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diff --git a/41264.txt b/41264.txt deleted file mode 100644 index fba5d8f..0000000 --- a/41264.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20049 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 15, Slice 2, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, Slice 2 - "Jacobites" to "Japan" (part) - -Author: Various - -Release Date: November 2, 2012 [EBook #41264] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 15 SLICE 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE JAMAICA: "The British government awarded them compensation - at the rate of L19 per slave, the market value of slaves at the - time being L35, but most of this compensation went into the hands - of the planters' creditors." 'compensation' amended from - 'conpensation'. - - ARTICLE JAMESON, LEANDER STARR: "They were tried in London under - the Foreign Enlistment Act in May 1896, and Dr Jameson was - sentenced to fifteen months' imprisonment at Holloway." - 'imprisonment' amended from 'inprisonment'. - - ARTICLE JAPAN: "The pots in which these wonders of patient skill - are grown have to be themselves fine specimens of the ceramist's - craft, and as much as L200 is sometimes paid for a notably well - trained tree." "ceramist's" amended from "keramist's". - - ARTICLE JAPAN: "... named Iwasa Matahei, had even made a specialty - of this class of motive; but so little is known of Matahei and his - work that even his period is a matter of dispute ..." 'specialty' - amended from 'speciality'. - - ARTICLE JAPAN: "At the naval cadet academy--originally situated in - Tokyo but now at Etajima near Kure--aspirants for service as naval - officers receive a 3 years' academical course and 1 year's training - at sea ..." 'Tokyo' amended from 'Tkoyo'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XV, SLICE II - - Jacobites to Japan (part) - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - JACOBITES JAMES III. - JACOBS, CHRISTIAN WILHELM JAMES IV. - JACOBS CAVERN JAMES V. - JACOBSEN, JENS PETER JAMES I. (king of Aragon) - JACOB'S WELL JAMES II. - JACOBUS DE VORAGINE JAMES II. (king of Majorca) - JACOTOT, JOSEPH JAMES III. (king of Majorca) - JACQUARD, JOSEPH MARIE JAMES (prince of Wales) - JACQUERIE, THE JAMES, DAVID - JACTITATION JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFORD - JADE (estuary of the North Sea) JAMES, HENRY - JADE (ornamental stones) JAMES, JOHN ANGELL - JAEN (province of Spain) JAMES, THOMAS - JAEN (city of Spain) JAMES, WILLIAM (English historian) - JAFARABAD JAMES, WILLIAM (American philosopher) - JAFFNA JAMES OF HEREFORD, HENRY JAMES - JAGER, GUSTAV JAMES, EPISTLE OF - JAGERNDORF JAMESON, ANNA BROWNELL - JAGERSFONTEIN JAMESON, GEORGE - JAGO, RICHARD JAMESON, LEANDER STARR - JAGUAR JAMESON, ROBERT - JAGUARONDI JAMESTOWN (North Dakota, U.S.A.) - JAHANABAD JAMESTOWN (New York, U.S.A.) - JAHANGIR JAMESTOWN (Virginia, U.S.A.) - JAHIZ JAMI - JAHN, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG JAMIESON, JOHN - JAHN, JOHANN JAMIESON, ROBERT - JAHN, OTTO JAMKHANDI - JAHRUM JAMMU - JAINS JAMNIA - JAIPUR JAMRUD - JAISALMER JAMS AND JELLIES - JAJCE JANESVILLE - JAJPUR JANET, PAUL - JAKOB, LUDWIG HEINRICH VON JANGIPUR - JAKOVA JANIN, JULES GABRIEL - JAKUNS JANISSARIES - JALALABAD JANIUAY - JALAP JANJIRA - JALAPA JAN MAYEN - JALAUN JANSEN, CORNELIUS - JALISCO JANSENISM - JALNA JANSSEN, CORNELIUS - JALPAIGURI JANSSEN, JOHANNES - JAMAICA (island) JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CESAR - JAMAICA (New York, U.S.A.) JANSSENS, VICTOR HONORIUS - JAMB JANSSENS VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM - JAMES (name) JANUARIUS, ST - JAMES (New Testament) JANUARY - JAMES I. (king of Great Britain) JANUS - JAMES II. JAORA - JAMES I. (king of Scotland) JAPAN (part) - JAMES II. - - - - -JACOBITES (from Lat. _Jacobus_, James), the name given after the -revolution of 1688 to the adherents, first of the exiled English king -James II., then of his descendants, and after the extinction of the -latter in 1807, of the descendants of Charles I., i.e. of the exiled -house of Stuart. - -The history of the Jacobites, culminating in the risings of 1715 and -1745, is part of the general history of England (q.v.), and especially -of Scotland (q.v.), in which country they were comparatively more -numerous and more active, while there was also a large number of -Jacobites in Ireland. They were recruited largely, but not solely, from -among the Roman Catholics, and the Protestants among them were often -identical with the Non-Jurors. Owing to a variety of causes Jacobitism -began to lose ground after the accession of George I. and the -suppression of the revolt of 1715; and the total failure of the rising -of 1745 may be said to mark its end as a serious political force. In -1765 Horace Walpole said that "Jacobitism, the concealed mother of the -latter (i.e. Toryism), was extinct," but as a sentiment it remained for -some time longer, and may even be said to exist to-day. In 1750, during -a strike of coal workers at Elswick, James III. was proclaimed king; in -1780 certain persons walked out of the Roman Catholic Church at Hexham -when George III. was prayed for; and as late as 1784 a Jacobite rising -was talked about. Northumberland was thus a Jacobite stronghold; and in -Manchester, where in 1777 according to an American observer Jacobitism -"is openly professed," a Jacobite rendezvous known as "John Shaw's Club" -lasted from 1733 to 1892. North Wales was another Jacobite centre. The -"Cycle of the White Rose"--the white rose being the badge of the -Stuarts--composed of members of the principal Welsh families around -Wrexham, including the Williams-Wynns of Wynnstay, lasted from 1710 -until some time between 1850 and 1860. Jacobite traditions also lingered -among the great families of the Scottish Highlands; the last person to -suffer death as a Jacobite was Archibald Cameron, a son of Cameron of -Lochiel, who was executed in 1753. Dr Johnson's Jacobite sympathies are -well known, and on the death of Victor Emmanuel I., the ex-king of -Sardinia, in 1824, Lord Liverpool wrote to Canning saying "there are -those who think that the ex-king was the lawful king of Great Britain." -Until the accession of King Edward VII. finger-bowls were not placed -upon the royal dinner-table, because in former times those who secretly -sympathized with the Jacobites were in the habit of drinking to the king -_over the water_. The romantic side of Jacobitism was stimulated by Sir -Walter Scott's _Waverley_, and many Jacobite poems were written during -the 19th century. - - The chief collections of Jacobite poems are: Charles Mackay's - _Jacobite Songs and Ballads of Scotland, 1688-1746, with Appendix of - Modern Jacobite Songs_ (1861); G. S. Macquoid's _Jacobite Songs and - Ballads_ (1888); and _English Jacobite Ballads_, edited by A. B. - Grosart from the Towneley manuscripts (1877). - -Upon the death of Henry Stuart, Cardinal York, the last of James II.'s -descendants, in 1807, the rightful occupant of the British throne -according to legitimist principles was to be found among the descendants -of Henrietta, daughter of Charles I., who married Philip I., duke of -Orleans. Henrietta's daughter, Anne Marie (1669-1728), became the wife -of Victor Amadeus II., duke of Savoy, afterwards king of Sardinia; her -son was King Charles Emmanuel III., and her grandson Victor Amadeus III. -The latter's son, King Victor Emmanuel I., left no sons, and his eldest -daughter, Marie Beatrice, married Francis IV., duke of Modena, whose -son Ferdinand (d. 1849) left an only daughter, Marie Therese (b. 1849). -This lady, the wife of Prince Louis of Bavaria, was in 1910 the senior -member of the Stuart family, and according to the legitimists the -rightful sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland. - - _Table showing the succession to the crown of Great Britain and - Ireland according to Jacobite principles._ - - Charles I. (1600-1649) - | - Henrietta (1644-1670) = - Philip I., duke of Orleans (1640-1701) - | - Anne Marie (1669-1728) = - Victor Amadeus II, king of Sardinia (1666-1732) - | - Charles Emmanuel III. - king of Sardinia (1701-1773) - | - Victor Amadeus III. - king of Sardinia (1726-1796) - | - Victor Emmanuel I. - king of Sardinia (1759-1824) - | - Marie Beatrice (c. 1780-1840) = - Francis IV., duke of Modena (1779-1846) - | - Ferdinand (1821-1849) - | - Marie Therese (b. 1849) = - Louis, prince of Bavaria (b. 1845) - | - +--------------------+------------+------------+ - | | | - Rupert, prince Charles Francis - of Bavaria (b. 1869) (b. 1874) (b. 1875) - +---------------+--------------+ - | | | - Luitpold Albert Rudolph - (b. 1901) (b. 1905) (b. 1909) - - Among the modern Jacobite, or legitimist, societies perhaps the most - important is the "Order of the White Rose," which has a branch in - Canada and the United States. The order holds that sovereign authority - is of divine sanction, and that the execution of Charles I. and the - revolution of 1688 were national crimes; it exists to study the - history of the Stuarts, to oppose all democratic tendencies, and in - general to maintain the theory that kingship is independent of all - parliamentary authority and popular approval. The order, which was - instituted in 1886, was responsible for the Stuart exhibition of 1889, - and has a newspaper, the _Royalist_. Among other societies with - similar objects in view are the "Thames Valley Legitimist Club" and - the "Legitimist Jacobite League of Great Britain and Ireland." - - See _Historical Papers relating to the Jacobite Period_, edited by J. - Allardyce (Aberdeen, 1895-1896); James Hogg, _The Jacobite Relics of - Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1819-1821); and F. W. Head, _The Fallen Stuarts_ - (Cambridge, 1901). The marquis de Ruvigny has compiled _The Jacobite - Peerage_ (Edinburgh, 1904), a work which purports to give a list of - all the titles and honours conferred by the kings of the exiled House - of Stuart. (A. W. H.*) - - - - -JACOBS, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1764-1847), German classical -scholar, was born at Gotha on the 6th of October 1764. After studying -philology and theology at Jena and Gottingen, in 1785 he became teacher -in the gymnasium of his native town, and in 1802 was appointed to an -office in the public library. In 1807 he became classical tutor in the -lyceum of Munich, but, disgusted at the attacks made upon him by the old -Bavarian Catholic party, who resented the introduction of "north German" -teachers, he returned to Gotha in 1810 to take charge of the library and -the numismatic cabinet. He remained in Gotha till his death on the 30th -of March 1847. Jacobs was an extremely successful teacher; he took great -interest in the affairs of his country, and was a publicist of no mean -order. But his great work was an edition of the Greek Anthology, with -copious notes, in 13 volumes (1798-1814), supplemented by a revised text -from the Codex Palatinus (1814-1817). He published also notes on Horace, -Stobaeus, Euripides, Athenaeus and the _Iliaca_ of Tzetzes; translations -of Aelian (_History of Animals_); many of the Greek romances; -Philostratus; poetical versions of much of the Greek Anthology; -miscellaneous essays on classical subjects; and some very successful -school books. His translation of the political speeches of Demosthenes -was undertaken with the express purpose of rousing his country against -Napoleon, whom he regarded as a second Philip of Macedon. - - See E. F. Wustemann, _Friderici Jacobsii laudatio_ (Gotha, 1848); C. - Bursian, _Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland_; and - the appreciative article by C. Regel in _Allgemeine deutsche - Biographie_. - - - - -JACOBS CAVERN, a cavern in latitude 36 deg. 35' N., 2 m. E. of Pineville, -McDonald county, Missouri, named after its discoverer, E. H. Jacobs, of -Bentonville, Arkansas. It was scientifically explored by him, in company -with Professors Charles Peabody and Warren K. Moorehead, in 1903. The -results were published in that year by Jacobs in the _Benton County -Sun_; by C. N. Gould in _Science_, July 31, 1903; by Peabody in the _Am. -Anthropologist_, Sept. 1903; and in the _Am. Journ. Archaeology_, 1904; -and by Peabody and Moorehead, 1904, as _Bulletin I._ of the Dept. of -Archaeology in Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., in the museum of which -are exhibits, maps and photographs. - -Jacobs Cavern is one of the smaller caves, hardly more than a -rock-shelter, and is entirely in the "St Joe Limestone" of the -sub-carboniferous age. Its roof is a single flat stratum of limestone; -its walls are well marked by lines of stratification; dripstone also -partly covers the walls, fills a deep fissure at the end of the cave, -and spreads over the floor, where it mingles with an ancient bed of -ashes, forming an ash-breccia (mostly firm and solid) that encloses -fragments of sandstone, flint spalls, flint implements, charcoal and -bones. Underneath is the true floor of the cave, a mass of homogeneous -yellow clay, one metre in thickness. It holds scattered fragments of -limestone, and is itself the result of limestone degeneration. The -length of the opening is over 21 metres; its depth 14 metres, and the -height of roof above the undisturbed ash deposit varied from 1 m. 20 cm. -to 2 m. 60 cm. The bone recess at the end was from 50 cm. to 80 cm. in -height. The stratum of ashes was from 50 cm. to 1 m. 50 cm. thick. - -The ash surface was staked off into square metres, and the substance -carefully removed in order. Each stalactite, stalagmite and pilaster was -measured, numbered, and removed in sections. Six human skeletons were -found buried in the ashes. Seven-tenths of a cubic metre of animal bones -were found: deer, bear, wolf, raccoon, opossum, beaver, buffalo, elk, -turkey, woodchuck, tortoise and hog; all contemporary with man's -occupancy. Three stone metates, one stone axe, one celt and fifteen -hammer-stones were found. Jacobs Cavern was peculiarly rich in flint -knives and projectile points. The sum total amounts to 419 objects, -besides hundreds of fragments, cores, spalls and rejects, retained for -study and comparison. Considerable numbers of bone or horn awls were -found in the ashes, as well as fragments of pottery, but no "ceremonial" -objects. - -The rude type of the implements, the absence of fine pottery, and the -peculiarities of the human remains, indicate a race of occupants more -ancient than the "mound-builders." The deepest implement observed was -buried 50 cm. under the stalagmitic surface. Dr. Hovey has proved that -the rate of stalagmitic growth in Wyandotte Cave, Indiana, is .0254 cm. -annually; and if that was the rate in Jacobs Cavern, 1968 years would -have been needed for the embedding of that implement. Polished rocks -outside the cavern and pictographs in the vicinity indicate the work of -a prehistoric race earlier than the Osage Indians, who were the historic -owners previous to the advent of the white man. (H. C. H.) - - - - -JACOBSEN, JENS PETER (1847-1885), Danish imaginative writer, was born at -Thisted in Jutland, on the 7th of April 1847; he was the eldest of the -five children of a prosperous merchant. He became a student at the -university of Copenhagen in 1868. As a boy he showed a remarkable turn -for science, particularly for botany. In 1870, although he was secretly -writing verses already, Jacobsen definitely adopted botany as a -profession. He was sent by a scientific body in Copenhagen to report on -the flora of the islands of Anholt and Laeso. About this time the -discoveries of Darwin began to exercise a fascination over him, and -finding them little understood in Denmark, he translated into Danish -_The Origin of Species_ and _The Descent of Man_. In the autumn of -1872, while collecting plants in a morass near Ordrup, he contracted -pulmonary disease. His illness, which cut him off from scientific -investigation, drove him to literature. He met the famous critic, Dr -Georg Brandes, who was struck by his powers of expression, and under his -influence, in the spring of 1873, Jacobsen began his great historical -romance of _Marie Grubbe_. His method of composition was painful and -elaborate, and his work was not ready for publication until the close of -1876. In 1879 he was too ill to write at all; but in 1880 an improvement -came, and he finished his second novel, _Niels Lyhne_. In 1882 he -published a volume of six short stories, most of them written a few -years earlier, called, from the first of them, _Mogens_. After this he -wrote no more, but lingered on in his mother's house at Thisted until -the 30th of April 1885. In 1886 his posthumous fragments were collected. -It was early recognized that Jacobsen was the greatest artist in prose -that Denmark has produced. He has been compared with Flaubert, with De -Quincey, with Pater; but these parallelisms merely express a sense of -the intense individuality of his style, and of his untiring pursuit of -beauty in colour, form and melody. Although he wrote so little, and -crossed the living stage so hurriedly, his influence in the North has -been far-reaching. It may be said that no one in Denmark or Norway has -tried to write prose carefully since 1880 whose efforts have not been in -some degree modified by the example of Jacobsen's laborious art. - - His _Samlede Skrifter_ appeared in two volumes in 1888; in 1899 his - letters (_Breve_) were edited by Edvard Brandes. In 1896 an English - translation of part of the former was published under the title of - _Siren Voices: Niels Lyhne_, by Miss E. F. L. Robertson. (E. G.) - - - - -JACOB'S WELL, the scene of the conversation between Jesus and the "woman -of Samaria" narrated in the Fourth Gospel, is described as being in the -neighbourhood of an otherwise unmentioned "city called Sychar." From the -time of Eusebius this city has been identified with Sychem or Shechem -(modern Nablus), and the well is still in existence 1(1/2) m. E. of the -town, at the foot of Mt Gerizim. It is beneath one of the ruined arches -of a church mentioned by Jerome, and is reached by a few rough steps. -When Robinson visited it in 1838 it was 105 ft. deep, but it is now much -shallower and often dry. - - For a discussion of Sychar as distinct from Shechem see T. K. Cheyne, - art. "Sychar," in _Ency. Bibl._, col. 4830. It is possible that Sychar - should be placed at Tulul Balata, a mound about 1/2 m. W. of the well - (_Palestine Exploration Fund Statement_, 1907, p. 92 seq.); when that - village fell into ruin the name may have migrated to 'Askar, a village - on the lower slopes of Mt Ebal about 1(3/4) m. E.N.E. from Nablus and - 1/2 m. N. from Jacob's Well. It may be noted that the difficulty is - not with the location of the well, but with the identification of - Sychar. - - - - -JACOBUS DE VORAGINE (c. 1230-c. 1298), Italian chronicler, archbishop of -Genoa, was born at the little village of Varazze, near Genoa, about the -year 1230. He entered the order of the friars preachers of St Dominic in -1244, and besides preaching with success in many parts of Italy, taught -in the schools of his own fraternity. He was provincial of Lombardy from -1267 till 1286, when he was removed at the meeting of the order in -Paris. He also represented his own province at the councils of Lucca -(1288) and Ferrara (1290). On the last occasion he was one of the four -delegates charged with signifying Nicholas IV.'s desire for the -deposition of Munio de Zamora, who had been master of the order from -1285, and was deprived of his office by a papal bull dated the 12th of -April 1291. In 1288 Nicholas empowered him to absolve the people of -Genoa for their offence in aiding the Sicilians against Charles II. -Early in 1292 the same pope, himself a Franciscan, summoned Jacobus to -Rome, intending to consecrate him archbishop of Genoa with his own -hands. He reached Rome on Palm Sunday (March 30), only to find his -patron ill of a deadly sickness, from which he died on Good Friday -(April 4). The cardinals, however, "propter honorem Communis Januae," -determined to carry out this consecration on the Sunday after Easter. He -was a good bishop, and especially distinguished himself by his' efforts -to appease the civil discords of Genoa. He died in 1298 or 1299, and was -buried in the Dominican church at Genoa. A story, mentioned by the -chronicler Echard as unworthy of credit, makes Boniface VIII., on the -first day of Lent, cast the ashes in the archbishop's eyes instead of on -his head, with the words, "Remember that thou art a Ghibelline, and with -thy fellow Ghibellines wilt return to naught." - - Jacobus de Voragine left a list of his own works. Speaking of himself - in his _Chronicon januense_, he says, "While he was in his order, and - after he had been made archbishop, he wrote many works. For he - compiled the legends of the saints (_Legendae sanctorum_) in one - volume, adding many things from the _Historia tripartita et - scholastica_, and from the chronicles of many writers." The other - writings he claims are two anonymous volumes of "Sermons concerning - all the Saints" whose yearly feasts the church celebrates. Of these - volumes, he adds, one is very diffuse, but the other short and - concise. Then follow _Sermones de omnibus evangeliis dominicalibus_ - for every Sunday in the year; _Sermones de omnibus evangeliis_, i.e. a - book of discourses on all the Gospels, from Ash Wednesday to the - Tuesday after Easter; and a treatise called "_Marialis_, qui totus est - de B. Maria compositus," consisting of about 160 discourses on the - attributes, titles, &c., of the Virgin Mary. In the same work the - archbishop claims to have written his _Chronicon januense_ in the - second year of his pontificate (1293), but it extends to 1296 or 1297. - To this list Echard adds several other works, such as a defence of the - Dominicans, printed at Venice in 1504, and a _Summa virtutum et - vitiorum Guillelmi Peraldi_, a Dominican who died about 1250. Jacobus - is also said by Sixtus of Siena (_Biblioth. Sacra_, lib. ix.) to have - translated the Old and New Testaments into his own tongue. "But," adds - Echard, "if he did so, the version lies so closely hid that there is - no recollection of it," and it may be added that it is highly - improbable that the man who compiled the Golden Legend ever conceived - the necessity of having the Scriptures in the vernacular. - - His two chief works are the _Chronicon januense_ and the _Golden - Legend_ or _Lombardica hystoria_. The former is partly printed in - Muratori (_Scriptores Rer. Ital._ ix. 6). It is divided into twelve - parts. The first four deal with the mythical history of Genoa from the - time of its founder, Janus, the first king of Italy, and its enlarger, - a second Janus "citizen of Troy", till its conversion to Christianity - "about twenty-five years after the passion of Christ." Part v. - professes to treat of the beginning, the growth and the perfection of - the city; but of the first period the writer candidly confesses he - knows nothing except by hearsay. The second period includes the - Genoese crusading exploits in the East, and extends to their victory - over the Pisans (c. 1130), while the third reaches down to the days of - the author's archbishopric. The sixth part deals with the constitution - of the city, the seventh and eighth with the duties of rulers and - citizens, the ninth with those of domestic life. The tenth gives the - ecclesiastical history of Genoa from the time of its first known - bishop, St Valentine, "whom we believe to have lived about 530 A.D.," - till 1133, when the city was raised to archiepiscopal rank. The - eleventh contains the lives of all the bishops in order, and includes - the chief events during their pontificates; the twelfth deals in the - same way with the archbishops, not forgetting the writer himself. - - The _Golden Legend_, one of the most popular religious works of the - middle ages, is a collection of the legendary lives of the greater - saints of the medieval church. The preface divides the ecclesiastical - year into four periods corresponding to the various epochs of the - world's history, a time of deviation, of renovation, of reconciliation - and of pilgrimage. The book itself, however, falls into five - sections:--(a) from Advent to Christmas (_cc._ 1-5); (b) from - Christmas to Septuagesima (6-30); (c) from Septuagesima to Easter - (31-53); (d) from Easter Day to the octave of Pentecost (54-76); (e) - from the octave of Pentecost to Advent (77-180). The saints' lives are - full of puerile legend, and in not a few cases contain accounts of - 13th-century miracles wrought at special places, particularly with - reference to the Dominicans. The last chapter but one (181), "De - Sancto Pelagio Papa," contains a kind of history of the world from the - middle of the 6th century; while the last (182) is a somewhat - allegorical disquisition, "De Dedicatione Ecclesiae." - - The _Golden Legend_ was translated into French by Jean Belet de Vigny - in the 14th century. It was also one of the earliest books to issue - from the press. A Latin edition is assigned to about 1469; and a dated - one was published at Lyons in 1473. Many other Latin editions were - printed before the end of the century. A French translation by Master - John Bataillier is dated 1476; Jean de Vigny's appeared at Paris, - 1488; an Italian one by Nic. Manerbi (? Venice, 1475); a Bohemian one - at Pilsen, 1475-1479, and at Prague, 1495; Caxton's English versions, - 1483, 1487 and 1493; and a German one in 1489. Several 15th-century - editions of the _Sermons_ are also known, and the Mariale was printed - at Venice in 1497 and at Paris in 1503. - - For bibliography see Potthast, _Bibliotheca hist. med. aev._ (Berlin, - 1896), p. 634; U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources hist. Bio.