howe, member of Parliament for -the liberal constituency of Nottingham, was chosen to supersede him. In -his speeches as candidate for election only four months ago, Howe had -declared himself opposed to the king's policy, had asserted that no army -that England could raise would be able to subdue the Americans, and, in -reply to a question, had promised that if offered a command in America -he would refuse it. When he now consented to take Gage's place as -commander-in-chief, the people of Nottingham scolded him roundly for -breaking his word. - - [Sidenote: Richard, Lord Howe] - -It would be unfair, however, to charge Howe with conscious breach of -faith in this matter. His appointment was itself a curious symptom of -the element of vacillation that was apparent in the whole conduct of the -ministry, even when its attitude professed to be most obstinate and -determined. With all his obstinacy the king did not really wish for -war,--much less did Lord North; and the reason for Howe's appointment -was simply that he was a brother to the Lord Howe who had fallen at -Ticonderoga, and whose memory was idolized by the men of New England. -Lord North announced that, in dealing with his misguided American -brethren, his policy would be always to send the olive branch in company -with the sword; and no doubt Howe really felt that, by accepting a -command offered in such a spirit, he might more efficiently serve the -interests of humanity and justice than by leaving it open for some one -of cruel and despotic temper, whose zeal might outrun even the wishes of -the obdurate king. At the same time, his brother Richard, Lord Howe, a -seaman of great ability, was appointed admiral of the fleet for America, -and was expressly entrusted with the power of offering terms to the -colonies. Sir Henry Clinton and John Burgoyne, both of them in sympathy -with the king's policy, were appointed to accompany Howe as -lieutenant-generals. - - [Portrait: Howe] - - [Sidenote: Franklin returns to America] - -The conduct of the ministry, during this most critical and trying time, -showed great uneasiness. When leave was asked for Franklin to present -the case for the Continental Congress, and to defend it before the House -of Commons, it was refused. Yet all through the winter the ministry -were continually appealing to Franklin, unofficially and in private, in -order to find out how the Americans might be appeased without making any -such concessions as would hurt the pride of that Tory party which was -now misgoverning England. Lord Howe was the most conspicuous agent in -these fruitless negotiations. How to conciliate the Americans without -giving up a single one of the false positions which the king had taken -was the problem, and no wonder that Franklin soon perceived it to be -insolvable, and made up his mind to go home. He had now stayed in -England for several years, as agent for Pennsylvania and for -Massachusetts. He had shown himself a consummate diplomatist, of that -rare school which deceives by telling unwelcome truths, and he had some -unpleasant encounters with the king and the king's friends. Now in -March, 1775, seeing clearly that he could be of no further use in -averting an armed struggle, he returned to America. Franklin's return -was not, in form, like that customary withdrawal of an ambassador which -heralds and proclaims a state of war. But practically it was the -snapping of the last diplomatic link between the colonies and the -mother-country. - - [Sidenote: The middle colonies] - - [Sidenote: Lord North's mistaken hopes of securing New York] - -Still the ministry, with all its uneasiness, did not believe that war -was close at hand. It was thought that the middle colonies, and -especially New York, might be persuaded to support the government, and -that New England, thus isolated, would not venture upon armed resistance -to the overwhelming power of Great Britain. The hope was not wholly -unreasonable; for the great middle colonies, though conspicuous for -material prosperity, were somewhat lacking in force of political ideas. -In New York and Pennsylvania the non-English population was relatively -far more considerable than in Virginia or the New England colonies. A -considerable proportion of the population had come from the continent of -Europe, and the principles of constitutional government were not so -thoroughly inwrought into the innermost minds and hearts of the people, -the pulse of liberty did not beat so quickly here, as in the purely -English commonwealths of Virginia and Massachusetts. In Pennsylvania and -New Jersey the Quakers were naturally opposed to a course of action that -must end in war; and such very honourable motives certainly contributed -to weaken the resistance of these colonies to the measures of the -government. In New York there were further special reasons for the -existence of a strong loyalist feeling. The city of New York had for -many years been the headquarters of the army and the seat of the -principal royal government in America. It was not a town, like Boston, -governing itself in town meeting, but its municipal affairs were -administered by a mayor, appointed by the king. Unlike Boston and -Philadelphia, the interests of the city of New York were almost purely -commercial, and there was nothing to prevent the little court circle -there from giving the tone to public opinion. The Episcopal Church, too, -was in the ascendant, and there was a not unreasonable prejudice -against the Puritans of New England for their grim intolerance of -Episcopalians and their alleged antipathy to Dutchmen. The province of -New York, moreover, had a standing dispute with its eastern neighbours -over the ownership of the Green Mountain region. This beautiful country -had been settled by New England men, under grants from the royal -governors of New Hampshire; but it was claimed by the people of New -York, and the controversy sometimes waxed hot and gave rise to very hard -feelings. Under these circumstances, the labours of the ministry to -secure this central colony seemed at times likely to be crowned with -success. The assembly of New York refused to adopt the non-importation -policy enjoined by the Continental Congress, and it refused to choose -delegates to the second Congress which was to be held in May. The -ministry, in return, sought to corrupt New York by exempting it from the -commercial restrictions placed upon the neighbouring colonies, and by -promising to confirm its alleged title to the territory of Vermont. All -these hopes proved fallacious, however. In spite of appearances, the -majority of the people of New York were opposed to the king's measures, -and needed only an opportunity for organization. In April, under the -powerful leadership of Philip Schuyler and the Livingstons, a convention -was held, delegates were chosen to attend the Congress, and New York -fell into line with the other colonies. As for Pennsylvania, in spite of -its peaceful and moderate temper, it had never shown any signs of -willingness to detach itself from the nascent union. - -News travelled with slow pace in those days, and as late as the middle -of May, Lord North, confident of the success of his schemes in New York, -and unable to believe that the yeomanry of Massachusetts would fight -against regular troops, declared cheerfully that this American business -was not so alarming as it seemed, and everything would no doubt be -speedily settled without bloodshed! - - [Illustration: INTERIOR OF OLD SOUTH MEETING-HOUSE] - - [Sidenote: Affairs in Massachusetts] - - [Sidenote: Warren's oration at the Old South] - -Great events had meanwhile happened in Massachusetts. All through the -winter the resistance to General Gage had been passive, for the lesson -had been thoroughly impressed upon the mind of every man, woman, and -child in the province that, in order to make sure of the entire sympathy -of the other colonies, Great Britain must be allowed to fire the first -shot. The Regulating Act had none the less been silently defied, and -neither councillors nor judges, neither sheriffs nor jurymen, could be -found to serve under the royal commission. It is striking proof of the -high state of civilization attained by this commonwealth, that although -for nine months the ordinary functions of government had been suspended, -yet the affairs of every-day life had gone on without friction or -disturbance Not a drop of blood had been shed, nor had any one's -property been injured. The companies of yeomen meeting at eventide to -drill on the village green, and now and then the cart laden with powder -and ball that dragged slowly over the steep roads on its way to Concord, -were the only outward signs of an unwonted state of things. Not so, -however, in Boston. There the blockade of the harbour had wrought great -hardship for the poorer people. Business was seriously interfered with, -many persons were thrown out of employment, and in spite of the generous -promptness with which provisions had been poured in from all parts of -the country, there was great suffering through scarcity of fuel and -food. Still there was but little complaint and no disorder. The leaders -were as resolute as ever, and the people were as resolute as their -leaders. As the 5th of March drew near, several British officers were -heard to declare that any one who should dare to address the people in -the Old South Church on this occasion would surely lose his life. As -soon as he heard of these threats, Joseph Warren solicited for himself -the dangerous honour, and at the usual hour delivered a stirring oration -upon "the baleful influence of standing armies in time of peace." The -concourse in the church was so great that when the orator arrived every -approach to the pulpit was blocked up; and rather than elbow his way -through the crowd, which might lead to some disturbance, he procured a -ladder, and climbed in through a large window at the back of the pulpit. -About forty British officers were present, some of whom sat on the -pulpit steps, and sought to annoy the speaker with groans and hisses, -but everything passed off quietly. - - [Illustration: OLD NORTH CHURCH, IN WHICH SIGNAL WAS HUNG] - - [Sidenote: Attempt to corrupt Samuel Adams.] - -The boldness of Adams and Hancock in attending this meeting was hardly -less admirable than that of Warren in delivering the address. It was no -secret that Gage had been instructed to watch his opportunity to arrest -Samuel Adams and "his willing and ready tool," that "terrible -desperado," John Hancock, and send them over to England to be tried for -treason. Here was an excellent opportunity for seizing all the patriot -leaders at once; and the meeting itself, moreover, was a town meeting, -such as Gage had come to Boston expressly to put down. Nothing more -calmly defiant can be imagined than the conduct of people and leaders -under these circumstances. But Gage had long since learned the temper of -the people so well that he was afraid to proceed too violently. At first -he had tried to corrupt Samuel Adams with offers of place or pelf; but -he found, as Hutchinson had already declared, that such was "the -obstinate and inflexible disposition of this man that he never would be -conciliated by any office or gift whatsoever." The dissolution of the -assembly, of which Adams was clerk, had put a stop to his salary, and he -had so little property laid by as hardly to be able to buy bread for his -family. Under these circumstances, it occurred to Gage that perhaps a -judicious mixture of threat with persuasion might prove effectual. So he -sent Colonel Fenton with a confidential message to Adams. The officer, -with great politeness, began by saying that "an adjustment of the -existing disputes was very desirable; that he was authorized by Governor -Gage to assure him that he had been empowered to confer upon him such -benefits as would be satisfactory, upon the condition that he would -engage to cease in his opposition to the measures of government, and -that it was the advice of Governor Gage to him not to incur the further -displeasure of his Majesty; that his conduct had been such as made him -liable to the penalties of an act of Henry VIII., by which persons could -be sent to England for trial, and, by changing his course, he would not -only receive great personal advantages, but would thereby make his peace -with the king." Adams listened with apparent interest to this recital -until the messenger had concluded. Then rising, he replied, glowing with -indignation: "Sir, I trust I have long since made my peace with the King -of kings. No personal consideration shall induce me to abandon the -righteous cause of my country. Tell Governor Gage it is the advice of -Samuel Adams to him no longer to insult the feelings of an exasperated -people." - - [Signature: F: Smith Lt Coln] - - [Illustration: REV. JONAS CLARK'S HOUSE] - - [Sidenote: Orders to arrest Adams and Hancock] - - [Sidenote: Paul Revere's ride.] - -Toward the end of the winter Gage received peremptory orders to arrest -Adams and Hancock, and send them to England for trial. One of the London -papers gayly observed that in all probability Temple Bar "will soon be -decorated with some of the patriotic noddles of the Boston saints." The -provincial congress met at Concord on the 22d of March, and after its -adjournment, on the 15th of April, Adams and Hancock stayed a few days -at Lexington, at the house of their friend, the Rev. Jonas Clark. It -would doubtless be easier to seize them there than in Boston, and, -accordingly, on the night of the 18th Gage dispatched a force of 800 -troops, under Lieutenant-Colonel Francis Smith, to march to Lexington, -and, after seizing the patriot leaders, to proceed to Concord, and -capture or destroy the military stores which had for some time been -collecting there. At ten in the evening the troops were rowed across -Charles river, and proceeded by a difficult and unfrequented route -through the marshes of East Cambridge, until, after four miles, they -struck into the highroad for Lexington. The greatest possible secrecy -was observed, and stringent orders were given that no one should be -allowed to leave Boston that night. But Warren divined the purpose of -the movement, and sent out Paul Revere by way of Charlestown, and -William Dawes by way of Roxbury, to give the alarm. At that time there -was no bridge across Charles river lower than the one which now connects -Cambridge with Allston. Crossing the broad river in a little boat, under -the very guns of the Somerset man-of-war, and waiting on the farther -bank until he learned, from a lantern suspended in the belfry of the -North Church, which way the troops had gone, Revere took horse and -galloped over the Medford road to Lexington, shouting the news at the -door of every house that he passed. Reaching Mr. Clark's a little after -midnight, he found the house guarded by eight minute-men, and the -sergeant warned him not to make a noise and disturb the inmates. -"Noise!" cried Revere. "You'll soon have noise enough; the regulars are -coming!" Hancock, recognizing the voice, threw up the window, and -ordered the guard to let him in. On learning the news, Hancock's first -impulse was to stay and take command of the militia; but it was -presently agreed that there was no good reason for his doing so, and -shortly before daybreak, in company with Adams, he left the village. - - [Portrait: Paul Revere] - - [Signature: John Parker] - - [Illustration: JONATHAN HARRINGTON'S HOUSE] - - [Illustration: The Minute-Man[3]] - - [Sidenote: Pitcairn fires upon the yeomanry, April 19, 1775] - -Meanwhile, the troops were marching along the main road; but swift and -silent as was their advance, frequent alarm-bells and signal-guns, and -lights twinkling on distant hilltops, showed but too plainly that the -secret was out. Colonel Smith then sent Major Pitcairn forward with six -companies of light infantry to make all possible haste in securing the -bridges over Concord river, while at the same time he prudently sent -back to Boston for reinforcements. When Pitcairn reached Lexington, just -as the rising sun was casting long shadows across the village green, he -found himself confronted by some fifty minute-men under command of -Captain John Parker,--grandfather of Theodore Parker,--a hardy veteran, -who, fifteen years before, had climbed the heights of Abraham by the -side of Wolfe. "Stand your ground," said Parker. "Don't fire unless -fired upon; but if they mean to have a war, let it begin here." -"Disperse, ye villains!" shouted Pitcairn. "Damn you, why don't you -disperse?" And as they stood motionless he gave the order to fire. As -the soldiers hesitated to obey, he discharged his own pistol and -repeated the order, whereupon a deadly volley slew eight of the -minute-men and wounded ten. One of the victims, Jonathan Harrington, was -just able to stagger across the green to his own house (which is still -there), and to die in the arms of his wife, who was standing at the -door. At this moment the head of Smith's own column seems to have come -into sight, far down the road. The minute-men had begun to return the -fire, when Parker, seeing the folly of resistance, ordered them to -retire. While this was going on, Adams and Hancock were walking across -the fields toward Woburn; and as the crackle of distant musketry reached -their ears, the eager Adams--his soul aglow with the prophecy of the -coming deliverance of his country--exclaimed, "Oh, what a glorious -morning is this!" From Woburn the two friends went on their way to -Philadelphia, where the second Continental Congress was about to -assemble. - - [Illustration: THE OLD MANSE AT CONCORD] - - [Portrait: Percy.] - - [Sidenote: The troops repulsed at Concord.] - - [Sidenote: Retreating troops rescued by Lord Percy] - -Some precious minutes had been lost by the British at Lexington, and it -soon became clear that the day was to be one in which minutes could ill -be spared. By the time they reached Concord, about seven o'clock, the -greater part of the stores had been effectually hidden, and minute-men -were rapidly gathering from all quarters. After posting small forces to -guard the bridges, the troops set fire to the court-house, cut down the -liberty-pole, disabled a few cannon, staved in a few barrels of flour, -and hunted unsuccessfully for arms and ammunition, until an unexpected -incident put a stop to their proceedings. When the force of minute-men, -watching events from the hill beyond the river, had become increased to -more than 400, they suddenly advanced upon the North Bridge, which was -held by 200 regulars. After receiving and returning the British fire, -the militia, led by Major Buttrick, charged across the narrow bridge, -overcame the regulars by dint of weight and numbers, and drove them -back past the Old Manse into the village. They did not follow up the -attack, but rested on their arms, wondering, perhaps, at what they had -already accomplished, while their numbers were from moment to moment -increased by the minute-men from neighbouring villages. A little before -noon, though none of the objects of the expedition had been -accomplished, Colonel Smith began to realize the danger of his position, -and started on his retreat to Boston. His men were in no mood for fight. -They had marched eighteen miles, and had eaten little or nothing for -fourteen hours. But now, while companies of militia hovered upon both -their flanks, every clump of trees and every bit of rising ground by the -roadside gave shelter to hostile yeomen, whose aim was true and deadly. -Straggling combats ensued from time to time, and the retreating British -left nothing undone which brave men could do; but the incessant, galling -fire at length threw them into hopeless confusion. Leaving their -wounded scattered along the road, they had already passed by the village -green of Lexington in disorderly flight, when they were saved by Lord -Percy, who had marched out over Boston Neck and through Cambridge to -their assistance, with 1,200 men and two field-pieces. Forming his men -in a hollow square, Percy inclosed the fugitives, who, in dire -exhaustion, threw themselves upon the ground,--"their tongues hanging -out of their mouths," says Colonel Stedman, "like those of dogs after a -chase." Many had thrown away their muskets, and Pitcairn had lost his -horse, with the elegant pistols which fired the first shots of the War -of Independence, and which may be seen to-day, along with other -trophies, in the town library of Lexington. - - [Illustration: PITCAIRN'S PISTOLS] - - [Sidenote: Retreat continued from Lexington to Charlestown] - -Percy's timely arrival checked the pursuit for an hour, and gave the -starved and weary men a chance for food and rest. A few houses were -pillaged and set on fire, but at three o'clock General Heath and Dr. -Warren arrived on the scene and took command of the militia, and the -irregular fight was renewed. When Percy reached Menotomy (now -Arlington), seven miles from Boston, his passage was disputed by a fresh -force of militia, while pursuers pressed hard on his rear, and it was -only after an obstinate fight that he succeeded in forcing his way. The -roadside now fairly swarmed with marksmen, insomuch that, as one of the -British officers observed, "they seemed to have dropped from the -clouds." It became impossible to keep order or to carry away the -wounded; and when, at sunset, the troops entered Charlestown, under the -welcome shelter of the fleet, it was upon the full run. They were not a -moment too soon, for Colonel Timothy Pickering, with 700 Essex militia, -on the way to intercept them, had already reached Winter Hill; and had -their road been blocked by this fresh force they must in all probability -have surrendered. - - [Illustration: FANCIFUL PICTURE OF THE CONCORD-LEXINGTON FIGHT - (_From a contemporary French print_)] - - [Sidenote: Rising of the country; the British besieged in Boston.] - -On this eventful day the British lost 273 of their number, while the -Americans lost 93. The expedition had been a failure, the whole British -force had barely escaped capture, and it had been shown that the people -could not be frightened into submission. It had been shown, too, how -efficient the town system of organized militia might prove on a sudden -emergency. The most interesting feature of the day is the rapidity and -skill with which the different bodies of minute-men, marching from long -distances, were massed at those points on the road where they might most -effectually harass or impede the British retreat. The Danvers company -marched sixteen miles in four hours to strike Lord Percy at Menotomy. -The list of killed and wounded shows that contingents from at least -twenty-three towns had joined in the fight before sundown. But though -the pursuit was then ended, these men did not return to their homes, but -hour by hour their numbers increased. At noon of that day the alarm had -reached Worcester. Early next morning, Israel Putnam was ploughing a -field at Pomfret, in Connecticut, when the news arrived. Leaving orders -for the militia companies to follow, he jumped on his horse, and riding -a hundred miles in eighteen hours, arrived in Cambridge on the morning -of the 21st, just in time to meet John Stark with the first company from -New Hampshire. At midday of the 20th the college green at New Haven -swarmed with eager students and citizens, and Captain Benedict Arnold, -gathering sixty volunteers from among them, placed himself at their head -and marched for Cambridge, picking up recruits and allies at all the -villages on the way. And thus, from every hill and valley in New -England, on they came, till, by Saturday night, Gage found himself -besieged in Boston by a rustic army of 16,000 men. - - [Portrait: Israel Putnam] - - [Illustration: ST. JOHN'S CHURCH, RICHMOND[4]] - - [Sidenote: Effects of the news] - -When the news of this affair reached England, five weeks later, it was -received at first with incredulity, then with astonishment and regret. -Slight as the contest had been, it remained undeniable that British -troops had been defeated by what in England was regarded as a crowd of -"peasants;" and it was felt besides that the chances for conciliation -had now been seriously diminished. Burke said that now that the -Americans had once gone so far as this, they could hardly help going -farther; and in spite of the condemnation that had been lavished upon -Gage for his inactivity, many people were now inclined to find fault -with him for having precipitated a conflict just at the time when it was -hoped that, with the aid of the New York loyalists, some sort of -accommodation might be effected. There is no doubt that the news from -Lexington thoroughly disconcerted the loyalists of New York for the -moment, and greatly strengthened the popular party there. In a manifesto -addressed to the city of London, the New York committee of -correspondence deplored the conduct of Gage as rash and violent, and -declared that all the horrors of civil war would never bring the -Americans to submit to the unjust acts of Parliament. When Hancock and -Adams arrived, on their way to the Congress, they were escorted through -the city with triumphal honours. In Pennsylvania steps were immediately -taken for the enlistment and training of a colonial militia, and every -colony to the south of it followed the example. - - [Sidenote: Mecklenburg County Resolves, May 31, 1775] - -The Scotch-Irish patriots of Mecklenburg county, in North Carolina, -ventured upon a measure more decided than any that had yet been taken in -any part of the country. On May 31st, the county committee of -Mecklenburg affirmed that the joint address of the two Houses of -Parliament to the king, in February, had virtually "annulled and vacated -all civil and military commissions granted by the Crown, and suspended -the constitutions of the colonies;" and that consequently "the -provincial congress of each province, under the direction of the great -Continental Congress, is invested with all the legislative and executive -powers within their respective provinces, and that no other legislative -or executive power does or can exist at this time in any of these -colonies." In accordance with this state of things, rules were adopted -"for the choice of county officers, to exercise authority by virtue of -this choice and independently of the British Crown, until Parliament -should resign its arbitrary pretensions." These bold resolves were -entrusted to the North Carolina delegates to the Continental Congress, -but were not formally brought before that body, as the delegates thought -it best to wait for a while longer the course of events. - - [Illustration: SIGNATURES OF MECKLENBURG COMMITTEE] - - [Sidenote: Legend of the Mecklenburg "Declaration of Independence"] - -Some twenty years later they gave rise to the legend of the Mecklenburg -Declaration of Independence. The early writers of United States history -passed over the proceedings of May 31st in silence, and presently the -North Carolina patriots tried to supply an account of them from memory. -Their traditional account was not published until 1819, when it was -found to contain a spurious document, giving the substance of some of -the foregoing resolves, decorated with phrases borrowed from the -Declaration of Independence. This document purported to have been drawn -up and signed at a county meeting on the 20th of May. A fierce -controversy sprang up over the genuineness of the document, which was -promptly called in question. For a long time many people believed in it, -and were inclined to charge Jefferson with having plagiarized from it -in writing the Declaration of Independence. But a minute investigation -of all the newspapers of May, 1775, throughout the thirteen colonies, -has revealed no trace of any such meeting on the 20th, and it is clear -that no such document was made public. The story of the Mecklenburg -Declaration is simply a legend based upon the distorted recollection of -the real proceedings of May 31st. - - [Illustration: PLAN - _of the FORT_ - _at_ - TICONDEROGA - at - _the HEAD of_ - Lake Champlain; - 1759 - ] - - [Illustration: Ethan Allen] - - [Sidenote: Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen] - - [Sidenote: Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, May 10, 1775] - -Meanwhile, in New England, the warlike feeling had become too strong to -be contented merely with defensive measures. No sooner had Benedict -Arnold reached Cambridge than he suggested to Dr. Warren that an -expedition ought to be sent without delay to capture Ticonderoga and -Crown Point. These fortresses commanded the northern approaches to the -Hudson river, the strategic centre of the whole country, and would be of -supreme importance either in preparing an invasion of Canada or in -warding off an invasion of New York. Besides this, they contained a vast -quantity of military stores, of which the newly gathered army stood in -sore need. The idea found favour at once. Arnold received a colonel's -commission from the Massachusetts Congress, and was instructed to raise -400 men among the Berkshire Hills, capture the fortresses, and -superintend the transfer of part of their armament to Cambridge. When -Arnold reached the wild hillsides of the Hoosac range, he found that he -had a rival in the enterprise. The capture of Ticonderoga had also been -secretly planned in Connecticut, and was entrusted to Ethan Allen, the -eccentric but sagacious author of that now-forgotten deistical book, -"The Oracles of Reason." Allen was a leading spirit among the "Green -Mountain Boys," an association of Vermont settlers formed for the -purpose of resisting the jurisdiction of New York, and his personal -popularity was great. On the 9th of May Arnold overtook Allen and his -men on their march toward Lake Champlain, and claimed the command of the -expedition on the strength of his commission from Massachusetts; but the -Green Mountain Boys were acting partly on their own account, partly -under the direction of Connecticut. They cared nothing for the authority -of Massachusetts, and knew nothing of Arnold; they had come out to fight -under their own trusted leader. But few of Arnold's own men had as yet -assembled, and his commission could not give him command of Vermonters, -so he joined the expedition as a volunteer. On reaching the lake that -night, they found there were not nearly enough row-boats to convey the -men across. But delay was not to be thought of. The garrison must not be -put on its guard. Accordingly, with only eighty-three men, Allen and -Arnold crossed the lake at daybreak of the 10th, and entered Ticonderoga -side by side. The little garrison, less than half as many in number, as -it turned out, was completely surprised, and the stronghold was taken -without a blow. As the commandant jumped out of bed, half awake, he -confusedly inquired of Allen by whose authority he was acting. "In the -name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress!" roared the -bellicose philosopher, and the commandant, seeing the fort already -taken, was fain to acquiesce. At the same time Crown Point surrendered -to another famous Green Mountain Boy, Seth Warner, and thus more than -two hundred cannon, with a large supply of powder and ball, were -obtained for the New England army. A few days later, as some of -Arnold's own men arrived from Berkshire, he sailed down Lake Champlain, -and captured St. John's with its garrison; but the British recovered it -in the course of the summer, and planted such a force there that in the -next autumn we shall see it able to sustain a siege of fifty days. - - [Illustration: PLAN - _of the New_ - _FORT AND REDOUBTS,_ - _at_ - NEW CROWN POINT - ] - - [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF ETHAN ALLEN'S LETTER ANNOUNCING THE CAPTURE - OF TICONDEROGA] - -Neither Connecticut nor Massachusetts had any authority over these posts -save through right of conquest. As it was Connecticut that had set -Allen's expedition on foot, Massachusetts yielded the point as to the -disposal of the fortresses and their garrisons. Dr. Warren urged the -Connecticut government to appoint Arnold to the command, so that his -commission might be held of both colonies; but Connecticut preferred to -retain Allen, and in July Arnold returned to Cambridge to mature his -remarkable plan for invading Canada through the trackless wilderness of -Maine. His slight disagreement with Allen bore evil fruit. As is often -the case in such affairs, the men were more zealous than their -commanders; there were those who denounced Arnold as an interloper, -and he was destined to hear from them again and again. - - [Illustration: WASHINGTON AT THE AGE OF FORTY] - - [Sidenote: Second meeting of the Continental Congress, May 10, 1775] - - [Sidenote: Appointment of Washington to command the Continental army] - -On the same day[5] on which Ticonderoga surrendered, the Continental -Congress met at Philadelphia. The Adamses and the Livingstons, Jay, -Henry, Washington, and Lee were there, as also Franklin, just back from -his long service in England. Of all the number, John Adams and Franklin -had now, probably, come to agree with Samuel Adams that a political -separation from Great Britain was inevitable; but all were fully agreed -that any consideration of such a question was at present premature and -uncalled for. The Congress was a body which wielded no technical legal -authority; it was but a group of committees, assembled for the purpose -of advising with each other regarding the public weal. Yet something -very like a state of war existed in a part of the country, under -conditions which intimately concerned the whole, and in the absence of -any formally constituted government something must be done to provide -for such a crisis. The spirit of the assembly was well shown in its -choice of a president. Peyton Randolph being called back to Virginia to -preside over the colonial assembly, Thomas Jefferson was sent to the -Congress in his stead; and it also became necessary for Congress to -choose a president to succeed him. The proscribed John Hancock was at -once chosen, and Benjamin Harrison, in conducting him to the chair, -said, "We will show Great Britain how much we value her proscriptions." -To the garrisoning of Ticonderoga and Crown Point by Connecticut, the -Congress consented only after much hesitation, since the capture of -these posts had been an act of offensive warfare. But without any -serious opposition, in the name of the "United Colonies," the Congress -adopted the army of New England men besieging Boston as the -"Continental Army," and proceeded to appoint a commander-in-chief to -direct its operations. Practically, this was the most important step -taken in the whole course of the War of Independence. Nothing less than -the whole issue of the struggle, for ultimate defeat or for ultimate -victory, turned upon the selection to be made at this crisis. For -nothing can be clearer than that in any other hands than those of George -Washington the military result of the war must have been speedily -disastrous to the Americans. In appointing a Virginian to the command of -a New England army, the Congress showed rare wisdom. It would well have -accorded with local prejudices had a New England general been appointed. -John Hancock greatly desired the appointment, and seems to have been -chagrined at not receiving it. But it was wisely decided that the common -interest of all Americans could in no way be more thoroughly engaged in -the war than by putting the New England army in charge of a general who -represented in his own person the greatest of the Southern colonies. -Washington was now commander of the militia of Virginia, and sat in -Congress in his colonel's uniform. His services in saving the remnant of -Braddock's ill-fated army, and afterwards in the capture of Fort -Duquesne, had won for him a military reputation greater than that of any -other American. Besides this, there was that which, from his early -youth, had made it seem right to entrust him with commissions of -extraordinary importance. Nothing in Washington's whole career is more -remarkable than the fact that when a mere boy of twenty-one he should -have been selected by the governor of Virginia to take charge of that -most delicate and dangerous diplomatic mission to the Indian chiefs and -the French commander at Venango. Consummate knowledge of human nature as -well as of wood-craft, a courage that no threats could daunt and a clear -intelligence that no treachery could hoodwink, were the qualities -absolutely demanded by such an undertaking; yet the young man acquitted -himself of his perilous task not merely with credit, but with splendour. -As regards booklore, his education had been but meagre, yet he possessed -in the very highest degree the rare faculty of always discerning the -essential facts in every case, and interpreting them correctly. In the -Continental Congress there sat many who were superior to him in learning -and eloquence; but "if," said Patrick Henry, "you speak of solid -information and sound judgment, Colonel Washington is unquestionably the -greatest man upon that floor." Thus did that wonderful balance of -mind--so great that in his whole career it would be hard to point out a -single mistake--already impress his ablest contemporaries. Hand in hand -with this rare soundness of judgment there went a completeness of moral -self-control, which was all the more impressive inasmuch as Washington's -was by no means a tame or commonplace nature, such as ordinary power of -will would suffice to guide. He was a man of intense and fiery passions. -His anger, when once aroused, had in it something so terrible that -strong men were cowed by it like frightened children. This prodigious -animal nature was habitually curbed by a will of iron, and held in the -service of a sweet and tender soul, into which no mean or unworthy -thought had ever entered. Whole-souled devotion to public duty, an -incorruptible integrity which no appeal to ambition or vanity could for -a moment solicit,--these were attributes of Washington, as well marked -as his clearness of mind and his strength of purpose. And it was in no -unworthy temple that Nature had enshrined this great spirit. His lofty -stature (exceeding six feet), his grave and handsome face, his noble -bearing and courtly grace of manner, all proclaimed in Washington a king -of men. - -The choice of Washington for commander-in-chief was suggested and -strongly urged by John Adams, and when, on the 15th of June, the -nomination was formally made by Thomas Johnson of Maryland, it was -unanimously confirmed. Then Washington, rising, said with great -earnestness: "Since the Congress desire, I will enter upon the momentous -duty, and exert every power I possess in their service and for the -support of the glorious cause. But I beg it may be remembered by every -gentleman in the room that I this day declare, with the utmost -sincerity, I do not think myself equal to the command I am honoured -with." He refused to take any pay for his services, but said he would -keep an accurate account of his personal expenses, which Congress might -reimburse, should it see fit, after the close of the war. - - [Portrait: Artemas Ward] - - [Signature: Wm Prescott] - - [Sidenote: Siege of Boston] - - [Sidenote: Gage's proclamation] - - [Sidenote: Americans occupy Bunker Hill] - -While these things were going on at Philadelphia, the army of New -England men about Boston was busily pressing, to the best of its limited -ability, the siege of that town. The army extended in a great -semicircle of sixteen miles,--averaging about a thousand men to the -mile,--all the way from Jamaica Plain to Charlestown Neck. The -headquarters were at Cambridge, where some of the university buildings -were used for barracks, and the chief command had been entrusted to -General Artemas Ward, under the direction of the committee of safety. -Dr. Warren had succeeded Hancock as president of the provincial -congress, which was in session at Watertown. The army was excellent in -spirit, but poorly equipped and extremely deficient in discipline. Its -military object was to compel the British troops to evacuate Boston and -take to their ships, for as there was no American fleet, anything like -the destruction or capture of the British force was manifestly -impossible. The only way in which Boston could be made untenable for the -British was by seizing and fortifying some of the neighbouring hills -which commanded the town, of which the most important were those in -Charlestown on the north and in Dorchester on the southeast. To secure -these hills was indispensable to Gage, if he was to keep his foothold in -Boston; and as soon as Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne arrived, on the 25th -of May, with reinforcements which raised the British force to 10,000 -men, a plan was laid for extending the lines so as to cover both -Charlestown and Dorchester. Feeling now confident of victory, Gage -issued a proclamation on June 12th, offering free pardon to all rebels -who should lay down their arms and return to their allegiance, saving -only those ring leaders, John Hancock and Samuel Adams, whose crimes -had been "too flagitious to be condoned." At the same time, all who -should be taken in arms were threatened with the gallows. In reply to -this manifesto, the committee of safety, having received intelligence of -Gage's scheme, ordered out a force of 1,200 men, to forestall the -governor, and take possession of Bunker Hill in Charlestown. At sunset -of the 16th this brigade was paraded on Cambridge Common, and after -prayer had been offered by Dr. Langdon, president of the university, -they set out on their enterprise, under command of Colonel Prescott of -Pepperell, a veteran of the French war, grandfather of one of the most -eminent of American historians. On reaching the grounds, a consultation -was held, and it was decided, in accordance with the general purpose, if -not in strict conformity to the letter of the order, to push on farther -and fortify the eminence known as Breed's Hill, which was connected by a -ridge with Bunker Hill, and might be regarded as part of the same -locality. The position of Breed's Hill was admirably fitted for annoying -the town and the ships in the harbour, and it was believed that, should -the Americans succeed in planting batteries there, the British would be -obliged to retire from Boston. There can be little doubt, however, that -in thus departing from the strict letter of his orders Prescott made a -mistake, which might have proved fatal, had not the enemy blundered -still more seriously. The advanced position on Breed's Hill was not only -exposed to attacks in the rear from an enemy who commanded the water, -but the line of retreat was ill secured, and, by seizing upon -Charlestown Neck, it would have been easy for the British, with little -or no loss, to have compelled Prescott to surrender. From such a -disaster the Americans were saved by the stupid contempt which the enemy -felt for them. - - [Sidenote: Arrival of Putnam, Stark, and Warren, June 17, 1775] - -Reaching Breed's Hill about midnight, Colonel Prescott's men began -throwing up intrenchments. At daybreak they were discovered by the -sailors in the harbour, and a lively cannonade was kept up through the -forenoon by the enemy's ships; but it produced little effect, and the -strength of the American works increased visibly hour by hour. It was a -beautiful summer day, bathed in brightest sunshine, and through the -clear dry air every movement of the spadesmen on the hilltop and the -sailors on their decks could be distinctly seen from a great distance. -The roar of the cannon had called out everybody, far and near, to see -what was going on, and the windows and housetops in Boston were crowded -with anxious spectators. During the night General Putnam had come upon -the scene, and turned his attention to fortifying the crest of Bunker -Hill, in order to secure the line of retreat across Charlestown Neck. In -the course of the forenoon Colonel Stark arrived with reinforcements, -which were posted behind the rail fence on the extreme left, to ward off -any attempt of the British to turn their flank by a direct attack. At -the same time, Dr. Warren, now chief executive officer of Massachusetts, -and just appointed major-general, hastened to the battlefield; replying -to the prudent and affectionate remonstrance of his friend Elbridge -Gerry, "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori." Arriving at the redoubt, -he refused the command expressly tendered him, saying that he should be -only too glad to serve as volunteer aid, and learn his first lesson -under so well tried a soldier as Prescott. This modest heroism was -typical of that memorable day, to the events of which one may well apply -the Frenchman's dictum, "C'est magnifique, mais ce n'est pas la guerre!" -A glorious day it was in history, but characterized, on both the British -and the American sides, by heroism rather than by military skill or -prudence. - - [Illustration: VIEW OF BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, FROM BEACON HILL[6]] - - [Sidenote: Gage decides to try an assault] - - [Sidenote: First assault repulsed] - -During the forenoon Gage was earnestly discussing with the three new -generals the best means of ousting the Americans from their position on -Breed's Hill. There was one sure and obvious method,--to go around by -sea and take possession of Charlestown Neck, thereby cutting off the -Americans from the mainland and starving them out. But it was thought -that time was too precious to admit of so slow a method. Should the -Americans succeed, in the course of the afternoon, in planting a battery -of siege guns on Breed's Hill, the British position in Boston would be -endangered. A direct assault was preferred, as likely to be more -speedily effective. It was unanimously agreed that these "peasants" -could not withstand the charge of 3,000 veteran soldiers, and it was -gravely doubted if they would stay and fight at all. Gage accordingly -watched the proceedings, buoyant with hope. In a few hours the disgrace -of Lexington would be wiped out, and this wicked rebellion would be -ended. At noonday the troops began crossing the river in boats, and at -three o'clock they prepared to storm the intrenchments. They advanced in -two parties, General Howe toward the rail-fence, and General Pigot -toward the redoubt, and the same fate awaited both. The Americans -reserved fire until the enemy had come within fifty yards, when all at -once they poured forth such a deadly volley that the whole front rank of -the British was mowed as if by the sudden sweep of a scythe. For a few -minutes the gallant veterans held their ground and returned the fire; -but presently an indescribable shudder ran through the line, and they -gave way and retreated down the hillside in disorder, while the -Americans raised an exultant shout, and were with difficulty restrained -by their officers from leaping over the breastworks and pursuing. - - [Sidenote: Second assault repulsed] - -A pause now ensued, during which the village of Charlestown was set on -fire by shells from the fleet, and soon its four hundred wooden houses -were in a roaring blaze, while charred timbers strewed the lawns and -flower-beds, and the sky was blackened with huge clouds of smoke. If the -purpose of this wholesale destruction of property was, as some have -thought, to screen the second British advance, the object was not -attained, for a light breeze drove the smoke the wrong way. As the -bright red coats, such excellent targets for trained marksmen, were seen -the second time coming up the slope, the Americans, now cool and -confident, withheld their fire until the distance was less than thirty -yards. Then, with a quick succession of murderous discharges, such havoc -was wrought in the British lines as soon to prove unendurable. After a -short but obstinate struggle the lines were broken, and the gallant -troops retreated hastily, leaving the hillside covered with their dead -and wounded. All this time the Americans, in their sheltered position, -had suffered but little. - - [Sidenote: Prescott's powder gives out] - - [Sidenote: Third assault succeeds; the British take the hill] - -So long a time now elapsed that many persons began to doubt if the -British would renew the assault. Had the organization of the American -army been better, such reinforcements of men and ammunition might by -this time have arrived from Cambridge that any further attack upon the -hill would be sure to prove fruitless. But all was confusion at -headquarters. General Ward was ill furnished with staff officers, and -wrong information was brought, while orders were misunderstood. And -besides, in his ignorance of the extent of Gage's plans, General Ward -was nervously afraid of weakening his centre at Cambridge. Three -regiments were sent over too late to be of any use, and meanwhile -Prescott, to his dismay, found that his stock of powder was nearly -exhausted. While he was making ready for a hand-to-hand fight, the -British officers were holding a council of war, and many declared that -to renew the attack would be simply useless butchery. On the other hand, -General Howe observed, "to be forced to give up Boston would be very -disagreeable to us all." The case was not so desperate as this, for the -alternative of an attack upon Charlestown Neck still remained open, and -every consideration of sound generalship now prescribed that it should -be tried. But Howe could not bear to acknowledge the defeat of his -attempts to storm, and accordingly, at five o'clock, with genuine -British persistency, a third attack was ordered. For a moment the -advancing columns were again shaken by the American fire, but the last -powder-horns were soon emptied, and by dint of bayonet charges the -Americans were slowly driven from their works and forced to retreat over -Charlestown Neck, while the whole disputed ground, including the summit -of Bunker Hill, passed into the hands of the British. - - [Sidenote: British and American losses] - -In this battle, in which not more than one hour was spent in actual -fighting, the British loss in killed and wounded was 1,054, or more than -one third of the whole force engaged, including an unusually large -proportion of officers. The American loss, mainly incurred at the -rail-fence and during the final hand-to-hand struggle at the redoubt, -was 449, probably about one fourth of the whole force engaged. On the -British side, one company of grenadiers came out of the battle with only -five of its number left unhurt. Every officer on General Howe's staff -was cut down, and only one survived his wounds. The gallant Pitcairn, -who had fired the first shot of the war, fell while entering the -redoubt, and a few moments later the Americans met with an irreparable -loss in the death of General Warren, who was shot in the forehead as he -lingered with rash obstinacy on the scene, loath to join in the -inevitable retreat. Another volunteer aid, not less illustrious than -Warren, fought on Bunker Hill that day, and came away scatheless. Since -the brutal beating which he had received at the coffee-house nearly six -years before, the powerful mind of James Otis had suffered well-nigh -total wreck. He was living, harmlessly insane, at the house of his -sister, Mercy Warren, at Watertown, when he witnessed the excitement and -listened to the rumour of battle on the morning of the 17th of June. -With touching eagerness to strike a blow for the cause in which he had -already suffered so dreadful a martyrdom, Otis stole away from home, -borrowed a musket at some roadside farmhouse, and hastened to the -battlefield, where he fought manfully, and after all was over made his -way home, weary and faint, a little before midnight. - - [Portrait: M Warren] - - [Sidenote: Excessive slaughter; significance of the battle] - -Though small in its dimensions, if compared with great European -battles, or with the giant contests of our own civil war, the struggle -at Bunker Hill is memorable and instructive, even from a purely military -point of view. Considering the numbers engaged and the short duration of -the fight, the destruction of life was enormous. Of all the -hardest-fought fields of modern times, there have been very few indeed -in which the number of killed and wounded has exceeded one fourth of the -whole force engaged. In its bloodiness and in the physical conditions of -the struggle, the battle of Bunker Hill resembles in miniature the -tremendous battles of Fredericksburg and Cold Harbor. To ascend a rising -ground and storm well-manned intrenchments has in all ages been a -difficult task; at the present day, with the range and precision of our -modern weapons, it has come to be almost impossible. It has become a -maxim of modern warfare that only the most extraordinary necessity can -justify a commander in resorting to so desperate a measure. He must -manoeuvre against such positions, cut them off by the rear, or deprive -them of their value by some flanking march; but he must not, save as a -forlorn hope, waste precious human lives in an effort to storm them that -is almost sure to prove fruitless. For our means of destroying life have -become so powerful and so accurate that, when skilfully wielded from -commanding positions, no human gallantry can hope to withstand them. As -civilization advances, warfare becomes less and less a question of mere -personal bravery, and more and more a question of the application of -resistless physical forces at the proper points; that is to say, it -becomes more and more a purely scientific problem of dynamics. Now at -Bunker Hill though the Americans had not our modern weapons of -precision, yet a similar effect was wrought by the remarkable accuracy -of their aim, due to the fact that they were all trained marksmen, who -waited coolly till they could fire at short range, and then wasted no -shots in random firing. Most of the British soldiers who fell in the two -disastrous charges of that day were doubtless picked off as partridges -are picked off by old sportsmen, and thus is explained the unprecedented -slaughter of officers. Probably nothing quite like this had yet been -seen in the history of war, though the principle had been similar in -those wonderful trials of the long-bow in such mediaeval battles as Crecy -and Dupplin Moor. Against such odds even British pluck and endurance -could not prevail. Had the Americans been properly supplied with powder, -Howe could no more have taken Bunker Hill by storm than Burnside could -take the heights of Fredericksburg. - - [Sidenote: Its moral effect] - -The moral effect of the battle of Bunker Hill, both in America and -Europe, was remarkable. It was for the British an important victory, -inasmuch as they not only gained the ground for which the battle was -fought, but by so doing they succeeded in keeping their hold upon Boston -for nine months longer. Nevertheless, the moral advantage was felt to be -quite on the side of the Americans. It was they who were elated by the -day's work, while it was the British who were dispirited. The belief -that Americans could not fight was that day dispelled forever. British -officers who remembered Fontenoy and Minden declared that the firing at -Bunker Hill was the hottest they had ever known, and, with an -exaggeration which was pardonable as a reaction from their former -ill-judged contempt, it was asserted that the regulars of France were -less formidable foes than the militia of New England. It was keenly felt -that if a conquest of a single strategic position had encountered such -stubborn resistance, the task of subjugating the United Colonies was -likely to prove a hard one. "I wish we could sell them another hill at -the same price," said General Greene. Vergennes, the French minister of -foreign affairs, exclaimed that with two more such victories England -would have no army left in America. Washington said there could now be -no doubt that the liberties of the people were secure. While Franklin, -taking extreme ground, declared that England had lost her colonies -forever. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [3] On the pedestal of this statue, which stands in front of the - North Bridge at Concord, is engraved the following quotation - from Emerson's "Concord Hymn:"-- - - By the rude bridge that arched the flood, - Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, - Here once the embattled farmers stood, - And fired the shot heard round the world. - - The poet's grandfather, Rev. William Emerson, watched the fight - from a window of the Old Manse. - - [4] It was in this church on March 23, 1775, that Patrick Henry made - the famous speech in which he said, "It is too late to retire - from the contest. There is no retreat but in submission and - slavery. The war is inevitable, and let it come! The next gale - that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of - resounding arms! I know not what course others may take, but as - for me, give me liberty or give me death." - - [5] In the letter, of which a facsimile is here given, Allen gives - the date of the capture of Ticonderoga as the 11th, but a - minute survey of the contemporary newspaper and other sources - of information makes it clear that this must be a slip of the - pen. In his personal "Narrative," Allen gives the date - correctly as the 10th. - - [6] This sketch was made on the spot for Lord Rawdon, who was then - on Gage's staff. The spire in the foreground is that of the Old - West Church, where Jonathan Mayhew preached; it stood on the - site since occupied by Dr. Bartol's church on Cambridge Street, - now a branch of the Boston Public Library. Its position in the - picture shows that the sketcher stood on Beacon Hill, 138 feet - above the water. The first hill to the right of the spire, on - the further side of the river, is Bunker Hill, 110 feet high. - The summit of Breed's Hill, 62 feet high, where Prescott's - redoubt stood, is nearly hidden by the flames of burning - Charlestown. At a sale of the effects of the Marquis of - Hastings, descendant of Lord Rawdon, this sketch was bought by - my friend Dr. Thomas Addis Emmet. - - - [Illustration] - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - INDEPENDENCE - - - [Sidenote: Washington arrives in Cambridge] - -On the 2d of July, 1775, after a journey of eleven days, General -Washington arrived in Cambridge from Philadelphia, and on the following -day, under the shade of the great elm-tree which still stands hard by -the Common, he took command of the Continental army, which as yet was -composed entirely of New Englanders. Of the 16,000 men engaged in the -siege of Boston, Massachusetts furnished 11,500, Connecticut 2,300, New -Hampshire 1,200, Rhode Island 1,000. These contingents were arrayed -under their local commanders, and under the local flags of their -respective commonwealths, though Artemas Ward of Massachusetts had by -courtesy exercised the chief command until the arrival of Washington. -During the month of July, Congress gave a more continental complexion -to the army by sending a reinforcement of 3,000 men from Pennsylvania, -Maryland, and Virginia, including the famous Daniel Morgan, with his -sturdy band of sharpshooters each man of whom, it was said, while -marching at double-quick, could cleave with his rifle-ball a squirrel at -a distance of three hundred yards. The summer of 1775 thus brought -together in Cambridge many officers whose names were soon to become -household words throughout the length and breadth of the land, and a -moment may be fitly spent in introducing them before we proceed with the -narrative of events. - - [Sidenote: Daniel Morgan] - - [Sidenote: Benedict Arnold] - -Daniel Morgan, who had just arrived from Virginia with his riflemen, was -a native of New Jersey, of Welsh descent. Moving to Virginia at an early -age, he had won a great reputation for bravery and readiness of resource -in the wild campaigns of the Seven Years' War. He was a man of gigantic -stature and strength, and incredible powers of endurance. In his youth, -it is said, he had received five hundred lashes by order of a tyrannical -British officer, and had come away alive and defiant. On another -occasion, in a fierce woodland fight with the Indians, in which nearly -all his comrades were slain, Morgan was shot through the neck by a -musket-ball. Almost fainting from the wound, which he believed to be -fatal, Morgan was resolved, nevertheless, not to leave his scalp in the -hands of a dirty Indian; and falling forward, with his arms tightly -clasped about the neck of his stalwart horse, though mists were -gathering before his eyes, he spurred away through the forest paths, -until his foremost Indian pursuer, unable to come up with him, hurled -his tomahawk after him with a yell of baffled rage, and gave up the -chase. With this unconquerable tenacity, Morgan was a man of gentle and -unselfish nature; a genuine diamond, though a rough one; uneducated, but -clear and strong in intelligence and faithful in every fibre. At -Cambridge began his long comradeship with a very different character, -Benedict Arnold, a young man of romantic and generous impulses, and for -personal bravery unsurpassed, but vain and self-seeking, and lacking in -moral robustness; in some respects a more polished man than Morgan, but -of a nature at once coarser and weaker. We shall see these two men -associated in some of the most brilliant achievements of the war; and we -shall see them persecuted and insulted by political enemies, until the -weaker nature sinks and is ruined, while the stronger endures to the -end. - - [Illustration: SILHOUETTE OF JOHN STARK] - - [Illustration: NATHANAEL GREENE] - - [Sidenote: John Sullivan] - - [Sidenote: Nathanael Greene] - - [Sidenote: Henry Knox] - -Along with Morgan and Arnold there might have been seen on Cambridge -Common a man who was destined to play no less conspicuous a part in the -great campaign which was to end in the first decisive overthrow of the -British. For native shrewdness, rough simplicity, and dauntless courage, -John Stark was much like Morgan. What the one name was in the great -woods of the Virginia frontier, that was the other among the rugged -hills of northern New England,--a symbol of patriotism and a guarantee -of victory. Great as was Stark's personal following in New Hampshire, he -had not, however, the chief command of the troops of that colony. The -commander of the New Hampshire contingent was John Sullivan, a wealthy -lawyer of Durham, who had sat in the first Continental Congress. -Sullivan was a gentleman of culture and fair ability as a statesman. As -a general, he was brave, intelligent, and faithful, but in no wise -brilliant. Closely associated with Sullivan for the next three years we -shall find Nathanael Greene, now in command of the Rhode Island -contingent. For intellectual calibre all the other officers here -mentioned are dwarfed in comparison with Greene, who comes out at the -end of the war with a military reputation scarcely, if at all, inferior -to that of Washington. Nor was Greene less notable for the sweetness and -purity of his character than for the scope of his intelligence.[7] He -had that rare genius which readily assimilates all kinds of knowledge -through an inborn correctness of method. Whatever he touched, it was -with a master hand, and his weight of sense soon won general -recognition. Such a man was not unnaturally an eager book-buyer, and in -this way he had some time ago been brought into pleasant relations with -the genial and intelligent Henry Knox, who from his bookshop in Boston -had come to join the army as a colonel of artillery, and soon became one -of Washington's most trusty followers. - - [Portrait: Knox] - - [Sidenote: Older officers] - - [Sidenote: Israel Putnam] - -Of this group of officers, none have as yet reached very high rank in -the Continental army. Sullivan and Greene stand at the end of the list -of brigadier-generals; the rest are colonels. The senior major-general, -Artemas Ward, and the senior brigadiers, Pomeroy Heath, Thomas, Wooster, -and Spencer, will presently pass into the background, to make way for -these younger or more vigorous men. Major-General Israel Putnam, the -picturesque wolf-slayer, a brave and sterling patriot, but of slender -military capacity, will remain in the foreground for another year, and -will then become relegated mainly to garrison duty. - - [Sidenote: Horatio Gates and Charles Lee] - -With the exception of Morgan, all the officers here noticed are New -England men, as is natural, since the seat of war is in Massachusetts, -and an army really continental in complexion is still to be formed. The -Southern colonies have as yet contributed only Morgan and the -commander-in-chief. New York is represented in the Continental army by -two of the noblest of American heroes,--Major-General Philip Schuyler -and Brigadier-General Richard Montgomery; but these able men are now -watching over Ticonderoga and the Indian frontier of New York. But among -the group which in 1775 met for consultation on Cambridge Common, or in -the noble Tory mansion now hallowed alike by memories of Washington and -of Longfellow, there were yet two other generals, closely associated -with each other for a time in ephemeral reputation won by false -pretences, and afterwards in lasting ignominy. It is with pleasure that -one recalls the fact that these men were not Americans, though both -possessed estates in Virginia; it is with regret that one is forced to -own them as Englishmen. Of Horatio Gates and his career of imbecility -and intrigue, we shall by and by see more than enough. At this time he -was present in Cambridge as adjutant-general of the army. But his -friend, Charles Lee, was for the moment a far more conspicuous -personage; and this eccentric creature, whose career was for a long time -one of the difficult problems in American history, needs something more -than a passing word of introduction. - - [Illustration: WASHINGTON'S HEADQUARTERS] - - [Portrait: Charles Lee] - - [Signature: Benja Church Junr.] - - [Sidenote: Lee's personal peculiarities] - - [Sidenote: Benjamin Church] - -Although Major-General Charles Lee happened to have acquired an estate -in Virginia, he had nothing in common with the illustrious family of -Virginian Lees beyond the accidental identity of name. He was born in -England, and had risen in the British army to the rank of -lieutenant-colonel. He had served in America in the Seven Years' War, -and afterward, as a soldier of fortune, he had wandered about Europe, -obtaining at one time a place on the staff of the king of Poland. A -restless adventurer, he had come over again to America as soon as he saw -that a war was brewing here. There is nothing to show that he cared a -rush for the Americans, or for the cause in which they were fighting, -but he sought the opportunity of making a name for himself. He was -received with enthusiasm by the Americans. His loud, pompous manner and -enormous self-confidence at first imposed upon everybody. He was tall, -lank, and hollow-cheeked, with a discontented expression of face. In -dress he was extremely slovenly. He was fond of dogs, and always had -three or four at his heels, but toward men and women his demeanour was -morose and insulting. He had a sharp, cynical wit, and was always making -severe remarks in a harsh, rough voice. But the trustful American -imagination endowed this unpleasant person with the qualities of a great -soldier. His reputation was part of the unconscious tribute which the -provincial mind of our countrymen was long wont to pay to the men and -things of Europe; and for some time his worst actions found a lenient -interpretation as the mere eccentricities of a wayward genius. He had -hoped to be made commander-in-chief of the army, and had already begun -to nourish a bitter grudge against Washington, by whom he regarded -himself as supplanted. In the following year we shall see him -endeavouring to thwart the plans of Washington at the most critical -moment of the war, but for the present he showed no signs of -insincerity, except perhaps in an undue readiness to parley with the -British commanders. As soon as it became clear that a war was beginning, -the hope of winning glory by effecting an accommodation with the enemy -offered a dangerous temptation to men of weak virtue in eminent -positions. In October, 1775, the American camp was thrown into great -consternation by the discovery that Dr. Benjamin Church, one of the -most conspicuous of the Boston leaders, had engaged in a secret -correspondence with the enemy. Dr. Church was thrown into jail, but as -the evidence of treasonable intent was not absolutely complete, he was -set free in the following spring, and allowed to visit the West Indies -for his health. The ship in which he sailed was never heard from again. -This kind of temptation, to which Church succumbed at the first outbreak -of the war, beset Lee with fatal effect after the Declaration of -Independence, and wrought the ruin of Arnold after the conclusion of the -French alliance. - - [Sidenote: Difficult work for Washington] - -To such a man as Charles Lee, destitute of faith in the loftier human -virtues or in the strength of political ideas, it might easily have -seemed that more was to be hoped from negotiation than from an attempt -to resist Great Britain with such an army as that of which he now came -to command the left wing. It was fortunate that the British generals -were ignorant of the real state of things. Among the moral effects of -the battle of Bunker Hill there was one which proved for the moment to -be of inestimable value. It impressed upon General Howe, who now -succeeded to the chief command, the feeling that the Americans were more -formidable than had been supposed, and that much care and forethought -would be required for a successful attack upon them. In a man of his -easy-going disposition, such a feeling was enough to prevent decisive -action. It served to keep the British force idle in Boston for months, -and was thus of great service to the American cause. For in spite of the -zeal and valour it had shown, this army of New England minute-men was by -no means in a fit condition for carrying on such an arduous enterprise -as the siege of Boston. When Washington took command of the army on -Cambridge Common, he found that the first and most trying task before -him was out of this excellent but very raw material to create an army -upon which he could depend. The battle of Bunker Hill had just been -lost, under circumstances which were calculated to cheer the Americans -and make them hopeful of the future; but it would not do to risk another -battle, with an untrained staff and a scant supply of powder. All the -work of organizing an army was still to be done, and the circumstances -were not such as to make it an easy work. It was not merely that the -men, who were much better trained in the discipline of the town meeting -than in that of the camp, needed to be taught the all-important lesson -of military subordination: it was at first a serious question how they -were to be kept together at all. That the enthusiasm kindled on the day -of Lexington should have sufficed to bring together 16,000 men, and to -keep them for three months at their posts, was already remarkable; but -no army, however patriotic and self-sacrificing, can be supported on -enthusiasm alone. The army of which Washington took command was a motley -crowd, clad in every variety of rustic attire, armed with trusty muskets -and rifles, as their recent exploit had shown, but destitute of almost -everything else that belongs to a soldier's outfit. From the Common down -to the river, their rude tents were dotted about here and there, some -made of sail-cloth stretched over poles, some piled up of stones and -turf, some oddly wrought of twisted green boughs; while the more -fortunate ones found comparatively luxurious quarters in Massachusetts -Hall, or in the little Episcopal church, or in the houses of patriotic -citizens. These volunteers had enlisted for various periods, for the -most part short, under various contracts with various town or provincial -governments. It was not altogether clear how they were going to be paid, -nor was it easy to see how they were going to be fed. That this army -should have been already subsisted for three months, without any -commissariat, was in itself an extraordinary fact. Day by day the heavy -carts had rumbled into Cambridge, bringing from the highlands of -Berkshire and Worcester, and from the Merrimac and Connecticut valleys, -whatever could in any wise be spared of food, or clothing, or medicines, -for the patriot army; and the pleasant fields of Cambridge were a busy -scene of kindness and sympathy. - - [Illustration: - A Westerly View of the Colledges in Cambridge New England - Holden Chapel Hollis Harvard Stoughton Massachusetts - ] - - [Sidenote: Absence of governmental organization] - - [Sidenote: New government of Massachusetts, July, 1775] - -Such means as these, however, could not long be efficient. If war was to -be successfully conducted, there must be a commissariat, there must be -ammunition, and there must be money. And here Washington found himself -confronted with the difficulty which never ceased to vex his noble soul -and disturb his best laid schemes until the day when he swooped down -upon Cornwallis at Yorktown. He had to keep making the army, with which -he was often expected to fight battles ere it was half made; and in this -arduous work he could get but little systematic help from any quarter. -At present the difficulty was that there was nowhere any organized -government competent to support an army. On Washington's arrival, the -force surrounding Boston owed allegiance, as we have seen, to four -distinct commonwealths, of which two, indeed,--Connecticut and Rhode -Island,--preserving their ancient charters, with governors elected by -themselves, were still in their normal condition. In New Hampshire, on -the other hand, the royal governor, John Wentworth, whose personal -popularity was deservedly great, kept his place until August, while -Stark and his men had gone to Cambridge in spite of him. In -Massachusetts the revolutionary Provincial Congress still survived, but -with uncertain power; even the Continental Congress which adopted the -Cambridge army in the name of the United Colonies was simply an advisory -body, without the power to raise taxes or to beat up recruits. From this -administrative chaos, through which all the colonies, save Connecticut -and Rhode Island, were forced to pass in these trying times, -Massachusetts was the first to emerge, in July, 1775, by reverting to -the provisions of its old charter, and forming a government in which the -king's authority was virtually disallowed. A representative assembly was -chosen by the people in their town meetings, according to time-honoured -precedent; and this new legislature itself elected an annual council of -twenty-eight members, to sit as an upper house. James Bowdoin, as -president of the council, became chief executive officer of the -commonwealth, and John Adams was made chief justice. Forty thousand -pounds were raised by a direct tax on polls and on real estate, and -bills of credit were issued for 1,000 more. The commonwealth adopted a -new seal, and a proclamation, issued somewhat later by Chief Justice -Adams, enjoining it upon all people to give loyal obedience to the new -government, closed with the significant invocation "God save the -people," instead of the customary "God save the king." - - [Sidenote: Congress sends a petition to the king] - -In taking this decisive step, Massachusetts was simply the first to act -upon the general recommendation of the Continental Congress, that the -several colonies should forthwith proceed to frame governments for -themselves, based upon the suffrages of the people. From such a -recommendation as this to a formal declaration of independence, the -distance to be traversed was not great. Samuel Adams urged that in -declaring the colonies independent Congress would be simply recognizing -a fact which in reality already existed, and that by thus looking facts -squarely in the face the inevitable war might be conducted with far -greater efficiency. But he was earnestly and ably opposed by John -Dickinson of Pennsylvania, whose arguments for the present prevailed in -the Congress. It was felt that the Congress, as a mere advisory body, -had no right to take a step of such supreme importance without first -receiving explicit instructions from every one of the colonies. Besides -this, the thought of separation was still a painful thought to most of -the delegates, and it was deemed well worth while to try the effect of -one more candid statement of grievances, to be set forth in a petition -to his majesty. For like reasons, the Congress did not venture to take -measures to increase its own authority; and when Franklin, still -thinking of union as he had been thinking for more than twenty years, -now brought forward a new scheme, somewhat similar to the Articles of -Confederation afterwards adopted, it was set aside as premature. The -king was known to be fiercely opposed to any dealings with the colonies -as a united body, and so considerate of his feelings were these honest -and peace-loving delegates that, after much discussion, they signed -their carefully worded petition severally, and not jointly. They signed -it as individuals speaking for the people of the American colonies, not -as members of an organic body representing the American people. To -emphasize still further their conciliatory mood, the delivery of the -petition was entrusted to Richard Penn, a descendant of the great Quaker -and joint-proprietary in the government of Pennsylvania, an excellent -man and an ardent loyalist. At the same time that this was done, an -issue of paper money was made, to be severally guaranteed by the -thirteen colonies, and half a million dollars were sent to Cambridge to -be used for the army. - -Military operations, however, came for the time to a stand-still. While -Washington's energies were fully occupied in organizing and drilling his -troops, in providing them with powder and ball, in raising lines of -fortification, in making good the troublesome vacancies due to short -terms of enlistment, and above all in presenting unfailingly a bold -front to the enemy; while the encampments about Boston were the daily -scene of tedious works, without any immediate prospect of brilliant -achievement, the Congress and the people were patiently waiting to hear -the result of the last petition that was ever to be sent from these -colonies to the king of Great Britain. - - [Illustration: THE KING'S PROCLAMATION - - By the KING, - =A PROCLAMATION=. - - For suppressing Rebellion and Sedition. - - _GEORGE_ R. - - Whereas many of Our Subjects in divers Parts of Our Colonies and - Plantations in _North America_, misled by dangerous and - ill-designing Men, and forgetting the Allegiance which they owe to - the Power that has protected and sustained them, after various - disorderly Acts committed in Disturbance of the Publick Peace, to - the Obstruction of lawful Commerce, and to the Oppression of Our - loyal Subjects carrying on the same, have at length proceeded to an - open and avowed Rebellion, by arraying themselves in hostile Manner - to withstand the Execution of the Law, and traitorously preparing, - ordering, and levying War against Us. And whereas there is Reason - to apprehend that such Rebellion hath been much promoted and - encouraged by the traitorous Correspondence, Counsels, and Comfort - of divers wicked and desperate Persons within this Realm: To the - End therefore that none of Our Subjects may neglect or violate - their Duty through Ignorance thereof, or through any Doubt of the - Protection which the Law will afford to their Loyalty and Zeal; We - have thought fit, by and with the Advice of Our Privy Council, to - issue this Our Royal Proclamation, hereby declaring that not only - all Our Officers Civil and Military are obliged to exert their - utmost Endeavours to suppress such Rebellion, and to bring the - Traitors to Justice; but that all Our Subjects of this Realm and - the Dominions thereunto belonging are bound by Law to be aiding and - assisting in the Suppression of such Rebellion, and to disclose and - make known all traitorous Conspiracies and Attempts against Us, Our - Crown and Dignity; And We do accordingly strictly charge and - command all Our Officers as well Civil as Military, and all other - Our obedient and loyal Subjects, to use their utmost Endeavours to - withstand and suppress such Rebellion, and to disclose and make - known all Treasons and traitorous Conspiracies which they shall - know to be against Us, Our Crown and Dignity; and for that Purpose, - that they transmit to One of Our Principal Secretaries of State, or - other proper Officer, due and full Information of all Persons who - shall be found carrying on Correspondence with, or in any Manner or - Degree aiding or abetting the Persons now in open Arms and - Rebellion against Our Government within any of Our Colonies and - Plantations in _North America_, in order to bring to condign - Punishment the Authors, Perpetrators, and Abettors of such - traitorous Designs. - - Given at Our Court at _St. James's_, the Twenty-third day - of _August_, One thousand seven hundred and seventy-five, - in the Fifteenth Year of Our Reign. - - God save the King. - - LONDON: - - Printed by _Charles Eyre_ and _William Strahan_, Printers to the - King's most Excellent Majesty. 1775. - ] - - [Sidenote: The king issues a proclamation, and tries to hire troops from -Russia] - - [Sidenote: Catherine refuses] - - [Sidenote: The king hires German troops] - - [Sidenote: Indignation in Germany] - -Penn made all possible haste, and arrived in London on the 14th of -August; but when he got there the king would neither see him nor receive -the petition in any way, directly or indirectly. The Congress was an -illegal assembly which had no business to send letters to him: if any -one of the colonies wanted to make terms for itself separately, he might -be willing to listen to it. But this idea of a united America was -something unknown either to law or to reason, something that could not -be too summarily frowned down. So while Penn waited about London, the -king issued a proclamation; setting forth that many of his subjects in -the colonies were in open and armed rebellion, and calling upon all -loyal subjects of the realm to assist in bringing to condign punishment -the authors and abettors of this foul treason. Having launched this -thunderbolt, George sent at once to Russia to see if he could hire -20,000 men to aid in giving it effect, for the "loyal subjects of the -realm" were slow in coming forward. A war against the Americans was not -yet popular in England. Lord Chatham withdrew his eldest son, Lord Pitt, -from the army, lest he should be called upon to serve against the men -who were defending the common liberties of Englishmen. There was, -moreover, in England as well as in America, a distrust of regular -armies. Recruiting was difficult, and conscription was something that -the people would not endure unless England should actually be threatened -with invasion. The king had already been obliged to raise a force of his -Hanoverian subjects to garrison Minorca and Gibraltar, thus setting free -the British defenders of these strongholds for service in America. He -had no further resource except in hiring troops from abroad. But his -attempt in Russia was not successful, for the Empress Catherine, with -all her faults, was not disposed to sell the blood of her subjects. She -improved the occasion--as sovereigns and others will sometimes do--by -asking George, sarcastically, if he thought it quite compatible with his -dignity to employ foreign troops against his own subjects; as for -Russian soldiers, she had none to spare for such a purpose. Foiled in -this quarter, the king applied to the Duke of Brunswick, the Landgrave -of Hesse-Cassel, the princes of Waldeck and Anhalt-Zerbst, the Margrave -of Anspach-Bayreuth, and the Count of Hesse-Hanau, and succeeded in -making a bargain for 20,000 of the finest infantry in Europe, with four -good generals,--Riedesel of Brunswick, and Knyphausen, Von Heister, and -Donop of Hesse. The hiring of these troops was bitterly condemned by -Lord John Cavendish in the House of Commons, and by Lords Camden and -Shelburne and the Duke of Richmond in the House of Lords; and Chatham's -indignant invectives at a somewhat later date are familiar to every one. -It is proper, however, that in such an affair as this we should take -care to affix our blame in the right place. The king might well argue -that in carrying on a war for what the majority of Parliament regarded -as a righteous object, it was no worse for him to hire men than to buy -cannon and ships. The German troops, on their part, might justly -complain of Lord Camden for stigmatizing them as "mercenaries," inasmuch -as they did not come to America for pay, but because there was no help -for it. It was indeed with a heavy heart that these honest men took up -their arms to go beyond sea and fight for a cause in which they felt no -sort of interest, and great was the mourning over their departure. The -persons who really deserved to bear the odium of this transaction were -the mercenary princes who thus shamelessly sold their subjects into -slavery. It was a striking instance of the demoralization which had -been wrought among the petty courts of Germany in the last days of the -old empire, and among the German people it excited profound indignation. -The popular feeling was well expressed by Schiller, in his "Cabale und -Liebe." Frederick the Great, in a letter to Voltaire, declared himself -beyond measure disgusted, and by way of thriftily expressing his -contempt for the transaction he gave orders to his custom house officers -that upon all such of these soldiers as should pass through Prussian -territory a toll should be levied, as upon "cattle exported for foreign -shambles." - - [Sidenote: Burning of Portland, Oct 16, 1775] - -When the American question was brought up in the autumn session of -Parliament, it was treated in the manner with which the Americans had by -this time become familiar. A few far-sighted men still urged the -reasonableness of the American claims, but there was now a great -majority against them. In spite of grave warning voices, both houses -decided to support the king; and in this they were upheld by the -university of Oxford, which a century ago had burned the works of John -Milton as "blasphemous," and which now, with equal felicity, in a formal -address to the king, described the Americans as "a people who had -forfeited their lives and their fortunes to the justice of the state." -At the same time the department of American affairs was taken from the -amiable Lord Dartmouth, and given to the truculent Lord George Germain. -These things were done in November, 1775, and in the preceding month -they had been heralded by an act of wanton barbarity on the part of a -British naval officer, albeit an unwarranted act, which the British -government as promptly as possible disowned. On the 16th of October, -Captain Mowatt had sailed with four small vessels into the harbour of -Portland (then called Falmouth), and with shells and grenades set fire -to the little town. St. Paul's Church, all the public buildings, and -three fourths of all the dwellings were burned to the ground, and a -thousand unoffending men, women, and children were thus turned -out-of-doors just as the sharp Maine winter was coming on to starve and -freeze them. - -The news of the burning of Portland reached Philadelphia on the same day -(October 31) with the news that George III. was about to send foreign -mercenaries to fight against his American subjects; and now the wrath of -Congress was thoroughly kindled, and the party which advised further -temporizing was thrown into helpless minority. - - [Illustration: A CONTEMPORARY SKETCH OF THE BURNING OF FALMOUTH] - - [Sidenote: Effects upon Congress] - -"Well, brother rebel," said a Southern member to Samuel Ward of Rhode -Island, "we have now got a sufficient answer to our petition: I want -nothing more, but am ready to declare ourselves independent." Congress -now advised New Hampshire, Virginia, and South Carolina to frame for -themselves new republican governments, as Massachusetts had already -done; it urged South Carolina to seize the British vessels in her -waters; it appointed a committee to correspond with foreign powers; and -above all, it adopted unreservedly the scheme, already partially carried -into operation, for the expulsion of the British from Canada. - - [Portrait: Guy Carleton] - - [Portrait: Rich^d. Montgomery] - - [Sidenote: The Americans invade Canada, Sept., 1775] - -At once upon the outbreak of hostilities at Lexington, the conquest of -Canada had been contemplated by the Northern leaders, who well -remembered how, in days gone by, the valley of the St. Lawrence had -furnished a base for attacks upon the province of New York, which was -then the strategic centre of the American world. It was deemed an act of -military prudence to secure this region at the outset. But so long as -the least hope of conciliation remained, Congress was unwilling to -adopt any measures save such as were purely defensive in character. As -we have seen, it was only with reluctance that it had sanctioned the -garrisoning of Ticonderoga by the Connecticut troops. But in the course -of the summer it was learned that the governor of Canada, Sir Guy -Carleton, was about to take steps to recover Ticonderoga; and it was -credibly reported that intrigues were going on with the Iroquois tribes, -to induce them to harry the New England frontier and the pleasant farms -on the Hudson: so that, under these circumstances, the invasion of -Canada was now authorized by Congress as a measure of self-defence. An -expedition down Lake Champlain, against Montreal, was at once set on -foot. As Schuyler, the commander of the northern department, was -disabled by ill health, the enterprise was confided to Richard -Montgomery, an officer who had served with distinction under Wolfe. Late -in August, Montgomery started from Ticonderoga, and on the 12th of -September, with a force of two thousand men, he laid siege to the -fortress of St. John's, which commanded the approach to Montreal. -Carleton, whose utmost exertions could bring together only some nine -hundred men, made heroic but fruitless efforts to stop his progress. -After a siege of fifty days, St. John's surrendered on the 3d of -November, and on the 12th Montgomery entered Montreal in triumph. The -people of Canada had thus far seemed favourably disposed toward the -American invaders, and Montgomery issued a proclamation urging them to -lose no time in choosing delegates to attend the Continental Congress. - - [Sidenote: Arnold's march through the wilderness of Maine] - -Meanwhile, in September, Washington had detached from the army at -Cambridge one thousand New England infantry, with two companies of -Pennsylvania riflemen and Morgan's famous Virginia sharpshooters, and -ordered them to advance upon Quebec through the forests of Maine and by -way of the rivers Kennebec and Chaudiere. The expedition was commanded -by Colonel Benedict Arnold, who seems to have been one of the first, if -not the first, to suggest it. Such plans of invading an enemy's -territory, involving the march of independent forces upon convergent -lines from remote points, were much more in favour with military men a -century ago than to-day. The vice of such methods was often illustrated -during our Revolutionary War. The vast distances and total lack of -communication made effective cooperation between Montgomery and Arnold -impossible; while a surprise of Quebec by the latter, with force -sufficient to capture it unaided, was almost equally out of the -question. But the very difficulty of the scheme commended it to the -romantic and buoyant temper of Benedict Arnold. The enterprise was one -to call for all his persistent daring and fertile resource. It was an -amphibious journey, as his men now rowed their boats with difficulty -against the strong, swift current of the Kennebec, and now, carrying -boats and oars on their shoulders, forced their way through the tangled -undergrowth of the primeval forests. Often they had to wade across -perilous bogs, and presently their shoes were cut to pieces by sharp -stones, and their clothes torn to shreds by thorns and briers. Their -food gave out, and though some small game was shot, their hunger became -such that they devoured their dogs. When they reached the head of the -Chaudiere, after this terrible march of thirty-three days, two hundred -of their number had succumbed to starvation, cold, and fatigue, while -two hundred more had given out and returned to Massachusetts, carrying -with them such of the sick and disabled as they could save. The descent -of the Chaudiere in their boats afforded some chance for rest, and -presently they began to find cattle for food. At last, on the 13th of -November, the next day after Montgomery's capture of Montreal, they -crossed the broad St. Lawrence, and climbed the Heights of Abraham at -the very place where Wolfe had climbed to victory sixteen years ago. -There was splendid bravado in Arnold's advancing to the very gates with -his little, worn-out army, now reduced to seven hundred men, and -summoning the garrison either to come out and fight, or to surrender the -town. But the garrison very properly would neither surrender nor fight. -The town had been warned in time, and Arnold had no alternative but to -wait for Montgomery to join him. - - [Sidenote: Assault upon Quebec, Dec. 31, 1775] - -Six days afterward, Carleton, disguised as a farmer, and ferried down -stream in a little boat, found his way into Quebec; and on the 3d of -December, Montgomery made his appearance with a small force, which -raised the number of the Americans to twelve hundred men. As Carleton -persistently refused to come out of his defences, it was resolved to -carry the works by storm,--a chivalrous, nay, one might almost say, a -foolhardy decision, had it not been so nearly justified by the event. On -the last day of 1775, England came within an ace of losing Quebec. At -two o'clock in the morning, in a blinding snowstorm, Montgomery and -Arnold began each a furious attack, at opposite sides of the town; and -aided by the surprise, each came near carrying his point. Montgomery had -almost forced his way in when he fell dead, pierced by three bullets; -and this so chilled the enthusiasm of his men that they flagged, until -reinforcements drove them back. Arnold, on his side, was severely -wounded and carried from the field; but the indomitable Morgan took his -place, and his Virginia company stormed the battery opposed to them, -and fought their way far into the town. Had the attack on the other side -been kept up with equal vigour, as it might have been but for -Montgomery's death, Quebec must have fallen. As it was, Morgan's -triumphant advance only served to isolate him, and presently he and his -gallant company were surrounded and captured. - - [Sidenote: Total failure of the attempt upon Canada] - -With the failure of this desperate attack passed away the golden -opportunity for taking the citadel of Canada. Arnold remained throughout -the winter in the neighbourhood of Quebec, and in the spring the -enterprise was taken up by Wooster and Sullivan with fresh forces. But -by this time many Hessians had come over, and Carleton, reinforced until -his army numbered 13,000, was enabled to recapture Montreal and push -back the Americans, until in June, after a hazardous retreat, well -conducted by Sullivan, the remnant of their invading army found shelter -at Crown Point. Such was the disastrous ending of a campaign which at -the outset had promised a brilliant success, and which is deservedly -famous for the heroism and skill with which it was conducted. The -generalship of Montgomery received the warm approval of no less a critic -than Frederick the Great; and the chivalrous bravery of Arnold, both in -his march through the wilderness and in the military operations which -followed, was such that if a kind fate could then and there have cut the -thread of his life, he would have left behind him a sweet and shining -memory. As for the attempt to bring Canada into the American union, it -was one which had no hope of success save through a strong display of -military force. The sixteen years which had elapsed since the victory of -Wolfe had not transformed the Canadian of the old _regime_ into a -free-born Englishman. The question at present for him was only that of a -choice of allegiance, and while at first the invaders were favourably -received, it soon became apparent that between the Catholic and the -Puritan there could be but little real sympathy. The Quebec Act, which -legalized Catholic worship in Canada, had done much toward securing -England's hold upon this part of her American possessions. And although, -in the colourless political condition of this northern province, the -capture of Quebec might well have brought it into the American union, -where it would gradually have taken on a fresh life, as surely as it has -done under British guidance, yet nothing short of such a military -occupation could have had any effect in determining its languid -preferences. - - [Illustration: THE HANCOCK HOUSE, BEACON HILL, BOSTON] - - [Sidenote: The siege of Boston] - -While Canada was thus freed from the presence of the Continental troops, -the British army, on the other hand, was driven from Boston, and New -England was cleared of the enemy. During the autumn and winter, -Washington had drawn his lines as closely as possible about the town, -while engaged in the work of organizing and equipping his army. The -hardest task was to collect a sufficient quantity of powder and ball, -and to bring together siege-guns. As the season wore on, the country -grew impatient, and Washington sometimes had to listen to criticisms -like those that were directed against McClellan in Virginia, at the -beginning of 1862, or against Grant before Vicksburg, in the spring of -1863. President Hancock, who owned a great deal of property in Boston, -urged him to set fire to the town and destroy it, if by so doing he -could drive the British to their ships. But Washington had planned much -more wisely. By the 1st of March a great quantity of cannon had been -brought in by Henry Knox, some of them dragged on sledges all the way -from Ticonderoga, and so at last Washington felt himself prepared to -seize upon Dorchester Heights. This position commanded the town and -harbour even more effectually than Bunker Hill, and why in all these -months General Howe had not occupied it one would find it hard to say. -He was bitterly attacked for his remissness by the British newspapers, -as was quite natural. - - [Illustration: BOSTON, WITH ITS ENVIRONS, IN 1775 AND 1776] - - [Illustration: MEDAL GRANTED TO WASHINGTON FOR HIS CAPTURE OF BOSTON] - - [Sidenote: Washington seizes Dorchester Heights March 4, 1776] - - [Sidenote: The British troops evacuate Boston March 17, 1776] - -Washington chose for his decisive movement the night of the 4th of -March. Eight hundred men led the way, escorting the wagons laden with -spades and crowbars, hatchets, hammers, and nails; and after them -followed twelve hundred men, with three hundred ox-carts, carrying -timbers and bales of hay; while the rear was brought up by the heavy -siege-guns. From Somerville, East Cambridge, and Roxbury, a furious -cannonade was begun soon after sunset and kept up through the night, -completely absorbing the attention of the British, who kept up a lively -fire in return. The roar of the cannon drowned every other sound for -miles around, while all night long the two thousand Americans, having -done their short march in perfect secrecy, were busily digging and -building on Dorchester Heights, and dragging their siege-guns into -position. Early next morning, Howe saw with astonishment what had been -done, and began to realize his perilous situation. The commander of the -fleet sent word that unless the Americans could be forthwith -dislodged, he could not venture to keep his ships in the harbour. Most -of the day was consumed in deciding what should be done, until at last -Lord Percy was told to take three thousand men and storm the works. But -the slaughter of Bunker Hill had taught its lesson so well that neither -Percy nor his men had any stomach for such an enterprise. A violent -storm, coming up toward nightfall, persuaded them to delay the attack -till next day, and by that time it had become apparent to all that the -American works, continually growing, had become impregnable. Percy's -orders were accordingly countermanded, and it was decided to abandon the -town immediately. It was the sixth anniversary of the day on which -Hutchinson had yielded to the demand of the town meeting and withdrawn -the two British regiments from Boston. The work then begun was now -consummated by Washington, and from that time forth the deliverance of -Massachusetts was complete. Howe caused it at once to be known among -the citizens that he was about to evacuate Boston, but he threatened to -lay the town in ashes if his troops should be fired on. The selectmen -conveyed due information of all this to Washington, who accordingly, -secure in the achievement of his purpose, allowed the enemy to depart in -peace. By the 17th, the eight thousand troops were all on board their -ships, and, taking with them all the Tory citizens, some nine hundred in -number, they sailed away for Halifax. Their space did not permit them to -carry away their heavy arms, and their retreat, slow as it was, bore -marks of hurry and confusion. In taking possession of the town, -Washington captured more than two hundred serviceable cannon, ten times -more powder and ball than his army had ever seen before, and an immense -quantity of muskets, gun-carriages, and military stores of every sort. -Thus was New England set free by a single brilliant stroke, with very -slight injury to private property, and with a total loss of not more -than twenty lives. - - [Illustration: EVOLUTION OF THE UNITED STATES FLAG[8]] - - [Sidenote: A provisional flag] - - [Sidenote: Effect of the hiring of "myrmidons"] - -The time was now fairly ripe for the colonies to declare themselves -independent of Great Britain. The idea of a separation from the -mother-country, which in the autumn had found but few supporters, grew -in favour day by day through the winter and spring. The incongruousness -of the present situation was typified by the flag that Washington flung -to the breeze on New Year's Day at Cambridge, which was made up of -thirteen stripes, to represent the United Colonies, but retained the -British crosses in the corner. Thus far, said Benjamin Harrison, they -had contrived to "hobble along under a fatal attachment to Great -Britain," but the time had come when one must consider the welfare of -one's own country first of all. As Samuel Adams said, their petitions -had not been heard, and yet had been answered by armies and fleets, and -by myrmidons hired from abroad. Nothing had made a greater impression -upon the American people than this hiring of German troops. It went -farther than any other single cause to ripen their minds for the -declaration of independence. Many now began to agree with the -Massachusetts statesman; and while public opinion was in this malleable -condition, there appeared a pamphlet which wrought a prodigious effect -upon the people, mainly because it gave terse and vigorous expression to -views which every one had already more than half formed for himself. - - [Portrait: T. Paine] - - [Sidenote: "Common Sense"] - -Thomas Paine had come over to America in December, 1774, and through the -favour of Franklin had secured employment as editor of the "Pennsylvania -Magazine." He was by nature a dissenter and a revolutionist to the -marrow of his bones. Full of the generous though often blind enthusiasm -of the eighteenth century for the "rights of man," he was no respecter -of the established order, whether in church or state. To him the church -and its doctrines meant slavish superstition, and the state meant -tyranny. Of crude undisciplined mind, and little scholarship, yet -endowed with native acuteness and sagacity, and with no mean power of -expressing himself, Paine succeeded in making everybody read what he -wrote, and achieved a popular reputation out of all proportion to his -real merit. Among devout American families his name was for a long time -a name of horror and opprobrium, and uneducated free thinkers still -build lecture-halls in honour of his memory, and celebrate the -anniversary of his birthday, with speeches full of harmless but rather -dismal platitudes. The "Age of Reason," which was the cause of all this -blessing and banning, contains, amid much crude argument, some sound and -sensible criticism, such as is often far exceeded in boldness in the -books and sermons of Unitarian and Episcopalian divines of the present -day; but its tone is coarse and dull, and with the improvement of -popular education it is fast sinking into oblivion. There are times, -however, when such caustic pamphleteers as Thomas Paine have their uses. -There are times when they can bring about results which are not so -easily achieved by men of finer mould and more subtle intelligence. It -was at just such a time, in January, 1776, that Paine published his -pamphlet, "Common Sense," on the suggestion of Benjamin Rush, and with -the approval of Franklin and of Samuel Adams. The pamphlet contains some -irrelevant abuse of the English people, and resorts to such arguments as -the denial of the English origin of the Americans. Not one third of the -people, _even_ of Pennsylvania, are of English descent, argues Paine, as -if Pennsylvania had been preeminent among the colonies for its English -blood, and not, as in reality, one of the least English of all the -thirteen. But along with all this there was a sensible and striking -statement of the practical state of the case between Great Britain and -the colonies. The reasons were shrewdly and vividly set forth for -looking upon reconciliation as hopeless, and for seizing the present -moment to declare to the world what the logic of events was already fast -making an accomplished fact. Only thus, it was urged, could the States -of America pursue a coherent and well-defined policy, and preserve their -dignity in the eyes of the world. - - [Illustration: A PAGE FROM "COMMON SENSE" - - 84 COMMON SENSE - - The Sun never shined on a cause of greater worth. 'Tis not the - affair of a City, a County, a Province or a Kingdom; but of a - Continent--of at least one eight part of the habitable Globe. 'Tis - not the concern of a day, a year, or an age; posterity are - virtually involved in the contest, and will be more or less - affected even to the end of time by the proceedings now. Now Is the - seed-time of Continental union, faith and honor. The least fracture - now, will be like a name engraved with the point of a pin on the - tender rind of a young oak; the wound will enlarge with the tree, - and posterity read it in full grown characters. - - By referring the matter from argument to arms, a new aera for - politics is struck--a new method of thinking hath arisen. All - plans, proposals, &c. prior to the 19th of April, _i. e._ to the - commencement of hostilities, are like the almanacks of the last - year; which tho' proper then, are superseded and useless now. - Whatever was advanced by the advocates on either side of the - question then, terminated in one and the same point, viz. a union - with Great-Britain; the only difference between the parties, was - the method of effecting it; the one proposing force, the other - friendship: but it hath so far happened that the first hath failed, - and the second hath withdrawn her influence. - - As much hath been said of the advantages of reconciliation, which - like an agreeable dream, hath passed away, and left us as we were, - it is but right that we should examine the contrary side of the - argument, and enquire into some of the many material injuries which - these Colonies sustain, and always will sustain, by being connected - with, and dependant on Great-Britain.