-bibl._ - (Paris, 1905), s.v. "Jacques de Voragine." - - - - -JACOTOT, JOSEPH (1770-1840), French educationist, author of the method -of "emancipation intellectuelle," was born at Dijon on the 4th of March -1770. He was educated at the university of Dijon, where in his -nineteenth year he was chosen professor of Latin, after which he studied -law, became advocate, and at the same time devoted a large amount of his -attention to mathematics. In 1788 he organized a federation of the youth -of Dijon for the defence of the principles of the Revolution; and in -1792, with the rank of captain, he set out to take part in the campaign -of Belgium, where he conducted himself with bravery and distinction. -After for some time filling the office of secretary of the "commission -d'organisation du mouvement des armees," he in 1794 became deputy of the -director of the Polytechnic school, and on the institution of the -central schools at Dijon he was appointed to the chair of the "method of -sciences," where he made his first experiments in that mode of tuition -which he afterwards developed more fully. On the central schools being -replaced by other educational institutions, Jacotot occupied -successively the chairs of mathematics and of Roman law until the -overthrow of the empire. In 1815 he was elected a representative to the -chamber of deputies; but after the second restoration he found it -necessary to quit his native land, and, having taken up his residence at -Brussels, he was in 1818 nominated by the Government teacher of the -French language at the university of Louvain, where he perfected into a -system the educational principles which he had already practised with -success in France. His method was not only adopted in several -institutions in Belgium, but also met with some approval in France, -England, Germany and Russia. It was based on three principles: (1) all -men have equal intelligence; (2) every man has received from God the -faculty of being able to instruct himself; (3) everything is in -everything. As regards (1) he maintained that it is only in the will to -use their intelligence that men differ; and his own process, depending -on (3), was to give any one learning a language for the first time a -short passage of a few lines, and to encourage the pupil to study, first -the words, then the letters, then the grammar, then the meaning, until a -single paragraph became the occasion for learning an entire literature. -After the revolution of 1830 Jacotot returned to France, and he died at -Paris on the 30th of July 1840. - - His system was described by him in _Enseignement universel, langue - maternelle_, Louvain and Dijon, 1823--which passed through several - editions--and in various other works; and he also advocated his views - in the _Journal de l'emancipation intellectuelle_. For a complete list - of his works and fuller details regarding his career, see _Biographie - de J. Jacotot_, by Achille Guillard (Paris, 1860). - - - - -JACQUARD, JOSEPH MARIE (1752-1834), French inventor, was born at Lyons -on the 7th of July 1752. On the death of his father, who was a working -weaver, he inherited two looms, with which he started business on his -own account. He did not, however, prosper, and was at last forced to -become a lime-burner at Bresse, while his wife supported herself at -Lyons by plaiting straw. In 1793 he took part in the unsuccessful -defence of Lyons against the troops of the Convention; but afterwards -served in their ranks on the Rhone and Loire. After seeing some active -service, in which his young son was shot down at his side, he again -returned to Lyons. There he obtained a situation in a factory, and -employed his spare time in constructing his improved loom, of which he -had conceived the idea several years previously. In 1801 he exhibited -his invention at the industrial exhibition at Paris; and in 1803 he was -summoned to Paris and attached to the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. -A loom by Jacques de Vaucanson (1700-1782), deposited there, suggested -various improvements in his own, which he gradually perfected to its -final state. Although his invention was fiercely opposed by the -silk-weavers, who feared that its introduction, owing to the saving of -labour, would deprive them of their livelihood, its advantages secured -its general adoption, and by 1812 there were 11,000 Jacquard looms in -use in France. The loom was declared public property in 1806, and -Jacquard was rewarded with a pension and a royalty on each machine. He -died at Oullins (Rhone) on the 7th of August 1834, and six years later a -statue was erected to him at Lyons (see WEAVING). - - - - -JACQUERIE, THE, an insurrection of the French peasantry which broke out -in the Ile de France and about Beauvais at the end of May 1358. The -hardships endured by the peasants in the Hundred Years' War and their -hatred for the nobles who oppressed them were the principal causes which -led to the rising, though the immediate occasion was an affray which -took place on the 28th of May at the village of Saint-Leu between -"brigands" (militia infantry armoured in brigandines) and countryfolk. -The latter having got the upper hand united with the inhabitants of the -neighbouring villages and placed Guillaume Karle at their head. They -destroyed numerous chateaux in the valleys of the Oise, the Breche and -the Therain, where they subjected the whole countryside to fire and -sword, committing the most terrible atrocities. Charles the Bad, king of -Navarre, crushed the rebellion at the battle of Mello on the 10th of -June, and the nobles then took violent reprisals upon the peasants, -massacring them in great numbers. - - See Simeon Luce, _Histoire de la Jacquerie_ (Paris, 1859 and 1895). - (J. V.*) - - - - -JACTITATION (from Lat. _jactitare_, to throw out publicly), in English -law, the maliciously boasting or giving out by one party that he or she -is married to the other. In such a case, in order to prevent the common -reputation of their marriage that might ensue, the procedure is by suit -of jactitation of marriage, in which the petitioner alleges that the -respondent boasts that he or she is married to the petitioner, and prays -a declaration of nullity and a decree putting the respondent to -perpetual silence thereafter. Previously to 1857 such a proceeding took -place only in the ecclesiastical courts, but by express terms of the -Matrimonial Causes Act of that year it can now be brought in the -probate, divorce and admiralty division of the High Court. To the suit -there are three defences: (1) denial of the boasting; (2) the truth of -the representations; (3) allegation (by way of estoppel) that the -petitioner acquiesced in the boasting of the respondent. In _Thompson_ -v. _Rourke_, 1893, Prob. 70, the court of appeal laid down that the -court will not make a decree in a jactitation suit in favour of a -petitioner who has at any time acquiesced in the assertion of the -respondent that they were actually married. Jactitation of marriage is a -suit that is very rare. - - - - -JADE, or JAHDE, a deep bay and estuary of the North Sea, belonging to -the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, Germany. The bay, which was for the most -part made by storm-floods in the 13th and 16th centuries, measures 70 -sq. m., and has communication with the open sea by a fairway, a mile and -a half wide, which never freezes, and with the tide gives access to the -largest vessels. On the west side of the entrance to the bay is the -Prussian naval port of Wilhelmshaven. A tiny stream, about 14 m. long, -also known as the Jade, enters the head of the bay. - - - - -JADE, a name commonly applied to certain ornamental stones, mostly of a -green colour, belonging to at least two distinct species, one termed -nephrite and the other jadeite. Whilst the term jade is popularly used -in this sense, it is now usually restricted by mineralogists to -nephrite. The word jade[1] is derived (through Fr. _le jade_ for -_l'ejade_) from Span. _ijada_ (Lat. _ilia_), the loins, this mineral -having been known to the Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Peru under the -name of _piedra de ijada_ or _yjada_ (colic stone). The reputed value of -the stone in renal diseases is also suggested by the term nephrite (so -named by A. G. Werner from Gr. [Greek: nephros], kidney), and by its old -name _lapis nephriticus_. - -Jade, in its wide and popular sense, has always been highly prized by -the Chinese, who not only believe in its medicinal value but regard it -as the symbol of virtue. It is known, with other ornamental stones, -under the name of _yu_ or _yu-chi_ (yu-stone). According to Professor H. -A. Giles, it occupies in China the highest place as a jewel, and is -revered as "the quintessence of heaven and earth." Notwithstanding its -toughness or tenacity, due to a dense fibrous structure, it is wrought -into complicated forms and elaborately carved. On many prehistoric -sites in Europe, as in the Swiss lake-dwellings, celts and other carved -objects both in nephrite and in jadeite have not infrequently been -found; and as no kind of jade had until recent years been discovered _in -situ_ in any European locality it was held, especially by Professor L. -H. Fischer, of Freiburg im Breisgau, Baden, that either the raw material -or the worked objects must have been brought by some of the early -inhabitants from a jade locality probably in the East, or were obtained -by barter, thus suggesting a very early trade-route to the Orient. -Exceptional interest, therefore, attached to the discovery of jade in -Europe, nephrite having been found in Silesia, and jadeite or a similar -rock in the Alps, whilst pebbles of jade have been obtained from many -localities in Austria and north Germany, in the latter case probably -derived from Sweden. It is, therefore, no longer necessary to assign the -old jade implements to an exotic origin. Dr A. B. Meyer, of Dresden, -always maintained that the European jade objects were indigenous, and -his views have become generally accepted. Now that the mineral -characters of jade are better understood, and its identification less -uncertain, it may possibly be found with altered peridotites, or with -amphibolites, among the old crystalline schists of many localities. - - Nephrite, or true jade, may be regarded as a finely fibrous or compact - variety of amphibole, referred either to actinolite or to tremolite, - according as its colour inclines to green or white. Chemically it is a - calcium-magnesium silicate, CaMg3(SiO3)4. The fibres are either more - or less parallel or irregularly felted together, rendering the stone - excessively tough; yet its hardness is not great, being only about 6 - or 6.5. The mineral sometimes tends to become schistose, breaking with - a splintery fracture, or its structure may be horny. The specific - gravity varies from 2.9 to 3.18, and is of determinative value, since - jadeite is much denser. The colour of jade presents various shades of - green, yellow and grey, and the mineral when polished has a rather - greasy lustre. Professor F. W. Clarke found the colours due to - compounds of iron, manganese and chromium. One of the most famous - localities for nephrite is on the west side of the South Island of New - Zealand, where it occurs as nodules and veins in serpentine and - talcose rocks, but is generally found as boulders. It was known to the - Maoris as _pounamu_, or "green stone," and was highly prized, being - worked with great labour into various objects, especially the - club-like implement known as the _mere_, or _pattoo-pattoo_, and the - breast ornament called _hei-tiki_. The New Zealand jade, called by old - writers "green talc of the Maoris," is now worked in Europe as an - ornamental stone. The green jade-like stone known in New Zealand as - _tangiwai_ is bowenite, a translucent serpentine with enclosures of - magnesite. The mode of occurrence of the nephrite and bowenite of New - Zealand has been described by A. M. Finlayson (_Quart. Jour. Geol. - Soc._, 1909, p. 351). It appears that the Maoris distinguished six - varieties of jade. Difference of colour seems due to variations in the - proportion of ferrous silicate in the mineral. According to Finlayson, - the New Zealand nephrite results from the chemical alteration of - serpentine, olivine or pyroxene, whereby a fibrous amphibole is - formed, which becomes converted by intense pressure and movement into - the dense nephrite. - - Nephrite occurs also in New Caledonia, and perhaps in some of the - other Pacific islands, but many of the New Caledonian implements - reputed to be of jade are really made of serpentine. From its use as a - material for axe-heads, jade is often known in Germany as _Beilstein_ - ("axe-stone"). A fibrous variety, of specific gravity 3.18, found in - New Caledonia, and perhaps in the Marquesas, was distinguished by A. - Damour under the name of "oceanic jade." - - Much of the nephrite used by the Chinese has been obtained from - quarries in the Kuen-lun mountains, on the sides of the Kara-kash - valley, in Turkestan. The mineral, generally of pale colour, occurs in - nests and veins running through hornblende-schists and gneissose - rocks, and it is notable that when first quarried it is comparatively - soft. It appears to have a wide distribution in the mountains, and has - been worked from very ancient times in Khotan. Nephrite is said to - occur also in the Pamir region, and pebbles are found in the beds of - many streams. In Turkestan, jade is known as _yashm_ or _yeshm_, a - word which appears in Arabic as _yeshb_, perhaps cognate with [Greek: - iaspis] or jasper. The "jasper" of the ancients may have included - jade. Nephrite is said to have been discovered in 1891 in the Nan-shan - mountains in the Chinese province of Kan-suh, where it is worked. The - great centre of Chinese jade-working is at Peking, and formerly the - industry was active at Su-chow Fu. Siberia has yielded very fine - specimens of dark green nephrite, notably from the neighbourhood of - the Alibert graphite mine, near Batugol, Lake Baikal. The jade seems - to occur as a rock in part of the Sajan mountain system. New deposits - in Siberia were opened up to supply material for the tomb of the tsar - Alexander III. A gigantic monolith exists at the tomb of Tamerlane at - Samarkand. The occurrence of the Siberian jade has been described by - Professor L. von Jaczewski. - - Jade implements are widely distributed in Alaska and British Columbia, - being found in Indian graves, in old shell-heaps and on the sites of - deserted villages. Dr G. M. Dawson, arguing from the discovery of some - boulders of jade in the Fraser river valley, held that they were not - obtained by barter from Siberia, but were of native origin; and the - locality was afterwards discovered by Lieut. G. M. Stoney. It is known - as the Jade Mountains, and is situated north of Kowak river, about 150 - miles from its mouth. The study of a large collection of jade - implements by Professor F. W. Clarke and Dr G. P. Merrill proved that - the Alaskan jade is true nephrite, not to be distinguished from that - of New Zealand. - - Jadeite is a mineral species established by A. Damour in 1863, - differing markedly from nephrite in that its relation lies with the - pyroxenes rather than with the amphiboles. It is an aluminium sodium - silicate, NaAl(SiO3)2, related to spodumene. S. L. Penfield showed, by - measurement, that jadeite is monoclinic. Its colour is commonly very - pale, and white jadeite, which is the purest variety, is known as - "camphor jade." In many cases the mineral shows bright patches of - apple-green or emerald-green, due to the presence of chromium. Jadeite - is much more fusible than nephrite, and is rather harder (6.5 to 7), - but its most readily determined character is found in its higher - specific gravity, which ranges from 3.20 to 3.41. Some jadeite seems - to be a metamorphosed igneous rock. - - The Burmese jade, discovered by a Yunnan trader in the 13th century, - is mostly jadeite. The quarries, described by Dr F. Noetling, are - situated on the Uru river, about 120 m. from Mogaung, where the - jadeite occurs in serpentine, and is partly extracted by fire-setting. - It is also found as boulders in alluvium, and when these occur in a - bed of laterite they acquire a red colour, which imparts to them - peculiar value. According to Dr W. G. Bleeck, who visited the jade - country of Upper Burma after Noetling, jadeite occurs at three - localities in the Kachin Hills--Tawmaw, Hweka and Mamon. The jadeite - is known as _chauk-sen_, and is sent either to China or to Mandalay, - by way of Bhamo, whence Bhamo has come erroneously to be regarded as a - locality for jade. Jadeite occurs in association with the nephrite of - Turkestan, and possibly in some other Asiatic localities. In certain - cases nephrite is formed by the alteration of jadeite, as shown by - Professor J. P. Iddings. The Chinese _feits'ui_, sometimes called - "imperial jade," is a beautiful green stone, which seems generally to - be jadeite, but it is said that in some cases it may be chrysoprase. - It is named from its resemblance in colour to the plumage of the - kingfisher. The resonant character of jade has led to its occasional - use as a musical stone. - - In Mexico, in Central America and in the northern part of South - America, objects of jadeite are common. The Kunz votive adze from - Oaxaca, in Mexico, is now in the American Museum of Natural History, - New York. At the time of the Spanish conquest of Mexico amulets of - green stone were highly venerated, and it is believed that jadeite was - one of the stones prized under the name of _chalchihuitl_. Probably - turquoise was another stone included under this name, and indeed any - green stone capable of being polished, such as the Amazon stone, now - recognized as a green feldspar, may have been numbered among the Aztec - amulets. Dr Kunz suggests that the chalchihuitl was jadeite in - southern Mexico and Central America, and turquoise in northern Mexico - and New Mexico. He thinks that Mexican jadeite may yet be discovered - in places (_Gems and Precious Stones of Mexico_, by G. F. Kunz: - Mexico, 1907). - - Chloromelanite is Damour's name for a dense, dark mineral which has - been regarded as a kind of jade, and was used for the manufacture of - celts found in the dolmens of France and in certain Swiss - lake-dwellings. It is a mineral of spinach-green or dark-green colour, - having a specific gravity of 3.4, or even as high as 3.65, and may be - regarded as a variety of jadeite rich in iron. Chloromelanite occurs - in the Cyclops Mountains in New Guinea, and is used for hatchets or - agricultural implements, whilst the sago-clubs of the island are - usually of serpentine. Sillimanite, or fibrolite, is a mineral which, - like chloromelanite, was used by the Neolithic occupants of western - Europe, and is sometimes mistaken for a pale kind of jade. It is an - aluminium silicate, of specific gravity about 3.2, distinguished by - its infusibility. The _jade tenace_ of J. R. Hauy, discovered by H. B. - de Saussure in the Swiss Alps, is now known as saussurite. Among other - substances sometimes taken for jade may be mentioned prehnite, a - hydrous calcium-aluminium silicate, which when polished much resembles - certain kinds of jade. Pectolite has been used, like jade, in Alaska. - A variety of vesuvianite (idocrase) from California, described by Dr. - G. F. Kunz as californite, was at first mistaken for jade. The name - jadeolite has been given by Kunz to a green chromiferous syenite from - the jadeite mines of Burma. The mineral called bowenite, at one time - supposed to be jade, is a hard and tough variety of serpentine. Some - of the common Chinese ornaments imitating jade are carved in steatite - or serpentine, while others are merely glass. The _pate de riz_ is a - fine white glass. The so-called "pink jade" is mostly quartz, - artificially coloured, and "black jade," though sometimes mentioned, - has no existence. - - An exhaustive description of jade will be found in a sumptuous work, - entitled _Investigations and Studies in Jade_ (New York, 1906). This - work, edited by Dr G. F. Kunz, was prepared in illustration of the - famous jade collection made by Heber Reginald Bishop, and presented - by him to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The work, which is - in two folio volumes, superbly illustrated, was printed privately, and - after 100 copies had been struck off on American hand-made paper, the - type was distributed and the material used for the illustrations was - destroyed. The second volume is a catalogue of the collection, which - comprises 900 specimens arranged in three classes: mineralogical, - archaeological and artistic. The important section on Chinese jade was - contributed by Dr S. W. Bushell, who also translated for the work a - discourse on jade--_Yu-shuo_ by T'ang Jung-tso, of Peking. Reference - should also be made to Heinrich Fischer's _Nephrit und Jadeit_ (2nd - ed., Stuttgart, 1880), a work which at the date of its publication was - almost exhaustive. (F. W. R.*) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The English use of the word for a worthless, ill-tempered horse, - a "screw," also applied as a term of reproach to a woman, has been - referred doubtfully to the same Spanish source as the O. Sp. - _ijadear_, meaning to pant, of a broken-winded horse. - - - - -JAEN, an inland province of southern Spain, formed in 1833 of districts -belonging to Andalusia; bounded on the N. by Ciudad Real and Albacete, -E. by Albacete and Granada, S. by Granada, and W. by Cordova. Pop. -(1900), 474,490; area, 5848 sq. m. Jaen comprises the upper basin of the -river Guadalquivir, which traverses the central districts from east to -west, and is enclosed on the north, south and east by mountain ranges, -while on the west it is entered by the great Andalusian plain. The -Sierra Morena, which divides Andalusia from New Castile, extends along -the northern half of the province, its most prominent ridges being the -Loma de Chiclana and the Loma de Ubeda; the Sierras de Segura, in the -east, derive their name from the river Segura, which rises just within -the border; and between the last-named watershed, its continuation the -Sierra del Pozo, and the parallel Sierra de Cazorla, is the source of -the Guadalquivir. The loftiest summits in the province are those of the -Sierra Magina (7103 ft.) farther west and south. Apart from the -Guadalquivir the only large rivers are its right-hand tributaries the -Jandula and Guadalimar, its left-hand tributary the Guadiana Menor, and -the Segura, which flows east and south to the Mediterranean. - - In a region which varies so markedly in the altitude of its surface, - the climate is naturally unequal; and, while the bleak, wind-swept - highlands are only available as sheep-walks, the well-watered and - fertile valleys favour the cultivation of the vine, the olive and all - kinds of cereals. The mineral wealth of Jaen has been known since - Roman times, and mining is an important industry, with its centre at - Linares. Over 400 lead mines were worked in 1903; small quantities of - iron, copper and salt are also obtained. There is some trade in sawn - timber and cloth; esparto fabrics, alcohol and oil are manufactured. - The roads, partly owing to the development of mining, are more - numerous and better kept than in most Spanish provinces. Railway - communication is also very complete in the western districts, as the - main line Madrid-Cordova-Seville passes through them and is joined - south of Linares by two important railways--from Algeciras and Malaga - on the south-west, and from Almeria on the south-east. The eastern - half of Jaen is inaccessible by rail. In the western half are Jaen, - the capital (pop. (1900), 26,434), with Andujar (16,302), Baeza - (14,379), Bailen (7420), Linares (38,245), Martos (17,078) and Ubeda - (19,913). Other towns of more than 7000 inhabitants are Alcala la - Real, Alcaudete, Arjona, La Carolina and Porcuna, in the west; and - Cazorla, Quesada, Torredonjimeno, Villacarillo and Villanueva del - Arzobispo, in the east. - - - - -JAEN, the capital of the Spanish province of Jaen, on the Linares-Puente -Genil railway, 1500 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1900), 26,434. Jaen is -finely situated on the well-wooded northern slopes of the Jabalcuz -Mountains, overlooking the picturesque valleys of the Jaen and -Guadalbullon rivers, which flow north into the Guadalquivir. The -hillside upon which the narrow and irregular city streets rise in -terraces is fortified with Moorish walls and a Moorish citadel. Jaen is -an episcopal see. Its cathedral was founded in 1532; and, although it -remained unfinished until late in the 18th century, its main -characteristics are those of the Renaissance period. The city contains -many churches and convents, a library, art galleries, theatres, barracks -and hospitals. Its manufactures include leather, soap, alcohol and -linen; and it was formerly celebrated for its silk. There are hot -mineral springs in the mountains, 2 m. south. - - The identification of Jaen with the Roman Aurinx, which has sometimes - been suggested, is extremely questionable. After the Moorish conquest - Jaen was an important commercial centre, under the name of Jayyan; and - ultimately became capital of a petty kingdom, which was brought to an - end only in 1246 by Ferdinand III. of Castille, who transferred hither - the bishopric of Baeza in 1248. Ferdinand IV. died at Jaen in 1312. In - 1712 the city suffered severely from an earthquake. - - - - -JAFARABAD, a state of India, in the Kathiawar agency of Bombay, forming -part of the territory of the nawab of Janjira; area, 42 sq. m.; pop. -(1901), 12,097; estimated revenue, L4000. The town of Jafarabad (pop. -6038), situated on the estuary of a river, carries on a large coasting -trade. - - - - -JAFFNA, a town of Ceylon, at the northern extremity of the island. The -fort was described by Sir J. Emerson Tennent as "the most perfect little -military work in Ceylon--a pentagon built of blocks of white coral." The -European part of the town bears the Dutch stamp more distinctly than any -other town in the island; and there still exists a Dutch Presbyterian -church. Several of the church buildings date from the time of the -Portuguese. In 1901 Jaffna had a population of 33,879, while in the -district or peninsula of the same name there were 300,851 persons, -nearly all Tamils, the only Europeans being the civil servants and a few -planters. Coco-nut planting has not been successful of recent years. The -natives grow palmyras freely, and have a trade in the fibre of this -palm. They also grow and export tobacco, but not enough rice for their -own requirements. A steamer calls weekly, and there is considerable -trade. The railway extension from Kurunegala due north to Jaffna and the -coast was commenced in 1900. Jaffna is the seat of a government agent -and district judge, and criminal sessions of the supreme court are -regularly held. Jaffna, or, as the natives call it, Yalpannan, was -occupied by the Tamils about 204 B.C., and there continued to be Tamil -rajahs of Jaffna till 1617, when the Portuguese took possession of the -place. As early as 1544 the missionaries under Francis Xavier had made -converts in this part of Ceylon, and after the conquest the Portuguese -maintained their proselytizing zeal. They had a Jesuit college, a -Franciscan and a Dominican monastery. The Dutch drove out the Portuguese -in 1658. The Church of England Missionary Society began its work in -Jaffna in 1818, and the American Missionary Society in 1822. - - - - -JAGER, GUSTAV (1832- ), German naturalist and hygienist, was born at -Burg in Wurttemberg on the 23rd of June 1832. After studying medicine at -Tubingen he became a teacher of zoology at Vienna. In 1868 he was -appointed professor of zoology at the academy of Hohenheim, and -subsequently he became teacher of zoology and anthropology at Stuttgart -polytechnic and professor of physiology at the veterinary school. In -1884 he abandoned teaching and started practice as a physician in -Stuttgart. He wrote various works on biological subjects, including _Die -Darwinsche Theorie und ihre Stellung zu Moral und Religion_ (1869), -_Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Zoologie_ (1871-1878), and _Die Entdeckung der -Seele_ (1878). In 1876 he suggested an hypothesis in explanation of -heredity, resembling the germ-plasm theory subsequently elaborated by -August Weismann, to the effect that the germinal protoplasm retains its -specific properties from generation to generation, dividing in each -reproduction into an ontogenetic portion, out of which the individual is -built up, and a phylogenetic portion, which is reserved to form the -reproductive material of the mature offspring. In _Die Normalkleidung -als Gesundheitsschutz_ (1880) he advocated the system of clothing -associated with his name, objecting especially to the use of any kind of -vegetable fibre for clothes. - - - - -JAGERNDORF (Czech, _Krnov_), a town of Austria, in Silesia, 18 m. N.W. -of Troppau by rail. Pop. (1900), 14,675, mostly German. It is situated -on the Oppa and possesses a chateau belonging to Prince Liechtenstein, -who holds extensive estates in the district. Jagerndorf has large -manufactories of cloth, woollens, linen and machines, and carries on an -active trade. On the neighbouring hill of Burgberg (1420 ft.) are a -church, much visited as a place of pilgrimage, and the ruins of the seat -of the former princes of Jagerndorf. The claim of Prussia to the -principality of Jagerndorf was the occasion of the first Silesian war -(1740-1742), but in the partition, which followed, Austria retained the -larger portion of it. Jagerndorf suffered severely during the Thirty -Years' War, and was the scene of engagements between the Prussians and -Austrians in May 1745 and in January 1779. - - - - -JAGERSFONTEIN, a town in the Orange Free State, 50 m. N.W. by rail of -Springfontein on the trunk line from Cape Town to Pretoria. Pop. (1904), -5657--1293 whites and 4364 coloured persons. Jagersfontein, which -occupies a pleasant situation on the open veld about 4500 ft. above the -sea, owes its existence to the valuable diamond mine discovered here in -1870. The first diamond, a stone of 50 carats, was found in August of -that year, and digging immediately began. The discovery a few weeks -later of the much richer mines at Bultfontein and Du Toits Pan, followed -by the great finds at De Beers and Colesberg Kop (Kimberley) caused -Jagersfontein to be neglected for several years. Up to 1887 the claims -in the mine were held by a large number of individuals, but coincident -with the efforts to amalgamate the interest in the Kimberley mines a -similar movement took place at Jagersfontein, and by 1893 all the claims -became the property of one company, which has a working arrangement with -the De Beers corporation. The mine, which is worked on the open system -and has a depth of 450 ft., yields stones of very fine quality, but the -annual output does not exceed in value L500,000. In 1909 a shaft 950 ft. -deep was sunk with a view to working the mine on the underground system. -Among the famous stones found in the mine are the "Excelsior" (weighing -971 carats, and larger than any previously discovered) and the "Jubilee" -(see DIAMOND). The town was created a municipality in 1904. - -Fourteen miles east of Jagersfontein is Boomplaats, the site of the -battle fought in 1848 between the Boers under A. W. Pretorius and the -British under Sir Harry Smith (see ORANGE FREE STATE: _History_). - - - - -JAGO, RICHARD (1715-1781), English poet, third son of Richard Jago, -rector of Beaudesert, Warwickshire, was born in 1715. He went up to -University College, Oxford, in 1732, and took his degree in 1736. He was -ordained to the curacy of Snitterfield, Warwickshire, in 1737, and -became rector in 1754; and, although he subsequently received other -preferments, Snitterfield remained his favourite residence. He died -there on the 8th of May 1781. He was twice married. Jago's best-known -poem, _The Blackbirds_, was first printed in Hawkesworth's _Adventurer_ -(No. 37, March 13, 1753), and was generally attributed to Gilbert West, -but Jago published it in his own name, with other poems, in R. Dodsley's -_Collection of Poems_ (vol. iv., 1755). In 1767 appeared a topographical -poem, _Edge Hill, or the Rural Prospect delineated and moralized_; two -separate sermons were published in 1755; and in 1768 _Labour and Genius, -a Fable_. Shortly before his death Jago revised his poems, and they were -published in 1784 by his friend, John Scott Hylton, as _Poems Moral and -Descriptive_. - - See a notice prefixed to the edition of 1784; A. Chalmers, _English - Poets_ (vol. xvii., 1810); F. L. Colvile, _Warwickshire Worthies_ - (1870); some biographical notes are to be found in the letters of - Shenstone to Jago printed in vol. iii. of Shenstone's _Works_ (1769). - - - - -JAGUAR (_Felis onca_), the largest species of the _Felidae_ found on the -American continent, where it ranges from Texas through Central and South -America to Patagonia. In the countries which bound its northern limit it -is not frequently met with, but in South America it is quite common, and -Don Felix de Azara states that when the Spaniards first settled in the -district between Montevideo and Santa Fe, as many as two thousand were -killed yearly. The jaguar is usually found singly (sometimes in pairs), -and preys upon such quadrupeds as the horse, tapir, capybara, dogs or -cattle. It often feeds on fresh-water turtles; sometimes following the -reptiles into the water to effect a capture, it inserts a paw between -the shells and drags out the body of the turtle by means of its sharp -claws. Occasionally after having tasted human flesh, the jaguar becomes -a confirmed man-eater. The cry of this great cat, which is heard at -night, and most frequently during the pairing season, is deep and hoarse -in tone, and consists of the sound _pu, pu_, often repeated. The female -brings forth from two to four cubs towards the close of the year, which -are able to follow their mother in about fifteen days after birth. The -ground colour of the jaguar varies greatly, ranging from white to black, -the rosette markings in the extremes being but faintly visible. The -general or typical coloration is, however, a rich tan upon the head, -neck, body, outside of legs, and tail near the root. The upper part of -the head and sides of the face are thickly marked with small black -spots, and the rest of body is covered with rosettes, formed of rings of -black spots, with a black spot in the centre, and ranged lengthwise -along the body in five to seven rows on each side. These black rings are -heaviest along the back. The lips, throat, breast and belly, the inside -of the legs and the lower sides of tail are pure white, marked with -irregular spots of black, those on the breast being long bars and on the -belly and inside of legs large blotches. The tail has large black spots -near the root, some with light centres, and from about midway of its -length to the tip it is ringed with black. The ears are black behind, -with a large buff spot near the tip. The nose and upper lip are light -rufous brown. The size varies, the total length of a very large specimen -measuring 6 ft. 9 in.; the average length, however, is about 4 ft. from -the nose to root of tail. In form the jaguar is thick-set; it does not -stand high upon its legs; and in comparison with the leopard is heavily -built; but its movements are very rapid, and it is fully as agile as its -more graceful relative. The skull resembles that of the lion and tiger, -but is much broader in proportion to its length, and may be identified -by the presence of a tubercle on the inner edge of the orbit. The -species has been divided into a number of local forms, regarded by some -American naturalists as distinct species, but preferably ranked as -sub-species or races. - -[Illustration: The Jaguar (_Felis onca_).] - - - - -JAGUARONDI, or YAGUARONDI (_Felis jaguarondi_), a South American wild -cat, found in Brazil, Paraguay and Guiana, ranging to north-eastern -Mexico. This relatively small cat, uniformly coloured, is generally of -some shade of brownish-grey, but in some individuals the fur has a -rufous coat, while in others grey predominates. These cats are said by -Don Felix de Azara to keep to cover, without venturing into open places. -They attack tame poultry and also young fawns. The names jaguarondi and -eyra are applied indifferently to this species and _Felis eyra_. - - - - -JAHANABAD, a town of British India in Gaya district, Bengal, situated on -a branch of the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901), 7018. It was once a -flourishing trading town, and in 1760 it formed one of the eight -branches of the East India Company's central factory at Patna. Since the -introduction of Manchester goods, the trade of the town in cotton cloth -has almost entirely ceased; but large numbers of the Jolaha or -Mahommedan weaver caste live in the neighbourhood. - - - - -JAHANGIR, or JEHANGIR (1569-1627), Mogul emperor of Delhi, succeeded his -father Akbar the Great in 1605. His name was Salim, but he assumed the -title of Jahangir, "Conqueror of the World," on his accession. It was in -his reign that Sir Thomas Roe came as ambassador of James I., on behalf -of the English company. He was a dissolute ruler, much addicted to -drunkenness, and his reign is chiefly notable for the influence enjoyed -by his wife Nur Jahan, "the Light of the World." At first she influenced -Jahangir for good, but surrounding herself with her relatives she -aroused the jealousy of the imperial princes; and Jahangir died in 1627 -in the midst of a rebellion headed by his son, Khurram or Shah Jahan, -and his greatest general, Mahabat Khan. The tomb of Jahangir is situated -in the gardens of Shahdera on the outskirts of Lahore. - - - - -JAHIZ (ABU 'UTHMAN 'AMR IBN BAHR UL-JAHIZ; i.e. "the man the pupils of -whose eyes are prominent") (d. 869), Arabian writer. He spent his life -and devoted himself in Basra chiefly to the study of polite literature. -A Mu'tazilite in his religious beliefs, he developed a system of his own -and founded a sect named after him. He was favoured by Ibn uz-Zaiyat, -the vizier of the caliph Wathiq. - - His work, the _Kitab ul-Bayan wat-Tabyin_, a discursive treatise on - rhetoric, has been published in two volumes at Cairo (1895). The - _Kitab ul-Mahasin wal-Addad_ was edited by G. van Vloten as _Le Livre - des beautes et des antitheses_ (Leiden, 1898); the _Kitab ul-Bu-hala_. - _Le Livre des avares_, ed. by the same (Leiden, 1900); two other - smaller works, the _Excellences of the Turks_ and the _Superiority in - Glory of the Blacks over the Whites_, also prepared by the same. The - _Kitab ul-Hayawan,_ or "Book of Animals," a philological and literary, - not a scientific, work, was published at Cairo (1906). (G. W. T.) - - - - -JAHN, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1778-1852), German pedagogue and patriot, -commonly called _Turnvater_ ("Father of Gymnastics"), was born in Lanz -on the 11th of August 1778. He studied theology and philology from 1796 -to 1802 at Halle, Gottingen and Greifswald. After Jena he joined the -Prussian army. In 1809 he went to Berlin, where he became a teacher at -the Gymnasium zum Grauen as well as at the Plamann School. Brooding upon -the humiliation of his native land by Napoleon, he conceived the idea of -restoring the spirits of his countrymen by the development of their -physical and moral powers through the practice of gymnastics. The first -_Turnplatz_, or open-air gymnasium, was opened by him at Berlin in 1811, -and the movement spread rapidly, the young gymnasts being taught to -regard themselves as members of a kind of gild for the emancipation of -their fatherland. This patriotic spirit was nourished in no small degree -by the writings of Jahn. Early in 1813 he took an active part at Breslau -in the formation of the famous corps of Lutzow, a battalion of which he -commanded, though during the same period he was often employed in secret -service. After the war he returned to Berlin, where he was appointed -state teacher of gymnastics. As such he was a leader in the formation of -the student _Burschenschaften_ (patriotic fraternities) in Jena. - -A man of democratic nature, rugged, honest, eccentric and outspoken, -Jahn often came into collision with the reactionary spirit of the time, -and this conflict resulted in 1819 in the closing of the _Turnplatz_ and -the arrest of Jahn himself. Kept in semi-confinement at the fortress of -Kolberg until 1824, he was then sentenced to imprisonment for two years; -but this sentence was reversed in 1825, though he was forbidden to live -within ten miles of Berlin. He therefore took up his residence at -Freyburg on the Unstrut, where he remained until his death, with the -exception of a short period in 1828, when he was exiled to Colleda on a -charge of sedition. In 1840 he was decorated by the Prussian government -with the Iron Cross for bravery in the wars against Napoleon. In the -spring of 1848 he was elected by the district of Naumburg to the German -National Parliament. Jahn died on the 15th of October 1852 in Freyburg, -where a monument was erected in his honour in 1859. - - Among his works are the following: _Bereicherung des hochdeutschen - Sprachschatzes_ (Leipzig, 1806), _Deutsches Volksthum_ (Lubeck, 1810), - _Runenblatter_ (Frankfort, 1814), _Neue Runenblatter_ (Naumburg, - 1828), _Merke zum deutschen Volksthum_ (Hildburghausen, 1833), and - _Selbstvertheidigung_ (Vindication) (Leipzig, 1863). A complete - edition of his works appeared at Hof in 1884-1887. See the biography - by Schultheiss (Berlin, 1894), and _Jahn als Erzieher_, by Friedrich - (Munich, 1895). - - - - -JAHN, JOHANN (1750-1816), German Orientalist, was born at Tasswitz, -Moravia, on the 18th of June 1750. He studied philosophy at Olmutz, and -in 1772 began his theological studies at the Premonstratensian convent -of Bruck, near Znaim. Having been ordained in 1775, he for a short time -held a cure at Mislitz, but was soon recalled to Bruck as professor of -Oriental languages and Biblical hermeneutics. On the suppression of the -convent by Joseph II. in 1784, Jahn took up similar work at Olmutz, and -in 1789 he was transferred to Vienna as professor of Oriental languages, -biblical archaeology and dogmatics. In 1792 he published his _Einleitung -ins Alte Testament_ (2 vols.), which soon brought him into trouble; the -cardinal-archbishop of Vienna laid a complaint against him for having -departed from the traditional teaching of the Church, e.g. by asserting -Job, Jonah, Tobit and Judith to be didactic poems, and the cases of -demoniacal possession in the New Testament to be cases of dangerous -disease. An ecclesiastical commission reported that the views themselves -were not necessarily heretical, but that Jahn had erred in showing too -little consideration for the views of German Catholic theologians in -coming into conflict with his bishop, and in raising difficult problems -by which the unlearned might be led astray. He was accordingly advised -to modify his expressions in future. Although he appears honestly to -have accepted this judgment, the hostility of his opponents did not -cease until at last (1806) he was compelled to accept a canonry at St -Stephen's, Vienna, which involved the resignation of his chair. This -step had been preceded by the condemnation of his _Introductio in libros -sacros veteris foederis in compendium redacta_, published in 1804, and -also of his _Archaeologia biblica in compendium redacta_ (1805). The -only work of importance, outside the region of mere philology, -afterwards published by him, was the _Enchiridion Hermeneuticae_ (1812). -He died on the 16th of August 1816. - - Besides the works already mentioned, he published _Hebraische - Sprachlehre fur Anfanger_ (1792); _Aramaische od. Chaldaische u. - Syrische Sprachlehre fur Anfanger_(1793); _Arabische Sprachlehre_ - (1796); _Elementarbuch der hebr. Sprache_ (1799); _Chaldaische - Chrestomathie_ (1800); _Arabische Chrestomathie_ (1802); _Lexicon - arabico-latinum chrestomathiae accommodatum_ (1802); an edition of - the Hebrew Bible (1806); _Grammatica linguae hebraicae_ (1809); a - critical commentary on the Messianic passages of the Old Testament - (_Vaticinia prophetarum de Jesu Messia_, 1815). In 1821 a collection - of _Nachtrage_ appeared, containing six dissertations on Biblical - subjects. The English translation of the _Archaeologia_ by T. C. Upham - (1840) has passed through several editions. - - - - -JAHN, OTTO (1813-1869), German archaeologist, philologist, and writer on -art and music, was born at Kiel on the 16th of June 1813. After the -completion of his university studies at Kiel, Leipzig and Berlin, he -travelled for three years in France and Italy; in 1839 he became -privatdocent at Kiel, and in 1842 professor-extraordinary of archaeology -and philology at Greifswald (ordinary professor 1845). In 1847 he -accepted the chair of archaeology at Leipzig, of which he was deprived -in 1851 for having taken part in the political movements of 1848-1849. -In 1855 he was appointed professor of the science of antiquity, and -director of the academical art museum at Bonn, and in 1867 he was called -to succeed E. Gerhard at Berlin. He died at Gottingen, on the 9th of -September 1869. - - The following are the most important of his works: 1. Archaeological: - _Palamedes_ (1836); _Telephos u. Troilos_ (1841); _Die Gemalde des - Polygnot_ (1841); _Pentheus u. die Manaden_ (1841); _Paris u. Oinone_ - (1844); _Die hellenische Kunst_ (1846); _Peitho, die Gottin der - Uberredung_ (1847); _Uber einige Darstellungen des Paris-Urteils_ - (1849); _Die Ficoronische Cista_ (1852); _Pausaniae descriptio arcis - Athenarum_ (3rd ed., 1901); _Darstellungen griechischer Dichter auf - Vasenbildern_ (1861). 2. Philological: Critical editions of Juvenal, - Persius and Sulpicia (3rd ed. by F. Bucheler, 1893); Censorinus - (1845); Florus (1852); Cicero's _Brutus_ (4th ed., 1877); and _Orator_ - (3rd ed., 1869); the _Periochae_ of Livy (1853); the _Psyche et - Cupido_ of Apuleius (3rd ed., 1884; 5th ed., 1905); Longinus (1867; - 3rd ed. by J. Vahlen, 1905). 3. Biographical and aesthetic: _Ueber - Mendelssohn's Paulus_ (1842); _Biographie Mozarts_, a work of - extraordinary labour, and of great importance for the history of music - (3rd ed. by H. Disters, 1889-1891; Eng. trans. by P. D. Townsend, - 1891); _Ludwig Uhland_ (1863); _Gesammelte Aufsatze uber Musik_ - (1866); _Biographische Aufsatze_ (1866). His _Griechische - Bilderchroniken_ was published after his death, by his nephew A. - Michaelis, who has written an exhaustive biography in _Allgemeine - Deutsche Biographie_, xiii.; see also J. Vahlen, _Otto Jahn_ (1870); - C. Bursian, _Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland_. - - - - -JAHRUM, a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars, S.E. of -Shiraz and S.W. of Darab. The district has thirty-three villages and is -famous for its celebrated _shahan_ dates, which are exported in great -quantities; it also produces much tobacco and fruit. The water supply is -scanty, and most of the irrigation is by water drawn from wells. The -town of Jahrum, situated about 90 m. S.E. of Shiraz, is surrounded by a -mud-wall 3 m. in circuit which was constructed in 1834. It has a -population of about 15,000, one half living inside and the other half -outside the walls. It is the market for the produce of the surrounding -districts, has six caravanserais and a post office. - - - - -JAINS, the most numerous and influential sect of heretics, or -nonconformists to the Brahmanical system of Hinduism, in India. They are -found in every province of upper Hindustan, in the cities along the -Ganges and in Calcutta. But they are more numerous to the west--in -Mewar, Gujarat, and in the upper part of the Malabar coast--and are also -scattered throughout the whole of the southern peninsula. They are -mostly traders, and live in the towns; and the wealth of many of their -community gives them a social importance greater than would result from -their mere numbers. In the Indian census of 1901 they are returned as -being 1,334,140 in number. Their magnificent series of temples and -shrines on Mount Abu, one of the seven wonders of India, is perhaps the -most striking outward sign of their wealth and importance. - -The Jains are the last direct representatives on the continent of India -of those schools of thought which grew out of the active philosophical -speculation and earnest spirit of religious inquiry that prevailed in -the valley of the Ganges during the 5th and 6th centuries before the -Christian era. For many centuries Jainism was so overshadowed by that -stupendous movement, born at the same time and in the same place, which -we call Buddhism, that it remained almost unnoticed by the side of its -powerful rival. But when Buddhism, whose widely open doors had absorbed -the mass of the community, became thereby corrupted from its pristine -purity and gradually died away, the smaller school of the Jains, less -diametrically opposed to the victorious orthodox creed of the Brahmans, -survived, and in some degree took its place. - -Jainism purports to be the system of belief promulgated by Vaddhamana, -better known by his epithet of Maha-vira (the great hero), who was a -contemporary of Gotama, the Buddha. But the Jains, like the Buddhists, -believe that the same system had previously been proclaimed through -countless ages by each one of a succession of earlier teachers. The -Jains count twenty-four such prophets, whom they call Jinas, or -Tirthankaras, that is, conquerors or leaders of schools of thought. It -is from this word Jina that the modern name Jainas, meaning followers of -the Jina, or of the Jinas, is derived. This legend of the twenty-four -Jinas contains a germ of truth. Maha-vira was not an originator; he -merely carried on, with but slight changes, a system which existed -before his time, and which probably owes its most distinguishing -features to a teacher named Parswa, who ranks in the succession of Jinas -as the predecessor of Maha-vira. Parswa is said, in the Jain chronology, -to have been born two hundred years before Maha-vira (that is, about 760 -B.C.); but the only conclusion that it is safe to draw from this -statement is that Parswa was considerably earlier in point of time than -Maha-vira. Very little reliance can be placed upon the details reported -in the Jain books concerning the previous Jinas in the list of the -twenty-four Tirthankaras. The curious will find in them many -reminiscences of Hindu and Buddhist legend; and the antiquary must -notice the distinctive symbols assigned to each, in order to recognize -the statues of the different Jinas, otherwise identical, in the -different Jain temples. - -The Jains are divided into two great parties--the _Digambaras_, or -Sky-clad Ones, and the _Svetambaras_, or the White-robed Ones. The -latter have only as yet been traced, and that doubtfully, as far back as -the 5th century after Christ; the former are almost certainly the same -as the Niganthas, who are referred to in numerous passages of the -Buddhist Pali Pitakas, and must therefore be at least as old as the 6th -century B.C. In many of these passages the Niganthas are mentioned as -contemporaneous with the Buddha; and details enough are given concerning -their leader Nigantha Nata-putta (that is, the Nigantha of the Jnatrika -clan) to enable us to identify him, without any doubt, as the same -person as the Vaddhamana Maha-vira of the Jain books. This remarkable -confirmation, from the scriptures of a rival religion, of the Jain -tradition is conclusive as to the date of Maha-vira. The Niganthas are -referred to in one of Asoka's edicts (_Corpus Inscriptionum_, Plate -xx.). Unfortunately the account of the teachings of Nigantha Nata-putta -given in the Buddhist scriptures are, like those of the Buddha's -teachings given in the Brahmanical literature, very meagre. - - _Jain Literature._--The Jain scriptures themselves, though based on - earlier traditions, are not older in their present form than the 5th - century of our era. The most distinctively sacred books are called the - forty-five Agamas, consisting of eleven Angas, twelve Upangas, ten - Pakinnakas, six Chedas, four Mula-sutras and two other books. Devaddhi - Ganin, who occupies among the Jains a position very similar to that - occupied among the Buddhists by Buddhaghosa, collected the then - existing traditions and teachings of the sect into these forty-five - Agamas. Like the Buddhist scriptures, the earlier Jain books are - written in a dialect of their own, the so-called Jaina Prakrit; and it - was not till between A.D. 1000 and 1100 that the Jains adopted - Sanskrit as their literary language. Considerable progress has been - made in the publication and elucidation of these original authorities. - But a great deal remains yet to be done. The oldest books now in the - possession of the modern Jains purport to go back, not to the - foundation of the existing order in the 6th century B.C., but only to - the time of Bhadrabahu, three centuries later. The whole of the still - older literature, on which the revision then made was based, the - so-called _Purvas_, have been lost. And the existing canonical books, - while preserving a great deal that was probably derived from them, - contain much later material. The problem remains to sort out the older - from the later, to distinguish between the earlier form of the faith - and its subsequent developments, and to collect the numerous data for - the general, social, industrial, religious and political history of - India. Professor Weber gave a fairly full and carefully-drawn-up - analysis of the whole of the more ancient books in the second part of - the second volume of his _Catalogue of the Sanskrit MSS. at Berlin_, - published in 1888, and in vols. xvi. and xvii. of his _Indische - Studien_. An English translation of these last was published first in - the _Indian Antiquary_, and then separately at Bombay, 1893. Professor - Bhandarkar gave an account of the contents of many later works in his - _Report on the Search for Sanskrit MSS._, Bombay, 1883. Only a small - beginning has been made in editing and translating these works. The - best _precis_ of a long book can necessarily only deal with the more - important features in it. And in the choice of what should be included - the _precis_-writer will often omit the points some subsequent - investigator may most especially want. All the older works ought - therefore to be edited and translated in full and properly indexed. - The Jains themselves have now printed in Bombay a complete edition of - their sacred books. But the critical value of this edition, and of - other editions of separate texts printed elsewhere in India, leaves - much to be desired. Professor Jacobi has edited and translated the - _Kalpa Sutra_, containing a life of the founder of the Jain order; but - this can scarcely be older than the 5th century of our era. He has - also edited and translated the _Ayaranya Sutta_ of the Svetambara - Jains. The text, published by the Pali Text Society, is of 140 pages - octavo. The first part of it, about 50 pages, is a very old document - on the Jain views as to conduct, and the remainder consists of - appendices, added at different times, on the same subject. The older - part may go back as early as the 3rd century B.C., and it sets out - more especially the Jain doctrine of _tapas_ or self-mortification, in - contradistinction to the Buddhist view, which condemned asceticism. - The rules of conduct in this book are for members of the order. Dr - Rudolf Hoernle edited and translated an ancient work on the rules of - conduct for laymen, the _Uvasaga Dasao_.