--To examine that connection - and dependance, on the principles of nature and common sense, to - see what we have to trust to if separated, and what we are to - expect if dependant. -] - - [Sidenote: Fulminations and counter-fulminations] - -It was difficult for the printers, with the clumsy presses of that day, -to bring out copies of "Common Sense" fast enough to meet the demand for -it. More than a hundred thousand copies were speedily sold, and it -carried conviction wherever it went. At the same time, Parliament did -its best to reinforce the argument by passing an act to close all -American ports, and authorize the confiscation of all American ships and -cargoes, as well as of such neutral vessels as might dare to trade with -this proscribed people. And, as if this were not quite enough, a clause -was added by which British commanders on the high seas were directed to -impress the crews of such American ships as they might meet, and to -compel them, under penalty of death, to enter the service against their -fellow-countrymen. In reply to this edict, Congress, in March, ordered -the ports of America to be thrown open to all nations; it issued letters -of marque, and it advised all the colonies to disarm such Tories as -should refuse to contribute to the common defence. These measures, as -Franklin said, were virtually a declaration of war against Great -Britain. But before taking the last irrevocable step, the prudent -Congress waited for instructions from every one of the colonies. - - [Sidenote: The Scots in North Carolina] - - [Sidenote: Clinton sails for the Carolinas] - - [Sidenote: The fight at Moore's Creek, Feb. 27, 1776] - - [Sidenote: North Carolina declares for independence] - -The first colony to take decisive action in behalf of independence was -North Carolina, a commonwealth in which the king had supposed the -outlook to be especially favourable for the loyalist party. Recovered in -some measure from the turbulence of its earlier days, North Carolina was -fast becoming a prosperous community of small planters, and its -population had increased so rapidly that it now ranked fourth among the -colonies, immediately after Pennsylvania. Since the overthrow of the -Pretender at Culloden there had been a great immigration of sturdy Scots -from the western Highlands, in which the clans of Macdonald and Macleod -were especially represented. The celebrated Flora Macdonald herself, the -romantic woman who saved Charles Edward in 1746, had lately come over -here and settled at Kingsborough with Allan Macdonald, her husband. -These Scottish immigrants also helped to colonize the upland regions of -South Carolina and Georgia, and they have considerably affected the -race composition of the Southern people, forming an ancestry of which -their descendants may well be proud. Though these Highland clansmen had -taken part in the Stuart insurrection, they had become loyal enough to -the government of George III., and it was now hoped that with their aid -the colony might be firmly secured, and its neighbours on either side -overawed. To this end, in January, Sir Henry Clinton, taking with him -2,000 troops, left Boston and sailed for the Cape Fear river, while a -force of seven regiments and ten ships-of-war, under Sir Peter Parker, -was ordered from Ireland to cooperate with him. At the same time, Josiah -Martin, the royal governor, who for safety had retired on board a -British ship, carried on negotiations with the Highlanders, until a -force of 1,600 men was raised, and, under command of Donald Macdonald, -marched down toward the coast to welcome the arrival of Clinton. But -North Carolina had its minute-men as well as Massachusetts, and no -sooner was this movement perceived than Colonel Richard Caswell, with -1,000 militia, took up a strong position at the bridge over Moore's -Creek, which Macdonald was about to pass on his way to the coast. After -a sharp fight of a half hour's duration the Scots were seized with -panic, and were utterly routed. Nine hundred prisoners, 2,000 stand of -arms, and L15,000 in gold were the trophies of Caswell's victory. The -Scottish commander and his kinsman, the husband of Flora Macdonald, were -taken and lodged in jail, and thus ended the sway of George III. over -North Carolina. The effect of the victory was as contagious as that of -Lexington had been in New England. Within ten days 10,000 militia were -ready to withstand the enemy, so that Clinton, on his arrival, decided -not to land, and stayed cruising about Albemarle Sound, waiting for the -fleet under Parker, which did not appear on the scene until May. A -provincial congress was forthwith assembled, and instructions were sent -to the North Carolina delegates in the Continental Congress, empowering -them "to concur with the delegates in the other colonies in declaring -independency and forming foreign alliances, reserving to the colony the -sole and exclusive right of forming a constitution and laws for it." - - [Sidenote: Action of South Carolina and Georgia] - -At the same time that these things were taking place, the colony of -South Carolina was framing for itself a new government, and on the 23d -of March, without directly alluding to independence, it empowered its -delegates to concur in any measure which might be deemed essential to -the welfare of America. In Georgia the provincial congress, in choosing -a new set of delegates to Philadelphia, authorized them to "join in any -measure which they might think calculated for the common good." - - [Illustration: Dunmore] - - [Sidenote: Virginia: Lord Dunmore's proclamation] - - [Sidenote: Skirmish at the Great Bridge; and burning of Norfolk] - -In Virginia the party in favour of independence had been in the -minority, until, in November, 1775, the royal governor, Lord Dunmore, -had issued a proclamation, offering freedom to all such negroes and -indented white servants as might enlist for the purpose of "reducing the -colony to a proper sense of its duty." This measure Lord Dunmore hoped -would "oblige the rebels to disperse, in order to take care of their -families and property." But the object was not attained. The relations -between master and slave in Virginia were so pleasant that the offer of -freedom fell upon dull, uninterested ears. With light work and generous -fare, the condition of the Virginia negro was a happy one. The time had -not yet come when he was liable to be torn from wife and children, to -die of hardship in the cotton-fields and rice-swamps of the far South. -He was proud of his connection with his master's estate and family, and -had nothing to gain by rebellion. As for the indented white servants, -the governor's proposal to them was of about as much consequence as a -proclamation of Napoleon's would have been if, in 1805, he had offered -to set free the prisoners in Newgate on condition of their helping him -to invade England. But, impotent as this measure of Lord Dunmore's was, -it served to enrage the people of Virginia, setting their minds -irretrievably against the king and his cause. During the month of -November, hearing that a party of "rebels" were on their way from North -Carolina to take possession of Norfolk, Lord Dunmore built a rude fort -at the Great Bridge over Elizabeth river, which commanded the southern -approach to the town. At that time, Norfolk, with about 9,000 -inhabitants, was the principal town in Virginia, and the commercial -centre of the colony. The loyalist party, represented chiefly by -Scottish merchants, was so strong there and so violent that many of the -native Virginia families, finding it uncomfortable to stay in their -homes, had gone away into the country. The patriots, roused to anger by -Dunmore's proclamation, now resolved to capture Norfolk, and a party of -sharpshooters, with whom the illustrious John Marshall served as -lieutenant, occupied the bank of Elizabeth river, opposite Dunmore's -fort. On the 9th of December, after a sharp fight of fifteen minutes, in -which Dunmore's regulars lost sixty-one men, while not a single -Virginian was slain, the fort was hastily abandoned, and the road to -Norfolk was laid open for the patriots. A few days later the Virginians -took possession of their town, while Dunmore sought refuge in the -Liverpool, ship-of-the-line, which had just sailed into the harbour. On -New Year's Day the governor vindictively set fire to the town, which he -had been unable to hold against its rightful owners. The conflagration, -kindled by shells from the harbour, raged for three days and nights, -until the whole town was laid in ashes, and the people were driven to -seek such sorry shelter as might save them from the frosts of midwinter. - - [Sidenote: Virginia declares for independence] - -This event went far toward determining the attitude of Virginia. In -November the colony had not felt ready to comply with the recommendation -of Congress, and frame for herself a new government. The people were not -yet ready to sever the links which bound them to Great Britain. But -bombardment of their principal town was an argument of which every one -could appreciate the force and the meaning. During the winter and spring -the revolutionary feeling waxed in strength daily. On the 6th of May, -1776, a convention was chosen to consider the question of independence. -Mason, Henry, Pendleton, and the illustrious Madison took part in the -discussion, and on the 14th it was unanimously voted to instruct the -Virginia delegates in Congress "to propose to that respectable body to -declare the United Colonies free and independent States," and to "give -the assent of the colony to measures to form foreign alliances and a -confederation, provided the power of forming government for the internal -regulations of each colony be left to the colonial legislatures." At the -same time, it was voted that the people of Virginia should establish a -new government for their commonwealth. In the evening, when these -decisions had been made known to the people of Williamsburgh, their -exultation knew no bounds. While the air was musical with the ringing of -church-bells, guns were fired, the British flag was hauled down at the -State House, and the crosses and stripes hoisted in its place. - - [Sidenote: Action of Rhode Island and Massachusetts] - -This decisive movement of the largest of the colonies was hailed -throughout the country with eager delight; and from other colonies which -had not yet committed themselves responses came quickly. Rhode Island, -which had never parted with its original charter, did not need to form a -new government, but it had already, on the 4th of May, omitted the -king's name from its public documents and sheriff's writs, and had -agreed to concur with any measures which Congress might see fit to adopt -regarding the relations between England and America. In the course of -the month of May town meetings were held throughout Massachusetts and -it was everywhere unanimously voted to uphold Congress in the -declaration of independence which it was now expected to make. - - [Illustration: INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA] - - [Sidenote: Resolution of May 15] - - [Sidenote: Instructions from Boston] - -On the 15th of May, Congress adopted a resolution recommending to all -the colonies to form for themselves independent governments, and in a -preamble, written by John Adams, it was declared that the American -people could no longer conscientiously take oath to support any -government deriving its authority from the Crown; all such governments -must now be suppressed, since the king had withdrawn his protection from -the inhabitants of the United Colonies. Like the famous preamble to -Townshend's bill of 1767, this Adams preamble contained within itself -the gist of the whole matter. To adopt it was virtually to cross the -Rubicon, and it gave rise to a hot debate. James Duane of New York -admitted that if the facts stated in the preamble should turn out to be -true, there would not be a single voice against independence; but he -could not yet believe that the American petitions were not destined to -receive a favourable answer. "Why," therefore, "all this haste? Why this -urging? Why this driving?" James Wilson of Pennsylvania, one of the -ablest of all the delegates in the revolutionary body, urged that -Congress had not yet received sufficient authority from the people to -justify it in taking so bold a step. The resolution was adopted, -however, preamble and all; and now the affair came quickly to maturity. -"The Gordian knot is cut at last!" exclaimed John Adams. In town meeting -the people of Boston thus instructed their delegates: "The whole United -Colonies are upon the verge of a glorious revolution. We have seen the -petitions to the king rejected with disdain. For the prayer of peace he -has tendered the sword; for liberty, chains; for safety, death. Loyalty -to him is now treason to our country. We think it absolutely -impracticable for these colonies to be ever again subject to or -dependent upon Great Britain, without endangering the very existence of -the state. Placing, however, unbounded confidence in the supreme council -of the Congress, we are determined to wait, most patiently wait, till -their wisdom shall dictate the necessity of making a declaration of -independence. In case the Congress should think it necessary for the -safety of the United Colonies to declare them independent of Great -Britain, the inhabitants, with their lives and the remnant of their -fortunes, will most cheerfully support them in the measure." - - [Sidenote: Lee's motion in Congress] - -This dignified and temperate expression of public opinion was published -in a Philadelphia evening paper, on the 8th of June. On the preceding -day in accordance with the instructions which had come from Virginia, -the following motion had been submitted to Congress by Richard Henry -Lee:-- - -"That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and -independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the -British Crown; and that all political connection between them and the -state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved. - -"That it is expedient forthwith to take the most effectual measures for -forming foreign alliances. - -"That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the -respective colonies, for their consideration and approbation." - - [Portrait: Richard Henry Lee] - - [Sidenote: Debate on Lee's motion] - -In these trying times the two greatest colonies, Virginia and -Massachusetts, had been wont to go hand in hand; and the motion of -Richard Henry Lee was now promptly seconded by John Adams. It was -resisted by Dickinson and Wilson of Pennsylvania, and by Robert -Livingston of New York, on the ground that public opinion in the middle -colonies was not yet ripe for supporting such a measure; at the same -time these cautious members freely acknowledged that the lingering hope -of an amicable settlement with Great Britain had come to be quite -chimerical. The prospect of securing European alliances was freely -discussed. The supporters of the motion urged that a declaration of -independence would be nothing more than the acknowledgment of a fact -which existed already; and until this fact should be formally -acknowledged, it was not to be supposed that diplomatic courtesy would -allow such powers as France and Spain to treat with the Americans. On -the other hand, the opponents of the motion argued that France and Spain -were not likely to look with favour upon the rise of a great Protestant -power in the western hemisphere, and that nothing would be easier than -for these nations to make a bargain with England, whereby Canada might -be restored to France and Florida to Spain, in return for military aid -in putting down the rebellious colonies. The result of the whole -discussion was decidedly in favour of a declaration of independence; but -to avoid all appearance of undue haste, it was decided, on the motion of -Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, to postpone the question for three -weeks, and invite the judgment of those colonies which had not yet -declared themselves. - - [Sidenote: Connecticut and New Hampshire] - -Under these circumstances, the several colonies acted with a promptness -that outstripped the expectations of Congress. Connecticut had no need -of a new government, for, like Rhode Island, she had always kept the -charter obtained from Lord Clarendon in 1662, she had always chosen her -own governor, and had always been virtually independent of Great -Britain. Nothing now was necessary but to omit the king's name from -legal documents and commercial papers, and to instruct her delegates in -Congress to support Lee's motion; and these things were done by the -Connecticut legislature on the 14th of June. The very next day, New -Hampshire, which had formed a new government as long ago as January, -joined Connecticut in declaring for independence. - - [Sidenote: New Jersey] - -In New Jersey there was a sharp dispute. The royal governor, William -Franklin, had a strong party in the colony; the assembly had lately -instructed its delegates to vote against independence, and had resolved -to send a separate petition to the king. Against so rash and dangerous a -step, Dickinson, Jay, and Wythe were sent by Congress to remonstrate; -and as the result of their intercession, the assembly, which yielded, -was summarily prorogued by the governor. A provincial congress was at -once chosen in its stead. On the 16th of June, the governor was arrested -and sent to Connecticut for safe-keeping; on the 21st, it was voted to -frame a new government; and on the 22d, a new set of delegates were -elected to Congress, with instructions to support the declaration of -independence. - - [Portrait: Samuel Chase] - - [Sidenote: Pennsylvania and Delaware] - -In Pennsylvania there was hot discussion, for the whole strength of the -proprietary government was thrown into the scale against independence. -Among the Quakers, too, there was a strong disposition to avoid an armed -conflict on any terms. A little while before, they had held a -convention, in which it was resolved that "the setting up and putting -down kings and governments is God's peculiar prerogative, for causes -best known to himself, and that it is not our business to have any hand -or contrivance therein; nor to be busybodies above our station, much -less to plot and contrive the ruin or overturn of any of them, but to -pray for the king and safety of our nation and good of all men; that we -may lead a peaceable and quiet life in all goodness and honesty, under -the government which God is pleased to set over us. May we, therefore, -firmly unite in the abhorrence of all such writings and measures as -evidence a desire and design to break off a happy connection we have -hitherto enjoyed with the kingdom of Great Britain, and our just and -necessary subordination to the king and those who are lawfully placed in -authority under him." This view of the case soon met with a pithy -rejoinder from Samuel Adams, who, with a quaint use of historical -examples, proved that, as the rise of kings and empires is part of God's -special prerogative, the time had now come, in the course of divine -providence, for the setting up of an independent empire in the western -hemisphere. Six months ago, the provincial assembly had instructed its -delegates to oppose independence; but on the 20th of May a great meeting -was held at the State House, at which more than seven thousand people -were present, and it was unanimously resolved that this act of the -assembly "had the dangerous tendency to withdraw this province from that -happy union with the other colonies which we consider both our glory and -our protection." The effect of this resolution was so great that on the -18th of June a convention was held to decide on the question of -independence; and after six days of discussion, it was voted that a -separation from Great Britain was desirable, provided only that, under -the new federal government, each state should be left to regulate its -own internal affairs. On the 14th of June, a similar action had been -taken by Delaware. - - [Portrait: Charles Carroll] - - [Sidenote: Maryland] - -In Maryland there was little reason why the people should wish for a -change of government, save through their honourable sympathy with the -general interests of the United Colonies. Not only was the proprietary -government deeply rooted in the affections of the people, but Robert -Eden, the governor holding office at this particular time, was greatly -loved and respected. Maryland had not been insulted by the presence of -troops. She had not seen her citizens shot down in cold blood like -Massachusetts, or her chief city laid in ashes like Virginia; nor had -she been threatened with invasion and forced to fight in her own defence -like North Carolina. Her direct grievances were few and light, and even -so late as the 21st of May, she had protested against any action which -might lead to the separation of the colonies from England. But when, in -June, her great leaders, Samuel Chase and Charles Carroll of Carrollton, -determined to "take the sense of the people," a series of county -meetings were held, and it was unanimously voted that "the true -interests and substantial happiness of the United Colonies in general, -and this in particular, are inseparably interwoven and linked together." -As soon as the colony had taken its stand upon this broad and generous -principle, the governor embarked on a British man-of-war before -Annapolis, bearing with him the kindly regrets and adieus of the people, -and on the 28th of June the delegates in Congress were duly authorized -to concur in a declaration of independence. - - [Sidenote: The situation in New York] - -Peaceful Maryland was thus the twelfth colony which formally committed -itself to the cause of independence, as turbulent North Carolina, under -the stimulus of civil war and threatened invasion, had been the first. -Accordingly on the 1st of July, the day when the motion of Richard Henry -Lee was to be taken up in Congress, unanimous instructions in favour of -independence had been received from every one of the colonies, except -New York. In approaching this momentous question New York was beset by -peculiar difficulties. Not only was the Tory party unusually strong -there, for reasons already stated, but the risks involved in a -revolutionary policy were greater than anywhere else. From its -commanding military position, it was clear that the British would direct -their main efforts toward the conquest of this central colony; and while -on the one hand the broad, deep waters about Manhattan Island afforded -an easy entrance for their resistless fleet, on the other hand the -failure of the Canadian expedition had laid the whole country open to -invasion from the north, and the bloodthirsty warriors of the Long House -were not likely to let slip so fair an opportunity for gathering scalps -from the exposed settlements on the frontier. Not only was it probable, -for these reasons, that New York would suffer more than any other colony -from the worst horrors of war, but as a commercial state with only a -single seaport, the very sources of her life would be threatened should -the British once gain a foothold upon Manhattan Island. The fleet of -Lord Howe was daily expected in the harbour, and it was known that the -army which had been ousted from Boston, now largely reinforced, was on -its way from Halifax to undertake the capture of the city of New York. -To guard against this expected danger, Washington had some weeks since -moved his army thither from Boston; but his whole effective force did -not exceed eight thousand men, and with these he was obliged to garrison -points so far apart as King's Bridge, Paulus Hook, Governor's Island, -and Brooklyn Heights. The position was far less secure than it had been -about Boston, for British ships could here come up the Hudson and East -rivers, and interpose between these isolated detachments. As for Staten -Island, Washington had not troops enough to occupy it at all, so that -when General Howe arrived, on the 28th of June, he was allowed to land -there without opposition. It was a bitter thing for Washington to be -obliged to permit this, but there was no help for it. Not only in -numbers, but in equipment, Washington's force was utterly inadequate to -the important task assigned it, and Congress had done nothing to -increase its efficiency beyond ordering a levy of twenty-five thousand -militia from New England and the middle colonies, to serve for six -months only. - - [Sidenote: The Tryon plot, June, 1779] - -Under these circumstances, the military outlook, in case the war were to -go on, was certainly not encouraging, and the people of New York might -well be excused for some tardiness in committing themselves irrevocably -on the question of independence, especially as it was generally -understood that Lord Howe was coming armed with plenary authority to -negotiate with the American people. To all the other dangers of the -situation there was added that of treachery in the camp. Governor Tryon, -like so many of the royal governors that year, had taken refuge on -shipboard, whence he schemed and plotted with his friends on shore. A -plan was devised for blowing up the magazines and seizing Washington, -who was either to be murdered or carried on board ship to be tried for -treason, according as the occasion might suggest. The conspiracy was -discovered in good time; the mayor of New York, convicted of -correspondence with Tryon, was thrown into jail, and one of Washington's -own guard, who had been bribed to aid the nefarious scheme, was -summarily hanged in a field near the Bowery. Such a discovery as this -served to throw discredit upon the Tory party. The patriots took a -bolder stand than ever, but when the 1st of July came it found the -discussion still going on, and the New York delegates in Congress were -still without instructions. - - [Sidenote: Final debate on Lee's motion] - -On the 1st of July Congress resolved itself into a committee of the -whole, to "take into consideration the resolution respecting -independency." As Richard Henry Lee was absent, John Adams, who had -seconded the motion, was called upon to defend it, which he did in a -powerful speech. He was ably opposed by John Dickinson, who urged that -the country ought not to be rashly committed to a position, to recede -from which would be infamous, while to persist in it might entail -certain ruin. A declaration of independence would not strengthen the -resources of the country by a single regiment or a single cask of -powder, while it would shut the door upon all hope of accommodation with -Great Britain. And as to the prospect of an alliance with France and -Spain, would it not be well to obtain some definite assurances from -these powers before proceeding to extremities? Besides all this, argued -Dickinson, the terms of confederation among the colonies were still -unsettled, and any declaration of independence, to have due weight with -the world, ought to be preceded by the establishment of a federal -government. The boundaries of the several colonies ought first to be -fixed, and their respective rights mutually guaranteed; and the public -lands ought also to be solemnly appropriated for the common benefit. -Then, the orator concluded, "when things shall have been thus -deliberately rendered firm at home and favourable abroad,--then let -America, _attollens humeris famam et fata nepotum_, bearing up her glory -and the destiny of her descendants, advance with majestic steps, and -assume her station among the sovereigns of the world." - -That there was great weight in some of these considerations was shown -only too plainly by subsequent events. But the argument as a whole was -open to the fatal objection that if the American people were to wait for -all these great questions to be settled before taking a decisive step, -they would never be able to take a decisive step at all. The wise -statesman regards half a loaf as better than no bread. - - [Portrait: Edward Rutledge] - - [Sidenote: Vote on Lee's motion] - -Independent action on the part of all the colonies except New York had -now become an accomplished fact. All were really in rebellion, and their -cause could not fail to gain in dignity and strength by announcing -itself to the world in its true character. Such was now the general -feeling of the committee. When the question was put to vote, the New -York delegates were excused, as they had no sufficient instructions. Of -the three delegates from Delaware, one was absent, one voted yea, and -one nay, so that the vote of the colony was lost. Pennsylvania declared -in the negative by four votes against three. South Carolina also -declared in the negative, but with the intimation from Edward Rutledge -that it might not unlikely reverse its vote, in deference to the -majority. The other nine colonies all voted in the affirmative, and the -resolution was reported as agreed to by a two thirds vote. On the next -day, when the vote was formally taken in regular session of Congress, -the Delaware members were all present, and the affirmative vote of that -colony was secured; Dickinson and Morris stayed away, thus reversing the -vote of Pennsylvania; and the South Carolina members changed for the -sake of unanimity. - - [Sidenote: Thomas Jefferson] - -Thus was the Declaration of Independence at last resolved upon, by the -unanimous vote of twelve colonies, on the 2d of July, 1776; and this -work having been done, Congress at once went into committee of the -whole, to consider the form of declaration which should be adopted. That -no time might be lost in disposing of this important matter, a committee -had already been selected three weeks before, at the time of Lee's -motion, to draw up a paper which might be worthy of this great and -solemn occasion. Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger -Sherman, and Robert Livingston were the members of the committee, and -Jefferson, as representing the colony which had introduced the -resolution of independence, was chosen to be the author of the -Declaration. Jefferson, then but thirty-three years of age, was one of -the youngest delegates in Congress; but of all the men of that time, -there was, perhaps, none of wider culture or keener political instincts. -Inheriting a comfortable fortune, he had chosen the law as his -profession, but he had always been passionately fond of study for its -own sake, and to a wide reading in history and in ancient and modern -literature he added no mean proficiency in mathematics and in physical -science. He was skilled in horsemanship and other manly exercises, and -in the management of rural affairs; while at the same time he was -sensitively and delicately organized, playing the violin like a master, -and giving other evidences of rare musical talent. His temper was -exceedingly placid, and his disposition was sweet and sympathetic. He -was deeply interested in all the generous theories of the eighteenth -century concerning the rights of man and the perfectibility of human -nature; and, like most of the contemporary philosophers whom he admired, -he was a sturdy foe to intolerance and priestcraft. He was in his way a -much more profound thinker than Hamilton, though he had not such a -constructive genius as the latter; as a political leader he was superior -to any other man of his age; and his warm sympathies, his almost -feminine tact, his mastery of the dominant political ideas of the time, -and, above all, his unbounded faith in the common-sense of the people -and in their essential rectitude of purpose served to give him one of -the greatest and most commanding positions ever held by any personage in -American history. - - [Sidenote: Independence declared, July 4, 1776] - -On the evening of the 4th of July, 1776, the Declaration of Independence -was unanimously adopted by twelve colonies, the delegation from New York -still remaining unable to act. But the acquiescence of that colony was -so generally counted upon that there was no drawback to the exultation -of the people. All over the country the Declaration was received with -bonfires, with the ringing of bells and the firing of guns, and with -torchlight processions. Now that the great question was settled there -was a general feeling of relief. "The people," said Samuel Adams, "seem -to recognize this resolution as though it were a decree promulgated from -heaven." On the 9th of July it was formally adopted by New York, and the -soldiers there celebrated the occasion by throwing down the leaden -statue of George III. on the Bowling Green, and casting it into bullets. - - [Illustration: BATTERY AND BOWLING GREEN IN 1776] - - [Sidenote: The Declaration was a deliberate expression of the sober -thought of the American people] - -Thus, after eleven years of irritation, and after such temperate -discussion as befitted a free people, the Americans had at last entered -upon the only course that could preserve their self-respect, and -guarantee them in the great part which they had to play in the drama of -civilization. For the dignity, patience, and moderation with which they -had borne themselves throughout these trying times, history had as yet -scarcely afforded a parallel. So extreme had been their forbearance, so -great their unwillingness to appeal to brute force while there yet -remained the slightest hope of a peaceful solution, that some British -historians have gone quite astray in interpreting their conduct. Because -statesmen like Dickinson and communities like Maryland were slow in -believing that the right moment for a declaration of independence had -come, the preposterous theory has been suggested that the American -Revolution was the work of an unscrupulous and desperate minority, -which, through intrigue mingled with violence, succeeded in forcing the -reluctant majority to sanction its measures. Such a misconception has -its root in an utter failure to comprehend the peculiar character of -American political life, like the kindred misconception which ascribes -the rebellion of the colonies to a sordid unwillingness to bear their -due share of the expenses of the British Empire. It is like the -misunderstanding which saw an angry mob in every town meeting of the -people of Boston, and characterized as a "riot" every deliberate -expression of public opinion. No one who is familiar with the essential -features of American political life can for a moment suppose that the -Declaration of Independence was brought about by any less weighty force -than the settled conviction of the people that the priceless treasure of -self-government could be preserved by no other means. It was but slowly -that this unwelcome conviction grew upon the people; and owing to local -differences of circumstances it grew more slowly in some places than in -others. Prescient leaders, too, like the Adamses and Franklin and Lee, -made up their minds sooner than other people. Even those conservatives -who resisted to the last, even such men as John Dickinson and Robert -Morris, were fully agreed with their opponents as to the principle at -issue between Great Britain and America, and nothing would have -satisfied them short of the total abandonment by Great Britain of her -pretensions to impose taxes and revoke charters. Upon this fundamental -point there was very little difference of opinion in America. As to the -related question of independence, the decision, when once reached, was -everywhere alike the reasonable result of free and open discussion; and -the best possible illustration of this is the fact that not even in the -darkest days of the war already begun did any state deliberately propose -to reconsider its action in the matter. The hand once put to the plough, -there was no turning back. As Judge Drayton of South Carolina said from -the bench, "A decree is now gone forth not to be recalled, and thus has -suddenly risen in the world a new empire, styled the United States of -America." - -FOOTNOTES: - - [7] [Of a family always prominent in Rhode Island, he had early - come to be the most admired and respected citizen of the - colony. His father, a narrow-minded Quaker, though rich in - lands, mills, and iron forges, was adverse to education, and - kept his son at work in the forges. But the son had an intense - thirst for knowledge, and, without neglecting his duties, he - bought books and became well versed in history, philosophy, - and general literature.] - - [8] The first stage was the change from the solid red of the British - ensign to the alternate red and white stripes, as seen in the - flag on the right, which typified the thirteen confederated - colonies. After allegiance to the British crown had been thrown - off, the union of red St. George and white St. Andrew crosses - upon the blue corner became inappropriate, and in June, 1777, - Congress substituted the circle of thirteen white stars on a - blue ground, to signify the rise of a new constellation of - states. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - FIRST BLOW AT THE CENTRE - - - [Portrait: J. Rutledge] - - [Portrait: Will. Moultrie] - - [Illustration: BATTLE OF FORT MOULTRIE, JUNE 28, 1776] - - [Sidenote: Battle of Fort Moultrie, June 28, 1776] - - [Sidenote: Lord Cornwallis arrives upon the scene] - -Throughout a considerable portion of the country the news of the -Declaration of Independence was accompanied by the news of a brilliant -success at the South. After the defeat of Macdonald at Moore's Creek, -and the sudden arming of North Carolina, Clinton did not venture to -land, but cruised about in the neighbourhood, awaiting the arrival of -Sir Peter Parker's squadron from Ireland. Harassed by violent and -contrary winds, Parker was three months in making the voyage, and it was -not until May that he arrived bringing with him Lord Cornwallis. As -North Carolina had given such unmistakable evidence of its real temper, -it was decided not to land upon that coast for the present, but to go -south and capture Charleston and Savannah. Lord William Campbell, -refugee governor of South Carolina, urged that there was a great -loyalist party in that colony, which would declare itself as soon as the -chief city should be in the hands of the king's troops. That there would -be any serious difficulty in taking Charleston occurred to no one. But -Colonel Moultrie had thrown up on Sullivan's Island, commanding the -harbour, a fortress of palmetto logs strengthened by heavy banks of -sand, and now held it with a force of twelve hundred men, while five -thousand militia were gathered about the town, under command of General -Charles Lee, who had been sent down to meet the emergency, but did -little more than to meddle and hinder. In his character of trained -European officer, Lee laughed to scorn Moultrie's palmetto stronghold, -and would have ordered him to abandon it, but that he was positively -overruled by John Rutledge, president of the provincial congress, who -knew Moultrie and relied upon his sound judgment. The British -commanders, Clinton and Parker, wasted three weeks in discussing various -plans of attack, while the Americans, with spade and hatchet, were -rapidly barring every approach to Charleston, and fresh regiments came -pouring in to man the new-built intrenchments. At last Clinton landed -three thousand men on a naked sand-bank, divided from Sullivan's Island -by a short space of shallow sea, which he thought could be forded at low -tide. At the proper time Sir Peter Parker was to open a lively fire from -the fleet, which it was expected would knock down the fort in a few -minutes, while Clinton, fording the shoals, would drive out the -Americans at the point of the bayonet. The shoals, however, turned out -to be seven feet deep at low water, and the task of the infantry was -reduced to a desperate conflict with the swarms of mosquitoes, which -nearly drove them frantic. The battle thus became a mere artillery duel -between the fort and the fleet. The British fire was rapid and furious, -but ineffective. Most of the shot passed harmlessly over the low -fortress, and those which struck did no harm to its elastic structure. -The American fire was very slow, and few shots were wasted. The cable of -Parker's flagship was cut by a well-aimed ball, and the ship, swinging -around, received a raking fire which swept her deck with terrible -slaughter. After the fight had lasted ten hours, the British retreated -out of range. The palmetto fort had suffered no serious injury, and only -one gun had been silenced. The American loss in killed and wounded was -thirty-seven. On the other hand, Sir Peter's flagship had lost her -mainmast and mizzen-mast, and had some twenty shots in her hull, so that -she was little better than a wreck. The British loss in killed and -wounded was two hundred and five. Of their ten sail, only one frigate -remained seaworthy at the close of the action. After waiting three weeks -to refit, the whole expedition sailed away for New York to cooperate -with the Howes. Charleston was saved, and for more than two years the -southern states were freed from the invader. In commemoration of this -brilliant victory, and of the novel stronghold which had so roused the -mirth of the European soldier of fortune, the outpost on Sullivan's -Island has ever since been known by the name of Fort Moultrie. - - [Sidenote: British plan for conquering the Hudson and cutting the United -Colonies in twain] - -It was with such tidings of good omen that the Declaration of -Independence was sent forth to the world. But it was the last news of -victory that for the next six months was to cheer the anxious statesmen -assembled at Philadelphia. During the rest of the summer and the autumn, -disaster followed upon disaster, until it might well seem as if fickle -fortune had ceased to smile upon the cause of liberty. The issue of the -contest was now centred in New York. By conquering and holding the line -of the Hudson river, the British hoped to cut the United Colonies in -two, after which it was thought that Virginia and New England, isolated -from each Colonies other, might be induced to consider the error of -their ways and repent. Accordingly, General Howe was to capture the city -of New York, while General Carleton was to descend from Canada, -recapture Ticonderoga, and take possession of the upper waters of the -Hudson, together with the Mohawk valley. Great hopes were built upon the -cooperation of the loyalists, of whom there was a greater number in New -York than in any other state, except perhaps South Carolina. It was -partly for this reason, as we shall hereafter see, that these two states -suffered more actual misery from the war than all the others put -together. The horrors of civil war were to be added to the attack of the -invader. Throughout the Mohawk valley the influence of Sir John Johnson, -the Tory son of the famous baronet of the Seven Years' War, was thought -to be supreme; and it turned out to be very powerful both with the white -population and with the Indians. At the other end of the line, in New -York city, the Tory element was strong, for reasons already set forth. -On Long Island, the people of Kings and Queens counties, of Dutch -descent, were Tories almost to a man, while the English population of -Suffolk was solidly in favour of independence. - - [Sidenote: Lord Howe's futile attempt to negotiate with Washington - unofficially] - -Before beginning his attack on New York, General Howe had to await the -arrival of his brother; for the ministry had resolved to try the effect -of what seemed to them a "conciliatory policy." On the 12th of July Lord -Howe arrived at Staten Island, bringing with him the "olive-branch" -which Lord North had promised to send along with the sword. This curious -specimen of political botany turned out to consist of a gracious -declaration that all persons who should desist from rebellion and lend -their "aid in restoring tranquillity" would receive full and free pardon -from their sovereign lord the king. As it would not do to recognize the -existence of Congress, Lord Howe inclosed this declaration in a letter -addressed to "George Washington, Esq.," and sent it up the harbour with -a flag of truce. But as George Washington, in his capacity of Virginian -landholder and American citizen, had no authority for dealing with a -royal commissioner, he refused to receive the letter. Colonel Reed -informed Lord Howe's messenger that there was no person in the army with -that address. The British officer reluctantly rowed away, but suddenly, -putting his barge about, he came back and inquired by what title -Washington should be properly addressed. Colonel Reed replied, "You are -aware, sir, of the rank of General Washington in our army?" "Yes, sir, -we are," answered the officer; "I am sure my Lord Howe will lament -exceedingly this affair, as the letter is of a civil, and not of a -military nature. He greatly laments that he was not here a little -sooner." This remark was understood by Colonel Reed to refer to the -Declaration of Independence, which was then but eight days old. A week -later Lord Howe sent Colonel Patterson, the British adjutant-general, -with a document now addressed to "George Washington, Esq., etc., etc." -Colonel Patterson begged for a personal interview, which was granted. He -was introduced to Washington, whom he describes as a gentleman of -magnificent presence and very handsomely dressed. Somewhat overawed, and -beginning his remarks with "May it please your Excellency," Patterson -explained that the etceteras on the letter meant everything. "Indeed," -said Washington, with a pleasant smile, "they might mean anything." He -declined to take the letter, but listened to Patterson's explanations, -and then replied that he was not authorized to deal with the matter, and -could not give his lordship any encouragement, as he seemed empowered -only to grant pardons, whereas those who had committed no fault needed -no pardons. As Patterson got up to go, he asked if his Excellency had no -message to send to Lord Howe. "Nothing," answered Washington, "but my -particular compliments." Thus foiled in his attempt to negotiate with -the American commander, Lord Howe next inclosed his declaration in a -circular letter addressed to the royal governors of the middle and -southern colonies; but as most of these dignitaries were either in jail -or on board the British fleet, not much was to be expected from such a -mode of publication. The precious document was captured and sent to -Congress, which derisively published it for the amusement and -instruction of the people. It was everywhere greeted with jeers. "No -doubt we all need pardon from Heaven," said Governor Trumbull of -Connecticut, "for our manifold sins and transgressions; but the American -who needs the pardon of his Britannic Majesty is yet to be found." The -only serious effect produced was the weakening of the loyalist party. -Many who had thus far been held back by the hope that Lord Howe's -intercession might settle all the difficulties, now came forward as warm -supporters of independence as soon as it became apparent that the king -had really nothing to offer. - - [Portrait: Jon; Trumbull[9]] - - [Sidenote: The military problem at New York] - -The olive-branch having proved ineffectual, nothing was left but to -unsheathe the sword, and an interesting campaign now began, of which the -primary object was to capture the city of New York and compel -Washington's army to surrender. The British army was heavily reinforced -by the return of Clinton's expedition and the arrival of 11,000 fresh -troops from England and Germany. General Howe had now more than 25,000 -men at his disposal, fully equipped and disciplined; while to oppose him -Washington had but 18,000, many of them raw levies which had just come -in. If the American army had consisted of such veterans as Washington -afterwards led at Monmouth, the disparity of numbers would still have -told powerfully in favour of the British. As it was, in view of the -crudeness of his material, Washington could hardly hope to do more with -his army than to make it play the part of a detaining force. To keep the -field in the face of overwhelming odds is one of the most arduous of -military problems, and often calls for a higher order of intelligence -than that which is displayed in the mere winning of battles. Upon this -problem Washington was now to be employed for six months without -respite, and it was not long before he gave evidence of military genius -such as has seldom been surpassed in the history of modern warfare. At -the outset the city of New York furnished the kernel of the problem. -Without control of the water it would be well-nigh impossible to hold -the city. Still there was a chance, and it was the part of a good -general to take this chance, and cut out as much work as possible for -the enemy. The shore of Manhattan Island was girded with small forts and -redoubts, which Lee had erected in the spring before his departure for -South Carolina. The lower end of the island, along the line of Wall -Street, was then but little more than half its present width, as several -lines of street have since been added upon both sides. From Cortlandt -Street across to Paulus Hook, the width of the Hudson river was not less -than two miles, while the East river near Fulton Ferry was nearly a mile -in width. The city reached only from the Battery as far as Chatham -Street, whence the Bowery Lane ran northwestwardly to Bloomingdale -through a country smiling with orchards and gardens. Many of the streets -were now barricaded, and a strong line of redoubts ran across from river -to river below the side of Canal Street. At the upper end of the island, -and on the Jersey shore, were other fortresses, with which we shall -shortly have to deal, and out in the harbour, as a sort of watch-tower -from which to inspect the enemy's fleet, a redoubt had been raised on -Governor's Island, and was commanded by Colonel Prescott, with a party -of the men of Bunker Hill. - - [Illustration: VIEW OF NEW YORK IN 1776[10]] - - [Sidenote: Importance of Brooklyn Heights] - -In order to garrison such various positions, it was necessary for -Washington to scatter his 18,000 men; and this added much to the -difficulty of his task, for Howe could at any moment strike at almost -any one of these points with his whole force. From the nature of the -case the immense advantage of the initiative belonged entirely to Howe. -But in one quarter, the most important of all, Washington had effected -as much concentration of his troops as was possible. The position on -Brooklyn Heights was dangerously exposed, but it was absolutely -necessary for the Americans to occupy it if they were to keep their hold -upon New York. This eminence commanded New York exactly as Bunker Hill -and Dorchester Heights commanded Boston. Greene had, accordingly, spent -the summer in fortifying it, and there 9,000 men--one half of the -army--were now concentrated under command of Putnam. Upon this exposed -position General Howe determined to throw nearly the whole of his force. -He felt confident that the capture or destruction of half the American -army would so discourage the rebels as to make them lend a readier ear -to the overtures of that excellent peacemaker, his brother. Accordingly, -on the 22d of August, General Howe landed 20,000 men at Gravesend Bay. -From this point the American position was approachable by four roads, -two of which crossed a range of densely wooded hills, and continued -through the villages of Bedford and Flatbush. To the left of these the -Gowanus road followed the shore about the western base of the hills, -while on the right the Jamaica road curved inland and turned their -eastern base. - - [Sidenote: Battle of Long Island, Aug. 27, 1776] - -The elaborate caution with which the British commander now proceeded -stands out in striking contrast with the temerity of his advance upon -Bunker Hill in the preceding year. He spent four days in reconnoitring, -and then he sent his brother, with part of the fleet, to make a feint -upon New York, and occupy Washington's attention. Before daybreak of the -27th, under the cover of this feint, the British advance had been nearly -completed. General Grant, with the Highland regiments, advanced along -the coast road, where the American outposts were held by William -Alexander of New Jersey, commonly known as Lord Stirling, from a lapsed -Scotch earldom to which he had claimed the title. The Hessians, under -General von Heister, proceeded along the Bedford and Flatbush roads, -which were defended by Sullivan; while more than half of the army, under -Howe in person, accompanied by Clinton, Percy, and Cornwallis, -accomplished a long night march by the Jamaica road, in order to take -the Americans in flank. This long flanking march was completed in -perfect secrecy because the people of the neighbourhood were in sympathy -with the British, and it encountered no obstacles because the American -force was simply incapable of covering so much territory. The divisions -of Stirling and Sullivan contained the 5,000 men which were all that -Putnam could afford to send forward from his works. A patrol which -watched the Jamaica road was captured early in the morning, but it would -not in any case have been possible to send any force there which could -materially have hindered the British advance. Overwhelming superiority -in numbers enabled the British to go where they pleased, and the battle -was already virtually won when they appeared on the Jamaica road in the -rear of the village of Bedford. Scarcely had the fight begun on the -crest of the hill between Sullivan and the Hessians in his front when he -found himself assaulted in the rear. Thrown into confusion, and driven -back and forth through the woods between two galling fires, his division -was quickly routed, and nearly all were taken prisoners, including the -general himself. On the coast road the fight between Stirling and Grant -was the first in which Americans had ever met British troops in open -field and in regular line of battle. Against the sturdy Highland -regiments Stirling held his ground gallantly for four hours, until he -was in turn assaulted in the rear by Lord Cornwallis, after the rout of -Sullivan. It now became, with Stirling, simply a question of saving his -division from capture, and after a desperate fight this end was -accomplished, and the men got back to Brooklyn Heights, though the brave -Stirling himself was taken prisoner. In this noble struggle the highest -honours were won by the brigade of Maryland men commanded by Smallwood, -and throughout the war we shall find this honourable distinction of -Maryland for the personal gallantry of her troops fully maintained, -until in the last pitched battle, at Eutaw Springs, we see them driving -the finest infantry of England at the point of the bayonet. - -The defeat of Sullivan and Stirling enabled Howe to bring up his whole -army in front of the works at Brooklyn Heights toward the close of the -day. To complete the victory it would be necessary to storm these works, -but Howe's men were tired with marching, if not with fighting, and so -the incident known as the battle of Long Island came to an end. A swift -ship was at once dispatched to England with the news of the victory, -which were somewhat highly coloured. It was for a while supposed that -there had been a terrible slaughter, but careful research has shown that -this was not the case. About 400 had been killed and wounded on each -side, and this loss had been incurred mainly in the fight between -Stirling and Grant. On other parts of the field the British triumph had -consisted chiefly in the scooping up of prisoners, of whom at least -1,000 were taken. The stories of a wholesale butchery by the Hessians -which once were current have been completely disproved. Washington gave -a detailed account of the affair a few days afterward, and the most -careful investigation has shown that he was correct in every particular. -But to the American public the blow was none the less terrible, while in -England the exultation served as an offset to the chagrin felt after the -loss of Boston and the defeat at Fort Moultrie, and it was naturally -long before facts could be seen in their true proportions. - - [Sidenote: Howe prepares to besiege the Heights;] - - [Sidenote: but Washington slips away with his army] - -Heavy as was the blow, however, General Howe's object was still but half -attained. He had neither captured nor destroyed the American forces on -Long Island, but had only driven them into their works. He was still -confronted by 8,000 men on Brooklyn Heights, and the problem was how to -dislodge them. In the evening Washington came over from New York, and -made everything ready to resist a storm. To this end, on the next day, -he brought over reinforcements, raising his total force within the works -to 10,000 men. Under such circumstances, if the British had attempted a -storm they would probably have been repulsed with great slaughter. But -Howe had not forgotten Bunker Hill, and he thought it best to proceed by -way of siege. As soon as Washington perceived this intention of his -adversary, he saw that he must withdraw his army. He would have courted -a storm, in which he was almost sure to be victorious, but he shrank -from a siege, in which he was quite sure to lose his whole force. The -British troops now invested him in a semicircle, and their ships might -at any moment close in behind and cut off his only retreat. Accordingly, -sending trusty messengers across the river, Washington collected every -sloop, yacht, fishing-smack, yawl, scow, or row-boat that could be found -in either water from the Battery to King's Bridge or Hell Gate; and -after nightfall of the 29th, these craft were all assembled at the -Brooklyn ferry, and wisely manned by the fishermen of Marblehead and -Gloucester from Glover's Essex regiment, experts, every one of them, -whether at oar or sail. All through the night the American troops were -ferried across the broad river, as quietly as possible and in excellent -order, while Washington superintended the details of the embarkation, -and was himself the last man to leave the ground. At seven o'clock in -the morning the whole American army had landed on the New York side, and -had brought with them all their cannon, small arms, ammunition, tools, -and horses, and all their larder besides, so that when the bewildered -British climbed into the empty works they did not find so much as a -biscuit or a glass of rum wherewith to console themselves. - - [Illustration: BEDFORD CORNERS, LONG ISLAND, IN 1776.[11]] - - [Sidenote: His vigilance robbed the British of the most golden - opportunity ever afforded them] - -This retreat has always been regarded as one of the most brilliant -incidents in Washington's career, and it would certainly be hard to find -a more striking example of vigilance. Had Washington allowed himself to -be cooped up on Brooklyn Heights he would have been forced to surrender; -and whatever was left of the war would have been a game played without -queen, rook, or bishop. For this very reason it is hardly creditable to -Howe that he should have let his adversary get away so easily. At -daybreak, indeed, the Americans had been remarkably favoured by the -sudden rise of a fog which covered the East river, but during the night -the moon had shone brightly, and one can only wonder that the -multitudinous plash of oars and the unavoidable murmur of ten thousand -men embarking, with their heavy guns and stores, should not have -attracted the attention of some wakeful sentinel, either on shore or -on the fleet. A storming party of British, at the right moment, would at -least have disturbed the proceedings. So rare a chance of ending the war -at a blow was never again to be offered to the British commanders. -Washington now stationed the bulk of his army along the line of the -Harlem river, leaving a strong detachment in the city under Putnam; and -presently, with the same extraordinary skill which he had just displayed -in sending boats under the very eyes of the fleet, he withdrew Colonel -Prescott and his troops from their exposed position on Governor's -Island, which there was no longer any reason for holding. - - [Sidenote: The conference at Staten Island, Sept. 11] - -Hoping that the stroke just given by the British sword might have -weakened the obstinacy of the Americans, Lord Howe again had recourse to -the olive-branch. The captured General Sullivan was sent to Congress to -hold out hopes that Lord Howe would use his influence to get all the -obnoxious acts of Parliament repealed, only he would first like to -confer with some of the members of Congress informally and as with mere -private gentlemen. A lively debate ensued upon this proposal, in which -some saw an insult to Congress, while all quite needlessly suspected -treachery. John Adams, about whom there was so much less of the -_suaviter in modo_ than of the _fortiter in re_, alluded to Sullivan, -quite unjustly, as a "decoy duck," who had better have been shot in the -battle than employed on such a business. It was finally voted that no -proposals of peace from Great Britain should receive notice, unless they -should be conveyed in writing, and should explicitly recognize Congress -as the legal representative of the American States. For this once, -however, out of personal regard for Lord Howe, and that nothing might be -disdained which really looked toward a peaceful settlement, they would -send a committee to Staten Island to confer with his lordship, who might -regard this committee in whatever light he pleased. In this shrewd, -half-humorous method of getting rid of the diplomatic difficulty, one is -forcibly reminded of President Lincoln's famous proclamation addressed -"To whom it may concern." The committee, consisting of Franklin, -Rutledge, and John Adams, were hospitably entertained by Lord Howe, but -their conference came to nothing, because the Americans now demanded a -recognition of their independence as a condition which must precede all -negotiation. There is no doubt that Lord Howe, who was a warm friend to -the Americans and an energetic opponent of the king's policy, was -bitterly grieved at this result. As a last resort he published a -proclamation announcing the intention of the British government to -reconsider the various acts and instructions by which the Americans had -been annoyed, and appealing to all right-minded people to decide for -themselves whether it were not wise to rely on a solemn promise like -this, rather than commit themselves to the dangerous chances of an -unequal and unrighteous war. - - [Sidenote: Howe takes the city of New York, Sept. 15] - - [Sidenote: but Mrs. Lindley Murray saves the garrison] - - [Sidenote: Attack upon Harlem Heights Sept 16] - -Four days after this futile interview General Howe took possession of -New York. After the loss of Brooklyn Heights, Washington and Greene were -already aware that the city could not be held. Its capture was very -easily effected. Several ships-of-the-line ascended the Hudson as far as -Bloomingdale, and the East river as far as Blackwell's Island; and while -thus from either side these vessels swept the northern part of Manhattan -with a searching fire, General Howe brought his army across from -Brooklyn in boats and landed at Kipp's Bay, near the present site of -East Thirty-Fourth Street. Washington came promptly down, with two New -England brigades, to reinforce the men whom he had stationed at that -point, and to hinder the landing of the enemy until Putnam should have -time to evacuate the city. To Washington's wrath and disgust, these men -were seized with panic, and suddenly turned and fled without firing a -shot. Had Howe now thrown his men promptly forward across the line of -Thirty-Fourth Street, he would have cut off Putnam's retreat from the -city. But what the New England brigades failed to do a bright woman -succeeded in accomplishing. When Howe had reached the spot known as -Murray Hill,--now the centre of much brownstone magnificence in Park and -Madison and Fifth avenues, at that time a noble country farmstead,--Mrs. -Lindley Murray, mother of the famous grammarian, well knowing the easy -temper of the British commander, sent out a servant to invite him to -stop and take luncheon. A general halt was ordered; and while Howe and -his officers were gracefully entertained for more than two hours by -their accomplished and subtle hostess, Putnam hastily marched his 4,000 -men up the shore of the Hudson, until, passing Bloomingdale, he touched -the right wing of the main army, and was safe, though his tents, -blankets, and heavy guns had been left behind. The American lines now -extended from the mouth of Harlem river across the island, and on the -following day the British attempted to break through their centre at -Harlem Heights, but the attack was repulsed, with a loss of sixty -Americans and three hundred British, and the lines just formed remained, -with very little change, for nearly four weeks. - - [Illustration: MANHATTAN ISLAND in 1776.] - - [Sidenote: The new problem before Howe] - -General Howe had thus got possession of the city of New York, but the -conquest availed him little so long as the American army stood across -the island, in the attitude of blockading him. If this campaign was to -decide the war, as the ministry hoped, nothing short of the capture or -dispersal of Washington's army would suffice. But the problem was now -much harder than it had been at Brooklyn. For as the land above -Manhattan Island widens rapidly to the north and east, it would not be -easy to hem Washington in by sending forces to his rear. As soon as he -should find his position imperilled, he would possess the shorter line -by which to draw his battalions, together and force an escape, and so -the event proved. Still, with Howe's superior force and with his fleet, -if he could get up the Hudson to the rear of the American right, and at -the same time land troops from the Sound in the rear of the American -left, it was possible that Washington might be compelled to surrender. -There was nothing to bar Howe's passage up the East river to the Sound; -but at the northern extremity of Manhattan Island the ascent of the -Hudson was guarded on the east by Fort Washington, under command of -Putnam, and on the west by Fort Lee, standing on the summit of the lofty -cliffs known as the Palisades, and commanded by Greene. It was still -doubtful, however, whether these two strongholds could effectually bar -the ascent of so broad a river, and for further security Putnam -undertook to place obstructions in the bed of the stream itself. Both -the Continental Congress and the State Convention of New York were -extremely unwilling that these two fortresses should in any event be -given up, for in no case must the Hudson river be abandoned. Putnam and -Greene thought that the forts could be held, but by the 9th of October -it was proved that they could not bar the passage of the river, for on -that day two frigates ran safely between them, and captured some small -American craft a short distance above. - - [Sidenote: Howe moves upon Throg's Neck, but Washington changes base] - -This point having been ascertained, General Howe, on the 12th, leaving -Percy in command before Harlem Heights, moved the greater part of his -army nine miles up the East river to Throg's Neck, a peninsula in the -Sound, separated from the mainland by a narrow creek and a marsh that -was overflowed at high tide. By landing here suddenly, Howe hoped to get -in Washington's rear and cut him off from his base of supply in -Connecticut. But Washington had foreseen the move and forestalled it. -When Howe arrived at Throg's Neck, he found the bridge over the creek -destroyed, and the main shore occupied by a force which it would be -dangerous to try to dislodge by wading across the marsh. While Howe was -thus detained six days on the peninsula Washington moved his base to -White Plains, and concentrated his whole army at that point, abandoning -everything on Manhattan Island except Fort Washington. Sullivan, -Stirling, and Morgan who had just been exchanged, now rejoined the army, -and Lee also arrived from South Carolina. - - [Sidenote: Baffled at White Plains, Howe tries a new plan] - -By this movement to White Plains, Washington had foiled Howe's attempt -to get in his rear, and the British general decided to try the effect of -an attack in front. On the 28th of October he succeeded in storming an -outpost at Chatterton Hill, losing 229 lives, while the Americans lost -140. But this affair, which is sometimes known as the battle of White -Plains, seems to have discouraged Howe. Before renewing the attack he -waited three days, thinking perhaps of Bunker Hill; and on the last -night of October, Washington fell back upon North Castle, where he took -a position so strong that it was useless to think of assailing him. Howe -then changed his plans entirely, and moved down the east bank of the -Hudson to Dobb's Ferry, whence he could either attack Fort Washington or -cross into New Jersey and advance upon Philadelphia, the "rebel -capital." The purpose of this change was to entice Washington from his -unassailable position. - - [Sidenote: Washington's orders in view of the emergency] - -To meet this new movement, Washington threw his advance of 5,000 men, -under Putnam, into New Jersey, where they encamped near Hackensack; he -sent Heath up to Peekskill, with 3,000 men, to guard the entrance to the -Highlands; and he left Lee at North Castle, with 7,000 men, and ordered -him to cooperate with him promptly in whatever direction, as soon as the -nature of Howe's plans should become apparent. As Forts Washington and -Lee detained a large force in garrison, while they had shown themselves -unable to prevent ships from passing up the river, there was no longer -any use in holding them. Nay, they had now become dangerous, as traps in -which the garrisons and stores might be suddenly surrounded and -captured. Washington accordingly resolved to evacuate them both, while, -to allay the fears of Congress in the event of a descent from Canada, he -ordered Heath to fortify the much more important position at West Point. - - [Sidenote: Congress meddles with the situation and muddles it] - -Had Washington's orders been obeyed and his plans carried out, history -might still have recorded a retreat through "the Jerseys," but how -different a retreat from that which was now about to take place! The -officious interference of Congress, a venial error of judgment on the -part of Greene, and gross insubordination on the part of Lee, occurring -all together at this critical moment, brought about the greatest -disaster of the war, and came within an ace of overwhelming the American -cause in total and irretrievable ruin. Washington instructed Greene, who -now commanded both fortresses, to withdraw the garrison and stores from -Fort Washington, and to make arrangements for evacuating Fort Lee also. -At the same time he did not give a positive order, but left the matter -somewhat within Greene's discretion, in case military circumstances of -an unforeseen kind should arise. Then, while Washington had gone up to -reconnoitre the site for the new fortress at West Point, there came a -special order from Congress that Fort Washington should not be abandoned -save under direst extremity. If Greene had thoroughly grasped -Washington's view of the case, he would have disregarded this -conditional order, for there could hardly be a worse extremity than that -which the sudden capture of the fortress would entail. But Greene's mind -was not quite clear; he believed that the fort could be held, and he did -not like to take the responsibility of disregarding a message from -Congress. In this dilemma he did the worst thing possible: he reinforced -the doomed garrison, and awaited Washington's return. - - [Illustration: REMAINS OF FORT WASHINGTON, NEW YORK, 1856] - - [Sidenote: Howe takes Fort Washington by storm, Nov. 16] - -When the commander-in-chief returned, on the 14th, he learned with -dismay that nothing had been done. But it was now too late to mend -matters, for that very night several British vessels passed up between -the forts, and the next day Howe appeared before Fort Washington with -an overwhelming force, and told Colonel Magaw, the officer in charge, -that if he did not immediately surrender the whole garrison would be put -to the sword. Magaw replied that if Howe wanted his fort he must come -and take it. On the 16th, after a sharp struggle, in which the Americans -fought with desperate gallantry though they were outnumbered more than -five to one, the works were carried, and the whole garrison was -captured. The victory cost the British more than 500 men in killed and -wounded. The Americans, fighting behind their works, lost but 150; but -they surrendered 3,000 of the best troops in their half-trained army, -together with an immense quantity of artillery and small arms. It was -not in General Howe's kindly nature to carry out his savage threat of -the day before; but some of the Hessians, maddened with the stubborn -resistance they had encountered, began murdering their prisoners in cold -blood, until they were sharply called to order. From Fort Lee, on the -opposite bank of the river, Washington surveyed this woful surrender -with his usual iron composure; but when it came to seeing his brave men -thrown down and stabbed to death by the Hessian bayonets, his -overwrought heart could bear it no longer, and he cried and sobbed like -a child. - - [Sidenote: Washington and Greene] - -This capture of the garrison of Fort Washington was one of the most -crushing blows that befell the American arms during the whole course of -the war. Washington's campaign seemed now likely to be converted into a -mere flight, and a terrible gloom overspread the whole country. The -disaster was primarily due to the interference of Congress. It might -have been averted by prompt and decisive action on the part of Greene. -But Washington, whose clear judgment made due allowance for all the -circumstances, never for a moment cast any blame upon his subordinate. -The lesson was never forgotten by Greene, whose intelligence was of that -high order which may indeed make a first mistake, but never makes a -second. The friendship between the two generals became warmer than ever. -Washington, by a sympathetic instinct, had divined from the outset the -military genius that was by and by to prove scarcely inferior to his -own. - - [Illustration: GENERAL GREENE'S HEADQUARTERS, FORT LEE, NEW JERSEY] - - [Sidenote: Outrageous conduct of Charles Lee] - -Yet worse remained behind. Washington had but 6,000 men on the Jersey -side of the river, and it was now high time for Lee to come over from -North Castle and join him, with the force of 7,000 that had been left -under his command. On the 17th, Washington sent a positive order for him -to cross the river at once; but Lee dissembled, pretended to regard the -order in the light of mere advice, and stayed where he was. He occupied -an impregnable position: why should he leave it, and imperil a force -with which he might accomplish something memorable on his own account? -By the resignation of General Ward, Lee had become the senior -major-general of the Continental army, and in the event of disaster to -Washington he would almost certainly become commander-in-chief. He had -returned from South Carolina more arrogant and loud-voiced than ever. -The northern people knew little of Moultrie, while they supposed Lee to -be a great military light; and the charlatan accordingly got the whole -credit of the victory, which, if his precious advice had been taken, -would never have been won. Lee was called the hero of Charleston, and -people began to contrast the victory of Sullivan's Island with the -recent defeats, and to draw conclusions very disparaging to Washington. -From the beginning Lee had felt personally aggrieved at not being -appointed to the chief command, and now he seemed to see a fair chance -of ruining his hated rival. Should he come to the head of the army in a -moment of dire disaster to the Americans, it would be so much the -better, for it would be likely to open negotiations with Lord Howe, and -Lee loved to chaffer and intrigue much better than to fight. So he spent -his time in endeavouring, by insidious letters and lying whispers, to -nourish the feeling of disaffection toward Washington, while he refused -to send a single regiment to his assistance. Thus, through the villainy -of this traitor in the camp, Washington actually lost more men, so far -as their present use was concerned at this most critical moment, than he -had been deprived of by all the blows which the enemy had dealt him -since the beginning of the campaign. - - [Sidenote: Greene barely escapes from Fort Lee, Nov. 20] - - [Signature: James Bowdoin] - - [Sidenote: Lee intrigues against Washington] - -On the night of the 19th, Howe threw 5,000 men across the river, about -five miles above Fort Lee, and with this force Lord Cornwallis marched -rapidly down upon that stronghold. The place had become untenable, and -it was with some difficulty that a repetition of the catastrophe of Fort -Washington was avoided. Greene had barely time, with his 2,000 men, to -gain the bridge over the Hackensack and join the main army, leaving -behind all his cannon, tents, blankets, and eatables. The position now -occupied by the main army, between the Hackensack and Passaic rivers, -was an unsafe one, in view of the great superiority of the enemy in -numbers. A strong British force, coming down upon Washington from the -north, might compel him to surrender or to fight at a great -disadvantage. To avoid this danger, on the 21st he crossed the Passaic -and marched southwestward to Newark, where he stayed five days; and -every day he sent a messenger to Lee, urging him to make all possible -haste in bringing over his half of the army, that they might be able to -confront the enemy on something like equal terms. Nothing could have -been more explicit or more peremptory than Washington's orders; but Lee -affected to misunderstand them, sent excuses, raised objections, -paltered, argued, prevaricated, and lied, and so contrived to stay where -he was until the first of December. To Washington he pretended that his -moving was beset by "obstacles," the nature of which he would explain as -soon as they should meet. But to James Bowdoin, president of the -executive council of Massachusetts, he wrote at the same time declaring -that his own army and that under Washington "must rest each on its own -bottom." He assumed command over Heath, who had been left to guard the -Highlands, and ordered him to send 2,000 troops to himself; but that -officer very properly refused to depart from the instructions which the -commander-in-chief had left with him. To various members of Congress Lee -told the falsehood that if _his_ advice had only been heeded, Fort -Washington would have been evacuated ere it was too late; and he wrote -to Dr. Rush, wondering whether any of the members of Congress had ever -studied Roman history, and suggesting that he might do great things if -he could only be made Dictator for one week. - - [Sidenote: Washington retreats into Pennsylvania] - -Meanwhile Washington, unable to risk a battle, was rapidly retreating -through New Jersey. On the 28th of November Cornwallis advanced upon -Newark, and Washington fell back upon New Brunswick. On the first of -December, as Cornwallis reached the latter place, Washington broke down -the bridge over the Raritan, and continued his retreat to Princeton. The -terms of service for which his troops had been enlisted were now -beginning to expire, and so great was the discouragement wrought by the -accumulation of disasters which had befallen the army since the battle -of Long Island that many of the soldiers lost heart in their work. -Homesickness began to prevail, especially among the New England troops, -and as their terms expired it was difficult to persuade them to -reenlist. Under these circumstances the army dwindled fast, until, by -the time he reached Princeton, Washington had but 3,000 men remaining at -his disposal. The only thing to be done was to put the broad stream of -the Delaware between himself and the enemy, and this he accomplished by -the 8th, carrying over all his guns and stores, and seizing or -destroying every boat that could be found on that great river for many -miles in either direction. When the British arrived, on the evening of -the same day, they found it impossible to cross. Cornwallis was eager to -collect a flotilla of boats as soon as practicable, and push on to -Philadelphia, but Howe, who had just joined him, thought it hardly worth -while to take so much trouble, as the river would be sure to freeze -over before many days. So the army was posted--with front somewhat too -far extended--along the east bank, with its centre at Trenton, under -Colonel Rahl; and while they waited for that "snap" of intensely cold -weather, which in this climate seldom fails to come on within a few days -of Christmas, Howe and Cornwallis both went back to New York. - - [Sidenote: Reinforcements come from Schuyler] - -Meanwhile, on the 2d of December, Lee had at last crossed the Hudson -with a force diminished to 4,000 men, and had proceeded by slow marches -as far as Morristown. Further reinforcements were at hand. General -Schuyler, in command of the army which had retreated the last summer -from Canada, was guarding the forts on Lake Champlain; and as these -appeared to be safe for the present, he detached seven regiments to go -to the aid of Washington. As soon as Lee heard of the arrival of three -of these regiments at Peekskill, he ordered them to join him at -Morristown. As the other four, under General Gates, were making their -way through northern New Jersey, doubts arose as to where they should -find Washington in the course of his swift retreat. Gates sent his aid, -Major Wilkinson, forward for instructions, and he, learning that -Washington had withdrawn into Pennsylvania, reported to Lee at -Morristown, as second in command. - - [Illustration: OPERATIONS IN NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY, 1776 AND 1777] - - [Sidenote: Fortunately for the Americans, the British capture Charles - Lee, Dec. 13] - -Lee had left his army in charge of Sullivan, and had foolishly taken up -his quarters at an unguarded tavern about four miles from the town, -where Wilkinson found him in bed on the morning of the 13th. After -breakfast Lee wrote a confidential letter to Gates, as to a kindred -spirit from whom he might expect to get sympathy. Terrible had been the -consequences of the disaster at Fort Washington. "There never was so -damned a stroke," said the letter. "_Entre nous_, a certain great man is -most damnably deficient. He has thrown me into a situation where I have -my choice of difficulties. If I stay in this province I risk myself and -army, and if I do not stay the province is lost forever.... Our -counsels have been weak to the last degree. As to yourself, if you think -you can be in time to aid the general, I would have you by all means go. -You will at least save your army.... Adieu, my dear friend. God bless -you." Hardly had he signed his name to this scandalous document when -Wilkinson, who was standing at the window, exclaimed that the British -were upon them. Sure enough. A Tory in the neighbourhood, discerning the -golden opportunity, had galloped eighteen miles to the British lines, -and returned with a party of thirty dragoons, who surrounded the house -and captured the vainglorious schemer before he had time to collect his -senses. Bareheaded, and dressed only in a flannel gown and slippers, he -was mounted on Wilkinson's horse, which stood waiting at the door, and -was carried off, amid much mirth and exultation, to the British camp. -Crest-fallen and bewildered, he expressed a craven hope that his life -might be spared, but was playfully reminded that he would very likely be -summarily dealt with as a deserter from the British army; and with this -scant comfort he was fain to content himself for some weeks to come. - - [Sidenote: The times that tried men's souls] - -The capture of General Lee was reckoned by the people as one more in the -list of dire catastrophes which made the present season the darkest -moment in the whole course of the war. Had they known all that we know -now, they would have seen that the army was well rid of a worthless -mischief-maker, while the history of the war had gained a curiously -picturesque episode. Apart from this incident there was cause enough for -the gloom which now overspread the whole country. Washington had been -forced to seek shelter behind the Delaware with a handful of men, whose -terms of service were soon to expire, and another fortnight might easily -witness the utter dispersal of this poor little army. At Philadelphia, -where Putnam was now in command, there was a general panic, and people -began hiding their valuables and moving their wives and children out -into the country. Congress took fright, and retired to Baltimore. At the -beginning of December, Lord Howe and his brother had issued a -proclamation offering pardon and protection to all citizens who within -sixty days should take the oath of allegiance to the British Crown; and -in the course of ten days nearly three thousand persons, many of them -wealthy and of high standing in society, had availed themselves of this -promise. The British soldiers and the Tories considered the contest -virtually ended. General Howe was compared with Caesar, who came, and -saw, and conquered. For his brilliant successes he had been made a -Knight Commander of the Bath, and New York was to become the scene of -merry Christmas festivities on the occasion of his receiving the famous -red ribbon. In his confidence that Washington's strength was quite -exhausted, he detached a considerable force from the army in New Jersey, -and sent it, under Lord Percy, to take possession of Newport as a -convenient station for British ships entering the Sound. Donop and Rahl -with their Hessians and Grant with his hardy Scotchmen would now quite -suffice to destroy the remnant of Washington's army; and Cornwallis -accordingly packed his portmanteaus and sent them aboard ship, intending -to sail for England as soon as the fumes of the Christmas punch should -be duly slept off. - - [Sidenote: Washington prepares to strike back] - -Well might Thomas Paine declare, in the first of the series of pamphlets -entitled "The Crisis," which he now began to publish, that "these are -the times that try men's souls." But in the midst of the general -despondency there were a few brave hearts that had not yet begun to -despair, and the bravest of these was Washington's. At this awful moment -the whole future of America, and of all that America signifies to the -world, rested upon that single Titanic will. Cruel defeat and yet more -cruel treachery, enough to have crushed the strongest, could not crush -Washington. All the lion in him was aroused, and his powerful nature was -aglow with passionate resolve. His keen eye already saw the elements of -weakness in Howe's too careless disposition of his forces on the east -bank of the Delaware, and he had planned for his antagonist such a -Christmas greeting as he little expected. Just at this moment Washington -was opportunely reinforced by Sullivan and Gates, with the troops lately -under Lee's command; and with his little army thus raised to 6,000 men, -he meditated such a stroke as might revive the drooping spirits of his -countrymen, and confound the enemy in the very moment of his fancied -triumph. - - [Portrait: GEORGE WASHINGTON (BY TRUMBULL)] - - [Sidenote: He crosses the Delaware] - - [Sidenote: and pierces the British centre at Trenton, Dec. 26] - -Washington's plan was, by a sudden attack, to overwhelm the British -centre at Trenton, and thus force the army to retreat upon New York. The -Delaware was to be crossed in three divisions. The right wing, of 2,000 -men, under Gates, was to attack Count Donop at Burlington; Ewing, with -the centre, was to cross directly opposite Trenton; while Washington -himself, with the left wing, was to cross nine miles above, and march -down upon Trenton from the north. On Christmas Day all was ready, but -the beginnings of the enterprise were not auspicious. Gates, who -preferred to go and intrigue in Congress, succeeded in begging off, and -started for Baltimore. Cadwalader, who took his place, tried hard to get -his men and artillery across the river, but was baffled by the huge -masses of floating ice, and reluctantly gave up the attempt. Ewing was -so discouraged that he did not even try to cross, and both officers took -it for granted that Washington must be foiled in like manner. But -Washington was desperately in earnest; and although at sunset, just as -he had reached his crossing-place, he was informed by special messenger -of the failure of Ewing and Cadwalader, he determined to go on and make -the attack with the 2,500 men whom he had with him. The great blocks of -ice, borne swiftly along by the powerful current, made the passage -extremely dangerous, but Glover, with his skilful fishermen of -Marblehead, succeeded in ferrying the little army across without the -loss of a man or a gun. More than ten hours were consumed in the -passage, and then there was a march of nine miles to be made in a -blinding storm of snow and sleet. They pushed rapidly on in two columns, -led by Greene and Sullivan respectively, drove in the enemy's pickets at -the point of the bayonet, and entered the town by different roads soon -after sunrise. Washington's guns were at once planted so as to sweep the -streets, and after Colonel Rahl and seventeen of his men had been slain, -the whole body of Hessians, 1,000 in number, surrendered at discretion. -Of the Americans, two were frozen to death on the march, and two were -killed in the action. By noon of the next day Cadwalader had crossed the -river to Burlington, but no sooner had Donop heard what had happened at -Trenton than he retreated by a circuitous route to Princeton, leaving -behind all his sick and wounded soldiers, and all his heavy arms and -baggage. Washington recrossed into Pennsylvania with his prisoners, but -again advanced, and occupied Trenton on the 29th. - - [Sidenote: Cornwallis comes up to retrieve the disaster] - - [Sidenote: and thinks he has run down the "old fox"] - -When the news of the catastrophe reached New York, the holiday feasting -was rudely disturbed. Instead of embarking for England, Cornwallis rode -post-haste to Princeton, where he found Donop throwing up earthworks. On -the morning of January 2d Cornwallis advanced, with 8,000 men, upon -Trenton, but his march was slow and painful. He was exposed during most -of the day to a galling fire from parties of riflemen hidden in the -woods by the roadside, and Greene, with a force of 600 men and two -field-pieces, contrived so to harass and delay him that he did not reach -Trenton till late in the afternoon. By that time Washington had -withdrawn his whole force beyond the Assunpink, a small river which -flows into the Delaware just south of Trenton, and had guarded the -bridge and the fords by batteries admirably placed. The British made -several attempts to cross, but were repulsed with some slaughter; and as -their day's work had sorely fatigued them, Cornwallis thought best to -wait until to-morrow, while he sent his messenger post-haste back to -Princeton to bring up a force of nearly 2,000 men which he had left -behind there. With this added strength he felt sure that he could force -the passage of the stream above the American position, when by turning -Washington's right flank he could fold him back against the Delaware, -and thus compel him to surrender. Cornwallis accordingly went to bed in -high spirits. "At last we have run down the old fox," said he, "and we -will bag him in the morning." - - [Portrait: LORD CORNWALLIS] - - [Sidenote: But Washington prepares a checkmate] - - [Sidenote: and again severs the British line at Princeton, Jan. 3] - -The situation was indeed a very dangerous one; but when the British -general called his antagonist an old fox, he did him no more than -justice. In its union of slyness with audacity, the movement which -Washington now executed strongly reminds one of "Stonewall" Jackson. He -understood perfectly well what Cornwallis intended to do; but he knew -at the same time that detachments of the British army must have been -left behind at Princeton and New Brunswick to guard the stores. From the -size of the army before him he rightly judged that these rear -detachments must be too small to withstand his own force. By -overwhelming one or both of them, he could compel Cornwallis to retreat -upon New York, while he himself might take up an impregnable position on -the heights about Morristown, from which he might threaten the British -line and hold their whole army in check,--a most brilliant and daring -scheme for a commander to entertain while in such a perilous position as -Washington was that night! But the manner in which he began by -extricating himself was not the least brilliant part of the manoeuvre. -All night long the American camp-fires were kept burning brightly, and -small parties were busily engaged in throwing up intrenchments so near -the Assunpink that the British sentinels could plainly hear the murmur -of their voices and the thud of the spade and pickaxe. While this was -going on, the whole American army marched swiftly up the south bank of -the little stream, passed around Cornwallis's left wing to his rear, and -gained the road to Princeton. Toward sunrise, as the British detachment -was coming down the road from Princeton to Trenton, in obedience to -Cornwallis's order, its van, under Colonel Mawhood, met the foremost -column of Americans approaching, under General Mercer. As he caught -sight of the Americans, Mawhood thought that they must be a party of -fugitives, and hastened to intercept them; but he was soon undeceived. -The Americans attacked with vigour, and a sharp fight was sustained, -with varying fortunes, until Mercer was pierced by a bayonet, and his -men began to fall back in some confusion. Just at this critical moment -Washington came galloping upon the field and rallied the troops, and as -the entire forces on both sides had now come up the fight became -general. In a few minutes the British were routed and their line was cut -in two; one half fleeing toward Trenton, the other half toward New -Brunswick. There was little slaughter, as the whole fight did not occupy -more than twenty minutes. The British lost about 200 in killed and -wounded, with 300 prisoners and their cannon; the American loss was less -than 100. - - [Portrait: Hugh Mercer] - - [Sidenote: General retreat of the British toward New York] - -Shortly before sunrise, the men who had been left in the camp on the -Assunpink to feed the fires and make a noise beat a hasty retreat, and -found their way to Princeton by circuitous paths. When Cornwallis got -up, he could hardly believe his eyes. Here was nothing before him but an -empty camp: the American army had vanished, and whither it had gone he -could not imagine. But his perplexity was soon relieved by the booming -of distant cannon on the Princeton road, and the game which the "old -fox" had played him all at once became apparent. Nothing was to be done -but to retreat upon New Brunswick with all possible haste, and save the -stores there. His road led back through Princeton, and from Mawhood's -fugitives he soon heard the story of the morning's disaster. His march -was hindered by various impediments. A thaw had set in, so that the -little streams had swelled into roaring torrents, difficult to ford, and -the American army, which had passed over the road before daybreak, had -not forgotten to destroy the bridges. By the time that Cornwallis and -his men reached Princeton, wet and weary, the Americans had already left -it, but they had not gone on to New Brunswick. Washington had hoped to -seize the stores there, but the distance was eighteen miles, his men -were wretchedly shod and too tired to march rapidly, and it would not be -prudent to risk a general engagement when his main purpose could be -secured without one. For these reasons, Washington turned northward to -the heights of Morristown, while Cornwallis continued his retreat to New -Brunswick. A few days later, Putnam advanced from Philadelphia and -occupied Princeton, thus forming the right wing of the American army, of -which the main body lay at Morristown, while Heath's division on the -Hudson constituted the left wing. Various cantonments were established -along this long line. On the 5th, George Clinton, coming down from -Peekskill, drove the British out of Hackensack and occupied it, while on -the same day a detachment of German mercenaries at Springfield was -routed by a body of militia. Elizabethtown was then taken by General -Maxwell, whereupon the British retired from Newark. - - [Sidenote: The tables completely turned] - -Thus in a brief campaign of three weeks Washington had rallied the -fragments of a defeated and broken army, fought two successful battles, -taken nearly 2,000 prisoners, and recovered the state of New Jersey. He -had cancelled the disastrous effects of Lee's treachery, and replaced -things apparently in the condition in which the fall of Fort Washington -had left them. Really he had done much more than this, for by assuming -the offensive and winning victories through sheer force of genius, he -had completely turned the tide of popular feeling. The British generals -began to be afraid of him, while on the other hand his army began to -grow by the accession of fresh recruits. In New Jersey, the enemy -retained nothing but New Brunswick, Amboy, and Paulus Hook. - -On the 25th of January Washington issued a proclamation declaring that -all persons who had accepted Lord Howe's offer of protection must either -retire within the British lines or come forward and take the oath of -allegiance to the United States. Many narrow-minded people, who did not -look with favour upon a close federation of the states, commented -severely upon the form of this proclamation: it was too national, they -said. But it proved effective. However lukewarm may have been the -interest which many of the Jersey people felt in the war when their soil -was first invaded, the conduct of the British troops had been such that -every one now looked upon them as enemies. They had foraged -indiscriminately upon friend and foe; they had set fire to farmhouses, -and in one or two instances murdered peaceful citizens. The wrath of the -people had waxed so hot that it was not safe for the British to stir -beyond their narrow lines except in considerable force. Their foraging -parties were waylaid and cut off by bands of yeomanry, and so sorely -were they harassed in their advanced position at New Brunswick that they -often suffered from want of food. Many of the German mercenaries, caring -nothing for the cause in which they had been forcibly enlisted, began -deserting; and in this they were encouraged by Congress, which issued a -manifesto in German, making a liberal offer of land to any foreign -soldier who should leave the British service. This little document was -inclosed in the wrappers in which packages of tobacco were sold, and -every now and then some canny smoker accepted the offer. - - [Sidenote: Washington's superb generalship] - -Washington's position at Morristown was so strong that there was no hope -of dislodging him, and the snow-blocked roads made the difficulties of a -winter campaign so great that Howe thought best to wait for warm weather -before doing anything more. While the British arms were thus held in -check, the friends of America, both in England and on the continent of -Europe, were greatly encouraged. From this moment Washington was -regarded in Europe as a first-rate general. Military critics who were -capable of understanding his movements compared his brilliant -achievements with his slender resources, and discovered in him genius of -a high order. Men began to call him "the American Fabius;" and this -epithet was so pleasing to his fellow-countrymen, in that pedantic age, -that it clung to him for the rest of his life, and was repeated in -newspapers and speeches and pamphlets with wearisome iteration. Yet -there was something more than Fabian in Washington's generalship. For -wariness he has never been surpassed; yet, as Colonel Stedman observed, -in his excellent contemporary history of the war, the most remarkable -thing about Washington was his courage. It would be hard indeed to find -more striking examples of audacity than he exhibited at Trenton and -Princeton. Lord Cornwallis was no mean antagonist, and no one was a -better judge of what a commander might be expected to do with a given -stock of resources. His surprise at the Assunpink was so great that he -never got over it. After the surrender at Yorktown, it is said that his -lordship expressed to Washington his generous admiration for the -wonderful skill which had suddenly hurled an army four hundred miles, -from the Hudson river to the James, with such precision and such deadly -effect. "But after all," he added, "your excellency's achievements in -New Jersey were such that nothing could surpass them." The man who had -turned the tables on him at the Assunpink he could well believe to be -capable of anything. - - [Portrait: Beaumarchais] - -In England the effect of the campaign was very serious. Not long before, -Edmund Burke had despondingly remarked that an army which was always -obliged to refuse battle could never expel the invaders; but now the -case wore a different aspect. Sir William Howe had not so much to show -for his red ribbon, after all. He had taken New York, and dealt many -heavy blows with his overwhelming force, unexpectedly aided by foul play -on the American side; but as for crushing Washington and ending the war, -he seemed farther from it than ever. It would take another campaign to -do this,--perhaps many. Lord North, who had little heart for the war at -any time, was discouraged, while the king and Lord George Germain were -furious with disappointment. "It was that unhappy affair of Trenton," -observed the latter, "that blasted our hopes." - - [Portrait: Silas Deane] - -In France the interest in American affairs grew rapidly. Louis XVI. had -no love for Americans or for rebels, but revenge for the awful disasters -of 1758 and 1759 was dear to the French heart. France felt toward -England then as she feels toward Germany now, and so long ago as the -time of the Stamp Act, Baron Kalb had been sent on a secret mission to -America, to find out how the people regarded the British government. The -policy of the French ministry was aided by the romantic sympathy for -America which was felt in polite society. Never perhaps have the -opinions current among fashionable ladies and gentlemen been so directly -controlled by philosophers and scholars as in France during the latter -half of the eighteenth century. Never perhaps have men of letters -exercised such mighty influence over their contemporaries as Voltaire, -with his noble enthusiasm for humanity, and Rousseau, with his startling -political paradoxes, and the writers of the "Encyclopedie," with their -revelations of new points of view in science and in history. To such men -as these, and to such profound political thinkers as Montesquieu and -Turgot, the preservation of English liberty was the hope of the world; -but they took little interest in the British crown or in the imperial -supremacy of Parliament. All therefore sympathized with the Americans -and urged on the policy which the court for selfish reasons was inclined -to pursue. Vergennes, the astute minister of foreign affairs, had for -some time been waiting for a convenient opportunity to take part in the -struggle, but as yet he had contented himself with furnishing secret -assistance. For more than a year he had been intriguing, through -Beaumarchais, the famous author of "Figaro," with Arthur Lee (a brother -of Richard Henry Lee), who had long served in London as agent for -Virginia. Just before the Declaration of Independence Vergennes sent -over a million dollars to aid the American cause. Soon afterwards -Congress sent Silas Deane to Paris, and presently ordered Arthur Lee to -join him there. In October Franklin was also sent over, and the three -were appointed commissioners for making a treaty of alliance with -France. - - [Portrait: Arthur Lee] - -The arrival of Franklin was the occasion of great excitement in the -fashionable world of Paris. By thinkers like Diderot and D'Alembert he -was regarded as the embodiment of practical wisdom. To many he seemed to -sum up in himself the excellences of the American cause,--justice, good -sense, and moderation. Voltaire spoke quite unconsciously of the -American army as "Franklin's troops." It was Turgot who said of him, in -a line which is one of the finest modern specimens of epigrammatic -Latin, "Eripuit coelo fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis." As symbolizing -the liberty for which all France was yearning, he was greeted with a -popular enthusiasm such as perhaps no Frenchman except Voltaire has ever -called forth. As he passed along the streets, the shopkeepers rushed to -their doors to catch a glimpse of him, while curious idlers crowded the -sidewalk. The charm of his majestic and venerable figure seemed -heightened by the republican simplicity of his plain brown coat, over -the shoulders of which his long gray hair fell carelessly, innocent of -queue or powder. His portrait was hung in the shop-windows and painted -in miniature on the covers of snuff-boxes. Gentlemen wore "Franklin" -hats, ladies' kid gloves were dyed of a "Franklin" hue, and _cotelettes -a la Franklin_ were served at fashionable dinners. - - [Portrait: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN] - -As the first fruits of Franklin's negotiations, the French government -agreed to furnish two million livres a year, in quarterly instalments, -to assist the American cause. Three ships, laden with military stores, -were sent over to America: one was captured by a British cruiser, but -the other two arrived safely. The Americans were allowed to fit out -privateers in French ports, and even to bring in and sell their prizes -there. Besides this a million livres were advanced to the commissioners -on account of a quantity of tobacco which they agreed to send in -exchange. Further than this France was not yet ready to go. The British -ambassador had already begun to protest against the violation of -neutrality involved in the departure of privateers, and France was not -willing to run the risk of open war with England until it should become -clear that the Americans would prove efficient allies. The king, -moreover, sympathized with George III., and hated the philosophers whose -opinions swayed the French people; and in order to accomplish anything -in behalf of the Americans he had to be coaxed or bullied at every step. - -But though the French government was not yet ready to send troops to -America, volunteers were not wanting who cast in their lot with us -through a purely disinterested enthusiasm. At a dinner party in Metz, -the Marquis de Lafayette, then a boy of nineteen, heard the news from -America, and instantly resolved to leave his pleasant home and offer his -services to Washington. He fitted up a ship at his own expense, loaded -it with military stores furnished by Beaumarchais, and set sail from -Bordeaux on the 26th of April, taking with him Kalb and eleven other -officers. While Marie Antoinette applauded his generous self-devotion, -the king forbade him to go, but he disregarded the order. His young -wife, whom he deemed it prudent to leave behind, he consoled with the -thought that the future welfare of all mankind was at stake in the -struggle for constitutional liberty which was going on in America, and -that where he saw a chance to be useful it was his duty to go. The able -Polish officers, Pulaski and Kosciuszko, had come some time before. - - [Portrait: Lafayette] - -During the winter season at Morristown, Washington was busy in -endeavouring to recruit and reorganize the army. Up to this time the -military preparations of Congress had been made upon a ludicrously -inadequate scale. There had been no serious attempt to create a regular -army, but squads of militia had been enlisted for terms of three or six -months, as if there were any likelihood of the war being ended within -such a period. The rumour of Lord Howe's olive-branch policy may at -first have had something to do with this, and even after the -Declaration of Independence had made further temporizing impossible, -there were many who expected Washington to perform miracles and thought -that by some crushing blow the invaders might soon be brought to terms. -But the events of the autumn had shown that the struggle was likely to -prove long and desperate, and there could be no doubt as to the -imperative need of a regular army. To provide such an army was, however, -no easy task. The Continental Congress was little more than an advisory -body of delegates, and it was questionable how far it could exercise -authority except as regarded the specific points which the constituents -of these delegates had in view when they chose them. Congress could only -recommend to the different states to raise their respective quotas of -men, and each state gave heed to such a request according to its ability -or its inclination. All over the country there was then, as always, a -deep-rooted prejudice against standing armies. Even to-day, with our -population of seventy millions, a proposal to increase our regular army -to fifty thousand men, for the more efficient police of the Indian -districts in Arizona and Montana, has been greeted by the press with -tirades about military despotism. A century ago this feeling was -naturally much stronger than it is to-day. The presence of standing -armies in this country had done much toward bringing on the Revolution; -and it was not until it had become evident that we must either endure -the king's regulars or have regulars of our own that the people could be -made to adopt the latter alternative. Under the influence of these -feelings, the state militias were enlisted for very short terms, each -under its local officers, so that they resembled a group of little -allied armies. Such methods were fatal to military discipline. Such -soldiers as had remained in the army ever since it first gathered itself -together on the day of Lexington had now begun to learn something of -military discipline; but it was impossible to maintain it in the face of -the much greater number who kept coming and going at intervals of three -months. With such fluctuations in strength, moreover, it was difficult -to carry out any series of military operations. The Christmas night when -Washington crossed the Delaware was the most critical moment of his -career; for the terms of service of the greater part of his little army -expired on New Year's Day, and but for the success at Trenton, they -would almost certainly have disbanded. But in the exultant mood begotten -of this victory, they were persuaded to remain for some weeks longer, -thus enabling Washington to recover the state of New Jersey. So low had -the public credit sunk, at this season of disaster, that Washington -pledged his private fortune for the payment of these men, in case -Congress should be found wanting; and his example was followed by the -gallant John Stark and other officers. Except for the sums raised by -Robert Morris of Philadelphia, even Washington could not have saved the -country. - - [Portrait: Rob Morris.] - -Another source of weakness was the intense dislike and jealousy with -which the militia of the different states regarded each other. Their -alliance against the common enemy had hitherto done little more toward -awakening a cordial sympathy between the states than the alliance of -Athenians with Lacedaemonians against the Great King accomplished toward -ensuring peace and good-will throughout the Hellenic world. Politically -the men of Virginia had thus far acted in remarkable harmony with the -men of New England, but socially there was little fellowship between -them. In those days of slow travel the plantations of Virginia were much -more remote from Boston than they now are from London, and the -generalizations which the one people used to make about the other were, -if possible, even more crude than those which Englishmen and Americans -are apt to make about each other at the present day. In the stately -elegance of the Virginian country mansion it seemed right to sneer at -New England merchants and farmers as "shopkeepers" and "peasants," while -many people in Boston regarded Virginian planters as mere Squire -Westerns. Between the eastern and the middle states, too, there was much -ill-will, because of theological differences and boundary disputes. The -Puritan of New Hampshire had not yet made up his quarrel with the -Churchman of New York concerning the ownership of the Green Mountains; -and the wrath of the Pennsylvania Quaker waxed hot against the Puritan -of Connecticut who dared claim jurisdiction over the valley of Wyoming. -We shall find such animosities bearing bitter fruit in personal -squabbles among soldiers and officers, as well as in removals and -appointments of officers for reasons which had nothing to do with their -military competence. Even in the highest ranks of the army and in -Congress these local prejudices played their part and did no end of -mischief. - -From the outset Washington had laboured with Congress to take measures -to obviate these alarming difficulties. In the midst of his retreat -through the Jerseys he declared that "short enlistments and a mistaken -dependence upon militia have been the origin of all our misfortunes," -and at the same time he recommended that a certain number of battalions -should be raised directly by the United States, comprising volunteers -drawn indiscriminately from the several states. These measures were -adopted by Congress, and at the same time Washington was clothed with -almost dictatorial powers. It was decided that the army of state troops -should be increased to 66,000 men, divided into eighty-eight battalions, -of which Massachusetts and Virginia were each to contribute fifteen, -"Pennsylvania twelve, North Carolina nine, Connecticut eight, South -Carolina six, New York and New Jersey four each, New Hampshire and -Maryland three each, Rhode Island two, Delaware and Georgia each one." -The actual enlistments fell very far short of this number of men, and -the proportions assigned by Congress, based upon the population of the -several states, were never heeded. The men now enlisted were to serve -during the war, and were to receive at the end a hundred acres of land -each as bounty. Colonels were to have a bounty of five hundred acres, -and inferior officers were to receive an intermediate quantity. Even -with these offers it was found hard to persuade men to enlist for the -war, so that it was judged best to allow the recruit his choice of -serving for three years and going home empty-handed, or staying till the -war should end in the hope of getting a new farm for one of his -children. All this enlisting was to be done by the several states, which -were also to clothe and arm their recruits, but the money for their -equipments, as well as for the payment and support of the troops, was to -be furnished by Congress. Officers were to be selected by the states, -but formally commissioned by Congress. At the same time Washington was -authorized to raise sixteen battalions of infantry, containing 12,000 -men, three regiments of artillery, 3,000 light cavalry, and a corps of -engineers. These forces were to be enlisted under Washington's -direction, in the name of the United States, and were to be taken -indiscriminately from all parts of the country. Their officers were to -be appointed by Washington, who was furthermore empowered to fill all -vacancies and remove any officer below the rank of brigadier-general in -any department of the army. Washington was also authorized to take -whatever private property might anywhere be needed for the army, -allowing a fair compensation to the owners; and he was instructed to -arrest at his own discretion, and hold for trial by the civil courts, -any person who should refuse to take the continental paper money, or -otherwise manifest a want of sympathy with the American cause. - -These extraordinary powers, which at the darkest moment of the war were -conferred upon Washington for a period of six months, occasioned much -grumbling, but it does not appear that any specific difficulty ever -arose through the way in which they were exercised. It would be as hard, -perhaps, to find any strictly legal justification for the creation of a -Continental army as it would be to tell just where the central -government of the United States was to be found at that time. Strictly -speaking, no central government had as yet been formed. No articles of -confederation had yet been adopted by the states, and the authority of -the Continental Congress had been in nowise defined. It was generally -felt, however, that the Congress now sitting had been chosen for the -purpose of representing the states in their relations to the British -crown. This Congress had been expressly empowered to declare the states -independent of Great Britain, and to wage war for the purpose of making -good its declaration. And it was accordingly felt that Congress was -tacitly authorized to take such measures as were absolutely needful for -the maintenance of the struggle. The enlistment of a Continental force -was therefore an act done under an implied "war power," something like -the power invoked at a later day to justify the edict by which President -Lincoln emancipated the slaves. The thoroughly English political genius -of the American people teaches them when and how to tolerate such -anomalies, and has more than once enabled them safely to cut the Gordian -knot which mere logic could not untie if it were to fumble till -doomsday. In the second year after Lexington the American commonwealths -had already entered upon the path of their "manifest destiny," and were -becoming united into one political body faster than the people could -distinctly realize. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [9] Jonathan Trumbull, Governor of Connecticut, was a graduate of - Harvard in 1737, in the same class with Hutchinson. Washington - used to call him "Brother Jonathan." He was father of John - Trumbull, the famous painter. - - [10] This view is taken from the Hudson river, and shows Fort George - at the extreme right. The street facing upon the river was - Greenwich Street, from which the descent to the water was - abrupt. The cliff-like look of the banks has since been - destroyed by the addition of new land sloping gently down to - the water level at West Street. The church most conspicuous in - the picture is the old Trinity, which was burned in 1776. - - [11] This is a contemporary view of the road by which Howe advanced - upon Sullivan's rear. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - SECOND BLOW AT THE CENTRE - - - [Sidenote: Carleton invades New York] - -Ever since the failure of the American invasion of Canada, it had been -the intention of Sir Guy Carleton, in accordance with the wishes of the -ministry, to invade New York by way of Lake Champlain, and to secure the -Mohawk valley and the upper waters of the Hudson. The summer of 1776 had -been employed by Carleton in getting together a fleet with which to -obtain control of the lake. It was an arduous task. Three large vessels -were sent over from England, and proceeded up the St. Lawrence as far as -the rapids, where they were taken to pieces, carried overland to St. -John's, and there put together again. Twenty gunboats and more than two -hundred flat-bottomed transports were built at Montreal, and manned with -700 picked seamen and gunners; and upon this flotilla Carleton embarked -his army of 12,000 men. - - [Sidenote: Arnold's preparations] - -To oppose the threatened invasion, Benedict Arnold had been working all -the summer with desperate energy. In June the materials for his navy -were growing in the forests of Vermont, while his carpenters with their -tools, his sail-makers with their canvas, and his gunners with their -guns had mostly to be brought from the coast towns of Connecticut and -Massachusetts. By the end of September he had built a little fleet of -three schooners, two sloops, three galleys, and eight gondolas, and -fitted it out with seventy guns and such seamen and gunners as he could -get together. With this flotilla he could not hope to prevent the -advance of such an overwhelming force as that of the enemy. The most he -could do would be to worry and delay it, besides raising the spirits of -the people by the example of an obstinate and furious resistance. To -allow Carleton to reach Ticonderoga without opposition would be -disheartening, whereas by delay and vexation he might hope to dampen the -enthusiasm of the invader. With this end in view, Arnold proceeded down -the lake far to the north of Crown Point, and taking up a strong -position between Valcour Island and the western shore, so that both his -wings were covered and he could be attacked only in front, he lay in -wait for the enemy. James Wilkinson, who twenty years afterward became -commander-in-chief of the American army, and survived the second war -with England, was then at Ticonderoga, on Gates's staff. Though -personally hostile to Arnold, he calls attention in his Memoirs to the -remarkable skill exhibited in the disposition of the little fleet at -Valcour Island, which was the same in principle as that by which -Macdonough won his brilliant victory, not far from the same spot, in -1814. - - [Illustration: VIEW OF BATTLE OF VALCOUR ISLAND] - - [Sidenote: Battle of Valcour Island, Oct. 11, 1776] - -On the 11th of October, Sir Guy Carleton's squadron approached, and -there ensued the first battle fought between an American and a British -fleet. At sundown, after a desperate fight of seven hours' duration, the -British withdrew out of range, intending to renew the struggle in the -morning. Both fleets had suffered severely, but the Americans were so -badly cut up that Carleton expected to force them to surrender the next -day. But Arnold during the hazy night contrived to slip through the -British line with all that was left of his crippled flotilla, and made -away for Crown Point with all possible speed. Though he once had to stop -to mend leaks, and once to take off the men and guns from two gondolas -which were sinking, he nevertheless, by dint of sailing and kedging, got -such a start that the enemy did not overtake him until the next day but -one, when he was nearing Crown Point. While the rest of the fleet, by -Arnold's orders, now crowded sail for their haven, he in his schooner -sustained an ugly fight for four hours with the three largest British -vessels, one of which mounted eighteen twelve-pounders. His vessel was -wofully cut up, and her deck covered with dead and dying men, when, -having sufficiently delayed the enemy, he succeeded in running her -aground in a small creek, where he set her on fire, and she perished -gloriously, with her flag flying till the flames brought it down. Then -marching through woodland paths to Crown Point, where his other vessels -had now disembarked their men, he brought away his whole force in safety -to Ticonderoga. When Carleton appeared before that celebrated fortress, -finding it strongly defended, and doubting his ability to reduce it -before the setting in of cold weather, he decided to take his army back -to Canada, satisfied for the present with having gained control of Lake -Champlain. This sudden retreat of Carleton astonished both friend and -foe. He was blamed for it by his generals, Burgoyne, Phillips, and -Riedesel, as well as by the king; and when we see how easily the -fortress was seized by Phillips in the following summer, we can hardly -doubt that it was a grave mistake. - - [Sidenote: Congress promotes five junior brigadiers over Arnold, Feb. - 19, 1777] - - [Sidenote: Philip Schuyler] - -Arnold had now won an enviable reputation as the "bravest of the brave." -In his terrible march through the wilderness of Maine, in the assault -upon Quebec, and in the defence of Lake Champlain, he had shown rare -heroism and skill. The whole country rang with his praises, and -Washington regarded him as one of the ablest officers in the army. Yet -when Congress now proceeded to appoint five new major-generals, they -selected Stirling, Mifflin, St. Clair, Stephen, and Lincoln, passing -over Arnold, who was the senior brigadier. None of the generals named -could for a moment be compared with Arnold for ability, and this strange -action of Congress, coming soon after such a brilliant exploit, -naturally hurt his feelings and greatly incensed him. Arnold was proud -and irascible in temper, but on this occasion he controlled himself -manfully, and listened to Washington, who entreated him not to resign. -So astonished was Washington at the action of Congress that at first he -could not believe it. He thought either that Arnold must really have -received a prior appointment, which for some reason had not yet been -made public, or else that his name must have been omitted through some -unaccountable oversight. It turned out, however, on further inquiry, -that state jealousies had been the cause of the mischief. The reason -assigned for ignoring Arnold's services was that Connecticut had already -two major-generals, and was not in fairness entitled to any more! But -beneath this alleged reason there lurked a deeper reason, likewise -founded in jealousies between the states. The intrigues which soon after -disgraced the northern army and imperilled the safety of the country had -already begun to bear bitter fruit. Since the beginning of the war, -Major-General Philip Schuyler had been in command of the northern -department, with his headquarters at Albany, whence his ancestors had a -century before hurled defiance at Frontenac. His family was one of the -most distinguished in New York, and an inherited zeal for the public -service thrilled in every drop of his blood. No more upright or -disinterested man could be found in America, and for bravery and -generosity he was like the paladin of some mediaeval romance. In spite of -these fine qualities, he was bitterly hated by the New England men, who -formed a considerable portion of his army. Beside the general stupid -dislike which the people of New York and of New England then felt for -each other, echoes of which are still sometimes heard nowadays, there -was a special reason for the odium which was heaped upon Schuyler. The -dispute over the possession of Vermont had now raged fiercely for -thirteen years, and Schuyler, as a member of the New York legislature, -had naturally been zealous in urging the claims of his own state. For -this crime the men of New England were never able to forgive him, and he -was pursued with vindictive hatred until his career as a general was -ruined. His orders were obeyed with sullenness, the worst interpretation -was put upon every one of his acts, and evil-minded busybodies were -continually pouring into the ears of Congress a stream of tattle, which -gradually wore out their trust in him. - - [Sidenote: Horatio Gates] - -The evil was greatly enhanced by the fact that among the generals of the -northern army there was one envious creature who was likely to take -Schuyler's place in case he should be ousted from it, and who for so -desirable an object was ready to do any amount of intriguing. The part -sustained by Charles Lee with reference to Washington was to some extent -paralleled here by the part sustained toward Schuyler by Horatio Gates. -There is indeed no reason for supposing that Gates was capable of such -baseness as Lee exhibited in his willingness to play into the hands of -the enemy; nor had he the nerve for such prodigious treason as that in -which Arnold engaged after his sympathies had become alienated from the -American cause. With all his faults, Gates never incurred the odium -which belongs to a public traitor. But his nature was thoroughly weak -and petty, and he never shrank from falsehood when it seemed to serve -his purpose. Unlike Lee, he was comely in person, mild in disposition, -and courteous in manner, except when roused to anger or influenced by -spite, when he sometimes became very violent. He never gave evidence of -either skill or bravery; and in taking part in the war his only -solicitude seems to have been for his own personal advancement. In the -course of his campaigning with the northern army, he seems never once to -have been under fire, but he would incur no end of fatigue to get a -private talk with a delegate in Congress. Like many others, he took a -high position at the beginning of the struggle simply because he was a -veteran of the Seven Years' War, having been one of the officers who -were brought off in safety from the wreck of Braddock's army by the -youthful skill and prowess of Washington. At present, and until after -the end of the Saratoga campaign, such reputation as he had was won by -appropriating the fame which was earned by his fellow-generals. He was -in command at Ticonderoga when Arnold performed his venturesome feat on -Lake Champlain, and when Carleton made his blunder in not attacking the -stronghold; and all this story Gates told to Congress as the story of an -advantage which he had somehow gained over Carleton, at the same time -anxiously inquiring if Congress regarded him, in his remote position at -Ticonderoga, as subject to the orders of Schuyler at Albany. Finding -that he was thus regarded as subordinate, he became restive, and seized -the earliest opportunity of making a visit to Congress. The retreat of -Carleton enabled Schuyler to send seven regiments to the relief of -Washington in New Jersey, and we have already seen how Gates, on -arriving with this reinforcement, declined to assist personally in the -Trenton campaign, and took the occasion to follow Congress in its -retreat to Baltimore. - - [Portrait: Horatio Gates] - - [Sidenote: Gates intrigues against Schuyler] - -The winter seems to have been spent in intrigue. Knowing the chief -source of Schuyler's unpopularity, Gates made it a point to declare, as -often and as loudly as possible, his belief that the state of New York -had no title to the Green Mountain country. In this way he won golden -opinions from the people of New England, and rose high in the good -graces of such members of Congress as Samuel Adams, whose noble nature -was slow to perceive his meanness and duplicity. The failure of the -invasion of Canada had caused much chagrin in Congress, and it was -sought to throw the whole blame of it upon Schuyler for having, as it -was alleged, inadequately supported Montgomery and Arnold. The unjust -charge served to arouse a prejudice in many minds, and during the winter -some irritating letters passed between Schuyler and Congress, until late -in March, 1777, he obtained permission to visit Philadelphia and -vindicate himself. On the 22d of May, after a thorough investigation, -Schuyler's conduct received the full approval of Congress, and he was -confirmed in his command of the northern department, which was expressly -defined as including Lakes George and Champlain, as well as the valleys -of the Hudson and the Mohawk. - - [Sidenote: Gates visits Congress] - -The sensitive soul of Gates now took fresh offence. He had been sent -back in March to his post at Ticonderoga, just as Schuyler was starting -for Philadelphia, and he flattered himself with the hope that he would -soon be chosen to supersede his gallant commander. Accordingly when he -found that Schuyler had been reinstated in all his old command and -honours, he flew into a rage, refused to serve in a subordinate -capacity, wrote an impudent letter to Washington, and at last got -permission to visit Congress again, while General St. Clair was -appointed in his stead to the command of the great northern fortress. On -the 19th of June, Gates obtained a hearing before Congress, and behaved -with such unseemly violence that after being repeatedly called to order, -he was turned out of the room, amid a scene of angry confusion. Such -conduct should naturally have ruined his cause, but he had made so many -powerful friends that by dint of more or less apologetic talk the -offence was condoned. - - [Portrait: Arthur St. Clair] - - [Sidenote: Charges against Arnold] - -Throughout these bickerings Arnold had been the steadfast friend of -Schuyler; and although his brilliant exploits had won general -admiration, he did not fail to catch some of the odium so plentifully -bestowed upon the New York commander. In the chaos of disappointment and -wrath which ensued upon the disastrous retreat from Canada in 1776, when -everybody was eager to punish somebody else for the ill fortune which -was solely due to the superior resources of the enemy, Arnold came in -for his share of blame. No one could find any fault with his military -conduct, but charges were brought against him on the ground of some -exactions of private property at Montreal which had been made for the -support of the army. A thorough investigation of the case demonstrated -Arnold's entire uprightness in the matter, and the verdict of Congress, -which declared the charges to be "cruel and unjust," was indorsed by -Washington. Nevertheless, in the manifold complications of feeling which -surrounded the Schuyler trouble, these unjust charges succeeded in -arousing a prejudice which may have had something to do with the slight -cast upon Arnold in the appointment of the new major-generals. In the -whole course of American history there are few sadder chapters than -this. Among the scandals of this eventful winter we can trace the -beginnings of the melancholy chain of events which by and by resulted in -making the once heroic name of Benedict Arnold a name of opprobrium -throughout the world. We already begin to see, too, originating in Lee's -intrigues of the preceding autumn, and nourished by the troubles growing -out of the Vermont quarrel and the ambitious schemes of Gates, the -earliest germs of that faction which erelong was to seek to compass the -overthrow of Washington himself. - - [Sidenote: Tryon's expedition against Danbury] - - [Sidenote: Arnold defeats Tryon at Ridgefield, April 27, 1777] - -For the present the injustice suffered by Arnold had not wrought its -darksome change in him. A long and complicated series of influences was -required to produce that result. To the earnest appeal of Washington -that he should not resign he responded cordially, declaring that no -personal considerations should induce him to stay at home while the -interests of his country were at stake. He would zealously serve under -his juniors, who had lately been raised above him, so long as the common -welfare was in danger. An opportunity for active service soon presented -itself. Among the preparations for the coming summer campaign, Sir -William Howe thought it desirable to cripple the Americans by seizing a -large quantity of military stores which had been accumulated at Danbury -in Connecticut. An expedition was sent out, very much like that which at -Lexington and Concord had ushered in the war, and it met with a similar -reception. A force of 2,000 men, led by the royal governor, Tryon, of -North Carolina fame, landed at Fairfield, and marched to Danbury, where -they destroyed the stores and burned a large part of the town. The -militia turned out, as on the day of Lexington, led by General Wooster, -who was slain in the first skirmish. By this time Arnold, who happened -to be visiting his children in New Haven, had heard of the affair, and -came upon the scene with 600 men. At Ridgefield a desperate fight -ensued, in which Arnold had two horses killed under him. The British -were defeated. By the time they reached their ships, 200 of their number -had been killed or wounded, and, with the yeomanry swarming on every -side, they narrowly escaped capture. For his share in this action Arnold -was made a major-general, and was presented by Congress with a fine -horse; but nothing was done towards restoring him to his relative rank, -nor was any explanation vouchsafed. Washington offered him the command -of the Hudson at Peekskill, which was liable to prove one of the -important points in the ensuing campaign; but Arnold for the moment -declined to take any such position until he should have conferred with -Congress, and fathomed the nature of the difficulties by which he had -been beset; and so the command of this important position was given to -the veteran Putnam. - -The time for the summer campaign was now at hand. The first year of the -independence of the United States was nearly completed, and up to this -time the British had nothing to show for their work except the capture -of the city of New York and the occupation of Newport. The army of -Washington, which six months ago they had regarded as conquered and -dispersed, still balked and threatened them from its inexpugnable -position on the heights of Morristown. It was high time that something -more solid should be accomplished, for every month of adverse possession -added fresh weight to the American cause, and increased the probability -that France would interfere. - - [Sidenote: The military centre of the United States was the state of - New York] - -A decisive blow was accordingly about to be struck. After careful study -by Lord George Germain, and much consultation with General Burgoyne, who -had returned to England for the winter, it was decided to adhere to the -plan of the preceding year, with slight modifications. The great object -was to secure firm possession of the entire valley of the Hudson, -together with that of the Mohawk. It must be borne in mind that at this -time the inhabited part of the state of New York consisted almost -entirely of the Mohawk and Hudson valleys. All the rest was unbroken -wilderness, save for an occasional fortified trading-post. With a total -population of about 170,000, New York ranked seventh among the thirteen -states; just after Maryland and Connecticut, just before South Carolina. -At the same time, the geographical position of New York, whether from a -commercial or from a military point of view, was as commanding then as -it has ever been. It was thought that so small a population, among which -there were known to be many Tories, might easily be conquered and the -country firmly held. The people of New Jersey and Pennsylvania were -regarded as lukewarm supporters of the Declaration of Independence, and -it was supposed that the conquest of New York might soon be followed by -the subjection of these two provinces. With the British power thus -thrust, like a vast wedge, through the centre of the confederacy, it -would be impossible for New England to cooperate with the southern -states, and it was hoped that the union of the colonies against the -Crown would thus be effectually broken. - - [Portrait: GENERAL BURGOYNE] - - [Signature: J Burgoyne] - - [Sidenote: A second blow to be struck at the centre. The plan of - campaign] - -With this object of conquering New York, we have seen Carleton, in 1776, -approaching through Lake Champlain, while Howe was wresting Manhattan -Island from Washington. But the plan was imperfectly conceived, and the -cooperation was feeble. How feeble it was is well shown by the fact that -Carleton's ill-judged retreat from Crown Point enabled Schuyler to send -reinforcements to Washington in time to take part in the great strokes -at Trenton and Princeton. Something, however, had been accomplished. In -spite of Arnold's desperate resistance and Washington's consummate -skill, the enemy had gained a hold upon both the northern and the -southern ends of the long line. But this obstinate resistance served to -some extent to awaken the enemy to the arduous character of the problem. -The plan was more carefully studied, and it was intended that this time -the cooperation should be more effectual. In order to take possession of -the whole state by one grand system of operations, it was decided that -the invasion should be conducted by three distinct armies operating upon -converging lines. A strong force from Canada was to take Ticonderoga, -and proceed down the line of the Hudson to Albany. This force was now to -be commanded by General Burgoyne, while his superior officer, General -Carleton, remained at Quebec. A second and much smaller force, under -Colonel St. Leger, was to go up the St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario, land -at Oswego, and, with the aid of Sir John Johnson and the Indians, reduce -Fort Stanwix; after which he was to come down the Mohawk valley and -unite his forces with those of Burgoyne. At the same time, Sir William -Howe was to ascend the Hudson with the main army, force the passes of -the Highlands at Peekskill, and effect a junction with Burgoyne at -Albany. The junction of the three armies was expected to complete the -conquest of New York, and to insure the overthrow of American -independence. - - [Illustration: BURGOYNE'S INVASION OF NEW YORK, JULY-OCTOBER, 1777] - - [Sidenote: The plan was unsound] - -Such was the plan of campaign prepared by the ministry. There can be no -doubt that it was carefully studied, or that, if successful, it would -have proved very disastrous to the Americans. There is room for very -grave doubt, however, as to whether it was the most judicious plan to -adopt. The method of invading any country by distinct forces operating -upon converging lines is open to the objection that either force is -liable to be separately overwhelmed without the possibility of -reinforcement from the other. Such a plan is prudent only when the -invaded country has good roads, and when the invaders have a great -superiority in force, as was the case when the allied armies advanced -upon Paris in 1814. In northern and central New York, in 1777, the -conditions were very unfavourable to such a plan. The distances to be -traversed were long, and the roads were few and bad. Except in the -immediate neighbourhood of Albany and Saratoga, the country was covered -with the primeval forest, through which only the trapper and the savage -could make their way with speed. The Americans, too, had the great -advantage of operating upon interior lines. It was difficult for -Burgoyne at Fort Edward, St. Leger before Fort Stanwix, and Howe in the -city of New York to communicate with each other at all; it was -impossible for them to do so promptly; whereas nothing could be easier -than for Washington at Morristown to reach Putnam at Peekskill, or for -Putnam to forward troops to Schuyler at Albany, or for Schuyler to send -out a force to raise the siege of Fort Stanwix. In view of these -considerations, it seems probable that Lord George Germain would have -acted more wisely if he had sent Burgoyne with his army directly by sea -to reinforce Sir William Howe. The army thus united, and numbering more -than 30,000 men, would have been really formidable. If they had -undertaken to go up the river to Albany, it would have been hard to -prevent them. If their united presence at Albany was the great object of -the campaign, there was no advantage in sending one commander to reach -it by a difficult and dangerous overland march. The Hudson is -navigable by large vessels all the way to Albany, and by advancing in -this way the army might have preserved its connections; and whatever -disaster might have befallen, it would have been difficult for the -Americans to surround and capture so large a force. Once arrived at -Albany, the expedition of St. Leger might have set out from that point -as a matter of subsequent detail, and would have had a base within easy -distance upon which to fall back in case of defeat. - - [Sidenote: Germain's fatal error] - -It does not appear, therefore, that there were any advantages to be -gained by Burgoyne's advance from the north which can be regarded as -commensurate with the risk which he incurred. To have transferred the -northern army from the St. Lawrence to the Hudson by sea would have been -far easier and safer than to send it through a hundred miles of -wilderness in northern New York; and whatever it could have effected in -the interior of the state could have been done as well in the former -case as in the latter. But these considerations do not seem to have -occurred to Lord George Germain. In the wars with the French, the -invading armies from Canada had always come by way of Lake Champlain, so -that this route was accepted without question, as if consecrated by long -usage. Through a similar association of ideas an exaggerated importance -was attached to the possession of Ticonderoga. The risks of the -enterprise, moreover, were greatly underestimated. In imagining that the -routes of Burgoyne and St. Leger would lie through a friendly country, -the ministry fatally misconceived the whole case. There was, indeed, a -powerful Tory party in the country, just as in the days of Robert Bruce -there was an English party in Scotland, just as in the days of Miltiades -there was a Persian party in Attika. But no one has ever doubted that -the victors at Marathon and at Bannockburn went forth with a hearty -godspeed from their fellow-countrymen; and the obstinate resistance -encountered by St. Leger, within a short distance of Johnson's Tory -stronghold, is an eloquent commentary upon the error of the ministry in -their estimate of the actual significance of the loyalist element on the -New York frontier. - - [Illustration: RUINS OF TICONDEROGA IN 1818] - - [Sidenote: Too many unknown quantities] - -It thus appears that in the plan of a triple invasion upon converging -lines the ministry were dealing with too many unknown quantities. They -were running a prodigious risk for the sake of an advantage which in -itself was extremely open to question; for should it turn out that the -strength of the Tory party was not sufficiently great to make the -junction of the three armies at Albany at once equivalent to the -complete conquest of the state, then the end for which the campaign was -undertaken could not be secured without supplementary campaigns. Neither -a successful march up and down the Hudson river nor the erection of a -chain of British fortresses on that river could effectually cut off the -southern communications of New England, unless all military resistance -were finally crushed in the state of New York. The surest course for -the British, therefore, would have been to concentrate all their -available force at the mouth of the Hudson, and continue to make the -destruction of Washington's army the chief object of their exertions. In -view of the subtle genius which he had shown during the last campaign, -that would have been an arduous task; but, as events showed, they had to -deal with his genius all the same on the plan which they adopted, and at -a great disadvantage. - - [Sidenote: Danger from New England ignored] - -Another point which the ministry overlooked was the effect of Burgoyne's -advance upon the people of New England. They could reasonably count upon -alarming the yeomanry of New Hampshire and Massachusetts by a bold -stroke upon the Hudson, but they failed to see that this alarm would -naturally bring about a rising that would be very dangerous to the -British cause. Difficult as it was at that time to keep the Continental -army properly recruited, it was not at all difficult to arouse the -yeomanry in the presence of an immediate danger. In the western parts of -New England there were scarcely any Tories to complicate the matter; and -the flank movement by the New England militia became one of the most -formidable features in the case. - - [Sidenote: The dispatch that was never sent] - -But whatever may be thought of the merits of Lord George's plan, there -can be no doubt that its success was absolutely dependent upon the -harmonious cooperation of all the forces involved in it. The ascent of -the Hudson by Sir William Howe, with the main army, was as essential a -part of the scheme as the descent of Burgoyne from the north; and as the -two commanders could not easily communicate with each other, it was -necessary that both should be strictly bound by their instructions. At -this point a fatal blunder was made. Burgoyne was expressly directed to -follow the prescribed line down the Hudson, whatever might happen, until -he should effect his junction with the main army. On the other hand, no -such unconditional orders were received by Howe. He understood the plan -of campaign, and knew that he was expected to ascend the river in -force; but he was left with the usual discretionary power, and we shall -presently see what an imprudent use he made of it. The reasons for this -inconsistency on the part of the ministry were for a long time -unintelligible; but a memorandum of Lord Shelburne, lately brought to -light by Lord Edmund Fitzmaurice, has solved the mystery. It seems that -a dispatch, containing positive and explicit orders for Howe to ascend -the Hudson, was duly drafted, and, with many other papers, awaited the -minister's signature. Lord George Germain, being on his way to the -country, called at his office to sign the dispatches; but when he came -to the letter addressed to General Howe, he found it had not been "fair -copied." Lord George, like the old gentleman who killed himself in -defence of the great principle that crumpets are wholesome, never would -be put out of his way by anything. Unwilling to lose his holiday, he -hurried off to the green meadows of Kent, intending to sign the letter -on his return. But when he came back the matter had slipped from his -mind. The document on which hung the fortunes of an army, and perhaps of -a nation, got thrust unsigned into a pigeon-hole, where it was duly -discovered some time after the disaster at Saratoga had become part of -history. - - * * * * * - - [Portrait: Riedesel] - - [Portrait: W Phillips] - - [Sidenote: Burgoyne advances upon Ticonderoga] - - [Sidenote: Phillips seizes Mount Defiance] - - [Sidenote: St. Clair abandons Ticonderoga, July 5, 1777] - - [Sidenote: Battle of Hubbardton, July 7] - -Happy in his ignorance of the risks he was assuming, Burgoyne took the -field about the 1st of June, with an army of 7,902 men, of whom 4,135 -were British regulars. His German troops from Brunswick, 3,116 in -number, were commanded by Baron Riedesel, an able general, whose -accomplished wife has left us such a picturesque and charming -description of the scenes of this adventurous campaign. Of Canadian -militia there were 148, and of Indians 503. The regular troops, both -German and English, were superbly trained and equipped, and their -officers were selected with especial care. Generals Phillips and Fraser -were regarded as among the best officers in the British service. On the -second anniversary of Bunker Hill this army began crossing the lake to -Crown Point; and on the 1st of July it appeared before Ticonderoga, -where St. Clair was posted with a garrison of 3,000 men. Since its -capture by Allen, the fortress had been carefully strengthened, until it -was now believed to be impregnable. But while no end of time and expense -had been devoted to the fortifications, a neighbouring point which -commands the whole position had been strangely neglected. A little less -than a mile south of Ticonderoga, the narrow mountain ridge between the -two lakes ends abruptly in a bold crag, which rises 600 feet sheer over -the blue water. Practised eyes in the American fort had already seen -that a hostile battery Phillips planted on this eminence would render -their stronghold untenable; but it was not believed that siege-guns -could be dragged up the steep ascent, and so, in spite of due warning, -the crag had not been secured when the British army arrived. General -Phillips at once saw the value of the position, and, approaching it by a -defile that was screened from the view of the fort, worked night and day -in breaking out a pathway and dragging up cannon. "Where a goat can go, -a man may go; and where a man can go, he can haul up a gun," argued the -gallant general. Great was the astonishment of the garrison when, on the -morning of July 5th, they saw red coats swarming on the hill, which the -British, rejoicing in their exploit, now named Mount Defiance. There -were not only red coats there, but brass cannon, which by the next day -would be ready for work. Ticonderoga had become a trap, from which the -garrison could not escape too quickly. A council of war was held, and -under cover of night St. Clair took his little army across the lake and -retreated upon Castleton in the Green Mountains. Such guns and stores as -could be saved, with the women and wounded men, were embarked in 200 -boats, and sent, under a strong escort, to the head of the lake, whence -they continued their retreat to Fort Edward on the Hudson. About three -o'clock in the morning a house accidentally took fire, and in the glare -of the flames the British sentinels caught a glimpse of the American -rear-guard just as it was vanishing in the sombre depths of the forest. -Alarm guns were fired, and in less than an hour the British flag was -hoisted over the empty fortress, while General Fraser, with 900 men, had -started in hot pursuit of the retreating Americans. Riedesel was soon -sent to support him, while Burgoyne, leaving nearly 1,000 men to -garrison the fort, started up the lake with the main body of the army. -On the morning of the 7th, General Fraser overtook the American -rear-guard of 1,000 men, under Colonels Warner and Francis, at the -village of Hubbardton, about six miles behind the main army. A fierce -fight ensued, in which Fraser was worsted, and had begun to fall back, -with the loss of one fifth of his men, when Riedesel came up with his -Germans, and the Americans were put to flight, leaving one third of -their number killed or wounded. This obstinate resistance at Hubbardton -served to check the pursuit, and five days later St. Clair succeeded, -without further loss, in reaching Fort Edward, where he joined the main -army under Schuyler. - - [Illustration: TRUMBULL'S PLAN OF TICONDEROGA AND MOUNT DEFIANCE] - - [Sidenote: One swallow does not make a summer] - -Up to this moment, considering the amount of work done and the extent of -country traversed, the loss of the British had been very small. They -began to speak contemptuously of their antagonists, and the officers -amused themselves by laying wagers as to the precise number of days it -would take them to reach Albany. In commenting on the failure to occupy -Mount Defiance, Burgoyne made a general statement on the strength of a -single instance,--which is the besetting sin of human reasoning. "It -convinces me," said he, "that the Americans have no men of military -science." Yet General Howe at Boston, in neglecting to occupy Dorchester -Heights, had made just the same blunder, and with less excuse; for no -one had ever doubted that batteries might be placed there by somebody. - - [Sidenote: The king's glee] - - [Sidenote: Wrath of John Adams] - - [Sidenote: Gates chiefly to blame] - -In England the fall of Ticonderoga was greeted with exultation, as the -death-blow to the American cause. Horace Walpole tells how the king -rushed into the queen's apartment, clapping his hands and shouting, "I -have beat them! I have beat all the Americans!" People began to discuss -the best method of reestablishing the royal governments in the -"colonies." In America there was general consternation. St. Clair was -greeted with a storm of abuse. John Adams, then president of the Board -of War, wrote, in the first white heat of indignation, "We shall never -be able to defend a post till we shoot a general!" Schuyler, too, as -commander of the department, was ignorantly and wildly blamed, and his -political enemies seized upon the occasion to circulate fresh stories to -his discredit. A court-martial in the following year vindicated St. -Clair's prudence in giving up an untenable position and saving his army -from capture. The verdict was just, but there is no doubt that the -failure to fortify Mount Defiance was a grave error of judgment, for -which the historian may fairly apportion the blame between St. Clair and -Gates. It was Gates who had been in command of Ticonderoga in the autumn -of 1776, when an attack by Carleton was expected, and his attention had -been called to this weak point by Colonel Trumbull, whom he laughed to -scorn. Gates had again been in command from March to June. St. Clair had -taken command about three weeks before Burgoyne's approach; he had -seriously considered the question of fortifying Mount Defiance, but had -not been sufficiently prompt. In no case could any blame attach to -Schuyler. Gates was more at fault than any one else, but he did not -happen to be at hand when the catastrophe occurred, and accordingly -people did not associate him with it. On the contrary, amid the general -wrath, the loss of the northern citadel was alleged as a reason for -superseding Schuyler by Gates; for if he had been there, it was thought -that the disaster would have been prevented. - - [Portrait: W Turnbull] - - [Sidenote: Burgoyne's difficulties begin] - -The irony of events, however, alike ignoring American consternation and -British glee, showed that the capture of Ticonderoga was not to help the -invaders in the least. On the contrary, it straightway became a burden, -for it detained an eighth part of Burgoyne's force in garrison at a time -when he could ill spare it. Indeed, alarming as his swift advance had -seemed at first, Burgoyne's serious difficulties were now just -beginning, and the harder he laboured to surmount them the more -completely did he work himself into a position from which it was -impossible either to advance or to recede. On the 10th of July his -whole army had reached Skenesborough (now Whitehall), at the head of -Lake Champlain. From this point to Fort Edward, where the American army -was encamped, the distance was twenty miles as the crow flies; but -Schuyler had been industriously at work with those humble weapons the -axe and the crowbar, which in warfare sometimes prove mightier than the -sword. The roads, bad enough at their best, were obstructed every few -yards by huge trunks of fallen trees, that lay with their boughs -interwoven. Wherever the little streams could serve as aids to the -march, they were choked up with stumps and stones; wherever they served -as obstacles which needed to be crossed, the bridges were broken down. -The country was such an intricate labyrinth of creeks and swamps that -more than forty bridges had to be rebuilt in the course of the march. -Under these circumstances, Burgoyne's advance must be regarded as a -marvel of celerity. He accomplished a mile a day, and reached Fort -Edward on the 30th of July. - - [Sidenote: Schuyler wisely evacuates Fort Edward] - - [Sidenote: Enemies gathering in Burgoyne's rear] - -In the mean time Schuyler had crossed the Hudson, and slowly fallen back -to Stillwater. For this retrograde movement fresh blame was visited upon -him by the general public, which at all times is apt to suppose that a -war should mainly consist of bloody battles, and which can seldom be -made to understand the strategic value of a retreat. The facts of the -case were also misunderstood. Fort Edward was supposed to be an -impregnable stronghold, whereas it was really commanded by highlands. -The Marquis de Chastellux, who visited it somewhat later, declared that -it could be taken at any time by 500 men with four siege-guns. Now for -fighting purposes an open field is much better than an untenable -fortress. If Schuyler had stayed in Fort Edward, he would probably have -been forced to surrender; and his wisdom in retreating is further shown -by the fact that every moment of delay counted in his favour. The -militia of New York and New England were already beating to arms. Some -of those yeomen who were with the army were allowed to go home for the -harvest; but the loss was more than made good by the numerous levies -which, at Schuyler's suggestion and by Washington's orders, were -collecting under General Lincoln in Vermont, for the purpose of -threatening Burgoyne in the rear. The people whose territory was invaded -grew daily more troublesome to the enemy. Burgoyne had supposed that it -would be necessary only to show himself at the head of an army, when the -people would rush by hundreds to offer support or seek protection. He -now found that the people withdrew from his line of advance, driving -their cattle before them, and seeking shelter, when possible, within the -lines of the American army. In his reliance upon the aid of New York -loyalists, he was utterly disappointed; very few Tories joined him, and -these could offer neither sound advice nor personal influence wherewith -to help him. When the yeomanry collected by hundreds, it was only to vex -him and retard his progress. - - [Sidenote: Use of Indian auxiliaries] - - [Sidenote: Burgoyne's address to the chiefs] - -Even had the loyalist feeling on the Vermont frontier of New York been -far stronger than it really was, Burgoyne had done much to alienate or -stifle it by his ill-advised employment of Indian auxiliaries. For this -blunder the responsibility rests mainly with Lord North and Lord George -Germain. Burgoyne had little choice in the matter except to carry out -his instructions. Being a humane man, and sharing, perhaps, in that view -of the "noble savage" which was fashionable in Europe in the eighteenth -century, he fancied he could prevail upon his tawny allies to forego -their cherished pastime of murdering and scalping. When, at the -beginning of the campaign, he was joined by a party of Wyandots and -Ottawas, under command of that same redoubtable Charles de Langlade who, -twenty-two years before, had achieved the ruin of Braddock, he explained -his policy to them in an elaborate speech, full of such sentimental -phrases as the Indian mind was supposed to delight in. The slaughter of -aged men, of women and children and unresisting prisoners, was -absolutely prohibited; and "on no account, or pretense, or subtlety, or -prevarication," were scalps to be taken from wounded or dying men. An -order more likely to prove efficient was one which provided a reward for -every savage who should bring his prisoners to camp in safety. To these -injunctions, which must have inspired them with pitying contempt, the -chiefs laconically replied that they had "sharpened their hatchets upon -their affections," and were ready to follow their "great white father." - - [Portrait: LORD NORTH] - - [Sidenote: It is ridiculed by Burke] - -The employment of Indian auxiliaries was indignantly denounced by the -opposition in Parliament, and when the news of this speech of Burgoyne's -reached England it was angrily ridiculed by Burke, who took a sounder -view of the natural instincts of the red man. "Suppose," said Burke, -"that there was a riot on Tower Hill. What would the keeper of his -majesty's lions do? Would he not fling open the dens of the wild beasts, -and then address them thus? 'My gentle lions, my humane bears, my -tender-hearted hyenas, go forth! But I exhort you, as you are Christians -and members of civilized society, to take care not to hurt any man, -woman, or child.'" The House of Commons was convulsed over this -grotesque picture; and Lord North, to whom it seemed irresistibly funny -to hear an absent man thus denounced for measures which he himself had -originated, sat choking with laughter, while tears rolled down his great -fat cheeks. - - [Sidenote: The story of Jane McCrea] - -It soon turned out, however, to be no laughing matter. The cruelties -inflicted indiscriminately upon patriots and loyalists soon served to -madden the yeomanry, and array against the invaders whatever wavering -sentiment had hitherto remained in the country. One sad incident in -particular has been treasured up in the memory of the people, and -celebrated in song and story. Jenny McCrea, the beautiful daughter of a -Scotch clergyman of Paulus Hook, was at Fort Edward, visiting her friend -Mrs. McNeil, who was a loyalist and a cousin of General Fraser. On the -morning of July 27th, a marauding party of Indians burst into the house, -and carried away the two ladies. They were soon pursued by some American -soldiers, who exchanged a few shots with them. In the confusion which -ensued the party was scattered, and Mrs. McNeil was taken alone into the -camp of the approaching British army. Next day a savage of gigantic -stature, a famous sachem, known as the Wyandot Panther, came into the -camp with a scalp which Mrs. McNeil at once recognized as Jenny's, from -the silky black tresses, more than a yard in length. A search was made, -and the body of the poor girl was found hard by a spring in the forest, -pierced with three bullet wounds. How she came to her cruel death was -never known. The Panther plausibly declared that she had been -accidentally shot during the scuffle with the soldiers, but his veracity -was open to question, and the few facts that were known left ample room -for conjecture. The popular imagination soon framed its story with a -romantic completeness that thrust aside even these few facts. Miss -McCrea was betrothed to David Jones, a loyalist who was serving as -lieutenant in Burgoyne's army. In the legend which immediately sprang -up, Mr. Jones was said to have sent a party of Indians, with a letter to -his betrothed, entreating her to come to him within the British lines -that they might be married. For bringing her to him in safety the -Indians were to receive a barrel of rum. When she had entrusted herself -to their care, and the party had proceeded as far as the spring, where -the savages stopped to drink, a dispute arose as to who was to have the -custody of the barrel of rum, and many high words ensued, until one of -the party settled the question offhand by slaying the lady with his -tomahawk. It would be hard to find a more interesting example of the -mushroom-like growth and obstinate vitality of a romantic legend. The -story seems to have had nothing in common with the observed facts, -except the existence of the two lovers and the Indians and a spring in -the forest.[12] Yet it took possession of the popular mind almost -immediately after the event, and it has ever since been repeated, with -endless variations in detail, by American historians. Mr. Jones -himself--who lived, a broken-hearted man, for half a century after the -tragedy--was never weary of pointing out its falsehood and absurdity; -but all his testimony, together with that of Mrs. McNeil and other -witnesses, to the facts that really happened was powerless to shake the -hold upon the popular fancy which the legend had instantly gained. Such -an instance, occurring in a community of shrewd and well-educated -people, affords a suggestive commentary upon the origin and growth of -popular tales in earlier and more ignorant ages. - - [Illustration: THE ALLIES--PAR NOBILE FRATRUM[13]] - - [Sidenote: The Indians desert Burgoyne] - -But in whatever way poor Jenny may have come to her death, there can be -no doubt as to the mischief which it swiftly wrought for the invading -army. In the first place, it led to the desertion of all the Indian -allies. Burgoyne was a man of quick and tender sympathy, and the fate of -this sweet young lady shocked him as it shocked the American people. He -would have had the Panther promptly hanged, but that his guilt was not -clearly proved, and many of the officers argued that the execution of a -famous and popular sachem would enrage all the other Indians, and might -endanger the lives of many of the soldiers. The Panther's life was -accordingly spared, but Burgoyne made it a rule that henceforth no party -of Indians should be allowed to go marauding save under the lead of some -British officer, who might watch and restrain them. When this rule was -put in force, the tawny savages grunted and growled for two or three -days, and then, with hoarse yells and hoots, all the five hundred broke -loose from the camp, and scampered off to the Adirondack wilderness. -From a military point of view, the loss was small, save in so far as it -deprived the army of valuable scouts and guides. But the thirst for -vengeance which was aroused among the yeomanry of northern New York, of -Vermont, and of western Massachusetts, was a much more serious matter. -The lamentable story was told at every village fireside, and no detail -of pathos or of horror was forgotten. The name of Jenny McCrea became a -watchword, and a fortnight had not passed before General Lincoln had -gathered on the British flank an army of stout and resolute farmers, -inflamed with such wrath as had not filled their bosoms since the day -when all New England had rushed to besiege the enemy in Boston. - - [Sidenote: Importance of Bennington; Burgoyne sends a German force - against it] - -Such a force of untrained yeomanry is of little use in prolonged -warfare, but on important occasions it is sometimes capable of dealing -heavy blows. We have seen what it could do on the memorable day of -Lexington. It was now about to strike, at a critical moment, with still -more deadly effect. Burgoyne's advance, laborious as it had been for the -last three weeks, was now stopped for want of horses to drag the cannon -and carry the provision bags; and the army, moreover, was already -suffering from hunger. The little village of Bennington, at the foot of -the Green Mountains, had been selected by the New England militia as a -centre of supplies. Many hundred horses had been collected there, with -ample stores of food and ammunition. To capture this village would give -Burgoyne the warlike material he wanted, while at the same time it would -paralyze the movements of Lincoln, and perhaps dispel the ominous cloud -that was gathering over the rear of the British army. Accordingly, on -the 13th of August, a strong detachment of 500 of Riedesel's men, with -100 newly arrived Indians and a couple of cannon, was sent out to seize -the stores at Bennington. Lieutenant-Colonel Baum commanded the -expedition, and he was accompanied by Major Skene, an American loyalist, -who assured Burgoyne on his honour that the Green Mountains were -swarming with devoted subjects of King George, who would flock by -hundreds to his standard as soon as it should be set up among them. That -these loyal recruits might be organized as quickly as possible, Burgoyne -sent along with the expedition a skeleton regiment of loyalists, all -duly officered, into the ranks of which they might be mustered without -delay. The loyal recruits, however, turned out to be the phantom of a -distempered imagination: not one of them appeared in the flesh. On the -contrary, the demeanour of the people was so threatening that Baum -became convinced that hard work was before him, and next day he sent -back for reinforcements. Lieutenant-Colonel Breymann was accordingly -sent to support him, with another body of 500 Germans and two -field-pieces. - - [Sidenote: Stark prepares to receive the Germans] - -Meanwhile Colonel Stark was preparing a warm reception for the invaders. -We have already seen John Stark, a gallant veteran of the Seven Years' -War, serving with distinction at Bunker Hill and at Trenton and -Princeton. He was considered one of the ablest officers in the army; but -he had lately gone home in disgust, for, like Arnold, had been passed -over by Congress in the list of promotions. Tired of sulking in his -tent, no sooner did this rustic Achilles hear of the invaders' presence -in New England than he forthwith sprang to arms, and in the twinkling of -an eye 800 stout yeomen were marching under his orders. He refused to -take instructions from any superior officer, but declared that he was -acting under the sovereignty of New Hampshire alone, and would proceed -upon his own responsibility in defending the common cause. At the same -time he sent word to General Lincoln, at Manchester in the Green -Mountains, asking him to lend him the services of Colonel Seth Warner, -with the gallant regiment which had checked the advance of Fraser at -Hubbardton. Lincoln sent the reinforcement without delay, and after -marching all night in a drenching rain, the men reached Bennington in -the morning, wet to the skin. Telling them to follow him as soon as they -should have dried and rested themselves, Stark pushed on with his main -body, and found the enemy about six miles distant. On meeting this large -force, Baum hastily took up a strong position on some rising ground -behind a small stream, everywhere fordable, known as the Walloomsac -river. All day long the rain fell in torrents, and while the Germans -began to throw up intrenchments, Stark laid his plans for storming -their position on the morrow. During the night a company of Berkshire -militia arrived, and with them the excellent Mr. Allen, the warlike -parson of Pittsfield, who went up to Stark and said, "Colonel, our -Berkshire people have been often called out to no purpose, and if you -don't let them fight now they will never turn out again." "Well," said -Stark, "would you have us turn out now, while it is pitch dark and -raining buckets?" "No, not just this minute," replied the minister. -"Then," said the doughty Stark, "as soon as the Lord shall once more -send us sunshine, if I don't give you fighting enough, I'll never ask -you to come out again!" - - [Sidenote: Battle of Bennington, Aug. 16, 1777] - - [Sidenote: The invading force annihilated] - -Next morning the sun rose bright and clear, and a steam came up from the -sodden fields. It was a true dog-day, sultry and scorching. The forenoon -was taken up in preparing the attack, while Baum waited in his strong -position. The New Englanders outnumbered the Germans two to one, but -they were a militia, unfurnished with bayonets or cannon, while Baum's -soldiers were all regulars, picked from the bravest of the troops which -Ferdinand of Brunswick had led to victory at Creveld and Minden. But the -worthy German commander, in this strange country, was no match for the -astute Yankee on his own ground. Stealthily and leisurely, during the -whole forenoon, the New England farmers marched around into Baum's rear. -They did not march in military array, but in little squads, half a dozen -at a time, dressed in their rustic blue frocks. There was nothing in -their appearance which to a European veteran like Baum could seem at all -soldier-like, and he thought that here at last were those blessed -Tories, whom he had been taught to look out for, coming to place -themselves behind him for protection. Early in the afternoon he was -cruelly undeceived. For while 500 of these innocent creatures opened -upon him a deadly fire in the rear and on both flanks, Stark, with 500 -more, charged across the shallow stream and assailed him in front. The -Indians instantly broke and fled screeching to the woods, while yet -there was time for escape. The Germans stood their ground, and fought -desperately; but thus attacked on all sides at once, they were soon -thrown into disorder, and after a two hours' struggle, in which Baum was -mortally wounded, they were all captured. At this moment, as the New -England men began to scatter to the plunder of the German camp, the -relieving force of Breymann came upon the scene; and the fortunes of the -day might have been changed, had not Warner also arrived with his 150 -fresh men in excellent order. A furious charge was made upon Breymann, -who gave way, and retreated slowly from hill to hill, while parties of -Americans kept pushing on to his rear to cut him off. By eight in the -evening, when it had grown too dark to aim a gun, this second German -force was entirely dispersed or captured. Breymann, with a mere -corporal's guard of sixty or seventy men, escaped under cover of -darkness, and reached the British camp in safety. Of the whole German -force of 1,000 men, 207 had been killed and wounded, and more than 700 -had been captured. Among the spoils of victory were 1,000 stand of arms, -1,000 dragoon swords, and four field-pieces. Of the Americans 14 were -killed and 42 wounded. - - [Illustration: CANNON CAPTURED AT BENNINGTON] - - [Sidenote: Effect of the news; Burgoyne's enemies multiply] - -The news of this brilliant victory spread joy and hope throughout the -land. Insubordination which had been crowned with such splendid success -could not but be overlooked, and the gallant Stark was at once taken -back into the army, and made a brigadier-general. Not least among the -grounds of exultation was the fact that an army of yeomanry had not -merely defeated, but annihilated, an army of the Brunswick regulars, -with whose European reputation for bravery and discipline every man in -the country was familiar. The bolder spirits began to ask the question -why that which had been done to Baum and Breymann might not be done to -Burgoyne's whole army; and in the excitement of this rising hope, -reinforcements began to pour in faster and faster, both to Schuyler at -Stillwater and to Lincoln at Manchester. On the other hand, Burgoyne at -Fort Edward was fast losing heart, as dangers thickened around him. So -far from securing his supplies of horses, wagons, and food by this -stroke at Bennington, he had simply lost one seventh part of his -available army, and he was now clearly in need of reinforcements as well -as supplies. But no word had yet come from Sir William Howe, and the -news from St. Leger was anything but encouraging. It is now time for us -to turn westward and follow the wild fortunes of the second invading -column. - - * * * * * - - [Illustration: COLONEL BARRY ST. LEGER] - - [Sidenote: Advance of St. Leger upon Fort Stanwix] - - [Sidenote: Herkimer marches against him] - - [Sidenote: Herkimer's plan] - -About the middle of July, St. Leger had landed at Oswego, where he was -joined by Sir John Johnson with his famous Tory regiment known as the -Royal Greens, and Colonel John Butler with his company of Tory rangers. -Great efforts had been made by Johnson to secure the aid of the Iroquois -tribes, but only with partial success. For once the Long House was -fairly divided against itself, and the result of the present campaign -did not redound to its future prosperity. The Mohawks, under their great -chief Thayendanegea, better known as Joseph Brant, entered heartily into -the British cause, and they were followed, though with less alacrity, by -the Cayugas and Senecas; but the central tribe, the Onondagas, remained -neutral. Under the influence of the missionary, Samuel Kirkland, the -Oneidas and Tuscaroras actively aided the Americans, though they did not -take the field. After duly arranging his motley force, which amounted to -about 1,700 men, St. Leger advanced very cautiously through the woods, -and sat down before Fort Stanwix on the 3d of August. This stronghold, -which had been built in 1758, on the watershed between the Hudson and -Lake Ontario, commanded the main line of traffic between New York and -Upper Canada. The place was then on the very outskirts of civilization, -and under the powerful influence of Johnson the Tory element was -stronger here than in any other part of the state. Even here, however, -the strength of the patriot party turned out to be much greater than had -been supposed, and at the approach of the enemy the people began to rise -in arms. In this part of New York there were many Germans, whose -ancestors had come over to America in consequence of the devastation of -the Palatinate by Louis XIV.; and among these there was one stout -patriot whose name shines conspicuously in the picturesque annals of the -Revolution. General Nicholas Herkimer, commander of the militia of Tryon -County, a veteran over sixty years of age, no sooner heard of St. -Leger's approach than he started out to the rescue of Fort Stanwix; and -by the 5th of August he had reached Oriskany, about eight miles distant, -at the head of 800 men. The garrison of the fort, 600 in number, under -Colonel Peter Gansevoort, had already laughed to scorn St. Leger's -summons to surrender, when, on the morning of the 6th, they heard a -distant firing to the eastward, which they could not account for. The -mystery was explained when three friendly messengers floundered through -a dangerous swamp into the fort, and told them of Herkimer's approach -and of his purpose. The plan was to overwhelm St. Leger by a concerted -attack in front and rear. The garrison was to make a furious sortie, -while Herkimer, advancing through the forest, was to fall suddenly upon -the enemy from behind; and thus it was hoped that his army might be -crushed or captured at a single blow. To ensure completeness of -cooperation, Colonel Gansevoort was to fire three guns immediately upon -receiving the message, and upon hearing this signal Herkimer would begin -his march from Oriskany. Gansevoort would then make such demonstrations -as to keep the whole attention of the enemy concentrated upon the fort, -and thus guard Herkimer against a surprise by the way, until, after the -proper interval of time, the garrison should sally forth in full force. - - [Illustration: Plan of Fort Stanwix] - - [Portrait: Peter Gansevoort] - - [Sidenote: Failure of the plan] - -In this bold scheme everything depended upon absolute coordination in -time. Herkimer had dispatched his messengers so early on the evening of -the 5th that they ought to have reached the fort by three o'clock the -next morning, and at about that time he began listening for the -signal-guns. But through some unexplained delay it was nearly eleven in -the forenoon when the messengers reached the fort, as just described. -Meanwhile, as hour after hour passed by, and no signal-guns were heard -by Herkimer's men, they grew impatient, and insisted upon going ahead, -without regard to the preconcerted plan. Much unseemly wrangling ensued, -in which Herkimer was called a coward and accused of being a Tory at -heart, until, stung by these taunts, the brave old man at length gave -way, and at about nine o'clock the forward march was resumed. At this -time his tardy messengers still lacked two hours of reaching the fort, -but St. Leger's Indian scouts had already discovered and reported the -approach of the American force, and a strong detachment of Johnson's -Greens under Major Watts, together with Brant and his Mohawks, had been -sent out to intercept them. - - [Sidenote: Thayendanegea prepares an ambuscade] - - [Sidenote: Battle of Oriskany, Aug. 6, 1777] - -About two miles west of Oriskany the road was crossed by a deep -semicircular ravine, concave toward the east. The bottom of this ravine -was a swamp, across which the road was carried by a causeway of logs, -and the steep banks on either side were thickly covered with trees and -underbrush. The practised eye of Thayendanegea at once perceived the -rare advantage of such a position, and an ambuscade was soon prepared -with a skill as deadly as that which once had wrecked the proud army of -Braddock. But this time it was a meeting of Greek with Greek, and the -wiles of the savage chief were foiled by a desperate valour which -nothing could overcome. By ten o'clock the main body of Herkimer's army -had descended into the ravine, followed by the wagons, while the -rear-guard was still on the rising ground behind. At this moment they -were greeted by a murderous volley from either side, while Johnson's -Greens came charging down upon them in front, and the Indians, with -frightful yells, swarmed in behind and cut off the rear-guard, which was -thus obliged to retreat to save itself. For a moment the main body was -thrown into confusion, but it soon rallied and formed itself in a -circle, which neither bayonet charges nor musket fire could break or -penetrate. The scene which ensued was one of the most infernal that the -history of savage warfare has ever witnessed. The dark ravine was filled -with a mass of fifteen hundred human beings, screaming and cursing, -slipping in the mire, pushing and struggling, seizing each other's -throats, stabbing, shooting, and dashing out brains. Bodies of -neighbours were afterwards found lying in the bog, where they had gone -down in a death-grapple, their cold hands still grasping the knives -plunged in each other's hearts. - - [Illustration: BAS-RELIEF ON THE HERKIMER MONUMENT AT ORISKANY] - - [Sidenote: Retreat of the Tories] - -Early in the fight a musket-ball slew Herkimer's horse, and shattered -his own leg just below the knee; but the old hero, nothing daunted, and -bating nothing of his coolness in the midst of the horrid struggle, had -the saddle taken from his dead horse and placed at the foot of a great -beech-tree where, taking his seat and lighting his pipe, he continued -shouting his orders in a stentorian voice and directing the progress of -the battle. Nature presently enhanced the lurid horror of the scene. The -heat of the August morning had been intolerable, and black -thunder-clouds, overhanging the deep ravine at the beginning of the -action, had enveloped it in a darkness like that of night. Now the rain -came pouring in torrents, while gusts of wind howled through the -treetops, and sheets of lightning flashed in quick succession, with a -continuous roar of thunder that drowned the noise of the fray. The wet -rifles could no longer be fired, but hatchet, knife, and bayonet -carried on the work of butchery, until, after more than five hundred men -had been killed or wounded, the Indians gave way and fled in all -directions, and the Tory soldiers, disconcerted, began to retreat up the -western road, while Herkimer's little army, remaining in possession of -the hard-won field, felt itself too weak to pursue them. - - [Sidenote: Retreat of Herkimer] - - [Sidenote: Colonel Willett's sortie] - - [Sidenote: First hoisting of the stars and stripes] - -At this moment, as the storm cleared away and long rays of sunshine -began flickering through the wet leaves, the sound of the three -signal-guns came booming through the air, and presently a sharp -crackling of musketry was heard from the direction of Fort Stanwix. -Startled by this ominous sound, the Tories made all possible haste to -join their own army, while Herkimer's men, bearing their wounded on -litters of green boughs, returned in sad procession to Oriskany. With -their commander helpless and more than one third of their number slain -or disabled, they were in no condition to engage in a fresh conflict, -and unwillingly confessed that the garrison of Fort Stanwix must be left -to do its part of the work alone. Upon the arrival of the messengers, -Colonel Gansevoort had at once taken in the whole situation. He -understood the mysterious firing in the forest, saw that Herkimer must -have been prematurely attacked, and ordered his sortie instantly, to -serve as a diversion. The sortie was a brilliant success. Sir John -Johnson, with his Tories and Indians, was completely routed and driven -across the river. Colonel Marinus Willett took possession of his camp, -and held it while seven wagons were three times loaded with spoil and -sent to be unloaded in the fort. Among all this spoil, together with -abundance of food and drink, blankets and clothes, tools and ammunition, -the victors captured five British standards, and all Johnson's papers, -maps, and memoranda, containing full instructions for the projected -campaign. After this useful exploit, Colonel Willett returned to the -fort and hoisted the captured British standards, while over them he -raised an uncouth flag, intended to represent the American stars and -stripes, which Congress had adopted in June as the national banner. This -rude flag, hastily extemporized out of a white shirt, an old blue -jacket, and some strips of red cloth from the petticoat of a soldier's -wife, was the first American flag with stars and stripes that was ever -hoisted, and it was first flung to the breeze on the memorable day of -Oriskany, August 6, 1777. - - [Portrait: JOSEPH BRANT: THAYENDANEGEA] - - [Sidenote: Death of Herkimer] - -Of all the battles of the Revolution, this was perhaps the most -obstinate and murderous. Each side seems to have lost not less than one -third of its whole number; and of those lost, nearly all were killed, as -it was largely a hand-to-hand struggle, like the battles of ancient -times, and no quarter was given on either side. The number of surviving -wounded, who were carried back to Oriskany, does not seem to have -exceeded forty. Among these was the indomitable Herkimer, whose -shattered leg was so unskilfully treated that he died a few days later, -sitting in bed propped by pillows, calmly smoking his Dutch pipe and -reading his Bible at the thirty-eighth Psalm. - - [Portrait: Marinus Willett] - -For some little time no one could tell exactly how the results of this -fierce and disorderly day were to be regarded. Both sides claimed a -victory, and St. Leger vainly tried to scare the garrison by the story -that their comrades had been destroyed in the forest. But in its effects -upon the campaign, Oriskany was for the Americans a success, though an -incomplete one. St. Leger was not crushed, but he was badly crippled. -The sacking of Johnson's camp injured his prestige in the neighbourhood, -and the Indian allies, who had lost more than a hundred of their best -warriors on that fatal morning, grew daily more sullen and refractory, -until their strange behaviour came to be a fresh source of anxiety to -the British commander. While he was pushing on the siege as well as he -could, a force of 1,200 troops, under Arnold, was marching up the Mohawk -valley to complete his discomfiture. - - [Illustration: HERKIMER'S HOUSE AT LITTLE FALLS] - - [Portrait: John Johnson] - - [Sidenote: Arnold arrives at Schuyler's camp] - - [Sidenote: and volunteers to relieve Fort Stanwix] - - [Sidenote: Yan Yost Cuyler] - - [Sidenote: Flight of St. Leger, Aug. 22] - -As soon as he had heard the news of the fall of Ticonderoga, Washington -had dispatched Arnold to render such assistance as he could to the -northern army, and Arnold had accordingly arrived at Schuyler's -headquarters about three weeks ago. Before leaving Philadelphia, he had -appealed to Congress to restore him to his former rank relatively to the -five junior officers who had been promoted over him, and he had just -learned that Congress had refused the request. At this moment, Colonel -Willett and another officer, after a perilous journey through the -wilderness, arrived at Schuyler's headquarters, and bringing the news of -Oriskany, begged that a force might be sent to raise the siege of Fort -Stanwix. Schuyler understood the importance of rescuing the stronghold -and its brave garrison, and called a council of war; but he was bitterly -opposed by his officers, one of whom presently said to another, in an -audible whisper, "He only wants to weaken the army!" At this vile -insinuation, the indignant general set his teeth so hard as to bite -through the stem of the pipe he was smoking, which fell on the floor and -was smashed. "Enough!" he cried. "I assume the whole responsibility. -Where is the brigadier who will go?" The brigadiers all sat in sullen -silence; but Arnold, who had been brooding over his private grievances, -suddenly jumped up. "Here!" said he. "Washington sent me here to make -myself useful: I will go." The commander gratefully seized him by the -hand, and the drum beat for volunteers. Arnold's unpopularity in New -England was mainly with the politicians. It did not extend to the -common soldiers, who admired his impulsive bravery and had unbounded -faith in his resources as a leader. Accordingly, 1,200 Massachusetts men -were easily enlisted in the course of the next forenoon, and the -expedition started up the Mohawk valley. Arnold pushed on with -characteristic energy, but the natural difficulties of the road were -such that after a week of hard work he had only reached the German -Flats, where he was still more than twenty miles from Fort Stanwix. -Believing that no time should be lost, and that everything should be -done to encourage the garrison and dishearten the enemy, he had recourse -to a stratagem, which succeeded beyond his utmost anticipation. A party -of Tory spies had just been arrested in the neighbourhood, and among -them was a certain Yan Yost Cuyler, a queer, half-witted fellow, not -devoid of cunning, whom the Indians regarded with that mysterious awe -with which fools and lunatics are wont to inspire them, as creatures -possessed with a devil. Yan Yost was summarily condemned to death, and -his brother and gypsy-like mother, in wild alarm, hastened to the camp, -to plead for his life. Arnold for a while was inexorable, but presently -offered to pardon the culprit on condition that he should go and spread -a panic in the camp of St. Leger. Yan Yost joyfully consented, and -started off forthwith, while his brother was detained as a hostage, to -be hanged in case of his failure. To make the matter still surer, some -friendly Oneidas were sent along to keep an eye upon him and act in -concert with him. Next day, St. Leger's scouts, as they stole through -the forest, began to hear rumours that Burgoyne had been totally -defeated, and that a great American army was coming up the valley of the -Mohawk. They carried back these rumours to the camp, and toward evening, -while officers and soldiers were standing about in anxious consultation, -Yan Yost came running in, with a dozen bullet-holes in his coat and -terror in his face, and said that he had barely escaped with his life -from the resistless American host which was close at hand. As many knew -him for a Tory, his tale found ready belief, and when interrogated as to -the numbers of the advancing host he gave a warning frown, and pointed -significantly to the countless leaves that fluttered on the branches -overhead. Nothing more was needed to complete the panic. It was in vain -that Johnson and St. Leger exhorted and threatened the Indian allies. -Already disaffected, they now began to desert by scores, while some, -breaking open the camp chests, drank rum till they were drunk, and began -to assault the soldiers. All night long the camp was a perfect -Pandemonium. The riot extended to the Tories, and by noon of the next -day St. Leger took to flight and his whole army was dispersed. All the -tents, artillery, and stores fell into the hands of the Americans. The -garrison, sallying forth, pursued St. Leger for a while, but the -faithless Indians, enjoying his discomfiture, and willing to curry -favour with the stronger party, kept up the chase nearly all the way to -Oswego; laying ambushes every night, and diligently murdering the -stragglers, until hardly a remnant of an army was left to embark with -its crestfallen leader for Montreal. - - [Sidenote: Burgoyne's dangerous situation] - -The news of this catastrophe reached Burgoyne before he had had time to -recover from the news of the disaster at Bennington. Burgoyne's -situation was now becoming critical. Lincoln, with a strong force of -militia, was hovering in his rear, while the main army before him was -gaining in numbers day by day. Putnam had just sent up reinforcements -from the Highlands; Washington had sent Morgan with 500 sharpshooters; -and Arnold was hurrying back from Fort Stanwix. Not a word had come from -Sir William Howe, and it daily grew more difficult to get provisions. - - [Sidenote: Schuyler superseded by Gates, Aug. 2.] - -Just at this time, when everything was in readiness for the final -catastrophe, General Gates arrived from Philadelphia, to take command of -the northern army, and reap the glory earned by other men. On the first -day of August, before the first alarm occasioned by Burgoyne's advance -had subsided, Congress had yielded to the pressure of Schuyler's -enemies, and removed him from his command; and on the following day -Gates was appointed to take his place. Congress was led to take this -step through the belief that the personal hatred felt toward Schuyler by -many of the New England people would prevent the enlisting of militia to -support him. The events of the next fortnight showed that in this fear -Congress was quite mistaken. There can now be no doubt that the -appointment of the incompetent Gates was a serious blunder, which might -have ruined the campaign, and did in the end occasion much trouble, both -for Congress and for Washington. Schuyler received the unwelcome news -with the noble unselfishness which always characterized him. At no time -did he show more zeal and diligence than during his last week of -command; and on turning over the army to General Gates he cordially -offered his aid, whether by counsel or action, in whatever capacity his -successor might see fit to suggest. But so far from accepting this -offer, Gates treated him with contumely, and would not even invite him -to attend his first council of war. Such silly behaviour called forth -sharp criticisms from discerning people. "The new commander-in-chief of -the northern department," said Gouverneur Morris, "may, if he please, -neglect to ask or disdain to receive advice; but those who know him -will, I am sure, be convinced that he needs it." - - [Sidenote: Position of the two armies, Aug. 19-Sept. 12] - -When Gates thus took command of the northern army, it was stationed -along the western bank of the Hudson, from Stillwater down to Halfmoon, -at the mouth of the Mohawk, while Burgoyne's troops were encamped along -the eastern bank, some thirty miles higher up, from Fort Edward down to -the Battenkill. For the next three weeks no movements were made on -either side; and we must now leave the two armies confronting each other -in these two positions, while we turn our attention southward, and see -what Sir William Howe was doing, and how it happened that Burgoyne had -as yet heard nothing from him. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [12] I leave this as I wrote it in June, 1883. Since then another - version of the facts has been suggested by W. L. Stone in - Appleton's _Cyclopaedia of American Biography_. In this - version, Mr. Jones sends a party of Indians under the - half-breed Duluth to escort Miss McCrea to the camp, where - they are to be married by Mr. Brudenell, the chaplain. It is - to be quite a fine little wedding, and the Baroness Riedesel - and Lady Harriet Ackland are to be among the spectators. - Before Duluth reaches Mrs. McNeil's house, the Wyandot Panther - (here known by the name of a different beast, Le Loup) with - his party attacks the house and carries off the two ladies. - The Panther's party meets Duluth's near the spring. Duluth - insists upon taking Jenny with him, and high words ensue - between him and the Panther, until the latter, in a towering - rage, draws his pistol and shoots the girl. This version, if - correct, goes some way toward reconciling the legend with the - observed facts. - - [13] This contemporary British caricature represents the new allies, - "Noble Pair of Brothers," George III. and an Indian chief, - seated together at their cannibal banquet. It expresses the - lively disgust with which the employment of Indians was - regarded in England. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - - SARATOGA - - - [ILLUSTRATION: OLD CITY HALL, WALL STREET, NEW YORK] - - [Sidenote: Why Howe went to Chesapeake Bay] - - [Sidenote: Charles Lee in captivity] - -We have seen how, owing to the gross negligence of Lord George Germain, -discretionary power had been left to Howe, while entirely taken away -from Burgoyne. The latter had no choice but to move down the Hudson. The -former was instructed to move up the Hudson, but at the same time was -left free to depart from the strict letter of his instructions, should -there be any manifest advantage in so doing. Nevertheless, the movement -up the Hudson was so clearly prescribed by all sound military -considerations that everybody wondered why Howe did not attempt it. Why -he should have left his brother general in the lurch, and gone sailing -off to Chesapeake Bay, was a mystery which no one was able to unravel, -until some thirty years ago a document was discovered which has thrown -much light upon the question. Here there steps again upon the scene that -miserable intriguer, whose presence in the American army had so nearly -wrecked the fortunes of the patriot cause, and who now, in captivity, -proceeded to act the part of a doubly-dyed traitor. A marplot and -mischief-maker from beginning to end, Charles Lee never failed to work -injury to whichever party his selfish vanity or craven fear inclined him -for the moment to serve. We have seen how, on the day when he was -captured and taken to the British camp, his first thought was for his -personal safety, which he might well suppose to be in some jeopardy, -since he had formerly held the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the British -army. He was taken to New York and confined in the City Hall, where he -was treated with ordinary courtesy; but there is no doubt that Sir -William Howe looked upon him as a deserter, and was more than half -inclined to hang him without ceremony. Fearing, however, as he said, -that he might "fall into a law scrape," should he act too hastily, Sir -William wrote home for instructions, and in reply was directed by Lord -George Germain to send his prisoner to England for trial. In pursuance -of this order, Lee had already been carried on board ship, when a letter -from Washington put a stop to these proceedings. The letter informed -General Howe that Washington held five Hessian field-officers as -hostages for Lee's personal safety, and that all exchange of prisoners -would be suspended until due assurance should be received that Lee was -to be recognized as a prisoner of war. After reading this letter General -Howe did not dare to send Lee to England for trial, for fear of possible -evil consequences to the five Hessian officers, which might cause -serious disaffection among the German troops. The king approved of this -cautious behaviour, and so Lee was kept in New York, with his fate -undecided, until it had become quite clear that neither arguments nor -threats could avail one jot to shake Washington's determination. When -Lord George Germain had become convinced of this, he persuaded the -reluctant king to yield the point; and Howe was accordingly instructed -that Lee, although worthy of condign punishment, should be deemed a -prisoner of war, and might be exchanged as such, whenever convenient. - - [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF FIRST LINES OF LEE'S LETTER TO GATES, DEC. - 13, 1776] - - [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF FIRST LINES OF "MR. LEE'S PLAN, MARCH 29, - 1777"] - - [Sidenote: Treason of Charles Lee] - -All this discussion necessitated the exchange of several letters between -London and New York, so that a whole year elapsed before the question -was settled. It was not until December 12, 1777, that Howe received -these final instructions. But Lee had not been idle all this time while -his fate was in suspense. Hardly had the key been turned upon him in his -rooms at the City Hall when he began his intrigues. First, he assured -Lord Howe and his brother that he had always opposed the declaration of -independence,[14] and even now cherished hopes that, by a judiciously -arranged interview with a committee from Congress, he might persuade the -misguided people of America to return to their old allegiance. Lord -Howe, who always kept one hand on the olive-branch, eagerly caught at -the suggestion, and permitted Lee to send a letter to Congress, urging -that a committee be sent to confer with him, as he had "important -communications to make." Could such a conference be brought about, he -thought, his zeal for effecting a reconciliation would interest the -Howes in his favour, and might save his precious neck. Congress, -however, flatly refused to listen to the proposal, and then the wretch, -without further ado, went over to the enemy, and began to counsel with -the British commanders how they might best subdue the Americans in the -summer campaign. He went so far as to write out for the brothers Howe a -plan of operations, giving them the advantage of what was supposed to be -his intimate knowledge of the conditions of the case. This document the -Howes did not care to show after the disastrous event of the campaign, -and it remained hidden for eighty years, until it was found among the -domestic archives of the Strachey family, at Sutton Court, in Somerset. -The first Sir Henry Strachey was secretary to the Howes from 1775 to -1778. The document is in Lee's well-known handwriting, and is indorsed -by Strachey as "Mr. Lee's plan, March 29, 1777." In this document Lee -maintains that if the state of Maryland could be overawed, and the -people of Virginia prevented from sending aid to Pennsylvania, then -Philadelphia might be taken and held, and the operations of the "rebel -government" paralyzed. The Tory party was known to be strong in -Pennsylvania, and the circumstances under which Maryland had declared -for independence, last of all the colonies save New York, were such as -to make it seem probable that there also the loyalist feeling was very -powerful. Lee did not hesitate to assert, as of his own personal -knowledge, that the people of Maryland and Pennsylvania were nearly all -loyalists, who only awaited the arrival of a British army in order to -declare themselves. He therefore recommended that 14,000 men should -drive Washington out of New Jersey and capture Philadelphia, while the -remainder of Howe's army, 4,000 in number, should go around by sea to -Chesapeake Bay, and occupy Alexandria and Annapolis. From these points, -if Lord Howe were to issue a proclamation of amnesty, the pacification -of the "central colonies" might be effected in less than two months; and -so confident of all this did the writer feel that he declared himself -ready to "stake his life upon the issue," a remark which betrays, -perhaps, what was uppermost in his mind throughout the whole proceeding. -At the same time, he argued that offensive operations toward the north -could not "answer any sort of purpose," since the northern provinces -"are at present neither the seat of government, strength, nor politics; -and the apprehensions from General Carleton's army will, I am confident, -keep the New Englanders at home, or at least confine 'em to the east -side the [Hudson] river." - - [Sidenote: Folly of moving upon Philadelphia, as the "rebel capital"] - -It will be observed that this plan of Lee's was similar to that of Lord -George Germain, in so far as it aimed at thrusting the British power -like a wedge into the centre of the confederacy, and thus cutting -asunder New England and Virginia, the two chief centres of the -rebellion. But instead of aiming his blow at the Hudson river, Lee aims -it at Philadelphia, as the "rebel capital;" and his reason for doing -this shows how little he understood American affairs, and how strictly -he viewed them in the light of his military experience in Europe. In -European warfare it is customary to strike at the enemy's capital city, -in order to get control of his whole system of administration; but that -the possession of an enemy's capital is not always decisive the wars of -Napoleon have most abundantly proved. The battles of Austerlitz in 1805 -and Wagram in 1809 were fought by Napoleon after he had entered Vienna; -it was not his acquisition of Berlin in 1806, but his victory at -Friedland in the following summer, that completed the overthrow of -Prussia; and where he had to contend against a strong and united -national feeling, as in Spain and Russia, the possession of the capital -did not help him in the least. Nevertheless, in European countries, -where the systems of administration are highly centralized, it is -usually advisable to move upon the enemy's capital. But to apply such a -principle to Philadelphia in 1777 was the height of absurdity. -Philadelphia had been selected for the meetings of the Continental -Congress because of its geographical position. It was the most centrally -situated of our large towns, but it was in no sense the centre of a vast -administrative machinery. If taken by an enemy, it was only necessary -for Congress to move to any other town, and everything would go on as -before. As it was not an administrative, so neither was it a military -centre. It commanded no great system of interior highways, and it was -comparatively difficult to protect by the fleet. It might be argued, on -the other hand, that because Philadelphia was the largest town in the -United States, and possessed of a certain preeminence as the seat of -Congress, the acquisition of it by the invaders would give them a -certain moral advantage. It would help the Tory party, and discourage -the patriots. Such a gain, however, would be trifling compared with the -loss which might come from Howe's failure to cooperate with Burgoyne; -and so the event most signally proved. - - [Sidenote: Effect of Lee's advice] - -Just how far the Howes were persuaded by Lee's arguments must be a -matter of inference. The course which they ultimately pursued, in close -conformity with the suggestions of this remarkable document, was so -disastrous to the British cause that the author might almost seem to -have been intentionally luring them off on a false scent. One would -gladly take so charitable a view of the matter, were it not both -inconsistent with what we have already seen of Lee, and utterly -negatived by his scandalous behaviour the following year, after his -restoration to his command in the American army. We cannot doubt that -Lee gave his advice in sober earnest. That considerable weight was -attached to it is shown by a secret letter from Sir William Howe to Lord -George Germain, dated the 2d of April or four days after the date of -Lee's extraordinary document. In this letter, Howe, intimates for the -first time that he has an expedition in mind which may modify the scheme -for a joint campaign with the northern army along the line of the -Hudson. To this suggestion Lord George replied on the 18th of May: "I -trust that whatever you may meditate will be executed in time for you to -cooperate with the army to proceed from Canada." It was a few days after -this that Lord George, perhaps feeling a little uneasy about the matter, -wrote that imperative order which lay in its pigeon-hole in London until -all the damage was done. - - [Sidenote: Washington's masterly campaign in New Jersey, June, 1777] - -With these data at our command, it becomes easy to comprehend General -Howe's movements during the spring and summer. His first intention was -to push across New Jersey with the great body of his army, and occupy -Philadelphia; and since he had twice as many men as Washington, he might -hope to do this in time to get back to the Hudson as soon as he was -likely to be needed there. He began his march on the 12th of June, five -days before Burgoyne's flotilla started southward on Lake Champlain. The -enterprise did not seem hazardous, but Howe was completely foiled by -Washington's superior strategy. Before the British commander had fairly -begun to move, Washington, from various symptoms, divined his purpose, -and coming down from his lair at Morristown, planted himself on the -heights of Middlebrook, within ten miles of New Brunswick, close upon -the flank of Howe's line of march. Such a position, occupied by 8,000 -men under such a general, was something which Howe could not pass by -without sacrificing his communications and thus incurring destruction. -But the position was so strong that to try to storm it would be to -invite defeat. It remained to be seen what could be done by -manoeuvring. The British army of 18,000 men was concentrated at New -Brunswick, with plenty of boats for crossing the Delaware river, when -that obstacle should be reached. But the really insuperable obstacle was -close at hand. A campaign of eighteen days ensued, consisting of wily -marches and counter-marches, the result of which showed that -Washington's advantage of position could not be wrested from him. Howe -could neither get by him nor outwit him, and was too prudent to attack -him; and accordingly, on the last day of June, he abandoned his first -plan, and evacuated New Jersey, taking his whole army over to Staten -Island. - - [Sidenote: Uncertainty as to Howe's next movements] - -This campaign has attracted far less attention than it deserves, mainly, -no doubt, because it contained no battles or other striking incidents. -It was purely a series of strategic devices. But in point of military -skill it was, perhaps, as remarkable as anything that Washington ever -did, and it certainly occupies a cardinal position in the history of the -overthrow of Burgoyne. For if Howe had been able to take Philadelphia -early in the summer, it is difficult to see what could have prevented -him from returning and ascending the Hudson, in accordance with the plan -of the ministry. Now the month of June was gone, and Burgoyne was -approaching Ticonderoga. Howe ought to have held himself in readiness to -aid him, but he could not seem to get Philadelphia, the "rebel capital," -out of his mind. His next plan coincided remarkably with the other half -of Lee's scheme. He decided to go around to Philadelphia by sea, but he -was slow in starting, and seems to have paused for a moment to watch the -course of events at the north. He began early in July to put his men on -board ship, but confided his plans to no one but Cornwallis and Grant; -and his own army, as well as the Americans, believed that this show of -going to sea was only a feint to disguise his real intention. Every one -supposed that he would go up the Hudson. As soon as New Jersey was -evacuated Washington moved back to Morristown, and threw his advance, -under Sullivan, as far north as Pompton, so as to be ready to cooperate -with Putnam in the Highlands, at a moment's notice. As soon as it became -known that Ticonderoga had fallen, Washington, supposing that his -adversary would do what a good general ought to do, advanced into the -Ramapo Clove, a rugged defile in the Highlands, near Haverstraw, and -actually sent the divisions of Sullivan and Stirling across the river to -Peekskill. - - [Illustration: WASHINGTON'S HEADQUARTERS AT CHADD'S FORD] - - [Sidenote: Howe's letter to Burgoyne] - - [Sidenote: Comments of Washington and Greene] - -All this while Howe kept moving some of his ships, now up the Hudson, -now into the Sound, now off from Sandy Hook, so that people might doubt -whether his destination were the Highlands, or Boston, or Philadelphia. -Probably his own mind was not fully made up until after the news from -Ticonderoga. Then, amid the general exultation, he seems to have -concluded that Burgoyne would be able to take care of himself, at least -with such cooperation as he might get from Sir Henry Clinton. In this -mood he wrote to Burgoyne as follows: "I have ... heard from the rebel -army of your being in possession of Ticonderoga, which is a great event, -carried without loss.... Washington is waiting our motions here, and has -detached Sullivan with about 2,500 men, as I learn, to Albany. My -intention is for Pennsylvania, where I expect to meet Washington; but if -he goes to the northward, contrary to my expectations, and you can keep -him at bay, be assured I shall soon be after him to relieve you. After -your arrival at Albany, the movements of the enemy will guide yours; but -my wishes are that the enemy be drove [_sic_] out of this province -before any operation takes place in Connecticut. Sir Henry Clinton -remains in the command here, and will act as occurrences may direct. -Putnam is in the Highlands with about 4,000 men. Success be ever with -you." This letter, which was written on very narrow strips of thin -paper, and conveyed in a quill, did not reach Burgoyne till the middle -of September, when things wore a very different aspect from that which -they wore in the middle of July. Nothing could better illustrate the -rash, overconfident spirit in which Howe proceeded to carry out his -southern scheme. A few days afterward he put to sea with the fleet of -228 sail, carrying an army of 18,000 men, while 7,000 were left in New -York, under Sir Henry Clinton, to garrison the city and act according to -circumstances. Just before sailing Howe wrote a letter to Burgoyne, -stating that the destination of his fleet was Boston, and he artfully -contrived that this letter should fall into Washington's hands. But -Washington was a difficult person to hoodwink. On reading the letter he -rightly inferred that Howe had gone southward. Accordingly, recalling -Sullivan and Stirling to the west side of the Hudson, he set out for the -Delaware, but proceeded very cautiously, lest Howe should suddenly -retrace his course, and dart up the Hudson. To guard against such an -emergency, he let Sullivan advance no farther than Morristown, and kept -everything in readiness for an instant counter-march. In a letter of -July 30th he writes, "Howe's in a manner abandoning Burgoyne is so -unaccountable a matter that, till I am fully assured of it, _I cannot -help casting my eyes continually behind me_." Next day, learning that -the fleet had arrived at the Capes of Delaware, he advanced to -Germantown; but on the day after, when he heard that the fleet had put -out to sea again, he suspected that the whole movement had been a feint. -He believed that Howe would at once return to the Hudson, and -immediately ordered Sullivan to counter-march, while he held himself -ready to follow at a moment's notice. His best generals entertained the -same opinion. "I cannot persuade myself," said Greene, "that General -Burgoyne would dare to push with such rapidity towards Albany if he did -not expect support from General Howe." A similar view of the military -exigencies of the case was taken by the British officers, who, almost to -a man, disapproved of the southward movement. They knew as well as -Greene that, however fine a city Philadelphia might be, it was "an -object of far less military importance than the Hudson river." - - [Sidenote: Howe's alleged reason trumped up and worthless] - - [Sidenote: Burgoyne's fate practically decided] - -No wonder that the American generals were wide of the mark in their -conjectures, for the folly of Howe's movements after reaching the mouth -of the Delaware was quite beyond credence, and would be inexplicable -to-day except as the result of the wild advice of the marplot Lee. Howe -alleged as his reason for turning away from the Delaware, that there -were obstructions in the river and forts to pass, and accordingly he -thought it best to go around by way of Chesapeake Bay, and land his army -at Elkton. Now he might easily have gone a little way up the Delaware -river without encountering any obstructions whatever, and landed his -troops at a point only thirteen miles east of Elkton. Instead of -attempting this, he wasted twenty-four days in a voyage of four hundred -miles, mostly against headwinds, in order to reach the same point! No -sensible antagonist could be expected to understand such eccentric -behaviour. No wonder that, after it had become clear that the fleet had -gone southward, Washington should have supposed an attack on Charleston -to be intended. A council of war on the 21st decided that this must be -the case, and since an overland march of seven hundred miles could not -be accomplished in time to prevent such an attack, it was decided to go -back to New York, and operate against Sir Henry Clinton. But before this -decision was acted on Howe appeared at the head of Chesapeake Bay, where -he landed his forces at Elkton. It was now the 25th of August,--nine -days after the battle of Bennington and three days after the flight of -St. Leger. Since entering Chesapeake Bay, Howe had received Lord George -Germain's letter of May 18th, telling him that whatever he had to do -ought to be done in time for him to cooperate with Burgoyne. Now -Burgoyne's situation had become dangerous, and here was Howe at Elkton, -fifty miles southwest of Philadelphia, with Washington's army in front -of him, and more than three hundred miles away from Burgoyne! - -On hearing of Howe's arrival at the head of Chesapeake Bay, Washington -had advanced as far as Wilmington to meet him. The first proceeding of -the British general, on landing at Elkton, was to issue his proclamation -of amnesty; but it did not bring him many recruits. A -counter-proclamation, drawn up by Luther Martin, sufficed to neutralize -it. Though there were many people in the neighbourhood who cared little -for the cause of independence, there were but few who sympathized with -the invaders enough to render them any valuable assistance. It was -through a country indifferent, perhaps, but not friendly in feeling, -that the British army cautiously pushed its way northward for a -fortnight, until it reached the village of Kennett Square, six miles -west of the Brandywine Creek, behind which Washington had planted -himself to oppose its progress. - - [Sidenote: Washington's reasons for offering battle] - - [Sidenote: He chooses a very strong position] - -The time had arrived when Washington felt it necessary to offer battle, -even though such a step might not be justified from purely military -reasons. The people were weary of a Fabian policy which they did not -comprehend, and Washington saw that, even if he were defeated, the moral -effect upon the country would not be so bad as if he were to abandon -Philadelphia without a blow. A victory he was hardly entitled to expect, -since he had but 11,000 men against Howe's 18,000, and since the British -were still greatly superior in equipment and discipline. Under these -circumstances, Washington chose his ground with his usual sagacity, and -took possession of it by a swift and masterly movement. The Brandywine -Creek ran directly athwart Howe's line of march to Philadelphia. Though -large enough to serve as a military obstacle,--in England it would be -called a river,--it was crossed by numerous fords, of which the -principal one, Chadd's Ford, lay in Howe's way. Washington placed the -centre of his army just behind Chadd's Ford and across the road. His -centre was defended in front by a corps of artillery under Wayne, while -Greene, on some high ground in the rear, was stationed as a reserve. -Below Chadd's Ford, the Brandywine becomes a roaring torrent, shut in -between steep, high cliffs, so that the American left, resting upon -these natural defences, was sufficiently guarded by the Pennsylvania -militia under Armstrong. The right wing, stretching two miles up the -stream, into an uneven and thickly wooded country, was commanded by -Sullivan. - - [Illustration: VIEW OF BRANDYWINE BATTLEFIELD] - - [Sidenote: Battle of the Brandywine, Sept. 11, 1777] - -This was a very strong position. On the left it was practically -inaccessible. To try storming it in front would be a doubtful -experiment, sure to result in terrible loss of life. The only weak point -was the right, which could be taken in flank by a long circuitous march -through the woods. Accordingly, on the morning of the 11th of September, -the British right wing, under Knyphausen, began skirmishing and -occupying Washington's attention at Chadd's Ford; while the left column, -under the energetic Cornwallis, marched up the Lancaster road, crossed -the forks of the Brandywine, and turned southward toward Birmingham -church, with the intention of striking the rear of the American right -wing. It was similar to the flanking movement which had been tried so -successfully at the battle of Long Island, a year before. It was quite -like the splendid movement of Stonewall Jackson at Chancellorsville, -eighty-five years afterward. In Howe's time such flanking marches were -eminently fashionable. It was in this way that the great Frederick had -won some of his most astonishing victories. They were, nevertheless, -then as always, dangerous expedients, as the stupendous overthrow of the -Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz was by and by to show. There is always -a serious chance that the tables may be turned. Such flanking movements -are comparatively safe, however, when the attacking army greatly -outnumbers the army attacked, as at the Brandywine. But in all cases the -chief element in their success is secrecy; above all things, the party -attacked must be kept in the dark. - -These points are admirably illustrated in the battle of the Brandywine. -The danger of a flank attack upon his right wing was well understood by -Washington; and as soon as he heard that Cornwallis was marching up the -Lancaster road, he considered the feasibleness of doing what Frederick -would probably have done,--of crossing quickly at Chadd's and Brinton's -fords, in full force, and crushing Knyphausen's division. This he could -doubtless have accomplished, had he been so fortunate as to have -inherited an army trained by the father of Frederick the Great. But -Washington's army was not yet well trained, and its numerical -inferiority was such that Knyphausen's division might of itself be -regarded as a fair match for it. The British movement was, therefore, -well considered, and it was doubtless right that Washington did not -return the offensive by crossing the creek. Moreover, the organization -of his staff was far from complete. He was puzzled by conflicting -reports as to the enemy's movements. While considering the question of -throwing his whole force against Knyphausen, he was stopped by a false -report that Cornwallis was _not_ moving upon his flank. So great was the -delay in getting intelligence that Cornwallis had accomplished his long -march of eighteen miles, and was approaching Birmingham church, before -it was well known where he was. Nevertheless, his intention of dealing a -death-blow to the American army was forestalled and partially checked. -Before he had reached our right wing, Washington had ordered Sullivan to -form a new front and advance toward Birmingham church. Owing to the -imperfect discipline of the troops, Sullivan executed the movement -rather clumsily, but