[1] Professor Leumann edited - another of the older works, the _Aupapatika Sutra_, and a fourth, - entitled the _Dasa-vaikalika Satra_, both of them published by the - German Oriental Society. Professor Jacobi translated two more, the - _Uttaradhyayana_ and the _Sutra Kritanga_.[2] Finally Dr Barnett has - translated two others in vol. xvii. of the _Oriental Translation Fund_ - (new series, London, 1907). Thus about one-fiftieth part of these - interesting and valuable old records is now accessible to the European - scholar. The sect of the Svetambaras has preserved the oldest - literatures. Dr Hoernle has treated of the early history of the sect - in the _Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_ for 1898. - Several scholars--notably Bhagvanlal Indraji, Mr Lewis Rice and - Hofrath Buhler[3]--have treated of the remarkable archaeological - discoveries lately made. These confirm the older records in many - details, and show that the Jains, in the centuries before the - Christian era, were a wealthy and important body in widely separated - parts of India. - -_Jainism._--The most distinguishing outward peculiarity of Maha-vira and -of his earliest followers was their practice of going quite naked, -whence the term _Digambara_. Against this custom, Gotama, the Buddha, -especially warned his followers; and it is referred to in the well-known -Greek phrase, _Gymnosophist_, used already by Megasthenes, which applies -very aptly to the Niganthas. Even the earliest name Nigantha, which -means "free from bonds," may not be without allusions to this curious -belief in the sanctity of nakedness, though it also alluded to freedom -from the bonds of sin and of transmigration. The statues of the Jinas in -the Jain temples, some of which are of enormous size, are still always -quite naked; but the Jains themselves have abandoned the practice, the -Digambaras being sky-clad at meal-time only, and the Svetambaras being -always completely clothed. And even among the Digambaras it is only the -recluses or _Yatis_, men devoted to a religious life, who carry out this -practice. The Jain laity--the _Sravakas_, or disciples--do not adopt it. - -The Jain views of life were, in the most important and essential -respects, the exact reverse of the Buddhist views. The two orders, -Buddhist and Jain, were not only, and from the first, independent, but -directly opposed the one to the other. In philosophy the Jains are the -most thorough-going supporters of the old animistic position. Nearly -everything, according to them, has a soul within its outward visible -shape--not only men and animals, but also all plants, and even particles -of earth, and of water (when it is cold), and fire and wind. The -Buddhist theory, as is well known, is put together without the -hypothesis of "soul" at all. The word the Jains use for soul is _jiva_, -which means life; and there is much analogy between many of the -expressions they use and the view that the ultimate cells and atoms are -all, in a more or less modified sense, alive. They regard good and evil -and space as ultimate substances which come into direct contact with the -minute souls in everything. And their best-known position in regard to -the points most discussed in philosophy is _Syad-vada_, the doctrine -that you may say "Yes" and at the same time "No" to everything. You can -affirm the eternity of the world, for instance, from one point of view, -and at the same time deny it from another; or, at different times and in -different connexions, you may one day affirm it and another day deny it. -This position both leads to vagueness of thought and explains why -Jainism has had so little influence over other schools of philosophy in -India. On the other hand, the Jains are as determined in their views of -asceticism (_tapas_) as they were compromising in their views of -philosophy. Any injury done to the "souls" being one of the worst of -iniquities, the good monk should not wash his clothes (indeed, the most -austere will reject clothes altogether), nor even wash his teeth, for -fear of injuring living things. "Subdue the body, chastise thyself, -weaken thyself, just as fire consumes dry wood." It was by suppressing, -through such self-torture, the influence on his soul of all sensations -that the Jain could obtain salvation. It is related of the founder -himself, the Maha-vira, that after twelve years' penance he thus -obtained Nirvana (Jacobi, _Jaina Sutras_, i. 201) before he entered upon -his career as a teacher. And through the rest of his life, till he died -at Pava, shortly before the Buddha, he followed the same habit of -continual self-mortification. The Buddha, on the other hand, obtained -Nirvana in his 35th year, under the Bo tree, after he had abandoned -penance; and through the rest of his life he spoke of penance as quite -useless from his point of view. - -There is no manual of Jainism as yet published, but there is a great -deal of information on various points in the introductions to the works -referred to above. Professor Jacobi, who is the best authority on the -history of this sect, thus sums up the distinction between the Maha-vira -and the Buddha: "Maha-vira was rather of the ordinary class of religious -men in India. He may be allowed a talent for religious matters, but he -possessed not the genius which Buddha undoubtedly had.... The Buddha's -philosophy forms a system based on a few fundamental ideas, whilst that -of Maha-vira scarcely forms a system, but is merely a sum of opinions -(_pannattis_) on various subjects, no fundamental ideas being there to -uphold the mass of metaphysical matter. Besides this ... it is the -ethical element that gives to the Buddhist writings their superiority -over those of the Jains. Maha-vira treated ethics as corollary and -subordinate to his metaphysics, with which he was chiefly concerned." - - ADDITIONAL AUTHORITIES.--Bhadrabahu's _Kalpa Sutra_, the recognized - and popular manual of the Svetambara Jains, edited with English - introduction by Professor Jacobi (Leipzig, 1879); Hemacandra's "Yoga - S'astram," edited by Windisch, in the _Zeitschrift der deutschen morg. - Ges._ for 1874; "Zwei Jaina Stotra," edited in the _Indische Studien_, - vol. xv.; _Ein Fragment der Bhagavati_, by Professor Weber; _Memoires - de l'Academie de Berlin_ (1866); _Nirayavaliya Sutta_, edited by Dr - Warren, with Dutch introduction (Amsterdam, 1879); _Over de - godsdienstige en wijsgeerige Begrippen der Jainas_, by Dr Warren (his - doctor-dissertation, Zwolle, 1875); _Beitrage zur Grammatik des - Jaina-prakrit_, by Dr Edward Muller (Berlin, 1876); Colebrooke's - _Essays_, vol. ii. Mr J. Burgess has an exhaustive account of the Jain - Cave Temples (none older than the 7th century) in Fergusson and - Burgess's _Cave Temples in India_ (London, 1880). - - See also Hopkins' _Religions of India_ (London, 1896), pp. 280-96, and - J. G. Buhler _On the Indian Sect of the Jainas_, edited by J. Burgess - (London, 1904). (T. W. R. D.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Published in the _Bibliotheca Indica_, Calcutta, 1888. - - [2] These two, and the other two mentioned above, form vols. i. and - ii. of his _Jaina Sutras_, published in the _Sacred Books of the - East_ (1884, 1895). - - [3] The _Hatthi Gumpha_ and three other inscriptions at Cuttack - (Leyden, 1885); _Sravana Belgola_ inscriptions (Bangalore, 1889); - _Vienna Oriental Journal_, vols. ii.-v.; _Epigraphia Indica_, vols. - i-vii. - - - - -JAIPUR, or JEYPORE, a city and native state of India in the Rajputana -agency. The city is a prosperous place of comparatively recent date. It -derives its name from the famous Maharaja Jai Singh II., who founded it -in 1728. It is built of pink stucco in imitation of sandstone, and is -remarkable for the width and regularity of its streets. It is the only -city in India that is laid out in rectangular blocks, and it is divided -by cross streets into six equal portions. The main streets are 111 ft. -wide and are paved, while the city is lighted by gas. The regularity of -plan, and the straight streets with the houses all built after the same -pattern, deprive Jaipur of the charm of the East, while the painted mud -walls of the houses give it the meretricious air of stage scenery. The -huge palace of the maharaja stands in the centre of the city. Another -noteworthy building is Jai Singh's observatory. The chief industries are -in metals and marble, which are fostered by a school of art, founded in -1868. There is also a wealthy and enterprising community of native -bankers. The city has three colleges and several hospitals. Pop. (1901), -160,167. The ancient capital of Jaipur was Amber. - -The STATE OF JAIPUR, which takes its name from the city, has a total -area of 15,579 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,658,666, showing a decrease of 6% -in the decade. The estimated revenue is L430,000, and the tribute -L27,000. The centre of the state is a sandy and barren plain 1,600 ft. -above sea-level, bounded on the E. by ranges of hills running north and -south. On the N. and W. it is bounded by a broken chain of hills, an -offshoot of the Aravalli mountains, beyond which lies the sandy desert -of Rajputana. The soil is generally sandy. The hills are more or less -covered with jungle trees, of no value except for fuel. Towards the S. -and E. the soil becomes more fertile. Salt is largely manufactured and -exported from the Sambhar lake, which is worked by the government of -India under an arrangement with the states of Jaipur and Jodhpur. It -yields salt of a very high quality. The state is traversed by the -Rajputana railway, with branches to Agra and Delhi. - -The maharaja of Jaipur belongs to the Kachwaha clan of Rajputs, claiming -descent from Rama, king of Ajodhya. The state is said to have been -founded about 1128 by Dhula Rai, from Gwalior, who with his Kachwahas is -said to have absorbed or driven out the petty chiefs. The Jaipur house -furnished to the Moguls some of their most distinguished generals. Among -them were Man Singh, who fought in Orissa and Assam; Jai Singh, -commonly known by his imperial title of Mirza Raja, whose name appears -in all the wars of Aurangzeb in the Deccan; and Jai Singh II., or Sawai -Jai Singh, the famous mathematician and astronomer, and the founder of -Jaipur city. Towards the end of the 18th century the Jats of Bharatpur -and the chief of Alwar each annexed a portion of the territory of -Jaipur. By the end of the century the state was in great confusion, -distracted by internal broils and impoverished by the exactions of the -Mahrattas. The disputes between the chiefs of Jaipur and Jodhpur had -brought both states to the verge of ruin, and Amir Khan with the -Pindaris was exhausting the country. By a treaty in 1818 the protection -of the British was extended to Jaipur and an annual tribute fixed. In -1835 there was a serious disturbance in the city, after which the -British government took measures to insist upon order and to reform the -administration as well as to support its effective action; and the state -has gradually become well-governed and prosperous. During the Mutiny of -1857 the maharaja assisted the British in every way that lay in his -power. Maharaja Madho Singh, G.C.S.I., G.C.V.O., was born in 1861, and -succeeded in 1882. He is distinguished for his enlightened -administration and his patronage of art. He was one of the princes who -visited England at the time of King Edward's coronation in 1902. It was -he who started and endowed with a donation of 15 lakhs, afterwards -increased to 20 lakhs, of rupees (L133,000) the "Indian People's Famine -Fund." The Jaipur imperial service transport corps saw service in the -Chitral and Tirah campaigns. - - - - -JAISALMER, or JEYSULMERE, a town and native state of India in the -Rajputana agency. The town stands on a ridge of yellowish sandstone, -crowned by a fort, which contains the palace and several ornate Jain -temples. Many of the houses and temples are finely sculptured. Pop. -(1901), 7137. The area of the state is 16,062 sq. m. In 1901 the -population was 73,370, showing a decrease of 37% in ten years, as a -consequence of famine. The estimated revenue is about L6000; there is no -tribute. Jaisalmer is almost entirely a sandy waste, forming a part of -the great Indian desert. The general aspect of the country is that of an -interminable sea of sandhills, of all shapes and sizes, some rising to a -height of 150 ft. Those in the west are covered with _phog_ bushes, -those in the east with tufts of long grass. Water is scarce, and -generally brackish; the average depth of the wells is said to be about -250 ft. There are no perennial streams, and only one small river, the -Kakni, which, after flowing a distance of 28 m., spreads over a large -surface of flat ground, and forms a lake or _jhil_ called the Bhuj-Jhil. -The climate is dry and healthy. Throughout Jaisalmer only rain-crops, -such as _bajra_, _joar_, _moth_, _til_, &c., are grown; spring crops of -wheat, barley, &c., are very rare. Owing to the scant rainfall, -irrigation is almost unknown. - - The main part of the population lead a wandering life, grazing their - flocks and herds. Large herds of camels, horned cattle, sheep and - goats are kept. The principal trade is in wool, _ghi_, camels, cattle - and sheep. The chief imports are grain, sugar, foreign cloth, - piece-goods, &c. Education is at a low ebb. Jain priests are the chief - schoolmasters, and their teaching is elementary. The ruler of - Jaisalmer is styled _maharawal_. The state suffered from famine in - 1897, 1900 and other years, to such an extent that it has had to incur - a heavy debt for extraordinary expenditure. There are no railways. - - The majority of the inhabitants are Bhatti Rajputs, who take their - name from an ancestor named Bhatti, renowned as a warrior when the - tribe were located in the Punjab. Shortly after this the clan was - driven southwards, and found a refuge in the Indian desert, which was - thenceforth its home. Deoraj, a famous prince of the Bhatti family, is - esteemed the real founder of the present Jaisalmer dynasty, and with - him the title of _rawal_ commenced. In 1156 Jaisal, the sixth in - succession from Deoraj, founded the fort and city of Jaisalmer, and - made it his capital. In 1294 the Bhattis so enraged the emperor - Ala-ud-din that his army captured and sacked the fort and city of - Jaisalmer, so that for some time it was quite deserted. After this - there is nothing to record till the time of Rawal Sabal Singh, whose - reign marks an epoch in Bhatti history in that he acknowledged the - supremacy of the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan. The Jaisalmer princes had - now arrived at the height of their power, but from this time till the - accession of Rawal Mulraj in 1762 the fortunes of the state rapidly - declined, and most of its outlying provinces were lost. In 1818 Mulraj - entered into political relations with the British. Maharawal - Salivahan, born in 1887, succeeded to the chief ship in 1891. - - - - -JAJCE (pronounced _Yaitse_), a town of Bosnia, situated on the Pliva and -Vrbas rivers, and at the terminus of a branch railway from Serajevo, 62 -m. S.E. Pop. (1895), about 4000. Jajce occupies a conical hill, -overlooking one of the finest waterfalls in Europe, where the Pliva -rushes down into the Vrbas, 100 ft. below. The 14th century citadel -which crowns this hill is said to have been built for Hrvoje, duke of -Spalato, on the model of the Castel del' Uovo at Naples; but the -resemblance is very slight, and although both _jajce_ and _uovo_ signify -"an egg," the town probably derives its name from the shape of the hill. -The ruined church of St Luke, said by legend to be the Evangelist's -burial place, has a fine Italian belfry, and dates from the 15th -century. Jezero, 5 m. W. of Jajce, contains the Turkish fort of -Djol-Hissar, or "the Lake-Fort." In this neighbourhood a line of -waterfalls and meres, formed by the Pliva, stretches for several miles, -enclosed by steep rocks and forest-clad mountains. The power supplied by -the main fall, at Jajce, is used for industrial purposes, but the beauty -of the town remains unimpaired. - -From 1463 to 1528 Jajce was the principal outwork of eastern Christendom -against the Turks. Venice contributed money for its defence, and Hungary -provided armies; while the pope entreated all Christian monarchs to -avert its fall. In 1463 Mahomet II. had seized more than 75 Bosnian -fortresses, including Jajce itself; and the last independent king of -Bosnia, Stephen Tomasevic, had been beheaded, or, according to one -tradition, flayed alive, before the walls of Jajce, on a spot still -called _Kraljeva Polje_, the "King's Field." His coffin and skeleton are -still displayed in St Luke's Church. The Hungarians, under King Matthias -I., came to the rescue, and reconquered the greater part of Bosnia -during the same year; and, although Mahomet returned in 1464, he was -again defeated at Jajce, and compelled to flee before another Hungarian -advance. In 1467 Hungarian bans, or military governors, were appointed -to rule in north-west Bosnia, and in 1472 Matthias appointed Nicolaus -Ujlaki king of the country, with Jajce for his capital. This kingdom -lasted, in fact, for 59 years; but, after the death of Ujlaki, in 1492, -its rulers only bore the title of _ban_, and of _vojvod_. In 1500 the -Turks, under Bajazet II., were crushed at Jajce by the Hungarians under -John Corvinus; and several other attacks were repelled between 1520 and -1526. But in 1526 the Hungarian power was destroyed at Mohacs; and in -1528 Jajce was forced to surrender. - - See Brass, "Jajce, die alte Konigstadt Bosniens," in _Deutsche geog. - Blatter_, pp. 71-85 (Bremen, 1899). - - - - -JAJPUR, or JAJPORE, a town of British India, in Cuttack district, -Bengal, situated on the right bank of the Baitarani river. Pop. (1901), -12,111. It was the capital of Orissa under the Kesari dynasty until the -11th century, when it was superseded by Cuttack. In Jajpur are numerous -ruins of temples, sculptures, &c., and a large and beautiful sun pillar. - - - - -JAKOB, LUDWIG HEINRICH VON (1759-1827), German economist, was born at -Wettin on the 26th of February 1759. In 1777 he entered the university -of Halle. In 1780 he was appointed teacher at the gymnasium, and in 1791 -professor of philosophy at the university. The suppression of the -university of Halle having been decreed by Napoleon, Jakob betook -himself to Russia, where in 1807 he was appointed professor of political -economy at Kharkoff, and in 1809 a member of the government commission -to inquire into the finances of the empire. In the following year he -became president of the commission for the revision of criminal law, and -he at the same time obtained an important office in the finance -department, with the rank of counsellor of state; but in 1816 he -returned to Halle to occupy the chair of political economy. He died at -Lauchstadt on the 22nd of July 1827. - - Shortly after his first appointment to a professorship in Halle Jakob - had begun to turn his attention rather to the practical than the - speculative side of philosophy, and in 1805 he published at Halle - _Lehrbuch der Nationalokonomie_, in which he was the first to - advocate in Germany the necessity of a distinct science dealing - specially with the subject of national wealth. His principal other - works are _Grundriss der allgemeinen Logik_ (Halle, 1788); _Grundsatze - der Polizeigesetzgebung und Polizeianstalten_ (Leipzig, 1809); - _Einleitung in das Studium der Staatswissenschaften_ (Halle, 1819); - _Entwurf eines Criminalgesetzbuchs fur das russische Reich_ (Halle, - 1818) and _Staatsfinanzwissenschaft_ (2 vols., Halle, 1821). - - - - -JAKOVA (also written DIAKOVA, GYAKOVO and GJAKOVICA), a town of Albania, -European Turkey, in the vilayet of Kossovo; on the river Erenik, a -right-hand tributary of the White Drin. Pop. (1905) about 12,000. Jakova -is the chief town of the Alpine region which extends from the -Montenegrin frontier to the Drin and White Drin. This region has never -been thoroughly explored, or brought under effective Turkish rule, on -account of the inaccessible character of its mountains and forests, and -the lawlessness of its inhabitants--a group of two Roman Catholic and -three Moslem tribes, known collectively as the Malsia Jakovs, whose -official representative resides in Jakova. - - - - -JAKUNS, an aboriginal race of the Malay Peninsula. They have become much -mixed with other tribes, and are found throughout the south of the -peninsula and along the coasts. The purest types are straight-haired, -exhibit marked Mongolian characteristics and are closely related to the -Malays. They are probably a branch of the Pre-Malays, the "savage -Malays" of A. R. Wallace. They are divided into two groups: (1) Jakuns -of the jungle, (2) Jakuns of the sea or Orang Laut. The latter set of -tribes now comprise the remnants of the pirates or "sea-gipsies" of the -Malaccan straits. The Jakuns, who must be studied in conjunction with -the other aboriginal peoples of the Malay Peninsula, the Semangs and the -Sakais, are not so dwarfish as those. The head is round; the skin varies -from olive-brown to dark copper; the face is flat and the lower jaw -square. The nose is thick and short, with wide, open nostrils. The -cheekbones are high and well marked. The hair has a blue-black tint, -eyes are black and the beard is scanty. The Jakuns live a wild forest -life, and in general habits much resemble the Sakai, being but little in -advance of the latter in social conditions except where they come into -close contact with the Malay peoples. - - - - -JALALABAD, or JELLALABAD, a town and province of Afghanistan. The town -lies at a height of 1950 ft. in a plain on the south side of the Kabul -river, 96 m. from Kabul and 76 from Peshawar. Estimated pop., 4000. -Between it and Peshawar intervenes the Khyber Pass, and between it and -Kabul the passes of Jagdalak, Khurd Kabul, &c. The site was chosen by -the emperor Baber, and he laid out some gardens here; but the town -itself was built by his grandson Akbar in A.D. 1560. It resembles the -city of Kabul on a smaller scale, and has one central bazaar, the -streets generally being very narrow. The most notable episode in the -history of the place is the famous defence by Sir Robert Sale during the -first Afghan war, when he held the town from November 1841 to April -1842. On its evacuation in 1842 General Pollock destroyed the defences, -but they were rebuilt in 1878. The town is now fortified, surrounded by -a high wall with bastions and loopholes. The province of Jalalabad is -about 80 m. in length by 35 in width, and includes the large district of -Laghman north of the Kabul river, as well as that on the south called -Ningrahar. The climate of Jalalabad is similar to that of Peshawar. As a -strategical centre Jalalabad is one of the most important positions in -Afghanistan, for it dominates the entrances to the Laghman and the Kunar -valleys; commanding routes to Chitral or India north of the Khyber, as -well as the Kabul-Peshawar road. - - - - -JALAP, a cathartic drug consisting of the tuberous roots of _Ipomaea -Purga_, a convolvulaceous plant growing on the eastern declivities of -the Mexican Andes at an elevation of 5000 to 8000 ft. above the level of -the sea, more especially about the neighbourhood of Chiconquiaco, and -near San Salvador on the eastern slope of the Cofre de Perote. Jalap has -been known in Europe since the beginning of the 17th century, and -derives its name from the city of Jalapa in Mexico, near which it grows, -but its botanical source was not accurately determined until 1829, when -Dr. J. R. Coxe of Philadelphia published a description and coloured -figure taken from living plants sent him two years previously from -Mexico. The jalap plant has slender herbaceous twining stems, with -alternately placed heart-shaped pointed leaves and salver-shaped deep -purplish-pink flowers. The underground stems are slender and creeping; -their vertical roots enlarge and form turnip-shaped tubers. The roots -are dug up in Mexico throughout the year, and are suspended to dry in a -net over the hearth of the Indians' huts, and hence acquire a smoky -odour. The large tubers are often gashed to cause them to dry more -quickly. In their form they vary from spindle-shaped to ovoid or -globular, and in size from a pigeon's egg to a man's fist. Externally -they are brown and marked with small transverse paler scars, and -internally they present a dirty white resinous or starchy fracture. The -ordinary drug is distinguished in commerce as Vera Cruz jalap, from the -name of the port whence it is shipped. - -[Illustration: Jalap (_Ipomaea Purga_); about half natural size.] - -Jalap has been cultivated for many years in India, chiefly at -Ootacamund, and grows there as easily as a yam, often producing clusters -of tubers weighing over 9 lb.; but these, as they differ in appearance -from the commercial article, have not as yet obtained a place in the -English market. They are found, however, to be rich in resin, containing -18%. In Jamaica also the plant has been grown, at first amongst the -cinchona trees, but more recently in new ground, as it was found to -exhaust the soil. - -Besides Mexican or Vera Cruz jalap, a drug called Tampico jalap has been -imported for some years in considerable quantity. It has a much more -shrivelled appearance and paler colour than ordinary jalap, and lacks -the small transverse scars present in the true drug. This kind of jalap, -the Purga de Sierra Gorda of the Mexicans, was traced by Hanbury to -_Ipomaea simulans_. It grows in Mexico along the mountain range of the -Sierra Gorda in the neighbourhood of San Luis de la Paz, from which -district it is carried down to Tampico, whence it is exported. A third -variety of jalap known as woody jalap, male jalap, or Orizaba root, or -by the Mexicans as Purgo macho, is derived from _Ipomaea orizabensis_, a -plant of Orizaba. The root occurs in fibrous pieces, which are usually -rectangular blocks of irregular shape, 2 in. or more in diameter, and -are evidently portions of a large root. It is only occasionally met with -in commerce. - - The dose of jalap is from five to twenty grains, the British - Pharmacopeia directing that it must contain from 9 to 11% of the resin, - which is given in doses of two to five grains. One preparation of this - drug is in common use, the _Pulvis Jalapae Compositus_, which consists - of 5 parts of jalap, 9 of cream of tartar, and 1 of ginger. The dose is - from 20 grains to a drachm. It is best given in the maximum dose which - causes the minimum of irritation. - - The chief constituents of jalap resin are two glucosides--_convolvulin_ - and _jalapin_--sugar, starch and gum. Convolvulin constitutes nearly - 20% of the resin. It is insoluble in ether, and is more active than - jalapin. It is not used separately in medicine. Jalapin is present in - about the same proportions. It dissolves readily in ether, and has a - soft resinous consistence. It may be given in half-grain doses. It is - the active principle of the allied drug _scammony_. According to Mayer, - the formula of convolvulin is C34H50O16, and that of jalapin C31H50O16. - - Jalap is a typical hydragogue purgative, causing the excretion of more - fluid than scammony, but producing less stimulation of the muscular - wall of the bowel. For both reasons it is preferable to scammony. It - was shown by Professor Rutherford at Edinburgh to be a powerful - secretory cholagogue, an action possessed by few hydragogue purgatives. - The stimulation of the liver is said to depend upon the solution of the - resin by the intestinal secretion. The drug is largely employed in - cases of Bright's disease and dropsy from any cause, being especially - useful when the liver shares in the general venous congestion. It is - not much used in ordinary constipation. - - - - -JALAPA, XALAPA, or HALAPA, a city of the state of Vera Cruz, Mexico, 70 -m. by rail N.W. of the port of Vera Cruz. Pop. (1900), 20,388. It is -picturesquely situated on the slopes of the sierra which separates the -central plateau from the _tierra caliente_ of the Gulf Coast, at an -elevation of 4300 ft., and with the Cofre de Perote behind it rising to -a height of 13,419 ft. Its climate is cool and healthy and the town is -frequented in the hot season by the wealthier residents of Vera Cruz. -The city is well built, in the old Spanish style. Among its public -buildings are a fine old church, a Franciscan convent founded by Cortez -in 1556, and three hospitals, one of which, that of San Juan de Dios, -dates from colonial times. The neighbouring valleys and slopes are -fertile, and in the forests of this region is found the plant (jalap), -which takes its name from the place. Jalapa was for a time the capital -of the state, but its political and commercial importance has declined -since the opening of the railway between Vera Cruz and the city of -Mexico. It manufactures pottery and leather. - - - - -JALAUN, a town and district of British India, in the Allahabad division -of the United Provinces. Pop. of town (1901), 8573. Formerly it was the -residence of a Mahratta governor, but never the headquarters of the -district, which are at Orai. - -The DISTRICT OF JALAUN has an area of 1477 sq. m. It lies entirely -within the level plain of Bundelkhand, north of the hill country, and is -almost surrounded by the Jumna and its tributaries the Betwa and Pahuj. -The central region thus enclosed is a dead level of cultivated land, -almost destitute of trees, and sparsely dotted with villages. The -southern portion presents almost one unbroken sheet of cultivation. The -boundary rivers form the only interesting feature in Jalaun. The river -Non flows through the centre of the district, which it drains by -innumerable small ravines instead of watering. Jalaun has suffered much -from the noxious _kans_ grass, owing to the spread of which many -villages have been abandoned and their lands thrown out of cultivation. -Pop. (1901), 399,726, showing an increase of 1%. The two largest towns -are Kunch (15,888), and Kalpi (10,139). The district is traversed by the -line of the Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Cawnpore. A small part -of it is watered by the Betwa canal. Grain, oil-seeds, cotton and _ghi_ -are exported. - -In early times Jalaun seems to have been the home of two Rajput clans, -the Chandels in the east and the Kachwahas in the west. The town of -Kalpi on the Jumna was conquered for the princes of Ghor as early as -1196. Early in the 14th century the Bundelas occupied the greater part -of Jalaun, and even succeeded in holding the fortified post of Kalpi. -That important possession was soon recovered by the Mussulmans, and -passed under the sway of the Mogul emperors. Akbar's governors at Kalpi -maintained a nominal authority over the surrounding district; and the -Bundela chiefs were in a state of chronic revolt, which culminated in -the war of independence under Chhatar Sal. On the outbreak of his -rebellion in 1671 he occupied a large province to the south of the -Jumna. Setting out from this basis, and assisted by the Mahrattas, he -reduced the whole of Bundelkhand. On his death he bequeathed one-third -of his dominions to his Mahratta allies, who before long succeeded in -annexing the whole of Bundelkhand. Under Mahratta rule the country was a -prey to constant anarchy and intestine strife. To this period must be -traced the origin of the poverty and desolation which are still -conspicuous throughout the district. In 1806 Kalpi was made over to the -British, and in 1840, on the death of Nana Gobind Ras, his possessions -lapsed to them also. Various interchanges of territory took place, and -in 1856 the present boundaries were substantially settled. Jalaun had a -bad reputation during the Mutiny. When the news of the rising at -Cawnpore reached Kalpi, the men of the 53rd native infantry deserted -their officers, and in June the Jhansi mutineers reached the district, -and began their murder of Europeans. The inhabitants everywhere revelled -in the licence of plunder and murder which the Mutiny had spread through -all Bundelkhand, and it was not till September 1858 that the rebels were -finally defeated. - - - - -JALISCO, XALISCO, or GUADALAJARA, a Pacific coast state of Mexico, of -very irregular shape, bounded, beginning on the N., by the territory of -Tepic and the states of Durango, Zacatecas, Aguas Calientes, Guanajuato, -Michoacan, and Colima. Pop. (1900), 1,153,891. Area, 31,846 sq. m. -Jalisco is traversed from N.N.W. to S.S.E. by the Sierra Madre, locally -known as the Sierra de Nayarit and Sierra de Jalisco, which divides the -state into a low heavily forested coastal plain and a high plateau -region, part of the great Anahuac table-land, with an average elevation -of about 5000 ft., broken by spurs and flanking ranges of moderate -height. The sierra region is largely volcanic and earthquakes are -frequent; in the S. are the active volcanoes of Colima (12,750 ft.) and -the Nevado de Colima (14,363 ft.). The _tierra caliente_ zone of the -coast is tropical, humid, and unfavourable to Europeans, while the -inland plateaus vary from subtropical to temperate and are generally -drier and healthful. The greater part of the state is drained by the Rio -Grande de Lerma (called the Santiago on its lower course) and its -tributaries, chief of which is the Rio Verde. Lakes are numerous; the -largest are the Chapala, about 80 m. long by 10 to 35 m. wide, which is -considered one of the most beautiful inland sheets of water in Mexico, -the Sayula and the Magdalena, noted for their abundance of fish. The -agricultural products of Jalisco include Indian corn, wheat and beans on -the uplands, and sugar-cane, cotton, rice, indigo and tobacco in the -warmer districts. Rubber and palm oil are natural forest products of the -coastal zone. Stock-raising is an important occupation in some of the -more elevated districts. The mineral resources include silver, gold, -cinnabar, copper, bismuth, and various precious stones. There are -reduction works of the old-fashioned type and some manufactures, -including cotton and woollen goods, pottery, refined sugar and leather. -The commercial activities of the state contribute much to its -prosperity. There is a large percentage of Indians and mestizos in the -population. The capital is Guadalajara, and other important towns with -their populations in 1900 (unless otherwise stated) are: Zapotlanejo -(20,275), 21 m. E. by N. of Guadalajara; Ciudad Guzman (17,374 in 1895), -60 m. N.E. of Colima; Lagos (14,716 in 1895), a mining town 100 m. -E.N.E. of Guadalajara on the Mexican Central railway; Tamazula (8783 in -1895); Sayula (7883); Autlan (7715); Teocaltiche (8881); Ameca (7212 in -1895), in a fertile agricultural region on the western slopes of the -sierras; Cocula (7090 in 1895); and Zacoalco (6516). Jalisco was first -invaded by the Spaniards about 1526 and was soon afterwards conquered by -Nuno de Guzman. It once formed part of the reyno of Nueva Galicia, which -also included Aguas Calientes and Zacatecas. In 1889 its area was much -reduced by a subdivision of its coastal zone, which was set apart as the -territory of Tepic. - - - - -JALNA, or JAULNA, a town in Hyderabad state, India, on the Godavari -branch of the Nizam's railway, and 210 m. N.E. of Bombay. Pop. (1901), -20,270. Until 1903 it was a cantonment of the Hyderabad contingent, -originally established in 1827. Its gardens produce fruit, which is -largely exported. On the opposite bank of the river Kundlika is the -trading town of Kadirabad; pop. (1901), 11,159. - - - - -JALPAIGURI, or JULPIGOREE, a town and district of British India, in the -Rajshahi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The town is on the right -bank of the river Tista, with a station on the Eastern Bengal railway -about 300 m. due N. of Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 9708. It is the -headquarters of the commissioner of the division. - -The DISTRICT OF JALPAIGURI (organized in 1869) occupies an irregularly -shaped tract south of Darjeeling and Bhutan and north of the state of -Kuch Behar. It includes the Western Dwars, annexed from Bhutan after the -war of 1864-1865. Area, 2,962 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 787,380, an increase -of 16% in the decade. The district is divided into a "regulation" tract, -lying towards the south-west, and a strip of country, about 22 m. in -width, running along the foot of the Himalayas, and known as the Western -Dwars. The former is a continuous expanse of level paddy fields, only -broken by groves of bamboos, palms, and fruit-trees. The frontier -towards Bhutan is formed by the Sinchula mountain range, some peaks of -which attain an elevation of 6000 ft. It is thickly wooded from base to -summit. The principal rivers, proceeding from west to east, are the -Mahananda, Karatoya, Tista, Jaldhaka, Duduya, Mujnai, Tursa, Kaljani, -Raidak, and Sankos. The most important is the Tista, which forms a -valuable means of water communication. Lime is quarried in the lower -Bhutan hills. The Western Dwars are the principal centre of tea -cultivation in Eastern Bengal. The other portion of the district -produces jute. Jalpaiguri is traversed by the main line of the Eastern -Bengal railway to Darjeeling. It is also served by the Bengal Dwars -railway. - - - - -JAMAICA, the largest island in the British West Indies. It lies about 80 -m. S. of the eastern extremity of Cuba, between 17 deg. 43' and 18 deg. -32' N. and 76 deg. 10' and 78 deg. 20' W., is 144 m. long, 50 m. in -extreme breadth, and has an area of 4207 sq. m. The coast-line has the -form of a turtle, the mountain ridges representing the back. A -mountainous backbone runs through the island from E. to W., throwing off -a number of subsidiary ridges, mostly in a north-westerly or -south-easterly direction. In the east this range is more distinctly -marked, forming the Blue Mountains, with cloud-capped peaks and numerous -bifurcating branches. They trend W. by N., and are crossed by five -passes at altitudes varying from 3000 to 4000 ft. They culminate in Blue -Mountain Peak (7360 ft.), after which the heights gradually decrease -until the range is merged into the hills of the western plateau. -Two-thirds of the island are occupied by this limestone plateau, a -region of great beauty broken by innumerable hills, valleys and -sink-holes, and covered with luxuriant vegetation. The uplands usually -terminate in steep slopes or bluffs, separated from the sea, in most -cases, by a strip of level land. On the south coast, especially, the -plains are often large, the Liguanea plain, on which Kingston stands, -having an area of 200 sq. m. Upwards of a hundred rivers and streams -find their way to the sea, besides the numerous tributaries which issue -from every ravine in the mountains. These streams for the most part are -not navigable, and in times of flood they become devastating torrents. -In the parish of Portland, the Rio Grande receives all the smaller -tributaries from the west. In St Thomas in the east the main range is -drained by the Plantain Garden river, the tributaries of which form deep -ravines and narrow gorges. The valley of the Plantain Garden expands -into a picturesque and fertile plain. The Black river flows through a -level country, and is navigable by small craft for about 30 m. The Salt -river and the Cabaritta, also in the south, are navigable by barges. -Other rivers of the south are the Rio Cobre (on which are irrigation -works for the sugar and fruit plantations), the Yallahs and the Rio -Minho; in the north are the Martha Brae, the White river, the Great -Spanish river, and the Rio Grande. Vestiges of intermittent volcanic -action occur, and there are several medicinal springs. Jamaica has 16 -harbours, the chief of which are Port Morant, Kingston, Old Harbour, -Montego Bay, Falmouth, St Ann's Bay, Port Maria and Port Antonio. - - _Geology._--The greater part of Jamaica is covered by Tertiary - deposits, but in the Blue Mountain and some of the other ranges the - older rocks rise to the surface. The foundation of the island is - formed by a series of stratified shales and conglomerates, with tuffs - and other volcanic rocks and occasional bands of marine limestone. The - limestones contain Upper Cretaceous fossils, and the whole series has - been strongly folded. Upon this foundation rests unconformably a - series of marls and limestones of Eocene and early Oligocene age. Some - of the limestones are made of Foraminifera, together with Radiolaria, - and indicate a subsidence to abyssal depths. Nevertheless, the higher - peaks of the island still remained above the sea. Towards the middle - of the Oligocene period, mountain folding took place on an extensive - scale, and the island was raised far above its present level and was - probably connected with the rest of the Greater Antilles and perhaps - with the mainland also. At the same time plutonic rocks of various - kinds were intruded into the deposits already formed, and in some - cases produced considerable metamorphism. During the Miocene and - Pliocene periods the island again sank, but never to the depths which - it reached in the Eocene period. The deposits formed were - shallow-water conglomerates, marls and limestones, with mollusca, - brachiopoda, corals, &c. Finally, a series of successive elevations of - small amount, less than 500 ft. in the aggregate, raised the island to - its present level. The terraces which mark the successive stages in - this elevation are well shown in Montego Bay and elsewhere. The - remarkable depressions of the Cockpit country and the closed basin of - the Hector river are similar in origin to swallow-holes, and were - formed by the solution of a limestone layer resting upon insoluble - rocks. The island produces a great variety of marbles, porphyrites, - granite and ochres. Traces of gold have been found associated with - some of the oxidized copper ores (blue and green carbonates) in the - Clarendon mines. Copper ores are widely diffused but are very - expensive to work; as are the lead and cobalt which are also found. - Manganese iron ores and a form of arsenic occur. - -_Climate._--The climate is one of the island's chief attractions. Near -the coast it is warm and humid, but that of the uplands is delightfully -mild and equable. At Kingston the temperature ranges from 70.7 deg. to -87.8 deg. F., and this is generally the average of all the low-lying -coast land. At Cinchona, 4907 ft. above the sea, it varies from 57.5 -deg. to 68.5 deg. The vapours from the rivers and the ocean produce in -the upper regions clouds saturated with moisture which induce vegetation -belonging to a colder climate. During the rainy seasons there is such an -accumulation of these vapours as to cause a general coolness and -occasion sudden heavy showers, and sometimes destructive floods. The -rainy seasons, in May and October, last for about three weeks, although, -as a rule no month is quite without rain. The fall varies greatly; while -the annual average for the island is 66.3 in., at Kingston it is 32.6 -in., at Cinchona 105.5 in., and at some places in the north-east it -exceeds 200 in. The climate of the Santa Cruz Mountains is extremely -favourable to sufferers from tubercular and rheumatic diseases. -Excepting near morasses and lagoons, the island is very healthy, and -yellow fever, once prevalent, now rarely occurs. In the early part of -the 19th century, hurricanes often devastated Jamaica, but now, though -they pass to the N.E. and S.W. with comparative frequency, they rarely -strike the island itself. - - _Flora._--The flora is remarkable, showing types from North, Central, - and South America, with a few European forms, besides the common - plants found everywhere in the tropics. Of flowering plants there are - 2180 distinct species, and of ferns 450 species, several of both being - indigenous. The largeness of these numbers may be to some extent - accounted for by differences of altitude, temperature and humidity. - There are many beautiful flowers, such as the aloe, the yucca, the - datura, the mountain pride and the _Victoria regia_; and the cactus - tribe is well represented. The Sensitive Plant grows in pastures, and - orchids in the woods. There are forest trees fit for every purpose; - including the ballata, rosewood, satinwood, mahogany, lignum vitae, - lancewood and ebony. The logwood and fustic are exported for dyeing. - There are also the Jamaica cedar, and the silk cotton tree (_Ceiba - Bombax_). Pimento (peculiar to Jamaica) is indigenous, and furnishes - the allspice. The bamboo, coffee and cocoa are well known. Several - species of palm abound,--the macaw, the fan palm, screw palm, and - palmetto royal. There are plantations of coconut palm. The other - noticeable trees and plants are the mango, the breadfruit tree, the - papaw, the lacebark tree, and the guava. The _Palma Christi_, from - which castor oil is made, is a very abundant annual. English - vegetables grow in the hills, and the plains produce plantains, cocoa, - yams, cassava, ochra, beans, pease, ginger and arrowroot. Maize and - guinea-corn are cultivated, and the guinea-grass, accidentally - introduced in 1750, is very valuable for horses and cattle,--so much - so that pen-keeping or cattle farming is a highly profitable - occupation. Among the principal fruits are the orange, shaddock, lime, - grape or cluster fruit, pine-apple, mango, banana, grapes, melons, - avocado pear, breadfruit, and tamarind. - - _Fauna._--There are fourteen sorts of _lampyridae_ or fireflies, - besides the _elateridae_ or lantern beetles. There are no venomous - serpents, but numerous harmless snakes and lizards exist. The - land-crab is considered a table delicacy, and the land-turtle also is - eaten. The scorpion and centipede, though poisonous, are not very - dangerous. Ants, sandflies and mosquitoes swarm in the lowlands. There - are twenty different song-birds, and forty-three varieties of birds - are presumed to be peculiar to the island. The sea and the rivers - swarm with fish. Turtles abound, and the seal, the manatee and the - crocodile are sometimes found. The coral reefs, with their varied - polyps and anemones, the numerous alcyonarians and diverse - coral-dwelling animals are readily accessible to the student, and the - island is also celebrated for the number of species of its - land-shells. - -_People._--The population of the island was estimated in 1905 at -806,690. Jamaica is rich in traces of its former Arawak inhabitants. -Aboriginal petaloid celts and other implements, flattened skulls and -vessels are common, and images are sometimes found in the large -limestone caverns of the island. The present inhabitants, of whom only -2% are white, include Maroons, the descendants of the slaves of the -Spaniards who fled into the interior when the island was captured by the -British; descendants of imported African slaves; mixed race of British -and African blood; coolies from India; a few Chinese, and the British -officials and white settlers. The Maroons live by themselves and are few -in number, while the half-castes enter into trade and sometimes into the -professions. The number of white inhabitants other than British is very -small. A negro peasant population is encouraged, with a view to its -being a support to the industries of the island; but, in many cases a -field negro will not work for his employer more than four days a week. -He may till his own plot of ground on one of the other days or not, as -the spirit moves him, but four days' work a week will keep him easily. -He has little or no care for the future. He has probably squatted on -someone's land, and has no rent to pay. Clothes he need hardly buy, fuel -he needs only for cooking, and food is ready to his hand for the -picking. Unfortunately a widespread indulgence in predial larceny is a -great hindrance to agriculture as well as to moral progress. But that -habits of thrift are being inculcated is shown by the steady increase in -the accounts in the government savings banks. That gross superstition is -still prevalent is shown by the cases of _obeah_ or witchcraft that come -before the courts from time to time. Another indication of the status of -the negro may be found in the fact that more than 60% of the births are -illegitimate, a percentage that shows an unfortunate tendency to -increase rather than diminish. - - The capital, Kingston, stands on the south-east coast, and near it is - the town of Port Royal. Spanish Town (pop. 5019), the former capital, - is in the parish of St Catherine, Middlesex, 11(3/4) m. by rail west of - Kingston. Since the removal of the seat of government to Kingston, the - town has gradually sunk in importance. In the cathedral many of the - governors of the island are buried. A marble statue of Rodney - commemorates his victory over the count de Grasse off Dominica in - 1782. Montego Bay (pop. 4803), on the north-west coast, is the second - town on the island, and is also a favourite bathing resort. Port - Antonio (1784) lies between two secure harbours on the north-east, and - owes its prosperity mainly to the development of the trade in fruit, - for which it is the chief place of shipment. - - _Industries._--Agricultural enterprise falls into two - classes--planting and pen-keeping, i.e. the breeding of horses, mules, - cattle and sheep. The chief products are bananas, oranges, coffee, - sugar, rum, logwood, cocoa, pimento, ginger, coco-nuts, limes, - nutmegs, pineapples, tobacco, grape-fruit and mangoes. There is a - board of agriculture, with an experimental station at Hope; there is - also an agricultural society with 26 branches throughout the colony. - Bee-keeping is a growing industry, especially among the peasants. The - land as a rule is divided into small holdings, the vast majority - consisting of five acres and less. The manufactures are few. In - addition to the sugar and coffee estates and cigar factories, there - are tanneries, distilleries, breweries, electric light and gas works, - ironfoundries, potteries and factories for the production of coconut - oil, essential oils, ice, matches and mineral waters. There is an - important establishment at Spanish Town for the production of logwood - extract. The exports, more than half of which go to the United States, - mostly comprise fruit, sugar and rum. The United States also - contributes the majority of the imports. More than half the revenue of - the colony is derived from import duties, the remainder is furnished - by excise, stamps and licences. With the exception of that of the - parish boards, there is no direct taxation. - - _Communications._--In 1900 an Imperial Direct West India Line of - steamers was started by Elder, Dempster & Co., to encourage the fruit - trade with England; it had a subsidy of L40,000, contributed jointly - by the Imperial and Jamaican governments. Two steamers go round the - island once a week, calling at the principal ports, the circuit - occupying about 120 hours. A number of sailing "droghers" also ply - from port to port. Jamaica has a number of good roads and bridle - paths; the main roads, controlled by the public works department, - encircle the island, with several branches from north to south. The - parochial roads are maintained by the parish boards. A railway - traverses the island from Kingston in the south-east to Montego Bay in - the north-west, and also branches to Port Antonio and to Ewarton. - Jamaica is included in the Postal Union and in the Imperial penny - post, and there is a weekly mail service to and from England by the - Royal Mail Line, but mails are also carried by other companies. The - island is connected by cable with the United States via Cuba, and with - Halifax, Nova Scotia via Bermuda. - - [Illustration: Map of Jamaica.] - - There is a government savings bank at Kingston with branches - throughout the island, and there are also branches of the Colonial - Bank of London and the Bank of Nova Scotia. The coins in circulation - are British gold and silver, but not bronze, instead of which local - nickel is used. United States gold passes as currency. English weights - and measures are used. - -_Administration, &c._--The island is divided into three counties, Surrey -in the east, Middlesex in the centre, and Cornwall in the west, and each -of these is subdivided into five parishes. The parish is the unit of -local government, and has jurisdiction over roads, markets, sanitation, -poor relief and waterworks. The management is vested in a parish board, -the members of which are elected. The chairman or custos is appointed by -the governor. The island is administered by a governor, who bears the -old Spanish title