enough was accomplished to save the army from rout. -In the obstinate and murderous fight which ensued near Birmingham church -between Cornwallis and Sullivan, the latter was at length slowly pushed -back in the direction of Dilworth. To save the army from being broken in -two, it was now necessary for the centre to retreat upon Chester by way -of Dilworth, and this movement was accomplished by Greene with -consummate skill. It was now possible for Knyphausen to advance across -Chadd's Ford against Wayne's position; and he did so, aided by the right -wing of Cornwallis's division, which, instead of joining in the oblique -pursuit toward Dilworth, kept straight onward, and came down upon -Wayne's rear. Nothing was left for Wayne and Armstrong but to retreat -and join the rest of the army at Chester, and so the battle of the -Brandywine came to an end. - - [Illustration: BIRMINGHAM MEETING-HOUSE] - -This famous battle was admirably conducted on both sides. The risk -assumed in the long flanking march of Cornwallis was fully justified. -The poor organization of the American army was of course well known to -the British commanders, and they took advantage of the fact. Had they -been dealing with an organization as efficient as their own, their -course would have been foolhardy. On the other hand, when we consider -the relative strength of the two armies, it is clear that the bold move -of Cornwallis ought not simply to have won the field of battle. It ought -to have annihilated the American army, had not its worst consequences -been averted by Washington's promptness, aided by Sullivan's obstinate -bravery and Greene's masterly conduct of the retreat upon Dilworth. As -it was, the American soldiers came out of the fight in good order. -Nothing could be more absurd than the careless statement, so often made, -that the Americans were "routed" at the Brandywine. Their organization -was preserved, and at Chester, next day, they were as ready for fight as -ever. They had exacted from the enemy a round price for the victory. The -American loss was a little more than 1,000, incurred chiefly in -Sullivan's gallant struggle; rolls afterward captured at Germantown -showed that the British loss considerably exceeded that figure. - - [Sidenote: Washington's skill in detaining the enemy] - - [Sidenote: The British enter Philadelphia, Sept. 26] - -So far as the possession of Philadelphia was concerned, the British -victory was decisive. When the news came, next morning, that the army -had retreated upon Chester, there was great consternation in the "rebel -capital." Some timid people left their homes, and sought refuge in the -mountains. Congress fled to Lancaster, first clothing Washington for -sixty days with the same extraordinary powers which had been granted him -the year before. Yet there was no need for unseemly haste, for -Washington detained the victorious enemy a fortnight on the march of -only twenty-six miles; a feat which not even Napoleon could have -performed with an army that had just been "routed." He had now heard of -Stark's victory and St. Leger's flight, and his letters show how clearly -he foresaw Burgoyne's inevitable fate, provided Howe could be kept away -from him. To keep Howe's whole force employed near Philadelphia as long -as possible was of the utmost importance. Accordingly, during the -fortnight following the battle of the Brandywine, every day saw -manoeuvres or skirmishes, in one of which General Wayne was defeated -by Sir Charles Gray, with a loss of three hundred men. On the 26th, -while Howe established his headquarters at Germantown, Cornwallis -entered Philadelphia in triumph, marching with bands of music and flying -colours, and all the troops decked out in their finest scarlet array. - - [Sidenote: Significance of Forts Mercer and Mifflin] - -Having got possession of the "rebel capital," the question now arose -whether it would be possible to hold it through the winter. The Delaware -river, below the city, had been carefully obstructed by -_chevaux-de-frise_, which were guarded by two strong fortresses,--Fort -Mifflin on an island in mid-stream, and Fort Mercer on the Jersey shore. -The river was here about two miles in width, but it was impossible for -ships to pass until the forts should have been reduced. About the first -of October, after a rough return voyage of four hundred miles, Lord -Howe's fleet appeared at the mouth of the Delaware. It was absolutely -necessary to gain control of the river, in order that the city might get -supplies by sea; for so long as Washington's army remained unbroken, the -Americans were able to cut off all supplies by land. Sir William Howe, -therefore, threw a portion of his forces across the river, to aid his -brother in reducing the forts. The quick eye of Washington now saw an -opportunity for attacking the main British army, while thus temporarily -weakened; and he forthwith planned a brilliant battle, which was, -however, fated to be lost by a singular accident. - - [Sidenote: The situation at Germantown] - -The village of Germantown, by the bank of the Schuylkill river, was then -separated from Philadelphia by about six miles of open country. The -village consisted chiefly of a single street, about two miles in length, -with stone houses on either side, standing about a hundred yards apart -from each other, and surrounded by gardens and orchards. Near the upper -end of the street, in the midst of ornamental shrubbery, vases, and -statues, arranged in a French style of landscape gardening, stood the -massively built house of Benjamin Chew, formerly Chief Justice of -Pennsylvania. About a mile below, at the Market House, the main street -was crossed at right angles by the Old School Lane. Beside the main -street, running over Chestnut Hill, the village was approached from the -northward by three roads. The Monatawny road ran down by the bank of the -Schuylkill, and, crossing the Old School Lane, bore on toward -Philadelphia. The Limekiln road, coming from the northeast, became -continuous with the Old School Lane. The Old York road, still farther -eastward, joined the main street at the Rising Sun tavern, about two -miles below the Market House. - -The British army lay encamped just behind the Old School Lane, in the -lower part of the village: the left wing, under Knyphausen, to the west -of the main street; the right, under Grant, to the east. A strong -detachment of _chasseurs_, under Sir Charles Grey, covered the left -wing. About a mile in advance of the army, Colonel Musgrave's regiment -lay in a field opposite Judge Chew's house; and yet a mile farther -forward a battalion of light infantry was stationed on the slight -eminence known as Mount Airy, where a small battery commanded the road -to the north. - - [Sidenote: Washington's audacious plan] - -Washington's plan of attack seems to have contemplated nothing less than -the destruction or capture of the British army. His forces were to -advance from the north by all four roads at once, and converge upon the -British at the Market House. The American right wing, under Sullivan, -and consisting of Sullivan's own brigade, with those of Conway, Wayne, -Maxwell, and Nash, was to march down the main street, overwhelm the -advanced parties of the British, and engage their left wing in front; -while Armstrong, with the Pennsylvania militia, was to move down the -Monatawny road, and take the same wing in flank. The American left wing, -commanded by Greene, was also to proceed in two columns. Greene, with -his own brigade, supported by Stephen and McDougal, was to march down -the Limekiln road, and assail the British right wing in front and in -flank; while Smallwood and Forman, coming down the Old York road, were -to strike the same wing in the rear. The flank attack upon the British -left, entrusted as it was to militia, was intended merely as a -demonstration. The attack upon their right, conducted by more than half -of the American army, including its best troops, was intended to crush -that wing, and folding back the whole British army upon the Schuylkill -river, compel it to surrender. - - [Illustration: JUDGE CHEW'S HOUSE AT GERMANTOWN] - - [Sidenote: Battle of Germantown, Oct. 4] - -Considering that the Americans had not even yet a superiority in -numbers, this was a most audacious plan. No better instance could be -given of the spirit of wild and venturous daring which was as -conspicuous in Washington as his cautious vigilance, whenever any fit -occasion arose for displaying it. The scheme came surprisingly near to -success; so near as to redeem it from the imputation of fool-hardiness, -and to show that here, as in all Washington's military movements, cool -judgment went along with fiery dash. At seven in the evening of the 3d -of October, the night march upon Germantown began, Washington -accompanying Sullivan's column. At sunrise a heavy fog came up, and the -darkness went on increasing. Soon after the hour of daybreak the light -infantry upon Mount Airy were surprised and routed, and the battery was -captured. Musgrave was next overwhelmed by the heavy American column; -but he, with a small force, took refuge in Judge Chew's house, and set -up a brisk fire from the windows. The Americans opened an artillery-fire -upon the house, but its stone walls were too solid to be beaten down by -the three-pound and six-pound field-pieces of that day; and so Maxwell's -brigade was left behind to besiege the house, while the rest of the -column rushed on down the street. The chief effect of this incident was -to warn the enemy, while retarding and somewhat weakening the American -charge. Nevertheless, the fury of the attack was such as to disconcert -Knyphausen's veterans, and the British left wing slowly gave way before -Sullivan. At this moment, Greene, who had also been delayed, attacked -the right wing with such vigour as presently to force it back toward the -Market House. The British ranks were falling into confusion, and -Smallwood's column had already arrived upon their right flank, when the -accident occurred which changed the fortunes of the day. From the -beginning the dense fog had been a source of confusion to both armies, -and had seriously interfered with the solidity of the American advance. -Now, as Stephen's brigade, on the right of Greene's column, came into -the village, the heavy firing at Judge Chew's seems to have caused him -to diverge more and more to the west, in the belief that there was the -thick of the battle. At the same time, Wayne, in driving the enemy -before him, had swayed somewhat to the east, so that his brigade stood -almost directly in the line of Stephen's progress. In this position he -was attacked by Stephen, who mistook him for the enemy. This lamentable -blunder instantly ruined the battle. Wayne's men, thus fiercely attacked -in the rear, and struggling to extricate themselves, were thrown upon -the left flank of Sullivan's brigade, and a panic suddenly ran through -the army. The confusion grew worse and worse, till a general retreat -began, and Grey, who had come up to support the crumbling right wing of -the British, was now able to lead in the pursuit of the Americans. He -was joined by Cornwallis, who had sprung from his bed in Philadelphia at -the first sound of the cannon, and had brought up two battalions with -him at double-quick. But the panic had subsided almost as soon as the -golden moment of victory was lost, and the retreat was conducted in -excellent order. One regiment in Greene's column was surrounded and -captured, but the army brought away all its cannon and wounded, with -several cannon taken from the enemy. The loss of the Americans in killed -and wounded was 673, and the loss of the British was 535. - - [Illustration: HOUSE AT GERMANTOWN OCCUPIED BY THE BRITISH] - -The fog which enshrouded the village of Germantown on that eventful -morning has been hardly less confusing to historians than it was to the -armies engaged. The reports of different observers conflicted in many -details, and particularly as to the immediate occasion of the fatal -panic. The best accounts agree, however, that the entanglement of -Stephen with Wayne was chiefly responsible for the disaster. It was -charged against Stephen that he had taken too many pulls at his canteen -on the long, damp night march, and he was tried by court-martial, and -dismissed from the service. The chagrin of the Americans at losing the -prize so nearly grasped was profound. The total rout of Howe, coming at -the same time with the surrender of Burgoyne, would probably have been -too much for Lord North's ministry to bear, and might have brought the -war to a sudden close. As it was, the British took an undue amount of -comfort in the acquisition of Philadelphia, though so long as -Washington's army remained defiant it was of small military value to -them. On the other hand, the genius and audacity shown by Washington, in -thus planning and so nearly accomplishing the ruin of the British army -only three weeks after the defeat at the Brandywine, produced a profound -impression upon military critics in Europe. Frederick of Prussia saw -that presently, when American soldiers should come to be disciplined -veterans, they would become a formidable instrument in the hands of -their great commander; and the French court, in making up its mind that -the Americans would prove efficient allies, is said to have been -influenced almost as much by the battle of Germantown as by the -surrender of Burgoyne. - - [Illustration: WHITHALL HOUSE AT FORT MERCER WHERE - DONOP DIED] - - [Sidenote: Howe captures Forts Mercer and Mifflin] - -Having thus escaped the catastrophe which Washington had designed for -him, the British commander was now able to put forth his utmost efforts -for the capture of the forts on the Delaware. His utmost efforts were -needed, for in the first attack on Fort Mercer, October 22, the Hessians -were totally defeated, with the loss of Count Donop and 400 men, while -the Americans lost but 37. But after a month of hard work, with the aid -of 6,000 more men sent from New York by Clinton, both forts were -reduced, and the command of the Delaware was wrested from the Americans. -Another month of manoeuvring and skirmishing followed, and then -Washington took his army into winter-quarters at Valley Forge. The -events which attended his sojourn in that natural stronghold belong to a -later period of the war. We must now return to the upper waters of the -Hudson, and show how the whole period, which may be most fitly described -as a struggle for the control of the great central state of New York, -was brought to an end by the complete and overwhelming victory of the -Americans. - - * * * * * - - [Sidenote: Burgoyne recognizes the fatal error of Germain] - -We have seen how it became impossible for Howe to act upon Lord George -Germain's order, received in August, in Chesapeake Bay, and get back to -the Hudson in time to be of any use to Burgoyne. We have also seen how -critical was the situation in which the northern general was left, after -the destruction of Baum and St. Leger, and the accumulation of New -England yeomanry in his rear. Burgoyne now fully acknowledged the -terrible mistake of the ministry in assuming that the resistance of the -Americans was due to the machinations of a few wily demagogues, and that -the people would hail the approach of the king's troops as deliverers. -"The great bulk of the country," said he, "is undoubtedly with the -Congress in principle and zeal, and their measures are executed with a -secrecy and dispatch that are not to be equalled.... The Hampshire -Grants, in particular, a country unpeopled and almost unknown last war, -now abounds in the most active and most rebellious race on the -continent, and hangs like a gathering storm upon my left." The situation -had, indeed, become so alarming that it is hard to say what Burgoyne -ought to have done. A retreat upon Ticonderoga would have been fraught -with peril, while to cross the Hudson and advance upon Albany would be -doing like Cortes, when he scuttled his ships. But Burgoyne was a man of -chivalrous nature. He did not think it right or prudent to abandon Sir -William Howe, whom he still supposed to be coming up the river to meet -him. In a letter to Lord George Germain, written three days after the -surrender, he says, "The difficulty of a retreat upon Canada was clearly -foreseen, as was the dilemma, should the retreat be effected, of leaving -at liberty such an army as General Gates's to operate against Sir -William Howe. This consideration operated forcibly to determine me to -abide events as long as possible, and I reasoned thus: the expedition -which I commanded was at first evidently intended to be _hazarded_; -circumstances might require it should be _devoted_." - - [Sidenote: Nevertheless he crosses the Hudson] - - [Sidenote: First battle at Freeman's Farm, Sept. 19; indecisive] - -Influenced by these views, which were supported by all his generals -except Riedesel, Burgoyne threw a bridge of boats across the Hudson, and -passed over with whole army on the 13th of September. The Americans had -taken a strong position on Bemis Heights, where Kosciuszko had skilfully -fortified their camp with batteries and redoubts. Burgoyne felt that the -time for desperate fighting had now come, and it seemed to him that the -American position might be turned and carried by an attack upon its left -flank. On the morning of the 19th, he advanced through the woods, with -the centre of his army, toward the point where the Quaker road passed -Bemis Heights. The right wing, under Fraser, proceeded somewhat more -circuitously toward the same point, the plan being that they should join -forces and strike the rear of the American camp, while Riedesel and -Phillips, with the left wing and the artillery, marching down the river -road, should assail it in front. Three heavy guns, announcing to the -left wing the junction of Burgoyne and Fraser, were to give the signal -for a general assault. American scouts, lurking among the upper branches -of tall trees that grew on steep hillsides, presently caught glimpses -of bright scarlet flitting through the green depths of the forest, while -the long sunbeams that found their way through the foliage sent back -quick burning flashes from a thousand bayonets. By noon the course of -the British march and their plan of attack had been fully deciphered, -and the intelligence was carried to Arnold, who commanded the left wing -of the American army. Gates appears to have been unwilling to let any of -the forces descend from their strong position; but the fiery Arnold -urged and implored, until he got permission to take Morgan's riflemen -and Dearborn's infantry, and go forth to attack the enemy. Arnold's -advance, under Morgan, first fell upon Burgoyne's advance, at Freeman's -Farm, and checked its progress. Fraser then, hearing the musketry, -turned eastward to the rescue, while Arnold, moving upon Fraser's left, -sought to cut him asunder from Burgoyne. He seemed to be winning the -day, when he was attacked in flank by Riedesel, who had hurried up from -the river road. Arnold had already sent to Gates for reinforcements, -which were refused him. Arnold maintained that this was a gross blunder -on the part of the commanding general, and that with 2,000 more men he -could now easily have crushed the British centre and defeated their -army. In this opinion he was probably right, since even as it was he -held his own, in a desperate fight, for two hours, until darkness put an -end to the struggle. The losses on each side are variously estimated at -from 600 to 1,000, or from one fifth to one fourth of the forces -engaged, which indicates severe fighting. Arnold's command had numbered -about 3,000, and he had been engaged, in the course of the afternoon, -with at least 4,000 of Burgoyne's army; yet all this while some 11,000 -Americans--most of the army in short--had been kept idle on Bemis -Heights by the incompetent Gates. Burgoyne tried to console himself with -the idea that he had won a victory, because his army slept that night at -Freeman's Farm; but in his testimony given afterward before the House of -Commons, he rightly maintained that his plan of attack had been utterly -defeated by the bold and skilful tactics of "Mr." Arnold. - - [Portrait: T Kosciuszko] - -In the dispatches which he now sent to Congress, Gates took to himself -all the credit of this affair, and did not even mention Arnold's name. -The army, however, rang with praise of the fighting general, until -Gates, who never could bear to hear any one but himself well spoken of, -waxed wroth and revengeful. Arnold, moreover, freely blamed Gates for -not supporting him, and for refusing to renew the battle on the next -morning, while the enemy were still disconcerted. Arnold's warm -friendship with Schuyler gave further offence to the commander; and -three days after the battle he sought to wreak his spite by withdrawing -Morgan's riflemen and Dearborn's light infantry from Arnold's division. -A fierce quarrel ensued, in the course of which Gates told Arnold that -as soon as Lincoln should arrive he would have no further use for him, -and he might go back to Washington's camp as soon as he liked. Arnold, -in a white rage, said he would go, and asked for a pass, which his enemy -promptly gave him; but after receiving it, second thoughts prevented him -from going. All the general officers except Lincoln--who seems to have -refrained from unwillingness to give umbrage to a commander so high in -the good graces of Massachusetts as Gates--united in signing a letter -entreating Arnold to remain. He had been sent here by Washington to aid -the northern army, and clearly it would be wrong to leave it now, on the -eve of a decisive battle. So the proud, fiery soldier, smarting under an -accumulation of injuries, made up his mind once more to swallow the -affront, and wait for a chance to make himself useful. He stayed in his -quarters, awaiting the day of battle, though it was not clear how far he -was entitled, under the circumstances, to exercise command, and Gates -took no more notice of him than if he had been a dog. - - [Sidenote: Burgoyne's supplies cut off] - -Nothing more was done for eighteen days. Just before the crossing of the -Hudson by the northern army, Sir Henry Clinton, acting "as circumstances -may direct," had planned an expedition up the river in aid of it; and -Burgoyne, hearing of this the day after the battle at Freeman's Farm, -thought it best to wait a while before undertaking another assault upon -the American lines. But things were swiftly coming to such a pass that -it would not do to wait. On the 21st, news came to the British camp that -a detachment of Lincoln's troops had laid siege to Ticonderoga, and, -while holding the garrison in check, had captured several ships and -taken 300 prisoners. A day or two later came the news that these New -Englanders had embarked on Lake George in the ships they had captured, -and were cutting off the last sources of supply. And now, while even on -shortest rations there was barely three weeks' food for the army, -Lincoln's main force appeared in front, thus swelling the numbers of the -American army to more than 16,000. The case had become as desperate as -that of the Athenians at Syracuse before their last dreadful battle in -the harbour. So, after eighteen weary days, no word yet coming from -Clinton, the gallant Burgoyne attempted, by a furious effort, to break -through the lines of an army that now outnumbered him more than three to -one. - - [Portrait: Sim. Fraser] - - [Sidenote: Second battle at Freeman's Farm, Oct. 7; the British totally - defeated by Arnold] - -On the morning of October 7th, leaving the rest of his army in camp, -Burgoyne advanced with 1,500 picked men to turn the American left. Small -as the force was, its quality was superb, and with it were the best -commanders,--Phillips, Riedesel, Fraser, Balcarras, and Ackland. Such a -compact force, so ably led, might manoeuvre quickly. If, on sounding -the American position on the left, they should find it too strong to be -forced, they might swiftly retreat. At all events, the movement would -cover a foraging party which Burgoyne had sent out,--and this was no -small matter. Arnold, too, the fighting general, it was reported, held -no command; and Gates was known to be a sluggard. Such thoughts may have -helped to shape the conduct of the British commander on this critical -morning. But the scheme was swiftly overturned. As the British came on, -their right was suddenly attacked by Morgan, while the New England -regulars with 3,000 New York militia assailed them in front. After a -short, sharp fight against overwhelming numbers, their whole line was -broken, and Fraser sought to form a second line a little farther back, -on the west border of Freeman's Farm, though the ranks were badly -disordered and all their cannon were lost. At this moment, Arnold, who -had been watching from the heights, saw that a well-directed blow might -not only ruin this retreating column, but also shatter the whole -British army. Quick as thought he sprang upon his horse, and galloped to -the scene of action. He was greeted with deafening hurrahs, and the men, -leaping with exultation at sight of their beloved commander, rushed upon -Fraser's half-formed line. At the same moment, while Morgan was still -pressing on the British right, one of his marksmen shot General Fraser, -who fell, mortally wounded, just as Arnold charged with mad fury upon -his line. The British, thus assailed in front and flank, were soon -pushed off the field. Arnold next attacked Lord Balcarras, who had -retired behind intrenchments at the north of Freeman's Farm; but finding -the resistance here too strong, he swept by, and charged upon the -Canadian auxiliaries, who occupied a position just north of Balcarras, -and covered the left wing of Breymann's forces at the extreme right of -the British camp. The Canadians soon fled, leaving Breymann uncovered; -and Arnold forthwith rushed against Breymann on the left, just as -Morgan, who had prolonged his flanking march, assailed him on the right. -Breymann was slain and his force routed; the British right wing was -crushed, and their whole position taken in reverse and made untenable. -Just at this moment, a wounded German soldier, lying on the ground, took -aim at Arnold, and slew his horse, while the ball passed through the -general's left leg, that had been wounded at Quebec, and fractured the -bone a little above the knee. As Arnold fell, one of his men rushed up -to bayonet the wounded soldier who had shot him, when the prostrate -general cried, "For God's sake, don't hurt him; he's a fine fellow!" The -poor German was saved, and this was the hour when Benedict Arnold should -have died. His fall and the gathering twilight stopped the progress of -the battle, but the American victory was complete and decisive. Nothing -was left for Burgoyne but to get the wreck of his army out of the way as -quickly as possible, and the next day he did so, making a slow retreat -upon Saratoga, in the course of which his soldiers burned General -Schuyler's princely country-house, with its barns and granaries. - -As the British retreated, General Gates steadily closed in upon them -with his overwhelming forces, which now numbered 20,000. Gates--to give -him due credit--knew how to be active after the victory, although, when -fighting was going on, he was a general of sedentary habits. When Arnold -rushed down, at the critical moment, to complete the victory of -Saratoga, Gates sent out Major Armstrong to stop him. "Call back that -fellow," said Gates, "or he will be doing something rash!" But the eager -Arnold had out-galloped the messenger, and came back only when his leg -was broken and the victory won. In the mean time Gates sat at his -headquarters, forgetful of the battle that was raging below, while he -argued the merits of the American Revolution with a wounded British -officer, Sir Francis Clerke, who had been brought in and laid upon the -commander's bed to die. Losing his temper in the discussion, Gates -called his adjutant, Wilkinson, out of the room, and asked him, "Did you -ever hear so impudent a son of a b----h?" And this seems to have been -all that the commanding general contributed to the crowning victory of -Saratoga. - - [Portrait: La baronne de Riedesel nee de Wassow [illegible]] - - [Sidenote: The British army is surrounded] - -When Burgoyne reached the place where he had crossed the Hudson, he -found a force of 3,000 Americans, with several batteries of cannon -occupying the hills on the other side, so that it was now impossible to -cross. A council of war decided to abandon all the artillery and -baggage, push through the woods by night, and effect a crossing higher -up, by Fort Edward, where the great river begins to be fordable. But no -sooner had this plan been made than word was brought that the Americans -were guarding all the fords, and had also planted detachments in a -strong position to the northward, between Fort Edward and Fort George. -The British army, in short, was surrounded. A brisk cannonade was opened -upon it from the east and south, while Morgan's sharpshooters kept up a -galling fire in the rear. Some of the women and wounded men were sent -for safety to a large house in the neighbourhood, where they took refuge -in the cellar; and there the Baroness Riedesel tells us how she passed -six dismal nights and days, crouching in a corner near the doorway, with -her three little children clinging about her, while every now and then, -with hideous crashing, a heavy cannon-ball passed through the room -overhead. The cellar became crowded with crippled and dying men. But -little food could be obtained, and the suffering from thirst was -dreadful. It was only a few steps to the river, but every man who -ventured out with a bucket was shot dead by Virginia rifles that never -missed their aim. At last the brave wife of a British soldier -volunteered to go; and thus the water was brought again and again, for -the Americans would not fire at a woman. - - [Sidenote: Clinton comes up the Hudson, but it is too late] - -And now, while Burgoyne's last ray of hope was dying, and while the -veteran Phillips declared himself heartbroken at the misery which he -could not relieve, where was Sir Henry Clinton? He had not thought it -prudent to leave New York until after the arrival of 3,000 soldiers whom -he expected from England. These men arrived on the 29th of September, -but six days more elapsed before Sir Henry had taken them up the river -and landed them near Putnam's headquarters at Peekskill. In a campaign -of three days he outwitted that general, carried two of the forts after -obstinate resistance, and compelled the Americans to abandon the others; -and thus laid open the river so that British ships might go up to -Albany. On the 8th of October, Sir Henry wrote to Burgoyne from Fort -Montgomery: "_Nous y voici_, and nothing between us and Gates. I -sincerely hope this little success of ours will facilitate your -operations." This dispatch was written on a scrap of very thin paper, -and encased in an oval silver bullet, which opened with a tiny screw in -the middle. Sir Henry then sent General Vaughan, with several frigates -and the greater part of his force, to make all haste for Albany. As they -passed up the river, the next day, they could not resist the temptation -to land and set fire to the pretty village of Kingston, then the seat of -the state legislature. George Clinton, governor of the state, just -retreating from his able defence of the captured forts, hastened to -protect the village, but came up only in time to see it in flames from -one end to the other. Just then Sir Henry's messenger, as he skulked by -the roadside, was caught and taken to the governor. He had been seen -swallowing something, so they gave him an emetic, and obtained the -silver bullet. The dispatch was read; the bearer was hanged to an -apple-tree; and Burgoyne, weary with waiting for the news that never -came, at last sent a flag of truce to General Gates, inquiring what -terms of surrender would be accepted. - - [Sidenote: Burgoyne surrenders, Oct. 17] - -Gates first demanded an unconditional surrender, but on Burgoyne's -indignant refusal he consented to make terms, and the more readily, no -doubt, since he knew what had just happened in the Highlands, though his -adversary did not. After three days of discussion the terms of surrender -were agreed upon. Just as Burgoyne was about to sign the articles, a -Tory made his way into camp with hearsay news that part of Clinton's -army was approaching Albany. The subject was then anxiously reconsidered -by the British officers, and an interesting discussion ensued as to -whether they had so far pledged their faith to the surrender that they -could not in honour draw back. The majority of the council decided that -their faith was irrevocably pledged, and Burgoyne yielded to this -opinion, though he did not share it, for he did not feel quite clear -that the rumoured advance of Clinton could now avail to save him in any -case. In this he was undoubtedly right. The American army, with its -daily accretions of militia, had now grown to more than 20,000, and -armed yeomanry were still pouring in by the hundred. A diversion -threatened by less than 3,000 men, who were still more than fifty miles -distant, could hardly have averted the doom of the British army. The -only effect which it did produce was, perhaps, to work upon the timid -Gates, and induce him to offer easy terms in order to hasten the -surrender. On the 17th of October, accordingly, the articles were -signed, exchanged, and put in execution. It was agreed that the British -army should march out of camp with the honours of war, and pile their -arms at an appointed place; they should then march through Massachusetts -to Boston, from which port they might sail for Europe, it being -understood that none of them should serve again in America during the -war; all the officers might retain their small arms, and no one's -private luggage should be searched or molested. At Burgoyne's earnest -solicitation the American general consented that these proceedings -should be styled a "convention," instead of a surrender, in imitation of -the famous Convention of Kloster-Seven, by which the Duke of Cumberland, -twenty years before, had sought to save his feelings while losing his -army, beleaguered by the French in Hanover. The soothing phrase has been -well remembered by British historians, who to this day continue to speak -of Burgoyne's surrender as the "Convention of Saratoga." - -In carrying out the terms of the convention, both Gates and his soldiers -showed praiseworthy delicacy. As the British marched off to a meadow by -the river side and laid down their arms, the Americans remained within -their lines, refusing to add to the humiliation of a gallant enemy by -standing and looking on. As the disarmed soldiers then passed by the -American lines, says Lieutenant Anbury, one of the captured officers, "I -did not observe the least disrespect or even a taunting look, but all -was mute astonishment and pity." Burgoyne stepped up and handed his -sword to Gates, simply saying, "The fortune of war, General Gates, has -made me your prisoner." The American general instantly returned the -sword, replying, "I shall always be ready to testify that it has not -been through any fault of your excellency." When Baron Riedesel had been -presented to Gates and the other generals, he sent for his wife and -children. Set free at last from the dreadful cellar, the baroness came -with some trepidation into the enemy's camp; but the only look she saw -upon any face was one of sympathy. "As I approached the tents," she -says, "a noble-looking gentleman came toward me, and took the children -out of the wagon; embraced and kissed them; and then, with tears in his -eyes, helped me also to alight.... Presently he said, 'It may be -embarrassing to you to dine with so many gentlemen. If you will come -with your children to my tent, I will give you a frugal meal, but one -that will at least be seasoned with good wishes.' 'Oh, sir,' I cried, -'you must surely be a husband and a father, since you show me so much -kindness!' I then learned that it was General Schuyler." - - [Sidenote: Schuyler's magnanimity] - -Schuyler had indeed come, with unruffled soul, to look on while the -fruit which he had sown, with the gallant aid of Stark and Herkimer, -Arnold and Morgan, was plucked by an unworthy rival. He now met -Burgoyne, who was naturally pained and embarrassed at the recollection -of the beautiful house which his men had burned a few days before. In a -speech in the House of Commons, some months later, Burgoyne told how -Schuyler received him. "I expressed to General Schuyler," says Burgoyne, -"my regret at the event which had happened, and the reasons which had -occasioned it. He desired me to think no more of it, saying that the -occasion justified it, according to the rules of war.... He did more: he -sent an aide-de-camp to conduct me to Albany, in order, as he expressed -it, to procure me better quarters than a stranger might be able to find. -This gentleman conducted me to a very elegant house, and, to my great -surprise, presented me to Mrs. Schuyler and her family; and in this -general's house I remained during my whole stay at Albany, with a table -of more than twenty covers for me and my friends, and every other -possible demonstration of hospitality." Madame Riedesel was also invited -to stay with the Schuylers; and when first she arrived in the house, one -of her little girls exclaimed, "Oh, mamma! Is this the palace that papa -was to have when he came to America?" As the Schuylers understood -German, the baroness coloured, but all laughed pleasantly, and put her -at ease. - - * * * * * - - [Sidenote: Bad faith of Congress] - -With the generosity and delicacy shown alike by generals and soldiers, -it is painful, though instructive, to contrast the coarseness and bad -faith with which Congress proceeded to treat the captured army. The -presence of the troops in and about Boston was felt to be a hardship, -and General Heath, who commanded there, wrote to Washington, saying that -if they were to stay till cold weather he hardly knew how to find -shelter and fuel for them. Washington replied that they would not be -likely to stay long, since it was clearly for Howe's interest to send -them back to England as soon as possible, in order that they might -replace other soldiers who would be sent over to America for the spring -campaign. Congress caught up this suggestion with avidity, and put it to -uses quite remote from Washington's meaning. When Sir William Howe -proposed Newport as a point from which the soldiers might more speedily -be shipped, Washington, for sound and obvious reasons, urged that there -should be no departure from the strict letter of the convention. -Congress forthwith not only acted upon this suggestion so far as to -refuse Sir William Howe's request, but it went on gratuitously and -absurdly to charge the British general with bad faith. It was hinted -that he secretly intended to bring the troops to New York for immediate -service, in defiance of the convention, and Congress proceeded to make -this imputed treachery the ground for really false dealing on its own -part. When Lord Howe's transports reached Boston, it was not only -ordered that no troops should be allowed to embark until all the -accounts for their subsistence should have been settled, but it was also -required that these accounts should be liquidated in gold. In the -instructions given to General Washington a year before, a refusal on the -part of anybody to receive the Continental paper money was to be treated -as a high misdemeanour. Now Congress refused to take its own money, -which had depreciated till it was worth barely thirty cents on a dollar. -The captured army was supplied with provisions and fuel that were paid -for by General Heath with Continental paper, and now Congress insisted -that General Burgoyne should make his repayment dollar for dollar in -British gold, worth three times as much. In fairness to the delegates, -we may admit that in all probability they did not realize the baseness -of this conduct. They were no doubt misled by one of those wonderful -bits of financial sophistry by which the enacting mind of our countrymen -has so often been hopelessly confused. In an amusing letter to -Washington, honest General Heath naively exclaims, "What an opinion must -General Burgoyne have of the authority of these states, to suppose that -his money would be received at any higher rate than our own in public -payment! Such payment would at once be depreciating our currency with a -witness." Washington was seriously annoyed and mortified by these -vagaries,--the more so that he was at this very time endeavouring to -arrange with Howe a general cartel for the exchange of prisoners; and he -knew that the attempt to make thirty cents equal to a dollar would, as -he said, "destroy the very idea of a cartel." - - [Portrait: W Heath] - -While these discussions were going on, Congress, like the wicked king in -the fairy tale, anxious to impose conditions unlikely to be fulfilled, -demanded that General Burgoyne should make out a descriptive list of all -the officers and soldiers in his army, in order that if any of them -should thereafter be found serving against the United States they might -be punished accordingly. As no such provision was contained in the -convention, upon the faith of which Burgoyne had surrendered, he -naturally regarded the demand as insulting, and at first refused to -comply with it. He afterwards yielded the point, in his eagerness to -liberate his soldiers; but meanwhile, in a letter to Gates, he had -incautiously let fall the expression, "The publick faith is broke -[_sic_];" and this remark, coming to the ears of Congress, was -immediately laid hold of as a pretext for repudiating the convention -altogether. It was argued that Burgoyne had charged the United States -with bad faith, in order to have an excuse for repudiating the -convention on his own part; and on the 8th of January, Congress -accordingly resolved, "that the embarkation of Lieutenant-General -Burgoyne and the troops under his command be suspended till a distinct -and explicit ratification of the Convention of Saratoga shall be -properly notified by the court of Great Britain to Congress." Now as the -British government could not give the required ratification without -implicitly recognizing the independence of the United States, no further -steps were taken in the matter, the "publick faith" was really broken, -and the captured army was never sent home. - - [Illustration: ENCAMPMENT OF THE CONVENTION TROOPS IN VIRGINIA] - - [Sidenote: The behavior of Congress was simply inexcusable] - -In this wretched affair, Congress deliberately sacrificed principle to -policy. It refused, on paltry pretexts, to carry out a solemn engagement -which had been made by its accredited agent; and it did so simply -through the fear that the British army might indirectly gain a possible -reinforcement. Its conduct can be justified upon no grounds save such as -would equally justify firing upon flags of truce. Nor can it be -palliated even upon the lowest grounds of expediency, for, as it has -been well said, "to a people struggling for political life the moral -support derivable from the maintenance of honour and good faith was -worth a dozen material victories." This sacrifice of principle to policy -has served only to call down the condemnation of impartial historians, -and to dim the lustre of the magnificent victory which the valour of our -soldiers and the self-devotion of our people had won in the field. It -was one out of many instances which show that, under any form of -government, the moral sense of the governing body is likely to fall far -below the highest moral standard recognized in the community. - - [Sidenote: What became of the captured army] - -The captured army was never sent home. The officers were treated as -prisoners of war, and from time to time were exchanged. Burgoyne was -allowed to go to England in the spring, and while still a prisoner on -parole he took his seat in Parliament, and became conspicuous among the -defenders of the American cause. The troops were detained in the -neighbourhood of Boston until the autumn of 1778, when they were all -transferred to Charlottesville in Virginia. Here a rude village was -built on the brow of a pleasant ridge of hills, and gardens were laid -out and planted. Much kind assistance was rendered in all this work by -Thomas Jefferson, who was then living close by, on his estate at -Monticello, and did everything in his power to make things comfortable -for soldiers and officers. Two years afterward, when Virginia became the -seat of war, some of them were removed to Winchester in the Shenandoah -valley, to Frederick in Maryland, and to Lancaster in Pennsylvania. -Those who wished to return to Europe were exchanged or allowed to -escape. The greater number, especially of the Germans, preferred to stay -in this country and become American citizens. Before the end of 1783 -they had dispersed in all directions. - -Such was the strange sequel of a campaign which, whether we consider the -picturesqueness of its incidents or the magnitude of its results, was -one of the most memorable in the history of mankind. Its varied scenes, -framed in landscapes of grand and stirring beauty, had brought together -such types of manhood as the feathered Mohawk sachem, the helmeted -Brunswick dragoon, and the blue-frocked yeoman of New England,--types of -ancient barbarism, of the militancy bequeathed from the Middle Ages, -and of the industrial democracy that is to possess and control the -future of the world. These men had mingled in a deadly struggle for the -strategic centre of the Atlantic coast of North America, and now the -fight had ended in the complete and overwhelming defeat of the forces of -George III. Four years, indeed,--four years of sore distress and hope -deferred,--were yet to pass before the fruits of this great victory -could be gathered. The independence of the United States was not yet -won; but the triumph at Saratoga set in motion a train of events from -which the winning of independence was destined surely to follow. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [14] In the spring of 1776 Lee had written to Edward Rutledge: "By - the eternal God! If you do not declare yourselves independent, - you deserve to be slaves!" In several such letters Lee had - fairly bellowed for independence. - - - - - VOLUME II - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER VIII - - THE FRENCH ALLIANCE - PAGE - - The four periods of the Revolutionary war 1-3 - - Consequences of Saratoga; consternation in England 4 - - Views of the different parties 5, 6 - - Lord North's political somersault 6 - - Strange scene in the House of Commons 7, 8 - - Treaty between France and the United States (February 6, 1778) 8, 9 - - Great Britain declares war against France (March 13) 10 - - Demand for Lord Chatham for prime minister 11, 12 - - The king's rage 12, 13 - - What Chatham would have tried to do 13, 14 - - Death of Chatham 14-16 - - His prodigious greatness 16-20 - - Lord North remains in power 20, 21 - - His commissioners in America fail to accomplish anything 22 - - Germain's new plan for conducting the war 22, 23 - - - CHAPTER IX - - VALLEY FORGE - - Distress in America 24 - - Lack of organization 25 - - Vexatious meddling of Congress with the army 26 - - Sufferings at Valley Forge 27 - - Promoting officers for non-military reasons 28 - - Absurd talk of John Adams 29 - - Gates is puffed up with success 30 - - And shows symptoms of insubordination 31 - - The Conway cabal 32, 33 - - Attempts to injure Washington 34, 35 - - Conway's letter to Gates 36 - - Gates's letter to Washington 37 - - Washington's reply 38 - - Gates tries, unsuccessfully, to save himself by lying 39 - - But is successful, as usual, in keeping from under fire 40 - - The forged letters 40 - - Scheme for invading Canada 41 - - The dinner at York, and Lafayette's toast 42 - - Absurdity of the scheme 43 - - Downfall of the cabal 43 - - Decline of the Continental Congress 44, 45 - - Increasing influence of Washington 45, 46 - - - CHAPTER X - - MONMOUTH AND NEWPORT - - Baron Friedrich von Steuben 47-49 - - He arrives in America and visits Congress at York 50 - - His work in training the army at Valley Forge 51-53 - - His manual of tactics 54 - - Sir William Howe resigns his command 55 - - The Mischianza 56 - - The British evacuate Philadelphia (June 18, 1778) 56, 57 - - Arnold takes command there 57 - - Charles Lee is exchanged, and returns to his command in the - American army 58 - - His reasons for returning 58, 59 - - Washington pursues the British 60 - - His plan of attack 61 - - Battle of Monmouth (June 28) 62-65 - - Lee's shameful retreat 62 - - Washington retrieves the situation 63, 64 - - It was a drawn battle 65 - - Washington's letter to Lee 66 - - Trial and sentence of Lee 67, 68 - - Lee's character and schemes 68-70 - - Lee's expulsion from the army; his death 71 - - The situation at New York 72 - - The French fleet unable to enter the harbour 73 - - General Prescott at Newport 74 - - Attempt to capture the British garrison at Newport 75 - - Sullivan seizes Butts Hill 76 - - Naval battle prevented by storm 77 - - Estaing goes to Boston to refit his ships 77, 78 - - Yeomanry go home in disgust 78 - - Battle of Butts Hill (August 29) 79 - - The enterprise abandoned 79 - - Unpopularity of the French alliance 80 - - Stagnation of the war in the northern states 81, 82 - - - CHAPTER XI - - WAR ON THE FRONTIER - - Joseph Brant, or Thayendanegea, missionary and war-chief 83-86 - - The Tories of western New York 87, 88 - - The valley of Wyoming and its settlers from Connecticut 89, 90 - - Massacre at Wyoming (July 3, 1778) 91, 92 - - Massacre at Cherry Valley (November 10) 93, 94 - - Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois 94 - - Battle of Newtown (August 29, 1779) 95 - - Devastation of the Iroquois country 96 - - Reign of terror in the Mohawk valley 97, 98 - - The wilderness beyond the Alleghanies 99 - - Rivalry between Pennsylvania and Virginia for the possession - of Fort Pitt 100 - - Lord Dunmore's war (1774) 100-104 - - Logan and Cresap 102, 103 - - Battle of Point Pleasant (October 10, 1774) and its - consequences 104 - - Settlement of Kentucky 105 - - And of eastern Tennessee 106 - - Defeat of the Cherokees on the Watauga, and its consequences 106-108 - - George Rogers Clark 108 - - His conquest of the northwestern territory (1778) 109 - - Capture of Vincennes (February 23, 1779) 110 - - Settlement of middle Tennessee 111 - - Importance of Clark's conquest 112 - - Tryon's raids upon the coast of Connecticut 113 - - Sir Henry Clinton captures the fortress at Stony Point (May 31, - 1779) 114 - - Wayne recaptures Stony Point by storm (July 16) 115, 116 - - Evacuation of Stony Point 117 - - Note on comparative humanity of Americans and British, in the - Revolutionary war 116-118 - - Henry Lee's exploit at Paulus Hook (August 18) 119, 120 - - - CHAPTER XII - - WAR ON THE OCEAN - - Importance of the control of the water 121 - - Feeble action of Congress 122, 123 - - American and British cruisers 124, 125 - - Lambert Wickes and Gustavus Conyngham 126 - - John Paul Jones 126 - - Franklin's supervision of maritime affairs 127 - - Jones's squadron 128, 129 - - His cruise on the British coast 130 - - He meets a British fleet off Flamborough Head 130, 131 - - Terrific fight between the Serapis and the Bon Homme Richard - (September 23, 1779) 132-135 - - Effect of Jones's victory 135 - - Why Denmark and Russia were interested in it 136, 137 - - Relations of Spain to France and England 138 - - Intrigues of Spain 139, 140 - - Treaty between Spain and France (April, 1779) 141 - - French and Spanish fleets attempt an invasion of England (August, - 1779) 142 - - Sir George Rodney 143, 144 - - Rights of neutrals upon the sea 144-157 - - The Consolato del Mare 145, 146 - - England's conduct in the eighteenth century 147 - - Prussian doctrine that free ships make free goods 148 - - Influence of the French philosophers 148, 149 - - Great Britain wishes to secure an alliance with Russia 149 - - Importance of Minorca 150 - - France adopts the Prussian doctrine 151, 152 - - The affair of Fielding and Bylandt 153 - - Spanish cruisers capture Russian vessels 154 - - Catherine's proclamation (March 8, 1780) 154 - - The Armed Neutrality 155, 156 - - Vast importance of the principles laid down by Catherine 157 - - Relations between Great Britain and Holland 158, 159 - - Holland joins the Armed Neutrality 160 - - Capture of Henry Laurens and his papers 160 - - Great Britain declares war against Holland (December 20, 1780) 161 - - Catherine decides not to interfere 162 - - Capture of St. Eustatius (February 3, 1781) 163-165 - - Shameful proceedings 166 - - Ignominious results of the politics of George III. 167 - - - CHAPTER XIII - - A YEAR OF DISASTERS - - State of affairs in Georgia and South Carolina 168, 169 - - Georgia overrun by the British 170, 171 - - Arrival of General Lincoln (December, 1778) 172 - - Partisan warfare; barbarous reprisals 172 - - The Americans routed at Briar Creek (March 3, 1779) 173 - - Vandalism of General Prevost 174 - - Plan for arming negroes 175 - - Indignation in South Carolina 176 - - Action of the council 176 - - End of the campaign 177, 178 - - Attempt to recapture Savannah 179 - - Clinton and Cornwallis go to Georgia 180 - - The British advance upon Charleston 181 - - Surrender of Charleston (May 12, 1780) 182 - - South Carolina overrun by the British 182-184 - - Clinton returns to New York 185 - - An injudicious proclamation 186 - - Disorders in South Carolina 186 - - The strategic points 187 - - Partisan commanders 187 - - Francis Marion 188 - - Thomas Sumter 189 - - First appearance of Andrew Jackson in history 189 - - Advance of Kalb 190 - - Gates appointed to the chief command in the south 190, 191 - - Choice of roads to Camden 192 - - Gates chooses the wrong road 193 - - He loses the moment for striking 193 - - And weakens his army on the eve of battle 194 - - And is surprised by Cornwallis 195 - - Battle of Camden (August 16, 1780); total and ignominious - defeat of Gates 195-197 - - His campaign was a series of blunders 197 - - Partisan operations 198 - - Weariness and depression of the people 199 - - Evils wrought by the paper currency 200 - - "Not worth a Continental" 201, 202 - - Taxes paid in the form of specific supplies 203 - - Difficulty of keeping the army together 203, 204 - - The French alliance 205 - - Lafayette's visit to France (February, 1779) 206, 207 - - Arrival of part of the French auxiliary force under Count - Rochambeau (July, 1780) 208 - - The remainder is detained in France by a British fleet 209 - - General despondency 210 - - - CHAPTER XIV - - BENEDICT ARNOLD - - Arnold put in command of Philadelphia (June, 1778) 211 - - He gets into difficulties with the government of Pennsylvania 212 - - Miss Margaret Shippen 212 - - Views of the moderate Tories 213 - - Arnold's drift toward Toryism 214 - - He makes up his mind to leave the army 215 - - Charges are brought against him (January, 1779) 216 - - He is acquitted by a committee of Congress (March) 216 - - The case is referred to a court-martial (April) 217 - - First correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton 218 - - The court-martial acquits Arnold of all serious charges, but - directs Washington to reprimand him for two very trivial ones - (January 26, 1780) 219 - - Arnold thirsts for revenge upon Congress 220 - - Significance of West Point 221 - - Arnold put in command of West Point (July, 1780) 222 - - Secret interview between Arnold and Andre (September 22) 223 - - The plot for surrendering West Point 224, 225 - - Andre takes compromising documents 226 - - And is persuaded to return to New York by land 227 - - The roads infested by robbers 228 - - Arrest of Andre (September 23) 229-232 - - Colonel Jameson's perplexity 232 - - Washington returns from Hartford sooner than expected 233, 234 - - Flight of Arnold (September 25) 235 - - Discovery of the treasonable plot 236, 237 - - Andre taken to Tappan (September 28) 238 - - Andre's trial and sentence (September 29) 238 - - Clinton's arguments and protests 239 - - Captain Ogden's message 240 - - Execution of Andre (October 2) 241 - - Lord Stanhope's unconscious impudence 242 - - There is no reason in the world why Andre's life should have - been spared 243 - - Captain Battersby's story 244 - - Arnold's terrible downfall 244-246 - - Arnold's family 247 - - His remorse and death (June 14, 1801) 248 - - Reflections 248-250 - - Mutiny of Pennsylvania troops (January 1, 1781) 251, 252 - - Fate of Clinton's emissaries 253 - - Further mutiny suppressed 253, 254 - - - CHAPTER XV - - YORKTOWN - - Cornwallis invades North Carolina (September, 1780) 255 - - Ferguson's expedition 255 - - Rising of the backwoodsmen 256, 257 - - Battle of King's Mountain (October 7, 1780) 258, 259 - - Effect of the blow 260 - - Reinforcements from the North; arrival of Daniel Morgan 261 - - Greene appointed to the chief command at the South 261 - - Greene's daring strategy; he threatens Cornwallis on both - flanks 262-264 - - Cornwallis retorts by sending Tarleton against Morgan 265 - - Morgan's position at the Cowpens 265 - - Battle of the Cowpens (January 17, 1781); nearly the whole - British force captured on the field 266 - - Brilliant movements of Morgan and Greene; they lead Cornwallis - a chase across North Carolina 267-269 - - Further manoeuvres 270 - - Battle of Guilford (March 15) 270, 271 - - Retreat of Cornwallis 272 - - He abandons the Carolinas and marches into Virginia 273 - - Greene's master-stroke; he returns to South Carolina (April - 6-18) 273 - - And, by taking Fort Watson, cuts Lord Rawdon's communications - (April 23) 274 - - Rawdon defeats Greene at Hobkirk's Hill (April 25); but is - none the less obliged to give up Camden in order to save - his army (May 10) 275, 276 - - All the inland posts taken from the British (May-June) 276 - - Rawdon goes to England, leaving Stuart in command 277 - - Greene marches against Stuart (August 22) 277 - - Battle of Eutaw Springs (September 8) 278 - - Greene's superb generalship 278, 279 - - Lord Cornwallis arrives at Petersburg (May 20) 279, 280 - - His campaign against Lafayette 281-283 - - Cornwallis retreats to the coast, and occupies Yorktown 284, 285 - - Elements of the final catastrophe; arrival of the French - fleet 286, 287 - - News from Grasse and Lafayette 288 - - Subtle and audacious scheme of Washington 289 - - He transfers his army to Virginia (August 19-September 18) 290-292 - - Movements of the fleets 293 - - Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown 294 - - Clinton's attempt at a counter-stroke; Arnold's proceedings - at New London (September 6) 295, 296 - - Surrender of Cornwallis 297 - - Importance of the aid rendered by the French fleet and - army 298, 299 - - Effect of the news in England 300, 301 - - Difficult position of Great Britain 302 - - Rodney's victory over Grasse (April 12, 1782) 303 - - Resignation of Lord North (March 20, 1782) 304 - - Defeat of the political schemes of George III. 305 - - The American Revolution was not a conflict between Englishmen - and Americans, but between two antagonistic principles of - government, each of which had its advocates and opponents in - both countries; and Yorktown was an auspicious victory won - by Washington for both countries 306-310 - - - - - THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - - THE FRENCH ALLIANCE - - -THE history of the Revolutionary War may be divided into four -well-marked periods. The first period begins in 1761 with the resistance -of James Otis to the general search-warrants, and it may be regarded as -ending in June, 1774, when the acts for changing the government of -Massachusetts were intended to take effect. This period of -constitutional discussion culminated in the defiance of Great Britain by -the people of Boston when they threw the tea into the harbour; and the -acts of April, 1774, by which Parliament replied to the challenge, were -virtually a declaration of war against the American colonies, though yet -another year elapsed before the first bloodshed at Lexington. - -The second period opens with June, 1774, when Massachusetts began to -nullify the acts of Parliament, and it closes with the Declaration of -Independence. During this period warfare was carried on only for the -purpose of obtaining a redress of grievances, and without any design of -bringing about a political separation of the English people in America -from the English people in Britain. The theatre of war was mainly -confined to New England and Canada; and while the Americans failed in -the attempt to conquer Canada, their defensive warfare was crowned with -success. The fighting of this period began with the victory of -Lexington: it ended with the victory of Fort Moultrie. New England, -except the island of Newport, was finally freed from the presence of the -British, and no further attack was made upon the southern states for -more than two years. - -The essential feature of the third period, comprising the years 1776 and -1777, was the struggle for the state of New York and the great natural -strategic line of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers. Independence having been -declared, the United States and Great Britain were now fighting each -other single-handed, like two separate and foreign powers. It was the -object of Great Britain to conquer the United States, and accordingly -she struck at the commercial and military centre of the confederation. -If she could have thoroughly conquered the state of New York and secured -the line of the Hudson, she would have broken the confederation in two, -and might perhaps have proceeded to overcome its different parts in -detail. Hence in this period of the war everything centres about New -York, such an outlying expedition as that of Howe against Philadelphia -having no decisive military value except in its bearings upon the issue -of the great central conflict. The strategy of the Americans was mainly -defensive, though with regard to certain operations they assumed the -offensive with brilliant success. The period began with the disasters of -Long Island and Fort Washington; it ended with the triumph of Saratoga. -As the net result of the two years' work, the British had taken and held -the cities of New York and Philadelphia and the town of Newport. The -fortress of Ticonderoga, which they had likewise taken, they abandoned -after the overthrow of Burgoyne; and in like manner they retired from -the highlands of the Hudson, which the Americans now proceeded to occupy -with a stronger force than before. In short, while the British had lost -an army, they had conquered nothing but the ground on which they were -actually encamped. Their attempt to break through the centre of the -American position had ended in a total defeat, and it now began to seem -clear to discerning minds that there was small chance of their being -able to conquer the United States. - -The fourth period, upon which we are now entering, begins with the -immediate consequences of the victory of Saratoga, and extends to the -treaty of 1783, whereby Great Britain acknowledged the independence of -the United States. The military history of this period ends with the -surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, in October, 1781, just four years -after the surrender of Burgoyne. Except as regards the ultimate triumph -of the American arms, the history of these four years presents striking -contrasts to the history of the two years we have just passed in review. -The struggle is no longer confined to the arms of Great Britain and the -United States, but it extends in some measure over the whole civilized -world, though it is only France, with its army and more especially its -navy, that comes into direct relation with the final result in America. -Moreover, instead of a well-aimed and concentrated blow at the centre of -the American position, the last period of the war consisted partly of a -straggling and disorderly series of movements, designed simply to harass -the Americans and wear out their patience, and partly of an attempt to -conquer the southern states and detach them from the Union. There is, -accordingly, less dramatic unity in this last stage of the war than in -the period which ended at Saratoga, and it is less susceptible of close -and consecutive treatment; but, on the other hand, in richness of -incidents and in variety of human interest it is in no wise inferior to -the earlier periods. - - * * * * * - - [Sidenote: Consternation in England] - -The first consequence of Saratoga was the retreat of the British -government from every one of the positions for the sake of which it had -begun the war. The news of Burgoyne's surrender reached England just -before Parliament adjourned for Christmas, and Lord North immediately -gave notice that as soon as the holidays were over he should bring in -measures for conciliating the Americans. The general feeling in England -was one of amazement and consternation. In these days, when we are -accustomed to contemplate military phenomena of enormous magnitude, when -we have lately carried on a war in which more than two million men were -under arms, and more than two million dollars were expended every day, -we must not forget how different was the historic background upon which -events were projected a century ago. Those were not the days of -submarine telegraphs and Cunard steamships, and in trying to carry on -warfare across three thousand miles of ocean the problem before George -III. was far more arduous than that which the great Frederick had -solved, when, acting on interior lines and supported by British gold, he -overcame the combined assaults of France and Austria and Russia. The -loss which Great Britain had now suffered could not easily be made good. -At the same time it was generally believed, both in England and on the -continent of Europe, that the loss of the American colonies would entail -the ruin of the British Empire. Only a few wise political economists, -"literary men," like Adam Smith and Josiah Tucker, were far-seeing -enough to escape this prodigious fallacy; even Chatham was misled by it. -It was not understood that English America and English Britain were -bound together by commercial and social ties so strong that no question -of political union or severance could permanently affect them. It was -not foreseen that within a century the dealings of Great Britain with -the independent United States would far exceed her dealings with the -rest of the world. On the contrary, it was believed that if political -independence were conceded to the Americans, the whole stream of -transatlantic commerce would somehow be diverted to other parts of -Europe, that the British naval power would forthwith decay, and that -England would sink from her imperial position into such a mere insular -nation as that over which Henry VIII. had ruled. So greatly did men -overrate political conditions; so far were they from appreciating those -economic conditions which are so much more deep-seated and essential. - - [Portrait: LORD NORTH] - - [Sidenote: Views of the different parties] - -Under these circumstances, the only people in England who were willing -to concede the independence of the United States were the Rockingham -Whigs, and these were now in a small minority. Lord Rockingham and his -friends, with Burke as their leader, had always condemned the harsh and -stupid policy of the government toward America, and they were now ready -to concede independence because they were convinced that conciliation -was no longer practicable. Lord Chatham, on the other hand, with his -section of the Whig party, while even more emphatically condemning the -policy of the government, still clung to the hope of conciliation, and -could not bear to think of the disruption of the empire. But with the -Tory party, which had all along supported the government, the war was -still popular, and no calamity seemed so great as the loss of the -American colonies. Most of the country squires believed in crushing out -rebellion, no matter where it occurred or for what reason, and this view -was almost unanimously taken by the clergy. In the House of Lords none -were so bloodthirsty as the bishops, and country parsons preached from -all the texts of the Old Testament which refer to smiting Jehovah's -enemies hip and thigh. The trading classes in the large towns, and the -few manufacturers who had come upon the scene, were so afraid of losing -the American market that they were ready to vote men and money without -stint. The town of Manchester even raised and equipped two regiments at -its own expense. Thus while the great majority of the British nation -believed that America must be retained at whatever cost, a majority of -this majority believed that it must be conquered before it could be -conciliated or reasoned with; and this was the opinion which had thus -far found favour with Lord North and controlled the policy of the -government. - - [Sidenote: Lord North's political somersault] - -We may imagine, then, the unspeakable amazement of the House of Commons, -on the 17th of February, 1778, when Lord North arose in his place and -moved that every one of the points for which Samuel Adams and his -friends had zealously contended, from the passage of the Stamp Act to -the breaking out of war, should at once be conceded forever and without -further parley. By the bill which he now proceeded to read, the famous -Tea Act and the act for changing the constitution of Massachusetts were -unconditionally repealed. It was furthermore declared that Parliament -would renounce forever the right of raising a revenue in America; and it -was provided that commissioners should be sent over to treat with -Congress, armed with full powers for negotiating a peace. Pending the -negotiations the commissioners might proclaim a truce, and might suspend -the operation of any act of Parliament relating to America which had -been passed since 1763. They might also proclaim complete amnesty for -all political offences. - - [Portrait: C. J. Fox] - - [Sidenote: Strange scene in the House of Commons] - -So complete a political somersault has seldom been turned by an English -minister, and the speech in which Lord North defended himself was worthy -of the occasion. Instead of resigning when he saw that his policy had -proved a failure, as an English minister would naturally do, he suddenly -shifted his ground, and adopted the policy which the opposition had -urged in vain against him three years before, and which, if then -adopted, would unquestionably have prevented bloodshed. Not only did he -thus shift his ground, but he declared that this policy of conciliation -was really the one which he had favoured from the beginning. There was -more truth in this than appeared at the moment, for in more than one -instance Lord North had, with culpable weakness, carried out the king's -policy in defiance of his own convictions. It was in vain, however, that -he sought to clear himself of responsibility for the Tea Act, the -oppressive edicts of 1774, and the recent events in America generally. -The House received his bill and his speech in profound silence. Disgust -and dejection filled every bosom, yet no one could very well help voting -for the measures. The Tories, already chagrined by the bitter news from -Saratoga, were enraged at being thus required to abandon all the ground -for which they had been fighting, yet no way seemed open for them but to -follow their leader. The Whigs were vexed at seeing the wind taken out -of their sails, but they could not in honour oppose a policy which they -had always earnestly supported. All sat for some moments in grim, -melancholy silence, till Charles Fox, arising, sarcastically began his -speech by congratulating his Whig friends on having gained such a -powerful and unexpected ally in the prime minister. Taunts and -innuendoes flew back and forth across the House. From the Tory side came -sullen cries that the country was betrayed, while from among the Whigs -the premier was asked if he supposed himself armed with the spear of -Achilles, which could heal the wounds that itself had made. It was very -pointedly hinted that the proposed measures would not be likely to -produce much effect upon the Americans unless accompanied by Lord -North's resignation, since, coming from him, they would come as from a -tainted spring. But in spite of all this ill-feeling the bill was -passed, and the same reasons which had operated here carried it also -through the House of Lords. On the 11th of March it received the royal -signature, and three commissioners were immediately appointed to convey -information of this action to Congress, and make arrangements for a -treaty of peace. - - [Sidenote: Treaty between France and the United States, Feb. 6, 1778] - -The conciliatory policy of Lord North had come at least two years too -late. The American leaders were now unwilling to consider the question -of reunion with the mother-country upon any terms, and even before the -extraordinary scene in Parliament which we have just witnessed a treaty -had been made with France, by which the Americans solemnly agreed, in -consideration of armed support to be furnished by that power, never to -entertain proposals of peace from Great Britain until their independence -should be acknowledged, and never to conclude a treaty of peace except -with the concurrence of their new ally. The French government had -secretly assisted the Americans as early as the summer of 1776 by -occasional loans of money, and by receiving American privateers in -French ports. The longer Great Britain and her colonies could be kept -weakening each other by warfare, the greater the hope that France might -at some time be enabled to step in and regain her lost maritime empire. -But it was no part of French policy to take an active share in the -struggle until the proper moment should come for reaping some decisive -material advantage. At the beginning of the year 1778 that moment seemed -to have arrived. The capture of Burgoyne and the masterly strategy which -Washington had shown, in spite of his ill-success on the field, had -furnished convincing proof that the American alliance was worth having. -At the same time, the announcement that Lord North was about to bring in -conciliatory measures indicated that the British government was -weakening in its purpose. Should such measures succeed in conciliating -the Americans and in bringing about a firm reunion with the -mother-country, the schemes of France would be irretrievably ruined. -Now, therefore, was the golden opportunity, and France was not slow to -seize it. On the 6th of February the treaty with the United States was -signed at Paris. By a special article it was stipulated that Spain might -enter into the alliance at her earliest convenience. Just now, too, -Frederick the Great publicly opened the port of Dantzic to American -cruisers and prohibited Hessian soldiers from passing through his -dominions to the seaboard, while he wrote to Franklin at Paris that he -should probably soon follow the king of France in recognizing the -independence of the United States. - - [Sidenote: Great Britain declares war against France, March 13] - -Rumours of all these things kept coming to England while the -conciliatory measures were passing through Parliament, and on the 13th -of March, two days after those measures had become law, the action of -France was formally communicated to the British government, and war was -instantly declared. - - [Illustration: - - _The present_ STATE OF EUROPE & AMERICA - or - _The_ MAN _in the_ MOON _taking a View of the_ ENGLISH ARMADA. - ] - -The situation of England seemed desperate. With one army lost in -America, with the recruiting ground in Germany barred against her, with -a debt piling up at the rate of a million dollars a week, and with a -very inadequate force of troops at home in case of sudden invasion, she -was now called upon to contend with the whole maritime power of France, -to which that of Spain was certain soon to be added, and, to crown all, -the government had just written its own condemnation by confessing -before the world that its policy toward America, which had been the -cause of all this mischief, was impracticable as well as -unrighteous.[15] - - [Sidenote: The Earl of Chatham] - - [Sidenote: The king's rage] - -At this terrible moment the eyes of all England were turned upon one -great man, old now and wasted by disease, but the fire of whose genius -still burned bright and clear. The government must be changed, and in -the Earl of Chatham the country had still a leader whose very name was -synonymous with victory. Not thus had matters gone in the glorious days -of Quiberon and Minden and Quebec, when his skilful hand was at the -helm, and every heart in England and America beat high with the -consciousness of worthy ends achieved by well-directed valour. To whom -but Chatham should appeal be made to repair the drooping fortunes of the -empire? It was in his hands alone that a conciliatory policy could have -any chance of success. From the first he had been the consistent -advocate of the constitutional rights of the Americans; and throughout -America he was the object of veneration no less hearty and enthusiastic -than that which was accorded to Washington himself. Overtures that would -be laughed at as coming from North would at least find respectful -hearing if urged by Chatham. On the other hand, should the day for -conciliation have irrevocably passed by, the magic of his name was of -itself sufficient to create a panic in France, while in England it would -kindle that popular enthusiasm which is of itself the best guarantee of -success. In Germany, too, the remembrance of the priceless services he -had rendered could not but dispel the hostile feeling with which -Frederick had regarded England since the accession of George III. Moved -by such thoughts as these, statesmen of all parties, beginning with Lord -North himself, implored the king to form a new ministry under Chatham. -Lord Mansfield, his bitterest enemy, for once declared that without -Chatham at the helm the ship of state must founder, and his words were -echoed by Bute and the young George Grenville. At the opposite extreme -of politics, the Duke of Richmond, who had long since made up his mind -that the colonies must be allowed to go, declared, nevertheless, that if -it were to be Chatham who should see fit to make another attempt to -retain them, he would aid him in every possible way. The press teemed -with expressions of the popular faith in Chatham, and every one -impatiently wondered that the king should lose a day in calling to the -head of affairs the only man who could save the country. But all this -unanimity of public opinion went for nothing with the selfish and -obdurate king. All the old reasons for keeping Chatham out of office had -now vanished, so far as the American question was concerned; for by -consenting to North's conciliatory measures the king had virtually come -over to Chatham's position, and as regarded the separation of the -colonies from the mother-country, Chatham was no less unwilling than the -king to admit the necessity of such a step. Indeed, the policy upon -which the king had now been obliged to enter absolutely demanded Chatham -as its exponent instead of North. Everybody saw this, and no doubt the -king saw it himself, but it had no weight with him in the presence of -personal considerations. He hated Chatham with all the ferocity of -hatred that a mean and rancorous spirit can feel toward one that is -generous and noble; and he well knew besides that, with that statesman -at the head of affairs, his own share in the government would be reduced -to nullity. To see the government administered in accordance with the -policy of a responsible minister, and in disregard of his own -irresponsible whims, was a humiliation to which he was not yet ready to -submit. For eight years now, by coaxing and bullying the frivolous -North, he had contrived to keep the reins in his own hands; and having -so long tasted the sweets of power, he was resolved in future to have -none but milksops for his ministers. In face of these personal -considerations the welfare of the nation was of little account to -him.[16] He flew into a rage. No power in heaven or earth, he said, -should ever make him stoop to treat with "Lord Chatham and his crew;" he -refused to be "shackled by those desperate men" and "made a slave for -the remainder of his days." Rather than yield to the wishes of his -people at this solemn crisis, he would submit to lose his crown. Better -thus, he added, than to wear it in bondage and disgrace. - - [Sidenote: What Chatham would have tried to do] - -In spite of the royal wrath, however, the popular demand for a change of -government was too strong to be resisted. But for Lord Chatham's sudden -death, a few weeks later, he would doubtless have been called upon to -fill the position which North was so anxious to relinquish. The king -would have had to swallow his resentment, as he was afterwards obliged -to do in 1782. Had Chatham now become prime minister, it was his design -to follow up the repeal of all obnoxious legislation concerning America -by withdrawing every British soldier from our soil, and attacking France -with might and main, as in the Seven Years' War, on the ocean and -through Germany, where the invincible Ferdinand of Brunswick was again -to lead the armies of Great Britain. In America such a policy could -hardly have failed to strengthen not only the loyalists and waverers, -but also the Whigs of conciliatory mould, such as Dickinson and Robert -Morris. Nor was the moment an inopportune one. Many Americans, who were -earnest in withstanding the legislative encroachments of Parliament, had -formerly been alienated from the popular cause by what they deemed the -needlessly radical step of the Declaration of Independence. Many others -were now alienated by the French alliance. In New England, the chief -stronghold of the revolutionary party, many people were disgusted at an -alliance with the Catholic and despotic power which in days gone by had -so often let loose the Indian hell-hounds upon their frontier. The -treaty with France was indeed a marriage of convenience rather than of -affection. The American leaders, even while arranging it, dreaded the -revulsion of feeling that might ensue in the country at large; and their -dread was the legitimate hope of Chatham. To return to the state of -things which had existed previous to 1765 would no doubt be impossible. -Independence of some sort must be conceded, and in this Lord Rockingham -and the Duke of Richmond were unquestionably right. But Chatham was in -no wise foolish in hoping that some sort of federal bond might be -established which should maintain Americans and British in perpetual -alliance, and, while granting full legislative autonomy to the colonies -singly or combined, should prevent the people of either country from -ever forgetting that the Americans were English. There was at least a -chance that this noble policy might succeed, and until the trial should -have been made he would not willingly consent to a step that seemed -certain to wreck the empire his genius had won for England. But death -now stepped in to simplify the situation in the old ruthless way. - - [Portrait: Richmond &c] - - [Sidenote: Death of Chatham] - -The Duke of Richmond, anxious to bring matters to an issue, gave notice -that on the 7th of April he should move that the royal fleets and armies -should be instantly withdrawn from America, and peace be made on -whatever terms Congress might see fit to accept. Such at least was the -practical purport of the motion. For such an unconditional surrender -Chatham was not yet ready, and on the appointed day he got up from his -sick-bed and came into the House of Lords to argue against the motion. -Wrapped in flannel bandages and leaning upon crutches, his dark eyes in -their brilliancy enhancing the pallor of his careworn face, as he -entered the House, supported on the one side by his son-in-law, Lord -Mahon, on the other by that younger son who was so soon to add fresh -glory to the name of William Pitt, the peers all started to their feet, -and remained standing until he had taken his place. In broken sentences, -with strange flashes of the eloquence that had once held captive ear and -heart, he protested against the hasty adoption of a measure which simply -prostrated the dignity of England before its ancient enemy, the House of -Bourbon. The Duke of Richmond's answer, reverently and delicately -worded, urged that while the magic of Chatham's name could work anything -short of miracles, yet only a miracle could now relieve them from the -dire necessity of abandoning America. The earl rose to reply, but his -overwrought frame gave way, and he sank in a swoon upon the floor. All -business was at once adjourned. The peers, with eager sympathy, came -crowding up to offer assistance, and the unconscious statesman was -carried in the arms of his friends to a house near by, whence in a few -days he was removed to his home at Hayes. There, after lingering between -life and death for several weeks, on the 11th of May, and in the -seventieth year of his age, Lord Chatham breathed his last. - - [Sidenote: His prodigious greatness] - -The man thus struck down, like a soldier at his post, was one whom -Americans no less than Englishmen have delighted to honour. The personal -fascination which he exerted in his lifetime is something we can no -longer know; but as the field of modern history expands till it covers -the globe, we find ourselves better able than his contemporaries to -comprehend the part which he played at one of the most critical moments -of the career of mankind. For simple magnitude, the preponderance of the -English race in the world has come now to be the most striking fact in -human history; and when we consider all that is implied in this growing -preponderance of an industrial civilization over other civilizations of -relatively archaic and militant type, we find reason to believe that -among historic events it is the most teeming with mighty consequences to -be witnessed by a distant future. With no other historic personage are -the beginnings of this supremacy of the English race so closely -associated as with the elder William Pitt. It was he who planned the -victories which gave England the dominion of the sea, and which, -rescuing India from the anarchy of centuries, prepared it to become the -seat of a new civilization, at once the apt pupil and the suggestive -teacher of modern Europe. It was he who, by driving the French from -America, cleared the way for the peaceful overflow of our industrial -civilization through the valley of the Mississippi; saving us from the -political dangers which chronic warfare might otherwise have entailed, -and insuring us the ultimate control of the fairest part of this -continent. To his valiant and skilful lieutenants by sea and land, to -such great men as Hawke, and Clive, and Wolfe, belongs the credit of -executing the details; it was the genius of Pitt that conceived and -superintended the prodigious scheme as a connected whole. Alone among -the Englishmen of his time, Pitt looked with prophetic gaze into the -mysterious future of colonial history, and saw the meaning of the -creation of a new and greater Europe in the outlying regions of the -earth; and through his triumphs it was decided that this new and greater -Europe should become for the most part a new and greater England,--a -world of self-government, and of freedom of thought and speech. While -his political vision thus embraced the uttermost parts of the globe, his -action in the centre of Europe helped to bring about results the -importance of which we are now beginning to appreciate. From the wreck -of all Germany in that horrible war of religion which filled one third -of the seventeenth century, a new Protestant power had slowly emerged -and grown apace, till in Pitt's time--for various reasons, dynastic, -personal, and political--it had drawn down upon itself the vengeance of -all the reactionary countries of Europe. Had the coalition succeeded, -the only considerable Protestant power on the continent would have been -destroyed, and the anarchy which had followed the Thirty Years' War -might have been renewed. The stupid George II., who could see in Prussia -nothing but a rival of Hanover, was already preparing to join the -alliance against Frederick, when Pitt overruled him, and threw the -weight of England into the other side of the scale. The same act which -thus averted the destruction of Prussia secured to England a most -efficient ally in her struggle with France. Of this wise policy we now -see the fruits in that renovated German Empire which has come to be the -strongest power on the continent of Europe, which is daily establishing -fresh bonds of sympathy with the people of the United States, and whose -political interests are daily growing more and more visibly identical -with those of Great Britain. As in days to come the solidarity of the -Teutonic race in its three great nationalities--America, England, and -Germany--becomes more and more clearly manifest, the more will the -student of history be impressed with the wonderful fact that the -founding of modern Germany, the maritime supremacy of England, and the -winning of the Mississippi valley for English-speaking America, were but -the different phases of one historic event, coherent parts of the one -vast conception which marks its author as the grandest of modern -statesmen. As the lapse of time carries us far enough from the -eighteenth century to study it in its true proportions, the figure of -Chatham in the annals of the Teutonic race will appear no less great and -commanding than the figure of Charlemagne a thousand years before. - - [Illustration: CHATHAM'S TOMB IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY] - -But Chatham is interesting to Americans not only as the eloquent -defender in our revolutionary struggle, not only as standing in the -forefront of that vast future in which we are to play so important a -part, but also as the first British statesman whose political thinking -was of a truly American type. Pitt was above all things the man of the -people, and it has been well said that his title of the "Great Commoner" -marks in itself a political revolution. When the king and the Old Whig -lords sought to withstand him in the cabinet, he could say with truth, -"It is the people who have sent me here." He was the first to discover -the fact that the development of trade and manufactures, due chiefly to -the colonial expansion of England, had brought into existence an -important class of society, for which neither the Tory nor the Old Whig -schemes of government had made provision. He was the first to see the -absurdity of such towns as Leeds and Manchester going without -representation, and he began in 1745 the agitation for parliamentary -reform which was first successful in 1832. In the celebrated case of -Wilkes, while openly expressing his detestation of the man, he -successfully defended the rights of constituencies against the tyranny -of the House of Commons. Against the fierce opposition of Lord -Mansfield, he maintained inviolate the liberty of every Englishman to -publish his opinions. He overthrew the abuse of arbitrary imprisonment -by general warrants. He ended the chronic troubles of Scotland by -taking the Highlanders into his confidence and raising regiments from -them for the regular army. In this intense devotion to liberty and to -the rights of man, Pitt was actuated as much by his earnest, sympathetic -nature as by the clearness and breadth of his intelligence. In his -austere purity of character, as in his intensity of conviction, he was -an enigma to sceptical and frivolous people in his own time. Cromwell or -Milton would have understood him much better than did Horace Walpole, to -whom his haughty mien and soaring language seemed like theatrical -affectation. But this grandiose bearing was nothing but the natural -expression of that elevation of soul which, lighted by a rich poetic -imagination and fired by the glow of passion beneath, made his eloquence -the most impressive that has ever been heard in England. He was soaring -in outward demeanour only as his mind habitually dwelt with strong -emotion upon great thoughts and noble deeds. He was the incarnation of -all that is lofty and aspiring in human nature, and his sublime figure, -raised above the grave in the northern transept of Westminster Abbey, -with its eager outstretched arm, still seems to be urging on his -countrymen in the path of duty and of glory. - - * * * * * - - [Portrait: Shelburne] - - [Sidenote: Lord North remains in power] - - [Sidenote: His commissioners in America fail to accomplish anything] - -By the death of Chatham the obstacles which had beset the king were -suddenly removed. On the morning after the pathetic scene in the House -of Lords, he wrote with ill-concealed glee to North, "May not the -political exit of Lord Chatham incline you to continue at the head of my -affairs?" North was very unwilling to remain, but it was difficult to -find any one who could form a government in his place. Among the New -Whigs, now that Chatham was gone, Lord Shelburne was the most prominent; -but he was a man who, in spite of great virtues and talents, never -succeeded in winning the confidence either of the politicians or of the -people. He was a warm friend to the American cause, but no one supposed -him equal to the difficult task which Chatham would have undertaken, of -pacifying the American people. The Old Whigs, under Lord Rockingham, had -committed themselves to the full independence of the United States, and -for this the people of England were not yet prepared. Under the -circumstances, there seemed to be nothing for Lord North to do but -remain in office. The king was delighted, and his party appeared to have -gained strength from the indignation aroused by the alliance of the -Americans with France. It was strengthened still more by the positive -refusal of Congress to treat with the commissioners sent over by Lord -North. The commissioners arrived in America in June, and remained until -October, without effecting anything. Congress refused to entertain any -propositions whatever from Great Britain until the independence of the -United States should first be acknowledged. Copies of Lord North's -conciliatory bills were published by order of Congress, and scattered -broadcast over the country. They were everywhere greeted with derision; -at one town in Rhode Island they were publicly burned under a gallows -which had been erected for the occasion. After fruitlessly trying all -the devices of flattery and intrigue, the commissioners lost their -temper; and just before sailing for England they issued a farewell -manifesto, in which they threatened the American people with exemplary -punishment for their contumacy. The conduct of the war, they said, was -now to be changed; these obstinate rebels were to be made to suffer the -extremes of distress, and no mercy was to be shown them. Congress -instantly published this document, and it was received with somewhat -more derision than the conciliatory bills had been. Under the -circumstances of that day, the threat could have but one meaning. It -meant arson along the coasts at the hands of the British fleet, and -murder on the frontiers at the hands of Indian auxiliaries. The -commissioners sought to justify their manifesto before Parliament, and -one of them vehemently declared that if all hell could be let loose -against these rebels, he should approve of the measure. "The -proclamation," said he, "certainly does mean a war of desolation: it can -mean nothing else." Lord Rockingham denounced the policy of the -manifesto, and few were found in Parliament willing to support it -openly. This barbarous policy, however, was neither more nor less than -that which Lord George Germain had deliberately made up his mind to -pursue for the remainder of the war. Giving up the problem of conquering -the Americans by systematic warfare, he thought it worth while to do as -much damage and inflict as much suffering as possible, in the hope that -by and by the spirit of the people might be broken and their patience -worn out. No policy could be more repugnant to the amiable soul of Lord -North, but his false position obliged him passively to sanction much -that he did not like. Besides this plan for tiring out the people, it -was designed to conduct a systematic expedition against Virginia and the -Carolinas, in order to detach these states from the rest of the -confederacy. Should it be found necessary, after all, to acknowledge the -independence of the United States, it seemed worth while at least to cut -down their territory as much as possible, and save to the British Crown -these rich countries of rice, and indigo, and tobacco. Such was the plan -now proposed by Germain, and adopted by the ministry of which he was a -member. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [15] Things seemed to be getting into somewhat the condition - contemplated in the satirical print of "The Man in the Moon," - which appeared as frontispiece to a tract published in London - in 1776, entitled "A Plea of the Colonies on the Charges - brought against them by Lord Mansfield and others." The Man in - the Moon is George III. looking through a telescope held by - his Tory chief justice, whose sleeve shows the Scotch plaid of - Clan Murray. He looks upon a reversed and topsy-turvy world, - in which New York (whose true latitude is nearly the same as - that of Naples) appears farther north than London, and America - is east of Europe. The American coast is covered with vast - armies, and the whole British fleet is on its way thither, - leaving England exposed to the attack of a French host - gathered at Dunkirk. Meanwhile the Gallic cock crows lustily, - and the sketchy outline of Great Britain indicates that the - artist supposes the island "may be so far wasted before the - year 1800, that people will hardly know where the nation - resided that was once so formidable." See _Tracts_ 985, - Harvard University Library. - - [16] "This episode appears to me the most criminal in the whole - reign of George III., and in my own judgment it is as criminal - as any of those acts which led Charles I. to the scaffold." - Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, vol. iv. - p. 83. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - - VALLEY FORGE - - - [Sidenote: Distress in America] - -Lord George Germain's scheme for tiring out the Americans could not seem -altogether hopeless. Though from a military point of view the honours of -the war thus far remained with them, yet the losses and suffering had -been very great. The disturbance of trade was felt even more severely in -America than in England, and it was further exacerbated by the evils of -a depreciated currency. The country had entered into the war heavily -handicapped by the voluntary stoppage of importation which had prevailed -for several years. The war had cut off New England from the Newfoundland -fisheries and the trade with the West Indies, and the coasting trade had -been nearly annihilated by British cruisers. The problem of managing the -expenses of a great war was something quite new to the Americans, and -the consequent waste and extravagance were complicated and enhanced by -the curse of paper money. Congress, as a mere advisory body, could only -recommend to the various states the measures of taxation which were -deemed necessary for the support of the army. It had no authority to -raise taxes in any state, nor had it any power to constrain the -government of a state to raise taxes. The states were accordingly all -delinquent, and there was no resource left for Congress but to issue its -promissory notes. Congress already owed more than forty million dollars, -and during the first half of the year 1778 the issues of paper money -amounted to twenty-three millions. The depreciation had already become -alarming, and the most zealous law-making was of course powerless to -stop it. - - [Sidenote: Lack of organization] - -Until toward the close of the Revolutionary War, indeed, the United -States had no regularly organized government. At the time of the -Declaration of Independence a committee had been appointed by Congress -to prepare articles of confederation, to be submitted to the states for -their approval. These articles were ready by the summer of 1778, but it -was not until the spring of 1781, that all the states had signed them. -While the thirteen distinct sovereignties in the United States were -visible in clear outline, the central government was something very -shadowy and ill-defined. Under these circumstances, the military -efficiency of the people was reduced to a minimum. The country never put -forth more than a small fraction of its available strength. Everything -suffered from the want of organization. In spite of the popular ardour, -which never seems to have been deficient when opportunities came for -testing it, there was almost as much difficulty in keeping up the -numbers of the army by enlistment as in providing equipment, sustenance, -and pay for the soldiers when once enlisted. The army of 80,000 men, -which Congress had devised in the preceding year, had never existed -except on paper. The action of Congress had not, indeed, been barren of -results, but it had fallen far short of the end proposed. During the -campaigns of 1777 the army of Washington had never exceeded 11,000 men; -while of the 20,000 or more who witnessed the surrender of Burgoyne, at -least half were local militia, assembled merely to meet the exigencies -of the moment. The whole country, indeed, cherished such a horror of -armies that it was unjust even to the necessary instrument by which its -independence was to be won; and it sympathized with Congress in the -niggardly policy which, by discouraging pensions, endangered the future -of brave and skilful officers who were devoting the best years of their -lives to the public service. Washington's earnest efforts to secure for -retired officers the promise of half pay for life succeeded only in -obtaining it for the term of seven years. The excessive dread of a -standing army made it difficult to procure long enlistments, and the -frequent changes in the militia, besides being ruinous to discipline, -entailed a sad waste of equipments and an interruption of agriculture -which added much to the burdens of the people. - - [Illustration: WASHINGTON'S HEADQUARTERS AT VALLEY FORGE] - - [Sidenote: Vexatious meddling of Congress] - - [Sidenote: Sufferings at Valley Forge] - -Besides these evils, for which no one in particular was to blame, since -they resulted so directly from the general state of the country, the -army suffered under other drawbacks, which were immediately traceable to -the incapacity of Congress. Just as afterwards, in the War of Secession, -the soldiers had often to pay the penalty for the sins of the -politicians. A single specimen of the ill-timed meddling of Congress may -serve as an example. At one of the most critical moments of the year -1777, Congress made a complete change in the commissariat, which had -hitherto been efficiently managed by a single officer, Colonel Joseph -Trumbull. Two commissary-generals were now appointed, one of whom was to -superintend the purchase and the other the issue of supplies; and the -subordinate officers of the department were to be accountable, not to -their superiors, but directly to Congress. This was done in spite of the -earnest opposition of Washington, and the immediate result was just what -he expected. Colonel Trumbull, who had been retained as -commissary-general for purchases, being unable to do his work properly -without controlling his subordinate officers, soon resigned his place. -The department was filled up with men selected without reference to -fitness, and straightway fell into hopeless confusion, whereby the -movements of the armies were grievously crippled for the rest of the -season. On the 22d of December Washington was actually prevented from -executing a most promising movement against General Howe, because two -brigades had become mutinous for want of food. For three days they had -gone without bread, and for two days without meat. The quartermaster's -department was in no better condition. The dreadful sufferings of -Washington's army at Valley Forge have called forth the pity and the -admiration of historians; but the point of the story is lost unless we -realize that this misery resulted from gross mismanagement rather than -from the poverty of the country. As the poor soldiers marched on the -17th of December to their winter quarters, their route could be traced -on the snow by the blood that oozed from bare, frost-bitten feet; yet at -the same moment, says Gordon, "hogsheads of shoes, stockings, and -clothing were lying at different places on the roads and in the woods, -perishing for want of teams, or of money to pay the teamsters." On the -23d, Washington informed Congress that he had in camp 2,898 men "unfit -for duty, because they are barefoot, and otherwise naked." For want of -blankets, many were fain "to sit up all night by fires, instead of -taking comfortable rest in a natural and common way." Cold and hunger -daily added many to the sick-list; and in the crowded hospitals, which -were for the most part mere log-huts or frail wigwams woven of twisted -boughs, men sometimes died for want of straw to put between themselves -and the frozen ground on which they lay. In the deficiency of oxen and -draft-horses, gallant men volunteered to serve as beasts of burden, -and, yoking themselves to wagons, dragged into camp such meagre supplies -as they could obtain for their sick and exhausted comrades. So great was -the distress that there were times when, in case of an attack by the -enemy, scarcely two thousand men could have been got under arms. When -one thinks of these sad consequences wrought by a negligent -quartermaster and a deranged commissariat, one is strongly reminded of -the remark once made by the eccentric Charles Lee, when with caustic -alliteration he described Congress as "a stable of stupid cattle that -stumbled at every step." - - [Sidenote: Promoting officers for non-military reasons] - -The mischief did not end, however, with the demoralization of the -departments that were charged with supplying the army. In the -appointment and promotion of general officers, Congress often acted upon -principles which, if consistently carried out, would have ruined the -efficiency of any army that ever existed. For absurdly irrelevant -political reasons, brave and well-tried officers were passed by, and -juniors, comparatively little known, were promoted over their heads. The -case of Benedict Arnold was the most conspicuous and flagrant example of -this. After his good name had been destroyed by his treason, it became -customary for historians to cite the restiveness of Arnold under such -treatment as one more proof of his innate wickedness. But Arnold was not -the only officer who was sensitive about his rank. In June, 1777, it was -rumoured about Washington's camp that a Frenchman named Ducoudray was -about to be appointed to the chief command of the artillery, with the -rank of major-general. Congress was continually beset with applications -from vagrant foreign officers in quest of adventure; and such -appointments as this were sometimes made, no doubt, in that provincial -spirit which it has taken Americans so long to outgrow, and which sees -all things European in rose-colour. As soon as the report concerning -Ducoudray reached the camp, Generals Greene, Sullivan, and Knox each -wrote a letter to Congress, proffering their resignations in case the -report were true; and the three letters were dated on the same day. -Congress was very angry at this, and the three generals were abused -without stint. The affair, however, was more serious than Congress had -supposed, and the contemplated appointment of Ducoudray was not made. -The language of John Adams with reference to matters of this sort was -more pungent than wise, and it gave clear expression to the principles -upon which Congress too often acted. This "delicate point of honour" he -stigmatized as "one of the most putrid corruptions of absolute -monarchy." He would be glad to see Congress elect all the general -officers annually; and if some great men should be obliged to go home in -consequence of this, he did not believe the country would be ruined! The -jealousy with which the several states insisted upon "a share of the -general officers" in proportion to their respective quotas of troops, he -characterized as a just and sound policy. It was upon this principle, he -confessed, that many promotions had been made; and if the generals were -so unreasonable as not to like it, they must "abide the consequences of -their discontent." Such expressions of feeling, in which John Adams -found many sympathizers, bear curious testimony to the intense distrust -with which our poor little army was regarded on account of the -monarchical tendencies supposed to be necessarily inherent in a military -organization. This policy, which seemed so "sound" to John Adams, was -simply an attempt to apply to the regimen of the army a set of -principles fit only for the organization of political assemblies; and if -it had been consistently adopted, it is probable that Lord George -Germain's scheme of tiring the Americans out would have succeeded beyond -his most sanguine expectations. - - [Sidenote: Absurd talk of John Adams] - -But the most dangerous ground upon which Congress ventured during the -whole course of the war was connected with the dark intrigues of those -officers who wished to have Washington removed from the chief command -that Gates might be put in his place. We have seen how successful Gates -had been in supplanting Schuyler on the eve of victory. Without having -been under fire or directing any important operation, Gates had carried -off the laurels of the northern campaign. From many persons, no doubt, -he got credit even for what had happened before he joined the army, on -the 19th of August. His appointment dated from the 2d, before either the -victory of Stark or the discomfiture of St. Leger; and it was easy for -people to put dates together uncritically, and say that before the 2d of -August Burgoyne had continued to advance into the country, and nothing -could check him until after Gates had been appointed to command. The -very air rang with the praises of Gates, and his weak head was not -unnaturally turned with so much applause. In his dispatches announcing -the surrender of Burgoyne, he not only forgot to mention the names of -Arnold and Morgan, who had won for him the decisive victory, but he even -seemed to forget that he was serving under a commander-in-chief, for he -sent his dispatches directly to Congress, leaving Washington to learn of -the event through hearsay. Thirteen days after the surrender, Washington -wrote to Gates, congratulating him upon his success. "At the same time," -said the letter, "I cannot but regret that a matter of such magnitude, -and so interesting to our general operations, should have reached me by -report only, or through the channels of letters not bearing that -authenticity which the importance of it required, and which it would -have received by a line over your signature stating the simple fact." - - [Sidenote: Gates is puffed up with success] - - [Sidenote: and shows symptoms of insubordination] - -But, worse than this, Gates kept his victorious army idle at Saratoga -after the whole line of the Hudson was cleared of the enemy, and would -not send reinforcements to Washington. Congress so far upheld him in -this as to order that Washington should not detach more than 2,500 men -from the northern army without consulting Gates and Governor Clinton. It -was only with difficulty that Washington, by sending Colonel Hamilton -with a special message, succeeded in getting back Morgan with his -riflemen. When reinforcements finally did arrive, it was too late. Had -they come more promptly, Howe would probably have been unable to take -the forts on the Delaware, without control of which he could not have -stayed in Philadelphia. But the blame for the loss of the forts was by -many people thrown upon Washington, whose recent defeats at Brandywine -and Germantown were now commonly contrasted with the victories at the -North. - - [Portrait: A Hamilton] - - [Signature: Thomas Conway] - - [Portrait: Tho Mifflin] - - [Sidenote: The Conway Cabal] - -The moment seemed propitious for Gates to try his peculiar strategy once -more, and displace Washington as he had already displaced Schuyler. -Assistants were not wanting for this dirty work. Among the foreign -adventurers then with the army was one Thomas Conway, an Irishman, who -had been for a long time in the French service, and, coming over to -America, had taken part in the Pennsylvania campaign. Washington had -opposed Conway's claims for undue promotion, and the latter at once -threw himself with such energy into the faction then forming against the -commander-in-chief that it soon came to be known as the "Conway Cabal." -The other principal members of the cabal were Thomas Mifflin, the -quartermaster-general, and James Lovell, a delegate from Massachusetts, -who had been Schuyler's bitterest enemy in Congress. It was at one time -reported that Samuel Adams was in sympathy with the cabal, and the -charge has been repeated by many historians, but it seems to have -originated in a malicious story set on foot by some of the friends of -John Hancock. At the beginning of the war, Hancock, whose overweening -vanity often marred his usefulness, had hoped to be made -commander-in-chief, and he never forgave Samuel Adams for preferring -Washington for that position. In the autumn of 1777, Hancock resigned -his position as president of Congress, and was succeeded by Henry -Laurens, of South Carolina. On the day when Hancock took leave of -Congress, a motion was made to present him with the thanks of that body -in acknowledgment of his admirable discharge of his duty; but the New -England delegates, who had not been altogether satisfied with him, -defeated the motion on general grounds, and established the principle -that it was injudicious to pass such complimentary votes in the case of -any president. This action threw Hancock into a rage, which was chiefly -directed against Samuel Adams as the most prominent member of the -delegation; and after his return to Boston it soon became evident that -he had resolved to break with his old friend and patron. Artful stories, -designed to injure Adams, were in many instances traced to persons who -were in close relation with Hancock. After the fall of the cabal, no -more deadly stab could be dealt to the reputation of any man than to -insinuate that he had given it aid or sympathy; and there is good -ground for believing that such reports concerning Adams were -industriously circulated by unscrupulous partisans of the angry Hancock. -The story was revived at a later date by the friends of Hamilton, on the -occasion of the schism between Hamilton and John Adams, but it has not -been well sustained. The most plausible falsehoods, however, are those -which are based upon misconstrued facts; and it is certain that Samuel -Adams had not only favoured the appointment of Gates in the North, but -he had sometimes spoken with impatience of the so-called Fabian policy -of Washington. In this he was like many other ardent patriots whose -military knowledge was far from commensurate with their zeal. His -cousin, John Adams, was even more outspoken. He declared himself "sick -of Fabian systems." "My toast," he said, "is a short and violent war;" -and he complained of the reverent affection which the people felt for -Washington as an "idolatry" dangerous to American liberty. It was by -working upon such impatient moods as these, in which high-minded men -like the Adamses sometimes indulged, that unscrupulous men like Gates -hoped to attain their ends. - - [Portrait: Benjamin Rush] - - [Sidenote: Attempts to injure Washington] - - [Sidenote: Conway's letter to Gates] - -The first fruits of the cabal in Congress were seen in the -reorganization of the Board of War in November, 1777. Mifflin was chosen -a member of the board, and Gates was made its president, with permission -to serve in the field should occasion require it. Gates was thus, in a -certain sense, placed over Washington's head; and soon afterward Conway -was made inspector-general of the army, with the rank of major-general. -In view of Washington's well-known opinions, the appointments of Mifflin -and Conway might be regarded as an open declaration of hostility on the -part of Congress. Some weeks before, in regard to the rumour that Conway -was to be promoted, Washington had written, "It will be impossible for -me to be of any further service, if such insuperable difficulties are -thrown in my way." Such language might easily be understood as a -conditional threat of resignation, and Conway's appointment was probably -urged by the conspirators with the express intention of forcing -Washington to resign. Should this affront prove ineffectual, they hoped, -by dint of anonymous letters and base innuendoes, to make the -commander's place too hot for him. It was asserted that Washington's -army had all through the year outnumbered Howe's more than three to one. -The distress of the soldiers was laid at his door; the sole result, if -not the sole object, of his many marches, according to James Lovell, was -to wear out their shoes and stockings. An anonymous letter to Patrick -Henry, then governor of Virginia, dated from York, where Congress was -sitting, observed: "We have wisdom, virtue, and strength enough to save -us, if they could be called into action. The northern army has shown us -what Americans are capable of doing with a general at their head. The -spirit of the southern army is no way inferior to the spirit of the -northern. A Gates, a Lee, or a Conway would in a few weeks render them -an irresistible body of men. Some of the contents of this letter ought -to be made public, in order to awaken, enlighten, and alarm our -country." Henry sent this letter to Washington, who instantly recognized -the well-known handwriting of Dr. Benjamin Rush. Another anonymous -letter, sent to President Laurens, was still more emphatic: "It is a -very great reproach to America to say there is only one general in it. -The great success to the northward was owing to a change of commanders; -and the southern army would have been alike successful if a similar -change had taken place. The people of America have been guilty of -idolatry by making a man their God, and the God of heaven and earth -will convince them by woful experience that he is only a man; for no -good can be expected from our army until Baal and his worshippers are -banished from camp." This mischievous letter was addressed to Congress, -but, instead of laying it before that body, the high-minded Laurens sent -it directly to Washington. But the commander-in-chief was forewarned, -and neither treacherous missives like these, nor the direct affronts of -Congress, were allowed to disturb his equanimity. Just before leaving -Saratoga, Gates received from Conway a letter containing an allusion to -Washington so terse and pointed as to be easily remembered and quoted, -and Gates showed this letter to his young confidant and aid-de-camp, -Wilkinson. A few days afterward, when Wilkinson had reached York with -the dispatches relating to Burgoyne's surrender, he fell in with a -member of Lord Stirling's staff, and under the genial stimulus of -Monongahela whiskey repeated the malicious sentence. Thus it came to -Stirling's ears, and he straightway communicated it to Washington by -letter, saying that he should always deem it his duty to expose such -wicked duplicity. Thus armed, Washington simply sent to Conway the -following brief note:-- - -"SIR,--A letter which I received last night contained the following -paragraph: 'In a letter from General Conway to General Gates, he says, -_Heaven has determined to save your country, or a weak General and bad -counsellors would have ruined it_.' I am, sir, your humble servant. - - GEORGE WASHINGTON." - - [Portrait: Stirling] - - [Sidenote: Gates's letter to Washington] - -Conway knew not what sort of answer to make to this startling note. When -Mifflin heard of it, he wrote at once to Gates, telling him that an -extract from one of Conway's letters had fallen into Washington's hands, -and advising him to take better care of his papers in future. All the -plotters were seriously alarmed; for their scheme was one which would -not bear the light for a moment, and Washington's curt letter left them -quite in the dark as to the extent of his knowledge. "There is scarcely -a man living," protested Gates, "who takes greater care of his papers -than I do. I never fail to lock them up, and keep the key in my pocket." -One thing was clear: there must be no delay in ascertaining how much -Washington knew and where he got his knowledge. After four anxious days -it occurred to Gates that it must have been Washington's aid-de-camp, -Hamilton, who had stealthily gained access to his papers during his -short visit to the northern camp. Filled with this idea, Gates chuckled -as he thought he saw a way of diverting attention from the subject -matter of the letters to the mode in which Washington had got possession -of their contents. He sat down and wrote to the commander-in-chief, -saying he had learned that some of Conway's confidential letters to -himself had come into his excellency's hands: such letters must have -been copied by stealth, and he hoped his excellency would assist him in -unearthing the wretch who prowled about and did such wicked things, for -obviously it was unsafe to have such creatures in the camp; they might -disclose precious secrets to the enemy. And so important did the matter -seem that he sent a duplicate of the present letter to Congress, in -order that every imaginable means might be adopted for detecting the -culprit without a moment's delay. The purpose of this elaborate artifice -was to create in Congress, which as yet knew nothing of the matter, an -impression unfavourable to Washington, by making it appear that he -encouraged his aids-de-camp in prying into the portfolios of other -generals. For, thought Gates, it is as clear as day that Hamilton was -the man; nobody else could have done it. - - [Portrait: J Wilkinson] - - [Sidenote: Washington's reply] - -But Gates's silly glee was short-lived. Washington discerned at a glance -the treacherous purpose of the letter, and foiled it by the simple -expedient of telling the plain truth. "Your letter," he replied, "came -to my hand a few days ago, and, to my great surprise, informed me that a -copy of it had been sent to Congress, for what reason I find myself -unable to account; but as some end was doubtless intended to be answered -by it, I am laid under the disagreeable necessity of returning my answer -through the same channel, lest any member of that honourable body should -harbour an unfavourable suspicion of my having practised some indirect -means to come at the contents of the confidential letters between you -and General Conway." After this ominous prelude, Washington went on to -relate how Wilkinson had babbled over his cups, and a certain sentence -from one of Conway's letters had thereupon been transmitted to him by -Lord Stirling. He had communicated this discovery to Conway, to let that -officer know that his intriguing disposition was observed and watched. -He had mentioned this to no one else but Lafayette, for he thought it -indiscreet to let scandals arise in the army, and thereby "afford a -gleam of hope to the enemy." He had not known that Conway was in -correspondence with Gates, and had even supposed that Wilkinson's -information was given with Gates's sanction, and with friendly intent to -forearm him against a secret enemy. "But in this," he disdainfully adds, -"as in other matters of late, I have found myself mistaken." - - [Portrait: HORATIO GATES] - - [Sidenote: Gates tries, unsuccessfully, to save himself by lying] - -So the schemer had overreached himself. It was not Washington's -aid-de-camp who had pried, but it was Gates's own aid who had blabbed. -But for Gates's treacherous letter, Washington would not even have -suspected him; and, to crown all, he had only himself to thank for -rashly blazoning before Congress a matter so little to his credit, and -which Washington, in his generous discretion, would forever have kept -secret. Amid this discomfiture, however, a single ray of hope could be -discerned. It appeared that Washington had known nothing beyond the one -sentence which had come to him as quoted in conversation by Wilkinson. A -downright falsehood might now clear up the whole affair, and make -Wilkinson the scapegoat for all the others. Gates accordingly wrote -again to Washington, denying his intimacy with Conway, declaring that he -had never received but a single letter from him, and solemnly protesting -that this letter contained no such paragraph as that of which -Washington had been informed. The information received through Wilkinson -he denounced as a villainous slander. But these lies were too -transparent to deceive any one, for in his first letter Gates had -implicitly admitted the existence of several letters between himself and -Conway, and his manifest perturbation of spirit had shown that these -letters contained remarks that he would not for the world have had -Washington see. A cold and contemptuous reply from Washington made all -this clear, and put Gates in a very uncomfortable position, from which -there was no retreat. - - [Sidenote: but is successful, as usual, in keeping from under fire] - -When the matter came to the ears of Wilkinson, who had just been -appointed secretary of the Board of War, and was on his way to Congress, -his youthful blood boiled at once. He wrote bombastic letters to -everybody, and challenged Gates to deadly combat. A meeting was arranged -for sunrise, behind the Episcopal church at York, with pistols. At the -appointed hour, when all had arrived on the ground, the old general -requested, through his second, an interview with his young antagonist, -walked up a back street with him, burst into tears, called him his dear -boy, and denied that he had ever made any injurious remarks about him. -Wilkinson's wrath was thus assuaged for a moment, only to blaze forth -presently with fresh violence, when he made inquiries of Washington, and -was allowed to read the very letter in which his general had slandered -him. He instantly wrote a letter to Congress, accusing Gates of -treachery and falsehood, and resigned his position on the Board of War. - - [Sidenote: The forged letters] - -These revelations strengthened Washington in proportion as they showed -the malice and duplicity of his enemies. About this time a pamphlet was -published in London, and republished in New York, containing letters -which purported to have been written by Washington to members of his -family, and to have been found in the possession of a mulatto servant -taken prisoner at Fort Lee. The letters, if genuine, would have proved -their author to be a traitor to the American cause; but they were so -bunglingly concocted that every one knew them to be a forgery, and their -only effect was to strengthen Washington still more, while throwing -further discredit upon the cabal, with which many persons were inclined -to connect them. - - [Illustration: PISTOL GIVEN TO WASHINGTON BY LAFAYETTE] - - [Sidenote: Scheme for invading Canada] - -The army and the people were now becoming incensed at the plotters, and -the press began to ridicule them, while the reputation of Gates suffered -greatly in Congress as the indications of his real character were -brought to light. All that was needed to complete the discomfiture of -the cabal was a military fiasco, and this was soon forthcoming. In order -to detach Lafayette from Washington, a winter expedition against Canada -was devised by the Board of War. Lafayette, a mere boy, scarcely twenty -years old, was invited to take the command, with Conway for his chief -lieutenant. It was said that the French population of Canada would be -sure to welcome the high-born Frenchman as their deliverer from the -British yoke; and it was further thought that the veteran Irish schemer -might persuade his young commander to join the cabal, and bring to it -such support as might be gained from the French alliance, then about to -be completed. Congress was persuaded to authorize the expedition, and -Washington was not consulted in the matter. - - [Sidenote: The dinner at York] - - [Sidenote: Lafayette's toast] - -But Lafayette knew his own mind better than was supposed. He would not -accept the command until he had obtained Washington's consent, and then -he made it an indispensable condition that Baron de Kalb, who outranked -Conway, should accompany the expedition. These preliminaries having been -arranged, the young general went to York for his instructions. There he -found Gates, surrounded by schemers and sycophants, seated at a very -different kind of dinner from that to which Lafayette had lately been -used at Valley Forge. Hilarious with wine, the company welcomed the new -guest with acclamations. He was duly flattered and toasted, and a -glorious campaign was predicted. Gates assured him that on reaching -Albany he would find 3,000 regulars ready to march, while powerful -assistance was to be expected from the valiant Stark with his -redoubtable Green Mountain Boys. The marquis listened with placid -composure till his papers were brought him, and he felt it to be time to -go. Then rising as if for a speech, while all eyes were turned upon him -and breathless silence filled the room, he reminded the company that -there was one toast which, in the generous excitement of the occasion, -they had forgotten to drink, and he begged leave to propose the health -of the commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States. The deep -silence became still deeper. None dared refuse the toast, "but some -merely raised their glasses to their lips, while others cautiously put -them down untasted." With the politest of bows and a scarcely -perceptible shrug of the shoulder, the new commander of the northern -army left the room, and mounted his horse to start for his headquarters -at Albany. - - [Illustration: SEALS GIVEN TO WASHINGTON BY LAFAYETTE] - - [Sidenote: Absurdity of the scheme] - -When he got there, he found neither troops, supplies, nor equipments in -readiness. Of the army to which Burgoyne had surrendered, the militia -had long since gone home, while most of the regulars had been withdrawn -to Valley Forge or the highlands of the Hudson. Instead of 3,000 -regulars which Gates had promised, barely 1,200 could be found, and -these were in no wise clothed or equipped for a winter march through the -wilderness. Between carousing and backbiting, the new Board of War had -no time left to attend to its duties. Not an inch of the country but was -known to Schuyler, Lincoln, and Arnold, and they assured Lafayette that -an invasion of Canada, under the circumstances, would be worthy of Don -Quixote. In view of the French alliance, moreover, the conquest of -Canada had even ceased to seem desirable to the Americans; for when -peace should be concluded the French might insist upon retaining it, in -compensation for their services. The men of New England greatly -preferred Great Britain to France as a neighbour, and accordingly Stark, -with his formidable Green Mountain Boys, felt no interest whatever in -the enterprise, and not a dozen volunteers could be got together for -love or money. - - [Sidenote: Downfall of the cabal] - -The fiasco was so complete, and the scheme itself so emphatically -condemned by public opinion, that Congress awoke from its infatuation. -Lafayette and Kalb were glad to return to Valley Forge. Conway, who -stayed behind, became indignant with Congress over some fancied slight, -and sent a conditional threat of resignation, which, to his unspeakable -amazement, was accepted unconditionally. In vain he urged that he had -not meant exactly what he said, having lost the nice use of English -during his long stay in France. His entreaties and objurgations fell -upon deaf ears. In Congress the day of the cabal was over. Mifflin and -Gates were removed from the Board of War. The latter was sent to take -charge of the forts on the Hudson, and cautioned against forgetting that -he was to report to the commander-in-chief. The cabal and its deeds -having become the subject of common gossip, such friends as it had -mustered now began stoutly to deny their connection with it. Conway -himself was dangerously wounded a few months afterward in a duel with -General Cadwallader, and, believing himself to be on his deathbed, he -wrote a very humble letter to Washington, expressing his sincere grief -for having ever done or said anything with intent to injure so great and -good a man. His wound proved not to be mortal, but on his recovery, -finding himself generally despised and shunned, he returned to France, -and American history knew him no more. - - [Illustration: POPULAR PORTRAITS FROM BICKERSTAFF'S ALMANAC, 1778] - - [Sidenote: Decline of the Continental Congress] - -Had Lord George Germain been privy to the secrets of the Conway cabal, -his hope of wearing out the American cause would have been sensibly -strengthened. There was really more danger in such intrigues than in an -exhausted treasury, a half-starved army, and defeat on the field. The -people felt it to be so, and the events of the winter left a stain upon -the reputation of the Continental Congress from which it never fully -recovered. Congress had already lost the high personal consideration to -which it was entitled at the outset. Such men as Franklin, Washington, -Jefferson, Henry, Jay, and Rutledge were now serving in other -capacities. The legislatures of the several states afforded a more -promising career for able men than the Continental Congress, which had -neither courts nor magistrates, nor any recognized position of -sovereignty. The meetings of Congress were often attended by no more -than ten or twelve members. Curious symptoms were visible which seemed -to show that the sentiment of union between the states was weaker than -it had been two years before. Instead of the phrase "people of the -United States," one begins, in 1778, to hear of "inhabitants of these -Confederated States." In the absence of any central sovereignty which -could serve as the symbol of union, it began to be feared that the new -nation might after all be conquered through its lack of political -cohesion. Such fears came to cloud the rejoicings over the victory of -Saratoga, as, at the end of 1777, the Continental Congress began visibly -to lose its place in public esteem, and sink, step by step, into the -utter degradation and impotence which was to overwhelm it before another -ten years should have expired. - - [Sidenote: Increasing influence of Washington] - -As the defeat of the Conway cabal marked the beginning of the decline of -Congress, it marked at the same time the rise of Washington to a higher -place in the hearts of the people than he had ever held before. As the -silly intrigues against him recoiled upon their authors, men began to -realize that it was far more upon his consummate sagacity and unselfish -patriotism than upon anything that Congress could do that the country -rested its hopes of success in the great enterprise which it had -undertaken. As the nullity of Congress made it ever more apparent that -the country as a whole was without a government, Washington stood forth -more and more conspicuously as the living symbol of the union of the -states. In him and his work were centred the common hopes and the common -interests of all the American people. There was no need of clothing him -with extraordinary powers. During the last years of the war he came, -through sheer weight of personal character, to wield an influence like -that which Perikles had wielded over the Athenians. He was all-powerful -because he was "first in the hearts of his countrymen." Few men, since -history began, had ever occupied so lofty a position; none ever made a -more disinterested use of power. His arduous labours taught him to -appreciate, better than any one else, the weakness entailed upon the -country by the want of a stable central government. But when the war was -over, and the political problem came into the foreground, instead of -using this knowledge to make himself personally indispensable to the -country, he bent all the weight of his character and experience toward -securing the adoption of such a federal constitution as should make -anything like a dictatorship forever unnecessary and impossible. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - - MONMOUTH AND NEWPORT. - - - [Illustration: SWORD GIVEN TO WASHINGTON BY FREDERICK THE GREAT] - - [Sidenote: Baron Friedrich von Steuben] - -During the dreary winter at Valley Forge, Washington busied himself in -improving the organization of his army. The fall of the Conway cabal -removed many obstacles. Greene was persuaded, somewhat against his -wishes, to serve as quartermaster-general, and forthwith the duties of -that important office were discharged with zeal and promptness. Conway's -resignation opened the way for a most auspicious change in the -inspectorship of the army. Of all the foreign officers who served under -Washington during the War for Independence, the Baron von Steuben was in -many respects the most important. Member of a noble family which for -five centuries had been distinguished in the local annals of Magdeburg, -Steuben was one of the best educated and most experienced soldiers of -Germany. His grandfather, an able theologian, was well known as the -author of a critical treatise on the New Testament. His uncle, an -eminent mathematician, had been the inventor of a new system of -fortification. His father had seen half a century of honourable service -in the corps of engineers. He had himself held the rank of first -lieutenant at the beginning of the Seven Years' War, and after excellent -service in the battles of Prague, Rossbach, and Kunersdorf he was raised -to a position on the staff of Frederick the Great. At the end of the -war, when the thrifty king reduced his army, and Bluecher with other -officers afterward famous left the service, Steuben retired to private -life, with the honorary rank of General of the Circle of Swabia. For -more than ten years he was grand marshal to the Prince of -Hohenzollern-Hechingen. Then he went travelling about Europe, until in -the spring of 1777 he arrived in Paris, and became acquainted with -Franklin and Beaumarchais. - - [Portrait: Steuben] - - [Portrait: Frederic] - -The American alliance was already secretly contemplated by the French -ministry, and the astute Vergennes, knowing that the chief defect of our -armies lay in their want of organization and discipline, saw in the -scientific German soldier an efficient instrument for remedying the -evil. After much hesitation Steuben was persuaded to undertake the task. -That his arrival upon the scene might excite no heart-burning among the -American officers, the honorary rank which he held in Germany was -translated by Vergennes into the rank of lieutenant-general, which the -Americans would at once recognize as more eminent than any position -existing in their own army except that of the commander-in-chief. - - [Sidenote: Steuben arrives in America] - -Knowing no English, Steuben took with him as secretary and interpreter -the youthful Pierre Duponceau, afterward famous as a lawyer, and still -more famous as a philologist. One day, on shipboard, this gay young -Frenchman laid a wager that he would kiss the first Yankee girl he -should meet on landing. So as they came ashore at Portsmouth on a frosty -December day, he gravely stepped up to a pretty New Hampshire maiden who -was passing by, and told her that before leaving his native land to -fight for American freedom he had taken a vow to ask, in earnest of -victory, a kiss from the first lady he should meet. The prayer of -chivalry found favour in the eyes of the fair Puritan, and the token of -success was granted. - - [Sidenote: and visits Congress at York] - -At Boston John Hancock furnished the party with sleighs, drivers, and -saddle-horses for the inland journey of more than four hundred miles to -York. During this cheerful journey, which it took three weeks to -perform, Steuben's heart was warmed toward his new country by the -reminiscences of the Seven Years' War which he frequently encountered. -The name of Frederick was deservedly popular in America, and his -familiar features decorated the sign-board of many a wayside inn, while -on the coffee-room walls hung quaint prints with doggerel verses -commemorating Rossbach and Leuthen along with Louisburg and Quebec. On -arriving at York, the German general was received by Congress with -distinguished honours; and this time the confidence given to a trained -European soldier turned out to be well deserved. Throughout the war -Steuben proved no less faithful than capable. He came to feel a genuine -love for his adopted country, and after the war was over, retiring to -the romantic woodland near Oriskany, where so many families of German -lineage were already settled, and where the state of New York presented -him with a farm of sixteen thousand acres in acknowledgment of his -services, he lived the quiet life of a country gentleman until his death -in 1794. A little village some twelve miles north of the site of old -Fort Stanwix still bears his name and marks the position of his estate. - - [Illustration: STEUBEN'S RUSTIC HOUSE AT ORISKANY] - - [Sidenote: Steuben at Valley Forge] - -After his interview with Congress, Steuben repaired at once to Valley -Forge, where Washington was not slow in recognizing his ability; nor was -Steuben, on the other hand, at a loss to perceive, in the ragged and -motley army which he passed in review, the existence of soldierly -qualities which needed nothing so much as training. Disregarding the -English prejudice which looked upon the drilling of soldiers as work fit -only for sergeants, he took musket in hand and showed what was to be -done. Alert and untiring, he worked from morning till night in showing -the men how to advance, retreat, or change front without falling into -disorder,--how to perform, in short, all the rapid and accurate -movements for which the Prussian army had become so famous. It was a -revelation to the American troops. Generals, colonels, and captains were -fired by the contagion of his example and his tremendous enthusiasm, and -for several months the camp was converted into a training-school, in -which masters and pupils worked with incessant and furious energy. -Steuben was struck with the quickness with which the common soldiers -learned their lessons. He had a harmlessly choleric temper, which was -part of his overflowing vigour, and sometimes, when drilling an awkward -squad, he would exhaust his stock of French and German oaths, and shout -for his aid to come and curse the blockheads in English. "Viens, mon ami -Walker," he would cry,--"viens, mon bon ami. Sacre-bleu! Gott-vertamn de -gaucherie of dese badauts. Je ne puis plus; I can curse dem no more!" -Yet in an incredibly short time, as he afterward wrote, these awkward -fellows had acquired a military air, had learned how to carry their -arms, and knew how to form into column, deploy, and execute manoeuvres -with precision. In May, 1778, after three months of such work, Steuben -was appointed inspector-general of the army, with the rank and pay of -major-general. The reforms which he introduced were so far-reaching that -after a year they were said to have saved more than 800,000 French -livres to the United States. No accounts had been kept of arms and -accoutrements, and owing to the careless good-nature which allowed every -recruit to carry home his musket as a keepsake, there had been a loss of -from five to eight thousand muskets annually. During the first year of -Steuben's inspectorship less than twenty muskets were lost. Half of the -arms at Valley Forge were found by Steuben without bayonets. The -American soldier had no faith in this weapon, because he did not know -how to use it; when he did not throw it away, he adapted it to culinary -purposes, holding on its point the beef which he roasted before his -camp-fire. Yet in little more than a year after Steuben's arrival we -shall see an American column, without firing a gun, storm the works at -Stony Point in one of the most spirited bayonet charges known to -history. - - [Illustration: ENCAMPMENT AT VALLEY FORGE, 1777-1778] - - [Illustration: HOWE'S HEADQUARTERS IN PHILADELPHIA] - - [Sidenote: Steuben's manual of tactics] - -Besides all this, it was Steuben who first taught the American army to -understand the value of an efficient staff. The want of such a staff had -been severely felt at the battle of Brandywine; but before the end of -the war Washington had become provided with a staff that Frederick need -not have despised. While busy with all these laborious reforms, the -good baron found time to prepare a new code of discipline and tactics, -based on Prussian experience, but adapted to the peculiar conditions of -American warfare; and this excellent manual held its place, long after -the death of its author, as the Blue Book of our army. In this -adaptation of means to ends, Steuben proved himself to be no martinet, -but a thorough military scholar; he was able not only to teach, but to -learn. And in the art of warfare there was one lesson which Europe now -learned from America. In woodland fights with the Indians, it had been -found desirable to act in loose columns, which could easily separate to -fall behind trees and reunite at brief notice; and in this way there had -been developed a kind of light infantry peculiar to America, and -especially adapted for skirmishing. It was light infantry of this sort -that, in the hands of Arnold and Morgan, had twice won the day in the -Saratoga campaign. Reduced to scientific shape by Steuben, and absorbed, -with all the other military knowledge of the age, by Napoleon, these -light-infantry tactics have come to play a great part on the European -battlefields of the nineteenth century. - - [Sidenote: Sir William Howe resigns his command] - - [Sidenote: The Mischianza] - -Thus from the terrible winter at Valley Forge, in which the accumulated -evils of congressional mismanagement had done their best to destroy the -army, it came forth, nevertheless, stronger in organization and bolder -in spirit than ever before. On the part of the enemy nothing had been -done to molest it. The position at Valley Forge was a strong one, and -Sir William Howe found it easier to loiter in Philadelphia than to play -a strategic game against Washington in the depths of an American winter. -When Franklin at Paris first heard the news that Howe had taken -Philadelphia, knowing well how slight was the military value of the -conquest, he observed that it would be more correct to say that -Philadelphia had taken General Howe. And so it turned out, in more ways -than one; for his conduct in going there at all was roundly blamed by -the opposition in Parliament, and not a word was said in his behalf by -Lord George Germain. The campaign of 1777 had been such a bungling piece -of work that none of the chief actors, save Burgoyne, was willing -frankly to assume his share of responsibility for it. Sir William Howe -did not wish to disclose the secret of his peculiar obligations to the -traitor Lee; and it would have ruined Lord George Germain to have told -the story of the dispatch that never was sent. Lord George, who was -never noted for generosity, sought to screen himself by throwing the -blame for everything indiscriminately upon the two generals. Burgoyne, -who sat in Parliament, defended himself ably and candidly; and when Howe -heard what was going on, he sent in his resignation, in order that he -too might go home and defend himself. Besides this, he had grown sick of -the war, and was more than ever convinced that it must end in failure. -On the 18th of May, Philadelphia was the scene of a grand farewell -banquet, called the _Mischianza_,--a strange medley combining the modern -parade with the mediaeval tournament, wherein seven silk-clad knights of -the Blended Rose and seven more of the Burning Mountain did amicably -break lances in honour of fourteen blooming damsels dressed in Turkish -costume, while triumphal arches, surmounted by effigies of Fame, -displayed inscriptions commemorating in fulsome Latin and French the -glories of the departing general. In these curious festivities, -savouring more strongly of Bruges in the fifteenth century than of -Philadelphia in the eighteenth, it was long after remembered that the -most prominent parts were taken by the ill-starred Major Andre and the -charming Miss Margaret Shippen, who was soon to become the wife of -Benedict Arnold. With such farewell ceremonies Sir William Howe set sail -for England, and Sir Henry Clinton took his place as commander-in-chief -of the British armies in America. - - [Portrait: MAJOR ANDRE] - - [Sidenote: The British evacuate Philadelphia, June 18, 1778] - - [Sidenote: Arnold takes command at Philadelphia] - -Washington's position at Valley Forge had held the British in check -through the winter. They had derived no advantage from the possession of -the "rebel capital," for such poor work as Congress could do was as well -done from York as from Philadelphia, and the political life of the -United States was diffused from one end of the country to the other. The -place was worthless as a basis for military operations. It was harder to -defend and harder to supply with food than the insular city of New York; -and, moreover, a powerful French fleet, under Count d'Estaing, was -approaching the American coast. With the control of the Delaware -imperilled, Philadelphia would soon become untenable, and, in accordance -with instructions received from the ministry, Sir Henry Clinton prepared -to evacuate the place and concentrate his forces at New York. His first -intention was to go by water; but finding that he had not transports -enough for his whole army, together with the Tory refugees who had put -themselves under his protection, he changed his plan. The Tories, to the -number of 3,000, with their personal effects, were sent on in the fleet, -while the army, encumbered with twelve miles of baggage wagons, began -its retreat across New Jersey. On the morning of the 18th of June, 1778, -the rear-guard of the British marched out of Philadelphia, and before -sunset the American advance marched in and took possession of the city. -General Arnold, whose crippled leg did not allow him to take the field, -was put in command, and after a fortnight both Congress and the state -government returned. Of the Tories who remained behind, twenty-five were -indicted, under the laws of Pennsylvania, for the crime of offering aid -to the enemy. Two Quakers, who had actually conducted a party of British -to a midnight attack upon an American outpost, were found guilty of -treason and hanged. The other twenty-three were either acquitted or -pardoned. Across the river, seventeen Tories, convicted of treason under -the laws of New Jersey, all received pardon from the governor. - - [Illustration: MISCHIANZA HEADDRESS] - - [Sidenote: Return of Charles Lee] - -The British retreat from Philadelphia was regarded by the Americans as -equivalent to a victory, and Washington was anxious to enhance the moral -effect of it by a sudden blow which should cripple Sir Henry Clinton's -army. In force he was about equal to the enemy, both armies now -numbering about 15,000, while in equipment and discipline his men were -better off than ever before. Unfortunately, the American army had just -received one addition which went far to neutralize these advantages. -The mischief-maker Lee had returned. In the preceding summer the British -Major-general Prescott had been captured in Rhode Island, and after a -tedious negotiation of nine months Lee was exchanged for him. He arrived -at Valley Forge in May, and as Washington had found a lenient -interpretation for his outrageous conduct before his capture, while -nothing whatever was known of his treasonable plot with the Howes, he -naturally came back unquestioned to his old position as senior -major-general of the army. What a frightful situation for the Americans; -to have for the second officer in their army the man whom the chances of -war might at any moment invest with the chief command, such a villain as -this who had so lately been plotting their destruction! What would -Washington, what would Congress have thought, had the truth in its -blackness been so much as dreamed of? But why, we may ask, did the -intriguer come back? Why did he think it worth his while to pose once -more in the attitude of an American? Could it have been with the -intention of playing into the hands of the enemy? and could Sir Henry -Clinton have been aware of this purpose? - - [Portrait: H Clinton] - - [Sidenote: Lee's reasons for returning] - -Such a hypothesis, implying direct collusion between Lee and the British -commander, is highly improbable. We must remember that Sir William Howe, -the Whig general, had just gone home to defend his military conduct -against the fierce attacks of the King's party; and his successor, Sir -Henry Clinton, was not only a Tory, but the personal relations between -the two men were not altogether friendly. It is therefore hardly -credible that Clinton could have known anything about Lee's cooperation -with Howe. If he had known it, we may be sure that the secret would not -have lain buried for eighty years. It is much more likely that since the -disastrous failure of Lee's military advice he was reduced to painful -insignificance in the British camp, and was thus prepared to welcome an -opportunity for trying his fortune once more with the Americans. Indeed, -the circumstances were such as hardly to leave him any choice in the -matter. As a prisoner of war, he must submit to exchange. The only way -to avoid it was to make a public avowal of having abandoned the American -service and cast in his lot with the British. But such an avowal would -at once withdraw from him General Washington's protection, and thus -leave him liable to be tried as a deserter and shot for the -gratification of George III. On the whole, as the event proved, there -was more safety for Lee in following Fortune's lead back into the -American camp. He came with the renewed hope of supplanting Washington -uppermost in his breast. As for Clinton, there is nothing to indicate -collusion between him and the traitor, but he had probably seen and -heard enough to confirm the declared opinion of Sir Joseph Yorke, that -such a man as Charles Lee was "the worst present the Americans could -receive." - - [Sidenote: Washington pursues the British] - -When Philadelphia was evacuated, Lee first tried to throw Washington off -on a false scent by alleging reasons for believing that Clinton did not -intend to retreat across New Jersey. Failing in this, he found reasons -as plentiful as blackberries why the British army should not be followed -up and harassed on its retreat. Then when Washington decided that an -attack must be made, he grew sulky and refused to conduct it. Washington -was marching more rapidly than Clinton, on a line nearly parallel with -him, to the northward, so that by the time the British general reached -Allentown he found his adversary getting in front of him upon his line -of retreat. Clinton had nothing to gain by fighting, if he could -possibly avoid it, and accordingly he turned to the right, following the -road which ran through Monmouth and Middletown to Sandy Hook. Washington -now detached a force of about 5,000 men to advance swiftly and cut off -the enemy's rear, while he designed to come up and support the operation -with the rest of his army. To Lee, as second in rank, the command of -this advanced party properly belonged; but he declined to take it, on -the ground that it was sure to be defeated, and Washington entrusted the -movement to the youthful Lafayette, of the soundness of whose judgment -he had already seen many proofs. But in the course of the night it -occurred to Lee, whatever his miserable purpose may have been, that -perhaps he might best accomplish it, after all, by taking the field. So -he told Washington, next morning, that he had changed his mind, and was -anxious to take the command which he had just declined. With -extraordinary forbearance Washington granted his request, and arranged -the affair with such tact as not to wound the feelings of Lafayette, -who thus, unfortunately, lost the direction of the movement. - - [Sidenote: His plan of attack] - -On the night of June 27th the left wing of the British army, 8,000 -strong, commanded by Lord Cornwallis, encamped near Monmouth Court -House, on the road from Allentown. The right wing, of about equal -strength, and composed chiefly of Hessians under Knyphausen, lay just -beyond the Court House on the road to Middletown. In order of march the -right wing took the lead, convoying the immense baggage train. The left -wing, following in the rear, was the part exposed to danger, and with it -stayed Sir Henry Clinton. The American advance under Lee, 6,000 strong, -lay about five miles northeast of the British line, and Washington, with -the main body, was only three miles behind. Lee's orders from Washington -were positive and explicit. He was to gain the flank of the British left -wing and attack it vigorously, until Washington should come up and -complete its discomfiture. Lee's force was ample, in quantity and -quality, for the task assigned it, and there was fair ground for hope -that the flower of the British army might thus be cut off and captured -or destroyed. Since the war began there had hardly been such a golden -opportunity. - - [Sidenote: Battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778] - - [Sidenote: Lee's shameful retreat] - -Sunday, the 28th of June, was a day of fiery heat, the thermometer -showing 96 deg. in the shade. Early in the morning Clinton moved cautiously. -Knyphausen made all haste forward on the Middletown road, and the left -wing followed till it had passed more than a mile beyond Monmouth Court -House, when it found itself outflanked on the north by the American -columns. Lee had advanced from Freehold church by the main road, -crossing two deep ravines upon causeways; and now, while his left wing -was folding about Cornwallis on the north, occupying superior ground, -his centre, under Wayne, was close behind, and his right, under -Lafayette, had already passed the Court House, and was threatening the -other end of the British line on the south. Cornwallis instantly changed -front to meet the danger on the north, and a detachment was thrown down -the road toward the Court House to check Lafayette. The British position -was one of peril, but the behaviour of the American commander now became -very extraordinary. When Wayne was beginning his attack, he was ordered -by Lee to hold back and simply make a feint, as the main attack was to -be made in another quarter. While Wayne was wondering at this, the -British troops coming down the road were seen directing their march so -as to come between Wayne and Lafayette. It would be easy to check them, -but the marquis had no sooner started than Lee ordered him back, -murmuring about its being impossible to stand against British soldiers. -Lafayette's suspicions were now aroused, and he sent a dispatch in all -haste to Washington, saying that his presence in the field was sorely -needed. The army was bewildered. Fighting had hardly begun, but their -position was obviously so good that the failure to make prompt use of it -suggested some unknown danger. One of the divisions on the left was now -ordered back by Lee, and the others, seeing this retrograde movement, -and understanding it as the prelude to a general retreat, began likewise -to fall back. All thus retreated, though without flurry or disorder, to -the high ground just east of the second ravine which they had crossed in -their advance. All the advantage of their offensive movement was thus -thrown away without a struggle, but the position they had now reached -was excellent for a defensive fight. To the amazement of everybody, Lee -ordered the retreat to be continued across the marshy ravine. As they -crowded upon the causeway the ranks began to fall into some disorder. -Many sank exhausted from the heat. No one could tell from what they were -fleeing, and the exultant ardour with which they had begun to enfold the -British line gave place to bitter disappointment, which vented itself in -passionate curses. So they hurried on, with increasing disorder, till -they approached the brink of the westerly ravine, where their craven -commander met Washington riding up. - - [Sidenote: Washington retrieves the situation] - -The men who then beheld Washington's face and listened to his outburst -of wrath could never forget it for the rest of their lives. It was one -of those moments that live in tradition. People of to-day, who know -nothing else about Charles Lee, think of him vaguely as the man whom -Washington upbraided at Monmouth. People who know nothing else about the -battle of Monmouth still dimly associate the name with the disgrace of a -General Lee. Not many words were wasted.[17] Leaving the traitor -cowering and trembling in his stirrups, Washington hurried on to rally -the troops and form a new front. There was not a moment to lose, for the -British were within a mile of them, and their fire began before the line -of battle could be formed. To throw a mass of disorderly fugitives in -the face of advancing reinforcements, as Lee had been on the point of -doing, was to endanger the organization of the whole force. It was now -that the admirable results of Steuben's teaching were to be seen. The -retreating soldiers immediately wheeled and formed under fire with as -much coolness and precision as they could have shown on parade, and -while they stopped the enemy's progress, Washington rode back and -brought up the main body of his army. On some heights to the left of the -enemy Greene placed a battery which enfiladed their lines with deadly -effect, while Wayne attacked them vigorously in front. After a brave -resistance, the British were driven back upon the second ravine which -Lee had crossed in the morning's advance. Washington now sent word to -Steuben, who was a couple of miles in the rear, telling him to bring up -three brigades and press the retreating enemy. Some time before this he -had again met Lee and ordered him to the rear, for his suspicion was now -thoroughly aroused. As the traitor rode away from the field, baffled and -full of spite, he met Steuben advancing, and tried to work one final -piece of mischief. He tried to persuade Steuben to halt, alleging that -he must have misunderstood Washington's orders; but the worthy baron was -not to be trifled with, and doggedly kept on his way.[18] The British -were driven in some confusion across the ravine, and were just making a -fresh stand on the high ground east of it when night put an end to the -strife. Washington sent out parties to attack them on both flanks as -soon as day should dawn; but Clinton withdrew in the night, taking with -him many of his wounded men, and by daybreak had joined Knyphausen on -the heights of Middletown, whither it was useless to follow him. - - [Portrait: CHARLES LEE] - - [Sidenote: It was a drawn battle] - -The total American loss in the battle of Monmouth was 362. The British -loss is commonly given as 416, but must have been much greater. -According to Washington's own account, the Americans buried on the -battlefield 245 British dead, but could not count the wounded, as so -many had been carried away; from the ordinary proportion of four or five -wounded to one man killed, he estimates the number at from 1,000 to -1,200.[19] More than 100 of the British were taken prisoners. On both -sides there were many deaths from sunstroke. The battle has usually been -claimed as a victory for the Americans; and so it was in a certain -sense, as they drove the enemy from the field. Strategically considered, -however, Lord Stanhope is quite right in calling it a drawn battle. The -purpose for which Washington undertook it was foiled by the treachery of -Lee. Nevertheless, in view of the promptness with which Washington -turned defeat into victory, and of the greatly increased efficiency -which it showed in the soldiers, the moral advantage was doubtless with -the Americans. It deepened the impression produced by the recovery of -Philadelphia, it silenced the cavillers against Washington,[20] and its -effect upon Clinton's army was disheartening. More than 2,000 of his -men, chiefly Hessians, deserted in the course of the following week. - -During the night after the battle, the behaviour of Lee was the theme of -excited discussion among the American officers. By the next day, having -recovered his self-possession, he wrote a petulant letter to Washington, -demanding an apology for his language on the battlefield. Washington's -reply was as follows:-- - - [Sidenote: Washington's letter to Lee.] - - "SIR,--I received your letter, expressed, as I conceive, in terms - highly improper. I am not conscious of making use of any very - singular expressions at the time of meeting you, as you intimate. - What I recollect to have said was dictated by duty and warranted by - the occasion. As soon as circumstances will permit, you shall have - an opportunity of justifying yourself to the army, to Congress, to - America, and to the world in general; or of convincing them that - you were guilty of a breach of orders, and of misbehaviour before - the enemy on the 28th instant, in not attacking them as you had - been directed, and in making an unnecessary, disorderly, and - shameful retreat." - - [Sidenote: Trial and sentence of Lee] - -To this terrible letter Lee sent the following impudent answer: "You -cannot afford me greater pleasure than in giving me the opportunity of -showing to America the sufficiency of her respective servants. I trust -that temporary power of office and the tinsel dignity attending it will -not be able, by all the mists they can raise, to obfuscate the bright -rays of truth." Washington replied by putting Lee under arrest. A -court-martial was at once convened, before which he was charged with -disobedience of orders in not attacking the enemy, with misbehaviour on -the field in making an unnecessary and shameful retreat, and, lastly, -with gross disrespect to the commander-in-chief. After a painstaking -trial, which lasted more than a month, he was found guilty on all three -charges, and suspended from command in the army _for the term of one -year_. - -This absurdly inadequate sentence is an example of the extreme and -sometimes ill-judged humanity which has been wont to characterize -judicial proceedings in America. Many a European soldier has been -ruthlessly shot for less serious misconduct. A commander can be guilty -of no blacker crime than knowingly to betray his trust on the field of -battle. But in Lee's case, the very enormity of his crime went far to -screen him from the punishment which it deserved. People are usually -slow to believe in criminality that goes far beyond the ordinary -wickedness of the society in which they live. If a candidate for -Congress is accused of bribery or embezzlement, we unfortunately find it -easy to believe the charge; but if he were to be accused of attempting -to poison his rival, we should find it very hard indeed to believe it. -In the France of Catherine de' Medici or the Italy of Caesar Borgia, the -one accusation would have been as credible as the other, but we have -gone far toward outgrowing some of the grosser forms of crime. In -American history, as in modern English history, instances of downright -treason have been very rare; and in proportion as we are impressed with -their ineffable wickedness are we slow to admit the possibility of their -occurrence. In ancient Greece and in mediaeval Italy there were many -Benedict Arnolds; in the United States a single plot for surrendering a -stronghold to the enemy has consigned its author to a solitary -immortality of infamy. But unless the proof of Arnold's treason had been -absolutely irrefragable, many persons would have refused to believe it. -In like manner, people were slow to believe that Lee could have been so -deliberately wicked as to plan the defeat of the army in which he held -so high a command, and some historians have preferred to regard his -conduct as wholly unintelligible, rather than adopt the only clue by -which it can be explained. He might have been bewildered, he might have -been afraid, he might have been crazy, it was suggested; and to the -latter hypothesis his well-known eccentricity gave some countenance. It -was perhaps well for the court-martial to give him the benefit of the -doubt, but in any case it should have been obvious that he had proved -himself _permanently_ unfit for a command. - - [Illustration: CARICATURE OF CHARLES LEE] - - [Sidenote: Lee's character and schemes] - -Historians for a long time imitated the clemency of the court-martial by -speaking of the "waywardness" of General Lee. Nearly eighty years -elapsed before the discovery of that document which justifies us in -putting the worst interpretation upon his acts, while it enables us -clearly to understand the motives which prompted them. Lee was nothing -but a selfish adventurer. He had no faith in the principles for which -the Americans were fighting, or indeed in any principles. He came here -to advance his own fortunes, and hoped to be made commander-in-chief. -Disappointed in this, he began at once to look with hatred and envy upon -Washington, and sought to thwart his purposes, while at the same time he -intrigued with the enemy. He became infatuated with the idea of playing -some such part in the American Revolution as Monk had played in the -Restoration of Charles II. This explains his conduct in the autumn of -1776, when he refused to march to the support of Washington. Should -Washington be defeated and captured, then Lee, as next in command and at -the head of a separate army, might negotiate for peace. His conduct as -prisoner in New York, first in soliciting an interview with Congress, -then in giving aid and counsel to the enemy, is all to be explained in -the same way. And his behaviour in the Monmouth campaign was part and -parcel of the same crooked policy. Lord North's commissioners had just -arrived from England to offer terms to the Americans, but in the -exultation over Saratoga and the French alliance, now increased by the -recovery of Philadelphia, there was little hope of their effecting -anything. The spirits of these Yankees, thought Lee, must not be -suffered to rise too high, else they will never listen to reason. So he -wished to build a bridge of gold for Clinton to retreat by; and when he -found it impossible to prevent an attack, his second thoughts led him to -take command, in order to keep the game in his own hands. Should -Washington now incur defeat by adopting a course which Lee had -emphatically condemned as impracticable, the impatient prejudices upon -which the cabal had played might be revived. The downfall of Washington -would perhaps be easy to compass; and the schemer would thus not only -enjoy the humiliation of the man whom he so bitterly hated, but he might -fairly hope to succeed him in the chief command, and thus have an -opportunity of bringing the war to a "glorious" end through a -negotiation with Lord North's commissioners. Such thoughts as these -were, in all probability, at the bottom of Lee's extraordinary behaviour -at Monmouth. They were the impracticable schemes of a vain, egotistical -dreamer. That Washington and Chatham, had that great statesman been -still alive, might have brought the war to an honourable close through -open and frank negotiation was perhaps not impossible. That such a man -as Lee, by paltering with agents of Lord North, should effect anything -but mischief and confusion was inconceivable. But selfishness is always -incompatible with sound judgment, and Lee's wild schemes were quite in -keeping with his character. The method he adopted for carrying them out -was equally so. It would have been impossible for a man of strong -military instincts to have relaxed his clutch upon an enemy in the -field, as Lee did at the battle of Monmouth. If Arnold had been there -that day, with his head never so full of treason, an irresistible -impulse would doubtless have led him to attack the enemy tooth and nail, -and the treason would have waited till the morrow. - - [Portrait: John Laurens] - - [Sidenote: Lee's expulsion from the army] - - [Sidenote: His death] - -As usually happens in such cases, the selfish schemer overreached -himself. Washington won a victory, after all; the treachery was -detected, and the traitor disgraced. Maddened by the destruction of his -air-castles, Lee now began writing scurrilous articles in the -newspapers. He could not hear Washington's name mentioned without losing -his temper, and his venomous tongue at length got him into a duel with -Colonel Laurens, one of Washington's aids and son of the president of -Congress. He came out of the affair with nothing worse than a wound in -the side; but when, a little later, he wrote an angry letter to -Congress, he was summarily expelled from the army. "Ah, I see," he said, -aiming a Parthian shot at Washington, "if you wish to become a great -general in America, you must learn to grow tobacco;" and so he retired -to a plantation which he had in the Shenandoah valley. He lived to -behold the triumph of the cause which he had done so much to injure, and -in October, 1782, he died in a mean public-house in Philadelphia, -friendless and alone. His last wish was that he might not be buried in -consecrated ground, or within a mile of any church or meeting-house, -because he had kept so much bad company in this world that he did not -choose to continue it in the next. But in this he was not allowed to -have his way. He was buried in the cemetery of Christ Church in -Philadelphia, and many worthy citizens came to the funeral. - - [Illustration: CHRIST CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA] - - [Sidenote: The situation at New York] - - [Sidenote: The French fleet unable to enter the harbour] - -When Washington, after the battle of Monmouth, saw that it was useless -further to molest Clinton's retreat, he marched straight for the Hudson -river, and on the 20th of July he encamped at White Plains, while his -adversary took refuge in New York. The opposing armies occupied the same -ground as in the autumn of 1776; but the Americans were now the -aggressive party. Howe's object in 1776 was the capture of Washington's -army; Clinton's object in 1778 was limited to keeping possession of New -York. There was now a chance for testing the worth of the French -alliance. With the aid of a powerful French fleet, it might be possible -to capture Clinton's army, and thus end the war at a blow. But this was -not to be. The French fleet of twelve ships-of-the-line and six -frigates, commanded by the Count d'Estaing, sailed from Toulon on the -13th of April, and after a tedious struggle with head-winds arrived at -the mouth of the Delaware on the 8th of July, just too late to intercept -Lord Howe's squadron. The fleet contained a land force of 4,000 men, and -brought over M. Gerard, the first minister from France to the United -States. Finding nothing to do on the Delaware, the count proceeded to -Sandy Hook, where he was boarded by Washington's aids, Laurens and -Hamilton, and a council of war was held. As the British fleet in the -harbour consisted of only six ships-of-the-line, with several frigates -and gunboats, it seemed obvious that it might be destroyed or captured -by Estaing's superior force, and then Clinton would be entrapped in the -island city. But this plan was defeated by a strange obstacle. Though -the harbour of New York is one of the finest in the world, it has, like -most harbours situated at the mouths of great rivers, a bar at the -entrance, which in 1778 was far more troublesome than it is to-day. -Since that time the bar has shifted its position and been partially worn -away, so that the largest ships can now freely enter, except at low -tide. But when the American pilots examined Estaing's two largest ships, -which carried eighty and ninety guns respectively, they declared it -unsafe, even at high tide, for them to venture upon the bar. The -enterprise was accordingly abandoned, but in its stead another one was -undertaken, which, if successful, might prove hardly less decisive than -the capture of New York. - - [Portrait: R^d Prescott] - - [Sidenote: General Prescott at Newport] - -After their expulsion from Boston in the first year of the war, the -British never regained their foothold upon the mainland of New England. -But in December, 1776, the island which gives its name to the state of -Rhode Island had been seized by Lord Percy, and the enemy had occupied -it ever since. From its commanding position at the entrance to the -Sound, it assisted them in threatening the Connecticut coast; and, on -the other hand, should occasion require, it might even enable them to -threaten Boston with an overland attack. After Lord Percy's departure -for England in the spring of 1777, the command devolved upon -Major-general Richard Prescott, an unmitigated brute. Under his rule no -citizen of Newport was safe in his own house. He not only arrested -people and threw them into jail without assigning any reason, but he -encouraged his soldiers in plundering houses and offering gross insults -to ladies, as well as in cutting down shade-trees and wantonly defacing -the beautiful lawns. A great loud-voiced, irascible fellow, swelling -with the sense of his own importance, if he chanced to meet with a -Quaker who failed to take off his hat, he would seize him by the collar -and knock his head against the wall, or strike him over the shoulders -with the big gnarled stick which he usually carried. One night in July, -as this petty tyrant was sleeping at a country house about five miles -from Newport, a party of soldiers rowed over from the mainland in boats, -under the guns of three British frigates, and, taking the general out of -bed, carried him off in his night-gown. He was sent to Washington's -headquarters on the Hudson. As he passed through the village of Lebanon, -in Connecticut, he stopped to dine at an old inn kept by one Captain -Alden. He was politely received, and in the course of the meal Mrs. -Alden set upon the table a dish of succotash, whereupon Prescott, not -knowing the delicious dish, roared, "What do you mean by offering me -this hog's food?" and threw it all upon the floor. The good woman -retreated in tears to the kitchen, and presently her husband, coming in -with a stout horsewhip, dealt with the boor as he deserved. When -Prescott was exchanged for General Lee, in April, 1778, he resumed the -command at Newport, but was soon superseded by the amiable and -accomplished Sir Robert Pigot, under whom the garrison was increased to -6,000 men. - - [Signature: R^t Pigot] - - [Sidenote: Attempt to capture the British garrison at Newport] - -New York and Newport were now the only places held by the enemy in the -United States, and the capture of either, with its army of occupation, -would be an event of prime importance. As soon as the enterprise was -suggested, the New England militia began to muster in force, -Massachusetts sending a strong contingent under John Hancock. General -Sullivan had been in command at Providence since April. Washington now -sent him 1,500 picked men of his Continental troops, with Greene, who -was born hard by and knew every inch of the island; with Glover, of -amphibious renown; and Lafayette, who was a kinsman of the Count -d'Estaing. The New England yeomanry soon swelled this force to about -9,000, and with the 4,000 French regulars and the fleet, it might well -be hoped that General Pigot would quickly be brought to surrender. - - [Sidenote: Sullivan seizes Butts Hill] - - [Sidenote: Naval battle prevented by storm] - -The expedition failed through the inefficient cooperation of the French -and the insubordination of the yeomanry. Estaing arrived off the harbour -of Newport on the 29th of July, and had a conference with Sullivan. It -was agreed that the Americans should land upon the east side of the -island while the French were landing upon the west side, thus -intervening between the main garrison at Newport and a strong detachment -which was stationed on Butts Hill, at the northern end of the island. By -such a movement this detachment might be isolated and captured, to begin -with. But General Pigot, divining the purpose of the allies, withdrew -the detachment, and concentrated all his forces in and around the city. -At this moment the French troops were landing upon Conanicut island, -intending to cross to the north of Newport on the morrow, according to -the agreement. Sullivan did not wait for them, but seeing the commanding -position on Butts Hill evacuated, he rightly pushed across the channel -and seized it, while at the same time he informed Estaing of his reasons -for doing so. The count, not understanding the situation, was somewhat -offended at what he deemed undue haste on the part of Sullivan, but thus -far nothing had happened to disturb the execution of their scheme. He -had only to continue landing his troops and blockade the southern end of -the island with his fleet, and Sir Robert Pigot was doomed. But the next -day Lord Howe appeared off Point Judith, with thirteen ships-of-the -line, seven frigates, and several small vessels, and Estaing, -reembarking the troops he had landed on Conanicut, straightway put out -to sea to engage him. For two days the hostile fleets manoeuvred for -the weather-gage, and just as they were getting ready for action there -came up a terrific storm, which scattered them far and wide. Instead of -trying to destroy one another, each had to bend all his energies to -saving himself. So fierce was the storm that it was remembered in local -tradition as lately as 1850 as "the Great Storm." Windows in the town -were incrusted with salt blown up in the ocean spray. Great trees were -torn up by the roots, and much shipping was destroyed along the coast. - - [Portrait: Estaing] - - [Sidenote: Estaing goes to Boston, to refit his ships] - -It was not until the 20th of August that Estaing brought in his -squadron, somewhat damaged from the storm. He now insisted upon going to -Boston to refit, in accordance with general instructions received from -the ministry before leaving home. It was urged in vain by Greene and -Lafayette that the vessels could be repaired as easily in Narragansett -Bay as in Boston harbour; that by the voyage around Cape Cod, in his -crippled condition, he would only incur additional risk; that by -staying he would strictly fulfil the spirit of his instructions; that -an army had been brought here, and stores collected, in reliance upon -his aid; that if the expedition were to be ruined through his failure to -cooperate, it would sully the honour of France and give rise to hard -feelings in America; and finally, that even if he felt constrained, in -spite of sound arguments, to go and refit at Boston, there was no -earthly reason for his taking the 4,000 French soldiers with him. The -count was quite disposed to yield to these sensible remonstrances, but -on calling a council of war he found himself overruled by his officers. -Estaing was not himself a naval officer, but a lieutenant-general in the -army, and it has been said that the officers of his fleet, vexed at -having a land-lubber put over them, were glad of a chance to thwart him -in his plans. However this may have been, it was voted that the letter -of the royal instructions must be blindly adhered to, and so on the 23d -Estaing weighed anchor for Boston, taking the land forces with him, and -leaving General Sullivan in the lurch. - - [Illustration: BATTLE OF BUTTS HILL] - - [Sidenote: Yeomanry go home in disgust] - - [Sidenote: Battle of Butts Hill, Aug. 29, 1778] - - [Sidenote: The enterprise abandoned] - -Great was the exasperation in the American camp. Sullivan's vexation -found indiscreet expression in a general order, in which he hoped the -event would prove America "able to procure that by her own arms which -her allies refuse to assist in obtaining." But the insubordination of -the volunteers now came in to complicate the matter. Some 3,000 of them, -despairing of success and impatient at being kept from home in harvest -time, marched away in disgust and went about their business, thus -reducing Sullivan's army to the same size as that of the enemy. The -investment of Newport, by land, had already been completed, but the -speedy success of the enterprise depended upon a superiority of force, -and in case of British reinforcements arriving from New York the -American situation would become dangerous. Upon these grounds, Sullivan, -on the 28th, decided to retreat to the strong position at Butts Hill, -and await events. Lafayette mounted his horse and rode the seventy miles -to Boston in seven hours, to beg his kinsman to return as soon as -possible. Estaing despaired of getting his ships ready for many days, -but, catching a spark of the young man's enthusiasm, he offered to bring -up his troops by land. Fired with fresh hope, the young marquis spurred -back as fast as he had come, but when he arrived on the scene of action -all was over. As soon as Sullivan's retreat was perceived the whole -British army gave chase. After the Americans had retired to their lines -on Butts Hill, Sir Robert Pigot tried to carry their position by storm, -and there ensued an obstinate fight, in which the conditions were in -many respects similar to those of Bunker Hill; but this time the -Americans had powder enough, and the British were totally defeated. This -slaughter of their brave men was useless. The next day Sullivan received -a dispatch from Washington, with the news that Clinton had started from -New York with 5,000 men to reinforce Sir Robert Pigot. Under these -circumstances, it was rightly thought best to abandon the island. The -services of General Glover, who had taken Washington's army across the -East River after the defeat of Long Island, and across the Delaware -before the victory of Trenton, were called into requisition, and all the -men and stores were ferried safely to the mainland; Lafayette arriving -from Boston just in time to bring off the pickets and covering-parties. -The next day Clinton arrived with his 5,000 men, and the siege of -Newport was over. - - * * * * * - - [Portrait: John Glover B General] - - [Sidenote: Unpopularity of the French alliance] - -The failure of this enterprise excited much indignation, and seemed to -justify the distrust with which so many people regarded the French -alliance. In Boston the ill-feeling found vent in a riot on the wharves -between French and American sailors, and throughout New England there -was loud discontent. It required all Washington's tact to keep peace -between the ill-yoked allies. When Congress passed a politic resolution -approving the course of the French commander, it met with no cordial -assent from the people. When, in November, Estaing took his fleet to the -West Indies, for purposes solely French, the feeling was one of lively -disgust, which was heightened by an indiscreet proclamation of the count -inviting the people of Canada to return to their old allegiance. For -the American people regarded the work of Pitt as final, and at no time -during the war did their feeling against Great Britain rise to such a -point as to make them willing to see the French restored to their old -position on this continent. The sagacious Vergennes understood this so -well that Estaing's proclamation found little favour in his eyes. But it -served none the less to irritate the Americans, and especially the -people of New England. - - [Sidenote: Stagnation of the war in the northern states] - -So far as the departure of the fleet for the West Indies was concerned, -the American complaints were not wholly reasonable; for the operations -of the French in that quarter helped materially to diminish the force -which Great Britain could spare for the war in the United States. On the -very day of Estaing's departure, Sir Henry Clinton was obliged to send -5,000 men from New York to take part in the West India campaign. This -new pressure put upon England by the necessity of warding off French -attack went on increasing. In 1779 England had 314,000 men under arms in -various parts of the world, but she had so many points to defend that it -was difficult for her to maintain a sufficient force in America. In the -autumn of that year, Sir Henry Clinton did not regard his position in -New York as secure enough to justify him any longer in sparing troops -for the occupation of Newport, and the island was accordingly evacuated. -From this time till the end of the war, the only point which the British -succeeded in holding, north of Virginia, was the city of New York. After -the Rhode Island campaign of 1778, no further operations occurred at the -North between the two principal armies which could properly be said to -constitute a campaign. Clinton's resources were too slender for him to -do anything but hold New York. Washington's resources were too slender -for him to do anything but sit and watch Clinton. While the two -commanders-in-chief thus held each other at bay, the rapid and violent -work of the war was going on in the southern states, conducted by -subordinate officers. During much of this time Washington's army formed -a cordon about Manhattan Island, from Danbury in Connecticut to -Elizabethtown in New Jersey, and thus blockaded the enemy. But while -there were no decisive military operations in the northern states during -this period, many interesting and important events occurred which demand -consideration before we go on to treat of the great southern campaigns -which ended the war. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [17] As usual in such cases, there is a great diversity of - testimony as to what was said. In my first edition I gave the - familiar story of which there is a meagre version in Bancroft - and a much fuller one in Irving: "What is the meaning of all - this?" etc.; but I suspect that story is much too literary. It - is not likely that any such conversation occurred at such a - moment. A young sergeant, Jacob Morton, was standing close by - when Washington met Lee. This Morton, who afterward became a - major, was noted for accuracy and precision of statement. In - 1840 he gave his account of the affair to Mr. Harrison - Robertson, of Charlottesville, Virginia; and in 1895 Mr. - Robertson kindly wrote out for me his recollection of that - account. According to Morton, Washington simply shouted, "My - God! General Lee, what are you about?" This has the earmark of - truth. Another account, traceable to Lafayette and likewise - probable, says that as Washington swept furiously past and - away, he ejaculated with bitter emphasis, "Damned poltroon!" - - [18] Such was Steuben's own testimony on the court-martial. Lee was - so enraged by it as to make reflections upon Steuben which - presently called forth a challenge from that gentleman. (_Lee - Papers_, iii. 96, 253.) It is to be regretted that we have not - the reply in which Lee declined the encounter. There is a - reference to it in a letter from Alexander Hamilton to Baron - von Steuben, a fortnight after the challenge: "I have read your - letter to Lee with pleasure. It was conceived in terms which - the offence merited, and, if he had any feeling, must have been - felt by him. Considering the pointedness and severity of your - expressions, his answer was certainly a very modest one, and - proved that he had not a violent appetite for so close a - _tete-a-tete_ as you seemed disposed to insist upon. His - evasions, if known to the world, would do him very little - honour." Upon what grounds Lee refused to fight with Steuben, - it is hard to surmise; for within another week we find him - engaged in a duel with Colonel Laurens, as will presently be - mentioned in the text. - - [19] Washington's _Writings_, ed. Ford, vii. 90. - - [20] "I never saw the General to so much advantage.... A general - rout, dismay, and disgrace would have attended the whole army - in any other hands but his. By his own good sense and fortitude - he turned the fate of the day.... He did not hug himself at a - distance, and leave an Arnold to win laurels for him; but by - his own presence he brought order out of confusion, animated - his troops, and led them to success."--_Hamilton to Boudinot_, - 5 July, 1778. Observe the well-timed sneer at Gates. Boudinot - answers, "The General I always revered and loved ever since I - knew him, but in this instance he rose superior to himself. - Every lip dwells on his praise, for even his pretended friends - (for none dare to acknowledge themselves his enemies) are - obliged to croak it forth."--_Boudinot to Hamilton_, 8 July, - 1778. - - - - - CHAPTER XI - - WAR ON THE FRONTIER - - -The barbarous border fighting of the Revolutionary War was largely due -to the fact that powerful tribes of wild Indians still confronted us on -every part of our steadily advancing frontier. They would have tortured -and scalped our backwoodsmen even if we had had no quarrel with George -III., and there could be no lasting peace until they were crushed -completely. When the war broke out, their alliance with the British was -natural, but the truculent spirit which sought to put that savage -alliance to the worst uses was something which it would not be fair to -ascribe to the British commanders in general; it must be charged to the -account of Lord George Germain and a few unworthy men who were willing -to be his tools. - - [Portrait: Wm Johnson] - - [Illustration: A North View of Fort Johnson drawn on the spot by M^r. -Guy Johnson, Sir W^m. Johnson's Son.] - - [Sidenote: Joseph Brant, missionary and war-chief] - -In the summer of 1778 this horrible border warfare became the most -conspicuous feature of the struggle, and has afforded themes for poetry -and romance, in which the figures of the principal actors are seen in a -lurid light. One of these figures is of such importance as to deserve -especial mention. Joseph Brant, or Thayendanegea, was perhaps the -greatest Indian of whom we have any knowlege; certainly the -history of the red men presents no more many-sided and interesting -character. A pure-blooded Mohawk, descended from a line of distinguished -chiefs,[21] in early boyhood he became a favourite with Sir William -Johnson, and the laughing black eyes of his handsome sister, Molly -Brant, so fascinated the rough baronet that he took her to Johnson Hall -as his wife, after the Indian fashion. Sir William believed that Indians -could be tamed and taught the arts of civilized life, and he laboured -with great energy, and not without some success, in this difficult task. -The young Thayendanegea was sent to be educated at the school in -Lebanon, Connecticut, which was afterwards transferred to New Hampshire -and developed into Dartmouth College. At this school he not only became -expert in the use of the English language, in which he learned to write -with elegance and force, but he also acquired some inkling of general -literature and history. He became a member of the Episcopal Church, and -after leaving school he was for some time engaged in missionary work -among the Mohawks, and translated the Prayer-Book and parts of the New -Testament into his native language. He was a man of earnest and serious -character, and his devotion to the church endured throughout his life. -Some years after the peace of 1783, the first Episcopal church ever -built in Upper Canada was erected by Joseph Brant, from funds which he -had collected for the purpose while on a visit to England. But with this -character of devout missionary and earnest student Thayendanegea -combined, in curious contrast, the attributes of an Iroquois war-chief -developed to the highest degree of efficiency. There was no -accomplishment prized by Indian braves in which he did not outshine all -his fellows. He was early called to take the war-path. In the fierce -struggle with Pontiac he fought with great distinction on the English -side, and at the beginning of the War of Independence he was one of the -most conspicuous of Iroquois war-chiefs. - -It was the most trying time that had ever come to these haughty lords of -the wilderness, and called for all the valour and diplomacy which they -could summon. Brant was equal to the occasion, and no chieftain ever -fought a losing cause with greater spirit than he. We have seen how at -Oriskany he came near turning the scale against us in one of the -critical moments of a great campaign. From the St. Lawrence to the -Susquehanna his name became a name of terror. Equally skilful and -zealous, now in planning the silent night march and deadly ambush, now -in preaching the gospel of peace, he reminds one of some newly reclaimed -Frisian or Norman warrior of the Carolingian age. But in the eighteenth -century the incongruity is more striking than in the tenth, in so far as -the traits of the barbarian are more vividly projected against the -background of a higher civilization. It is odd to think of -Thayendanegea, who could outyell any of his tribe on the battlefield, -sitting at table with Burke and Sheridan, and behaving with the modest -grace of an English gentleman. The tincture of civilization he had -acquired, moreover, was by no means superficial. Though engaged in many -a murderous attack, his conduct was not marked by the ferocity so -characteristic of the Iroquois. Though he sometimes approved the slaying -of prisoners on grounds of public policy, he was flatly opposed to -torture, and never would allow it. He often went out of his way to -rescue women and children from the tomahawk, and the instances of his -magnanimity toward suppliant enemies were very numerous. - - [Illustration: A View of Niagara Fort] - - [Sidenote: The Tories of western New York] - -At the beginning of the war the influence of the Johnsons had kept all -the Six Nations on the side of the Crown, except the Oneidas and -Tuscaroras, who were prevailed upon by New England missionaries to -maintain an attitude of neutrality. The Indians in general were quite -incapable of understanding the issue involved in the contest, but Brant -had some comprehension of it, and looked at the matter with Tory eyes. -The loyalists in central New York were numerous, but the patriot party -was the stronger, and such fierce enmities were aroused in this frontier -society that most of the Tories were obliged to abandon their homes and -flee to the wilds of western New York and Upper Canada, where they made -the beginnings of the first English settlement in that country. There, -under their leaders, the Johnsons, with Colonel John Butler and his son -Walter, they had their headquarters at Fort Niagara, where they were -joined by Brant with his Mohawks. Secure in the possession of that -remote stronghold, they made it the starting-point of their frequent and -terrible excursions against the communities which had cast them forth. -These rough frontiersmen, many of them Scotch Highlanders of the old -stripe, whose raiding and reaving propensities had been little changed -by their life in an American wilderness, were in every way fit comrades -for their dusky allies. Clothed in blankets and moccasins, decked with -beads and feathers, and hideous in war-paint, it was not easy to -distinguish them from the stalwart barbarians whose fiendish cruelties -they often imitated and sometimes surpassed. Border tradition tells of -an Indian who, after murdering a young mother with her three children, -as they sat by the evening fireside, was moved to pity by the sight of a -little infant sweetly smiling at him from its cradle; but his Tory -comrade picked up the babe with the point of his bayonet, and, as he -held it writhing in mid-air, exclaimed, "Is not this also a d--d rebel?" -There are many tales of like import, and whether always true or not they -seem to show the reputation which these wretched men had won. The Tory -leaders took less pains than Thayendanegea to prevent useless slaughter, -and some of the atrocities permitted by Walter Butler have never been -outdone in the history of savage warfare. - - [Illustration: EARLY MAP OF WYOMING AND LACKAWANNA VALLEYS.] - - [Sidenote: The valley of Wyoming and its settlers from Connecticut] - -During the year 1778 the frontier became the scene of misery such as had -not been witnessed since the time of Pontiac. Early in July there came -a blow at which the whole country stood aghast. The valley of Wyoming, -situated in northeastern Pennsylvania, where the Susquehanna makes its -way through a huge cleft in the mountains, had become celebrated for the -unrivalled fertility and beauty which, like the fatal gift of some -unfriendly power, served only to make it an occasion of strife. The -lovely spot lay within the limits of the charter of Connecticut, granted -in 1662, according to which that colony or plantation was to extend -westward to the Pacific Ocean. It also lay within the limits of the -charter of 1681, by which the proprietary colony of Pennsylvania had -been founded. About one hundred people from Connecticut had settled in -Wyoming in 1762, but within a year this little settlement was wiped out -in blood and fire by the Indians. In 1768 some Pennsylvanians began to -settle in the valley, but they were soon ousted by a second detachment -of Yankees, and for three years a miniature war was kept up, with -varying fortunes, until at last the Connecticut men, under Zebulon -Butler and Lazarus Stewart, were victorious. In 1771 the question was -referred to the law-officers of the Crown, and the claim of Connecticut -was sustained. Settlers now began to come rapidly,--the forerunners of -that great New England migration which in these latter days has founded -so many thriving states in the West. By the year 1778 the population of -the valley exceeded 3,000, distributed in several pleasant hamlets, with -town-meetings, schools and churches, and all the characteristics of New -England orderliness and thrift. Most of the people were from -Connecticut, and were enthusiastic and devoted patriots, but in 1776 a -few settlers from the Hudson valley had come in, and, exhibiting Tory -sympathies, were soon after expelled. Here was an excellent opportunity -for the loyalist border ruffians to wreak summary vengeance upon their -enemies. Here was a settlement peculiarly exposed in position, regarded -with no friendly eyes by its Pennsylvania neighbours, and, moreover, ill -provided with defenders, for it had sent the best part of its trained -militia to serve in Washington's army. - - [Illustration: FORTY FORT, WYOMING] - - [Sidenote: Massacre at Wyoming, July 3, 1778] - -These circumstances did not escape the keen eye of Colonel John Butler, -and in June, 1778, he took the war-path from Niagara, with a company of -his own rangers, a regiment of Johnson's Greens, and a band of Senecas -under their chief Sayenqueraghta, commonly called Old King; in all about -1,200 men. Reaching the Susquehanna, they glided down the swift stream -in bark canoes, landed a little above the doomed settlement, and began -their work of murder and pillage. Consternation filled the valley. The -women and children were huddled in a blockhouse called Forty Fort, and -Colonel Zebulon Butler, with 300 men, went out to meet the enemy. There -seemed to be no choice but to fight, though the odds were so desperate. -As the enemy came in sight, late in the afternoon of July 3d, the -patriots charged upon them, and for about an hour there was a fierce -struggle, till, overwhelmed by weight of numbers, the little band of -defenders broke and fled. Some made their way to the fort, and a few -escaped to the mountains, but nearly all were overtaken and slain, save -such as were reserved for the horrors of the night. The second -anniversary of independence was ushered in with dreadful orgies in the -valley of Wyoming. Some of the prisoners were burned at the stake, some -were laid upon hot embers and held down with pitchforks till they died, -some were hacked with knives. Sixteen poor fellows were arranged in a -circle, while an old half-breed hag, known as Queen Esther, and supposed -to be a granddaughter of the famous Frontenac, danced slowly around the -ring, shrieking a death-song as she slew them one after the other with -her tomahawk. - -The next day, when Forty Fort surrendered, no more lives were taken, but -the Indians plundered and burned all the houses, while the inhabitants -fled to the woods or to the nearest settlements on the Lehigh and -Delaware, and the vale of Wyoming was for a time abandoned. Dreadful -sufferings attended the flight. A hundred women and children perished of -fatigue and starvation in trying to cross the swamp, which has since -been known to this day as the "Shades of Death." Several children were -born in that fearful spot, only to die there with their unhappy -mothers. Such horrors needed no exaggeration in the telling, yet from -the confused reports of the fugitives, magnified by popular rumour, a -tale of wholesale slaughter went abroad which was even worse than the -reality, but which careful research has long since completely disproved. - - [Illustration: To His Excellency WILLIAM TRION ESQ.^r - Captain General & Governer in Chief - of the Province of New York &. &. - This Map - of the Country of the VI. Nations - Proper, with Part of Adjacent Colony - Is humbly inscribed by his Excellency. - Most obedient humble servant - Guy Johnson 1771 - ] - - [Sidenote: Massacre at Cherry Valley, Nov. 10] - -The popular reputation of Brant as an incarnate demon rests largely upon -the part which he was formerly supposed to have taken in the -devastation of Wyoming. But the "monster Brant," who figures so -conspicuously in Campbell's celebrated poem, was not even present on -this occasion. Thayendanegea was at that time at Niagara. It was not -long, however, before he was concerned in a bloody affair in which -Walter Butler was principal. The village of Cherry Valley, in central -New York, was destroyed on the 10th of November by a party of 700 -Tories and Indians. All the houses were burned, and about fifty of the -inhabitants murdered, without regard to age or sex.[22] Many other -atrocious things were done in the course of this year; but the affairs -of Wyoming and Cherry Valley made a deeper impression than any of the -others. Among the victims there were many refined gentlemen and ladies, -well known in the northern states, and this was especially the case of -Cherry Valley. - - [Portrait: James Clinton] - - [Sidenote: Sullivan's expedition] - - [Sidenote: Battle of Newtown, Aug 29, 1779] - -Washington made up his mind that exemplary vengeance must be taken, and -the source of the evil extinguished as far as possible. An army of 5,000 -men was sent out in the summer of 1779, with instructions to lay waste -the country of the hostile Iroquois and capture the nest of Tory -miscreants at Fort Niagara. The command of the expedition was offered to -Gates, and when he testily declined it, as requiring too much hard work -from a man of his years, it was given to Sullivan. To prepare such an -army for penetrating to a depth of four hundred miles through the forest -was no light task; and before they had reached the Iroquois country, -Brant had sacked the town of Minisink and annihilated a force of militia -sent to oppose him. Yet the expedition was well timed for the purpose of -destroying the growing crops of the enemy. The army advanced in two -divisions. The right wing, under General James Clinton, proceeded up the -valley of the Mohawk as far as Canajoharie, and then turned to the -southwest; while the left wing, under Sullivan himself, ascended the -Susquehanna. On the 22d of August the two columns met at Tioga, and one -week later they found the enemy at Newtown, on the site of the present -town of Elmira,--1,500 Tories and Indians, led by Sir John Johnson in -person, with both the Butlers and Thayendanegea. In the battle which -ensued, the enemy was routed with great slaughter, while the American -loss was less than fifty. No further resistance was made, but the army -was annoyed in every possible way, and stragglers were now and then -caught and tortured to death. On one occasion, a young lieutenant, named -Boyd, was captured while leading a scouting party, and fell into the -hands of one of the Butlers, who threatened to give him up to torture -unless he should disclose whatever he knew of General Sullivan's plans. -On his refusal, he was given into the hands of a Seneca demon, named -Little Beard; and after being hacked and plucked to pieces with a -refinement of cruelty which the pen refuses to describe, his torments -were ended by disembowelling. - - [Sidenote: Devastation of the Iroquois country] - -Such horrors served only to exasperate the American troops, and while -they do not seem to have taken life unnecessarily, they certainly -carried out their orders with great zeal and thoroughness. The Iroquois -tribes were so far advanced in the agricultural stage of development -that they were much more dependent upon their crops than upon the chase -for subsistence; and they had besides learned some of the arts of -civilization from their white neighbours. Their long wigwams were -beginning to give place to framed houses with chimneys; their extensive -fields were planted with corn and beans; and their orchards yielded -apples, pears, and peaches in immense profusion. All this prosperity was -now brought to an end. From Tioga the American army marched through the -entire country of the Cayugas and Senecas, laying waste the cornfields, -burning the houses, and cutting down all the fruit-trees. More than -forty villages, the largest containing 128 houses, were razed to the -ground. So terrible a vengeance had not overtaken the Long House since -the days of Frontenac. The region thus devastated had come to be the -most important domain of the Confederacy, which never recovered from the -blow thus inflicted. The winter of 1779-80 was one of the coldest ever -known in America, so cold that the harbour of New York was frozen solid -enough to bear troops and artillery,[23] while the British in the city, -deprived of the aid of their fleet, spent the winter in daily dread of -attack. During this extreme season the houseless Cayugas and Senecas -were overtaken by famine and pestilence, and the diminution in their -numbers was never afterwards made good. The stronghold at Niagara, -however, was not wrested from Thayendanegea. That part of Sullivan's -expedition was a failure. From increasing sickness among the soldiers -and want of proper food, he deemed it impracticable to take his large -force beyond the Genesee river, and accordingly he turned back toward -the seaboard, arriving in New Jersey at the end of October, after a -total march of more than seven hundred miles. - - [Portrait: John Sullivan] - - [Sidenote: Reign of terror in the Mohawk valley] - -Though so much harrying had been done, the snake was only scotched, -after all. Nothing short of the complete annihilation of the savage -enemy would have put a stop to his inroads. Before winter was over dire -vengeance fell upon the Oneidas, who were now regarded by their brethren -as traitors to the Confederacy; they were utterly crushed by -Thayendanegea. For two years more the tomahawk and firebrand were busy -in the Mohawk valley. It was a reign of terror. Blockhouses were erected -in every neighbourhood, into which forty or fifty families could crowd -together at the first note of alarm. The farmers ploughed and harvested -in companies, keeping their rifles within easy reach, while pickets and -scouts peered in every direction for signs of the stealthy foe. In -battles with the militia, of which there were several, the enemy, with -his greatly weakened force, was now generally worsted; but nothing could -exceed the boldness of his raids. On one or two occasions he came within -a few miles of Albany. Once a small party of Tories actually found their -way into the city, with intent to assassinate General Schuyler, and came -very near succeeding. In no other part of the United States did the war -entail so much suffering as on the New York border. During the five -years ending with 1781, the population of Tryon county was reduced by -two thirds of its amount, and in the remaining third there were more -than three hundred widows and two thousand orphan children. - - [Illustration: JOHNSON HALL] - - * * * * * - - [Sidenote: The wilderness beyond the Alleghanies] - -This cruel warfare, so damaging to the New York frontier settlements and -so fatal to the Six Nations, was really part of a desultory conflict -which raged at intervals from north to south along our whole western -border, and resulted in the total overthrow of British authority beyond -the Alleghanies. The vast region between these mountains and the -Mississippi river--a territory more than twice as large as the German -Empire--was at that time an almost unbroken wilderness. A few French -towns garrisoned by British troops, as at Natchez, Kaskaskia, and -Cahokia on the Mississippi river, at Vincennes, on the Wabash, and at -Detroit, sufficed to represent the sovereignty of George III., and to -exercise a very dubious control over the wild tribes that roamed through -these primeval solitudes. When the thirteen colonies declared themselves -independent of the British Crown, the ownership of this western -territory was for the moment left undecided. Portions of it were claimed -by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, and -Georgia, on the strength of their old charters or of their relations -with the Indian tribes. Little respect, however, was paid to the quaint -terminology of charters framed in an age when almost nothing was known -of American geography; and it was virtually left for circumstances to -determine to whom the western country should belong. It was now very -fortunate for the United States that the policy of Pitt had wrested this -all-important territory from the French. For to conquer from the British -enemy so remote a region was feasible; but to have sought to obtain it -from a power with which we were forming an alliance would have been -difficult indeed. - - [Sidenote: Rivalry between Pennsylvania and Virginia for the possession - of Fort Pitt] - -The commanding approach to this territory was by the town and fortress -of Pittsburgh, the "Gateway of the West," from which, through the Ohio -river and its tributary streams, an army might penetrate with -comparative ease to any part of the vast Mississippi valley. The -possession of this gateway had for some years been a subject of dispute -between Pennsylvania and Virginia. Though the question was ultimately -settled in favour of Pennsylvania, yet for the present Virginia, which -had the longest arm, kept her hold upon the commanding citadel. To -Virginia its possession was then a matter of peculiar importance, for -her population had already begun to overflow its mountain barriers, and, -pressing down the Ohio valley, had made the beginnings of the state of -Kentucky. Virginia and North Carolina, lying farther westward than any -of the other old states, were naturally the first to send colonies -across the Alleghanies. It was not long before the beginning of the war -that Daniel Boone had explored the Kentucky river, and that Virginia -surveyors had gone down the Ohio as far as the present site of -Louisville. Conflicts ensued with the Indians, so fierce and deadly that -this region was long known as the "Dark and Bloody Ground." - -During this troubled period, the hostile feeling between Pennsylvania -and Virginia was nourished by the conflicting interests of the people of -those two colonies in respect to the western country and its wild -inhabitants. The Virginians entered the country as settlers, with intent -to take possession of the soil and keep the Indians at a distance; but -there were many people in Pennsylvania who reaped large profits from -trade with the barbarians, and therefore did not wish to see them -dispossessed of their border forests and driven westward. The Virginia -frontiersmen were angry with the Pennsylvania traders for selling rifles -and powder to the redskins, and buying from them horses stolen from -white men. This, they alleged, was practically inciting the Indians to -deeds of plunder and outrage. In the spring of 1774, there seemed to be -serious danger of an outbreak of hostilities at Fort Pitt, when the -attention of Virginia was all at once absorbed in a brief but -hard-fought war, which had a most important bearing upon the issue of -the American struggle for independence. - - [Portrait: Daniel Boone] - - [Illustration: In Memory of - Michael Cresap First Cap - Of the Rifle Batalions - And Son to Col. Thomas - Cresap Who Departed this - Life October the 18 1775. - ] - - [Sidenote: Lord Dunmore's War, 1774] - - [Sidenote: Logan and Cresap] - -This border war of 1774 has sometimes been known as "Cresap's War," but -more recently, and with less impropriety, as "Lord Dunmore's War." It -was conducted under the general direction of the Earl of Dunmore, last -royal governor of Virginia; and in the political excitement of the time -there were some who believed that he actually contrived to stir up the -war out of malice aforethought, in order to hamper the Virginians in -their impending struggle with the mother-country. Dunmore's agent, or -lieutenant, in western Virginia, Dr. John Connolly, was a violent and -unscrupulous man, whose arrogance was as likely to be directed against -friendly as against hostile Indians, and it was supposed that he acted -under the earl's secret orders with intent to bring on a war. But the -charge is ill-supported and quite improbable. According to some writers, -the true cause of the war was the slaying of the whole family of the -friendly chief Logan, and doubtless this event furnished the occasion -for the outbreak of hostilities. It was conspicuous in a series of -outrages that had been going on for years, such as are always apt to -occur on the frontier between advancing civilization and resisting -barbarism. John Logan, or Tagahjute, was of Cayuga descent, a chief of -the Mingos, a brave and honest man, of fine and stately presence. He had -always been kind and hospitable to the English settlers, perhaps in -accordance with the traditional policy of his Iroquois forefathers,--a -tradition which by 1774 had lost much of its strength. In April of that -year some Indian depredations occurred on the upper Ohio, which led Dr. -Connolly to issue instructions, warning the settlers to be on their -guard, as an attack from the Shawnees was to be apprehended. Captain -Michael Cresap was a pioneer from Maryland, a brave man and sterling -patriot; but as for the Indians, his feelings toward them were like -those of most backwoodsmen. Cresap not unnaturally interpreted the -instructions from Dunmore's lieutenant as equivalent to a declaration of -war, and he proceeded forthwith to slay and scalp some friendly -Shawnees. As is apt to be the case with reprisals and other unreasoning -forms of popular vengeance, the blow fell in the wrong quarter, and -innocent people were made scapegoats for the guilty. Cresap's party next -started off to attack Logan's camp at Yellow Creek; but presently -bethinking themselves of Logan's well-known friendliness toward the -whites, as they argued with one another, they repented of their purpose, -and turned their steps in another direction. But hard by the Mingo -encampment a wretch named Greathouse had set up a whiskey shop, and -thither, on the last day of April, repaired Logan's family, nine thirsty -barbarians, male and female, old and young. When they had become dead -drunk, Greathouse and two or three of his cronies illustrated their -peculiar view of the purport of Connolly's instructions by butchering -them all in cold blood. The Indians of the border needed no stronger -provocation for rushing to arms. Within a few days Logan's men had taken -a dozen scalps, half of them from young children. Mingos and Shawnees -were joined by Wyandots, Delawares, and Senecas, and the dismal tale of -blazing cabins and murdered women was renewed all along the frontier. -It was in vain that Lord Dunmore and his lieutenant disclaimed -responsibility for the massacre at Yellow Creek. The blame was by all -the Indians and many of the whites laid upon Cresap, whose name has been -handed down to posterity as that of the arch-villain in this rough -border romance. The pathetic speech of the bereaved Logan to Dunmore's -envoy, John Gibson, was preserved and immortalized by Jefferson in his -"Notes on Virginia," and has been declaimed by thousands of American -schoolboys. In his comments Jefferson spoke of Cresap as "a man infamous -for the many murders he had committed upon these injured people." -Jefferson here simply gave voice to the tradition which had started into -full life as early as June, 1774, when Sir William Johnson wrote that "a -certain Mr. Cressop had trepanned and murdered forty Indians on the -Ohio, ... and that the unworthy author of this wanton act is fled." The -charge made by Jefferson was answered at the time, but continued to live -on in tradition, until finally disposed of in 1851 by Brantz Mayer.