of captain-general, assisted by a legislative council -of five _ex officio_ members, not more than ten nominated members, and -fourteen members elected on a limited suffrage. There is also a privy -council of three _ex officio_ and not more than eight nominated members. -There is an Imperial garrison of about 2000 officers and men, with -headquarters at Newcastle, consisting of Royal Engineers, Royal -Artillery, infantry and four companies of the West India Regiment. There -is a naval station at Port Royal, and the entrance to its harbour is -strongly fortified. In addition there is a militia of infantry and -artillery, about 800 strong. - -Previous to 1870 the Church of England was established in Jamaica, but -in that year a disestablishment act was passed which provided for -gradual disendowment. It is still the most numerous body, and is -presided over by the bishop of Jamaica, who is also archbishop of the -West Indies. The Baptists, Wesleyans, Presbyterians, Moravians and -Roman Catholics are all represented; there is a Jewish synagogue at -Kingston, and the Salvation Army has a branch on the island. The Church -of England maintains many schools, a theological college, a deaconesses' -home and an orphanage. The Baptists have a theological college; and the -Roman Catholics support a training college for teachers, two industrial -schools and two orphanages. Elementary education is in private hands, -but fostered, since 1867, by government grants; it is free but not -compulsory, although the governor has the right to compel the attendance -of all children from 6 to 14 years of age in such towns and districts as -he may designate. The teachers in these schools are for the most part -trained in the government-aided training colleges of the various -denominations. For higher education there are the University College and -high school at Hope near Kingston, Potsdam School in St Elizabeth, the -Mico School and Wolmer's Free School in Kingston, founded (for boys and -girls) in 1729, the Montego Bay secondary school, and numerous other -endowed and self-supporting establishments. The Cambridge Local -Examinations have been held regularly since 1882. - -_History._--Jamaica was discovered by Columbus on the 3rd of May 1494. -Though he called it Santiago, it has always been known by its Indian -name Jaymaca, "the island of springs," modernized in form and -pronunciation into Jamaica. Excepting that in 1505 Columbus once put in -for shelter, the island remained unvisited until 1509, when Diego, the -discoverer's son, sent Don Juan d'Esquivel to take possession, and -thenceforward it passed under Spanish rule. Sant' Iago de la Vega, or -Spanish Town, which remained the capital of the island until 1872, was -founded in 1523. Sir Anthony Shirley, a British admiral, attacked the -island in 1596, and plundered and burned the capital, but did not follow -up his victory. Upon his retirement the Spaniards restored their capital -and were unmolested until 1635, when the island was again raided by the -British under Colonel Jackson. The period of the Spanish occupation is -mainly memorable for the annihilation of the gentle and peaceful Arawak -Indian inhabitants; Don Pedro d'Esquivel was one of their cruellest -oppressors. The whole island was divided among eight noble Spanish -families, who discouraged immigration to such an extent that when -Jamaica was taken by the British the white and slave population together -did not exceed 3000. Under the vigorous foreign policy of Cromwell an -attempt was made to crush the Spanish power in the West Indies, and an -expedition under Admirals Penn and Venables succeeded in capturing and -holding Jamaica in 1655. The Spanish were entirely expelled in 1658. -Their slaves then took to the mountains, and down to the end of the 18th -century the disaffection of these Maroons, as they were called, caused -constant trouble. Jamaica continued to be governed by military authority -until 1661, when Colonel D'Oyley was appointed captain-general and -governor-in-chief with an executive council, and a constitution was -introduced resembling that of England. He was succeeded in the next year -by Lord Windsor, under whom a legislative council was established. -Jamaica soon became the chief resort of the buccaneers, who not -infrequently united the characters of merchant or planter with that of -pirate or privateer. By the Treaty of Madrid, 1670, the British title to -the island was recognized, and the buccaneers were suppressed. The Royal -African Company was formed in 1672 with a monopoly of the slave trade, -and from this time Jamaica was one of the greatest slave marts in the -world. The sugar-industry was introduced about this period, the first -pot of sugar being sent to London in 1673. An attempt was made in 1678 -to saddle the island with a yearly tribute to the Crown and to restrict -the free legislature. The privileges of the legislative assembly, -however, were restored in 1682; but not till 46 years later was the -question of revenue settled by a compromise by which Jamaica undertook -to settle L8000 (an amount afterwards commuted to L6000) per annum on -the Crown, provided that English statute laws were made binding in -Jamaica. - -During these years of political struggle the colony was thrice afflicted -by nature. A great earthquake occurred in 1692, when the chief part of -the town of Port Royal, built on a shelving bank of sand, slipped into -the sea. Two dreadful hurricanes devastated the island in 1712 and 1722, -the second of which did so much damage that the seat of commerce had to -be transferred from Port Royal to Kingston. - -The only prominent event in the history of the island during the later -years of the 18th century, was the threatened invasion by the French and -Spanish in 1782, but Jamaica was saved by the victory of Rodney and Hood -off Dominica. The last attempt at invasion was made in 1806, when the -French were defeated by Admiral Duckworth. When the slave trade was -abolished the island was at the zenith of its prosperity; sugar, coffee, -cocoa, pimento, ginger and indigo were being produced in large -quantities, and it was the depot of a very lucrative trade with the -Spanish main. The anti-slavery agitation in Great Britain found its echo -in the island, and in 1832 the negroes revolted, believing that -emancipation had been granted. They killed a number of whites and -destroyed a large amount of valuable property. Two years later the -Emancipation Act was passed, and, subject to a short term of -apprenticeship, the slaves were free. Emancipation left the planters in -a pitiable condition financially. The British government awarded them -compensation at the rate of L19 per slave, the market value of slaves at -the time being L35, but most of this compensation went into the hands of -the planters' creditors. They were left with over-worked estates, a poor -market and a scarcity of labour. Nor was this the end of their -misfortunes. During the slavery times the British government had -protected the planter by imposing a heavy differential duty on foreign -sugar; but on the introduction of free trade the price of sugar fell by -one-half and reduced the profits of the already impoverished planter. -Many estates, already heavily mortgaged, were abandoned, and the trade -of the island was at a standstill. Differences between the executive, -the legislature, and the home government, as to the means of retrenching -the public expenditure, created much bitterness. Although some slight -improvement marked the administration of Sir Charles Metcalfe and the -earl of Elgin, when coolie immigration was introduced to supply the -scarcity and irregularity of labour and the railway was opened, the -improvement was not permanent. In 1865 Edward John Eyre became governor. -Financial affairs were at their lowest ebb and the colonial treasury -showed a deficit of L80,000. To meet this difficulty new taxes were -imposed and discontent was rife among the negroes. Dr Underhill, the -secretary of a Baptist organization known as the British Union, wrote to -the colonial secretary in London, pointing out the state of affairs. -This letter became public in Jamaica, and in the opinion of the governor -added in no small measure to the popular excitement. On the 11th of -October 1865 the negroes rose at Morant Bay and murdered the custos and -most of the white inhabitants. The slight encounter which followed -filled the island with terror, and there is no doubt that many excesses -were committed on both sides. The assembly passed an act by which -martial law was proclaimed, and the legislature passed an act abrogating -the constitution. - -The action of Governor Eyre, though generally approved throughout the -West Indies, caused much controversy in England, and he was recalled. A -prosecution was instituted against him, resulting in an elaborate -exposition of martial law by Chief Justice Cockburn, but the jury threw -out the bill and Eyre was discharged. He was succeeded in the government -of Jamaica by Sir Henry Storks, and under the crown colony system of -government the state of the island made slow but steady progress. In -1868 the first fruit shipment took place from Port Antonio, the -immigration of coolies was revived, and cinchona planting was -introduced. The method of government was changed in 1884, when a new -constitution, slightly modified in 1895, was granted to the island. - -In the afternoon of the 14th of January 1907 a terrible earthquake -visited Kingston. Almost every building in the capital and in Port -Royal, and many in St Andrews, were destroyed or seriously injured. The -loss of life was variously estimated, but probably exceeded one -thousand. Among those killed was Sir James Fergusson, 6th baronet (b. -1832). The principal shock was followed by many more of slighter -intensity during the ensuing fortnight and later. On the 17th of January -assistance was brought by three American war-ships under Rear-Admiral -Davis, who however withdrew them on the 19th, owing to a -misunderstanding with the governor of the island, Sir Alexander -Swettenham, on the subject of the landing of marines from the vessels -with a view to preserving order. The incident caused considerable -sensation, and led to Sir A. Swettenham's resignation in the following -March, Sir Sydney Olivier, K.C.M.G., being appointed governor. Order was -speedily restored; but the destructive effect of the earthquake was a -severe check to the prosperity of the island. - - See Bryan Edwards, _History of the West Indies_ (London, 1809, and - appendix, 1819); P. H. Gosse, _Journal of a Naturalist in Jamaica_ - (London, 1851) and _Birds of Jamaica_ (1847); _Jamaica Handbook_ - (London, annual); Bacon and Aaron, _New Jamaica_ (1890); W. P. - Livingstone, _Black Jamaica_ (London, 1900), F. Cundall, _Bibliotheca - Jamaicensis_. (Kingston, 1895), and _Studies in Jamaica History_ - (1900); W. J. Gardner, _History of Jamaica_ (New York, 1909). For - geology, see R. T. Hill, "The Geology and Physical Geography of - Jamaica," _Bull. Mus. Com. Zool. Harvard_, xxxiv. (1899). - - - - -JAMAICA, formerly a village of Queens county, Long Island, New York, -U.S.A., but after the 1st of January 1898 a part of the borough of -Queens, New York City. Pop. (1890) 5361. It is served by the Long Island -railroad, the lines of which from Brooklyn and Manhattan meet here and -then separate to serve the different regions of the island.[1] King's -Park (about 10 acres) comprises the estate of John Alsop King -(1788-1867), governor of New York in 1857-1859, from whose heirs in 1897 -the land was purchased by the village trustees. In South Jamaica there -is a race track, at which meetings are held in the spring and autumn. -The headquarters of the Queens Borough Department of Public Works and -Police are in the Jamaica town-hall, and Jamaica is the seat of a city -training school for teachers (until 1905 one of the New York State -normal schools). For two guns, a coat, and a quantity of powder and -lead, several New Englanders obtained from the Indians a deed for a -tract of land here in September 1655. In March 1657 they received -permission from Governor Stuyvesant to found a town, which was chartered -in 1660 and was named Rustdorp by Stuyvesant, but the English called it -Jamaica; it was rechartered in 1666, 1686 and 1788. The village was -incorporated in 1814 and reincorporated in 1855. In 1665 it was made the -seat of justice of the north riding; in 1683-1788 it was the shire town -of Queens county. With Hempstead, Gravesend, Newtown and Flushing, also -towns of New England origin and type, Jamaica was early disaffected -towards the provincial government of New York. In 1669 these towns -complained that they had no representation in a popular assembly, and in -1670 they protested against taxation without representation. The -founders of Jamaica were mostly Presbyterians, and they organized one of -the first Presbyterian churches in America. At the beginning of the War -of Independence Jamaica was under the control of Loyalists; after the -defeat of the Americans in the battle of Long Island (27th August 1776) -it was occupied by the British; and until the end of the war it was the -headquarters of General Oliver Delancey, who had command of all Long -Island. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] In June 1908 the subway lines of the interborough system of New - York City were extended to the Flatbush (Brooklyn) station of the Long - Island railroad, thus bringing Jamaica into direct connexion with - Manhattan borough by way of the East river tunnel, completed in the - same year. - - - - -JAMB (from Fr. _jambe_, leg), in architecture, the side-post or lining -of a doorway or other aperture. The jambs of a window outside the frame -are called "reveals." Small shafts to doors and windows with caps and -bases are known as "jamb-shafts"; when in the inside arris of the jamb -of a window they are sometimes called "scoinsons." - - - - -JAMES (a variant of the name Jacob, Heb. [Hebrew: Yaacov], one who holds -by the heel, outwitter, through O. Fr. _James_, another form of -_Jacques_, _Jaques_, from Low Lat. _Jacobus_; cf. Ital. _Jacopo_ -[Jacob], _Giacomo_ [James], Prov. _Jacme_, Cat. _Jaume_, Cast. -_Jaime_), a masculine proper name popular in Christian countries as -having been that of two of Christ's apostles. It has been borne by many -sovereigns and other princes, the most important of whom are noticed -below, after the heading devoted to the characters in the New Testament, -in the following order: (1) kings of England and Scotland, (2) other -kings in the alphabetical order of their countries, (3) the "Old -Pretender." The article on the Epistle of James in the New Testament -follows after the remaining biographical articles in which James is a -surname. - - - - -JAMES (Gr. [Greek: Iakobos], the Heb. _Ya'akob_ or Jacob), the name of -several persons mentioned in the New Testament. - -1. JAMES, the son of Zebedee. He was among the first who were called to -be Christ's immediate followers (Mark i. 19 seq.; Matt. iv. 21 seq., and -perhaps Luke v. 10), and afterwards obtained an honoured place in the -apostolic band, his name twice occupying the second place after Peter's -in the lists (Mark iii. 17; Acts i. 13), while on at least three notable -occasions he was, along with Peter and his brother John, specially -chosen by Jesus to be with him (Mark v. 37; Matt. xvii. i, xxvi. 37). -This same prominence may have contributed partly to the title -"Boanerges" or "sons of thunder" which, according to Mark iii. 17, Jesus -himself gave to the two brothers. But its most natural interpretation is -to be found in the impetuous disposition which would have called down -fire from heaven on the offending Samaritan villagers (Luke ix. 54), and -afterwards found expression, though in a different way, in the ambitious -request to occupy the places of honour in Christ's kingdom (Mark x. 35 -seq.). James is included among those who after the ascension waited at -Jerusalem (Acts i. 13) for the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of -Pentecost. And though on this occasion only his name is mentioned, he -must have been a zealous and prominent member of the Christian -community, to judge from the fact that when a victim had to be chosen -from among the apostles, who should be sacrificed to the animosity of -the Jews, it was on James that the blow fell first. The brief notice is -given in Acts xii. 1, 2. Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ ii. 9) has preserved -for us from Clement of Alexandria the additional information that the -accuser of the apostle "beholding his confession and moved thereby, -confessed that he too was a Christian. So they were both led away to -execution together; and on the road the accuser asked James for -forgiveness. Gazing on him for a little while, he said, 'Peace be with -thee,' and kissed him. And then both were beheaded together." - - The later, and wholly untrustworthy, legends which tell of the - apostle's preaching in Spain, and of the translation of his body to - Santiago de Compostela, are to be found in the _Acta Sanctorum_ (July - 25), vi. 1-124; see also Mrs Jameson's _Sacred and Legendary Art_, i. - 230-241. - -2. JAMES, the son of Alphaeus. He also was one of the apostles, and is -mentioned in all the four lists (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 15; -Acts i. 13) by this name. We know nothing further regarding him, unless -we believe him to be the same as James "the little." - -3. JAMES, the little. He is described as the son of a Mary (Matt, xxvii. -56; Mark xv. 40), who was in all probability the wife of Clopas (John -xix. 25). And on the ground that Clopas is another form of the name -Alphaeus, this James has been thought by some to be the same as 2. But -the evidence of the Syriac versions, which render Alphaeus by -_Chalphai_, while Clopas is simply transliterated _Kleopha_, makes it -extremely improbable that the two names are to be identified. And as we -have no better ground for finding in Clopas the Cleopas of Luke xxiv. -18, we must be content to admit that James the little is again an almost -wholly unknown personality, and has no connexion with any of the other -Jameses mentioned in the New Testament. - -4. JAMES, the father of Judas. There can be no doubt that in the mention -of "Judas of James" in Luke vi. 16 the ellipsis should be supplied by -"the son" and not as in the A.V. by "the brother" (cf. Luke iii. 1, vi. -14; Acts xii. 2, where the word [Greek: adelphos] is inserted). This -Judas, known as Thaddaeus by Matthew and Mark, afterwards became one of -the apostles, and is expressly distinguished by St John from the traitor -as "not Iscariot" (John xiv. 22). - -5. JAMES, the Lord's brother. In Matt. xiii. 55 and Mark vi. 3 we read -of a certain James as, along with Joses and Judas and Simon, a "brother" -of the Lord. The exact nature of the relationship there implied has been -the subject of much discussion. Jerome's view (_de vir. ill._ 2), that -the "brothers" were in reality cousins, "sons of Mary the sister of the -Lord's mother," rests on too many unproved assumptions to be entitled to -much weight, and may be said to have been finally disposed of by Bishop -Lightfoot in his essay on "The Brothers of the Lord" (_Galatians_, pp. -252 sqq., _Dissertations on the Apostolic Age_, pp. 1 sqq.). Even -however if we understand the word "brethren" in its natural sense, it -may be applied either to the sons of Joseph by a former wife, in which -case they would be the step-brothers of Jesus, or to sons born to Joseph -and Mary after the birth of Jesus. The former of these views, generally -known as the _Epiphanian_ view from its most zealous advocate in the 4th -century, can claim for its support the preponderating voice of tradition -(see the catena of references given by Lightfoot, _loc. cit._, who -himself inclines to this view). On the other hand the _Helvidian_ theory -as propounded by Helvidius, and apparently accepted by Tertullian (cf. -_adv. Marc._ iv. 29), which makes James a brother of the Lord, as truly -as Mary was his mother, undoubtedly seems more in keeping with the -direct statements of the Gospels, and also with the after history of the -brothers in the Church (see W. Patrick, _James the Brother of the Lord_, -1906, p. 5). In any case, whatever the exact nature of James's -antecedents, there can be no question as to the important place which he -occupied in the early Church. Converted to a full belief in the living -Lord, perhaps through the special revelation that was granted to him (1 -Cor. xv. 7), he became the recognized head of the Church at Jerusalem -(Acts xii. 17, xv. 13, xxi. 18), and is called by St Paul (Gal. ii. 9), -along with Peter and John, a "pillar" of the Christian community. He was -traditionally the author of the epistle in the New Testament which bears -his name (see JAMES, EPISTLE OF). From the New Testament we learn no -more of the history of James the Lord's brother, but Eusebius (_Hist. -Eccl._ ii. 23) has preserved for us from Hegesippus the earliest -ecclesiastical traditions concerning him. By that authority he is -described as having been a Nazarite, and on account of his eminent -righteousness called "Just" and "Oblias." So great was his influence -with the people that he was appealed to by the scribes and Pharisees for -a true and (as they hoped) unfavourable judgment about the Messiahship -of Christ. Placed, to give the greater publicity to his words, on a -pinnacle of the temple, he, when solemnly appealed to, made confession -of his faith, and was at once thrown down and murdered. This happened -immediately before the siege. Josephus (_Antiq._ xx. 9, 1) tells that it -was by order of Ananus the high priest, in the interval between the -death of Festus and the arrival of his successor Albinus, that James was -put to death; and his narrative gives the idea of some sort of judicial -examination, for he says that along with some others James was brought -before an assembly of judges, by whom they were condemned and delivered -to be stoned. Josephus is also cited by Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ ii. 23) -to the effect that the miseries of the siege were due to divine -vengeance for the murder of James. Later writers describe James as an -[Greek: episkopos] (Clem. Al. _apud_ Eus. _Hist. Ecc._ ii. 1) and even -as an [Greek: episkopos episkopon] (Clem. _Hom., ad init._). According -to Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ vii. 19) his episcopal chair was still shown -at Jerusalem at the time when Eusebius wrote. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to the relevant literature cited above, see - the articles under the heading "James" in Hastings's _Dictionary of - the Bible_ (Mayor) and _Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels_ - (Fulford), and in the _Encycl. Biblica_ (O. Cone); also the - introductions to the Commentaries on the Epistle of James by Mayor and - Knowling. Zahn has an elaborate essay on _Bruder und Vettern Jesu_ - ("The Brothers and Cousins of Jesus") in the _Forschungen zur - Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons_, vi. 2 (Leipzig, 1900). - (G. Mi.) - - - - - -JAMES I. (1566-1625), king of Great Britain and Ireland, formerly king -of Scotland as James VI., was the only child of Mary Queen of Scots, and -her second husband, Henry Stewart Lord Darnley. He was born in the -castle of Edinburgh on the 19th of June 1566, and was proclaimed king of -Scotland on the 24th of July 1567, upon the forced abdication of his -mother. Until 1578 he was treated as being incapable of taking any real -part in public affairs, and was kept in the castle of Stirling for -safety's sake amid the confused fighting of the early years of his -minority. - -The young king was a very weakly boy. It is said that he could not stand -without support until he was seven, and although he lived until he was -nearly sixty, he was never a strong man. In after life he was a constant -and even a reckless rider, but the weakness in his legs was never quite -cured. During a great part of his life he found it necessary to be tied -to the saddle. When on one occasion in 1621 his horse threw him into the -New River near his palace of Theobalds in the neighbourhood of London, -he had a very narrow escape of being drowned; yet he continued to ride -as before. At all times he preferred to lean on the shoulder of an -attendant when walking. This feebleness of body, which had no doubt a -large share in causing certain corresponding deficiencies of character, -was attributed to the agitations and the violent efforts forced on his -mother by the murder of her secretary Rizzio when she was in the sixth -month of her pregnancy. The fact that James was a bold rider, in spite -of this serious disqualification for athletic exercise, should be borne -in mind when he is accused of having been a coward. - -The circumstances surrounding him in boyhood were not favourable to the -development of his character. His immediate guardian or foster-father, -the earl of Mar, was indeed an honourable man, and the countess, who had -charge of the nursing of the king, discharged her duty so as to win his -lasting confidence. James afterwards entrusted her with the care of his -eldest son, Henry. When the earl died in 1572 his place was well filled -by his brother, Sir Alexander Erskine. The king's education was placed -under the care of George Buchanan, assisted by Peter Young, and two -other tutors. Buchanan, who did not spare the rod, and the other -teachers, who had more reverence for the royal person, gave the boy a -sound training in languages. The English envoy, Sir Henry Killigrew, who -saw him in 1574, testified to his proficiency in translating from and -into Latin and French. As it was very desirable that he should be -trained a Protestant king, he was well instructed in theology. The -exceptionally scholastic quality of his education helped to give him a -taste for learning, but also tended to make him a pedant. - -James was only twelve when the earl of Morton was driven from the -regency, and for some time after he can have been no more than a puppet -in the hands of intriguers and party leaders. When, for instance, in -1582 he was seized by the faction of nobles who carried out the -so-called raid of Ruthven, which was in fact a kidnapping enterprise -carried out in the interest of the Protestant party, he cried like a -child. One of the conspirators, the master of Glamis, Sir Thomas Lyon, -told him that it was better "bairns should greet [children should cry] -than bearded men." It was not indeed till 1583, when he broke away from -his captors, that James began to govern in reality. - -For the history of his reign reference may be made to the articles on -the histories of England and Scotland. James's work as a ruler can be -divided, without violating any sound rule of criticism, into black and -white--into the