[24] -The origin of the misconception is doubtless to be traced to the -insignificance of Greathouse. In trying to shield himself, Connolly -deposed Cresap from command, but he was presently reinstated by Lord -Dunmore. - -In June of the next year, Captain Cresap marched to Cambridge at the -head of 130 Maryland riflemen; but during the early autumn he was seized -with illness, and while making his way homeward died at New York, at the -age of thirty-three. His grave is still to be seen in Trinity -churchyard, near the door of the north transept. The Indian chief with -whose name his has so long been associated was some time afterwards -tomahawked by a brother Indian, in the course of a drunken affray. - - [Sidenote: Battle of Point Pleasant and its consequences] - -The war thus ushered in by the Yellow Creek massacre was an event of -cardinal importance in the history of our western frontier. It was ended -by the decisive battle at Point Pleasant, on the Great Kanawha (October -10, 1774), in which the Indians, under the famous Shawnee chief -Cornstalk, were totally defeated by the backwoodsmen under Andrew Lewis. -This defeat so cowed the Indians that they were fain to purchase peace -by surrendering all their claims upon the hunting-grounds south of the -Ohio. It kept the northwestern tribes comparatively quiet during the -first two years of the Revolutionary War, and thus opened the way for -white settlers to rush into Kentucky. The four years following the -battle of Point Pleasant saw remarkable and portentous changes on the -frontier. It was just at the beginning of Lord Dunmore's war that -Parliament passed the Quebec Act, of which the practical effect, had it -ever been enforced, would have been the extension of Canada southward to -the Ohio river. In contravention of old charters, it would have deprived -the American colonies of the great northwestern territory. But the -events that followed upon Lord Dunmore's war soon rendered this part of -the Quebec Act a nullity. - - [Illustration: Andrew Lewis] - - [Sidenote: Settlement of Kentucky] - -In 1775, Richard Henderson of North Carolina purchased from the -Cherokees the tract between the Kentucky and Cumberland rivers, and at -the same time Boonesborough and Harrodsburg were founded by Daniel -Boone and James Harrod. As a party of these bold backwoodsmen were -encamping near the sources of the southern fork of the Licking, they -heard the news of the victory which ushered in the War of Independence, -and forthwith gave the name of Lexington to the place of their -encampment, on which a thriving city now stands. These new settlements -were not long in organizing themselves into a state, which they called -Transylvania. Courts were instituted, laws enacted, and a militia -enrolled, and a delegate was sent to the Continental Congress; but -finding that Virginia still claimed their allegiance, they yielded their -pretensions to autonomy, and were organized for the present as a county -of the mother state. The so-called "county" of Kentucky, comprising the -whole of the present state of that name, with an area one fourth larger -than that of Scotland, was indeed of formidable dimensions for a county. - - [Sidenote: and of eastern Tennessee] - - [Sidenote: Defeat of the Cherokees on the Watauga] - -The settlement of Tennessee was going on at the same time. The movement -of population for some time had a southwestward trend along the great -valleys inclosed by the Appalachian ranges, so that frontiersmen from -Pennsylvania found their way down the Shenandoah, and thence the stream -of Virginian migration reached the Watauga, the Holston, and the French -Broad, in the midst of the most magnificent scenery east of the Rocky -Mountains. At the same time there was a westward movement from North -Carolina across the Great Smoky range, and the defeat of the Regulators -by Governor Tryon at the battle of the Alamance in 1771 no doubt did -much to give strength and volume to this movement. The way was prepared -in 1770 by James Robertson, who penetrated the wilderness as far as the -banks of the Watauga. Forts were soon erected there and on the -Nolichucky. The settlement grew apace, and soon came into conflict with -the most warlike and powerful of the southern tribes of Indians. The -Cherokees, like their kinsmen the Iroquois at the North, had fought on -the English side in the Seven Years' War, and had rendered some service, -though of small value, at the capture of Fort Duquesne. Early in the -Revolutionary War fierce feuds with the encroaching settlers led them to -take sides with the British, and in company with Tory guerrillas they -ravaged the frontier. In 1776, the Watauga settlement was attacked, and -invasions were made into Georgia and South Carolina. But the blow -recoiled upon the Cherokees. Their country was laid waste by troops from -the Carolinas, under Andrew Williamson and Griffith Rutherford; their -attack upon the Watauga settlement was defeated by James Robertson and -John Sevier; and in 1777 they were forced to make treaties renouncing -for the most part their claims upon the territory between the Tennessee -and the Cumberland rivers. - - [Illustration: THE COUNTRY BEHIND THE MOUNTAINS, 1770-80.] - - [Sidenote: Its consequences] - -Robertson and Sevier were the most commanding and picturesque figures in -Tennessee history until Andrew Jackson came upon the scene; and their -military successes, moreover, like those of "Old Hickory," were of the -utmost importance to the whole country. This was especially true of -their victory at the Watauga; for had the settlement there been swept -away by the barbarians, it would have uncovered the great Wilderness -Road to Lexington and Harrodsburg, and the Kentucky settlement, thus -fatally isolated, would very likely have had to be abandoned. The -Watauga victory thus helped to secure in 1776 the ground won two years -before at the Great Kanawha.[25] - - [Sidenote: George Rogers Clark] - -Such were the beginnings of Kentucky and Tennessee, and such was the -progress already made to the west of the mountains, when the next and -longest step was taken by George Rogers Clark. During the years 1776 and -1777, Colonel Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, was -busily engaged in preparing a general attack of Indian tribes upon the -northwestern frontier. Such concerted action among these barbarians was -difficult to organize, and the moral effect of Lord Dunmore's war -doubtless served to postpone it. There were isolated assaults, however, -upon Boonesborough and Wheeling and in the neighbourhood of Pittsburgh. -While Hamilton was thus scheming, a gallant young Virginian was -preparing an effective counter-stroke. In the late autumn of 1777, -George Rogers Clark, then just twenty-five years old, was making his way -back from Kentucky along the Wilderness Road, and heard with exultation -the news of Burgoyne's surrender. Clark was a man of bold originality. -He had been well educated by that excellent Scotch schoolmaster, Donald -Robertson, among whose pupils was James Madison. In 1772, Clark was -practising the profession of a land surveyor upon the upper Ohio, and he -rendered valuable service as a scout in the campaign of the Great -Kanawha. For skill in woodcraft, as for indomitable perseverance and -courage, he had few equals. He was a man of picturesque and stately -presence, like an old Norse viking, tall and massive, with ruddy cheeks, -auburn hair, and piercing blue eyes sunk deep under thick yellow brows. - - [Sidenote: Clark's conquest of the northwestern territory, 1778] - -When he heard of the "convention" of Saratoga, Clark was meditating a -stroke as momentous in the annals of the Mississippi valley as -Burgoyne's overthrow in the annals of the Hudson. He had sent spies -through the Illinois country, without giving them any inkling of his -purpose, and from what he could gather from their reports he had made up -his mind that by a bold and sudden movement the whole region could be -secured and the British commander checkmated. On arriving in Virginia, -he laid his scheme before Governor Patrick Henry; and Jefferson, Wythe, -and Madison were also taken into his confidence. The plan met with warm -approval; but as secrecy and dispatch were indispensable, it would not -do to consult the legislature, and little could be done beyond -authorizing the adventurous young man to raise a force of 350 men and -collect material of war at Pittsburgh. People supposed that his object -was merely to defend the Kentucky settlements. Clark had a hard winter's -work in enlisting men, but at length, in May, 1778, having collected a -flotilla of boats and a few pieces of light artillery, he started from -Pittsburgh with 180 picked riflemen, and rowed swiftly down the Ohio -river a thousand miles to its junction with the Mississippi. The British -garrison at Kaskaskia had been removed, to strengthen the posts at -Detroit and Niagara, and the town was an easy prey. Hiding his boats in -a creek, Clark marched across the prairie, and seized the place without -resistance. The French inhabitants were not ill-disposed toward the -change, especially when they heard of the new alliance between the -United States and Louis XVI., and Clark showed consummate skill in -playing upon their feelings. Cahokia and two other neighbouring villages -were easily persuaded to submit, and the Catholic priest Gibault -volunteered to carry Clark's proposals to Vincennes, on the Wabash; upon -receiving the message this important post likewise submitted. As Clark -had secured the friendship of the Spanish commandant at St. Louis, he -felt secure from molestation for the present, and sent a party home to -Virginia with the news of his bloodless conquest. The territory north of -the Ohio was thus annexed to Virginia as the "county" of Illinois, and a -force of 500 men was raised for its defence. - - [Sidenote: Capture of Vincennes, Feb. 23, 1779] - -When these proceedings came to the ears of Colonel Hamilton, at Detroit, -he started out with a little army of about 500 men, regulars, Tories, -and Indians, and after a march of seventy days through the primeval -forest reached Vincennes, and took possession of it. He spent the winter -intriguing with the Indian tribes, and threatened the Spanish governor -at St. Louis with dire vengeance if he should lend aid or countenance to -the nefarious proceedings of the American rebels. Meanwhile, the crafty -Virginian was busily at work. Sending a few boats, with light artillery -and provisions, to ascend the Ohio and Wabash, Clark started overland -from Kaskaskia with 130 men; and after an arduous winter march of -sixteen days across the drowned lands in what is now the state of -Illinois, he appeared before Vincennes in time to pick up his boats and -cannon. In the evening of February 23d the town surrendered, and the -townspeople willingly assisted in the assault upon the fort. After a -brisk cannonade and musket-fire for twenty hours, Hamilton surrendered -at discretion, and British authority in this region was forever at an -end. An expedition descending from Pittsburgh in boats had already -captured Natchez and ousted the British from the lower Mississippi. -Shortly after, the Cherokees and other Indians whom Hamilton had incited -to take the war-path were overwhelmed by Colonel Shelby, and on the -upper Ohio and Alleghany the Indian country was so thoroughly devastated -by Colonel Brodhead that all along the frontier there reigned a profound -peace, instead of the intended carnival of burning and scalping. - - [Sidenote: Settlement of middle Tennessee] - -The stream of immigration now began to flow steadily. Fort Jefferson was -established on the Mississippi river to guard the mouth of the Ohio. -Another fortress, higher up on the beautiful river which La Salle had -discovered and Clark had conquered became the site of Louisville, so -named in honour of our ally, the French king. James Robertson again -appeared on the scene, and became the foremost pioneer in middle -Tennessee, as he had already led the colonization of the eastern part of -that great state. On a bold bluff on the southern bank of the Cumberland -river, Robertson founded a city, which took its name from the General -Nash who fell in the battle of Germantown; and among the cities of the -fair South there is to-day none more thriving than Nashville. Thus by -degrees was our grasp firmly fastened upon the western country, and year -by year it grew stronger. - - [Illustration: CLARK'S FINAL SUMMONS TO HAMILTON - - _Colonel Clarks Compliments to Mr Hamilton and begs - leave to inform him that Col. Clark will not agree to - any other Terms than that of Mr Hamilton's Surendering - himself and Garrison, Prisoners at Discretion._ - - _If Mr Hamilton is Desirous of a Conferance with Col. - Clark he will meet him at the Church with Capt^n - Helms._ - - _Feb 24th 1779 Ge Clark_ - ] - - [Sidenote: Importance of Clark's conquest] - -In the gallery of our national heroes, George Rogers Clark deserves a -conspicuous and honourable place. It was due to his boldness and -sagacity that when our commissioners at Paris, in 1782, were engaged in -their difficult and delicate work of thwarting our not too friendly -French ally, while arranging terms of peace with the British enemy, the -fortified posts on the Mississippi and the Wabash were held by American -garrisons. Possession is said to be nine points in the law, and while -Spain and France were intriguing to keep us out of the Mississippi -valley, we were in possession of it. The military enterprise of Clark -was crowned by the diplomacy of Jay.[26] The four cardinal events in the -history of our western frontier during the Revolution are: (1) the -defeat of the Shawnees and their allies at Point Pleasant in 1774; (2) -the defeat of the Cherokees on the Watauga in 1776; (3) Clark's conquest -of the Illinois country in 1778-79; (4) the detection and thwarting of -the French diplomacy in 1782 by Jay. When Washington took command of the -Continental army at Cambridge, in 1775, the population and jurisdiction -of the thirteen united commonwealths scarcely reached beyond the -Alleghanies; it was due to the series of events here briefly recounted -that when he laid down his command at Annapolis, in 1783, the domain of -the independent United States was bounded on the west by the Mississippi -river. - -Clark's last years were spent in poverty and obscurity at his sister's -home, near Louisville, where he died in 1818. It was his younger -brother, William Clark, who in company with Meriwether Lewis made the -famous expedition to the Columbia river in 1804, thus giving the United -States a hold upon Oregon. - - * * * * * - - [Sidenote: Marauding expeditions] - - [Sidenote: Tryon's proceedings, July, 1779] - -To return to our story,--Lord George Germain's plan for breaking the -spirit of the Americans, in so far as it depended upon the barbarous aid -which his Indian allies could render, had not thus far proved very -successful. Terrible damage had been wrought on the frontier, especially -in Pennsylvania and New York, but the net result had been to weaken the -Indians and loosen the hold of the British upon the continent, while the -American position was on the whole strengthened. The warfare which the -British themselves conducted in the north after the Newport campaign -degenerated into a series of marauding expeditions unworthy of civilized -soldiers. They seem to have learned a bad lesson from their savage -allies. While Sir Henry Clinton's force was beleaguered in New York, he -now and then found opportunities for detaching some small force by sea, -to burn and plunder defenceless villages on the coast, in accordance -with Lord George's instructions. During the autumn of 1778 the pretty -island of Martha's Vineyard was plundered from end to end, the towns of -New Bedford and Fair Haven, with all the shipping in their harbours, -were burned, and similar havoc was wrought on the coast of New Jersey. -At Old Tappan some American dragoons, asleep in a barn, were captured by -Sir Charles Grey's troops,--and thirty-seven of them were bayoneted in -cold blood. Fifty-five light infantry belonging to Pulaski's legion were -similarly surprised at night by Captain Ferguson and all but five were -massacred. In May, 1779, General Mathew was sent with 2,500 men to -Virginia, where he sacked the towns of Portsmouth and Norfolk, with -cruelties worthy of a mediaeval freebooter. In July the enterprising -Tryon conducted a raiding expedition along the coast of Connecticut. At -New Haven he burned the ships in the harbour and two or three streets of -warehouses, and slew several citizens; his intention was to burn the -whole town, but the neighbouring yeomanry quickly swarmed in and drove -the British to their ships. Next day the British landed at Fairfield and -utterly destroyed it. Next they burned Green Farms and then Norwalk. -After this, just as they were about to proceed against New London, they -were suddenly recalled to New York by bad news. - - [Sidenote: Clinton captures the fortress at Stony Point, May 31, 1779] - -In so far as these barbarous raids had any assignable military purpose, -it was hoped that they might induce Washington to weaken his force at -the Highlands by sending troops into Connecticut to protect the private -property and chastise the marauders. After the destruction of the -Highland forts in October, 1777, the defence of this most important -position had been entrusted to the powerful fortifications lately -erected at West Point. A little lower down the river two small but very -strong forts, at Stony Point on the right bank and at Verplanck's Point -on the left, guarded the entrance to the Highlands. While the fort at -Stony Point was building, Sir Henry Clinton came up the river and -captured it, and then, with the aid of its batteries, subdued the -opposite citadel also. Stony Point was a rocky promontory washed on -three sides by the waters of the Hudson. It was separated from the -mainland by a deep morass, over which ran a narrow causeway that was -covered at high tide, but might be crossed when the water was low. This -natural stronghold was armed with heavy batteries which commanded the -morass, with its causeway, and the river; and the British garrisoned it -with six hundred men, and built two additional lines of fortification, -rendering it well-nigh impregnable. - - [Portrait: Anthony Wayne] - - [Sidenote: The storming of Stony Point, July 16, 1779] - -The acquisition of this spot seemed like the auspicious beginning of a -summer campaign for Clinton's army, which had been cooped up in New York -ever since the battle of Monmouth. To have kept on and captured West -Point would have gone a long way toward retrieving the disaster of -Saratoga, but Washington's force was so well disposed that Clinton did -not venture to attempt so much as this. Such hopes, moreover, as he may -have based upon the Connecticut raids proved entirely delusive. -Washington's method of relieving Connecticut and destroying Clinton's -scheme was different from what was expected. Among his generals was one -whom the soldiers called "Mad Anthony" for his desperate bravery, but -there was much more method than madness about Anthony Wayne. For the -union of impetuous valour with a quick eye and a cool head, he was -second to none. Twelve hundred light infantry were put at his disposal. -Every dog within three miles was slaughtered, that no indiscreet bark -might alarm the garrison. Not a gun was loaded, lest some untimely shot -betray the approaching column. The bayonet was now to be put to more -warlike use than the roasting of meat before a camp-fire. At midnight of -the 15th of July the Americans crossed the causeway at low tide, and -were close upon the outworks before their advance was discovered. The -garrison sprang to arms, and a heavy fire was opened from the batteries, -but Wayne's rush was rapid and sure. In two solid columns the Americans -came up the slope so swiftly that the grape-shot made few victims. -Shoulder to shoulder, in resistless mass, like the Theban phalanx of -Epaminondas, they pressed over the works, heedless of obstacles, and -within a few minutes the garrison surrendered at discretion. In this -assault the Americans lost fifteen killed and eighty-three wounded, and -the British sixty-three killed. The rest of the garrison, 553 in number, -including the wounded, were made prisoners, and not a man was killed in -cold blood, though the shameful scenes in Virginia were fresh in men's -memories, and the embers of Fairfield and Norwalk still smouldered. The -contemporary British historian Stedman praises Wayne for his humanity, -and thinks that he "would have been fully justified in putting the -garrison to the sword;" but certainly no laws or usages of war that -have ever obtained among the people of the United States would have -justified such a barbarous proceeding.[27] - - [Illustration: HOME OF ANTHONY WAYNE] - - [Sidenote: Evacuation of Stony Point] - -The capture of Stony Point served the desired purpose of relieving -Connecticut, but the Americans held it but three days. Clinton at once -drew his forces together and came up the Hudson, hoping to entice -Washington into risking a battle for the sake of keeping his hold upon -Stony Point. But Washington knew better than to do so. In case of -defeat he would run risk of losing the far more important position at -West Point. He was not the man to hazard his main citadel for the sake -of an outpost. Finding that it would take more men than he could spare -to defend Stony Point against a combined attack by land and water, he -ordered it to be evacuated. The works were all destroyed, and the -garrison, with the cannon and stores, withdrawn into the Highlands. Sir -Henry took possession of the place and held it for some time, but did -not venture to advance against Washington. - - [Portrait: Henry Lee] - - [Sidenote: Henry Lee's exploit at Paulus Hook.] - -To give the British general a wholesome sense of his adversary's -vigilance, a blow was struck in an unexpected quarter. At Paulus Hook, -on the site of the present Jersey City, the British had a very strong -fort. The "Hook" was a long low neck of land reaching out into the -Hudson. A sandy isthmus, severed by a barely fordable creek, connected -it with the mainland. Within the line of the creek, a deep ditch had -been dug across the whole isthmus, and this could only be crossed by -means of a drawbridge. Within the ditch were two lines of -intrenchments. The place was garrisoned by 500 men, but, relying on the -strength of their works and their distance from the American lines, the -garrison had grown somewhat careless. This fact was made known to -Washington by Major Henry Lee, who volunteered to surprise the fort. On -the night of the 18th of August, at the head of 300 picked men, Lee -crossed the creek which divided Paulus Hook from the mainland. A -foraging expedition had been sent out in the course of the day, and as -the Americans approached they were at first mistaken by the sentinels -for the foragers returning. Favoured by this mistake, they surmounted -all the obstacles and got possession of the fort in a twinkling. Alarm -guns, quickly answered by the ships in the river and the forts on the -New York side, warned them to retreat as fast as they had come, but not -until Lee had secured 159 prisoners, whom he carried off safely to the -Highlands, losing of his own men only two killed and three wounded. This -exploit, worthy of the good Lord James Douglas, has no military -significance save for its example of skill and boldness; but it deserves -mention for the personal interest which must ever attach to its author. -In the youthful correspondence of Washington, mention is made of a -"Lowland Beauty" for whom he entertained an unrequited passion. This -lady married a member of the illustrious Virginian family to which -Richard Henry Lee belonged. Her son, the hero of Paulus Hook, was always -a favourite with Washington, and for his dashing exploits in the later -years of the revolutionary war became endeared to the American people as -"Light Horse Harry." His noble son, Robert Edward Lee, has taken rank -among the foremost generals of modern times. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [21] He has been sometimes described incorrectly as a half-breed, - and even as a son of Sir William Johnson. His father was a - Mohawk, of the Wolf clan, and son of one of the five chiefs - who visited the court of Queen Anne in 1710. The name is - sometimes wrongly written "Brandt." The Indian name is - pronounced as if written "Thayendanauga," with accent on - penult. Brant was not a sachem. His eminence was personal, not - official. See Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_, p. 103. - - [22] It has been shown that on this occasion Thayendanegea did what - he could to restrain the ferocity of his savage followers. See - Stone's _Life of Brant_, i. 379-381. It has more lately been - proved that Thayendanegea commanded only his own Mohawks at - Cherry Valley, and the atrocities were committed chiefly by - Senecas under the command of Sayenqueraghta. See Molly Brant's - letter in Hayden's _The Massacre of Wyoming_, Wilkes-Barre, - 1895, p. xxiv. - - [23] Cannon were wheeled on the solid ice from Staten Island to the - city. See Stone's _Life of Brant_, ii. 54. - - [24] In a paper read before the Maryland Historical Society. See, - also, his _Logan and Cresap_, Albany, 1867. The story is well - told by Mr. Theodore Roosevelt, in his admirable book, _The - Winning of the West_, New York, 1889. Though I leave the - present chapter mainly as it was written in 1883, I have, in - revising it for publication, derived one or two valuable hints - from Mr. Roosevelt's work. - - [25] This point has been well elucidated by Mr. Roosevelt in his - _Winning of the West_, vol. i. pp. 240, 306. - - [26] See my _Critical Period of American History_, chap. i. - - [27] "The conduct of the Americans upon this occasion was highly - meritorious: for they would have been fully justified in - putting the garrison to the sword: not one man of which was put - to death but in fair combat." Stedman's _History of the - American War_, London, 1794, vol. ii. p. 145. This remark seems - to bear unconscious testimony to the somewhat higher degree of - humanity which American civilization had reached as compared - with civilization in Europe. According to the usage inherited - from the so-called ages of chivalry, it was deemed proper to - massacre a captured garrison as a "punishment" calculated to - deter commanders from wasting lives in trying to defend - indefensible places. In the thirteenth article of the - international agreement proposed in the Brussels Conference of - 1874, such slaughter is called "murder," and is strictly - prohibited; it would not now be tolerated by public opinion - anywhere in Europe outside of Turkey. In our Revolutionary War - the garrison of Fort Washington was threatened with slaughter - by General Howe, but the threat was not carried out. (See - above, vol. i. p. 230.) At the capture of Fort Griswold, Sept. - 6, 1781, the massacre of the surrendered garrison has always - been rightly regarded as a foul blot upon the British record. - Mr. Lecky more than once recognizes the humanity of the - Americans, and pronounces them superior in this respect to the - British. (_History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, iv. - 145, and elsewhere.) Care must be taken, however, in the - interests of historic truth, not to press this opinion too far. - A great deal of fustian has been written about the - "barbarities" of the British soldiers in the Revolutionary War. - John Adams compared those honourable and kindly gentlemen, the - brothers Howe, with such wretches as Borgia and Alva, and - suggested that "medals in gold, silver, and copper ought to be - struck in commemoration of the shocking cruelties, the brutal - barbarities, and the diabolical impieties of this war; and - these should be contrasted with the kindness, tenderness, - humanity, and philanthropy which have marked the conduct of - Americans toward their prisoners." (_Familiar Letters of John - Adams and his Wife_, p. 266.) The spirit of this quotation - pervades the late George Bancroft's narrative of the - Revolution, and fills it with a carping animosity that is - simply silly. In point of fact there was no strongly marked - difference between British and Americans in respect of - humanity. Much has been said about the horrors of the British - prison-ships in New York harbour and elsewhere (see Greene's - _Historical View_, p. 351); but the horrors of the old Newgate - prison near Granby, in my native state of Connecticut, were - even worse (see _Phelps's History of the Newgate Prison_), and - the prisons of Massachusetts were not much better. Honest men - unable to pay their debts were thrown into these frightful - dungeons and treated as brutally as ever the British treated - their prisoners of war. - - Blame has been deservedly bestowed upon the British for their - employment of Indian auxiliaries; but Americans must to some - extent share the blame, for early in 1775, before the bloodshed - at Lexington, the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts enlisted - Stockbridge Indians as minute-men, and tried to prevail upon - the Six Nations "to take an active part in this glorious - cause." Indians served on the American side at the battles of - Long Island and White Plains (_New York Colonial Documents_, - viii. 740; Jones's _Annals of Oneida County_, p. 854; Winsor, - _Narr. and Crit. Hist._ vi. 612-618). In a well-known passage - of the Declaration of Independence the king is arraigned - because "he has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our - frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of - warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, - and conditions." The taint of hypocrisy here is revealed by the - fact that Congress had on June 3 authorized Washington to - employ 2,000 Indians in Canada; and on July 8 it further - empowered him to enlist the tribes in eastern Maine and Nova - Scotia. These orders were in pursuance of a resolve of May 25, - that "it is highly expedient to engage the Indians in the - service of the United Colonies." (_Secret Journals of - Congress_, p. 44; cf. Washington's _Writings_, ed. Ford, iv. - 140, 154, 168.) Washington approved of this hiring of Indians. - On the whole, as so often happens, we held up our hands in holy - horror at other people for doing what we did not scruple to do - ourselves. - - Among the articles adopted at the Brussels Conference of 1874 was - one to the effect that "the population of an occupied territory - cannot be compelled to take part in military operations against - their own country, nor to swear allegiance to the enemy's - power." (Farrer, _Military Manners and Customs_, p. 12.) No - such rule was recognized a century ago. In South Carolina the - British commanders shot as deserters persons captured in fight - after having once accepted British protection. The execution of - Col. Isaac Hayne, an eminent citizen, under peculiarly - aggravating circumstances, by order of Lord Rawdon, called - forth intense indignation. But it should not be forgotten that - Greene also, on several occasions, shot as deserters persons - found in the enemy's ranks after serving in his own. Such was - the military usage at that time. - - A good many of the charges of cruelty, alleged on either side, - must be taken with allowances for gross exaggeration. For - example, at Concord, April 19, 1775, a farmer's boy, in combat - with a wounded soldier, struck him on the head with a hatchet - and killed him. This incident, as magnified by the British, gave - rise to the statement that the Americans mutilated and scalped - the wounded soldiers lying on the road; a statement which is - still sometimes repeated, although it was long ago proved to be - false. - - On the whole, while I agree with Mr. Lecky that the Americans - behaved with more humanity than their antagonists, it does not - appear that the difference was a wide one. To the credit of - both sides it may be said that there was less barbarity than - was usual in European wars before the nineteenth century. - - - - - CHAPTER XII - - WAR ON THE OCEAN - - - [Sidenote: Importance of the control of the water] - -Until the war of independence the Americans had no navy of their own, -such maritime expeditions as that against Louisburg having been -undertaken with the aid of British ships. When the war broke out, one of -the chief advantages possessed by the British, in their offensive -operations, was their entire control of the American waters. Not only -were all the coast towns exposed to their sudden attack, but on the -broad deep rivers they were sometimes able to penetrate to a -considerable distance inland, and by means of their ships they could -safely transport men and stores from point to point. Their armies always -rested upon the fleets as bases of operations, and soon lost their -efficiency when severed from these bases. General Howe was not safe in -Philadelphia until his brother had gained control of the Delaware river, -and Burgoyne's army invited capture as soon as its connection with the -lakes was cut off. From first to last, the events of the war illustrated -this dependence of the army upon the fleet. On the retreat from -Lexington, it was only the ships that finally saved Lord Percy's weary -troops from capture; at Yorktown, it was only the momentary loss of -naval superiority that made escape impossible for Cornwallis. For want -of a navy, General Washington could not hold the island of New York in -1776; and for a like reason, in 1778, after the enemy had been reduced -to the defensive, he could not prudently undertake its recapture. It was -through lack of effective naval aid that the Newport expedition failed; -and the events of 1779, in Virginia and Connecticut, bore sad testimony -to the defenceless condition of our coasts. - - [Portrait: John Barry] - - [Sidenote: Feeble action of Congress] - -Early in the war this crying want was earnestly considered by Congress, -and efforts were made to repair it by the construction of a navy and the -equipment of private cruisers. But the construction of a regular navy, -which alone could serve the purpose, was beset with even greater -difficulties than those which attended the organization of a permanent -army. There was, indeed, no lack of good material, whether for ships or -for seamen. New England, in particular, with its great length of -seacoast and its extensive fisheries, had always possessed a -considerable merchant marine, and nourished a hardy race of seafaring -people. How formidable they could become in naval warfare, Great -Britain was destined, nearly forty years afterward, to find out, to her -astonishment and chagrin. But the absence of a central government was -even more seriously felt in naval than in military affairs. The action -of Congress was feeble, unintelligent, and vacillating. The "marine -committees," "navy boards," and "boards of admiralty," to which the work -of creating a navy was entrusted, were so often changed in their -composition and in their functions that it was difficult for any piece -of work to be carried out in accordance with its original design. As -there was a total absence of system in the department of admiralty, so -there was utter looseness of discipline in the service. There were the -same wranglings about rank as in the army, and the consequences were -even more pernicious. It was difficult to enlist good crews, because of -the uncertainty arising from the general want of system. The risks -encountered were excessive, because of the overwhelming preponderance of -the enemy from the outset. Of thirteen new cruisers laid down in the -autumn of 1775, only six ever succeeded in getting out to sea. During -the war one ship-of-the-line was built,--the America 74, first commanded -by Captain John Barry;[28] but she was launched too late for active -service. Between 1775 and 1783, there were twenty small frigates and -twenty-one sloops-of-war in the service. Most of these were either -captured by the enemy, or destroyed to prevent their falling into the -enemy's hands.[29] The armaments of these ships were very light; the -largest of them, the Bon Homme Richard, was constructed for a -thirty-eight, but her heaviest guns were only twelve-pounders. - - [Illustration: AUGUSTATUS KUNINGAM] - - [Sidenote: American and British cruisers] - -Yet in spite of this light force, weak discipline, and unsteady -management, the little American navy did some very good work in the -course of the war, and it was efficiently helped by a multitude of -private cruisers, just as the Continental army often got valuable aid -from the militia. Before the French alliance more than six hundred -British vessels had fallen prey to the American cruisers, and so -venturesome were these swift little craft that they even hovered around -the coast of England, and merchant vessels going from one British port -to another needed the protection of a convoy. During the same period, -about nine hundred American vessels were taken by British cruisers; so -that the damaging power of the American marine seems to have amounted to -about two thirds that of such part of the British marine as could be -devoted to the injury of American shipping. The damage inflicted upon -the Americans was the more serious, for it well-nigh ruined the New -England fisheries and the coasting trade. On the other hand, the -American cruisers caused marine insurance in England to rise to a far -higher point than had ever before been known; and we learn from a letter -of Silas Deane to Robert Morris that, shortly before the alliance -between France and the United States, the docks on the Thames were -crowded with French vessels loading with British goods that sought the -shelter of a neutral flag. - - [Illustration: CONYNGHAM CAPTURING A BRITISH PACKET] - - [Sidenote: Wickes and Conyngham] - - [Sidenote: Paul Jones] - - [Sidenote: Franklin's supervision of maritime affairs] - -In one respect the value of this work of the American cruisers was -incalculable. It familiarized Europe with the sight of the American flag -in European waters. It was of great importance that Europe should think -of the new republic not as merely the theme of distant rumours, but as a -maritime power, able to defend itself within sight of the British -coasts; and in this respect it would be difficult to overrate the -services rendered by the heroic captains who first carried the flag of -the United States across the ocean, and bearded the lion in his native -lair. Of these gallant fellows, Lambert Wickes was the first, and his -ship, the Reprisal 16, which carried Benjamin Franklin to France in the -autumn of 1776, was the first American war vessel to visit the eastern -shores of the Atlantic. After a brilliant cruise in the summer of 1777, -she foundered off the banks of Newfoundland, with the loss of all on -board. Next came Gustavus Conyngham, with the Surprise and the Revenge, -which in the same summer took so many prizes in the North Sea and the -British Channel that insurance rose as high as twenty-five per cent., -and in some instances ten per cent. was demanded for the short passage -between Dover and Calais. But the fame of both these captains was soon -eclipsed by that of John Paul Jones, a Scotch sailor, who from boyhood -had been engaged in the Virginia trade, and in 1773 had gone to Virginia -to live. When war broke out Jones offered his services to Congress, and -in October, 1776, his name appears as eighteenth in the list of captains -in the new navy. From the outset he was distinguished for skill and -bravery, and in 1778, being then thirty years old, he was sent, with the -Ranger 18, to prowl about the British coasts. In this little ship he -made a successful cruise in the Irish Channel, burned some of the -shipping in the port of Whitehaven, in Cumberland, and in a fierce fight -off Carrickfergus captured the British sloop-of-war Drake 20; losing -only eight men in killed and wounded, while the Drake lost forty-two. -With the Drake and several merchant prizes, Jones made his way to Brest, -and sent the Ranger home to America, while he remained to take command -of a more considerable expedition that was fitting out for the following -year. Along with the other duties of Franklin, as minister of the United -States at the French court, was joined a general superintendence of -maritime affairs. He was a sort of agent plenipotentiary of Congress in -all matters relating to the navy. He had authority from Congress to -issue letters of marque, and exercised it freely, while imposing -restrictions that were characteristic of his magnanimous spirit. In -1779, he issued instructions to all American cruisers that, in -whatsoever part of the sea they might happen to meet the great -discoverer Captain Cook, they were to forget the temporary quarrel in -which they were fighting, and not merely suffer him to pass unmolested, -but offer him every aid and service in their power; since it would ill -beseem Americans to lift their hands against one who had earned the -reverence and gratitude of all mankind. So in the instructions given to -Paul Jones, he ordered him not to burn defenceless towns on the British -coast except in case of military necessity, and in such case he was to -give notice, so that the women and children, with the sick and aged -inhabitants, might be removed betimes. - - [Portrait: J. Landais] - - [Sidenote: Jones's squadron] - -The expedition of which Paul Jones took command in the summer of 1779 -was designed for a signal "demonstration" upon the coasts of Great -Britain. The object of the British raids in Virginia and Connecticut was -partly to terrify the Americans by a bold and savage assertion of the -ubiquity of British power. The expedition of Paul Jones was to serve as -a sort of counter-irritant. The confused and indefinite character of the -American naval service at that time could not have a better illustration -than is to be found in the details of the little squadron with which he -was called upon to undertake his perilous task. The flagship was an old -Indiaman named the Duras, purchased by the French government and fitted -up for the occasion. In compliment to the author of Poor Richard's -maxims, her name was changed to "Bon Homme Richard." She was an -exceedingly clumsy affair, with swelling bows and a tower-like poop such -as characterized the ships of the seventeenth century. She was now -pierced for a thirty-eight-gun frigate, but as there was delay in -procuring the eighteen-pounders suited for such a craft, her main deck -was armed with twelve-pounders instead. In the gun-room below, Captain -Jones had twelve portholes cut, in which he mounted six old eighteens, -that could be shifted from side to side as occasion required. Leaving -these eighteens out of the account, the force of the Bon Homme Richard -was about equal to that of a thirty-two-gun frigate. This singular -vessel was manned by a crew as nondescript as herself,--a motley gang of -sailors and marines from nearly every country in Europe, with half a -dozen Malays into the bargain. To these a hundred New England men were -afterwards added, bringing up the whole number to 380. For this flagship -three consorts were supplied, under the direction of the French -government. The Pallas, a merchant vessel pierced for the occasion, was -thus transformed into a thirty-two-gun frigate; the Vengeance and Cerf -were of smaller calibre. All these ships were French built. To these -Franklin added the Alliance 32, which happened to be in a French port at -the time. The Alliance, lately built at Salisbury, in Massachusetts, and -named in honour of the treaty between France and the United States, was -a swift and beautiful ship, one of the finest in the American navy. -Unfortunately, it was thought desirable to pay a further compliment to -our new allies by appointing a French captain to command her, and this -step gave rise to so much discontent and insubordination as well-nigh to -destroy her efficiency. Nor had Captain Landais done anything to merit -such distinction; he was simply an adventurer, seeking notoriety in the -American service. - - [Illustration: Paul Jones's Commission] - - [Sidenote: Jones's cruise on the British coast] - - [Sidenote: He meets a British fleet off Flamborough Head] - -The ships in this motley squadron were not privateers. The Alliance was -a regular member of our navy. The French-built ships were regarded as -loaned to the United States, and were to resume their French nationality -after the termination of the cruise; but they were all duly commissioned -by Franklin, under the powers delegated to him by Congress. For the time -being, they were part of the American navy and subject to its -regulations. Their commodore, Paul Jones, has often been spoken of as a -privateer, sometimes as a pirate, but he was as much a regular captain -in our navy as Greene was a regular general in our army. Though, -however, there could be no doubt as to the legitimate naval character of -the expedition, a more ill-assorted or disorderly squadron was perhaps -never sent to sea. The summer was spent in cruising about the British -coasts, and many prizes were taken; but the insubordination of the -French commanders was so gross that during a large part of the time the -ships were scattered in all directions, and Jones was left to cruise -alone. On the 17th of September, having got his fleet together, he -entered the Frith of Forth, and came within gunshot of Leith, which he -intended to attack and capture. Sir Walter Scott, then a schoolboy at -Edinburgh, has given, in the introduction to "Waverley," a graphic -description of the excitement which was felt upon that occasion. But, as -Scott says, "a steady and powerful west wind settled the matter by -sweeping Paul Jones and his vessels out of the Frith of Forth." Four -days later, the Bon Homme Richard and the Vengeance entered the river -Humber, and destroyed several vessels. On the 23d, the Alliance and -Pallas having come up, a British fleet of forty sail was descried off -Flamborough Head. They were merchant vessels bound for the Baltic, -under convoy of the Serapis 44, Captain Richard Pearson, and the -Countess of Scarborough 20, Captain Piercy. Jones instantly gave chase, -ordering his consorts to follow and form in line of battle; but the -Alliance disobeyed and ran off to some distance, for a time -disconcerting the Pallas, which could not understand the discrepancy -between the signals and the movements. The British merchant ships -crowded all sail to get out of the way, but the two frigates accepted -Jones's challenge, and came up to fight. The Countess of Scarborough was -very inferior in size and armament to the Pallas, while on the other -hand the Serapis was much more powerful than the Bon Homme Richard. She -was a two-decker, mounting twenty eighteen-pounders below, and twenty -nine-pounders above, with ten six-pounders on her quarter-deck and -forecastle; so that she could throw 300 pounds of metal on a broadside. -The Bon Homme Richard, with her six eighteens, could indeed throw 312 -pounds on a broadside, but her weight of metal was very badly -distributed among light guns. Without her eighteens, she could throw -only 204 pounds on a broadside, being thus inferior to her opponent by -one third. The Serapis had a crew of 320 well-trained British sailors, -and she was a new and fast ship, perfect in all her appointments. - - [Portrait: CAPTAIN PEARSON] - - [Sidenote: Terrific fight between the Serapis and the Bon Homme Richard, - Sept. 23, 1779] - -The fight began at half past seven o'clock, a little before moonrise, on -a cloudy evening, in smooth water. The two principal opponents delivered -their entire broadsides at the same moment. At this first fire, two of -the old eighteens in the American frigate burst, killing a dozen men. -After this disaster, no one had confidence enough in such guns to fire -them again, so that the Bon Homme Richard was at once reduced to two -thirds the force of her antagonist, and in ordinary fight must soon have -been overcome. A brisk cannonade was kept up for an hour, while the two -ships manoeuvred for a raking position. The Serapis, being much the -better sailer, was passing across her adversary's bows, with very little -elbow-room, when Jones succeeded in running his vessel into her just aft -of her weather beam. For a moment all firing ceased on both ships, and -Captain Pearson called out, "Have you struck your colours?" "I have not -yet begun to fight," replied Captain Jones. For a moment the ships -separated, the Serapis running ahead almost in a line with the Bon Homme -Richard. The Serapis now put her helm hard down and was boxhauled, in -order to luff up athwart her adversary's bow, and thus regain her raking -position; but the Bon Homme Richard changed her tack, and presently, in -a dense cloud of smoke, the two ships came together again, the British -bowsprit passing over the high old-fashioned poop of the American -vessel. This was just what Jones desired, and as he stood there on his -quarter-deck he seized a stout rope, and lashed the enemy's jib-boom to -his mizzen-mast. Thus tied fast, the pressure of the light wind brought -the ships alongside, the head of the one lying opposite the stern of the -other. Grappling-hooks were now thrown into the quarter of the Serapis, -and with repeated lashings fore and aft the two monsters were held -together in deadly embrace. So close did they lie that their yards were -interlocked, and some of the guns of the Serapis became useless for want -of room to use the rammers. The advantage of her superior armament was -thus in some measure lost, while her advantage in quickness of movement -was entirely neutralized. Still her heavy guns at this short range did -frightful execution, and the main deck of the Bon Homme Richard was soon -covered with mangled and dying men, while her timbers were badly -shivered and many cannon were knocked from their carriages. Unable to -bear this terrible fire, the Americans crowded upon the upper deck in -such numbers as easily to defeat the British attempts to board. Parties -of marksmen, climbing into the rigging, cleared the enemy's tops, and -shot down every man upon the Serapis who ventured from under cover. -Hand-grenades were thrown into her portholes to slay the gunners; and -presently one bold fellow, crawling out to the very end of the Bon Homme -Richard's main-yard, just over the main hatchway of the Serapis, dropped -one of these mischievous missiles through the hatchway, where it ignited -a row of cartridges that were lying upon the main deck. The explosion -ran swiftly along the line, as through a pack of gigantic fire-crackers. -More than twenty men were blown into fragments, their heads, arms, and -legs flying in every direction, while forty others were disabled. With -the havoc already wrought by the guns, the Serapis had now lost two -fifths of her crew, and her fire perceptibly slackened; so that the -Americans were able to go below and work their guns again, pouring into -the British portholes a storm of grape and canister which made an awful -carnage. - -It was now ten o'clock. All this time the Alliance had kept out of the -fight, but the Pallas had attacked the Countess of Scarborough, and -after a brisk cannonade compelled her to surrender. The Alliance now -came down, and stupidly poured a raking volley along the decks of the -two chief combatants, doing impartial damage to friend and foe. Warning -shouts went up from the Bon Homme Richard, and her commander called out -to Captain Landais to fall upon the farther side of the Serapis and -board her. The Frenchman replied that he would do so, but instead he ran -his ship off a couple of miles to leeward, and comfortably awaited the -end of the battle. By this time the Serapis was on fire in several -places, so that part of her crew had to leave their guns, and bend all -their energies to extinguishing the flames. The American ship was in -still worse plight; she had not only been burning for half an hour, but -so many holes had been shot in her hull that she began to sink. She had -more than a hundred British prisoners below decks, and these men were -now set free and marshalled at the pumps. Few guns were worked on -either ship, and the rest of the fight between the two exhausted -combatants was a mere question of dogged tenacity. At last Captain -Jones, with his own hands, directed a couple of guns against the enemy's -mainmast, and just as it was threatening to fall she surrendered. The -gallant British commander stood almost alone on the main deck of his -ship, in the midst of an awful scene of death; while of his few men who -remained unhurt, most had sunk down, panting and overcome with fatigue. -No sooner were the ships cut asunder than the tottering mainmast of the -Serapis went overboard, carrying with it the mizzen topmast and all the -mizzen rigging.[30] The Bon Homme Richard was with difficulty kept -afloat till morning, and all night long fresh men from her consorts were -hard at work fighting the flames, while the wounded were being carried -off. At ten o'clock next morning she sank. - - [Sidenote: Effect of Jones's victory] - -Thus ended one of the most obstinate and murderous struggles recorded in -naval history. Of the men engaged, more than half were killed or badly -wounded, and few got off without some scar or bruise to carry as a -memento of that dreadful night. From a merely military point of view, -this first considerable fight between British and American frigates had -perhaps no great significance. But the moral effect, in Europe, of such -a victory within sight of the British coast was prodigious. The King of -France made Paul Jones a knight of the order of merit, and from the -Empress of Russia he received the ribbon of St. Anne. The King of -Denmark settled a pension on him, while throughout Europe his exploit -was told and told again in the gazettes, and at the drinking-tables on -street corners. On his arrival in Holland, whither he went with his -prizes a fortnight after the battle, the British government peremptorily -demanded that he should be given up, to be hanged as a pirate. The -sympathies of the Dutch were decidedly with the Americans; but as they -were not quite ready to go to war with England, a tardy notice was given -to Jones, after ten weeks, that he had better quit the country. Though -chased by a British fleet, he got safely to France in December, and -after various adventures, lasting through the ensuing year, he reached -Philadelphia early in 1781. On inquiry into the extraordinary behaviour -of Captain Landais some doubt as to his sanity arose, so that he was not -shot for disobedience of orders, but simply discharged from the navy. -Paul Jones was put in command of the America 74, but the war was so -nearly ended that he did not get to sea again, and Congress presented -his ship to the King of France. In 1788, he passed into the Russian -service with the rank of rear-admiral. He died in Paris, in 1792, in the -forty-fifth year of his age. - - [Portrait: De Vergennes] - -Here the question naturally arises, Why should the King of Denmark and -the Empress of Russia have felt so much interest in the victory of Paul -Jones as to confer distinguished honours upon him for winning it? The -answer, at which we shall presently arrive, will forcibly disclose to us -the extent to which, by the end of the year 1779, the whole civilized -world had become involved in the quarrel between England and her -revolted colonies. As at the bridge of Concord the embattled farmers of -Massachusetts had once fired a shot heard round the world, so those last -guns aimed by Paul Jones against the mainmast of the Serapis aroused an -echo of which the reverberations were not to cease until it should be -shown that henceforth nobler principles of international law must -prevail upon the high seas than had ever yet been acknowledged. We have -now to trace the origin and progress of the remarkable complication of -affairs which at length, during the year 1780, brought all the other -maritime powers of Europe into an attitude of hostility toward Great -Britain. For not until we have duly comprehended this can we understand -the world-wide significance of our Revolutionary War, or estimate aright -the bearings of the events which led to that grand twofold -consummation,--the recognition of the independence of the United States, -and the overthrow of the personal government of George III. in England. - - [Sidenote: Relations of Spain to France and England] - -Paul Jones was not the only enemy who hovered about the British coast in -the summer of 1779. In June of that year, Spain declared war against -England, but without recognizing the independence of the United States, -or entering into an alliance with us. From the beginning, Count -Vergennes had sought Spanish aid in his plans for supporting the -Americans, but anything like cordial cooperation between Spain and -France in such an undertaking was impossible, for their interests were -in many respects directly opposite. So far as mere hatred toward England -was concerned, Spain doubtless went even farther than France. Spain had -not forgotten that she had once been mistress of the seas, or that it -was England which had ousted her from this supremacy in the days of -Queen Elizabeth. Of England, as the greatest of Protestant and -constitutional powers, as the chief defender of political and religious -liberty, priest-ridden and king-ridden Spain was the natural enemy. She -had also, like France, the recollection of injuries lately suffered in -the Seven Years' War to urge her to a policy of revenge. And to crown -all, in the event of a successful war, she might hope to regain Jamaica, -or the Floridas, or Minorca, or, above all, Gibraltar, that impregnable -stronghold, the possession of which by England had for more than sixty -years made Spaniards blush for shame. On the other hand, Spain regarded -the Americans with a hatred probably not less rancorous than that which -she felt toward the British. The mere existence of these English -colonies in North America was a perpetual reminder of the days when the -papal edict granting this continent to Spain had been set at naught by -heretical cruisers and explorers. The obnoxious principles of civil and -religious liberty were represented here with even greater emphasis than -in England. In Mexico and South America the Spanish crown had still a -vast colonial empire; and it was rightly foreseen that a successful -revolt of the English colonies would furnish a dangerous precedent for -the Spanish colonies to follow. Spain was, moreover, the chief upholder -of the old system of commercial monopoly; and here her interests were -directly opposed to those of France, which, since it had been deprived -of its colonial empire, saw in the general overthrow of commercial -monopoly the surest way of regaining its share in the trade of the -world. - - [Portrait: COUNT FLORIDA BLANCA] - - [Signature: el conde de florida blanca] - - [Sidenote: Intrigues of Spain] - - [Sidenote: Treaty between Spain and France, April, 1779] - -Under the influence of these conflicting motives, the conduct of Spain -was marked for a time by hesitation and double-dealing. Between his -various wishes and fears, the Spanish prime minister, Florida Blanca, -knew not what course to pursue. When he heard of the alliance between -France and the United States, which was undertaken against his advice to -Vergennes, his wrath knew no bounds. It was a treaty, he said, "worthy -of Don Quixote." At first he intrigued with the British government, -offering his services as mediator between England and France. Lord -Weymouth, the British minister for foreign affairs, refused to enter -into any negotiation so long as France should extend aid to the rebel -colonies. To the covert threat of the wily Spaniard, that if the war -were to continue his royal master would doubtless feel compelled to take -part with one side or the other, Lord Weymouth replied that the -independence of the United States would prove fatal to the continuance -of Spanish control over Mexico and South America; and he suggested, -accordingly, that the true interest of Spain lay in forming an alliance -with Great Britain. While this secret discussion was going on, Florida -Blanca also sounded Vergennes, proposing that peace should be made on -such terms as to allow the British to retain possession of Rhode Island -and New York. This, he thought, would prevent the formation of an -American Union, and would sow the seeds of everlasting dissension -between Great Britain and the American States, whereby the energies of -the English race would be frittered away in internecine conflict, -leaving room for Spain to expand itself. But Vergennes would not hear of -this. France had recognized the independence of the thirteen States, and -had explicitly and publicly agreed to carry on the war until that -independence should be acknowledged by England; and from that position -she could not easily retreat. At the same time Vergennes intimated that -France was in no way bound to protect the American claim to the Ohio -valley, and was far from desiring that the people of the United States -should control the whole of North America. Upon this suggestion the -Spanish court finally acted. After six months more of diplomatic -fencing, a treaty was concluded in April, 1779, between France and -Spain, whereby it was agreed that these two powers should undertake a -concerted invasion of England. For this undertaking, France was to -furnish the land force, while both powers were to raise as great a naval -armament as possible. France was to assist Spain in recovering Minorca -and the Floridas, and if Newfoundland could be conquered, its fisheries -were to be monopolized by the two parties to this treaty. Neither power -was to make peace on any terms until England should have surrendered -Gibraltar to Spain. - -This convention brought Spain into the lists against England without -bringing her directly into alliance with the United States. She was left -free to negotiate with Congress at her own good pleasure, and might ask -for the whole Mississippi valley, if she chose, in return for her -assistance. Gerard, the French minister at Philadelphia, sought to -persuade Congress to give up the fisheries and relinquish all claim to -the territory west of the Alleghanies. There were hot debates on this -subject in 1779, and indeed the situation of affairs was sufficiently -complicated to call for the exercise of skilful diplomacy. As the treaty -between France and Spain became known in America, it was felt to be in -some respects inconsistent with the prior convention between France and -the United States. In that convention it had been stipulated that -neither party should make peace with Great Britain without the consent -of the other. In the convention between France and Spain it was agreed -that neither party should make peace until Great Britain should -surrender Gibraltar. But the Americans rightly felt that, should Great -Britain be found willing to concede their independence, they were in no -wise bound to keep up the war for the sole purpose of helping France to -conquer Gibraltar for a power which had never owed them any good will, -and was at this very moment hoping to cut down their territory. The -proposal to exclude America as well as Great Britain from the fisheries -excited loud indignation in New England. - - [Sidenote: French and Spanish fleets attempt an invasion of England, - Aug., 1779] - -Meanwhile, the new allies had gone energetically to work. Early in 1779, -a French fleet had captured the British settlements in Senegambia, and -made a vigorous though unsuccessful assault upon the island of Jersey. -In June, war was declared by Spain so suddenly that England was quite -taken by surprise. Florida Blanca had lied with so grave a face that -Lord North had not been looking out for such a step. In August, the -allied French and Spanish fleets, numbering more than sixty -ships-of-the-line, with a full complement of frigates, entered the -English Channel, with intent to repeat the experiment of the Invincible -Armada; while a French army lay at Havre, ready to cross at the first -opportunity. To oppose this formidable force, Admiral Hardy was able to -get together only thirty-eight ships-of-the-line, with the ordinary -proportion of frigates. There was a panic in England, and the militia -were called out. But owing to dissensions between the French and Spanish -admirals and serious illness in the crews, nothing whatever was -accomplished, and the great fleet retired crestfallen from the channel. -Everybody blamed everybody else, while an immense sum of money had been -spent upon a wretched fiasco. In America, however, the allies were more -successful. Galvez, the Spanish governor of Louisiana, captured Baton -Rouge and Mobile, with their British garrisons, and preparations were -made for the siege of Pensacola, to complete the conquest of West -Florida. In the West Indies, the islands of Grenada and St. Vincent were -captured by Estaing. The moment that war was declared by Spain, there -was begun that siege of Gibraltar which, for the heroic defence, as well -as for its long duration of nearly four years, has had no parallel in -the annals of modern warfare. - - [Portrait: G B Rodney] - - [Sidenote: Sir George Rodney] - -It was only through maritime expeditions that the two new allies could -directly assail England with any hope of success; but here on the sea -her natural superiority was not long in asserting itself. Great efforts -were made to increase the strength of the navy, and in December, 1779, -the command of the fleet in the West Indies was given to a man who among -English sailors ranks with Blake and Hawke, on a plane inferior only to -that occupied by Nelson. The brilliant career of Sir George Rodney began -in the Seven Years' War, in the course of which he bombarded Havre, thus -warding off a projected invasion of England, and moreover captured -several islands in the West Indies. It was Pitt who first discerned his -genius, and put him into a position in which he could win victories. -After the peace of 1763 he became a member of Parliament, but lost all -he had in gambling, and fled to France to get rid of his creditors. When -war broke out between France and England in 1778, the venerable Marshal -de Biron lent him enough money to save him from the Marshalsea or the -Fleet, and he returned to England to be appointed to the chief command -in the West Indies. A vain and unscrupulous man, as many called him, he -was none the less a most skilful and indomitable captain. He was -ordered, on his way to the West Indies, to relieve Gibraltar, which was -beginning to suffer the horrors of famine, and never was such a task -more brilliantly performed. First, he had the good fortune to fall in -with fifteen Spanish ships, loaded with provisions and under the convoy -of seven war vessels, and all this fleet he captured. Then, at Cape St. -Vincent, on a dark and stormy night, he gave chase to a Spanish fleet of -eleven ships-of-the-line and two frigates, and in a sharp fight captured -or destroyed all but four of them without losing one of his own ships. -He thus reached Gibraltar, and after passing up to the fortress the -welcome cargoes of the fifteen merchant prizes went on to the West -Indies, where his presence turned the scale against the allies. A -powerful French fleet under Count de Guichen was cruising in those -waters; and it was hoped that this fleet would soon be able to come to -New York and cooperate with Washington in an attempt to regain that -city. But the arrival of Rodney changed all this, and the Count de -Guichen, after being worsted in battle, sailed away for France, while -Rodney proceeded to New York, to relieve Sir Henry Clinton and foil the -projects of Washington. - - [Sidenote: Rights of neutrals upon the sea] - - [Sidenote: The Consolato del Mare] - -That very supremacy upon the sea, however, which enabled England to defy -the combined fleets of France and Spain served, in its immediate -consequences, only to involve her in fresh difficulties. By the arrogant -and indiscriminate manner in which she exercised the right of search, -she soon succeeded in uniting against her all the neutral nations of -Europe; and a principle of international law was laid down which in our -own time has become fully established, and must in future essentially -limit the areas over which wars are likely to extend. This new principle -of international law related to the rights of merchant vessels belonging -to neutral powers in time of war. In early times it was held that if one -country went to war with another, its right to prey upon its enemy's -commerce was virtually unlimited. If it found its enemy's goods carried -in a ship belonging to some neutral power, it had a right to seize and -confiscate them; and in days when hostility was the rule and peace the -exception, when warfare was deemed honourable and commerce ignoble, and -when the usages of war were rough and unscrupulous, the neutral ship -itself, which carried the goods, was very likely to be confiscated also. -As the neutral power whose ship was seized would be sure to resent such -behaviour, it followed that any war between two maritime powers was -likely to spread until it involved every other power which possessed any -merchant shipping or did any business upon the high seas. With a view to -confining such evils within as narrow a limit as possible, the maritime -code known as the Consolato del Mare, which represented the commercial -interests of the Middle Ages, and was generally accepted as of the -highest authority in maritime affairs, recognized the right of -confiscating an enemy's goods found in a neutral ship, but did not -recognize the right of confiscating the neutral ship. In the Middle Ages -maritime warfare played a subordinate part; but after colonies had been -planted in America and the East Indies by the great maritime nations of -Western Europe, the demand for fixed rules, whereby the usages of such -warfare should be regulated, soon came to be of transcendent importance. -England and the Netherlands, as powers with whom industrial -considerations were of the first consequence and military considerations -only secondary, adhered firmly to the rule of the Consolato del Mare as -the most liberal rule then in existence. France and Spain, as -preeminently militant powers, caring more for the means of annoying an -enemy than for the interests of commerce in general, asserted the -principle that neutral ships detected in carrying an enemy's goods were -themselves lawful subjects for seizure. France, however, did not hold -this doctrine so firmly as Spain. Here, as in so many other respects, -France showed herself more advanced in civilization than Spain, while -less advanced than England and the Netherlands. In 1655, by a treaty -between Cromwell and Mazarin, France accepted the English rule; in 1681, -under the retrograde government of Louis XIV., she went back to her -ancient practice; in 1744, she again adopted the English rule, while -Spain kept on with her old custom, until sharply called to account by -Russia in 1780. - - [Illustration: MEDAL GIVEN PAUL JONES BY CONGRESS (OBVERSE)] - - [Illustration: MEDAL GIVEN PAUL JONES BY CONGRESS (REVERSE)] - -Until the middle of the eighteenth century, the most liberal doctrines -respecting maritime warfare had concerned themselves only with the -protection of neutral ships. It had never occurred to anybody to -maintain that the goods of an enemy should be guaranteed against -scrutiny and seizure by the mere fact of their being carried on a -neutral ship. That any belligerent could seize its antagonist's -property, if found on a neutral ship, was the doctrine laid down alike -by Vattel and Bynkershoek, the chief French and Dutch authorities on -maritime law. In acting upon this principle, therefore, at the time of -our Revolutionary War, England acted strictly in accordance with the -recognized maritime law of Europe. She was not, as some American writers -seem to have supposed, introducing a new principle of aggression, in -virtue of her position as chief among maritime powers. In stopping the -defenceless merchant vessels of neutral or friendly powers, compelling -them to show their bills of lading, searching their holds if need be, -subjecting them to a hateful inquisition and vexatious delays, she did -no more than every maritime nation had been in the habit of doing, and -even less than Spain claimed the right to do. It was quite natural, too, -that England should insist upon retaining this privilege, as something -which no great naval power could afford to dispense with; for obviously, -if in time of war your enemy can go on trading with everybody but -yourself, and can even receive timber and provisions from people not -concerned in the struggle, your means of crippling him are very -materially diminished. - - [Sidenote: Prussian doctrine: free ships make free goods] - - [Sidenote: Influence of the French philosophers] - -Such reasoning seemed conclusive everywhere in Europe until after the -middle of the eighteenth century. At that time, however, the unexampled -naval preponderance of England began to lead other nations to take a new -view of the case. By the maintenance of the old rule, England could -damage other nations much more than they could damage her. Other -nations, accordingly, began to feel that it would be a good thing if the -flag of a neutral ship might be held to protect any merchandise -whatsoever that she might happen to have on board. This modern doctrine, -that free ships make free goods, was first suggested by Prussia in 1752. -Such a view naturally commended itself to a nation which had a -considerable number of merchantmen afloat, without any navy fit to -protect them; and it was accordingly likely to find favour in the eyes -of such nations as Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and the United States. But, -more than this, it was a view entirely in accordance with the -philosophic tendencies of the age. The great humanitarian movement, -which in our time has borne rich and ample fruit, and which has tended -in every practicable way to diminish the occasions for warfare and to -restrict its scope, had its first brilliant literary representatives -among the clear-sighted and enthusiastic French philosophers of the -eighteenth century. The liberal tendencies in politics, which hitherto -England alone had represented practically, were caught up in France, as -soon as the dismal and protracted tyranny of Louis XIV. had come to an -end, with an eagerness that partook of fanaticism. English political -ideas, without being thoroughly comprehended in their practical -bearings, were seized and generalized by Montesquieu and Turgot, and a -host of lesser writers, until they acquired a width of scope and a -genial interest which exercised a prodigious influence upon the thought -of Continental Europe. Never in any age, perhaps, since the days when -Sokrates talked to enchanted crowds upon street corners in Athens, did -men of broad philosophic ideas come so closely into contact with men -absorbed in the pursuit of life's immediate ends as at the time when all -Paris rushed to kiss the hand of Voltaire, and when ladies of the court -went to sleep with the last _brochure_ of Diderot or Helvetius under -their pillows. The generous "enthusiasm of humanity," which revealed -itself in every line of the writings of these great men, played an -important part in the political history of the eighteenth century. It -was an age of crowned philosophers and benevolent despots. Joseph of -Austria, Frederick of Prussia, and Catherine of Russia, in their several -ways, furnished illustrations of this tendency. Catherine, who wrote -letters to Voltaire, and admired Fox above all other English statesmen, -set almost as much store by free thought as by free love, and her -interest in the amelioration of mankind in general was second only to -her particular interest in the humiliation of the Turk. The idea of -taking the lead in a general movement for the liberation of maritime -commerce was sure to prove congenial to her enlightened mind, and her -action would have great weight with England, which at that time, -isolated from all European sympathy, was especially desirous of an -alliance with Russia, and especially anxious to avoid offending her. - - [Portrait: Catherine] - - [Sidenote: Great Britain wishes to secure an alliance with Russia] - - [Sidenote: Importance of Minorca] - -At the beginning of 1778, Sir James Harris, afterward Earl of -Malmesbury, was sent as ambassador to St. Petersburg, with instructions -to leave no stone unturned to secure an offensive and defensive alliance -between Russia and Great Britain, in order to offset and neutralize the -alliance between France and the United States. Negotiations to this end -were kept up as long as the war lasted, but they proved fruitless. While -Catherine coquetted and temporized, the Prussian ambassador had her ear, -and his advice was unfavourable to such an alliance. For the England of -Pitt the great Frederick felt sympathy and gratitude; for the England of -George III. he had nothing but hatred, and his counsels went far to -steady Catherine, if ever she showed signs of wavering. The weight of -France was of course thrown into the same scale, and for four years the -Russian court was the scene of brisk and multifarious intrigues. Harris -said that his very valets were offered bribes by busybodies who wished -to get a look at his papers; and when he went out, leaving his secretary -writing, he used to lock him up, not through doubts of his fidelity, but -lest he should thoughtlessly leave the door ajar. From Prince Potemkin, -one of Catherine's lovers whose favour Harris courted, he learned that -nothing short of the cession of Minorca would induce the empress to -enter into the desired alliance. Russia was already taking advantage of -the situation to overrun and annex the Crimea, and the maritime outlook -thus acquired made her eager to secure some naval station on the -Mediterranean. Minorca was England's to give. She had won it in the war -of the Spanish Succession, and for seventy years it had been one of the -brightest jewels in her imperial crown. Together with Gibraltar it had -given her that firm grasp upon the Mediterranean which--strengthened in -later times by the acquisition of Malta, Cyprus, and the isthmus of -Suez--has gone far toward making that vast inland sea an English lake. -So great a value did England set upon Minorca, that when, in the Seven -Years' War, it was lost for a moment, through an error of judgment on -the part of Admiral Byng, the British people were seized with a -bloodthirsty frenzy, and one of the foulest judicial murders known to -history was committed when that gallant commander was shot on his own -quarter-deck. Yet even this island, by which England set such store, she -was now ready to surrender in exchange for the help of Russia against -her revolted colonies and the House of Bourbon. It was not, however, -until 1781 that the offer of Minorca was made, and then Catherine had so -far acceded to the general combination against England that she could -not help refusing it. That such an offer should ever have been made -shows how important an alliance with Russia seemed to England at the -moment when France and Spain were leagued against her, and all the -neutral powers looked on her with hostile eyes. We can thus the better -appreciate the significance of the step which Russia was now to take -with reference to the great question of maritime law that was beginning -to agitate the civilized world. - - [Sidenote: France adopts the Prussian doctrine] - -In the summer of 1778, the French government, with intent to curb the -depredations of British cruisers, issued a proclamation adopting the -Prussian doctrine of 1752, that free ships make free goods, and -Vergennes took occasion to suggest that Catherine should put herself at -the head of a league of neutral powers for the purpose of protecting -neutral commerce all over the world. For the moment no decided action -was taken, but the idea was one of those broad ideas in which the -empress delighted. Count Panin, her principal minister, who was strongly -in sympathy with the King of Prussia, insisted upon the necessity of -protecting the commerce of minor powers against England, which since -1763 had become the great naval bully of the world. England was -doubtless acting in strict accordance with time-honoured custom, but -circumstances had changed, and the law must be changed to meet them. The -first great war since 1763 was now showing that England could destroy -the commerce of all the rest of the world, without any fear of -retaliation except through a universal war. During the summers of 1778 -and 1779, Prussian, Swedish, Danish, and Dutch ships were continually -overhauled by British cruisers, and robbed of cargoes which they were -carrying to France. Such gross outrages upon private property, however -sanctioned by laws of war that had grown up in a barbarous age, awakened -general indignation throughout Europe; and from whatever quarter -complaints poured in, Vergennes and Frederick took good care that they -should be laid before the Empress of Russia, until presently she came to -look upon herself as the champion of little states and oppressed -tradesmen. - - [Sidenote: Affair of Fielding and Bylandt] - -The British depredations were, moreover, apt to be characterized by an -arrogance which, while it rendered them all the more exasperating, -sometimes transcended the limits of aggression prescribed by the rude -maritime law of that day. Upon Netherland commerce England was -especially severe, for the Dutch had more merchant shipping than any -other people on the Continent, with a weak navy to protect it. England -forbade the Dutch to send timber to France, as it would probably be used -in building ships of war. On the 30th of December, 1779, seventeen Dutch -vessels, laden with tar and hemp, and other materials useful in -shipyards, were sailing through the English Channel, escorted by five -ships-of-the-line under Count Bylandt, when toward nightfall they were -overtaken and hailed by a British squadron of sixteen ships-of-the-line -under Admiral Fielding. A lively parley ensued. Bylandt swore that his -ships should not be searched, and Fielding threatened violence. While -this was going on, twelve of the Dutch ships got away under cover of -darkness, and reached in safety the French ports to which they were -bound. Early in the morning, Bylandt fired upon the boat which was -bringing a party of British officers to search the merchantmen that -remained. Upon this, three British ships instantly poured their -broadsides into the Dutch flagship, which returned the compliment, and -then hauled down its flag, as resistance was useless. Nobody was killed, -but Fielding seized the five merchantmen, and took them in to -Portsmouth. The States-General of the Netherlands complained of the -outrage to Lord Stormont, the new foreign secretary, and demanded the -restitution of the prizes. The matter was referred to the British court -of admiralty, and the singular doctrine was there laid down that the -Dutch vessels were virtually blockade-runners, and as such were lawfully -captured! "Great Britain," said the judge, "by her insular position, -blocks naturally all the ports of Spain and France, and she has a right -to avail herself of this position as a gift of Providence." But the -States-General did not accept this interpretation of the law and -theology of the matter, and they appealed to the Empress of Russia. - - [Sidenote: Spanish cruisers capture Russian vessels] - - [Sidenote: Catherine's proclamation, March 8, 1780] - -Just at this moment events occurred which compelled Catherine to take -some decided stand on the question of neutral rights. Through fear of -adding her to the list of their enemies, the British ministry had -issued the most stringent orders that no Russian vessels should be -searched or molested, under any circumstances. The Dutch and Danish -flags might be insulted at pleasure, but that of Russia must be -respected; and so well were these orders obeyed that Catherine had no -grounds for complaint against England on this score. Spain, on the other -hand, was less cautious. In the winter of 1779-80, her cruisers captured -two Russian vessels laden with wheat, in the mistaken belief that their -cargoes were destined for Gibraltar. The ships were taken into Cadiz, -their cargoes were sold at auction, while their penniless crews were -outrageously treated by the people, and came little short of starving. -Hereupon Catherine without delay ordered out fifteen ships-of-the-line -and five frigates for the protection of Russian commerce. For a moment -war between Spain and Russia seemed imminent. But Panin moved with -cautious shrewdness, and consulted the King of Prussia, who persuaded -Florida Blanca to restore the captured ships, with compensation to the -owners of the cargoes, and an ample apology for the blunder. The empress -was satisfied, and Panin assured her that now the time had come for her -to act with magnanimity and power, laying down an impartial code for the -protection of maritime commerce, and thus establishing a claim to the -gratitude of mankind through all future ages. On the 8th of March, 1780, -Catherine issued a proclamation, setting forth the principles of -maritime law which she was henceforth resolved to defend by force, if -necessary. Henceforth neutral ships were to sail unmolested from port to -port, even on the coasts of countries at war. They were to be free to -carry into such ports any goods or merchandise whatsoever, except arms -and ammunition, and the right of search was to be tolerated as regarded -such contraband articles, and for no other purpose. Hereafter no port -was to be considered blockaded unless the enemy's ships of war should be -near enough to make it dangerous to enter. - - [Portrait: Gerard] - - [Sidenote: The Armed Neutrality] - -These principles were immediately adopted by Spain, France, and the -United States, the three powers actually at war with England. At the -same time, Denmark and Sweden entered into an arrangement with Russia -for the mutual protection of their commerce. It was announced that for -every Danish, Swedish, or Russian ship searched or seized by the -cruisers of any belligerent power, a strict retaliation would be made by -the allied navies of these three countries. This covenant, known as the -Armed Neutrality, was practically a threat aimed at England, and through -her unwillingness to alienate Russia it proved a very effective threat. -We can now understand the interest shown by Denmark and Russia in the -victory of Paul Jones, and we can also appreciate the prodigious moral -effect of that victory. So overwhelming was England's naval superiority -that the capture of a single one of her warships was a memorable event. -To the lesser maritime powers it seemed to bring the United States at -once into the front rank of belligerents. The British ministry was too -well instructed to be brought under this spell; but in view of the great -hostile combination now formed against it, for the moment it was at its -wits' end. "An ambiguous and trimming answer was given," says Sir James -Harris; "we seemed equally afraid to accept or dismiss the new-fangled -doctrines. I was instructed secretly to oppose, but avowedly to -acquiesce in them." In England, the wrath and disgust extended to all -parties. Shelburne and Camden joined with North and Thurlow in -denouncing Catherine's proclamation as an impudent attempt, on the part -of an upstart power, hardly known on the sea till quite lately, to -dictate maritime law to the greatest maritime power the world had ever -seen. It was contended that the right to search neutral vessels and take -an enemy's goods from them was a cardinal principle of international -law; and jurists, of course, found the whole body of precedents on the -side of this opinion. But in spite of all protests these "new-fangled -doctrines," subversive of all precedent, were almost immediately adopted -throughout Europe. In December, 1780, the Netherlands joined the Armed -Neutrality, under circumstances presently to be related. In May, 1781, -it was joined by Prussia; in October, 1781, by the Empire; in July, -1782, by Portugal; in September, 1782, by the Turk; in February, 1783, -by the Kingdom of Naples. Though England's maritime strength exceeded -that of all the members of the league taken together, she could not -afford to run the risk of war with all the world at once; and thus the -doctrine that free ships make free goods acquired a firm foothold. In -the chaos of the Napoleonic wars, indeed, paper blockades and illegal -seizures abounded, and it fared ill with neutral commerce on the high -seas. But the principles laid down by Catherine survived that terrible -crisis, and at last they were formally adopted by England at the close -of the Crimean War, in 1856. - - [Sidenote: Vast Importance of the principles laid down by Catherine] - -This successful assertion of the rights of neutrals was one of the -greatest and most beneficent revolutions in the whole history of human -warfare. It was the most emphatic declaration that had ever been made of -the principle that the interests of peace are paramount and permanent, -while those of war are subordinate and temporary. In the interest of -commerce it put a mighty curb upon warfare, and announced that for the -future the business of the producer is entitled to higher consideration -than that of the destroyer. Few things have ever done so much to confine -the area of warfare and limit its destructive power. If the old doctrine -were in force at the present day, when commerce has expanded to such -enormous dimensions, and every sea is populous with merchant ships, it -would be well-nigh impossible for any two maritime powers to go to war -without dragging all the rest of the world into the struggle. For the -speedy accomplishment of this great reform we have chiefly to thank the -Empress Catherine, whose action at the critical moment was so prompt and -decisive. It is curious to consider that an act which so distinctly -subordinated military to industrial interests should have emanated from -that country of Europe which had least outgrown the militant stage of -civilization, and should have been chiefly opposed by that country which -had advanced the farthest into the industrial stage. It is a brilliant -instance of what may be achieved by an enlightened despot when -circumstances are entirely favourable. Among the many acts of Catherine -which, in spite of her horrible vices, have won the admiration of -mankind, this is doubtless the most memorable; and as time goes on we -shall realize its importance more and more. - - [Sidenote: Relations between Great Britain and Holland] - -The immediate effect of the Armed Neutrality was to deprive England of -one of her principal weapons of offence. To add to her embarrassment, -there now came war with Holland. While there was strong sympathy between -the British and Dutch governments, there was great jealousy between the -peoples which had so long been rivals in the colonial world. Hence -there were two parties in the Netherlands,--the party of the -Stadtholder, which was subservient to the policy of the British -government, and the popular party, which looked with favour upon the -American cause. The popular party was far the more numerous, including -all the merchants of the most mercantile of countries, and it was -especially strong in the city of Amsterdam. A brisk trade--illicit from -the British point of view--was carried on between Holland and the United -States, chiefly through the little Dutch island of St. Eustatius, in the -West Indies. An equally lively trade went on between Holland and France, -and against this England felt that she had an especial right to make -complaint. Her relations with Holland were regulated not simply by the -ordinary law of nations, but by careful and elaborate treaties, made in -the days when the two peoples were leagued in sympathy against the -aggressive policy of Louis XIV. In 1678, it had been agreed that if -either England or Holland should be attacked by France, both powers -should make common cause against their common enemy; and in 1716 this -agreement had been renewed in such wise as to include the contingency of -an attack by Spain, since a younger branch of the House of Bourbon had -succeeded to the Spanish throne. When, in 1779, Spain declared war -against England, the latter power accordingly called upon the -Netherlands for aid; but no aid was given, for the Dutch felt that they -had an especial right to complain of the conduct of England. By that -same treaty which in 1674 had finally given New York to the English, it -had been provided that in case either England or Holland should ever go -to war with any other country, the ordinary rules of maritime law should -not be enforced as between these two friendly commercial powers. It was -agreed that either power might freely trade with the enemies of the -other; and such a treaty was at that time greatly to the credit of both -nations. It was made in a moment when an honourable spirit of commercial -equity prevailed. But it was one of the chief symptoms of the utter -demoralization of the British government in 1778, after the untimely -death of Lord Chatham, that these treaty obligations were completely -ignored; and in the general plunder of merchant shipping which went on -at that time, no nation suffered like the Dutch. George III. now felt -that he had got everything into his own hands, and when the Dutch -complained he gave them to understand that, treaty or no treaty, he -should do as he pleased. Under such circumstances, it was rather cool -for England to ask aid against Spain, and the Dutch quite naturally -turned a deaf ear to the demand. - - [Portrait: Henry Laurens] - - [Sidenote: Holland joins the Armed Neutrality] - -It was thus a very pretty quarrel as it stood at the end of 1779, when -Fielding fired upon the flagship of Count Bylandt, and Paul Jones was -allowed to stay with his prizes ten weeks in a Dutch harbour. Each party -was thus furnished with an "outrage." The righteous anger of the Dutch -over the high-handed conduct of Fielding was matched by the British -chagrin over the victory of Jones. The Stadtholder's weak efforts to -keep the peace were quite overwhelmed in the storm of wrath that arose. -After much altercation, England notified Holland that all treaties -between the two countries must be considered as abrogated, owing to the -faithless behaviour of the Dutch in refusing aid against Spain, in -trading with France and America, in resisting the right of search, and -in sheltering Paul Jones. Having thus got rid of the treaties, England -proceeded to act as if there were no such thing as international law -where Dutchmen were concerned. During the summer of 1780, the wholesale -robbery on the high seas grew worse than ever, and, with a baseness that -seems almost incredible, the British ambassador at the Hague was -instructed to act as a spy, and gather information concerning the -voyages of Dutch merchants, so that British cruisers might know just -where to pounce upon the richest prizes. Thus goaded beyond human -endurance, Holland at last joined the Armed Neutrality, hoping thereby -to enlist in her behalf the formidable power of Russia. - - [Portrait: William Lee] - - [Sidenote: Capture of Henry Laurens and his papers] - - [Sidenote: Great Britain declares war against Holland, Dec. 20, 1780] - -But the policy of England, though bold in the extreme, was so far well -considered as to have provided against such an emergency. She was -determined to make war on Holland, to punish her for joining the Armed -Neutrality; but if she were to avow this reason, it would at once entail -war with Russia also, so that it was necessary to find some other -reason. The requisite bone of contention was furnished by a curiously -opportune accident. In October, 1780, an American packet was captured -off the banks of Newfoundland, and among the prisoners was Henry -Laurens, lately president of Congress, now on his way to the Hague to -negotiate a loan. He threw his papers overboard, but a quick-witted tar -jumped after them, and caught them in the water. Among them was found a -project for a future treaty of commerce between the Netherlands and the -United States which had been secretly concerted two years before between -Jean de Neufville, an Amsterdam merchant, and William Lee, an American -commissioner to Berlin. It was signed also by Van Berckel, the chief -magistrate of Amsterdam; but as it had been neither authorized nor -sanctioned by the States-General or by Congress, it had no validity -whatever. Quite naturally, however, the discovery of such a document -caused much irritation in England, and it furnished just the sort of -excuse for going to war which the ministry wanted. To impose upon the -imagination of the common people, Laurens was escorted through the -streets of London by a regiment of soldiers, and shut up in the Tower, -where he was denied pen and paper, and no one was allowed to enter his -room. A demand was made upon Holland to disavow the act of Van Berckel, -and to inflict condign punishment upon him and his accomplices, "as -disturbers of the public peace and violators of the rights of nations." -In making this demand, it was foreseen that the States-General would -disavow the act of Van Berckel, but would nevertheless decline to regard -him as a fit subject for punishment. The message was sent to the British -ambassador at the Hague on the 3d of November. It was then known in -England that Holland contemplated joining the Northern league, but the -decisive step had not yet been actually taken by the States-General. The -ambassador was secretly instructed by Lord Stormont not to present the -demand for the disavowal and punishment of Van Berckel unless it should -become absolutely certain that Holland had joined the league. At their -meeting in November, the States-General voted to join the league, and -the demand was accordingly presented. Everything happened according to -the programme. The States-General freely condemned and disavowed the -Amsterdam affair, and offered to make reparation; but with regard to the -punishment of Van Berckel, they decided that an inquiry must first be -made as to the precise nature of his offence and the court most fit for -trying him. England replied by a peremptory demand for the immediate -punishment of Van Berckel, and, without waiting for an answer, proceeded -to declare war against Holland on the 20th of December. Four days before -this, the swiftest ship that could be found was sent to Admiral Rodney, -who was then at Barbadoes, ordering him to seize upon St. Eustatius -without a moment's delay. - - [Sidenote: Catherine decides not to interfere] - -Whatever other qualities may have been lacking in the British ministry -at this time, they certainly were not wanting in pluck. England had now -to fight single-handed against four nations, three of which were, after -herself, the chief naval powers of the world. According to the -Malmesbury Diaries, "this bold conduct made a great and useful -impression upon the Empress" of Russia. It was partly with a view to -this moral effect that the ministry were so ready to declare war. It was -just at this time that they were proposing, by the offer of Minorca, to -tempt Catherine into an alliance with England; and they did not wish to -have her interpret their eagerness to secure her aid as a confession of -weakness or discouragement. By making war on Holland, they sought to -show themselves as full of the spirit of fight as ever. To strengthen -the impression, Harris blustered and bragged. The Dutch, said he, "are -ungrateful, dirty, senseless boors, and, since they will be ruined, must -submit to their fate." But in all this the British government was -sailing very near the wind. Prince Galitzin, the Russian ambassador at -the Hague, correctly reported that the accession of Holland to the -Armed Neutrality was the real cause of the war, and that the Amsterdam -affair was only a pretext. Upon this ground, the Dutch requested armed -assistance from Catherine, as chief of the league. The empress -hesitated; she knew the true state of the case as well as any one, but -it was open to her to accept the British story or not, as might seem -best. Dispatches from Berlin announced that Frederick was very angry. -When he first heard the news, he exclaimed, "Well! since the English -want a war with the whole world, they shall have it." Catherine then sat -down and wrote with her own hand a secret letter to Frederick, asking -him if he would join her in making war upon England. On second thoughts, -the King of Prussia concluded there was no good reason for taking part -in the affair, and he advised Catherine also to keep her hands free. -This decided the empress. She did not care to make war upon England, -except with such overwhelming force as to be sure of extorting some -important concessions. She accordingly chose to believe the British -story, and she refused to aid the Dutch, on the ground that their -quarrel with England grew out of a matter with which the Armed -Neutrality had nothing to do. At the same time, after dallying for a -while with the offer of Minorca, she refused that also, and decided to -preserve to the end the impartial attitude which she had maintained from -the beginning. - - [Illustration: TYPES OF BRITISH CARICATURE] - - [Illustration: North (as Boreas) studying the Americans - Rockingham - The King and Queen (as Farmer George and his Wife) - Burgoyne - ] - - [Sidenote: Capture of St. Eustatius, Feb. 3, 1781] - - [Sidenote: Shameful proceedings] - -Meanwhile, on the 3d of February, 1781, a powerful fleet under Rodney, -with the force of 5,000 men which had been detached in November, 1779, -from Clinton's army in New York, appeared before the island of St. -Eustatius, and summoned it to surrender. The Dutch governor, ignorant of -the fact that war had begun, had only fifty-five soldiers on the island. -He had no choice but to surrender, and the place was given up without a -blow. The British had an especial spleen against this wealthy little -island, which had come to be the centre of an enormous trade between -France and Holland and the United States. Rodney called it a nest of -thieves, and declared that "this rock, only six miles in length and -three in breadth, had done England more harm than all the arms of her -most potent enemies, and alone supported the infamous American -rebellion." His colleague, General Vaughan, who commanded the land -force, regarded it as a feeder for the American "colonies," of which the -summary extinction would go far toward ending the war. With such -feelings, they made up their minds to do their work thoroughly; and -accordingly they confiscated to the Crown not only all the public -stores, but all the private property of the inhabitants. Their orders -were carried out with great brutality. The goods in the warehouses were -seized and laden upon ships, to be carried away and sold at auction in -the neighbouring islands. Every kind of private and personal property -was laid hold of, and the beggared inhabitants were turned out of doors -and ordered to quit the island. The total value of the booty amounted to -more than twenty million dollars. Among the victims of this robbery were -many British merchants, who were no better treated than the rest. Rodney -tore up their remonstrance without reading it, and exclaimed, "This -island is Dutch, and everything in it is Dutch, and as Dutch you shall -all be treated." The proceedings were fitly crowned by an act of -treachery. The Dutch flag was kept flying as a decoy, and in the course -of the next seven weeks more than fifty American ships, ignorant of the -fate of the island, were captured by the aid of this dirty stratagem. - -The conduct of the government in declaring war against Holland was -denounced by the Whigs as criminal, and the true character of the -shameful affair of St. Eustatius was shown up by Burke in two powerful -speeches. But the government capped the climax when it deliberately -approved the conduct of Rodney, and praised him for it. Many of the -British victims, however, brought their cases before the courts, and -obtained judgments which condemned as illegal the seizure of private -property so far as they were concerned. On the continent of Europe, the -outrage awakened general indignation, as an infraction of the laws and -usages of civilized warfare, the like of which had not been seen for -many years; and it served to alienate from Great Britain the little -sympathy that remained for her. - - * * * * * - -To the historian who appreciates the glorious part which England has -played in history, the proceedings here recorded are painful to -contemplate; and to no one should they be more painful than to the -American, whose forefathers climbed with Wolfe the rugged bank of the -St. Lawrence; or a century earlier, from their homes in New England -forests, heard with delight of Naseby and Marston Moor; or back yet -another hundred years, in Lincolnshire villages defied the tyranny of -Gardiner and Bonner; or at yet a more remote period did yeoman's -service in the army of glorious Earl Simon, or stood, perhaps, beside -great Edward on the hallowed fields of Palestine. The pride with which -one recalls such memories as these explains and justifies the sorrow and -disgust with which one contemplates the spectacle of a truculent George -Germain, an unscrupulous Stormont, or a frivolous North; or hears the -dismal stories of Indian massacres, of defenceless villages laid in -ashes, of legalized robbery on the ocean highway, or of colossal -buccaneering, such as that which was witnessed at St. Eustatius. The -earlier part of the reign of George III. is that period of English -history of which an enlightened Englishman must feel most ashamed, as an -enlightened Frenchman must feel ashamed of the reigns of Louis XIV. and -the two Bonapartes. All these were periods of wholesale political -corruption, of oppression at home and unrighteous warfare abroad, and -all invited swift retribution in the shape of diminished empire and -temporary lowering of the national prestige. It was not until after the -downfall of the personal government of George III. that England began to -resume her natural place in the foremost rank of liberal and progressive -powers. Toward that happy result, the renewal and purification of -English political life, the sturdy fight sustained by the Americans in -defence of their liberties did much to contribute. The winning of -independence by the Americans was the winning of a higher political -standpoint for England and for the world. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [28] The first commander-in-chief of the United States navy was - Ezekiel Hopkins, of Rhode Island, appointed by Congress in - December, 1775. His rank was intended to correspond in the - navy with that held by Washington in the army. In the papers - of the time he is often styled "admiral," but among seamen he - was commonly known as "commodore." The officers next below him - were captains. In February, 1776, Hopkins got out to sea with - a small fleet; in April, with two sloops-of-war and three - small brigs, he attacked the British sloop Glasgow 20, and - failed to take her. His failure was visited with severe and - perhaps excessive condemnation; in the following October, - Congress passed a vote of censure on him, and in January, - 1777, dismissed him from the service. For the rest of the war - no commander-in-chief of the navy was appointed. - - One of Hopkins's vessels, the brig Lexington 14, was commanded - by John Barry, a native of Wexford county, Ireland, who had - long dwelt in Philadelphia. In April, 1776, a few days after - Hopkins's failure, the Lexington met the British tender Edward - off the capes of Virginia, and captured her after an hour's - fight. This was the first capture of a British warship by an - American. Barry served with distinction through the war and - died at the head of the navy in 1803. - - [29] In March, 1780, the navy of the United States consisted of the - following vessels:-- - - America 74, Capt. John Barry, on the stocks at Portsmouth, N. H. - Confederacy 36, Capt. Seth Harding, refitting at Martinico. - Bourbon 36, Capt. Thomas Read, on the stocks in Connecticut. - Alliance 32, Capt. Paul Jones, in France. Trumbull 28, Capt. - James Nicholson, ready for sea in Connecticut. Deane 28, Capt. - Samuel Nicholson, on a cruise. Providence 28, Capt. Abraham - Whipple, } Boston 28, Capt. Samuel Tucker, } defending the - harbour Queen of France 20, Capt. I. Rathbourne, } of - Charleston, S.C. Ranger 18, Capt. S. Sampson, } Saratoga 18, - Capt. J. Young, on the stocks at Philadelphia. - - See _Sparks MSS._ xlix. vol. iii. in Harvard University Library. - - [30] Richard Paton's picture of this sea-fight, of which a - photogravure is here given, departs somewhat from the strict - truth of history, as is apt to be the case with historical - pictures. The Alliance is represented in the act of delivering - her impartial volley into the stern of the Serapis and the bow - of the Bon Homme Richard, which occurred soon after ten - o'clock. At the same time the mainmast of the Serapis is - represented as overboard, whereas it did not fall until the - ships were separated after the surrender, as late as half past - eleven. Apart from this inaccuracy, the general conception of - the picture is admirable. The engraving, published in 1780, was - dedicated to Sir Richard Pearson, the captain of the Serapis, - who was deservedly knighted for his heroic resistance, which - saved the Baltic fleet, although he was worsted in the fight. - There is a tradition that Paul Jones, on hearing of the honour - conferred upon Pearson, good-naturedly observed, "If I ever - meet him again I'll make a lord of him." - - - - - CHAPTER XIII - - A YEAR OF DISASTERS - - -After the surrender of Burgoyne, the military attitude of the British in -the northern states became, as we have seen, purely defensive. Their -efforts were almost exclusively directed toward maintaining their -foothold, at first in the islands of New York and Rhode Island, -afterward in New York alone, whence their ships could ascend the Hudson -as far as the frowning crags which sentinel the entrance of the -Highlands. Their offensive operations were restricted to a few -plundering expeditions along the coast, well calculated to remind the -worthy Connecticut farmers of the ubiquitousness of British power, and -the vanity of hopes that might have been built upon the expectation of -naval aid from France. But while the war thus languished at the centre, -while at the same time it sent forth waves of disturbance that -reverberated all the way from the Mississippi river to the Baltic sea, -on the other hand the southernmost American states were the scene of -continuous and vigorous fighting. Upon the reduction of the Carolinas -and Georgia the king and Lord George Germain had set their hearts. If -the rebellion could not be broken at the centre, it was hoped that it -might at least be frayed away at the edges; and should fortune so far -smile upon the royal armies as to give them Virginia also, perhaps the -campaigns against the wearied North might be renewed at some later time -and under better auspices. - - [Sidenote: State of things in the Far South] - -In this view there was much that was plausible. Events had shown that -the ministry had clearly erred in striking the rebellion at its -strongest point; it now seemed worth while to aim a blow where it was -weakest. The people of New England were almost unanimous in their -opposition to the king, and up to this time the states of Massachusetts -and Connecticut in particular had done more to sustain the war than all -the others put together. Georgia and the Carolinas, a thousand miles -distant, might be regarded as almost beyond the reach of reinforcements -from New England; and it might be doubted whether they possessed the -ability to defend themselves against a well-planned attack. Georgia, the -weakest of the thirteen states, bordered upon the British territory of -Florida. In South Carolina the character of the population made it -difficult to organize resistance. The citizens of Charleston, and the -rich planters of English or Huguenot descent inhabiting the lowlands, -belonged mostly to the revolutionary party, but they were outnumbered by -their negro slaves; and the peculiar features of slavery in South -Carolina made this a very embarrassing circumstance. The relations -between master and slave were not friendly there, as they were in -Virginia; and while the state had kept up a militia during the whole -colonial period, this militia found plenty of employment in patrolling -the slave quarters, in searching for hidden weapons, and in hunting -fugitives. It was now correctly surmised that on the approach of an -invading army the dread of negro insurrection, with all its nameless -horrors, would paralyze the arm of the state militia. While the -patriotic South Carolinians were thus handicapped in entering upon the -contest, there were in the white population many discordant elements. It -was commonly said that the Quakers and men of German ancestry took -little interest in politics, and were only too ready to submit to any -authority that would protect them in their ordinary pursuits. A strong -contrast to the political apathy of these worthy men was to be found in -the rugged population of the upland counties. Here the small farmers of -Scotch-Irish descent were, every man of them, Whigs, burning with a -fanatical hatred of England; while, on the other hand, the Scotchmen who -had come over since Culloden were mostly Tories, and had by no means as -yet cast off that half-savage type of Highland character which we find -so vividly portrayed in the Waverley novels. It was not strange that the -firebrands of war, thrown among such combustible material, should have -flamed forth with a glare of unwonted cruelty; nor was it strange that a -commonwealth containing such incongruous elements, so imperfectly -blended, should have been speedily, though but for a moment, overcome. -The fit ground for wonder is that, in spite of such adverse -circumstances, the state of South Carolina should have shown as much -elastic strength as she did under the severest military stress which any -American state was called upon to withstand during the Revolutionary -War. - - [Illustration: SEAL OF SOUTH CAROLINA (OBVERSE)] - - [Illustration: SEAL OF SOUTH CAROLINA (REVERSE)] - - [Sidenote: Georgia overrun by the British] - -Since the defeat of the British fleet before Charleston, in June 1776, -the southern states had been left unmolested until the autumn of 1778, -when there was more or less frontier skirmishing between Georgia and -Florida,--a slight premonitory symptom of the storm that was coming. The -American forces in the southern department were then commanded by -General Robert Howe, who was one of the most distinguished patriots of -North Carolina, but whose military capacity seems to have been slender. -In the autumn of 1778 he had his headquarters at Savannah, for there was -war on the frontier. Guerrilla parties, made up chiefly of vindictive -loyalist refugees, but aided by a few British regulars from General -Augustine Prevost's force in Florida, invaded the rice plantations of -Georgia, burning and murdering, and carrying off negroes,--not to set -them free, but to sell them for their own benefit. As a -counter-irritant, General Howe planned an expedition against St. -Augustine, and advanced as far as St. Mary's river; but so many men were -swept away by fever that he was obliged to retreat to Savannah. He had -scarcely arrived there when 3,500 British regulars from New York, under -Colonel Campbell, landed in the neighbourhood, and offered him battle. -Though his own force numbered only 1,200, of whom half were militia, -Howe accepted the challenge, relying upon the protection of a great -swamp which covered his flanks. But a path through the swamp was pointed -out to the enemy by a negro, and the Americans, attacked in front and -behind, were instantly routed. Some 500 prisoners were taken, and -Savannah surrendered, with all its guns and stores; and this achievement -cost the British but 24 men. A few days afterward, General Prevost -advanced from Florida and captured Sunbury, with all its garrison, while -Colonel Campbell captured Augusta. A proclamation was issued, offering -protection to such of the inhabitants as would take up arms in behalf of -the king's government, while all others were by implication outlawed. -The ugly temper of Lord George Germain was plainly visible in this -proclamation and in the proceedings that followed. A shameless and -promiscuous plunder was begun. The captive soldiers were packed into -prison-ships and treated with barbarity. The more timid people sought to -save their property by taking sides with the enemy, while the bolder -spirits took refuge in the mountains; and thus General Prevost was -enabled to write home that the state of Georgia was conquered. - - [Sidenote: Arrival of General Lincoln] - - [Sidenote: Barbarous reprisals] - -At the request of the southern delegates in Congress, General Howe had -already been superseded by General Benjamin Lincoln, who had won -distinction through his management of the New England militia in the -Saratoga campaign. When Lincoln arrived at Charleston, in December, -1778, an attempt was made to call out the lowland militia of South -Carolina, but the dread of the slaves kept them from obeying the -summons. North Carolina, however, sent 2,000 men under John Ashe, one of -the most eminent of the southern patriots; and with this force and 600 -Continentals the new general watched the Savannah river and waited his -chances. But North Carolina sent foes as well as friends to take part in -the contest. A party of 700 loyalists from that state were marching -across South Carolina to join the British garrison at Augusta, when they -were suddenly attacked by Colonel Andrew Pickens with a small force of -upland militia. In a sharp fight the Tories were routed, and half their -number were taken prisoners. Indictments for treason were brought -against many of these prisoners, and, after trial before a civil court, -some seventy were found guilty, and five of them were hanged. The -rashness of this step soon became apparent. The British had put in -command of Augusta one Colonel Thomas Browne, a Tory, who had been -tarred and feathered by his neighbours at the beginning of the war. As -soon as Browne heard of these executions for treason, he forthwith -hanged some of his Whig prisoners; and thus was begun a long series of -stupid and cruel reprisals, which, as time went on, bore bitter fruit. - - [Portrait: And^w Pickens] - - [Portrait: B Lincoln] - - [Sidenote: Americans routed at Briar Creek, March 3, 1779] - - [Sidenote: Provost's vandalism] - -While these things were going on in the back country, the British on the -coast attempted to capture Port Royal, but were defeated, with heavy -loss, by General Moultrie. Lincoln now felt able to assume the -offensive, and he sent General Ashe with 1,500 men to threaten Augusta. -At his approach the British abandoned the town, and retreated toward -Savannah. Ashe pursued closely, but at Briar Creek, on the 3d of March, -1779, the British turned upon him and routed him. The Americans lost 400 -in killed and wounded, besides seven pieces of artillery and more than -1,000 stand of arms. Less than 500 succeeded in making their way back to -Lincoln's camp; and this victory cost the British but five men killed -and eleven wounded. Augusta was at once retaken; the royal governor, Sir -James Wright, was reinstated in office; and, in general, the machinery -of government which had been in operation previous to 1776 was restored. -Lincoln, however, was far from accepting the defeat as final. With the -energetic cooperation of Governor Rutledge, to whom extraordinary powers -were granted for the occasion, enough militia were got together to -repair the losses suffered at Briar Creek; and in April, leaving -Moultrie with 1,000 men to guard the lower Savannah, Lincoln marched -upon Augusta with the rest of his army, hoping to capture it, and give -the legislature of Georgia a chance to assemble there, and destroy the -moral effect of this apparent restoration of the royal government. But -as soon as Lincoln had got out of the way, General Prevost crossed the -Savannah with 3,000 men and advanced upon Charleston, laying waste the -country and driving Moultrie before him. It was a moment of terror and -confusion. In General Prevost there was at last found a man after Lord -George Germain's own heart. His march was a scene of wanton vandalism. -The houses of the wealthy planters were mercilessly sacked; their -treasures of silver plate were loaded on carts and carried off; their -mirrors and china were smashed, their family portraits cut to pieces, -their gardens trampled out, their shade-trees girdled and ruined; and -as Prevost had a band of Cherokees with him, the horrors of the tomahawk -and scalping-knife in some instances crowned the shameful work. The -cabins of the slaves were burned. Cattle, horses, dogs, and poultry, -when not carried away, were slaughtered wholesale, and the destruction -of food was so great that something like famine set in. More than a -thousand negroes are said to have died of starvation. - - [Sidenote: Plan for arming negroes] - -In such wise did Prevost leisurely make his way toward Charleston; and -reaching it on the 11th of May, he sent in a summons to surrender. A -strangely interesting scene ensued. Events had occurred which had sorely -perturbed the minds of the members of the state council. Pondering upon -the best means of making the state militia available, Henry Laurens had -hit upon the bold expedient of arming the most stalwart and courageous -negroes, and marching them off to camp under the lead of white officers. -Such a policy might be expected to improve the relations between whites -and blacks by uniting them against a common danger, while the -plantations would be to some extent relieved of an abiding source of -dread. The plan was warmly approved by Laurens's son, who was an officer -on Washington's staff, as well as by Alexander Hamilton, who further -suggested that the blacks thus enrolled as militia should at the same -time be given their freedom. Washington, on the other hand, feared that -if the South Carolinians were to adopt such a policy the British would -forestall them by offering better arms and equipments to the negroes, -and thus muster them against their masters. It was a game, he felt, at -which two could play. The matter was earnestly discussed, and at last -was brought before Congress, which approved of Laurens's plan, and -recommended it to the consideration of the people of South Carolina; and -it was just before the arrival of Prevost and his army that the younger -Laurens reached Charleston with this message from Congress. - - [Sidenote: Indignation in South Carolina] - - [Sidenote: Action of the council] - -The advice was received in anything but a grateful spirit. For a -century the state had maintained an armed patrol to go about among the -negro quarters and confiscate every pistol, gun, or knife that could be -found, and now it was proposed that three or four thousand slaves should -actually be furnished with muskets by the state! People were startled at -the thought, and there might well be a great diversity of opinion as to -the feasibleness of so bold a measure at so critical a moment. To most -persons it seemed like jumping out of the frying-pan into the fire. -Coming, too, at a moment when the state was in such desperate need of -armed assistance from Congress, this advice was very irritating. The -people naturally could not make due allowance for the difficulties under -which Congress laboured, and their wrath waxed hot. South Carolina -seemed to be left in the lurch. Was it to join such a league as this -that she had cast off allegiance to Great Britain? She had joined in the -Declaration of Independence reluctantly, and from an honourable feeling -of the desirableness of united action among the states. On that -momentous day, of which it was not yet clear whether the result was to -be the salvation or the ruin of America, her delegates had, with wise -courtesy, changed their vote in deference to the opinions of the other -states, in order that the American people might behave as a unit in so -solemn a matter. And now that the state was invaded, her people robbed -and insulted, and her chief city threatened, she was virtually bidden to -shift for herself! Under the influence of such feelings as these, after -a hot debate, the council, by a bare majority, decided to send a flag of -truce to General Prevost, and to suggest that South Carolina should -remain neutral until the end of the war, when it should be decided by -treaty whether she should cast in her lot with Great Britain or with the -United States. What might have come of this singular suggestion had it -been seriously discussed we shall never know, for Prevost took no notice -of it whatever. To neutralize South Carolina would not accord with the -British plan which involved the conquest and occupation of that state -as a base from which to proceed to the subjugation of its neighbours to -the north. Prevost refused to exchange question and answer with a branch -of the rebel government of South Carolina, but to Moultrie, as military -commandant, he announced that his only terms were unconditional -surrender. We can imagine how the gallant heart of Moultrie must have -sunk within him at what he could not but call the dastardly action of -the council, and how it must have leaped with honest joy at the British -general's ultimatum. "Very good," said he simply; "we'll fight it out, -then." - - [Portrait: COUNT PULASKI] - -In citing this incident for its real historic interest, we must avoid -the error of making too much of it. At this moment of sudden peril, -indignation at the fancied neglect of Congress was joined to the natural -unwillingness, on the part of the council, to incur the risk of giving -up the property of their fellow-citizens to the tender mercies of such a -buccaneer as Prevost had shown himself to be. But there is no sufficient -reason for supposing that, had the matter gone farther, the suggestion -of the council would have been adopted by the legislature or acquiesced -in by the people of South Carolina. - - [Sidenote: End of the campaign] - -On this occasion the danger vanished as suddenly as it came. Count -Pulaski, with his legion, arrived from the northern army, and Lincoln, -as soon as he learned what was going on, retraced his steps, and -presently attacked General Prevost. After an indecisive skirmish, the -latter, judging his force inadequate for the work he had undertaken, -retreated into Georgia, and nothing more was done till autumn. The -military honours of the campaign, however, remained with the British; -for by his march upon Charleston Prevost had prevented Lincoln from -disturbing the British supremacy in Georgia, and besides this he had -gained a foothold in South Carolina; when he retreated he left a -garrison in Beaufort which Lincoln was unable to dislodge. - - [Signature: Veritable ami et Serviteur Pulaski] - - [Sidenote: Attempt to recapture Savannah] - -The French alliance, which thus far had been of so little direct -military value, now appears again upon the scene. During the year which -had elapsed since the futile Rhode Island campaign, the French fleet had -been busy in the West Indies. Honours were easy, on the whole, between -the two great maritime antagonists, but the French had so far the -advantage that in August, 1779, Estaing was able once more to give some -attention to his American friends. On the first day of September he -appeared off the coast of Georgia with a powerful fleet of twenty-two -ships-of-the-line and eleven frigates. Great hopes were now conceived -by the Americans, and a plan was laid for the recapture of Savannah. By -the 23d of the month the place was invested by the combined forces of -Lincoln and Estaing, and for three weeks the siege was vigorously -carried on by a regular system of approaches, while the works were -diligently bombarded by the fleet. At length Estaing grew impatient. -There was not sufficient harbourage for his great ships, and the -captains feared that they might be overtaken by the dangerous autumnal -gales for which that coast is noted. To reduce the town by a regular -siege would perhaps take several weeks more, and it was accordingly -thought best to try to carry it by storm. On the 9th of October a -terrific assault was made in full force. Some of the outworks were -carried, and for a moment the stars and stripes and the fleurs-de-lis -were planted on the redoubts; but British endurance and the strength of -the position at last prevailed. The assailants were totally defeated, -losing more than 1,000 men, while the British, in their sheltered -position, lost but 55. The gallant Pulaski was among the slain, and -Estaing received two severe wounds. The French, who had borne the brunt -of the fight, now embarked and stood out to sea, but not in time to -escape the October gale which they had been dreading. After weathering -with difficulty a terrible storm, their fleet was divided; and while -part returned to the West Indies, Estaing himself, with the remainder, -crossed to France. Thus the second attempt at concerted action between -French and Americans had met with even more lamentable failure than the -first. - - [Sidenote: Sir Henry Clinton and Lord Cornwallis go to Georgia] - -While these things were going on, Washington had hoped, and Clinton had -feared, that Estaing might presently reach New York in such force as to -turn the scale there against the British. As soon as he learned that the -French fleet was out of the way, Sir Henry Clinton proceeded to carry -out a plan which he had long had in contemplation. A year had now -elapsed since the beginning of active operations in the south, and, -although the British arms had been crowned with success, it was -desirable to strike a still heavier blow. The capture of the chief -southern city was not only the next step in the plan of the campaign, -but it was an object of especial desire to Sir Henry Clinton personally, -for he had not forgotten the humiliating defeat at Fort Moultrie in -1776. He accordingly made things as snug as possible at the north, by -finally withdrawing the garrisons from Rhode Island and the advanced -posts on the Hudson. In this way, while leaving Knyphausen with a strong -force in command of New York, he was enabled to embark 8,000 men on -transports, under convoy of five ships-of-the-line; and on the day after -Christmas, 1779, he set sail for Savannah, taking Lord Cornwallis with -him. - -The voyage was a rough one. Some of the transports foundered, and some -were captured by American privateers. Yet when Clinton arrived in -Georgia, and united his forces to those of Prevost, the total amounted -to more than 10,000 men. He ventured, however, to weaken the garrison of -New York still more, and sent back at once for 3,000 men under command -of the young Lord Rawdon, of the famous family of Hastings,--better -known in after-years as Earl of Moira and Marquis of Hastings, and -destined, like Cornwallis, to serve with great distinction as -governor-general of India. The event fully justified Clinton's sagacity -in taking this step. New York was quite safe for the present; for so -urgent was the need for troops in South Carolina, and so great the -difficulty of raising them, that Washington was obliged to detach from -his army all the Virginia and North Carolina troops, and sent them down -to aid General Lincoln. With his army thus weakened, it was out of the -question for Washington to attack New York. - - [Portrait: Knyphausen] - - [Sidenote: The British advance upon Charleston] - -Lincoln, on the other hand, after his reinforcements arrived, had an -army of 7,000 men with which to defend the threatened state of South -Carolina. It was an inadequate force, and its commander, a thoroughly -brave and estimable man, was far from possessing the rare sagacity which -Washington displayed in baffling the schemes of the enemy. The -government of South Carolina deemed the preservation of Charleston to be -of the first importance, just as, in 1776, Congress had insisted upon -the importance of keeping the city of New York. But we have seen how -Washington, in that trying time, though he could not keep the city, -never allowed himself to get his army into a position from which he -could not withdraw it, and at last, through his sleepless vigilance, won -all the honours of the campaign. In the defence of Charleston no such -high sagacity was shown. Clinton advanced slowly overland, until on the -26th of February, 1780, he came in sight of the town. It had by that -time become so apparent that his overwhelming superiority of force would -enable him to encompass it on every side, that Lincoln should have -evacuated the place without a moment's delay; and such was Washington's -opinion as soon as he learned the facts. The loss of Charleston, however -serious a blow, could in no case be so disastrous as the loss of the -army. But Lincoln went on strengthening the fortifications, and -gathering into the trap all the men and all the military resources he -could find. For some weeks the connections with the country north of the -Cooper river were kept open by two regiments of cavalry; but on the 14th -of April these regiments were cut to pieces by Colonel Banastre -Tarleton, the cavalry commander, who now first appeared on the scene -upon which he was soon to become so famous. Five days later, the -reinforcement under Lord Rawdon, arriving from New York, completed the -investment of the doomed city. The ships entering the harbour did not -attempt to batter down Fort Moultrie, but ran past it; and on the 6th of -May this fortress, menaced by troops in the rear, surrendered. - - [Sidenote: Surrender of Charleston, May 12, 1780] - -The British army now held Charleston engirdled with a cordon of works on -every side, and were ready to begin an assault which, with the disparity -of forces in the case, could have but one possible issue. On the 12th of -May, to avoid a wanton waste of life, the city was surrendered, and -Lincoln and his whole army became prisoners of war. The Continental -troops, some 3,000 in number, were to be held as prisoners till -regularly exchanged. The militia were allowed to return home on parole, -and all the male citizens were reckoned as militia, and paroled -likewise. The victorious Clinton at once sent expeditions to take -possession of Camden and other strategic points in the interior of the -state. One regiment of the Virginia line, under Colonel Buford, had not -reached Charleston, and on hearing of the great catastrophe it retreated -northward with all possible speed. But Tarleton gave chase as far as -Waxhaws, near the North Carolina border, and there, overtaking Buford, -cut his force to pieces, slaying 113 and capturing the rest. Not a -vestige of an American army was left in all South Carolina. - - [Illustration: A VIEW OF CHARLESTON BEFORE THE REVOLUTION] - - [Sidenote: South Carolina overrun by the British] - -"We look on America as at our feet," said Horace Walpole; and doubtless, -after the capture of Fort Washington, this capture of Lincoln's army at -Charleston was the most considerable disaster which befell the American -arms during the whole course of the war. It was of less critical -importance than the affair of Fort Washington, as it occurred at what -every one must admit to have been a less critical moment. The loss of -Fort Washington, taken in connection with the misconduct of Charles Lee, -came within a hair's-breadth of wrecking the cause of American -independence at the outset; and it put matters into so bad a shape that -nothing short of Washington's genius could have wrought victory out of -them. The loss of South Carolina, in May, 1780, serious as it was, did -not so obviously imperil the whole American cause. The blow did not come -at quite so critical a time, or in quite so critical a place. The loss -of South Carolina would not have dismembered the confederacy of states, -and in course of time, with the American cause elsewhere successful, she -might have been recovered. The blow was nevertheless very serious -indeed, and, if all the consequences which Clinton contemplated had been -achieved, it might have proved fatal. To crush a limb may sometimes be -as dangerous as to stab the heart. For its temporary completeness, the -overthrow may well have seemed greater than that of Fort Washington. The -detachments which Clinton sent into the interior met with no resistance. -Many of the inhabitants took the oath of allegiance to the Crown; others -gave their parole not to serve against the British during the remainder -of the war. Clinton issued a circular, inviting all well-disposed people -to assemble and organize a loyal militia for the purpose of suppressing -any future attempts at rebellion. All who should again venture to take -up arms against the king were to be dealt with as traitors, and their -estates were to be confiscated; but to all who should now return to -their allegiance a free pardon was offered for past offences, except in -the case of such people as had taken part in the hanging of Tories. -Having struck this great blow, Sir Henry Clinton returned, in June, to -New York, taking back with him the larger part of his force, but leaving -Cornwallis with 5,000 men to maintain and extend the conquests already -made. - - [Illustration: MILES BREWTON HOUSE IN CHARLESTON] - - [Sidenote: An injudicious proclamation] - - [Sidenote: Disorders in South Carolina] - -Just before starting, however, Sir Henry, in a too hopeful moment, -issued another proclamation, which went far toward destroying the effect -of his previous measures. This new proclamation required all the people -of South Carolina to take an active part in reestablishing the royal -government, under penalty of being dealt with as rebels and traitors. At -the same time, all paroles were discharged except in the case of -prisoners captured in ordinary warfare, and thus everybody was compelled -to declare himself as favourable or hostile to the cause of the -invaders. The British commander could hardly have taken a more -injudicious step. Under the first proclamation, many of the people were -led to comply with the British demands because they wished to avoid -fighting altogether; under the second, a neutral attitude became -impossible, and these lovers of peace and quiet, when they found -themselves constrained to take an active part on one side or the other, -naturally preferred to help their friends rather than their enemies. -Thus the country soon showed itself restless under British rule, and -this feeling was strengthened by the cruelties which, after Clinton's -departure, Cornwallis found himself quite unable to prevent. Officers -endowed with civil and military powers combined were sent about the -country in all directions, to make full lists of the inhabitants for the -purpose of enrolling a loyalist militia. In the course of these -unwelcome circuits many affrays occurred, and instances were not rare in -which people were murdered in cold blood. Debtors took occasion to -accuse their creditors of want of loyalty, and the creditor was obliged -to take the oath of allegiance before he could collect his dues. Many -estates were confiscated, and the houses of such patriots as had sought -refuge in the mountains were burned. Bands of armed men, whose aim was -revenge or plunder, volunteered their services in preserving order, and, -getting commissions, went about making disorder more hideous, and -wreaking their evil will without let or hindrance. The loyalists, -indeed, asserted that they behaved no worse than the Whigs when the -latter got the upper hand, and in this there was much truth. Cornwallis, -who was the most conscientious of men and very careful in his statements -of fact, speaks, somewhat later, of "the shocking tortures and inhuman -murders which are every day committed by the enemy, not only on those -who have taken part with us, but on many who refuse to join them." There -can be no doubt that Whigs and Tories were alike guilty of cruelty and -injustice. But on the present occasion all this disorder served to throw -discredit on the British, as the party which controlled the country, and -must be held responsible accordingly. - - [Sidenote: The strategic points] - - [Sidenote: Partisan commanders] - -Organized resistance was impossible. The chief strategic points on the -coast were Charleston, Beaufort, and Savannah; in the interior, Augusta -was the gateway of Georgia, and the communications between this point -and the wild mountains of North Carolina were dominated by a village -known as "Ninety-Six," because it was just that number of miles distant -from Keowee, the principal town of the Cherokees. Eighty miles to the -northeast of Ninety-Six lay the still more important post of Camden, in -which centred all the principal inland roads by which South Carolina -could be reached from the north. All these strategic points were held in -force by the British, and save by help from without there seemed to be -no hope of releasing the state from their iron grasp. Among the -patriotic Whigs, however, there were still some stout hearts that did -not despair. Retiring to the dense woods, the tangled swamps, or the -steep mountain defiles, these sagacious and resolute men kept up a -romantic partisan warfare, full of midnight marches, sudden surprises, -and desperate hand-to-hand combats. Foremost among these partisan -commanders, for enterprise and skill, were James Williams, Andrew -Pickens, Thomas Sumter, and Francis Marion. - - [Portrait: FRANCIS MARION] - - [Signature: Francis Marion] - - [Sidenote: Francis Marion] - -Of all the picturesque characters of our Revolutionary period, there is -perhaps no one who, in the memory of the people, is so closely -associated with romantic adventure as Francis Marion. He belonged to -that gallant race of men of whose services France had been forever -deprived when Louis XIV. revoked the edict of Nantes. His father had -been a planter near Georgetown, on the coast, and the son, while -following the same occupation, had been called off to the western -frontier by the Cherokee war of 1759, in the course of which he had made -himself an adept in woodland strategy. He was now forty-seven years -old, a man of few words and modest demeanour, small in stature and -slight in frame, delicately organized, but endowed with wonderful -nervous energy and sleepless intelligence. Like a woman in quickness of -sympathy, he was a knight in courtesy, truthfulness, and courage. The -brightness of his fame was never sullied by an act of cruelty. "Never -shall a house be burned by one of my people," said he; "to distress poor -women and children is what I detest." To distress the enemy in -legitimate warfare was, on the other hand, a business in which few -partisan commanders have excelled him. For swiftness and secrecy he was -unequalled, and the boldness of his exploits seemed almost incredible, -when compared with the meagreness of his resources. His force sometimes -consisted of less than twenty men, and seldom exceeded seventy. To arm -them, he was obliged to take the saws from sawmills and have them -wrought into rude swords at the country forge, while pewter mugs and -spoons were cast into bullets. With such equipment he would attack and -overwhelm parties of more than two hundred Tories; or he would even -swoop upon a column of British regulars on their march, throw them into -disorder, set free their prisoners, slay and disarm a score or two, and -plunge out of sight in the darkling forest as swiftly and mysteriously -as he had come. - - [Portrait: Tho. Sumter] - - [Sidenote: Thomas Sumter] - - [Sidenote: First appearance of Andrew Jackson] - -Second to Marion alone in this wild warfare was Thomas Sumter, a tall -and powerful man, stern in countenance and haughty in demeanour. Born in -Virginia in 1734, he was present at Braddock's defeat in 1755, and after -prolonged military service on the frontier found his way to South -Carolina before the beginning of the Revolutionary War. He lived nearly -a hundred years; sat in the Senate of the United States during the War -of 1812, served as minister to Brazil, and witnessed the nullification -acts of his adopted state under the stormy presidency of Jackson. During -the summer of 1780, he kept up so brisk a guerrilla warfare in the -upland regions north of Ninety-Six that Cornwallis called him "the -greatest plague in the country." "But for Sumter and Marion," said the -British commander, "South Carolina would be at peace." The first -advantage of any sort gained over the enemy since Clinton's landing was -the destruction of a company of dragoons by Sumter, on the 12th of July. -Three weeks later, he made a desperate attack on the British at Rocky -Mount, but was repulsed. On the 6th of August, he surprised the enemy's -post at Hanging Rock, and destroyed a whole regiment. It was on this -occasion that Andrew Jackson made his first appearance in history, an -orphan boy of thirteen, staunch in the fight as any of his comrades. - - [Sidenote: Advance of Kalb] - - [Sidenote: Gates appointed to the chief command in the South] - -But South Carolina was too important to be left dependent upon the skill -and bravery of its partisan commanders alone. Already, before the fall -of Charleston, it had been felt that further reinforcements were needed -there, and Washington had sent down some 2,000 Maryland and Delaware -troops under Baron Kalb, an excellent officer. It was a long march, and -the 20th of June had arrived when Kalb halted at Hillsborough, in North -Carolina, to rest his men and seek the cooperation of General Caswell, -who commanded the militia of that state. By this time the news of the -capture of Lincoln's army had reached the north, and the emergency was -felt to be a desperate one. Fresh calls for militia were made upon all -the states south of Pennsylvania. That resources obtained with such -difficulty should not be wasted, it was above all desirable that a -competent general should be chosen to succeed the unfortunate Lincoln. -The opinions of the commander-in-chief with reference to this matter -were well known. Washington wished to have Greene appointed, as the -ablest general in the army. But the glamour which enveloped the -circumstances of the great victory at Saratoga was not yet dispelled. -Since the downfall of the Conway cabal, Gates had never recovered the -extraordinary place which he had held in public esteem at the beginning -of 1778, but there were few as yet who seriously questioned the -reputation he had so lightly won for generalship. Many people now called -for Gates, who had for the moment retired from active service and was -living on his plantation in Virginia, and the suggestion found favour -with Congress. On the 13th of June Gates was appointed to the chief -command of the southern department, and eagerly accepted the position. -The good wishes of the people went with him. Richard Peters, secretary -of the Board of War, wrote him a very cordial letter, saying, "Our -affairs to the southward look blue: so they did when you took command -before the _Burgoynade_. I can only now say, _Go and do likewise_--God -bless you." Charles Lee, who was then living in disgrace on his -Virginia estate, sent a very different sort of greeting. Lee and Gates -had always been friends,--linked together, perhaps, by pettiness of -spirit and a common hatred for the commander-in-chief, whose virtues -were a perpetual rebuke to them. But the cynical Lee knew his friend too -well to share in the prevailing delusion as to his military capacity, -and he bade him good-by with the ominous warning, "Take care that your -northern laurels do not change to southern willows!" - - [Portrait: Le B^{ar} de Kalb] - - [Sidenote: Choice of roads to Camden] - -With this word of ill omen, which doubtless he little heeded, the "hero -of Saratoga" made his way to Hillsborough, where he arrived on the 19th -of July, and relieved Kalb of the burden of anxiety that had been thrust -upon him. Gates found things in a most deplorable state: lack of arms, -lack of tents, lack of food, lack of medicines, and, above all, lack of -money. The all-pervading neediness which in those days beset the -American people, through their want of an efficient government, was -never more thoroughly exemplified. It required a very different man from -Gates to mend matters. Want of judgment and want of decision were faults -which he had not outgrown, and all his movements were marked by weakness -and rashness. He was adventurous where caution was needed, and timid -when he should have been bold. The objective point of his campaign was -the town of Camden. Once in possession of this important point, he could -force the British from their other inland positions and throw them upon -the defensive at Charleston. It was not likely that so great an object -would be attained without a battle, but there was a choice of ways by -which the strategic point might be approached. Two roads led from -Hillsborough to Camden. The westerly route passed through Salisbury and -Charlotte, in a long arc of a circle, coming down upon Camden from the -northwest. The country through which it passed was fertile, and the -inhabitants were mostly Scotch-Irish Whigs. By following this road, the -danger of a sudden attack by the enemy would be slight, wholesome food -would be obtained in abundance, and in case of defeat it afforded a safe -line of retreat. The easterly route formed the chord of this long arc, -passing from Hillsborough to Camden almost in a straight line 160 miles -in length. It was 50 miles shorter than the other route, but it lay -through a desolate region of pine barrens, where farmhouses and -cultivated fields were very few and far between, and owned by Tories. -This line of march was subject to flank attacks, it would yield no food -for the army, and a retreat through it, on the morrow of an unsuccessful -battle, would simply mean destruction. The only advantage of this route -was its directness. The British forces were more or less scattered about -the country. Lord Rawdon held Camden with a comparatively small force, -and Gates was anxious to attack and overwhelm him before Cornwallis -could come up from Charleston. - - [Sidenote: Gates chooses the wrong road] - - [Sidenote: Distress of the troops] - -Gates accordingly chose the shorter route, with all its disadvantages, -in spite of the warnings of Kalb and other officers, and on the 27th of -July he put his army in motion. On the 3d of August, having entered -South Carolina and crossed the Pedee river, he was joined by Colonel -Porterfield with a small force of Virginia regulars, which had been -hovering on the border since the fall of Charleston. On the 7th he -effected a junction with General Caswell and his North Carolina militia, -and on the 10th his army, thus reinforced, reached Little Lynch's Creek, -about fifteen miles northeast of Camden, and confronted the greatly -inferior force of Lord Rawdon. The two weeks' march had been -accomplished at the rate of about eleven miles a day, with no end of -fatigue and suffering. The few lean kine slaughtered by the roadside had -proved quite insufficient to feed the army, and for want of any better -diet the half-starved men had eaten voraciously of unripe corn, green -apples, and peaches. All were enfeebled, and many were dying of -dysentery and cholera morbus, so that the American camp presented a -truly distressing scene. - - [Sidenote: Gates loses the moment for striking] - -Rawdon's force stood across the road, blocking the way to Camden, and -the chance was offered for Gates to strike the sudden blow for the sake -of which he had chosen to come by this bad road. There was still, -however, a choice of methods. The two roads, converging toward their -point of intersection at Camden, were now very near together. Gates -might either cross the creek in front, and trust to his superior numbers -to overwhelm the enemy, or, by a forced march of ten miles to the right, -he might turn Rawdon's flank and gain Camden before him. A good general -would have done either the one of these things or the other, and Kalb -recommended the immediate attack. But now at the supreme moment Gates -was as irresolute as he had been impatient when 160 miles away. He let -the opportunity slip, waited two days where he was, and on the 13th -marched slowly to the right and took up his position at Clermont, on the -westerly road; thus abandoning the whole purpose for the sake of which -he had refused to advance by that road in the first place. On the 14th -he was joined by General Stevens with 700 Virginia militia; but on the -same day Lord Cornwallis reached Camden with his regulars, and the -golden moment for crushing the British in detachments was gone forever. - - [Illustration: Statue of Kalb at Annapolis] - - [Sidenote: and weakens his army on the eve of battle] - - [Sidenote: and is surprised by Cornwallis] - -The American army now numbered 3,052 men, of whom 1,400 were regulars, -chiefly of the Maryland line. The rest were mostly raw militia. The -united force under Cornwallis amounted to only 2,000 men, but they were -all thoroughly trained soldiers. It was rash for the Americans to hazard -an attack under such circumstances, especially in their forlorn -condition, faint as they were with hunger and illness, and many of them -hardly fit to march or take the field. But, strange as it may seem, a -day and a night passed by, and Gates had not yet learned that Cornwallis -had arrived, but still supposed he had only Rawdon to deal with. It was -no time for him to detach troops on distant expeditions, but on the 14th -he sent 400 of his best Maryland regulars on a long march southward, to -cooperate with Sumter in cutting off the enemy's supplies on the road -between Charleston and Camden. At ten o'clock on the night of the 15th, -Gates moved his army down the road from Clermont to Camden, intending to -surprise Lord Rawdon before daybreak. The distance was ten miles through -the woods, by a rough road, hemmed in on either side, now by hills, and -now by impassable swamps. At the very same hour, Cornwallis started up -the road, with the similar purpose of surprising General Gates. A little -before three in the morning, the British and American advance guards of -light infantry encountered each other on the road, five miles north of -Camden, and a brisk skirmish ensued, in which the Americans were routed -and the gallant Colonel Porterfield was slain. Both armies, however, -having failed in their scheme of surprising each other, lay on their -arms and waited for daylight. Some prisoners who fell into the hands of -the Americans now brought the news that the army opposed to them was -commanded by Cornwallis himself, and they overstated its numbers at -3,000 men. The astonished Gates called together his officers, and asked -what was to be done. No one spoke for a few moments, until General -Stevens exclaimed, "Well, gentlemen, is it not too late _now_ to do -anything but fight?" Kalb's opinion was in favour of retreating to -Clermont and taking a strong position there; but his advice had so often -passed unheeded that he no longer urged it, and it was decided to open -the battle by an attack on the British right. - - [Illustration: KALB'S SWORD WORN AT CAMDEN] - - [Sidenote: Battle of Camden, Aug. 16, 1780] - - [Sidenote: Total and ignominious defeat of Gates] - -The rising sun presently showed the two armies close together. Huge -swamps, at a short distance from the road, on either side, covered both -flanks of both armies. On the west side of the road the British left was -commanded by Lord Rawdon, on the east side their right was led by -Colonel James Webster, while Tarleton and his cavalry hovered a little -in the rear. The American right wing, opposed to Rawdon, was commanded -by Kalb, and consisted of the Delaware regiment and the second Maryland -brigade in front, supported by the first Maryland brigade at some -distance in the rear. The American left wing, opposed to Webster, -consisted of the militia from Virginia and North Carolina, under -Generals Stevens and Caswell. Such an arrangement of troops invited -disaster. The battle was to begin with an attack on the British right, -an attack upon disciplined soldiers; and the lead in this attack was -entrusted to raw militia who had hardly ever been under fire, and did -not even understand the use of the bayonet! This work should have been -given to those splendid Maryland troops that had gone to help Sumter. -The militia, skilled in woodcraft, should have been sent on that -expedition, and the regulars should have been retained for the battle. -The militia did not even know how to advance properly, but became -tangled up; and while they were straightening their lines, Colonel -Webster came down upon them in a furious charge. The shock of the -British column was resistless. The Virginia militia threw down their -guns and fled without firing a shot. The North Carolina militia did -likewise, and within fifteen minutes the whole American left became a -mob of struggling men, smitten with mortal panic, and huddling like -sheep in their wild flight, while Tarleton's cavalry gave chase and cut -them down by scores. Leaving Tarleton to deal with them, Webster turned -upon the first Maryland brigade, and slowly pushed it off the field, -after an obstinate resistance. The second Maryland brigade, on the other -hand, after twice repelling the assault of Lord Rawdon, broke through -his left with a spirited bayonet charge, and remained victorious upon -that part of the field, until the rest of the fight was ended; when -being attacked in flank by Webster, these stalwart troops retreated -westerly by a narrow road between swamp and hillside, and made their -escape in good order. Long after the battle was lost in every other -quarter, the gigantic form of Kalb, unhorsed and fighting on foot, was -seen directing the movements of his brave Maryland and Delaware troops, -till he fell dying from eleven wounds, Gates, caught in the throng of -fugitives at the beginning of the action, was borne in headlong flight -as far as Clermont, where, taking a fresh horse, he made the distance of -nearly two hundred miles to Hillsborough in less than four days. The -laurels of Saratoga had indeed changed into willows. It was the most -disastrous defeat ever inflicted upon an American army, and ignominious -withal, since it was incurred through a series of the grossest blunders. -The Maryland troops lost half their number, the Delaware regiment was -almost entirely destroyed, and all the rest of the army was dispersed. -The number of killed and wounded has never been fully ascertained, but -it can hardly have been less than 1,000, while more than 1,000 prisoners -were taken, with seven pieces of artillery and 2,000 muskets. The -British loss in killed and wounded was 324. - - [Sidenote: His campaign was a series of blunders] - -The reputation of General Gates never recovered from this sudden -overthrow, and his swift flight to Hillsborough was made the theme of -unsparing ridicule. Yet, if duly considered, that was the one part of -his conduct for which he cannot fairly be blamed. The best of generals -may be caught in a rush of panic-stricken fugitives and hurried off the -battlefield: the flight of Frederick the Great at Mollwitz was even more -ignominious than that of Gates at Camden. When once, moreover, the full -extent of the disaster had become apparent, it was certainly desirable -that Gates should reach Hillsborough as soon as possible, since it was -the point from which the state organization of North Carolina was -controlled, and accordingly the point at which a new army might soonest -be collected. Gates's flight was a singularly dramatic and appropriate -end to his silly career, but our censure should be directed to the -wretched generalship by which the catastrophe was prepared: to the wrong -choice of roads, the fatal hesitation at the critical moment, the -weakening of the army on the eve of battle; and, above all, to the -rashness in fighting at all after the true state of affairs had become -known. The campaign was an epitome of the kind of errors which -Washington always avoided; and it admirably illustrated the inanity of -John Adams's toast, "A short and violent war," against an enemy of -superior strength. - - [Sidenote: Partisan operations] - -If the 400 Maryland regulars who had been sent to help General Sumter -had remained with the main army and been entrusted with the assault on -the British right, the result of this battle would doubtless have been -very different. It might not have been a victory, but it surely would -not have been a rout. On the day before the battle, Sumter had attacked -the British supply train on its way from Charleston, and captured all -the stores, with more than 100 prisoners. But the defeat at Camden -deprived this exploit of its value. Sumter retreated up the Wateree -river to Fishing creek, but on the 18th Tarleton for once caught him -napping, and routed him; taking 300 prisoners, setting free the captured -British, and recovering all the booty. The same day witnessed an -American success in another quarter. At Musgrove's Mills, in the western -part of the state, Colonel James Williams defeated a force of 500 -British and Tories, killing and wounding nearly one third of their -number. Two days later, Marion performed one of his characteristic -exploits. A detachment of the British army was approaching Nelson's -Ferry, where the Santee river crosses the road from Camden to -Charleston, when Marion, with a handful of men, suddenly darting upon -these troops, captured 26 of their number, set free 150 Maryland -prisoners whom they were taking down to the coast, and got away without -losing a man. - -Such deeds showed that the life of South Carolina was not quite extinct, -but they could not go far toward relieving the gloom which overspread -the country after the defeat of Camden. For a second time within three -months the American army in the south had been swept out of existence. -Gates could barely get together 1,000 men at Hillsborough, and -Washington could not well spare any more from his already depleted -force. To muster and train a fresh army of regulars would be slow and -difficult work, and it was as certain as anything could be that -Cornwallis would immediately proceed to attempt the conquest of North -Carolina. - - * * * * * - - [Sidenote: Weariness and depression of the people] - -Never was the adage that the darkest time comes just before day more -aptly illustrated than in the general aspect of American affairs during -the summer and fall of 1780. The popular feeling had not so much the -character of panic as in those "times which tried men's souls," when the -broad Delaware river screened Washington's fast dwindling army from -destruction. It was not now a feeling of quick alarm so much as of utter -weariness and depression. More than four years had passed since the -Declaration of Independence, and although the enemy had as yet gained no -firm foothold in the northern states except in the city of New York, it -still seemed impossible to dislodge them from that point, while -Cornwallis, flushed with victory, boasted that he would soon conquer all -the country south of the Susquehanna. For the moment it began to look as -if Lord George Germain's policy of tiring the Americans out might prove -successful, after all. The country was still without anything fit to be -called a general government. After three years' discussion, the Articles -of Confederation, establishing a "league of friendship" between the -thirteen states, had not yet been adopted. The Continental Congress had -continued to decline in reputation and capacity. From this state of -things, rather than from any real poverty of the country, there had -ensued a general administrative paralysis, which went on increasing even -after the war was ended, until it was brought to a close by the adoption -of the Federal Constitution. It was not because the thirteen states were -lacking in material resources or in patriotism that the conduct of the -war languished as it did. The resources were sufficient, had there been -any means of concentrating and utilizing them. The relations of the -states to each other were not defined; and while there were thirteen -powers which could plan and criticise, there was no single power which -could act efficiently. Hence the energies of the people were frittered -away. - - [Illustration: Continental Currency LXD] - - [Illustration: VIRGINIA COLONIAL CURRENCY] - - [Sidenote: Evils wrought by the paper currency] - - [Sidenote: "Not worth a Continental"] - -The disease was most plainly visible in those money matters which form -the basis of all human activity. The condition of American finance in -1780 was simply horrible. The "greenback" delusion possessed people's -minds even more strongly then than in the days following our Civil War. -Pelatiah Webster, the ablest political economist in America at that -time, a thinker far in advance of his age, was almost alone in insisting -upon taxation. The popular feeling was expressed by a delegate in -Congress who asked, with unspeakable scorn, why he should vote to tax -the people, when a Philadelphia printing-press could turn out money by -the bushel.[31] But indeed, without an amendment, Congress had no power -to lay any tax, save through requisitions upon the state governments. -There seemed to be no alternative but to go on issuing this money, which -many people glorified as the "safest possible currency," because "nobody -could take it out of the country." As Webster truly said, the country -had suffered more from this cause than from the arms of the enemy. "The -people of the states at that time," said he, "had been worried and -fretted, disappointed and put out of humour, by so many tender acts, -limitations of prices, and other compulsory methods to force value into -paper money, and compel the circulation of it, and by so many vain -funding schemes and declarations and promises, all which issued from -Congress, but died under the most zealous efforts to put them into -operation, that their patience was exhausted. These irritations and -disappointments had so destroyed the courage and confidence of the -people that they appeared heartless and almost stupid when their -attention was called to any new proposal." During the summer of 1780 -this wretched "Continental" currency fell into contempt. As Washington -said, it took a wagon-load of money to buy a wagon-load of provisions. -At the end of the year 1778, the paper dollar was worth sixteen cents in -the northern states and twelve cents in the south. Early in 1780 its -value had fallen to two cents, and before the end of the year it took -ten paper dollars to make a cent. In October, Indian corn sold wholesale -in Boston for $150 a bushel, butter was $12 a pound, tea $90, sugar $10, -beef $8, coffee $12, and a barrel of flour cost $1,575. Samuel Adams -paid $2,000 for a hat and suit of clothes. The money soon ceased to -circulate, debts could not be collected, and there was a general -prostration of credit. To say that a thing was "not worth a Continental" -became the strongest possible expression of contempt. A barber in -Philadelphia papered his shop with bills, and a dog was led up and down -the streets, smeared with tar, with this unhappy "money" sticking all -over him,--a sorry substitute for the golden-fleeced sheep of the old -Norse legend. Save for the scanty pittance of gold which came in from -the French alliance, from the little foreign commerce that was left, and -from trade with the British army itself, the country was without any -circulating medium. In making its requisitions upon the states, Congress -resorted to a measure which reminds one of the barbaric ages of barter. -Instead of asking for money, it requested the states to send in their -"specific supplies" of beef and pork, flour and rice, salt and hay, -tobacco and rum. The finances of what was so soon to become one of the -richest of nations were thus managed on the principle whereby the meagre -salaries of country clergymen in New England used to be eked out. It -might have been called a continental system of "donation parties." - - [Sidenote: Difficulty of keeping the army together] - -Under these circumstances, it became almost impossible to feed and -clothe the army. The commissaries, without either money or credit, could -do but little; and Washington, sorely against his will, was obliged to -levy contributions on the country surrounding his camp. It was done as -gently as possible. The county magistrates were called on for a -specified quantity of flour and meat; the supplies brought in were duly -appraised, and certificates were given in exchange for them by the -commissaries. Such certificates were received at their nominal value in -payment of taxes. But this measure, which simply introduced a new kind -of paper money, served only to add to the general confusion. These -difficulties, enhanced by the feeling that the war was dragged out to an -interminable length, made it impossible to keep the army properly -recruited. When four months' pay of a private soldier would not buy a -single bushel of wheat for his family, and when he could not collect -even this pittance, while most of the time he went barefoot and -half-famished, it was not strange that he should sometimes feel -mutinous. The desertions to the British lines at this time averaged more -than a hundred a month. Ternay, the French admiral, wrote to Vergennes -that the fate of North America was as yet very uncertain, and the -Revolution by no means so far advanced as people in Europe supposed. The -accumulated evils of the time had greatly increased the number of -persons who, to save the remnant of their fortunes, were ready to see -peace purchased at any price. In August, before he had heard of the -disaster at Camden, Washington wrote to President Huntington, reminding -him that the term of service of half the army would expire at the end of -the year. "The shadow of an army that will remain," said Washington, -"will have every motive except mere patriotism to abandon the service, -without the hope, which has hitherto supported them, of a change for the -better. This is almost extinguished now, and certainly will not outlive -the campaign unless it finds something more substantial to rest upon. To -me it will appear miraculous if our affairs can maintain themselves much -longer in their present train. If either the temper or the resources of -the country will not admit of an alteration, we may expect soon to be -reduced to the humiliating condition of seeing the cause of America in -America upheld by foreign arms." - - [Portrait: Sam^{el} Huntington] - - [Sidenote: The French alliance] - -To appreciate the full force of this, we must remember that, except in -South Carolina, there had been no fighting worthy of mention during the -year. The southern campaign absorbed the energies of the British to such -an extent that they did nothing whatever in the north but make an -unsuccessful attempt at invading New Jersey in June. While this fact -shows how severely the strength of England was taxed by the coalition -that had been formed against her, it shows even more forcibly how the -vitality of America had been sapped by causes that lay deeper down than -the mere presence of war. It was, indeed, becoming painfully apparent -that little was to be hoped save through the aid of France. The alliance -had thus far achieved but little that was immediately obvious to the -American people, but it had really been of enormous indirect benefit to -us. Both in itself and in the European complications to which it had -led, the action of France had very seriously crippled the efficient -military power of England. It locked up and neutralized much British -energy that would otherwise have been directed against the Americans. -The French government had also furnished Congress with large sums of -money. But as for any direct share in military enterprises on American -soil or in American waters, France had as yet done almost nothing. An -evil star had presided over both the joint expeditions for the recovery -of Newport and Savannah, and no French army had yet been landed on our -shores to cast in its lot with Washington's brave Continentals in a -great and decisive campaign. - - [Illustration: FRANKLIN BEFORE LOUIS XVI.] - - [Portrait: Louis] - - [Portrait: Marie Antoinette] - - [Sidenote: Lafayette's visit to France] - -It had long been clear that France could in no way more effectively -further the interests which she shared with the United States than by -sending a strong force of trained soldiers to act under Washington's -command. Nothing could be more obvious than the inference that such a -general, once provided with an adequate force, might drive the British -from New York, and thus deal a blow which would go far toward ending the -war. This had long been Washington's most cherished scheme. In February, -1779, Lafayette had returned to France to visit his family, and to urge -that aid of this sort might be granted. To chide him for his naughtiness -in running away to America in defiance of the royal mandate, the king -ordered him to be confined for a week at his father-in-law's house in -Paris. Then he received him quite graciously at court, while the queen -begged him to "tell us good news of our dearly beloved Americans." The -good Lafayette, to whom, in the dreadful years that were to come, this -dull king and his bright, unhappy queen were to look for compassionate -protection, now ventured to give them some sensible words of advice. -"The money that you spend on one of your old court balls," he said, -"would go far toward sending a serviceable army to America, and dealing -England a blow where she would most feel it." For several months he -persisted in urging Vergennes to send over at least 12,000 men, with a -good general, and to put them distinctly under Washington's command, so -that there might be no disastrous wrangling about precedence, and no -repetition of such misunderstandings as had ruined the Newport campaign. -When Estaing arrived at Paris, early in 1780, after his defeat at -Savannah, he gave similar advice. The idea commended itself to -Vergennes, and when, in April, 1780, Lafayette returned to the United -States, he was authorized to inform Washington that France would soon -send the desired reinforcement. - - [Sidenote: Arrival of part of the French auxiliary force under -Rochambeau] - -On the 10th of July, Admiral Ternay, with seven ships-of-the-line and -three frigates, arrived at Newport, bringing with him a force of 6,000 -men, commanded by a good general, Count Rochambeau. This was the first -instalment of an army of which the remainder was to be sent as soon as -adequate means of transport could be furnished. On the important -question of military etiquette, Lafayette's advice had been strictly -heeded. Rochambeau was told to put himself under Washington's command, -and to consider his troops as part of the American army, while American -officers were to take precedence of French officers of equal rank. This -French army was excellent in discipline and equipment, and among its -officers were some, such as the Duke de Lauzun-Biron and the Marquis de -Chastellux, who had won high distinction. Rochambeau wrote to Vergennes -that on his arrival he found the people of Rhode Island sad and -discouraged. Everybody thought the country was going to the dogs. But -when it was understood that this was but the advance guard of a -considerable army and that France was this time in deadly earnest, their -spirits rose, and the streets of Newport were noisy with hurrahs and -brilliant with fireworks. - - [Illustration: LANDING OF FRENCH TROOPS] - -The hearts of the people, however, were still further to be sickened -with hope deferred. Several British ships-of-the-line, arriving at New -York, gave the enemy such a preponderance upon the water that Clinton -resolved to take the offensive, and started down the Sound with 6,000 -men to attack the French at Newport. Washington foiled this scheme by a -sudden movement against New York, which obliged the British commander to -fall back hastily for its defence; but the French fleet was nevertheless -blockaded in Narragansett Bay by a powerful British squadron, and -Rochambeau felt it necessary to keep his troops in Rhode Island to aid -the admiral in case of such contingencies as might arise. The second -instalment of the French army, on which their hopes had been built, -never came, for a British fleet of thirty-two sail held it blockaded in -the harbour of Brest. - - [Sidenote: General despondency] - -The maritime supremacy of England thus continued to stand in the way of -any great enterprise; and for a whole year the gallant army of -Rochambeau was kept idle in Rhode Island, impatient and chafing under -the restraint. The splendid work it was destined to perform under -Washington's leadership lay hidden in the darkness of the future, and -for the moment the gloom which had overspread the country was only -deepened. Three years had passed since the victory of Saratoga, but the -vast consequences which were already flowing from that event had not yet -disclosed their meaning. Looking only at the surface of things, it might -well be asked--and many did ask--whether that great victory had really -done anything more than to prolong a struggle which was essentially vain -and hopeless. Such themes formed the burden of discourse at gentlemen's -dinner-tables and in the back parlours of country inns, where stout -yeomen reviewed the situation of affairs through clouds of tobacco -smoke; and never, perhaps, were the Tories more jubilant or the Whigs -more crestfallen than at the close of this doleful summer. - -It was just at this moment that the country was startled by the sudden -disclosure of a scheme of blackest treason. For the proper explanation -of this affair, a whole chapter will be required. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [31] Agricultural communities lack the right kind of experience for - understanding the real nature of money, and farmers are - peculiarly subject to financial delusions. This has been - illustrated again and again in American history, with - lamentable consequences, from the Massachusetts issue of - "paper money" in 1690 down to the drivelling schemes of the - silver lunatics at the present time. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV - - BENEDICT ARNOLD - - - [Sidenote: Arnold put in command of Philadelphia June 18, 1778] - -To understand the proximate causes of Arnold's treason, we must start -from the summer of 1778, when Philadelphia was evacuated by the British. -On that occasion, as General Arnold was incapacitated for active service -by the wound he had received at Saratoga, Washington placed him in -command of Philadelphia. This step brought Arnold into direct contact -with Congress, toward which he bore a fierce grudge for the slights it -had put upon him; and, moreover, the command was in itself a difficult -one. The authority vested in the commandant was not clearly demarcated -from that which belonged to the state government, so that occasions for -dispute were sure to be forthcoming. While the British had held the city -many of the inhabitants had given them active aid and encouragement, and -there was now more or less property to be confiscated. By a resolve of -Congress, all public stores belonging to the enemy were to be -appropriated for the use of the army, and the commander-in-chief was -directed to suspend the sale or transfer of goods until the general -question of ownership should have been determined by a joint committee -of Congress and of the Executive Council of Pennsylvania. It became -Arnold's duty to carry out this order, which not only wrought serious -disturbance to business, but made the city a hornet's nest of bickerings -and complaints. The qualities needed for dealing successfully with such -an affair as this were very different from the qualities which had -distinguished Arnold in the field. The utmost delicacy of tact was -required, and Arnold was blunt and self-willed, and deficient in tact. -He was accordingly soon at loggerheads with the state government, and -lost, besides, much of the personal popularity with which he started. -Stories were whispered about to his discredit. It was charged against -Arnold that the extravagance of his style of living was an offence -against republican simplicity, and a scandal in view of the distressed -condition of the country; that in order to obtain the means of meeting -his heavy expenses he resorted to peculation and extortion; and that he -showed too much favour to the Tories. These charges were doubtless not -without some foundation. This era of paper money and failing credit was -an era of ostentatious expenditure, not altogether unlike that which, in -later days, preceded the financial break-down of 1873. People in the -towns lived extravagantly, and in no other town was this more -conspicuous than in Philadelphia; while perhaps no one in Philadelphia -kept a finer stable of horses or gave more costly dinners than General -Arnold. He ran in debt, and engaged in commercial speculations to remedy -the evil; and, in view of the light afterward thrown upon his character, -it is not unlikely that he may have sometimes availed himself of his -high position to aid these speculations. - - [Portrait: B Arnold] - - [Sidenote: Miss Margaret Shippen] - - [Sidenote: Views of the moderate Tories] - -The charge of favouring the Tories may find its explanation in a -circumstance which possibly throws a side-light upon his lavish use of -money. Miss Margaret Shippen, daughter of a gentleman of moderate Tory -sympathies, who some years afterward became chief justice of -Pennsylvania, was at that time the reigning belle of Philadelphia; and -no sooner had the new commandant arrived at his post than he was taken -captive by her piquant face and charming manner. The lady was scarcely -twenty years old, while Arnold was a widower of thirty-five, with three -sons; but his handsome face, his gallant bearing, and his splendid -career outweighed these disadvantages, and in the autumn of 1778 he was -betrothed to Miss Shippen, and thus entered into close relations with a -prominent Tory family. In the moderate section of the Tory party, to -which the Shippens belonged, there were many people who, while strongly -opposed to the Declaration of Independence, would nevertheless have -deemed it dishonourable to lend active aid to the enemy. In 1778, such -people thought that Congress did wrong in making an alliance with France -instead of accepting the liberal proposals of Lord North. The -Declaration of Independence, they argued, would never have been made had -it been supposed that the constitutional liberties of the American -people could any otherwise be securely protected. Even Samuel Adams -admitted this. In the war which had been undertaken in defence of these -liberties, the affair of Saratoga had driven the British government to -pledge itself to concede them once and forever. Then why not be -magnanimous in the hour of triumph? Why not consider the victory of -Saratoga as final, instead of subjecting the resources of the country to -a terrible strain in the doubtful attempt to secure a result which, only -three years before, even Washington himself had regarded as undesirable? -Was it not unwise and unpatriotic to reject the overtures of our -kinsmen, and cast in our lot with that Catholic and despotic power which -had ever been our deadliest foe? - - [Illustration: OLD LONDON COFFEE HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA] - - [Sidenote: Arnold's drift toward Toryism] - - [Sidenote: He makes up his mind to leave the army] - -Such were the arguments to which Arnold must have listened again and -again, during the summer and autumn of 1778. How far he may have been -predisposed toward such views it would be impossible to say. He always -declared himself disgusted with the French alliance,[32] and in this -there is nothing improbable. But that, under the circumstances, he -should gradually have drifted into the Tory position was, in a man of -his temperament, almost inevitable. His nature was warm, impulsive, and -easily impressible, while he was deficient in breadth of intelligence in -rigorous moral conviction; and his opinions on public matters took their -hue largely from his personal feelings. It was not surprising that such -a man, in giving splendid entertainments, should invite to them the Tory -friends of the lady whose favour he was courting. His course excited the -wrath of the Whigs. General Reed wrote indignantly to General Greene -that Arnold had actually given a party at which "not only common Tory -ladies, but the wives and daughters of persons proscribed by the state, -and now with the enemy at New York," were present in considerable -numbers. When twitted with such things, Arnold used to reply that it was -the part of a true soldier to fight his enemies in the open field, but -not to proscribe or persecute their wives and daughters in private life. -But such an explanation naturally satisfied no one. His quarrels with -the Executive Council, sharpened by such incidents as these, grew more -and more violent, until when, in December, his most active enemy, Joseph -Reed, became president of the Council, he suddenly made up his mind to -resign his post and leave the army altogether. He would quit the turmoil -of public affairs, obtain a grant of land in western New York, settle it -with his old soldiers, with whom he had always been a favourite, and -lead henceforth a life of Arcadian simplicity. In this mood he wrote to -Schuyler, in words which to-day seem strange and sad, that his ambition -was not so much to "shine in history" as to be "a good citizen;" and -about the 1st of January, 1779, he set out for Albany to consult with -the New York legislature about the desired land. - - [Portrait: John Jay] - - [Sidenote: Charges are brought against him Jan., 1779] - - [Sidenote: He is acquitted by a committee of Congress in March] - - [Sidenote: The case is referred to a court-martial, April 3, 1779] - -Arnold's scheme was approved by John Jay, who was then president of the -Continental Congress, as well as by several other men of influence, and -in all likelihood it would have succeeded; but as he stopped for a day -at Morristown, to visit Washington, a letter overtook him, with the -information that as soon as his back had been turned upon Philadelphia -he had been publicly attacked by President Reed and the Council. Formal -charges were brought against him: 1, of having improperly granted a pass -for a ship to come into port; 2, of having once used some public wagons -for the transportation of private property; 3, of having usurped the -privilege of the Council in allowing people to enter the enemy's lines; -4, of having illegally bought up a lawsuit over a prize vessel; 5, of -having "imposed menial offices upon the sons of freemen" serving in the -militia; and 6, of having made purchases for his private benefit at the -time when, by his own order, all shops were shut. These charges were -promulgated in a most extraordinary fashion. Not only were they laid -before Congress, but copies of them were sent to the governors of all -the states, accompanied by a circular letter from President Reed -requesting the governors to communicate them to their respective -legislatures. Arnold was naturally enraged at such an elaborate attempt -to prepossess the public mind against him, but his first concern was for -the possible effect it might have upon Miss Shippen. He instantly -returned to Philadelphia, and demanded an investigation. He had obtained -Washington's permission to resign his command, but deferred acting upon -it till the inquiry should have ended. The charges were investigated by -a committee of Congress, and about the middle of March this committee -brought in a report stating that all the accusations were groundless, -save the two which related to the use of the wagons and the irregular -granting of a pass; and since in these instances there was no evidence -of wrong intent, the committee recommended an unqualified verdict of -acquittal. Arnold thereupon, considering himself vindicated, resigned -his command. But Reed now represented to Congress that further testimony -was forthcoming, and urged that the case should be reconsidered. -Accordingly, instead of acting upon the report of its committee, -Congress referred the matter anew to a joint committee of Congress and -the Assembly and Council of Pennsylvania. This joint committee shirked -the matter by recommending that the case be referred to a court-martial, -and this recommendation was adopted by Congress on the 3d of April. The -vials of Arnold's wrath were now full to overflowing; but he had no -cause to complain of Miss Shippen, for their marriage took place in less -than a week after this action of Congress. Washington, who sympathized -with Arnold's impatience, appointed the court-martial for the 1st of -May, but the Council of Pennsylvania begged for more time to collect -evidence. And thus, in one way and another, the summer and autumn were -frittered away, so that the trial did not begin until the 19th of -December. All this time Arnold kept clamouring for a speedy trial, and -Washington did his best to soothe him while paying due heed to the -representations of the Council. - - [Sidenote: First correspondence with Clinton] - -In the excitement of this fierce controversy the Arcadian project seems -to have been forgotten. Up to this point Arnold's anger had been chiefly -directed toward the authorities of Pennsylvania; but when Congress -refused to act upon the report of its committee exonerating him from -blame, he became incensed against the whole party which, as he said, had -so ill requited his services. It is supposed to have been about that -time, in April, 1779, that he wrote a letter to Sir Henry Clinton, in -disguised handwriting and under the signature of "Gustavus," describing -himself as an American officer of high rank, who, through disgust at the -French alliance and _other recent proceedings of Congress_, might -perhaps be persuaded to go over to the British, provided he could be -indemnified for any losses he might incur by so doing. The beginning of -this correspondence--if this was really the time--coincided curiously -with the date of Arnold's marriage, but it is in the highest degree -probable that down to the final catastrophe Mrs. Arnold knew nothing -whatever of what was going on.[33] The correspondence was kept up at -intervals, Sir Henry's replies being written by Major John Andre, his -adjutant-general, over the signature of "John Anderson." Nothing seems -to have been thought of at first beyond the personal desertion of Arnold -to the enemy; the betrayal of a fortress was a later development of -infamy. For the present, too, we may suppose that Arnold was merely -playing with fire, while he awaited the result of the court-martial. - - [Portrait: John Andre] - - [Sidenote: The court-martial acquits Arnold of all serious charges, but -directs Washington to reprimand him for two very trivial ones, Jan. 26, -1780] - -The summer was not a happy one. His debts went on increasing, while his -accounts with Congress remained unsettled, and he found it impossible to -collect large sums that were due him. At last the court-martial met, and -sat for five weeks. On the 26th of January, 1780, the verdict was -rendered, and in substance it agreed exactly with that of the committee -of Congress ten months before. Arnold was fully acquitted of all the -charges which alleged dishonourable dealings. The pass which he had -granted was irregular, and public wagons, which were standing idle, had -once been used to remove private property that was in imminent danger -from the enemy. The court exonerated Arnold of all intentional wrong, -even in these venial matters, which it characterized as "imprudent;" -but, as a sort of lame concession to the Council of Pennsylvania, it -directed that he should receive a public reprimand from the -commander-in-chief for his imprudence in the use of wagons, and for -hurriedly giving a pass in which all due forms were not attended to. The -decision of the court-martial was promptly confirmed by Congress, and -Washington had no alternative but to issue the reprimand, which he -couched in words as delicate and gracious as possible.[34] - - [Sidenote: Arnold thirsts for revenge upon Congress] - -It was too late, however. The damage was done. Arnold had long felt -persecuted and insulted. He had already dallied with temptation, and the -poison was now working in his veins. His sense of public duty was -utterly distorted by the keener sense of his private injuries. We may -imagine him brooding over some memorable incidents in the careers of -Monk, of the great Montrose and the greater Marlborough, until he -persuaded himself that to change sides in a civil war was not so heinous -a crime after all. Especially the example of Monk, which had already led -Charles Lee to disgrace, seems to have riveted the attention of Arnold, -although only the most shallow scrutiny could discover any resemblance -between what the great English general had done and what Arnold purposed -to do. There was not a more scrupulously honourable soldier in his day -than George Monk. Arnold's thoughts may have run somewhat as follows. He -would not become an ordinary deserter, a villain on a small scale. He -would not sell himself cheaply to the devil; but he would play as signal -a part in his new career as he had played in the old one. He would -overwhelm this blundering Congress, and triumphantly carry the country -back to its old allegiance. To play such a part, however, would require -the blackest treachery. Fancy George Monk, "honest old George," asking -for the command of a fortress in order to betray it to the enemy! - - [Illustration: BENEDICT ARNOLD'S HOUSE AT PHILADELPHIA] - -When once Arnold had committed himself to this evil course, his story -becomes a sickening one, lacking no element of horror, whether in its -foul beginnings or in its wretched end. To play his new part properly, -he must obtain an important command, and the place which obviously -suggested itself was West Point. - - [Sidenote: Significance of West Point] - -Since Burgoyne's overthrow, Washington had built a chain of strong -fortresses there, for he did not intend that the possession of the -Hudson river should ever again be put in question, so far as -fortifications could go. Could this cardinal position be delivered up to -Clinton, the prize would be worth tenfold the recent triumphs at -Charleston and Camden. It would be giving the British what Burgoyne had -tried in vain to get; and now it was the hero of Saratoga who plotted to -undo his own good work at the dictates of perverted ambition and -unhallowed revenge. - - [Sidenote: Arnold put in command of West Point, July, 1780] - -To get possession of this stronghold, it was necessary to take advantage -of the confidence with which his great commander had always honoured -him. From Washington, in July, 1780, Arnold sought the command of West -Point, alleging that his wounded leg still kept him unfit for service in -the field; and Washington immediately put him in charge of this -all-important post, thus giving him the strongest proof of unabated -confidence and esteem which it was in his power to give; and among all -the dark shades in Arnold's treason, perhaps none seems darker than this -personal treachery toward the man who had always trusted and defended -him. What must the traitor's feelings have been when he read the -affectionate letters which Schuyler wrote him at this very time? In -better days he had shown much generosity of nature. Can it be that this -is the same man who on the field of Saratoga saved the life of the poor -soldier who in honest fight had shot him and broken his leg? Such are -the strange contrasts that we sometimes see in characters that are -governed by impulse, and not by principle. Their virtue may be real -enough while it lasts, but it does not weather the storm; and when once -wrecked, the very same emotional nature by which alone it was supported -often prompts to deeds of incredible wickedness. - - [Illustration: JOSHUA SMITH'S HOUSE, ON TREASON HILL] - - [Sidenote: Secret interview between Arnold and Andre, Sept. 22] - -After taking command of West Point, the correspondence with Andre, -carefully couched in such terms as to make it seem to refer to some -commercial enterprise, was briskly kept up; and hints were let drop -which convinced Sir Henry Clinton that the writer was Arnold, and the -betrayal of the highland stronghold his purpose. Troops were accordingly -embarked on the Hudson, and the flotilla was put in command of Admiral -Rodney, who had looked in at New York on his way to the West Indies. To -disguise the purpose of the embarkation, a rumour was industriously -circulated that a force was to be sent southward to the Chesapeake. To -arrange some important details of the affair it seemed desirable that -the two correspondents "Gustavus" and "John Anderson," should meet, and -talk over matters which could not safely be committed to paper. On the -18th of September, Washington, accompanied by Lafayette and Hamilton, -set out for Hartford, for an interview with Rochambeau; and advantage -was taken of his absence to arrange a meeting between the plotters. On -the 20th Andre was taken up the river on the Vulture, sloop-of-war, and -on the night of the 21st Arnold sent out a boat which brought him ashore -about four miles below Stony Point. There in a thicket of fir-trees, -under the veil of blackest midnight, the scheme was matured; but as gray -dawn came on before all the details had been arranged, the boatmen -became alarmed, and refused to take Andre back to the ship, and he was -accordingly persuaded, though against his will, to accompany Arnold -within the American lines. The two conspirators walked up the bank a -couple of miles to the house of one Joshua Smith, a man of doubtful -allegiance, who does not seem to have understood the nature and extent -of the plot, or to have known who Arnold's visitor was. It was thought -that they might spend the day discussing the enterprise, and when it -should have grown dark Andre could be rowed back to the Vulture. - - [Illustration: LINKS OF WEST POINT CHAIN] - - [Illustration: SCENE OF ARNOLD'S TREASON, 1780] - - [Sidenote: The plot for surrendering West Point] - -But now a quite unforeseen accident occurred. Colonel Livingston, -commanding the works on the opposite side of the river, was provoked by -the sight of a British ship standing so near; and he opened such a -lively fire upon the Vulture that she was obliged to withdraw from the -scene. As the conspirators were waiting in Smith's house for breakfast -to be served, they heard the booming of the guns, and Andre, rushing to -the window, beheld with dismay the ship on whose presence so much -depended dropping out of sight down the stream. On second thoughts, -however, it was clear that she would not go far, as her commander had -orders not to return to New York without Andre, and it was still thought -that he might regain her. After breakfast he went to an upper chamber -with Arnold, and several hours were spent in perfecting their plans. -Immediately upon Andre's return to New York, the force under Clinton and -Rodney was to ascend the river. To obstruct the approach of a hostile -flotilla, a massive chain lay stretched across the river, guarded by -water batteries. Under pretence of repairs, one link was to be taken out -for a few days, and supplied by a rope which a slight blow would tear -away. The approach of the British was to be announced by a concerted -system of signals, and the American forces were to be so distributed -that they could be surrounded and captured in detail, until at the -proper moment Arnold, taking advantage of the apparent defeat, was to -surrender the works, with all the troops--3,000 in number--under his -command. It was not unreasonably supposed that such a catastrophe, -coming on the heels of Charleston and Camden and general bankruptcy, -would put a stop to the war and lead to negotiations, in which Arnold, -in view of such decisive service, might hope to play a leading part. - - [Sidenote: Andre takes compromising documents] - - [Sidenote: and is reluctantly persuaded to return to New York by land, - Sept. 22] - -When Andre set out on this perilous undertaking, Sir Henry Clinton -specially warned him not to adopt any disguise or to carry any papers -which might compromise his safety. But Andre disregarded the advice, and -took from Arnold six papers, all but one of them in the traitor's own -handwriting, containing descriptions of the fortresses and information -as to the disposition of the troops. Much risk might have been avoided -by putting this information into cipher, or into a memorandum which -would have been meaningless save to the parties concerned. But Andre may -perhaps have doubted Arnold's fidelity, and feared lest under a false -pretence of treason he might be drawing the British away into a snare. -The documents which he took, being in Arnold's handwriting and -unmistakable in their purport, were such as to put him in Clinton's -power, and compel him, for the sake of his own safety, to perform his -part of the contract. Andre intended, before getting into the boat, to -tie up these papers in a bundle loaded with a stone, to be dropped into -the water in case of a sudden challenge; but in the mean time he put -them where they could not so easily be got rid of, between his stockings -and the soles of his feet. Arnold furnished the requisite passes for -Smith and Andre to go either by boat or by land, and, having thus -apparently provided for all contingencies, took leave before noon, and -returned in his barge to his headquarters, ten miles up the stream. As -evening approached, Smith, who seems to have been a man of unsteady -nerves, refused to take Andre out to the Vulture. He had been alarmed by -the firing in the morning, and feared there would be more risk in trying -to reach the ship than in travelling down to the British lines by land, -and he promised to ride all night with Andre if he would go that way. -The young officer reluctantly consented, and partially disguised himself -in some of Smith's clothes. At sundown the two crossed the river at -King's Ferry, and pursued their journey on horseback toward White -Plains. - - [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF ARNOLD'S PASS TO ANDRE] - - [Sidenote: The roads infested by robbers] - -The roads east of the Hudson, between the British and the American -lines, were at this time infested by robbers, who committed their -depredations under pretence of keeping up a partisan warfare. There were -two sets of these scapegraces,--the "Cowboys," or cattle-thieves, and -the "Skinners," who took everything they could find. These epithets, -however, referred to the political complexion they chose to assume, -rather than to any difference in their evil practices. The Skinners -professed to be Whigs, and the Cowboys called themselves Tories; but in -point of fact the two parties were alike political enemies to any farmer -or wayfarer whose unprotected situation offered a prospect of booty; and -though murder was not often committed, nobody's property was safe. It -was a striking instance of the demoralization wrought in a highly -civilized part of the country through its having so long continued to be -the actual seat of war. Rumours that the Cowboys were out in force made -Smith afraid to continue the journey by night, and the impatient Andre -was thus obliged to stop at a farmhouse with his timid companion. Rising -before dawn, they kept on until they reached the Croton river, which -marked the upper boundary of the neutral ground between the British and -the American lines. Smith's instructions had been, in case of adopting -the land route, not to leave his charge before reaching White Plains; -but he now became uneasy to return, and Andre, who was beginning to -consider himself out of danger, was perhaps not unwilling to part with a -comrade who annoyed him by his loquacious and inquisitive disposition. -So Smith made his way back to headquarters, and informed Arnold that he -had escorted "Mr. Anderson" within a few miles of the British lines, -which he must doubtless by this time have reached in safety. - - [Portrait: John Paulding] - - [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF ONE OF THE PAPERS FOUND IN ANDRE'S - STOCKINGS] - - [Sidenote: Arrest of Andre, Sept. 23] - - [Sidenote: Colonel Jameson's perplexity] - -Meanwhile, Andre, left to himself, struck into the road which led -through Tarrytown, expecting to meet no worse enemies than Cowboys, who -would either respect a British officer, or, if bent on plunder, might be -satisfied by his money and watch. But it happened that morning that a -party of seven young men had come out to intercept some Cowboys who were -expected up the road; and about nine o'clock, as Andre was approaching -the creek above Tarrytown, a short distance from the far-famed Sleepy -Hollow, he was suddenly confronted by three of this party, who sprang -from the bushes and, with levelled muskets, ordered him to halt. These -men had let several persons, with whose faces they were familiar, pass -unquestioned; and if Smith, who was known to almost every one in that -neighbourhood, had been with Andre, they too would doubtless have been -allowed to pass. Andre was stopped because he was a stranger. One of -these men happened to have on the coat of a Hessian soldier. Held by the -belief that they must be Cowboys, or members of what was sometimes -euphemistically termed the "lower party," Andre expressed a hope that -such was the case; and on being assured that it was so, his caution -deserted him, and, with that sudden sense of relief which is apt to come -after unwonted and prolonged constraint, he avowed himself a British -officer, travelling on business of great importance. To his dismay, he -now learned his mistake. John Paulding, the man in the Hessian coat, -informed him that they were Americans, and ordered him to dismount. -When he now showed them Arnold's pass they disregarded it, and insisted -upon searching him, until presently the six papers were discovered where -he had hidden them. "By God, he is a spy!" exclaimed Paulding, as he -looked over the papers. Threats and promises were of no avail. The young -men, who were not to be bought or cajoled, took their prisoner twelve -miles up the river, and delivered him into the hands of Colonel John -Jameson, a Virginian officer, who commanded a cavalry outpost at North -Castle. When Jameson looked over the papers, they seemed to him very -extraordinary documents to be travelling toward New York in the -stockings of a stranger who could give no satisfactory account of -himself. But so far from his suspecting Arnold of any complicity in the -matter, he could think of nothing better than to send the prisoner -straightway to Arnold himself, together with a brief letter in which he -related what had happened. To the honest Jameson it seemed that this -must be some foul ruse of the enemy, some device for stirring up -suspicion in the camp,--something, at any rate, which could not too -quickly be brought to his general's notice. But the documents themselves -he prudently sent by an express-rider to Washington, accompanying them -with a similar letter of explanation. Andre, in charge of a military -guard, had already proceeded some distance toward West Point when -Jameson's second in command, Major Benjamin Tallmadge, came in from some -errand on which he had been engaged. On hearing what had happened, -Tallmadge suspected that all was not right with Arnold, and insisted -that Andre and the letter should be recalled. After a hurried -discussion, Jameson sent out a party which brought Andre back; but he -still thought it his duty to inform Arnold, and so the letter which -saved the traitor's life was allowed to proceed on its way. - - [Portrait: Le duc de la Luzerne] - - [Illustration: BEVERLY ROBINSON'S HOUSE] - - [Sidenote: Washington returns from Hartford sooner than expected] - -Now, if Washington had returned from Hartford by the route which it was -supposed he would take, through Danbury and Peekskill, Arnold would not -even thus have been saved. For some reason Washington returned two or -three days sooner than had been expected; and, moreover, he chose a more -northerly route, through Farmington and Litchfield, so that the -messenger failed to meet him. It was on the evening of Saturday, the -23d, that Jameson's two letters started. On Sunday afternoon Washington -arrived at Fishkill, eighteen miles above West Point, and was just -starting down the river road when he met Luzerne, the French minister, -who was on his way to consult with Rochambeau. Wishing to have a talk -with this gentleman, Washington turned back to the nearest inn, where -they sat down to supper and chatted, all unconsciously, with the very -Joshua Smith from whom Andre had parted at the Croton river on the -morning of the day before. Word was sent to Arnold to expect the -commander-in-chief and his suite to breakfast the next morning, and -before daybreak of Monday they were galloping down the wooded road. As -they approached the confiscated country house of the loyalist Beverly -Robinson, where Arnold had his headquarters, opposite West Point, -Washington turned his horse down toward the river, whereat Lafayette -reminded him that they were late already, and ought not to keep Mrs. -Arnold waiting. "Ah, marquis," said Washington, laughing, "I know you -young men are all in love with Mrs. Arnold: go and get your breakfast, -and tell her not to wait for me." Lafayette did not adopt the -suggestion. He accompanied Washington and Knox while they rode down to -examine some redoubts. Hamilton and the rest of the party kept on to the -house, and sat down to breakfast in its cheerful wainscoted dining-room, -with Arnold and his wife and several of his officers. - - [Illustration: STAIRCASE IN ROBINSON'S HOUSE] - - [Sidenote: Flight of Arnold, Sept. 25] - -As they sat at table, a courier entered, and handed to Arnold the letter -in which Colonel Jameson informed him that one John Anderson had been -taken with compromising documents in his possession, which had been -forwarded to the commander-in-chief. With astonishing presence of mind, -Arnold folded the letter and put it in his pocket, finished the remark -which had been on his lips when the courier entered, and then, rising, -said that he was suddenly called across the river to West Point, but -would return to meet Washington without delay; and he ordered his barge -to be manned. None of the officers observed anything unusual in his -manner, but the quick eye of his wife detected something wrong, and as -he left the room she excused herself and hurried after him. Going up to -their bedroom, he told her that he was a ruined man and must fly for his -life; and as she screamed and fainted in his arms, he laid her upon the -bed, called in the maid to attend her, stooped to kiss his baby boy who -was sleeping in the cradle, rushed down to the yard, leaped on a horse -that was standing there, and galloped down a by-path to his barge. It -had promptly occurred to his quick mind that the Vulture would still be -waiting for Andre some miles down stream, and he told the oarsmen to row -him thither without delay, as he must get back soon to meet Washington. -A brisk row of eighteen miles brought them to the Vulture, whose -commander was still wondering why Andre did not come back. From the -cabin of the Vulture Arnold sent a letter to Washington, assuring him of -Mrs. Arnold's innocence, and begging that she might be allowed to return -to her family in Philadelphia, or come to her husband, as she might -choose. Then the ill-omened ship weighed anchor, and reached New York -next morning. - - [Portrait: MRS. BENEDICT ARNOLD AND CHILD] - - [Sidenote: Discovery of the treasonable plot] - -Meanwhile, about noonday Washington came in for his breakfast, and, -hearing that Arnold had crossed the river to West Point, soon hurried -off to meet him there, followed by all his suite except Hamilton. As -they were ferried across, no salute of cannon greeted them, and on -landing they learned with astonishment that Arnold had not been there -that morning; but no one as yet had a glimmer of suspicion. When they -returned to Robinson's house, about two o'clock, they found Hamilton -walking up and down before the door in great excitement. Jameson's -courier had arrived, with the letters for Washington, which Hamilton had -just opened and read. The commander and his aide went into the house, -and together examined the papers, which, taken in connection with the -traitor's flight, but too plainly told the story. From Mrs. Arnold, who -was in hysterics, Washington could learn nothing. He privately sent -Hamilton and another aide in pursuit of the fugitive; and coming out to -meet Lafayette and Knox, his voice choking and tears rolling down his -cheeks, he exclaimed, "Arnold is a traitor, and has fled to the British! -Whom can we trust now?" In a moment, however, he had regained his wonted -composure. It was no time for giving way to emotion. It was as yet -impossible to tell how far the scheme might have extended. Even now the -enemy's fleet might be ascending the river (as but for Andre's capture -it doubtless would have been doing that day), and an attack might be -made before the morrow. Riding anxiously about the works, Washington -soon detected the treacherous arrangements that had been made, and by -seven in the evening he had done much to correct them and to make ready -for an attack. As he was taking supper in the room which Arnold had so -hastily quitted in the morning, the traitor's letter from the Vulture -was handed him. "Go to Mrs. Arnold," said he quietly to one of his -officers, "and tell her that though my duty required no means should be -neglected to arrest General Arnold, I have great pleasure in -acquainting _her_ that he is now safe on board a British vessel." - - [Sidenote: Andre taken to Tappan, Sept. 28] - -But while the principal criminal was safe it was far otherwise with the -agent who had been employed in this perilous business. On Sunday, from -his room in Jameson's quarters, Andre had written a letter to -Washington, pathetic in its frank simplicity, declaring his position in -the British army, and telling his story without any attempt at evasion. -From the first there could be no doubt as to the nature of his case, yet -Andre for the moment did not fully comprehend it. On Thursday, the 28th, -he was taken across the river to Tappan, where the main army was -encamped. His escort, Major Tallmadge, was a graduate of Yale College -and a classmate of Nathan Hale, whom General Howe had hanged as a spy -four years before. Tallmadge had begun to feel a warm interest in Andre, -and as they rode their horses side by side into Tappan, when his -prisoner asked how his case would probably be regarded, Tallmadge's -countenance fell, and it was not until the question had been twice -repeated that he replied by a gentle allusion to the fate of his -lamented classmate. "But surely," said poor Andre, "you do not consider -his case and mine alike!" "They are precisely similar," answered -Tallmadge gravely, "and similar will be your fate." - - [Portrait: Benj'^{n}. Tallmadge] - - [Sidenote: Andre's trial and sentence, Sept. 29] - -Next day a military commission of fourteen generals was assembled, with -Greene presiding, to sit in judgment on the unfortunate young officer. -"It is impossible to save him," said the kindly Steuben, who was one of -the judges. "Would to God the wretch who has drawn him to his death -might be made to suffer in his stead!" The opinion of the court was -unanimous that Andre had acted as a spy, and incurred the penalty of -death. Washington allowed a brief respite, that Sir Henry Clinton's -views might be considered. The British commander, in his sore distress -over the danger of his young friend, could find no better grounds to -allege in his defence than that he had, presumably, gone ashore under a -flag of truce, and that when taken he certainly was travelling under -the protection of a pass which Arnold, in the ordinary exercise of his -authority, had a right to grant. But clearly these safeguards were -vitiated by the treasonable purpose of the commander who granted them, -and in availing himself of them Andre, who was privy to this treasonable -purpose, took his life in his hands as completely as any ordinary spy -would do. Andre himself had already candidly admitted before the court -"that it was impossible for him to suppose that he came ashore under the -sanction of a flag;" and Washington struck to the root of the matter, as -he invariably did, in his letter to Clinton, where he said that Andre -"was employed in the execution of measures very foreign to the objects -of flags of truce, and such as they were never meant to authorize or -countenance in the most distant degree." The argument was conclusive, -but it was not strange that the British general should have been slow to -admit its force. He begged that the question might be submitted to an -impartial committee, consisting of Knyphausen from the one army and -Rochambeau from the other; but as no question had arisen which the -military commission was not thoroughly competent to decide, Washington -very properly refused to permit such an unusual proceeding. Lastly, -Clinton asked that Andre might be exchanged for Christopher Gadsden, who -had been taken in the capture of Charleston, and was then imprisoned at -St. Augustine. At the same time, a letter from Arnold to Washington, -with characteristic want of tact, hinting at retaliation upon the -persons of sundry South Carolinian prisoners, was received with silent -contempt. - - [Sidenote: Captain Ogden's message, Sept. 30] - - [Sidenote: Execution of Andre, Oct. 2] - -There was a general feeling in the American army that if Arnold himself -could be surrendered to justice, it might perhaps be well to set free -the less guilty victim by an act of executive clemency; and Greene gave -expression to this feeling in an interview with Lieutenant-General -Robertson, whom Clinton sent up on Sunday, the 1st of October, to plead -for Andre's life. No such suggestion could be made in the form of an -official proposal. Under no circumstances could Clinton be expected to -betray the man from whose crime he had sought to profit, and who had now -thrown himself upon him for protection. Nevertheless, in a roundabout -way the suggestion was made. On Saturday, Captain Ogden, with an escort -of twenty-five men and a flag of truce, was sent down to Paulus Hook -with letters for Clinton, and he contrived to whisper to the commandant -there that if in any way Arnold might be suffered to slip into the hands -of the Americans Andre would be set free. It was Lafayette who had -authorized Ogden to offer the suggestion, and so, apparently Washington -must have connived at it; but Clinton of course refused to entertain -the idea for a moment.[35] The conference between Greene and Robertson -led to nothing. A petition from Andre, in which he begged to be shot -rather than hanged, was duly considered and rejected; and, accordingly, -on Monday, the 2d of October, the ninth day after his capture by the -yeomen at Tarrytown, the adjutant-general of the British army was led to -the gallows. His remains were buried near the spot where he suffered, -but in 1821 they were disinterred and removed to Westminster Abbey. - - [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF SKETCH OF ANDRE BY HIMSELF] - -The fate of this gallant young officer has always called forth tender -commiseration, due partly to his high position and his engaging personal -qualities, but chiefly, no doubt, to the fact that, while he suffered -the penalty of the law, the chief conspirator escaped. One does not -easily get rid of a vague sense of injustice in this, but the injustice -was not of man's contriving. But for the remarkable series of -accidents--if it be philosophical to call them so--resulting in Andre's -capture, the treason would very likely have been successful, and the -cause of American independence might have been for the moment ruined. -But for an equally remarkable series of accidents Arnold would not have -received warning in time to escape. If both had been captured, both -would probably have been hanged. Certainly both alike had incurred the -penalty of death. It was not the fault of Washington or of the military -commission that the chief offender went unpunished, and in no wise was -Andre made a scapegoat for Arnold. - - [Sidenote: Lord Stanhope's unconscious impudence] - -It is right that we should feel pity for the fate of Andre; but it is -unfortunate that pity should be permitted to cloud the judgment of the -historian, as in the case of Lord Stanhope, who stands almost alone -among competent writers in impugning the justice of Andre's sentence. -One remark of Lord Stanhope's I am tempted to quote, as an amusing -instance of that certain air of "condescension" which James Russell -Lowell once observed in our British cousins. He seeks to throw discredit -upon the military commission by gravely assuming that the American -generals must, of course, have been ignorant men, "who had probably -never so much as heard the names of Vattel or Puffendorf," and, -accordingly, "could be no fit judges on any nice or doubtful point" of -military law. Now, of the twelve American generals who sat in judgment -on Andre, at least seven were men of excellent education. Two of them -had taken degrees at Harvard, and two at English universities. Greene, -the president, a self-educated man, who used, in leisure moments, to -read Latin poets by the light of his camp-fire, had paid especial -attention to military law, and had carefully read and copiously -annotated his copy of Vattel. The judgment of these twelve men agreed -with that of the two educated Europeans, Steuben and Lafayette, who sat -with them on the commission; and, moreover, no nice or intricate -questions were raised. - - [Sidenote: There is no reason in the world why Andre should have been - spared] - -It was natural enough that Andre's friends should make the most of the -fact that when captured he was travelling under a pass granted by the -commander of West Point; but to ask the court to accept such a plea was -not introducing any nice or doubtful question; it was simply contending -that "the wilful abuse of a privilege is entitled to the same respect as -its legitimate exercise." Accordingly, historians on both sides of the -Atlantic have generally admitted the justice of Andre's sentence, though -sometimes its rigorous execution has been censured as an act of -unnecessary severity. Yet if we withdraw our attention for a moment from -the irrelevant fact that the British adjutant-general was an amiable and -interesting young man, and concentrate it upon the essential fact that -he had come within our lines to aid a treacherous commander in betraying -his post, we cannot fail to see that there is no principle of military -policy upon which ordinary spies are rigorously put to death which does -not apply with redoubled force to the case of Andre. Moreover, while it -is an undoubted fact that military morality permits, and sometimes -applauds, such enterprises as that in which Andre lost his life, I -cannot but feel that the flavour of treachery which clings about it must -somewhat weaken the sympathy we should otherwise freely accord; and I -find myself agreeing with the British historian, Mr. Massey, when he -doubts "whether services of this character entitle his memory to the -honours of Westminster Abbey." - - [Sidenote: Captain Battersby's story] - - [Sidenote: Arnold's terrible downfall] - -As for Arnold, his fall had been as terrible as that of Milton's -rebellious archangel, and we may well believe his state of mind to have -been desperate. It was said that on hearing of Captain Ogden's -suggestion as to the only possible means of saving Andre, Arnold went to -Clinton and offered to surrender himself as a ransom for his -fellow-conspirator. This story was published in the London "Morning -Herald" in February, 1782, by Captain Battersby, of the 29th -regiment,--one of the "Sam Adams" regiments. Battersby was in New York -in September, 1780, and was on terms of intimacy with members of -Clinton's staff. In the absence of further evidence, one must beware of -attaching too much weight to such a story. Yet it is not inconsistent -with what we know of Arnold's impulsive nature. In the agony of his -sudden overthrow it may well have seemed that there was nothing left to -live for, and a death thus savouring of romantic self-sacrifice might -serve to lighten the burden of his shame as nothing else could. Like -many men of weak integrity, Arnold was over-sensitive to public opinion, -and his treason, as he had planned it, though equally indefensible in -point of morality, was something very different from what it seemed now -that it was frustrated. It was not for this that he had bartered his -soul to Satan. He had aimed at an end so vast that, when once attained, -it might be hoped that the nefarious means employed would be overlooked, -and that in Arnold, the brilliant general who had restored America to -her old allegiance, posterity would see the counterpart of that other -general who, for bringing back Charles Stuart to his father's throne, -was rewarded with the dukedom of Albemarle. Now he had lost everything, -and got nothing in exchange but L6,000 sterling and a brigadiership in -the British army.[36] He had sold himself cheap, after all, and incurred -such hatred and contempt that for a long time, by a righteous -retribution, even his past services were forgotten. Even such weak -creatures as Gates could now point the finger of scorn at him, while -Washington, his steadfast friend, could never speak of him again -without a shudder. From men less reticent than Washington strong words -were heard. "What do you think of the damnable doings of that diabolical -dog?" wrote Colonel Otho Williams with sturdy alliteration to Arnold's -old friend and fellow in the victory of Saratoga, Daniel Morgan. "Curse -on his folly and perfidy," said Greene, "how mortifying to think that he -is a New Englander!" These were the men who could best appreciate the -hard treatment Arnold had received from Congress. But in the frightful -abyss of his crime all such considerations were instantly swallowed up -and lost. No amount of personal wrong could for a moment excuse or even -palliate such a false step as he had taken. - - [Portrait: O. H. Williams] - - [Illustration: ANDRE'S POCKETBOOK] - - [Illustration: ARNOLD'S WATCH] - -Within three months from the time when his treason was discovered, -Arnold was sent by Sir Henry Clinton on a marauding expedition into -Virginia, and in the course of one of his raids an American captain was -taken prisoner. "What do you suppose my fate would be," Arnold is said -to have inquired, "if my misguided countrymen were to take me prisoner?" -The captain's reply was prompt and frank: "They would cut off the leg -that was wounded at Quebec and Saratoga and bury it with the honours of -war, and the rest of you they would hang on a gibbet." After the close -of the war, when Arnold, accompanied by his wife, made England his home, -it is said that he sometimes had to encounter similar expressions of -contempt. The Earl of Surrey once, seeing him in the gallery of the -House of Commons, asked the Speaker to have him put out, that the House -might not be contaminated by the presence of such a traitor. The story -is not well authenticated; but it is certain that in 1792 the Earl of -Lauderdale used such language about him in the House of Lords as to lead -to a bloodless duel between Arnold and the noble earl. It does not -appear, however, that Arnold was universally despised in England. -Influenced by the political passions of the day, many persons were ready -to judge him leniently; and his generous and affectionate nature won him -many friends. It is said that so high-minded a man as Lord Cornwallis -became attached to him, and always treated him with respect. - - [Sidenote: Arnold's family] - - [Sidenote: His remorse and death, June 14, 1801] - -Mrs. Arnold proved herself a devoted wife and mother;[37] and the record -of her four sons, during long years of service in the British army, was -highly honourable. The second son, Lieutenant-General Sir James -Robertson Arnold, served with distinction in the wars against Napoleon. -A grandson who was killed in the Crimean war was especially mentioned by -Lord Raglan for valour and skill. Another grandson, the Rev. Edward -Arnold, who died in 1887, was rector of Great Massingham, in Norfolk. -The family has intermarried with the peerage, and has secured for itself -an honourable place among the landed gentry of England. But the disgrace -of their ancestor has always been keenly felt by them. At Surinam, in -1804, James Robertson Arnold, then a lieutenant, begged the privilege of -leading a desperate forlorn hope, that he might redeem the family name -from the odium which attached to it; and he acquitted himself in a way -that was worthy of his father in the days of Quebec and Saratoga. All -the family tradition goes to show that the last years of Benedict Arnold -in London were years of bitter remorse and self-reproach. The great name -which he had so gallantly won and so wretchedly lost left him no repose -by night or day. The iron frame, which had withstood the fatigue of so -many trying battlefields and still more trying marches through the -wilderness, broke down at last under the slow torture of lost -friendships and merited disgrace. In the last sad days in London, in -June, 1801, the family tradition says that Arnold's mind kept reverting -to his old friendship with Washington. He had always carefully preserved -the American uniform which he wore on the day when he made his escape to -the Vulture; and now as, broken in spirit and weary of life, he felt the -last moments coming, he called for this uniform and put it on, and -decorated himself with the epaulettes and sword-knot which Washington -had given him after the victory of Saratoga. "Let me die," said he, "in -this old uniform in which I fought my battles. May God forgive me for -ever putting on any other!" - - * * * * * - -As we thus reach the end of one of the saddest episodes in American -history, our sympathy cannot fail for the moment to go out toward the -sufferer, nor can we help contrasting these passionate dying words with -the last cynical scoff of that other traitor, Charles Lee, when he -begged that he might not be buried within a mile of any church, as he -did not wish to keep bad company after death. From beginning to end the -story of Lee is little more than a vulgar melodrama; but into the story -of Arnold there enters that element of awe and pity which, as Aristotle -pointed out, is an essential part of real tragedy. That Arnold had been -very shabbily treated, long before any thought of treason entered his -mind, is not to be denied. That he may honestly have come to consider -the American cause hopeless, that he may really have lost his interest -in it because of the French alliance,--all this is quite possible. Such -considerations might have justified him in resigning his commission; or -even, had he openly and frankly gone over to the enemy, much as we -should have deplored such a step, some persons would always have been -found to judge him charitably, and accord him the credit of acting upon -principle. But the dark and crooked course which he did choose left open -no alternative but that of unqualified condemnation. If we feel less of -contempt and more of sorrow in the case of Arnold than in the case of -such a weakling as Charles Lee, our verdict is not the less -unmitigated.[38] Arnold's fall was by far the more terrible, as he fell -from a greater height, and into a depth than which none could be lower. -It is only fair that we should recall his services to the cause of -American independence, which were unquestionably greater than those of -any other man in the Continental army except Washington and Greene. But -it is part of the natural penalty that attaches to backsliding such as -his, that when we hear the name of Benedict Arnold these are not the -things which it suggests to our minds, but the name stands, and will -always stand, as a symbol of unfaithfulness to trust. - - * * * * * - -The enormity of Arnold's conduct stands out in all the stronger relief -when we contrast with it the behaviour of the common soldiers whose -mutiny furnished the next serious obstacle with which Washington had to -contend at this period of the war. - - [Sidenote: Mutiny of Pennsylvania troops, Jan. 1, 1781] - -In the autumn of 1780, owing to the financial and administrative chaos -which had overtaken the country, the army was in a truly pitiable -condition. The soldiers were clothed in rags and nearly starved, and -many of them had not seen a dollar of pay since the beginning of the -year. As the winter frosts came on there was much discontent, and the -irritation was greatest among the soldiers of the Pennsylvania line who -were encamped on the heights of Morristown. Many of these men had -enlisted at the beginning of 1778, to serve "for three years or during -the war;" but at that bright and hopeful period, just after the victory -of Saratoga, nobody supposed that the war could last for three years -more, and the alternative was inserted only to insure them against being -kept in service for the full term of three years in spite of the -cessation of hostilities. Now the three years had passed, the war was -not ended, and the prospect seemed less hopeful than in 1778. The men -felt that their contract was fulfilled and asked to be discharged. But -the officers, unwilling to lose such disciplined troops, the veterans of -Monmouth and Stony Point, insisted that the contract provided for three -years' service or more, in case the war should last longer; and they -refused the requested discharge. On New Year's Day, 1781, after an extra -ration of grog, 1,300 Pennsylvania troops marched out of camp, in -excellent order, under command of their sergeants, and seizing six -field-pieces, set out for Philadelphia, with declared intent to frighten -Congress and obtain redress for their wrongs. Their commander, General -Wayne, for whom they entertained great respect and affection, was unable -to stop them, and after an affray in which one man was killed and a -dozen were wounded, they were perforce allowed to go on their way. Alarm -guns were fired, couriers were sent to forewarn Congress and to notify -Washington; and Wayne, attended by two colonels, galloped after the -mutineers, to keep an eye upon them, and restrain their passions so far -as possible. Washington could not come to attend to the affair in -person, for the Hudson was not yet frozen and the enemy's fleet was in -readiness to ascend to West Point the instant he should leave his post. -Congress sent out a committee from Philadelphia, accompanied by -President Reed, to parley with the insurgents, who had halted at -Princeton and were behaving themselves decorously, doing no harm to the -people in person or property. They allowed Wayne and his colonels to -come into their camp, but gave them to understand that they would take -no orders from them. A sergeant-major acted as chief-commander, and his -orders were implicitly obeyed. When Lafayette, with St. Clair and -Laurens, came to them from Washington's headquarters, they were politely -but firmly told to go about their business. And so matters went on for a -week. President Reed came as far as Trenton, and wrote to Wayne -requesting an interview outside of Princeton, as he did not wish to come -to the camp himself and run the risk of such indignity as that with -which Washington's officers had just been treated. As the troops -assembled on parade Wayne read them this letter. Such a rebuke from the -president of their native state touched these poor fellows in a -sensitive point. Tears rolled down many a bronzed and haggard cheek. -They stood about in little groups, talking and pondering and not half -liking the business which they had undertaken. - - [Portrait: Jos. Reed] - - [Sidenote: Fate of Clinton's emissaries] - -At this moment it was discovered that two emissaries from Sir Henry -Clinton were in the camp, seeking to tamper with the sergeant-major, and -promising high pay, with bounties and pensions, if they would come over -to Paulus Hook or Staten Island and cast in their lot with the British. -In a fury of wrath the tempters were seized and carried to Wayne to be -dealt with as spies. "We will have General Clinton understand," said the -men, "that we are not Benedict Arnolds!" Encouraged by this incident, -President Reed came to the camp next day, and was received with all due -respect. He proposed at once to discharge all those who had enlisted for -three years or the war, to furnish them at once with such clothing as -they most needed, and to give paper certificates for the arrears of -their pay, to be redeemed as soon as possible. These terms, which -granted unconditionally all the demands of the insurgents, were -instantly accepted. All those not included in the terms received six -weeks' furlough, and thus the whole force was dissolved. The two spies -were tried by court-martial and promptly hanged. - - [Sidenote: Further mutiny suppressed] - -The quickness with which the demands of these men were granted was an -index to the alarm which their defection had excited; and Washington -feared that their example would be followed by the soldiers of other -states. On the 20th of January, indeed, a part of the New Jersey troops -mutinied at Pompton, and declared their intention to do like the men of -Pennsylvania. The case was becoming serious; it threatened the very -existence of the army; and a sudden blow was needed. Washington sent -from West Point a brigade of Massachusetts troops, which marched quickly -to Pompton, surprised the mutineers before daybreak, and compelled them -to lay down their arms without a struggle. Two of the ringleaders were -summarily shot, and so the insurrection was quelled. - -Thus the disastrous year which had begun when Clinton sailed against -Charleston, the year which had witnessed the annihilation of two -American armies and the bankruptcy of Congress, came at length to an -end amid treason and mutiny. It had been the most dismal year of the -war, and it was not strange that many Americans despaired of their -country. Yet, as we have already seen, the resources of Great Britain, -attacked as she was by the united fleets of France, Spain, and Holland, -were scarcely less exhausted than those of the United States. The moment -had come when a decided military success must turn the scale irrevocably -the one way or the other; and events had already occurred at the South -which were soon to show that all the disasters of 1780 were but the -darkness that heralds the dawn. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [32] The story of his attempt to enter the service of Luzerne, - the French minister who succeeded Gerard, rests upon - insufficient authority. - - [33] The charge against Mrs. Arnold, in Parton's _Life of Burr_, - i. 126, is conclusively refuted by Sabine, in his _Loyalists - of the American Revolution_, i. 172-178. I think there can be - no doubt that Burr lied. - - [34] The version of the reprimand given by Marbois, however, is - somewhat apocryphal. - - [35] To a gentleman, like Clinton, such a proposal was a gross - insult, to which the only fitting answer would have been, - "What do you take me for?" The scheme was highly - discreditable to all concerned, and if Washington was one of - these, it must be pronounced a blot upon his record. The only - explanation would be that the "vague sense of injustice" - mentioned below must have been felt by him so keenly as to - warp for the moment his moral judgment. - - [36] In 1782, the British government granted him a pension of - L1,000 a year for his lifetime and that of his wife. Arnold - died in 1801, Mrs. Arnold in 1804. - - [37] As Lecky well says, "there is something inexpressibly - touching in the tender affection and the undeviating - admiration for her husband, which she retained through all - the vicissitudes of his dark and troubled life." _Hist. of - England in the Eighteenth Century_, iv. 136. Her affection - seems to have been repaid with perfect loyalty on Arnold's - part. His domestic life seems to have been above reproach, in - which respect he presents a strong contrast to such utterly - depraved wretches as Charles Lee and Aaron Burr. - - [38] [Illustration: THE SARATOGA MONUMENT] - - This is the most suitable place for making mention of the - Saratoga monument, which was erected in 1883, but is not yet - completed. The obelisk, 155 feet in height, stands upon a - bluff about 300 feet above the Hudson river, and just south - of the road from Schuylerville to Saratoga Springs. The view - here given is taken from the southeast. The great - pointed-arch niches in the base, just over the doorways, are - occupied by bronze statues of heroic size. Of these it was - necessary that one should be the unworthy Gates, who - commanded the army and received Burgoyne's surrender. The - second and third are obviously Schuyler and Morgan. The - fourth niche is vacant. The place belongs to Arnold, who was - especially the hero of Saratoga. But for Arnold, the - relieving army of St. Leger might have come down the Mohawk - valley. But for Arnold, the 19th of September would have seen - Gates's position turned at Bemis Heights. But for Arnold the - victory of October 7th would probably have been indecisive, - so that time would have been allowed for Clinton to come up - the Hudson. In commemorating Saratoga, to leave Arnold - unnoticed would be impossible. He has therefore his niche, - but it is vacant. When the monument is completed, the names - of the four generals are to be inscribed below their niches, - and then the empty niche will speak as eloquently as the - black veil that in the long series of portraits of Venetian - doges covers the place of Marino Faliero. - - In the view here given, the empty niche is seen on the left. - The niche on the right, or east, contains (on almost too small - a scale to be here visible) the statue of Schuyler, with folded - arms, gazing upon the field of surrender where he ought to - have presided. On the north side stands Gates with a - spy-glass, as in the final battle; while Arnold was winning - victory for him, he stood on Bemis Heights to watch what he - supposed would be the _retreat_ of the Americans! On the west - side Morgan is in the attitude of ordering his sharpshooter - Tim Murphy to fire upon General Fraser. These poses were - suggested by Colonel William Leete Stone, secretary of the - Saratoga Monument Association, to whom, indeed, the monument - owes its existence. - - The interior of the monument is finely decorated with - bas-reliefs of scenes in the Burgoyne campaign. - - - - - CHAPTER XV - - YORKTOWN - - -In the invasion of the South by Cornwallis, as in the invasion of the -North by Burgoyne, the first serious blow which the enemy received was -dealt by the militia. After his great victory over Gates, Cornwallis -remained nearly a month at Camden resting his troops, who found the -August heat intolerable. - - [Sidenote: Cornwallis invades North Carolina, Sept., 1780] - -By the middle of September, 1780, he had started on his march to North -Carolina, of which he expected to make an easy conquest. But his -reception in that state was anything but hospitable. Advancing as far as -Charlotte, he found himself in the midst of that famous Mecklenburg -County which had issued its bold revolutionary resolves immediately on -receiving the news of the battle of Lexington. These rebels, he said, -were the most obstinate he had found in America, and he called their -country a "hornet's nest." Bands of yeomanry lurking about every -woodland road cut off his foraging parties, slew his couriers, and -captured his dispatches. It was difficult for him to get any -information; but bad news proverbially travels fast, and it was not long -before he received intelligence of dire disaster. - - [Sidenote: Ferguson's expedition] - - [Sidenote: Rising of the backwoodsmen] - -Before leaving South Carolina Cornwallis had detached Major Patrick -Ferguson--whom, next to Tarleton, he considered his best partisan -officer--to scour the highlands and enlist as large a force of Tory -auxiliaries as possible, after which he was to join the main army at -Charlotte. Ferguson took with him 200 British light infantry and 1,000 -Tories, whom he had drilled until they had become excellent troops. It -was not supposed that he would meet with serious opposition, but in -case of any unforeseen danger he was to retreat with all possible speed -and join the main army. Now the enterprising Ferguson undertook to -entrap and capture a small force of American partisans; and while -pursuing this bait, he pushed into the wilderness as far as Gilbert -Town, in the heart of what is now the county of Rutherford, when all at -once he became aware that enemies were swarming about him on every side. -The approach of a hostile force and the rumour of Indian war had aroused -the hardy backwoodsmen who dwelt in these wild and romantic glens. -Accustomed to Indian raids, these quick and resolute men were always -ready to assemble at a moment's warning; and now they came pouring from -all directions, through the defiles of the Alleghanies, a picturesque -and motley crowd, in fringed and tasselled hunting-shirts, with sprigs -of hemlock in their hats, and armed with long knives and rifles that -seldom missed their aim. From the south came James Williams, of -Ninety-Six, with his 400 men; from the north, William Campbell, of -Virginia, Benjamin Cleveland and Charles McDowell, of North Carolina, -with 560 followers; from the west, Isaac Shelby and John Sevier, whose -names were to become so famous in the early history of Kentucky and -Tennessee. By the 30th of September 3,000 of these "dirty mongrels," as -Ferguson called them,--men in whose veins flowed the blood of Scottish -Covenanters and French Huguenots and English sea rovers,[39]--had -gathered in such threatening proximity that the British commander -started in all haste on his retreat toward the main army at Charlotte, -sending messengers ahead, who were duly waylaid and shot down before -they could reach Cornwallis and inform him of the danger. The pursuit -was vigorously pressed, and on the night of the 6th of October, finding -escape impossible without a fight, Ferguson planted himself on the top -of King's Mountain, a ridge about half a mile in length and 1,700 feet -above sea level, situated just on the border line between the two -Carolinas. The crest is approached on three sides by rising ground, -above which the steep summit towers for a hundred feet; on the north -side it is an unbroken precipice. The mountain was covered with tall -pine-trees, beneath which the ground, though little cumbered with -underbrush, was obstructed on every side by huge moss-grown boulders. -Perched with 1,125 staunch men on this natural stronghold, as the bright -autumn sun came up on the morning of the 7th, Ferguson looked about him -exultingly, and cried, "Well, boys, here is a place from which all the -rebels outside of hell cannot drive us!" - - [Portrait: Isaac Shelby] - - [Sidenote: Battle of King's Mountain, Oct. 7, 1780] - -He was dealing, however, with men who were used to climbing hills. -About three o'clock in the afternoon, the advanced party of Americans, -1,000 picked men, arrived in the ravine below the mountain, and, tying -their horses to the trees, prepared to storm the position. The precipice -on the north was too steep for the enemy to descend, and thus -effectually cut off their retreat. Divided into three equal parties, the -Americans ascended the other three sides simultaneously. Campbell and -Shelby pushed up in front until near the crest, when Ferguson opened -fire on them. They then fell apart behind trees, returning the fire most -effectively, but suffering little themselves, while slowly they crept up -nearer the crest. As the British then charged down upon them with -bayonets, they fell back, until the British ranks were suddenly shaken -by a deadly flank fire from the division of Sevier and McDowell on the -right. Turning furiously to meet these new assailants, the British -received a volley in their backs from the left division, under Cleveland -and Williams, while the centre division promptly rallied, and attacked -them on what was now their flank. Thus dreadfully entrapped, the British -fired wildly and with little effect, while the trees and boulders -prevented the compactness needful for a bayonet charge. The Americans, -on the other hand, sure of their prey, crept on steadily toward the -summit, losing scarcely a man, and firing with great deliberateness and -precision, while hardly a word was spoken. As they closed in upon the -ridge, a rifleball pierced the brave Ferguson's heart, and he fell from -his white horse, which sprang wildly down the mountain side. All further -resistance being hopeless, a white flag was raised, and the firing was -stopped. Of Ferguson's 1,125 men, 389 were killed or wounded, 20 were -missing, and the remaining 716 now surrendered themselves prisoners of -war, with 1,500 stand of arms. The total American loss was 28 killed and -60 wounded; but among the killed was the famous partisan commander, -James Williams, whose loss might be regarded as offsetting that of Major -Ferguson. - - [Illustration: VIEW OF KING'S MOUNTAIN] - - [Sidenote: Effect of the blow] - -This brilliant victory at King's Mountain resembled the victory at -Bennington in its suddenness and completeness, as well as in having been -gained by militia. It was also the harbinger of greater victories at the -South, as Bennington had been the harbinger of greater victories at the -North. The backwoodsmen who had dealt such a blow did not, indeed, -follow it up, and hover about the flanks of Cornwallis, as the Green -Mountain boys had hovered about the flanks of Burgoyne. Had there been -an organized army opposed to Cornwallis, to serve as a nucleus for them, -perhaps they might have done so. As it was, they soon dispersed and -returned to their homes, after having sullied their triumph by hanging a -dozen prisoners, in revenge for some of their own party who had been -massacred at Augusta. They had, nevertheless, warded off for the moment -the threatened invasion of North Carolina. Thoroughly alarmed by this -blow, Cornwallis lost no time in falling back upon Winnsborough, there -to wait for reinforcements, for he was in no condition to afford the -loss of 1,100 men. General Leslie had been sent by Sir Henry Clinton to -Virginia with 3,000 men, and Cornwallis ordered this force to join him -without delay. - - [Sidenote: Arrival of Daniel Morgan] - -Hope began now to return to the patriots of South Carolina, and during -the months of October and November their activity was greatly increased. -Marion in the northeastern part of the state, and Sumter in the -northwest, redoubled their energies, and it was more than even Tarleton -could do to look after them both. On the 20th of November Tarleton was -defeated by Sumter in a sharp action at Blackstock Hill, and the -disgrace of the 18th of August was thus wiped out. On the retreat of -Cornwallis, the remnants of the American regular army, which Gates had -been slowly collecting at Hillsborough, advanced and occupied Charlotte. -There were scarcely 1,400 of them, all told, and their condition was -forlorn enough. But reinforcements from the North were at hand; and -first of all came Daniel Morgan, always a host in himself. Morgan, like -Arnold, had been ill treated by Congress. His services at Quebec and -Saratoga had been inferior only to Arnold's, yet, in 1779, he had seen -junior officers promoted over his head, and had resigned his commission -and retired to his home in Virginia. When Gates took command of the -southern army, Morgan was urged to enter the service again; but, as it -was not proposed to restore him to his relative rank, he refused. After -Camden, however, declaring that it was no time to let personal -considerations have any weight, he straightway came down and joined -Gates at Hillsborough in September. At last, on the 13th of October, -Congress had the good sense to give him the rank to which he was -entitled; and it was not long, as we shall see, before it had reason to -congratulate itself upon this act of justice. - - [Sidenote: Greene appointed to the chief command at the South] - -But, more than anything else, the army which it was now sought to -restore needed a new commander-in-chief. It was well known that -Washington had wished to have Greene appointed to that position, in the -first place. Congress had persisted in appointing its own favourite -instead, and had lost an army in consequence. It could now hardly do -better, though late in the day, than take Washington's advice. It would -not do to run the risk of another Camden. In every campaign since the -beginning of the war Greene had been Washington's right arm; and for -indefatigable industry, for strength and breadth of intelligence, and -for unselfish devotion to the public service, he was scarcely inferior -to the commander-in-chief. Yet he too had been repeatedly insulted and -abused by men who liked to strike at Washington through his favourite -officers. As quartermaster-general, since the spring of 1778, Greene had -been malevolently persecuted by a party in Congress, until, in July, -1780, his patience gave way, and he resigned in disgust. His enemies -seized the occasion to urge his dismissal from the army, and but for his -own keen sense of public duty and Washington's unfailing tact his -services might have been lost to the country at a most critical moment. -On the 5th of October Congress called upon Washington to name a -successor to Gates, and he immediately appointed Greene, who arrived at -Charlotte and took command on the 2d of December. Steuben accompanied -Greene as far as Virginia, and was placed in command in that state, -charged with the duty of collecting and forwarding supplies and -reinforcements to Greene, and of warding off the forces which Sir Henry -Clinton sent to the Chesapeake to make diversions in aid of Cornwallis. -The first force of this sort, under General Leslie, had just been -obliged to proceed by sea to South Carolina, to make good the loss -inflicted upon Cornwallis by the battle of King's Mountain; and to -replace Leslie in Virginia, Sir Henry Clinton, in December, sent the -traitor Arnold, fresh from the scene of his treason, with 1,600 men, -mostly New York loyalists. Steuben's duty was to guard Virginia against -Arnold, and to keep open Greene's communication with the North. At the -same time, Washington sent down with Greene the engineer Kosciuszko and -Henry Lee with his admirable legion of cavalry. Another superb cavalry -commander now appears for the first time upon the scene in the person of -Lieutenant-Colonel William Washington, of Virginia, a distant cousin of -the commander-in-chief. - - [Portrait: W Washington] - - [Sidenote: Greene's daring strategy; he threatens Cornwallis on both - flanks] - -The southern army, though weak in numbers, was thus extraordinarily -strong in the talent of its officers. They were men who knew how to -accomplish great results with small means, and Greene understood how far -he might rely upon them. No sooner had he taken command than he began a -series of movements which, though daring in the extreme, were as far as -possible from partaking of the unreasoned rashness which had -characterized the advance of Gates. That unintelligent commander had -sneered at cavalry as useless, but Greene largely based his plan of -operations upon what could be done by such swift blows as Washington and -Lee knew how to deal. Gates had despised the aid of partisan chiefs, but -Greene saw at once the importance of utilizing such men as Sumter and -Marion. His army as a solid whole was too weak to cope with that of -Cornwallis. By a bold and happy thought, he divided it, for the moment, -into two great partisan bodies. The larger body, 1,100 strong, he led in -person to Cheraw Hill, on the Pedee river, where he cooperated with -Marion. From this point Marion and Lee kept up a series of rapid -movements which threatened Cornwallis's communications with the coast. -On one occasion, they actually galloped into Georgetown and captured the -commander of that post. Cornwallis was thus gravely annoyed, but he was -unable to advance upon these provoking antagonists without risking the -loss of Augusta and Ninety-Six; for Greene had thrown the other part of -his little army, 900 strong, under Morgan, to the westward, so as to -threaten those important inland posts and to cooperate with the mountain -militia. With Morgan's force went William Washington, who accomplished a -brilliant raid, penetrating the enemy's lines, and destroying a party of -250 men at a single blow. - - [Portrait: Banastre Tarleton [illegible]] - - [Sidenote: Cornwallis retorts by sending Tarleton to deal with Morgan] - - [Sidenote: Morgan's position at the Cowpens] - -Thus worried and menaced upon both his flanks, Cornwallis hardly knew -which way to turn. He did not underrate his adversaries. He had himself -seen what sort of man Greene was, at Princeton and Brandywine and -Germantown, while Morgan's abilities were equally well known. He could -not leave Morgan and attack Greene without losing his hold upon the -interior; but if he were to advance in full force upon Morgan, the wily -Greene would be sure to pounce upon Charleston and cut him off from the -coast. In this dilemma, Cornwallis at last decided to divide his own -forces. With his main body, 2,000 strong, he advanced into North -Carolina, hoping to draw Greene after him; while he sent Tarleton with -the rest of his army, 1,100 strong, to take care of Morgan. By this -division the superiority of the British force was to some extent -neutralized. Both commanders were playing a skilful but hazardous game, -in which much depended on the sagacity of their lieutenants; and now the -brave but over-confident Tarleton was outmarched and outfought. On his -approach, Morgan retreated to a grazing ground known as the Cowpens, a -few miles from King's Mountain, where he could fight on ground of his -own choosing. His choice was indeed a peculiar one, for he had a broad -river in his rear, which cut off retreat; but this, he said, was just -what he wanted, for his militia would know that there was no use in -running away. It was cheaper than stationing regulars in the rear, to -shoot down the cowards. Morgan's daring was justified by the result. The -ground, a long rising slope, commanded the enemy's approach for a great -distance. On the morning of January 17, 1781, as Tarleton's advance was -descried, Morgan formed his men in order of battle. First he arranged -his Carolinian and Georgian militia in a line about three hundred yards -in length, and exhorted them not to give way until they should have -delivered at least two volleys "at killing distance." One hundred and -fifty yards in the rear of this line, and along the brow of the gentle -hill, he stationed the splendid Maryland brigade which Kalb had led at -Camden, and supported it by some excellent Virginia troops. Still one -hundred and fifty yards farther back, upon a second rising ground, he -placed Colonel Washington with his cavalry. Arranged in this wise, the -army awaited the British attack. - - [Sidenote: Battle of the Cowpens, Jan. 17, 1781] - - [Sidenote: Destruction of Tarleton's force] - -Tarleton's men had been toiling half the night over muddy roads and -wading through swollen brooks, but nothing could restrain his eagerness -to strike a sudden blow, and just about sunrise he charged upon the -first American line. The militia, who were commanded by the redoubtable -Pickens, behaved very well, and delivered, not two, but many deadly -volleys at close range, causing the British lines to waver for a moment. -As the British recovered themselves and pressed on, the militia retired -behind the line of Continentals; while the British line, in pursuing, -became so extended as to threaten the flanks of the Continental line. To -avoid being overlapped, the Continentals refused their right wing and -fell back a little. The British followed them hastily and in some -confusion, having become too confident of victory. At this moment, -Colonel Washington, having swept down from his hill in a semicircle, -charged the British right flank with fatal effect; Pickens's militia, -who had reformed in the rear and marched around the hill, advanced upon -their left flank; while the Continentals, in front, broke their ranks -with a deadly fire at thirty yards, and instantly rushed upon them with -the bayonet. The greater part of the British army thereupon threw down -their arms and surrendered, while the rest were scattered in flight. It -was a complete rout. The British lost 230 in killed and wounded, 600 -prisoners, two field-pieces, and 1,000 stand of arms. Their loss was -about equal to the whole American force engaged. Only 270 escaped from -the field, among them Tarleton, who barely saved himself in a furious -single combat with Washington. The American loss, in this astonishing -little battle, was 12 killed and 61 wounded. In point of tactics, it was -the most brilliant battle of the war. Morgan had in him the divine spark -of genius. - - [Illustration: BATTLE OF COWPENS: COMBAT BETWEEN COLS. WASHINGTON AND - TARLETON] - - [Sidenote: Brilliant movements of Morgan and Greene] - - [Sidenote: Greene leads Cornwallis a chase across North Carolina] - -Having struck this crushing blow, which deprived Cornwallis of one -third of his force, the victor did not rest for a moment. The only -direct road by which he could rejoin Greene lay to the northward, across -the fords of the Catawba river, and Cornwallis was at this instant -nearer than himself to these fords. By a superb march, Morgan reached -the river first, and, crossing it, kept on northeastward into North -Carolina, with Cornwallis following closely upon his heels. On the 24th -of January, one week after the battle of the Cowpens, the news of it -reached Greene in his camp on the Pedee, and he learned the nature of -Morgan's movements after the battle. Now was the time for putting into -execution a hopeful scheme. If he could draw the British general far -enough to the northward, he might compel him to join battle under -disadvantageous circumstances and at a great distance from his base of -operations. Accordingly, Greene put his main army in motion under -General Huger, telling him to push steadily to the northward; while he -himself, taking only a sergeant's guard of dragoons, rode with all -possible speed a hundred and fifty miles across the country, and on the -morning of the 30th reached the valley of the Catawba, and put himself -at the head of Morgan's force, which Cornwallis was still pursuing. Now -the gallant earl realized the deadly nature of the blows which at King's -Mountain and the Cowpens had swept away nearly all his light troops. In -his eagerness and mortification, he was led to destroy the heavy baggage -which encumbered his headlong march. He was falling into the trap. A -most exciting game of strategy was kept up for the next ten days; Greene -steadily pushing northeastward on a line converging toward that taken by -his main army, Cornwallis vainly trying to get near enough to compel him -to fight. The weather had been rainy, and an interesting feature of the -retreat was the swelling of the rivers, which rendered them unfordable. -Greene took advantage of this circumstance, having with admirable -forethought provided himself with boats, which were dragged overland on -light wheels and speedily launched as they came to a river; carrying as -part of their freight the wheels upon which they were again to be -mounted so soon as they should have crossed. On the 9th of February -Greene reached Guilford Court House, in the northern part of North -Carolina, only thirty miles from the Virginia border; and there he -effected a junction with the main army, which Huger had brought up from -the camp on the Pedee. On the next day, the gallant Morgan, broken down -by illness, was obliged to give up his command. - - [Illustration: OPERATIONS IN THE CAROLINAS, JANUARY TO SEPTEMBER, - 1781.] - - [Sidenote: Further manoeuvres] - -It had not been a part of Greene's plan to retreat any farther. He had -intended to offer battle at this point, and had sent word to Steuben to -forward reinforcements from Virginia for this purpose. But Arnold's -invasion of Virginia had so far taxed the good baron's resources that he -had not yet been able to send on the reinforcements; and as Greene's -force was still inferior to the enemy's, he decided to continue his -retreat. After five days of fencing, he placed his army on the north -side of the Dan, a broad and rapid stream, which Cornwallis had no -means of crossing. Thus baulked of his prey, the earl proceeded to -Hillsborough, and issued a proclamation announcing that he had conquered -North Carolina, and inviting the loyalists to rally around his standard. -A few Tories came out and enlisted, but these proceedings were soon -checked by the news that the American general had recrossed the river, -and was advancing in a threatening manner. Greene had intended to await -his reinforcements on the Virginia side of the river, but he soon saw -that it would not do to encourage the Tories by the belief that he had -abandoned North Carolina. On the 23d he recrossed the Dan, and led -Cornwallis a will-o'-the-wisp chase, marching and countermarching, and -foiling every attempt to bring him to bay, until, on the 14th of March, -having at last been reinforced till his army numbered about 1,500 -Continentals and 1,800 militia, he suddenly pulled up at Guilford Court -House, and offered his adversary the long-coveted battle. Cornwallis's -veterans numbered scarcely 2,200, but a battle had come to be for him an -absolute military necessity. He had risked everything in this long -march, and could not maintain himself in an exposed position, so far -from support, without inflicting a crushing defeat upon his opponent. To -Greene a battle was now almost equally desirable, but it need not -necessarily be an out-and-out victory: it was enough that he should -seriously weaken and damage the enemy. - - [Sidenote: Battle of Guilford, March 15] - - [Sidenote: Retreat of Cornwallis] - -On the morning of March 15th Greene drew up his army in three lines. The -first, consisting of North Carolina militia, was placed in front of an -open cornfield. It was expected that these men would give way before the -onset of the British regulars; but it was thought that they could be -depended upon to fire two or three volleys first, and, as they were -excellent marksmen, this would make gaps in the British line. In a wood -three hundred yards behind stood the second line, consisting of Virginia -militia, whose fire was expected still further to impede the enemy's -advance. On a hill four hundred yards in the rear of these were -stationed the regulars of Maryland and Virginia. The flanks were guarded -by Campbell's riflemen and the cavalry under Washington and Lee. Early -in the afternoon the British opened the battle by a charge upon the -North Carolina militia, who were soon driven from the field in -confusion. The Virginia line, however, stood its ground bravely, and it -was only after a desperate struggle that the enemy slowly pushed it -back. The attack upon the third American line met with varied fortunes. -On the right the Maryland troops prevailed, and drove the British at the -point of the bayonet; but on the left the other Maryland brigade was -overpowered and forced back, with the loss of two cannon. A charge by -Colonel Washington's cavalry restored the day, the cannon were retaken, -and for a while the victory seemed secured for the Americans. Cornwallis -was thrown upon the defensive, but after two hours of hard fighting he -succeeded in restoring order among his men and concentrating them upon -the hill near the court house, where all attempts to break their line -proved futile. As evening came on, Greene retired, with a loss of more -than 600 men, leaving the enemy in possession of the field, but too -badly crippled to move. The British fighting was magnificent,--worthy to -be compared with that of Thomas and his men at Chickamauga.[40] In the -course of five hours they had lost at least 600 men, more than one -fourth of their number. This damage was irretrievable. The little army, -thus cut down to a total of scarcely 1,600 men, although victorious, -could not afford to risk another battle. Greene's audacious scheme was -thus crowned with success. He had lured Cornwallis far into a hostile -country, more than two hundred miles distant from his base of -operations. The earl now saw too late that he had been outgeneralled. To -march back to South Carolina was more than he dared to venture, and he -could not stay where he was. Accordingly, on the third day after the -battle of Guilford, abandoning his wounded, Cornwallis started in all -haste for Wilmington, the nearest point on the coast at which he could -look for aid from the fleet.[41] - - [Sidenote: He abandons the Carolinas, and marches into Virginia] - -By this movement Lord Cornwallis virtually gave up the game. The battle -of Guilford, though tactically a defeat for the Americans, was -strategically a decisive victory, and the most important one since the -capture of Burgoyne. Its full significance was soon made apparent. When -Cornwallis, on the 7th of April, arrived at Wilmington, what was he to -do next? To transport his army by sea to Charleston, and thus begin his -work over again, would be an open confession of defeat. The most -practicable course appeared to be to shift the scene altogether, and -march into Virginia, where a fresh opportunity seemed to present itself. -Sir Henry Clinton had just sent General Phillips down to Virginia, with -a force which, if combined with that of Cornwallis, would amount to more -than 5,000 men; and with this army it might prove possible to strike a -heavy blow in Virginia, and afterward invade the Carolinas from the -north. Influenced by such considerations, Cornwallis started from -Wilmington on the 25th of April, and arrived on the 20th of May at -Petersburg, in Virginia, where he effected a junction with the forces of -Arnold and Phillips. This important movement was made by Cornwallis on -his own responsibility. It was never sanctioned by Sir Henry Clinton, -and in after years it became the occasion of a bitter controversy -between the two generals; but the earl was at this time a favourite with -Lord George Germain, and the commander-in-chief was obliged to modify -his own plans in order to support a movement of which he disapproved. - - [Sidenote: Greene's master-stroke; he returns to South Carolina, April - 6-18] - -But while Cornwallis was carrying out this extensive change of -programme, what was his adversary doing? Greene pursued the retreating -enemy about fifty miles, from Guilford Court House to Ramsay's Mills, a -little above the fork of the Cape Fear river, and then suddenly left him -to himself, and faced about for South Carolina. Should Cornwallis decide -to follow him, at least the state of North Carolina would be relieved; -but Greene had builded even better than he knew. He had really -eliminated Cornwallis from the game, had thrown him out on the margin of -the chessboard; and now he could go to work with his hands free and -redeem South Carolina. The strategic points there were still held by the -enemy; Camden, Ninety-Six, and Augusta were still in their possession. -Camden, the most important of all, was held by Lord Rawdon with 900 men; -and toward Camden, a hundred and sixty miles distant, Greene turned on -the 6th of April, leaving Cornwallis to make his way unmolested to the -seaboard. Greene kept his counsel so well that his own officers often -failed to understand the drift of his profound and daring strategy. The -movement which he now made had not been taken into account by -Cornwallis, who had expected by his own movements at least to detain his -adversary. That Greene should actually ignore him was an idea which he -had not yet taken in, and by the time he fully comprehended the -situation he was already on his way to Virginia, and committed to his -new programme. The patriots in South Carolina had also failed to -understand Greene's sweeping movements, and his long absence had cast -down their hopes; but on his return without Cornwallis, there was a -revulsion of feeling. People began to look for victory. - - [Sidenote: and, by taking Fort Watson, cuts Lord Rawdon's - communications, April 23] - -On the 18th of April the American army approached Camden, while Lee was -detached to cooperate with Marion in reducing Fort Watson. This -stronghold, standing midway between Camden and Charleston, commanded -Lord Rawdon's line of communications with the coast. The execution of -this cardinal movement was marked by a picturesque incident. Fort Watson -was built on an Indian mound, rising forty feet sheer above the -champaign country in which it stood, and had no doubt witnessed many a -wild siege before ever the white man came to Carolina. It was garrisoned -by 120 good soldiers, but neither they nor the besiegers had any cannon. -It was to be an affair of rifles. Lee looked with disgust on the low -land about him. Oh for a hill which might command this fortress even as -Ticonderoga was overlooked on that memorable day when Phillips dragged -his guns up Mount Defiance! A happy thought now flashed upon Major -Mayham, one of Marion's officers. Why not make a hill? There grew near -by a forest of superb yellow pine, heavy and hard as stone. For five -days and nights the men worked like beavers in the depths of the wood, -quite screened from the sight of the garrison. Forest trees were felled, -and saws, chisels, and adzes worked them into shape. Great beams were -fitted with mortise and tenon; and at last, in a single night, they were -dragged out before the fortress and put together, as in an old-fashioned -New England "house-raising." At daybreak of April 23, the British found -themselves overlooked by an enormous wooden tower, surmounted by a -platform crowded with marksmen, ready to pick off the garrison at their -leisure; while its base was protected by a breastwork of logs, behind -which lurked a hundred deadly rifles. Before the sun was an hour high, a -white flag was hung out, and Fort Watson was surrendered at discretion. - - [Portrait: Hastings - LORD RAWDON, AFTERWARD MARQUIS OF HASTINGS] - - [Sidenote: Rawdon defeats Greene at Hobkirk's Hill, April 25] - - [Sidenote: but is none the less obliged to give up Camden and save his - army, May 10] - -While these things were going on, Greene reached Camden, and, finding -his force insufficient either to assault or to invest it, took up a -strong position at Hobkirk's Hill, about two miles to the north. On the -25th of April Lord Rawdon advanced, to drive him from this position, and -a battle ensued, in which the victory, nearly won, slipped through -Greene's fingers. The famous Maryland brigade, which in all these -southern campaigns had stood forth preeminent, like Caesar's tenth -legion,--which had been the last to leave the disastrous field of -Camden, which had overwhelmed Tarleton at the Cowpens, and had so nearly -won the day at Guilford,--now behaved badly, and, falling into confusion -through a misunderstanding of orders, deranged Greene's masterly plan of -battle. He was driven from his position, and three days later retreated -ten miles to Clermont; but, just as at Guilford, his plan of campaign -was so good that he proceeded forthwith to reap all the fruits of -victory. The fall of Fort Watson, breaking Rawdon's communication with -the coast, made it impossible for him to stay where he was. On the 10th -of May the British general retreated rapidly, until he reached Monk's -Corner, within thirty miles of Charleston; and the all-important post of -Camden, the first great prize of the campaign, fell into Greene's hands. - - [Sidenote: All the inland posts taken from the British, May-June] - -Victories followed now in quick succession. Within three weeks Lee and -Marion had taken Fort Motte and Fort Granby, Sumter had taken -Orangeburg, and on the 5th of June, after an obstinate defence, Augusta -surrendered to Lee, thus throwing open the state of Georgia. Nothing was -left to the British but Ninety-Six, which was strongly garrisoned, and -now withstood a vigorous siege of twenty-eight days. Determined not to -lose this last hold upon the interior, and anxious to crush his -adversary in battle, if possible, Lord Rawdon collected all the force he -could, well-nigh stripping Charleston of its defenders, and thus, with -2,000 men, came up in all haste to raise the siege of Ninety-Six. His -bold movement was successful for the moment. Greene, too prudent to risk -a battle, withdrew, and the frontier fortress was relieved. It was -impossible, however, for Rawdon to hold it and keep his army there, so -far from the seaboard, after all the other inland posts had fallen, and -on the 29th of June he evacuated the place, and retreated upon -Orangeburg; while Greene, following him, took up a strong position on -the High Hills of Santee. Thus, within three months after Greene's -return from Guilford, the upper country of South Carolina had been -completely reconquered, and only one successful battle was now needed to -drive the enemy back upon Charleston. But first it was necessary to take -some rest and recruit the little army which had toiled so incessantly -since the last December. The enemy, too, felt the need of rest, and the -heat was intolerable. Both armies, accordingly, lay and watched each -other until after the middle of August. - - [Sidenote: Rawdon goes to England] - - [Sidenote: Greene marches against the British, Aug. 22] - -During this vacation, Lord Rawdon, worn out and ill from his rough -campaigning, embarked for England, leaving Colonel Stuart in command of -the forces in South Carolina. Greene busied himself in recruiting his -army until it numbered 2,600 men, though 1,000 of these were militia. -His position on the High Hills of Santee was, by an air line, distant -only sixteen miles from the British army. The intervening space was -filled by meadows, through which the Wateree and Congaree rivers flowed -to meet each other; and often, as now, when the swift waters, swollen by -rain, overflowed the lowlands, it seemed like a vast lake, save for the -tops of tall pine-trees that here and there showed themselves in deepest -green, protruding from the mirror-like surface. Greene understood the -value of this meadow land as a barrier, when he chose the site for his -summer camp. The enemy could reach him only by a circuitous march of -seventy miles. On the 22d of August Greene broke up his camp very -quietly, and started out on the last of his sagacious campaigns. The -noonday heat was so intense that he marched only in the morning and -evening, in order to keep his men fresh and active; while by vigilant -scouting parties he so completely cut off the enemy's means of -information that Stuart remained ignorant of his approach until he was -close at hand. The British commander then fell back upon Eutaw Springs, -about fifty miles from Charleston, where he waited in a strong -position. - - [Sidenote: Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sept. 8] - - [Sidenote: Greene's superb generalship] - -The battle of Eutaw Springs may be resolved into two brief actions -between sunrise and noon of the 8th of September, 1781. In the first -action the British line was broken and driven from the field. In the -second Stuart succeeded in forming a new line, supported by a brick -house and palisaded garden, and from this position Greene was unable to -drive him. It has therefore been set down as a British victory. If so, -it was a victory followed the next evening by the hasty retreat of the -victors, who were hotly pursued for thirty miles by Marion and Lee. -Strategically considered, it was a decisive victory for the Americans. -The state government was restored to supremacy, and, though partisan -scrimmages were kept up for another year, these were but the dying -embers of the fire. The British were cooped up in Charleston till the -end of the war, protected by their ships. Less than thirteen months had -elapsed since the disaster of Camden had seemed to destroy all hope of -saving the state. All this change had been wrought by Greene's -magnificent generalship. Coming upon the scene under almost every -imaginable disadvantage, he had reorganized the remnant of Gates's -broken and dispirited army, he had taken the initiative from the first, -and he had held the game in his own hands till the last blow was struck. -So consummate had been his strategy that whether victorious or defeated -on the field, he had, in every instance, gained the object for which the -campaign was made. Under one disadvantage, indeed, he had not laboured: -he had excellent officers. Seldom has a more brilliant group been seen -than that which comprised Morgan, Campbell, Marion, Sumter, Pickens, -Otho Williams, William Washington, and the father of Robert Edward Lee. -It is only an able general, however, who knows how to use such admirable -instruments. Men of narrow intelligence do not like to have able men -about them, and do not know how to deal with them. Gates had Kalb and -Otho Williams, and put them in places where their talent was unavailable -and one of them was uselessly sacrificed, while he was too dull to -detect the extraordinary value of Marion. But genius is quick to see -genius, and knows what to do with it. Greene knew what each one of his -officers could do, and took it into the account in planning his sweeping -movements. Unless he had known that he could depend upon Morgan as -certainly as Napoleon, in after years, relied upon Davoust on the day of -Jena and Auerstadt, it would have been foolhardy for him to divide his -force in the beginning of the campaign,--a move which, though made in -apparent violation of military rules, nevertheless gave him the -initiative in his long and triumphant game. What Greene might have -accomplished on a wider field and with more ample resources can never be -known. But the intellectual qualities which he showed in his southern -campaign were those which have characterized some of the foremost -strategists of modern times. - - * * * * * - - [Sidenote: Lord Cornwallis arrives at Petersburg, May 20, 1781] - -When Lord Cornwallis heard, from time to time, what was going on in -South Carolina, he was not cheered by the news. But he was too far away -to interfere, and it was on the very day of Eutaw Springs that the toils -were drawn about him which were to compass his downfall. When he reached -Petersburg, on the 20th of May, the youthful Lafayette, whom Washington -had sent down to watch and check the movements of the traitor Arnold, -was stationed at Richmond, with a little army of 3,000 men, two thirds -of them raw militia. To oppose this small force Cornwallis had now 5,000 -veterans, comprising the men whom he had brought away from Guilford, -together with the forces lately under Arnold and Phillips. Arnold, after -some useless burning and plundering, had been recalled to New York. -Phillips had died of a fever just before Cornwallis arrived. The earl -entertained great hopes. His failure in North Carolina rankled in his -soul, and he was eager to make a grand stroke and retrieve his -reputation. Could the powerful state of Virginia be conquered, it -seemed as if everything south of the Susquehanna must fall, in spite of -Greene's successes. With his soul thus full of chivalrous enterprise, -Cornwallis for the moment saw things in rose colour, and drew wrong -conclusions. He expected to find half the people Tories, and he also -expected to find a state of chronic hostility between the slaves and -their masters. On both points he was quite mistaken. - - [Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF VIRGINIA (OBVERSE)] - - [Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF VIRGINIA (REVERSE)] - - [Portrait: THOMAS JEFFERSON] - - [Illustration: OPERATIONS IN VIRGINIA, MAY TO OCTOBER, 1781] - - [Illustration: FRANCISCO'S SKIRMISH WITH TARLETON'S DRAGOONS] - - [Sidenote: His campaign against Lafayette] - - [Sidenote: Cornwallis retreats to the coast] - - [Sidenote: and occupies Yorktown] - -But while Cornwallis underrated the difficulty of the task, he knew, -nevertheless, that 5,000 men were not enough to conquer so strong a -state, and he tried to persuade Clinton to abandon New York, if -necessary, so that all the available British force might be concentrated -upon Virginia. Clinton wisely refused. A state like Virginia, which, for -the want of a loyalist party, could be held only by sheer conquest, was -not fit for a basis of operations against the other states; while the -abandoning of New York, the recognized strategic centre of the Atlantic -coast, would be interpreted by the whole world, not as a change of base, -but as a confession of defeat. Clinton's opinion was thus founded upon a -truer and clearer view of the whole situation than Cornwallis's; nor is -it likely that the latter would ever have urged such a scheme had he not -been, in such a singular and unexpected way, elbowed out of North -Carolina. Being now in Virginia, it was incumbent on him to do -something, and, with the force at his disposal, it seemed as if he might -easily begin by crushing Lafayette. "The boy cannot escape me," said -Cornwallis; but the young Frenchman turned out to be quite capable of -taking care of himself. Although not a man of original genius, Lafayette -had much good sense and was quick at learning. He was now twenty-three -years old, buoyant and kind, full of wholesome enthusiasm, and endowed -with no mean sagacity. A Fabian policy was all that could be adopted for -the moment. When Cornwallis advanced from Petersburg to Richmond, -Lafayette began the skilful retreat which proved him an apt learner in -the school of Washington and Greene. From Richmond toward -Fredericksburg--over the ground made doubly famous by the movements of -Lee and Grant--the youthful general kept up his retreat, never giving -the eager earl a chance to deal him a blow; for, as with naive humour he -wrote to Washington, "I am not strong enough even to be beaten." On the -4th of June Lafayette crossed the Rapidan at Ely's Ford and placed -himself in a secure position; while Cornwallis, refraining from the -pursuit, sent Tarleton on a raid westward to Charlottesville, to break -up the legislature, which was in session there, and to capture the -governor, Thomas Jefferson. The raid, though conducted with Tarleton's -usual vigour, failed of its principal prey; for Jefferson, forewarned in -the nick of time, got off to the mountains about twenty minutes before -the cavalry surrounded his house at Monticello. It remained for Tarleton -to seize the military stores collected at Albemarle; but on the 10th of -June Lafayette effected a junction with 1,000 Pennsylvania regulars -under Wayne, and thereupon succeeded in placing his whole force between -Tarleton and the prize he was striving to reach. Unable to break through -this barrier, Tarleton had nothing left him but to rejoin Cornwallis; -and as Lafayette's army was reinforced from various sources until it -amounted to more than 4,000 men, he became capable of annoying the earl -in such wise as to make him think it worth while to get nearer to the -sea. Cornwallis, turning southwestward from the North Anna river, had -proceeded as far inland as Point of Forks when Tarleton joined him. On -the 15th of June, the British commander, finding that he could not -catch "the boy," and was accomplishing nothing by his marches and -countermarches in the interior, retreated down the James river to -Richmond. In so doing he did not yet put himself upon the defensive. -Lafayette was still too weak to risk a battle, or to prevent his going -wherever he liked. But Cornwallis was too prudent a general to remain at -a long distance from his base of operations, among a people whom he had -found, to his great disappointment, thoroughly hostile. By retreating to -the seaboard, he could make sure of supplies and reinforcements, and -might presently resume the work of invasion. Accordingly, on the 20th he -continued his retreat from Richmond, crossing the Chickahominy a little -above White Oak Swamp, and marching down the York peninsula as far as -Williamsburg. Lafayette, having been further reinforced by Steuben, so -that his army numbered more than 5,000, pressed closely on the rear of -the British all the way down the peninsula; and on the 6th of July an -action was fought between parts of the two armies, at Green Spring, near -Williamsburg, in which the Americans were repulsed with a loss of 145 -men.[42] The campaign was ended by the first week in August, when -Cornwallis occupied Yorktown, adding the garrison of Portsmouth to his -army, so that it numbered 7,000 men, while Lafayette planted himself on -Malvern Hill, and awaited further developments. Throughout this game of -strategy, Lafayette had shown commendable skill, proving himself a -worthy antagonist for the ablest of the British generals. But a far -greater commander than either the Frenchman or the Englishman was now to -enter most unexpectedly upon the scene. The elements of the catastrophe -were prepared, and it only remained for a master hand to strike the -blow. - - [Sidenote: Elements of the final catastrophe; arrival of the French - fleet] - -As early as the 22d of May, just two days before the beginning of this -Virginia campaign, Washington had held a conference with Rochambeau, at -Wethersfield, in Connecticut, and it was there decided that a combined -attack should be made upon New York by the French and American armies. -If they should succeed in taking the city, it would ruin the British -cause; and, at all events, it was hoped that if New York was seriously -threatened Sir Henry Clinton would take reinforcements from Cornwallis, -and thus relieve the pressure upon the southern states. In order to -undertake the capture of New York, it would be necessary to have the aid -of a powerful French fleet; and the time had at last arrived when such -assistance was confidently to be expected. The naval war between France -and England in the West Indies had now raged for two years, with varying -fortunes. The French government had exerted itself to the utmost, and -early in the spring of this year had sent out a magnificent fleet of -twenty-eight ships-of-the-line and six frigates, carrying 1,700 guns and -20,000 men, commanded by Count de Grasse, one of the ablest of the -French admirals. It was designed to take from England the great island -of Jamaica; but as the need for naval cooperation upon the North -American coast had been strongly urged upon the French ministry, Grasse -was ordered to communicate with Washington and Rochambeau, and to seize -the earliest opportunity of acting in concert with them. - -The arrival of this fleet would introduce a feature into the war such as -had not existed at any time since hostilities had begun. It would -interrupt the British control over the water. The utmost force the -British were ready to oppose to it amounted only to nineteen -ships-of-the-line, carrying 1,400 guns and 13,000 men, and this -disparity was too great to be surmounted by anything short of the genius -of a Nelson. The conditions of the struggle were thus about to be -suddenly and decisively altered. The retreat of Cornwallis upon Yorktown -had been based entirely upon the assumption of that British naval -supremacy which had hitherto been uninterrupted. The safety of his -position depended wholly upon the ability of the British fleet to -control the Virginia waters. Once let the French get the upper hand -there, and the earl, if assailed in front by an overwhelming land force, -would be literally "between the devil and the deep sea." He would be no -better off than Burgoyne in the forests of northern New York. - - [Illustration: CORNWALLIS'S HEADQUARTERS AT YORKTOWN] - - [Sidenote: News from Grasse and Lafayette] - -It was not yet certain, however, where Grasse would find it best to -strike the coast. The elements of the situation disclosed themselves but -slowly, and it required the master mind of Washington to combine them. -Intelligence travelled at snail's pace in those days, and operations so -vast in extent were not within the compass of anything but the highest -military genius. It took ten days for Washington to hear from Lafayette, -and it took a month for him to hear from Greene, while there was no -telling just when definite information would arrive from Grasse. But so -soon as Washington heard from Greene, in April, how he had manoeuvred -Cornwallis up into Virginia, he began secretly to consider the -possibility of leaving a small force to guard the Hudson, while taking -the bulk of his army southward to overwhelm Cornwallis. At the -Wethersfield conference, he spoke of this to Rochambeau, but to no one -else; and a dispatch to Grasse gave him the choice of sailing either for -the Hudson or for Chesapeake bay. So matters stood till the middle of -August, while Washington, grasping all the elements of the problem, -vigilantly watched the whole field, holding himself in readiness for -either alternative,--to strike New York close at hand, or to hurl his -army to a distance of four hundred miles. On the 14th of August a -message came from Grasse that he was just starting from the West Indies -for Chesapeake bay, with his whole fleet, and hoped that whatever the -armies had to do might be done quickly, as he should be obliged to -return to the West Indies by the middle of October. Washington could now -couple with this the information, just received from Lafayette, that -Cornwallis had established himself at Yorktown, where he had deep water -on three sides of him, and a narrow neck in front. - - [Illustration: WASHINGTON SILHOUETTE BY FOLWELL] - - [Sidenote: Subtle and audacious scheme of Washington] - -The supreme moment of Washington's military career had come,--the moment -for realizing a conception which had nothing of a Fabian character about -it, for it was a conception of the same order as those in which Caesar -and Napoleon dealt. He decided at once to transfer his army to Virginia -and overwhelm Cornwallis. He had everything in readiness. The army of -Rochambeau had marched through Connecticut, and joined him on the Hudson -in July. He could afford to leave West Point with a comparatively small -force, for that strong fortress could be taken only by a regular siege, -and he had planned his march so as to blind Sir Henry Clinton -completely. This was one of the finest points in Washington's scheme, in -which the perfection of the details matched the audacious grandeur of -the whole. Sir Henry was profoundly unconscious of any such movement as -Washington was about to execute; but he was anxiously looking out for an -attack upon New York. Now, from the American headquarters near West -Point, Washington could take his army more than half way through New -Jersey without arousing any suspicion at all; for the enemy would be -sure to interpret such a movement as preliminary to an occupation of -Staten Island, as a point from which to assail New York. Sir Henry knew -that the French fleet might be expected at any moment; but he had not -the clue which Washington held, and his anxious thoughts were concerned -with New York harbour, not with Chesapeake Bay. Besides all this, the -sheer audacity of the movement served still further to conceal its true -meaning. It would take some time for the enemy to comprehend so huge a -sweep as that from New York to Virginia, and doubtless Washington could -reach Philadelphia before his purpose could be fathomed. - - [Sidenote: He transfers his army to Virginia, Aug. 19-Sept. 18] - -The events justified his foresight. On the 19th of August, five days -after receiving the dispatch from Grasse, Washington's army crossed the -Hudson at King's Ferry, and began its march. Lord Stirling was left with -a small force at Saratoga, and General Heath, with 4,000 men, remained -at West Point. Washington took with him southward 2,000 Continentals and -4,000 Frenchmen. It was the only time during the war that French and -American land forces marched together, save on the occasion of the -disastrous attack upon Savannah. None save Washington and Rochambeau -knew whither they were going. So precious was the secret that even the -general officers supposed, until New Brunswick was passed, that their -destination was Staten Island. So rapid was the movement that, however -much the men might have begun to wonder, they had reached Philadelphia -before the purpose of the expedition was distinctly understood. - - [Portrait: le Cte du Rochambeau] - -As the army marched through the streets of Philadelphia, there was an -outburst of exulting hope. The plan could no longer be hidden. Congress -was informed of it, and a fresh light shone upon the people, already -elated by the news of Greene's career of triumph. The windows were -thronged with fair ladies, who threw sweet flowers on the dusty soldiers -as they passed, while the welkin rang with shouts, anticipating the -great deliverance that was so soon to come. The column of soldiers, in -the loose order adapted to its rapid march, was nearly two miles in -length. First came the war-worn Americans, clad in rough toggery, which -eloquently told the story of the meagre resources of a country without a -government. Then followed the gallant Frenchmen, clothed in gorgeous -trappings, such as could be provided by a government which at that time -took three fourths of the earnings of its people in unrighteous -taxation. There was some parading of these soldiers before the president -of Congress, but time was precious. Washington, in his eagerness -galloping on to Chester, received and sent back the joyful intelligence -that Grasse had arrived in Chesapeake bay, and then the glee of the -people knew no bounds. Bands of music played in the streets, every house -hoisted its stars-and-stripes, and all the roadside taverns shouted -success to the bold general. "Long live Washington!" was the toast of -the day. "He has gone to catch Cornwallis in his mousetrap!" - - [Portrait: Hood] - -But these things did not stop for a moment the swift advance of the -army. It was on the 1st of September that they left Trenton behind them, -and by the 5th they had reached the head of Chesapeake bay, whence they -were conveyed in ships, and reached the scene of action, near Yorktown, -by the 18th. - - [Signature: Saml Graves] - - [Signatureents of the fleets] - -Meanwhile, all things had been working together most auspiciously. On -the 31st of August the great French squadron had arrived on the scene, -and the only Englishman capable of defeating it, under the existing -odds, was far away. Admiral Rodney's fleet had followed close upon its -heels from the West Indies, but Rodney himself was not in command. He -had been taken ill suddenly, and had sailed for England, and Sir Samuel -Hood commanded the fleet. Hood outsailed Grasse, passed him on the ocean -without knowing it, looked in at the Chesapeake on the 25th of August, -and, finding no enemy there, sailed on to New York to get instructions -from Admiral Graves, who commanded the naval force in the North, This -was the first that Graves or Clinton knew of the threatened danger. Not -a moment was to be lost. The winds were favourable, and Graves, now -chief in command, crowded sail for the Chesapeake, and arrived on the -5th of September, the very day on which Washington's army was embarking -at the head of the great bay. Graves found the French fleet blocking the -entrance to the bay, and instantly attacked it. A decisive naval victory -for the British would at this moment have ruined everything. But after a -sharp fight of two hours' duration, in which some 700 men were killed -and wounded on the two fleets, Admiral Graves withdrew. Three of his -ships were badly damaged, and after manoeuvering for four days he -returned, baffled and despondent, to New York, leaving Grasse in full -possession of the Virginia waters. The toils were thus fast closing -around Lord Cornwallis. He knew nothing as yet of Washington's approach, -but there was just a chance that he might realize his danger, and, -crossing the James river, seek safety in a retreat upon North Carolina. -Lafayette forestalled this solitary chance. Immediately upon the arrival -of the French squadron, the troops of the Marquis de Saint-Simon, 3,000 -in number, had been set on shore and added to Lafayette's army; and with -this increased force, now amounting to more than 8,000 men, "the boy" -came down on the 7th of September, and took his stand across the neck of -the peninsula at Williamsburg, cutting off Cornwallis's retreat. - - [Portrait: MARQUIS DE LAFAYETTE] - - [Sidenote: Cornwallis surrounded at Yorktown] - -Thus, on the morning of the 8th, the very day on which Greene, in South -Carolina, was fighting his last battle at Eutaw Springs, Lord -Cornwallis, in Virginia, found himself surrounded. The door of the -mousetrap was shut. Still, but for the arrival of Washington, the plan -would probably have failed. It was still in Cornwallis's power to burst -the door open. His force was nearly equal to Lafayette's in numbers, and -better in quality, for Lafayette's contained 3,000 militia. Cornwallis -carefully reconnoitred the American lines, and seriously thought of -breaking through; but the risk was considerable, and heavy loss was -inevitable. He had not the slightest inkling of Washington's movements, -and he believed that Graves would soon return with force enough to drive -away Grasse's blockading squadron. So he decided to wait before striking -a hazardous blow. It was losing his last chance. On the 14th Washington -reached Lafayette's headquarters, and took command. On the 18th the -northern army began arriving in detachments, and by the 26th it was all -concentrated at Williamsburg, more than 16,000 strong. The problem was -solved. The surrender of Cornwallis was only a question of time. It was -the great military surprise of the Revolutionary War. Had any one -predicted, eight months before, that Washington on the Hudson and -Cornwallis on the Catawba, eight hundred miles apart, would so soon come -together and terminate the war on the coast of Virginia, he would have -been thought a wild prophet indeed. For thoroughness of elaboration and -promptness of execution, the movement, on Washington's part, was as -remarkable as the march of Napoleon in the autumn of 1805, when he -swooped from the shore of the English Channel into Bavaria, and captured -the Austrian army at Ulm. - - [Sidenote: Clinton's attempt at a counterstroke] - -By the 2d of September, Sir Henry Clinton, learning that the American -army had reached the Delaware, and coupling with this the information he -had got from Admiral Hood, began to suspect the true nature of -Washington's movement, and was at his wit's end. The only thing he could -think of was to make a counterstroke on the coast of Connecticut, and he -accordingly detached Benedict Arnold with 2,000 men to attack New -London. - - [Sidenote: Arnold's proceedings at New London, Sept. 6] - -It was the boast of this sturdy little state that no hostile force had -ever slept a night upon her soil. Such blows as her coast towns had -received had been dealt by an enemy who retreated as quickly as he had -come; and such was again to be the case. The approach to New London was -guarded by two forts on opposite banks of the river Thames, but Arnold's -force soon swept up the west bank, bearing down all opposition and -capturing the city. In Fort Griswold, on the east bank, 157 militia were -gathered and made a desperate resistance. The fort was attacked by 600 -regulars, and after losing 192 men, or 35 more than the entire number of -the garrison, they carried it by storm. No quarter was given, and of the -little garrison only 26 escaped unhurt.[43] The town of New London was -laid in ashes; minute-men came swarming by hundreds; the enemy -reembarked before sunset and returned up the Sound. And thus, on the 6th -of September, 1781, with this wanton assault upon the peaceful -neighbourhood where the earliest years of his life had been spent, the -brilliant and wicked Benedict Arnold disappears from American -history.[44] - - [Sidenote: Surrender of Cornwallis, Oct. 19, 1781] - -A thoroughly wanton assault it was, for it did not and could not produce -the slightest effect upon the movements of Washington. By the time the -news of it had reached Virginia, the combination against Cornwallis had -been completed, and day by day the lines were drawn more closely about -the doomed army. Yorktown was invested, and on the 6th of October the -first parallel was opened by General Lincoln. On the 11th, the second -parallel, within three hundred yards of the enemy's works, was opened by -Steuben. On the night of the 14th Alexander Hamilton and the Baron de -Viomenil carried two of the British redoubts by storm. On the next night -the British made a gallant but fruitless sortie. By noon of the 16th -their works were fast crumbling to pieces under the fire of seventy -cannon. On the 17th--the fourth anniversary of Burgoyne's -surrender--Cornwallis hoisted the white flag. The terms of the surrender -were like those of Lincoln's at Charleston. The British army became -prisoners of war, subject to the ordinary rules of exchange. The only -delicate question related to the American loyalists in the army, whom -Cornwallis felt it wrong to leave in the lurch. This point was neatly -disposed of by allowing him to send a ship to Sir Henry Clinton, with -news of the catastrophe, and to embark in it such troops as he might -think proper to send to New York, and no questions asked. On a little -matter of etiquette the Americans were more exacting. The practice of -playing the enemy's tunes had always been cherished as an inalienable -prerogative of British soldiery; and at the surrender of Charleston, in -token of humiliation, General Lincoln's army had been expressly -forbidden to play any but an American tune. Colonel Laurens, who now -conducted the negotiations, directed that Lord Cornwallis's sword should -be received by General Lincoln, and that the army, on marching out to -lay down its arms, should play a British or a German air. There was no -help for it; and on the 19th of October, Cornwallis's army, 7,247 in -number, with 840 seamen, marched out with colours furled and cased, -while the band played a quaint old English melody, of which the -significant title was "The World Turned Upside Down!" - - [Illustration: MOORE'S HOUSE, YORKTOWN, IN WHICH THE TERMS OF - SURRENDER WERE ARRANGED] - - [Sidenote: Importance of the aid rendered by the French fleet and - army] - -On the very same day that Cornwallis surrendered, Sir Henry Clinton, -having received naval reinforcements, sailed from New York with -twenty-five ships-of-the-line and ten frigates, and 7,000 of his best -troops. Five days brought him to the mouth of the Chesapeake, where he -learned that he was too late, as had been the case four years before, -when he tried to relieve Burgoyne. A fortnight earlier, this force might -perhaps have seriously altered the result, for the fleet was strong -enough to dispute with Grasse the control over the coast. The French -have always taken to themselves the credit of the victory of Yorktown. -In the palace of Versailles there is a room the walls of which are -covered with huge paintings depicting the innumerable victories of -France, from the days of Chlodwig to those of Napoleon. Near the end of -the long series, the American visitor cannot fail to notice a scene -which is labelled "Bataille de Yorcktown" (misspelled, as is the -Frenchman's wont in dealing with the words of outer barbarians), in -which General Rochambeau occupies the most commanding position, while -General Washington is perforce contented with a subordinate place. This -is not correct history, for the glory of conceiving and conducting the -movement undoubtedly belongs to Washington. But it should never be -forgotten, not only that the 4,000 men of Rochambeau and the 3,000 of -Saint-Simon were necessary for the successful execution of the plan, but -also that without the formidable fleet of Grasse the plan could not even -have been made. How much longer the war might have dragged out its -tedious length, or what might have been its final issue, without this -timely assistance, can never be known; and our debt of gratitude to -France for her aid on this supreme occasion is something which should -always be duly acknowledged.[45] - - [Illustration: PAROLE OF CORNWALLIS] - - [Sidenote: Effect of the news in England] - -Early on a dark morning of the fourth week in October, an honest old -German, slowly pacing the streets of Philadelphia on his night watch, -began shouting, "Basht dree o'glock, und Gornvallis ish dakendt!" and -light sleepers sprang out of bed and threw up their windows. -Washington's courier laid the dispatches before Congress in the -forenoon, and after dinner a service of prayer and thanksgiving was held -in the Lutheran Church. At New Haven and Cambridge the students sang -triumphal hymns, and every village green in the country was ablaze with -bonfires. The Duke de Lauzun sailed for France in a swift ship, and on -the 27th of November all the houses in Paris were illuminated, and the -aisles of Notre Dame resounded with the Te Deum. At noon of November -25th, the news was brought to Lord George Germain, at his house in Pall -Mall. Getting into a cab, he drove hastily to the Lord Chancellor's -house in Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury, and took him in; and then -they drove to Lord North's office in Downing Street. At the staggering -news, all the Prime Minister's wonted gayety forsook him. He walked -wildly up and down the room, throwing his arms about and crying, "O God! -it is all over! it is all over! it is all over!" A dispatch was sent to -the king at Kew, and when Lord George received the answer that evening, -at dinner, he observed that his Majesty wrote calmly, but had forgotten -to date his letter,--a thing which had never happened before. - -"The tidings," says Wraxall, who narrates these incidents, "were -calculated to diffuse a gloom over the most convivial society, and -opened a wide field for political speculation." There were many people -in England, however, who looked at the matter differently from Lord -North. This crushing defeat was just what the Duke of Richmond, at the -beginning of the war, had publicly declared he hoped for. Charles Fox -always took especial delight in reading about the defeats of invading -armies, from Marathon and Salamis downward; and over the news of -Cornwallis's surrender he leaped from his chair and clapped his hands. -In a debate in Parliament, four months before, the youthful William Pitt -had denounced the American war as "most accursed, wicked, barbarous, -cruel, unnatural, unjust, and diabolical," which led Burke to observe, -"He is not a chip of the old block; he is the old block itself!" - - [Portrait: W Pitt] - - [Sidenote: Difficult position of Great Britain] - -The fall of Lord North's ministry, and with it the overthrow of the -personal government of George III., was now close at hand. For a long -time the government had been losing favour. In the summer of 1780, the -British victories in South Carolina had done something to strengthen it; -yet when, in the autumn of that year, Parliament was dissolved, -although the king complained that his expenses for purposes of -corruption had been twice as great as ever before, the new Parliament -was scarcely more favourable to the ministry than the old one. -Misfortunes and perplexities crowded in the path of Lord North and his -colleagues. The example of American resistance had told upon Ireland, -and it was in the full tide of that agitation which is associated with -the names of Flood and Grattan that the news of Cornwallis's surrender -was received. For more than a year there had been war in India, where -Hyder Ali, for the moment, was carrying everything before him. France, -eager to regain her lost foothold upon Hindustan, sent a strong armament -thither, and insisted that England must give up all her Indian conquests -except Bengal. For a moment England's new Eastern empire tottered, and -was saved only by the superhuman exertions of Warren Hastings, aided by -the wonderful military genius of Sir Eyre Coote. In May, 1781, the -Spaniards had taken Pensacola, thus driving the British from their last -position in Florida. In February, 1782, the Spanish fleet captured -Minorca, and the siege of Gibraltar, which had been kept up for nearly -three years, was pressed with redoubled energy. During the winter the -French recaptured St. Eustatius, and handed it over to Holland; and -Grasse's great fleet swept away all the British possessions in the West -Indies, except Jamaica, Barbadoes, and Antigua. All this time the -Northern League kept up its jealous watch upon British cruisers in the -narrow seas, and among all the powers of Europe the government of George -III. could not find a single friend. - - [Sidenote: Rodney's victory over Grasse, April 12, 1782] - -The maritime supremacy of England was, however, impaired but for a -moment. Rodney was sent back to the West Indies, and on the 12th of -April, 1782, his fleet of thirty-six ships encountered the French near -the island of Sainte-Marie-Galante. The battle of eleven hours which -ensued, and in which 5,000 men were killed or wounded, was one of the -most tremendous contests ever witnessed upon the ocean before the time -of Nelson. The French were totally defeated, and Grasse was taken -prisoner,--the first French commander-in-chief, by sea or land, who had -fallen into an enemy's hands since Marshal Tallard gave up his sword to -Marlborough, on the terrible day of Blenheim. France could do nothing to -repair this crushing disaster. Her naval power was eliminated from the -situation at a single blow; and in the course of the summer the English -achieved another great success by overthrowing the Spaniards at -Gibraltar, after a struggle which, for dogged tenacity, is scarcely -paralleled in the annals of modern warfare. By the autumn of 1782, -England, defeated in the United States, remained victorious and defiant -as regarded the other parties to the war. - - [Portrait: Rockingham] - -But these great successes came too late to save the doomed ministry of -Lord North. After the surrender of Cornwallis, no one but the king -thought of pursuing the war in America any further. Even the king gave -up all hope of subduing the United States; but he insisted upon -retaining the state of Georgia, with the cities of Charleston and New -York; and he vowed that, rather than acknowledge the independence of the -United States, he would abdicate the throne and retire to Hanover. Lord -George Germain was dismissed from office, Sir Henry Clinton was -superseded by Sir Guy Carleton, and the king began to dream of a new -campaign. But his obstinacy was of no avail. During the winter and -spring, General Wayne, acting under Greene's orders, drove the British -from Georgia, while at home the country squires began to go over to the -opposition; and Lord North, utterly discouraged and disgusted, refused -any longer to pursue a policy of which he disapproved. The baffled and -beaten king, like the fox in the fable, declared that the Americans were -a wretched set of knaves, and he was glad to be rid of them. The House -of Commons began to talk of a vote of censure on the administration. A -motion of Conway's, petitioning the king to stop the war, was lost by -only a single vote; and at last, on the 20th of March, 1782, Lord North -bowed to the storm, and resigned. The two sections of the Whig party -united their forces. Lord Rockingham became Prime Minister, and with him -came into office Shelburne, Camden, and Grafton, as well as Fox and -Conway, the Duke of Richmond, and Lord John Cavendish, staunch friends -of America, all of them, whose appointment involved the recognition of -the independence of the United States. - - [Portrait: GEORGE III] - - [Signature: W. S. Conway] - -Lord North observed that he had often been accused of issuing lying -bulletins, but he had never told so big a lie as that with which the new -ministry announced its entrance into power; for in introducing the name -of each of these gentlemen, the official bulletin used the words, "His -Majesty has been _pleased_ to appoint!" It was indeed a day of bitter -humiliation for George III. and the men who had been his tools. But it -was a day of happy omen for the English race, in the Old World as well -as in the New. For the advent of Lord Rockingham's ministry meant not -merely the independence of the United States; it meant the downfall of -the only serious danger with which English liberty has been threatened -since the expulsion of the Stuarts. The personal government which George -III. had sought to establish, with its wholesale corruption, its -shameless violations of public law, and its attacks upon freedom of -speech and of the press, became irredeemably discredited, and tottered -to its fall; while the great England of William III., of Walpole, of -Chatham, of the younger Pitt, of Peel, and of Gladstone was set free to -pursue its noble career. Such was the priceless boon which the younger -nation, by its sturdy insistence upon the principles of political -justice, conferred upon the elder. The decisive battle of freedom in -England, as well as in America, and in that vast colonial world for -which Chatham prophesied the dominion of the future, had now been fought -and won. And foremost in accomplishing this glorious work had been the -lofty genius of Washington, and the steadfast valour of the men who -suffered with him at Valley Forge, and whom he led to victory at -Yorktown. - - * * * * * - -In the light of the foregoing narrative it distinctly appears that, -while the American Revolution involved a military struggle between the -governments of Great Britain and the United States, it did not imply any -essential antagonism of interests or purposes between the British and -American peoples. It was not a contest between Englishmen and Americans, -but between two antagonistic principles of government, each of which had -its advocates and opponents in both countries. It was a contest between -Whig and Tory principles, and it was the temporary prevalence of Toryism -in the British government that caused the political severance between -the two countries. If the ideas of Walpole, or the ideas of Chatham, -had continued to prevail at Westminster until the end of the eighteenth -century, it is not likely that any such political severance would have -occurred. The self-government of the American colonies would not have -been interfered with, and such slight grievances as here and there -existed might easily have been remedied by the ordinary methods of -peace. The American Revolution, unlike most political revolutions, was -essentially conservative in character. It was not caused by actually -existing oppression, but by the determination to avoid possible -oppression in future. Its object was not the acquisition of new -liberties, but the preservation of old ones. The principles asserted in -the Stamp Act Congress of 1765 differed in no essential respect from -those that had been proclaimed five centuries earlier, in Earl Simon's -Parliament of 1265. Political liberty was not an invention of the -western hemisphere; it was brought to these shores from Great Britain by -our forefathers of the seventeenth century, and their children of the -eighteenth naturally refused to surrender the treasure which from time -immemorial they had enjoyed. - -The decisive incident which in the retrospect appears to have made the -Revolution inevitable, as it actually brought it upon the scene, was the -Regulating Act of April, 1774, which annulled the charter of -Massachusetts, and left that commonwealth to be ruled by a military -governor. This atrocious measure, which was emphatically condemned by -the most enlightened public sentiment in England, was the measure of a -half-crazy young king, carried through a parliament in which more than a -hundred members sat for rotten boroughs. It was the first violent -manifestation of despotic tendency at the seat of government since 1688; -and in this connection it is interesting to remember that in 1684 -Charles II. had undertaken to deal with Massachusetts precisely as was -attempted ninety years later by George III. In both cases the charter -was annulled, and a military governor appointed; and in both cases the -liberties of all the colonies were openly threatened by the tyrannical -scheme. But in the earlier case the conduct of James II. at once -brought on acute irritation in England, so that the evil was promptly -removed. In the later case the evil was realized so much sooner and so -much more acutely in the colonies than in England as to result in -political separation. Instead of a general revolution, overthrowing or -promptly curbing the king, there was a partial revolution, which severed -the colonies from their old allegiance; but at the same time the success -of this partial revolution soon ended in restraining the king. The -personal government of George III. was practically ended by the election -of 1784. - - [Illustration: BUST OF WASHINGTON, CHRIST CHURCH, BOSTON] - -Throughout the war the Whigs of the mother country loyally sustained the -principles for which the Americans were fighting, and the results of the -war amply justified them. On the other hand, the Tories in America were -far from agreed in approving the policy of George III. Some of them -rivalled Thurlow and Germain in the heartiness with which they supported -the king; but others, and in all probability a far greater number, -disapproved of the king's measures, and perceived their dangerous -tendency, but could not persuade themselves to take part in breaking up -the great empire which represented all that to their minds was best in -civilization. History is not called upon to blame these members of the -defeated party. The spirit by which they were animated is not easily -distinguishable from that which inspired the victorious party in our -Civil War. The expansion of English sway in the world was something to -which the American colonies had in no small share contributed, and the -rejoicings over Wolfe's victory had scarcely ceased when the spectre of -fratricidal strife came looming up in the horizon. An American who -heartily disapproved of Grenville's well-meaning blunder and Townshend's -malicious challenge might still believe that the situation could be -rectified without the disruption of the Empire. Such was the attitude of -Thomas Hutchinson, who was surely a patriot, as honest and disinterested -as his adversary, Samuel Adams. The attitude of Hutchinson can be -perfectly understood if we compare it with that of Falkland in the days -of the Long Parliament. In the one case as in the other sound reason was -on the side of the Moderates; but their fatal weakness was that they had -no practical remedy to offer. Between George III. and Samuel Adams any -real compromise was as impossible as between Charles I. and Pym. - -It was seriously feared by many patriotic Tories, like Hutchinson, that -if the political connection between the colonies and the mother country -were to be severed, the new American republics would either tear -themselves to pieces in petty and ignominious warfare, like the states -of ancient Greece, or else would sink into the position of tools for -France or Spain. The history of the thirty years after Yorktown showed -that these were not imaginary dangers. The drift toward anarchy, from -which we began to be rescued in 1787, was unmistakable; and after 1793 -the determination of France to make a tool of the United States became -for some years a disturbing and demoralizing element in the political -situation. But as we look at these events retrospectively, the -conclusion to which we are driven is just opposite to that which was -entertained by the Tories. Dread of impending anarchy brought into -existence our Federal Constitution in 1787, and nothing short of that -would have done it. But for the acute distress entailed by the lack of -any stronger government than the Continental Congress, the American -people would have been no more willing to enter into a strict Federal -Union in 1787 than they had been in 1754. Instead of bringing anarchy, -the separation from Great Britain, by threatening anarchy, brought more -perfect union. In order that American problems should be worked out -successfully, independence was necessary. - -It is to be regretted that the attainment of that independence must -needs have been surrounded with the bitter memories inseparable from -warfare. In such a political atmosphere as that of the ancient Greek -world it need not have been so. The Greek colony, save in two or three -exceptional cases, enjoyed complete autonomy. Corinth did not undertake -to legislate for Syracuse; but the Syracusan did not therefore cease to -regard Corinthians as his fellow-countrymen. The conceptions of -allegiance and territorial sovereignty, which grew to maturity under the -feudal system, made such relations between colony and mother state -impossible in the eighteenth century. Autonomy could not be taken for -granted, but must be won with the sword. - -But while, under the circumstances, a war was inevitable, it is only -gross ignorance of history that would find in such a war any -justification for lack of cordiality between the people of the United -Kingdom and the people of the United States. As already observed, it was -not a war between the two peoples, but between two principles. The -principle of statecraft against which Washington fought no longer exists -among either British or Americans; it is as extinct as the dinosaurs. In -all good work that nations can do in the world, the British people are -our best allies; and one of the most encouraging symptoms of the -advancement of civilization in recent years is the fact that a grave -question, which in earlier times and between other nations would -doubtless have led to bloodshed, has been amicably adjusted by -arbitration. The memory of what was accomplished in 1872 at Geneva is a -prouder memory than Saratoga or Yorktown. From such an auspicious -beginning, it is not unlikely that a system may soon be developed -whereby all international questions that can arise among -English-speaking people shall admit of settlement by peaceable -discussion. It would be one of the most notable things ever done for the -welfare of mankind, and it is hoped that the closing years of our -century may be made forever illustrious by such an achievement. - -FOOTNOTES: - - [39] It was the sons of these invincible men who vanquished - Wellington's veterans in the brief but acute agony at New - Orleans; it was their grandsons and great-grandsons who came - so near vanquishing Grant at Shiloh and Rosecrans at Stone - River. - - [40] "History, perhaps, does not furnish an instance [he means - another instance] of a battle gained under all the - disadvantages which the British troops ... had to contend - against at Guilford. Nor is there, perhaps, on the records of - history, an instance of a battle fought with more determined - perseverance than was shown by the British troops on that - memorable day." Stedman, _History of the American War_, London, - 1794, ii. 347. - - [41] It is interesting to contrast with the movements of Cornwallis - those of an eminent general in more recent times. Early in 1865 - General Sherman was at Columbia, on the Congaree river, about - thirty miles southwest from Camden, and the difficult task - before him was, without any secure base of operations nearer - than Savannah, to push the Confederate forces northward to a - decisive defeat in North Carolina. With this end in view, - Sherman feigned to be aiming at Charlotte, while in reality he - moved the bulk of his army northeasterly across the Pedee and - Cape Fear rivers to Goldsborough, near the coast, where he - established a new and secure base of operations. The battle of - Bentonville, fought just before Sherman reached this base, was - the unsuccessful attempt of his skilful antagonist, Joseph - Johnston, to prevent his reaching it. Sherman's march - northwestward from his new base was well secured, and - Johnston's surrender near Hillsborough was a natural sequel. - But--as my friend, Mr. John Codman Ropes, in a letter to me - once pointed out--"had Sherman pursued his march from Columbia - to Charlotte, and thence until he had met and fought Johnston, - the result of the inevitable losses of the battle, leaving the - question of victory aside, might have been such as to compel a - retreat to Savannah." - - [42] Just after the fight at Green Spring Tarleton made a raid - through Amelia county and as far as Bedford, a hundred miles - west of Petersburg. One of the incidents of this raid was made - the subject of an engraving that was published in 1814 and soon - became a familiar sight on the walls of public coffee-rooms and - private parlours. Peter Francisco was a Portuguese waif, an - indentured servant of Anthony Winston. As he grew to manhood - his strength was such that he could lift upon his shoulder a - cannon weighing half a ton, and his agility was equally - remarkable. He entered the Continental service in 1777, in his - seventeenth year, and fought at Brandywine, Germantown, Fort - Mifflin, Monmouth, Stony Point, Camden, Cowpens, and Guilford, - where he was wounded and left for dead. Plenty of life remained - in him, however. On a July day, somewhere in Amelia county, - alone and unarmed, he fell in with nine of Tarleton's dragoons, - one of whom demanded his shoe-buckles. "Take them off - yourself," said the quick-witted fellow-countryman of Magellan. - As the man stooped to do the unbuckling, the young giant - snatched away his sword and crushed in his skull with a single - blow. Then quickly turning he slew two others, one of whom sat - on horseback snapping a musket at him. At this moment - Tarleton's troop of 400 men appeared in the distance, whereupon - the astute Francisco shouted in tremendous voice some words of - command as if to an approaching party of his own. The six - unhurt dragoons, who happened to be dismounted, were dazed with - the sudden fury of Francisco's attack, and at his deafening - yell they fled in a panic, leaving their horses. These things - all happened in the twinkling of an eye. Then Francisco vaulted - into the saddle of one of the horses, seized the others by - their bridles, and made off through the woods to Prince Edward - Court House, where he sold all the horses save one noble - charger which he named Tarleton and kept as his pet for many - years. See Winston's _Peter Francisco, Soldier of the - Revolution_, Richmond, 1893. - - The above incidents are epitomized in the picture without much - regard to accuracy. - - [43] This slaughter, though sanctioned by European rules of warfare - at that time, was not in accordance with usage in English - America, either on the part of British or of Continentals. It - was an instance of exceptional cruelty, and must be pronounced - a serious blot upon the British record. See above, p. 116. - - [44] He died in London, June 14, 1801, and his burial in Brompton - cemetery is mentioned in the _Gentleman's Magazine_, lxxi. 580. - - [45] In using such a word as "gratitude" in this connection, one - should not forget that the purposes of France, in helping us, - were purely selfish. The feeling of the French government - toward us was not really friendly, and its help was doled out - with as niggardly a hand as possible. An instance of this was - furnished immediately after the surrender of Yorktown, when - Lafayette proposed to Grasse a combined movement upon - Charleston in concert with Greene, but Grasse obstinately - refused. See Harvard University Library, _Sparks MSS._ Such a - movement promised success, though it might have entailed a - battle with the British fleet. But Grasse was faithful to the - policy of Vergennes, to help the Americans just enough, but not - too much. This policy is discussed in my _Critical Period of - American History_, chap, i., "Results of Yorktown," in which - the story is continued from the present chapter. - - - - - Transcriber's Notes: - -Many of the illustrations in this volume are portraits, most of which -have a signature serving as a caption. Some illustrations are merely -signatures, and many of these are none too legible. Here, we include -them as: - - [Signature: abc de fghijk]. - -Portraits which have printed captions are in uppercase. - -We make a best effort to transcribe the signatures. Where the person in -question can be identified from context, but the signature is simply not -completely legible, the full name itself is given and the word -[illegible] will represent those portions that cannot be read: - - [Portrait: [illegible] la Baronne de la Reisedel [illegible]] - -Where documents are reproduced as illustrations, we have attempted to -transcribe the content here as an extended 'caption', included in the -[brackets]. - -Corrections: - -In the table of contents for Volume 2, the word 'surrounded' was -mistakenly printed as 'surrendered'. The surrender takes place two -entries later. This has been corrected. - -The following minor printer's errors, all in Volume 2, have been -corrected as well. - - p. x Cornwallis [surrendered/surrounded] | - at Yorktown | corrected - | - p. 16 a [a] miracle | 'a' duplicated on line - | break removed - | - p. 17 with those of Great Brit[ia/ai]n | corrected - | - p. 142 the ordi[n]ary | 'n' missing on - | hyphenation at a - | line break - | - p. 275 without supplementary campaigns[,/.] | inadvertent comma - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Revolution, by John Fiske - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION *** - -***** This file should be named 41266.txt or 41266.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/2/6/41266/ - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, KD Weeks, Charles Franks and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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