part which was a failure and a preparation for future -disaster, and the part which was solid achievement, honourable to -himself and profitable to his people. His native kingdom of Scotland had -the benefit of the second. Between 1583 and 1603 he reduced the -anarchical baronage of Scotland to obedience, and replaced the -subdivision of sovereignty and consequent confusion, which had been the -very essence of feudalism, by a strong centralized royal authority. In -fact he did in Scotland the work which had been done by the Tudors in -England, by Louis XI. in France, and by Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain. -It was the work of all the strong rulers of the Renaissance. But James -not only brought his disobedient and intriguing barons to order--that -was a comparatively easy achievement and might well have been performed -by more than one of his predecessors, had their lives been prolonged--he -also quelled the attempts of the Protestants to found what Hallam has -well defined as a "Presbyterian Hildebrandism." He enforced the -superiority of the state over the church. Both before his accession to -the throne of England (1603) and afterwards he took an intelligent -interest in the prosperity of his Scottish kingdom, and did much for the -pacification of the Hebrides, for the enforcement of order on the -Borders, and for the development of industry. That he did so much -although the crown was poor (largely it must be confessed because he -made profuse gifts of the secularized church lands), and although the -armed force at his disposal was so small that to the very end he was -exposed to the attacks of would-be kidnappers (as in the case of the -Gowrie conspiracy of 1600), is proof positive that he was neither the -mere poltroon nor the mere learned fool he has often been called. - -James's methods of achieving ends in themselves honourable and -profitable were indeed of a kind which has made posterity unjust to his -real merits. The circumstances in which he passed his youth developed in -him a natural tendency to craft. He boasted indeed of his "king-craft" -and probably believed that he owed it to his studies. But it was in -reality the resource of the weak, the art of playing off one possible -enemy against another by trickery, and so deceiving all. The marquis de -Fontenay, the French ambassador, who saw him in the early part of his -reign, speaks of him as cowed by the violence about him. It is certain -that James was most unscrupulous in making promises which he never meant -to keep, and the terror in which he passed his youth sufficiently -explains his preference for guile. He would make promises to everybody, -as when he wrote to the pope in 1584 more than hinting that he would be -a good Roman Catholic if helped in his need. His very natural desire to -escape from the poverty and insecurity of Scotland to the opulent -English throne not only kept him busy in intrigues to placate the Roman -Catholics or anybody else who could help or hinder him, but led him to -behave basely in regard to the execution of his mother in 1587. He -blustered to give himself an air of courage, but took good care to do -nothing to offend Elizabeth. When the time came for fulfilling his -promises and half-promises, he was not able, even if he had been -willing, to keep his word to everybody. The methods which had helped him -to success in Scotland did him harm in England, where his reign prepared -the way for the great civil war. In his southern kingdom his failure was -in fact complete. Although England accepted him as the alternative to -civil war, and although he was received and surrounded with fulsome -flattery, he did not win the respect of his English subjects. His -undignified personal appearance was against him, and so were his -garrulity, his Scottish accent, his slovenliness and his toleration of -disorders in his court, but, above all, his favour for handsome male -favourites, whom he loaded with gifts and caressed with demonstrations -of affection which laid him open to vile suspicions. In ecclesiastical -matters he offended many, who contrasted his severity and rudeness to -the Puritan divines at the Hampton Court conference (1604) with his -politeness to the Roman Catholics, whom he, however, worried by fits and -starts. In a country where the authority of the state had been firmly -established and the problem was how to keep it from degenerating into -the mere instrument of a king's passions, his insistence on the doctrine -of divine right aroused distrust and hostility. In itself, and in its -origin, the doctrine was nothing more than a necessary assertion of the -independence of the state in face of the "Hildebrandism" of Rome and -Geneva alike. But when Englishmen were told that the king alone had -indefeasible rights, and that all the privileges of subjects were -revocable gifts, they were roused to hostility. His weaknesses cast -suspicion on his best-meant schemes. His favour for his countrymen -helped to defeat his wise wish to bring about a full union between -England and Scotland. His profusion, which had been bad in the poverty -of Scotland and was boundless amid the wealth of England, kept him -necessitous, and drove him to shifts. Posterity can give him credit for -his desire to forward religious peace in Europe, but his Protestant -subjects were simply frightened when he sought a matrimonial alliance -with Spain. Sagacious men among his contemporaries could not see the -consistency of a king who married his daughter Elizabeth to the elector -palatine, a leader of the German Protestants, and also sought to marry -his son to an infanta of Spain. The king's subservience to Spain was -indeed almost besotted. He could not see her real weakness, and he -allowed himself to be befooled by the ministers of Philip III. and -Philip IV. The end of his scheming was that he was dragged into a -needless war with Spain by his son Charles and his favourite George -Villiers, duke of Buckingham, just before his death on the 5th of March -1625 at his favourite residence, Theobalds. - -James married in 1589 Anne, second daughter of Frederick II., king of -Denmark. His voyage to meet his bride, whose ship had been driven into a -Norwegian port by bad weather, is the only episode of a romantic -character in the life of this very prosaic member of a poetic family. By -this wife James had three children who survived infancy: Henry -Frederick, prince of Wales, who died in 1612; Charles, the future king; -and Elizabeth, wife of the elector palatine, Frederick V. - -Not the least of James's many ambitions was the desire to excel as an -author. He left a body of writings which, though of mediocre quality as -literature, entitle him to a unique place among English kings since -Alfred for width of intellectual interest and literary faculty. His -efforts were inspired by his preceptor George Buchanan, whose memory he -cherished in later years. His first work was in verse, _Essayes of a -Prentise in the Divine Art of Poesie_ (Edin. Vautrollier, 1584), -containing fifteen sonnets, "Ane Metaphoricall invention of a tragedie -called Phoenix," a short poem "Of Time," translations from Du Bartas, -Lucan and the Book of Psalms ("out of Tremellius"), and a prose tract -entitled "Ane short treatise, containing some Reulis and Cautelis to be -observit and eschewit in Scottis Poesie." The volume is introduced by -commendatory sonnets, including one by Alexander Montgomerie. The chief -interest of the book lies in the "Treatise" and the prefatory sonnets -"To the Reader" and "Sonnet decifring the perfyte poete." There is -little originality in this youthful production. It has been surmised -that it was compiled from the exercises written when the author was -Buchanan's pupil at Stirling, and that it was directly suggested by his -preceptor's _De Prosodia_ and his annotations on Vives. On the other -hand, it shows intimate acquaintance with the critical reflections of -Ronsard and Du Bellay, and of Gascoigne in his _Notes of Instruction_ -(1575). In 1591 James published _Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres_, -including a translation of the _Furies_ of Du Bartas, his own _Lepanto_, -and Du Bartas's version of it, _La Lepanthe_. His _Daemonologie_, a -prose treatise denouncing witchcraft and exhorting the civil power to -the strongest measures of suppression, appeared in 1599. In the same -year he printed the first edition (seven copies) of his _Basilikon -Doron_, strongly Protestant in tone. A French edition, specially -translated for presentation to the pope, has a disingenuous preface -explaining that certain phrases (e.g. "papistical doctrine") are -omitted, because of the difficulty of rendering them in a foreign -tongue. The original edition was, however, translated by order of the -suspicious pope, and was immediately placed on the Index. Shortly after -going to England James produced his famous _Counterblaste to Tobacco_ -(London, 1604), in which he forsakes his Scots tongue for Southern -English. The volume was published anonymously. James's prose works -(including his speeches) were collected and edited (folio, 1616) by -James Montagu, bishop of Winchester, and were translated into Latin by -the same hand in a companion folio, in 1619 (also Frankfort, 1689). A -tract, entitled "The True Law of Free Monarchies," appeared in 1603; "An -Apology for the Oath of Allegiance" in 1607; and a "_Declaration du Roy -Jacques I. ... pour le droit des Rois_" in 1615. In 1588 and 1589 James -issued two small volumes of _Meditations_ on some verses of (a) -Revelations and (b) 1 Chronicles. Other two "meditations" were printed -posthumously. - - See T. F. Henderson, _James I. and VI._ (London, 1904); P. Hume Brown, - _History of Scotland_, vol. ii. (Edinburgh and Cambridge, 1902); and - Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1902) and - _James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery_ (London, 1902); _The Register of - the Privy Council of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1877, &c.), vols. ii. to - xiii.; S. R. Gardiner, _History of England 1603-1642_ (London, - 1883-1884). A comprehensive bibliography will be found in the - _Cambridge Modern Hist._ iii. 847 (Cambridge, 1904). - - For James's literary work, see Edward Arber's reprint of the _Essayes - and Counterblaste_ ("English Reprints," 1869, &c.); R. S. Rait's - _Lusus Regius_ (1900); G. Gregory Smith's _Elizabethan Critical - Essays_ (1904), vol. i., where the _Treatise_ is edited for the first - time; A. O. Meyer's "Clemens VIII. und Jacob I. von England" in - _Quellen und Forschungen_ (Preuss. Hist. Inst.), VII. ii., for an - account of the issues of the _Basilikon Doron_; P. Hume Brown's - _George Buchanan_ (1890), pp. 250-261, for a sketch of James's - association with Buchanan. - - - - -JAMES II. (1633-1701), king of Great Britain and Ireland, second -surviving son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was born at St James's -on the 15th of October 1633, and created duke of York in January 1643. -During the Civil War James was taken prisoner by Fairfax (1646), but -contrived to escape to Holland in 1648. Subsequently he served in the -French army under Turenne, and in the Spanish under Conde, and was -applauded by both commanders for his brilliant personal courage. -Returning to England with Charles II. in 1660 he was appointed lord high -admiral and warden of the Cinque Ports. Pepys, who was secretary to the -navy, has recorded the patient industry and unflinching probity of his -naval administration. His victory over the Dutch in 1665, and his drawn -battle with De Ruyter in 1672, show that he was a good naval commander -as well as an excellent administrator. These achievements won him a -reputation for high courage, which, until the close of 1688, was amply -deserved. His private record was not as good as his public. In December -1660 he admitted to having contracted, under discreditable -circumstances, a secret marriage with Anne Hyde (1637-1671), daughter of -Lord Clarendon, in the previous September. Both before and after the -marriage he seems to have been a libertine as unblushing though not so -fastidious as Charles himself. In 1672 he made a public avowal of his -conversion to Roman Catholicism. Charles II. had opposed this project, -but in 1673 allowed him to marry the Catholic Mary of Modena as his -second wife. Both houses of parliament, who viewed this union with -abhorrence, now passed the Test Act, forbidding Catholics to hold -office. In consequence of this James was forced to resign his posts. It -was in vain that he married his daughter Mary to the Protestant prince -of Orange in 1677. Anti-Catholic feeling ran so high that, after the -discovery of the Popish Plot, he found it wiser to retire to Brussels -(1679), while Shaftesbury and the Whigs planned to exclude him from the -succession. He was lord high commissioner of Scotland (1680-1682), where -he occupied himself in a severe persecution of the Covenanters. In 1684 -Charles, having triumphed over the Exclusionists, restored James to the -office of high admiral by use of his dispensing power. - -James ascended the throne on the 16th of February 1685. The nation -showed its loyalty by its firm adherence to him during the rebellions of -Argyll in Scotland and Monmouth in England (1685). The savage reprisals -on their suppression, in especial the "Bloody Assizes" of Jeffreys, -produced a revulsion of public feeling. James had promised to defend the -existing Church and government, but the people now became suspicious. -James was not a mere tyrant and bigot, as the popular imagination -speedily assumed him to be. He was rather a mediocre but not altogether -obtuse man, who mistook tributary streams for the main currents of -national thought. Thus he greatly underrated the strength of the -Establishment, and preposterously exaggerated that of Dissent and -Catholicism. He perceived that opinion was seriously divided in the -Established Church, and thought that a vigorous policy would soon prove -effective. Hence he publicly celebrated Mass, prohibited preaching -against Catholicism, and showed exceptional favour to renegades from the -Establishment. By undue pressure he secured a decision of the judges, in -the test case of _Godden_ v. _Hale_ (1687), by which he was allowed to -dispense Catholics from the Test Act. Catholics were now admitted to the -chief offices in the army, and to some important posts in the state, in -virtue of the dispensing power of James. The judges had been intimidated -or corrupted, and the royal promise to protect the Establishment -violated. The army had been increased to 20,000 men and encamped at -Hounslow Heath to overawe the capital. Public alarm was speedily -manifested and suspicion to a high degree awakened. In 1687 James made a -bid for the support of the Dissenters by advocating a system of joint -toleration for Catholics and Dissenters. In April 1687 he published a -Declaration of Indulgence--exempting Catholics and Dissenters from penal -statutes. He followed up this measure by dissolving parliament and -attacking the universities. By an unscrupulous use of the dispensing -power he introduced Dissenters and Catholics into all departments of -state and into the municipal corporations, which were remodelled in -their interests. Then in April 1688 he took the suicidal step of issuing -a proclamation to force the clergy and bishops to read the Declaration -in their pulpits, and thus personally advocate a measure they detested. -Seven bishops refused, were indicted by James for libel, but acquitted -amid the indescribable enthusiasm of the populace. Protestant nobles of -England, enraged at the tolerant policy of James, had been in -negotiation with William of Orange since 1687. The trial of the seven -bishops, and the birth of a son to James, now induced them to send -William a definite invitation (June 30, 1688). James remained in a -fool's paradise till the last, and only awakened to his danger when -William landed at Torbay (November 5, 1688) and swept all before him. -James pretended to treat, and in the midst of the negotiations fled to -France. He was intercepted at Faversham and brought back, but the -politic prince of Orange allowed him to escape a second time (December -23, 1688). - -At the end of 1688 James seemed to have lost his old courage. After his -defeat at the Boyne (July 1, 1690) he speedily departed from Ireland, -where he had so conducted himself that his English followers had been -ashamed of his incapacity, while French officers had derided him. His -proclamations and policy towards England during these years show -unmistakable traces of the same incompetence. On the 17th of May 1692 he -saw the French fleet destroyed before his very eyes off Cape La Hogue. -He was aware of, though not an open advocate of the "Assassination -Plot," which was directed against William. By its revelation and failure -(February 10, 1696) the third and last serious attempt of James for his -restoration failed. He refused in the same year to accept the French -influence in favour of his candidature to the Polish throne, on the -ground that it would exclude him from the English. Henceforward he -neglected politics, and Louis of France ceased to consider him as a -political factor. A mysterious conversion had been effected in him by an -austere Cistercian abbot. The world saw with astonishment this vicious, -rough, coarse-fibred man of the world transformed into an austere -penitent, who worked miracles of healing. Surrounded by this odour of -sanctity, which greatly edified the faithful, James lived at St Germain -until his death on the 17th of September 1701. - -The political ineptitude of James is clear; he often showed firmness -when conciliation was needful, and weakness when resolution alone could -have saved the day. Moreover, though he mismanaged almost every -political problem with which he personally dealt, he was singularly -tactless and impatient of advice. But in general political morality he -was not below his age, and in his advocacy of toleration decidedly above -it. He was more honest and sincere than Charles II., more genuinely -patriotic in his foreign policy, and more consistent in his religious -attitude. That his brother retained the throne while James lost it is an -ironical demonstration that a more pitiless fate awaits the ruler whose -faults are of the intellect, than one whose faults are of the heart. - -By Anne Hyde James had eight children, of whom two only, Mary and Anne, -both queens of England, survived their father. By Mary of Modena he had -seven children, among them being James Francis Edward (the Old -Pretender) and Louisa Maria Theresa, who died at St Germain in 1712. By -one mistress, Arabella Churchill (1648-1730), he had two sons, James, -duke of Berwick, and Henry (1673-1702), titular duke of Albemarle and -grand prior of France, and a daughter, Henrietta (1667-1730), who -married Sir Henry Waldegrave, afterwards Baron Waldegrave; and by -another, Catherine Sedley, countess of Dorchester (1657-1717), a -daughter, Catherine (d. 1743), who married James Annesley, 5th earl of -Anglesey, and afterwards John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham and -Normanby. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Original Authorities_: J. S. Clarke, _James II. Life_ - (London, 1816); James Macpherson, _Original Papers_ (2 vols., London, - 1775); Gilbert Burnet, _Supplement to History_, ed. H. C. Foxcroft - (Oxford, 1902); Earl of Clarendon and Earl of Rochester, - _Correspondence_, vol. ii. (London, 1828); John Evelyn, _Diary and - Correspondence and Life_, edited by Bray and Wheatley (London, 1906); - Sir John Reresby, _Memoirs_, ed. A. Ivatt (1904); _Somers Tracts_, - vols, ix.-xi. (London, 1823). _Modern Works_: Lord Acton, _Lectures on - Modern History_, pp. 195-276 (London, 1906); Moritz Brosch, - _Geschichte von England_, Bd. viii. (Gotha, 1903); Onno Klopp, _Der - Fall des Hauses Stuart_, Bde. i.-ix. (Vienna, 1875-1878); L. von - Ranke, _History of England_, vols, iv.-vi. (Oxford, 1875); and Allan - Fea, _James II. and his Wives_ (1908). - - - - -JAMES I. (1394-1437), king of Scotland and poet, the son of King Robert -III., was born at Dunfermline in July 1394. After the death of his -mother, Annabella Drummond of Stobhall, in 1402, he was placed under the -care of Henry Wardlaw (d. 1440), who became bishop of St Andrews in -1403, but soon his father resolved to send him to France. Robert -doubtless decided upon this course owing to the fact that in 1402 his -elder son, David, duke of Rothesay, had met his death in a mysterious -fashion, being probably murdered by his uncle, Robert, duke of Albany, -who, as the king was an invalid, was virtually the ruler of Scotland. On -the way to France, however, James fell into the hands of some English -sailors and was sent to Henry IV., who refused to admit him to ransom. -The chronicler Thomas Walsingham, says that James's imprisonment began -in 1406, while the future king himself places it in 1404; February 1406 -is probably the correct date. On the death of Robert III. in April 1406 -James became nominally king of Scotland, but he remained a captive in -England, the government being conducted by his uncle, Robert of Albany, -who showed no anxiety to procure his nephew's release. Dying in 1420, -Albany was succeeded as regent by his son, Murdoch. At first James was -confined in the Tower of London, but in June 1407 he was removed to the -castle at Nottingham, whence about a month later he was taken to -Evesham. His education was continued by capable tutors, and he not only -attained excellence in all manly sports, but became perhaps more -cultured than any other prince of his age. In person he was short and -stout, but well-proportioned and very strong. His agility was not less -remarkable than his strength; he excelled in all athletic feats which -demanded suppleness of limb and quickness of eye. As regards his -intellectual attainments he is reported to have been acquainted with -philosophy, and it is evident from his subsequent career that he had -studied jurisprudence; moreover, besides being proficient in vocal and -instrumental music, he cultivated the art of poetry with much success. -When Henry V. became king in March 1413, James was again imprisoned in -the Tower of London, but soon afterwards he was taken to Windsor and was -treated with great consideration by the English king. In 1420, with the -intention of detaching the Scottish auxiliaries from the French -standard, he was sent to take part in Henry's campaign in France; this -move failed in its immediate object and he returned to England after -Henry's death in 1422. About this time negotiations for the release of -James were begun in earnest, and in September 1423 a treaty was signed -at York, the Scottish nation undertaking to pay a ransom of 60,000 marks -"for his maintenance in England." By the terms of the treaty James was -to wed a noble English lady, and on the 12th of February 1424 he was -married at Southwark to Jane, daughter of John Beaufort, earl of -Somerset, a lady to whom he was faithful through life. Ten thousand -marks of his ransom were remitted as Jane's dowry, and in April 1424 -James and his bride entered Scotland. - -With the reign of James I., whose coronation took place at Scone on the -21st of May 1424, constitutional sovereignty may be said to begin in -Scotland. By the introduction of a system of statute law, modelled to -some extent on that of England, and by the additional importance -assigned to parliament, the leaven was prepared which was to work -towards the destruction of the indefinite authority of the king, and of -the unbridled licence of the nobles. During the parliament held at Perth -in March 1425 James arrested Murdoch, duke of Albany, and his son, -Alexander; together with Albany's eldest son, Walter, and Duncan, earl -of Lennox, who had been seized previously; they were sentenced to death, -and the four were executed at Stirling. In a parliament held at -Inverness in 1427 the king arrested many turbulent northern chiefs, and -his whole policy was directed towards crushing the power of the nobles. -In this he was very successful. Expeditions reduced the Highlands to -order; earldom after earldom was forfeited; but this vigour aroused the -desire for revenge, and at length cost James his life. Having been -warned that he would never again cross the Forth, the king went to -reside in Perth just before Christmas 1436. Among those whom he had -angered was Sir Robert Graham (d. 1437), who had been banished by his -orders. Instigated by the king's uncle, Walter Stewart, earl of Atholl -(d. 1437), and aided by the royal chamberlain, Sir Robert Stewart, and -by a band of Highlanders, Graham burst into the presence of James on the -night of the 20th of February 1437 and stabbed the king to death. Graham -and Atholl were afterwards tortured and executed. James had two sons: -Alexander, who died young, and James II., who succeeded to the throne; -and six daughters, among them being Margaret, the queen of Louis XI. of -France. His widow, Jane, married Sir James Stewart, the "black knight of -Lorne," and died on the 15th of July 1445. - -During the latter part of James's reign difficulties arose between -Scotland and England and also between Scotland and the papacy. Part of -the king's ransom was still owing to England; other causes of discord -between the two nations existed, and in 1436 these culminated in a short -war. In ecclesiastical matters James showed himself merciless towards -heretics, but his desire to reform the Scottish Church and to make it -less dependent on Rome brought him into collision with Popes Martin V. -and Eugenius IV. - -James was the author of two poems, the _Kingis Quair_ and _Good Counsel_ -(a short piece of three stanzas). The _Song of Absence_, _Peblis to the -Play_ and _Christis Kirk on the Greene_ have been ascribed to him -without evidence. _The Kingis Quair_ (preserved in the Selden MS. B. 24 -in the Bodleian) is an allegorical poem of the _cours d'amour_ type, -written in seven-lined Chaucerian stanzas and extending to 1379 lines. -It was composed during James's captivity in England and celebrates his -courtship of Lady Jane Beaufort. Though in many respects a Chaucerian -_pastiche_, it not rarely equals its model in verbal and metrical -felicity. Its language is an artificial blend of northern and southern -(Chaucerian) forms, of the type shown in _Lancelot of the Laik_ and the -_Quair of Jelusy_. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The contemporary authorities for the reign of James I. - are Andrew of Wyntoun, _The Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland_, edited by - D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); and Walter Bower's continuation of - John of Fordun's _Scotichronicon_, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1722). - See also J. Pinkerton, _History of Scotland_ (1797); A. Lang, _History - of Scotland_, vol. i. (1900); and G. Burnett, _Introduction to the - Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1878-1901). _The Kingis - Quair_ was first printed in the _Poetical Remains of James the First_, - edited by William Tytler (1783). Later editions are Morison's reprint - (Perth, 1786); J. Sibbald's, in his _Chronicle of Scottish Poetry_ - (1802, vol. i.); Thomson's in 1815 and 1824; G. Chalmers's, in his - _Poetic Remains of some of the Scottish Kings_ (1824); Rogers's - _Poetical Remains of King James the First_ (1873); Skeat's edition - published by the Scottish Text Society (1884). An attempt has been - made to dispute James's authorship of the poem, but the arguments - elaborated by J. T. T. Brown (_The Authorship of the Kingis Quair_, - Glasgow, 1896) have been convincingly answered by Jusserand in his - _Jacques I^{er} d'Ecosse fut-il poete? Etude sur l'authenticite du - cahier du roi_ (Paris, 1897, reprinted from the _Revue historique_, - vol. lxiv.). See also the full correspondence in the _Athenaeum_ - (July-Aug. 1896 and Dec. 1899); W. A. Neilson, _Origins and Sources of - the Court of Love_ (Boston, 1899) pp. 152 &c., 235 &c.; and Gregory - Smith, _Transition Period_ (1900), pp. 40, 41. - - - - -JAMES II. (1430-1460), king of Scotland, the only surviving son of James -I. and his wife, Jane, daughter of John Beaufort, earl of Somerset, was -born on the 16th of October 1430. Crowned king at Holyrood in March -1437, shortly after the murder of his father, he was at first under the -guardianship of his mother, while Archibald, 5th earl of Douglas, was -regent of the kingdom, and considerable power was possessed by Sir -Alexander Livingstone and Sir William Crichton (d. 1454). When about -1439 Queen Jane was married to Sir James Stewart, the knight of Lorne, -Livingstone obtained the custody of the young king, whose minority was -marked by fierce hostility between the Douglases and the Crichtons, with -Livingstone first on one side and then on the other. About 1443 the -royal cause was espoused by William, 8th earl of Douglas, who attacked -Crichton in the king's name, and civil war lasted until about 1446. In -July 1449 James was married to Mary (d. 1463), daughter of Arnold, duke -of Gelderland, and undertook the government himself; and almost -immediately Livingstone was arrested, but Douglas retained the royal -favour for a few months more. In 1452, however, this powerful earl was -invited to Stirling by the king, and, charged with treachery, was -stabbed by James and then killed by the attendants. Civil war broke out -at once between James and the Douglases, whose lands were ravaged; but -after the Scots parliament had exonerated the king, James, the new earl -of Douglas, made his submission. Early in 1455 this struggle was -renewed. Marching against the rebels James gained several victories, -after which Douglas was attainted and his lands forfeited. Fortified by -this success and assured of the support of the parliament and of the -great nobles, James, acting as an absolute king, could view without -alarm the war which had broken out with England. After two expeditions -across the borders, a truce was made in July 1457, and the king employed -the period of peace in strengthening his authority in the Highlands. -During the Wars of the Roses he showed his sympathy with the Lancastrian -party after the defeat of Henry VI. at Northampton by attacking the -English possessions to the south of Scotland. It was while conducting -the siege of Roxburgh Castle that James was killed, through the bursting -of a cannon, on the 3rd of August 1460. He left three sons, his -successor, James III., Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, and John -Stewart, earl of Mar (d. 1479); and two daughters. James, who is -sometimes called "Fiery Face," was a vigorous and popular prince, and, -although not a scholar like his father, showed interest in education. -His reign is a period of some importance in the legislative history of -Scotland, as measures were passed with regard to the tenure of land, the -reformation of the coinage, and the protection of the poor, while the -organization for the administration of justice was greatly improved. - - - - -JAMES III. (1451-1488), king of Scotland, eldest son of James II., was -born on the 10th of July 1451. Becoming king in 1460 he was crowned at -Kelso. After the death of his mother in 1463, and of her principal -supporter, James Kennedy, bishop of St Andrews, two years later, the -person of the young king, and with it the chief authority in the -kingdom, were seized by Sir Alexander Boyd and his brother Lord Boyd, -while the latter's son, Thomas, was created earl of Arran and married to -the king's sister, Mary. In July 1469 James himself was married to -Margaret (d. 1486), daughter of Christian I., king of Denmark and -Norway, but before the wedding the Boyds had lost their power. Having -undertaken the government in person, the king received the submission of -the powerful earl of Ross, and strengthened his authority in other ways. -But his preference for a sedentary and not for an active life and his -increasing attachment to favourites of humble birth diminished his -popularity, and he had some differences with his parliament. About 1479, -probably with reason both suspicious and jealous, James arrested his -brothers, Alexander, duke of Albany, and John, earl of Mar; Mar met his -death in a mysterious fashion at Craigmillar, but Albany escaped to -France and then visited England, where in 1482 Edward IV. recognized him -as king of Scotland by the gift of the king of England. War broke out -with England, but James, made a prisoner by his nobles, was unable to -prevent Albany and his ally, Richard, duke of Gloucester (afterwards -Richard III.), from taking Berwick and marching to Edinburgh. Peace with -Albany followed, but soon afterwards the duke was again in -communication with Edward, and was condemned by the parliament after -the death of the English king in April 1483. Albany's death in France in -1485 did not end the king's troubles. His policy of living at peace with -England and of arranging marriages between the members of the royal -families of the two countries did not commend itself to the turbulent -section of his nobles; his artistic tastes and lavish expenditure added -to the discontent, and a rebellion broke out. Fleeing into the north of -his kingdom James collected an army and came to terms with his foes; but -the rebels, having seized the person of the king's eldest son, -afterwards James IV., renewed the struggle. The rival armies met at the -Sauchieburn near Bannockburn, and James soon fled. Reaching Beaton's -Mill he revealed his identity, and, according to the popular story, was -killed on the 11th of June 1488 by a soldier in the guise of a priest -who had been called in to shrive him. He left three sons--his successor, -James IV.; James Stewart, duke of Ross, afterwards archbishop of St -Andrews, and John Stewart, earl of Mar. James was a cultured prince with -a taste for music and architecture, but was a weak and incapable king. -His character is thus described by a chronicler: "He was ane man that -loved solitude, and desired nevir to hear of warre, bot delighted more -in musick and policie and building nor he did in the government of the -realme." - - - - -JAMES IV. (1473-1513), king of Scotland, eldest son of James III., was -born on the 17th of March 1473. He was nominally the leader of the -rebels who defeated the troops of James III. at the Sauchieburn in June -1488, and became king when his father was killed. As he adopted an -entirely different policy with the nobles from that of his father, and, -moreover, showed great affability towards the lower class of his -subjects, among whom he delighted to wander incognito, few if any of the -kings of Scotland have won such general popularity, or passed a reign so -untroubled by intestine strife. Crowned at Scone a few days after his -accession, James began at once to take an active part in the business of -government. A slight insurrection was easily suppressed, and a plot -formed by some nobles to hand him over to the English king, Henry VII., -came to nothing. In spite of this proceeding Henry wished to live at -peace with his northern neighbour, and soon contemplated marrying his -daughter to James, but the Scottish king was not equally pacific. When, -in 1495, Perkin Warbeck, pretending to be the duke of York, Edward IV.'s -younger son, came to Scotland, James bestowed upon him both an income -and a bride, and prepared to invade England in his interests. For -various reasons the war was confined to a few border forays. After -Warbeck left Scotland in 1497, the Spanish ambassador negotiated a -peace, and in 1502 a marriage was definitely arranged between James and -Henry's daughter Margaret (1489-1541). The wedding took place at -Holyrood in August 1503, and it was this union which led to the -accession of the Stewart dynasty to the English throne. - -About the same time James crushed a rebellion in the western isles, into -which he had previously led expeditions, and parliament took measures to -strengthen the royal authority therein. At this date too, or a little -earlier, the king of Scotland began to treat as an equal with the -powerful princes of Europe, Maximilian I., Louis XII. and others; -sending assistance to his uncle Hans, king of Denmark, and receiving -special marks of favour from Pope Julius II., anxious to obtain his -support. But his position was weakened when Henry VIII. followed Henry -VII. on the English throne in 1509. Causes of quarrel already existed, -and other causes, both public and private, soon arose between the two -kings; sea-fights took place between their ships, while war was brought -nearer by the treaty of alliance which James concluded with Louis XII. -in 1512. Henry made a vain effort to prevent, or to postpone, the -outbreak of hostilities; but urged on by his French ally and his queen, -James declared for war, in spite of the counsels of some of his -advisers, and (it is said) of the warning of an apparition. Gathering a -large and well-armed force, he took Norham and other castles in August -1513, spending some time at Ford Castle, where, according to report, he -was engaged in an amorous intrigue with the wife of its owner. Then he -moved out to fight the advancing English army under Thomas Howard, earl -of Surrey. The battle, which took place at Flodden, or more correctly, -at the foot of Brankston Hill, on Friday the 9th of September 1513, is -among the most famous and disastrous, if not among the most momentous, -in the history of Scotland. Having led his troops from their position of -vantage, the king himself was killed while fighting on foot, together -with nearly all his nobles; there was no foundation for the rumour that -he had escaped from the carnage. He left one legitimate child, his -successor James V., but as his gallantries were numerous he had many -illegitimate children, among them (by Marion Boyd) Alexander Stewart, -archbishop of St Andrews and chancellor of Scotland, who was killed at -Flodden, and (by Janet Kennedy) James Stewart, earl of Moray (d. 1544). -One of his other mistresses was Margaret Drummond (d. 1501). - -James appears to have been a brave and generous man, and a wise and -energetic king. According to one account, he was possessed of -considerable learning; during his reign the Scottish court attained some -degree of refinement, and Scotland counted in European politics as she -had never done before. Literature flourished under the royal patronage, -education was encouraged, and the material condition of the country -improved enormously. Prominent both as an administrator and as a -lawgiver, the king by his vigorous rule did much to destroy the -tendencies to independence which existed in the Highlands and Islands; -but, on the other hand, his rash conduct at Flodden brought much misery -upon his kingdom. He was specially interested in his navy. The -tournaments which took place under his auspices were worthy of the best -days of chivalry in France and England. James shared to the full in the -superstitions of the age which was quickly passing away. He is said to -have worn an iron belt as penance for his share in his father's death; -and by his frequent visits to shrines, and his benefactions to religious -foundations, he won a reputation for piety. - - - - -JAMES V. (1512-1542), king of Scotland, son of James IV., was born at -Linlithgow on the 10th of April 1512, and became king when his father -was killed at Flodden in 1513. The regency was at first vested in his -mother, but after Queen Margaret's second marriage, with Archibald -Douglas, 6th earl of Angus, in August 1514, it was transferred by the -estates to John Stewart, duke of Albany. Henceforward the minority of -James was disturbed by constant quarrels between a faction, generally -favourable to England, under Angus, and the partisans of France under -Albany; while the queen-mother and the nobles struggled to gain and to -regain possession of the king's person. The English had not followed up -their victory at Flodden, although there were as usual forays on the -borders, but Henry VIII. was watching affairs in Scotland with an -observant eye, and other European sovereigns were not indifferent to the -possibility of a Scotch alliance. In 1524, when Albany had retired to -France, the parliament declared that James was fit to govern, but that -he must be advised by his mother and a council. This "erection" of James -as king was mainly due to the efforts of Henry VIII. In 1526 Angus -obtained control of the king, and kept him in close confinement until -1528, when James, escaping from Edinburgh to Stirling, put vigorous -measures in execution against the earl, and compelled him to flee to -England. In 1529 and 1530 the king made a strong effort to suppress his -turbulent vassals in the south of Scotland; and after several raids and -counter-raids negotiations for peace with England were begun, and in May -1534 a treaty was signed. At this time, as on previous occasions, Henry -VIII. wished James to marry his daughter Mary, while other ladies had -been suggested by the emperor Charles V.; but the Scottish king, -preferring a French bride, visited France, and in January 1537 was -married at Paris to Madeleine, daughter of King Francis I. Madeleine -died soon after her arrival in Scotland, and in 1538 James made a much -more important marriage, being united to Mary (1515-1560), daughter of -Claude, duke of Guise, and widow of Louis of Orleans, duke of -Longueville. It was this connexion, probably, which finally induced -James to forsake his vacillating foreign policy, and to range himself -definitely among the enemies of England. In 1536 he had refused to meet -Henry VIII. at York, and in the following year had received the gift of -a cap and sword from Pope Paul III., thus renouncing the friendship of -his uncle. Two plots to murder the king were now discovered, and James -also foiled the attempts of Henry VIII. to kidnap him. Although in 1540 -the English king made another attempt to win the support, or at least -the neutrality, of James for his religious policy, the relations between -the two countries became very unfriendly, and in 1542 Henry sent an army -to invade Scotland. James was not slow to make reprisals, but his nobles -were angry or indifferent, and on the 25th of November 1542 his forces -were easily scattered at the rout of Solway Moss. This blow preyed upon -the king's mind, and on the 14th of December he died at Falkland, having -just heard of the birth of his daughter. His two sons had died in -infancy, and his successor was his only legitimate child, Mary. He left -several bastards, among them James Stewart, earl of Murray (the regent -Murray), Lord John Stewart (1531-1563) prior of Coldingham, and Lord -Robert Stewart, earl of Orkney (d. 1592). - -Although possessing a weak constitution, which was further impaired by -his irregular manner of life, James showed great vigour and independence -as a sovereign, both in withstanding the machinations of his uncle, -Henry VIII., and in opposing the influence of the nobles. The -persecutions to which heretics were exposed during this reign were due -mainly to the excessive influence exercised by the ecclesiastics, -especially by David Beaton, archbishop of St Andrews. The king's habit -of mingling with the peasantry secured for him a large amount of -popularity, and probably led many to ascribe to him the authorship of -poems describing scenes in peasant life, _Christis Kirk on the Grene_, -_The Gaberlunzie Man_ and _The Jolly Beggar_. There is no proof that he -was the author of any of these poems, but from expressions in the poems -of Sir David Lindsay, who was on terms of intimacy with him, it appears -that occasionally he wrote verses. - - - - -JAMES I., the Conqueror (1208-1276), king of Aragon, son of Peter II., -king of Aragon, and of Mary of Montpellier, whose mother was Eudoxia -Comnena, daughter of the emperor Manuel, was born at Montpellier on the -2nd of February 1208. His father, a man of immoral life, was with -difficulty persuaded to cohabit with his wife. He endeavoured to -repudiate her, and she fled to Rome, where she died in April 1213. -Peter, whose possessions in Provence entangled him in the wars between -the Albigenses and Simon of Montfort, endeavoured to placate the -northern crusaders by arranging a marriage between his son James and -Simon's daughter. In 1211 the boy was entrusted to Montfort's care to be -educated, but the aggressions of the crusaders on the princes of the -south forced Peter to take up arms against them, and he was slain at -Muret on the 12th of September 1213. Montfort would willingly have used -James as a means of extending his own power. The Aragonese and Catalans, -however, appealed to the pope, who forced Montfort to surrender him in -May or June 1214. James was now entrusted to the care of Guillen de -Monredon, the head of the Templars in Spain and Provence. The kingdom -was given over to confusion till in 1216 the Templars and some of the -more loyal nobles brought the young king to Saragossa. At the age of -thirteen he was married to Leonora, daughter of Alphonso VIII. of -Castile, whom he divorced later on the ground of consanguinity. A son -born of the marriage, Alphonso, was recognized as legitimate, but died -before his father, childless. It was only by slow steps that the royal -authority was asserted, but the young king, who was of gigantic stature -and immense strength, was also astute and patient. By 1228 he had so far -brought his vassals to obedience, that he was able to undertake the -conquest of the Balearic Islands, which he achieved within four years. -At the same time he endeavoured to bring about a union of Aragon with -Navarre, by a contract of mutual adoption between himself and the -Navarrese king, Sancho, who was old enough to be his grandfather. The -scheme broke down, and James abstained from a policy of conquest. He -wisely turned to the more feasible course of extending his dominions at -the expense of the decadent Mahommedan princes of Valencia. On the 28th -of September 1238 the town of Valencia surrendered, and the whole -territory was conquered in the ensuing years. Like all the princes of -his house, James took part in the politics of southern France. He -endeavoured to form a southern state on both sides of the Pyrenees, -which should counterbalance the power of France north of the Loire. Here -also his policy failed against physical, social and political obstacles. -As in the case of Navarre, he was too wise to launch into perilous -adventures. By the Treaty of Corbeil, with Louis IX., signed the 11th of -May 1258, he frankly withdrew from conflict with the French king, and -contented himself with the recognition of his position, and the -surrender of antiquated French claims to the overlordship of Catalonia. -During the remaining twenty years of his life, James was much concerned -in warring with the Moors in Murcia, not on his own account, but on -behalf of his son-in-law Alphonso the Wise of Castile. As a legislator -and organizer he occupies a high place among the Spanish kings. He would -probably have been more successful but for the confusion caused by the -disputes in his own household. James, though orthodox and pious, had an -ample share of moral laxity. After repudiating Leonora of Castile he -married Yolande (in Spanish Violante) daughter of Andrew II. of Hungary, -who had a considerable influence over him. But she could not prevent him -from continuing a long series of intrigues. The favour he showed his -bastards led to protest from the nobles, and to conflicts between his -sons legitimate and illegitimate. When one of the latter, Fernan -Sanchez, who had behaved with gross ingratitude and treason to his -father, was slain by the legitimate son Pedro, the old king recorded his -grim satisfaction. At the close of his life King James divided his -states between his sons by Yolande of Hungary, Pedro and James, leaving -the Spanish possessions on the mainland to the first, the Balearic -Islands and the lordship of Montpellier to the second--a division which -inevitably produced fratricidal conflicts. The king fell very ill at -Alcira, and resigned his crown, intending to retire to the monastery of -Poblet, but died at Valencia on the 27th of July 1276. - - King James was the author of a chronicle of his own life, written or - dictated apparently at different times, which is a very fine example - of autobiographical literature. A translation into English by J. - Forster, with notes by Don Pascual de Gayangos, was published in - London in 1883. See also _James I. of Aragon_, by F. Darwin Swift - (Clarendon Press, 1894), in which are many references to authorities. - - - - -JAMES II. (c. 1260-1327), king of Aragon, grandson of James I., and son -of Peter III. by his marriage with Constance, daughter of Manfred of -Beneventum, was left in 1285 as king of Sicily by his father. In 1291, -on the death of his elder brother, Alphonso, to whom Aragon had fallen, -he resigned Sicily and endeavoured to arrange the quarrel between his -own family and the Angevine House, by marriage with Blanca, daughter of -Charles of Anjou, king of Naples. - - - - -JAMES II. (1243-1311), king of Majorca, inherited the Balearic Islands -from his father James I. of Aragon. He was engaged in constant conflict -with his brother Pedro III. of Aragon, and in alliance with the French -king against his own kin. - - - - -JAMES III. (1315-1349), king of Majorca, grandson of James II., was -driven out of his little state and finally murdered by his cousin Pedro -IV. of Aragon, who definitely reannexed the Balearic Islands to the -crown. - - - - -JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766), prince of Wales, known -to the Jacobites as James III. and to the Hanoverian party as the Old -Pretender, the son and heir of James II. of England, was born in St -James's Palace, London, on the 10th of June 1688. The scandalous story -that he was a supposititious child, started and spread abroad by -interested politicians at the time of his birth, has been completely -disproved, and most contemporary writers allude to his striking family -likeness to the Royal Stuarts. Shortly before the flight of the king to -Sheerness, the infant prince together with his mother was sent to -France, and afterwards he continued to reside with his father at the -court of St Germain. On the death of his father, on the 16th of -September 1701, he was immediately proclaimed king by Louis XIV. of -France, but a fantastic attempt to perform a similar ceremony in London -so roused the anger of the populace that the mock pursuivants barely -escaped with their lives. A bill of attainder against him received the -royal assent a few days before the death of William III. in 1702, and -the Princess Anne, half-sister of the Pretender, succeeded William on -the throne. An influential party still, however, continued to adhere to -the Jacobite cause; but an expedition from Dunkirk planned in favour of -James in the spring of 1708 failed of success, although the French ships -under the comte de Fourbin, with James himself on board, reached the -Firth of Forth in safety. At the Peace of Utrecht James withdrew from -French territory to Bar-le-Duc in Lorraine. A rebellion in the Highlands -of Scotland was inaugurated in September 1715 by the raising of the -standard on the braes of Mar, and by the solemn proclamation of James -Stuart, "the chevalier of St George," in the midst of the assembled -clans, but its progress was arrested in November by the indecisive -battle of Sheriffmuir and by the surrender at Preston. Unaware of the -gloomy nature of his prospects, the chevalier landed in December 1715 at -Peterhead, and advanced as far south as Scone, accompanied by a small -force under the earl of Mar; but on learning of the approach of the duke -of Argyll, he retreated to Montrose, where the Highlanders dispersed to -the mountains, and he embarked again for France. A Spanish expedition -sent out in his behalf in 1719, under the direction of Alberoni, was -scattered by a tempest, only two frigates reaching the appointed -rendezvous in the island of Lewis. - -In 1718 James had become affianced to the young princess Maria -Clementina Sobieski, grand-daughter of the warrior king of Poland, John -Sobieski. The intended marriage was forbidden by the emperor, who in -consequence kept the princess and her mother in honourable confinement -at Innsbruck in Tirol. An attempt to abduct the princess by means of a -ruse contrived by a zealous Jacobite gentleman, Charles Wogan, proved -successful; Clementina reached Italy in safety, and she and James were -ultimately married at Montefiascone on the 1st of September 1719. James -and Clementina were now invited to reside in Rome at the special request -of Pope Clement XI., who openly acknowledged their titles of British -King and Queen, gave them a papal guard of troops, presented them with a -villa at Albano and a palace (the Palazzo Muti in the Piazza dei Santi -Apostoli) in the city, and also made them an annual allowance of 12,000 -crowns out of the papal treasury. At the Palazzo Muti, which remained -the chief centre of Jacobite intriguing, were born James's two sons, -Charles Edward (the Young Pretender) and Henry Benedict Stuart. James's -married life proved turbulent and unhappy, a circumstance that was -principally due to the hot temper and jealous nature of Clementina, who -soon after Henry's birth in 1725 left her husband and spent over two -years in a Roman convent. At length a reconciliation was effected, which -Clementina did not long survive, for she died at the early age of 32 in -February 1735. Full regal honours were paid to the Stuart queen at her -funeral, and the splendid but tasteless monument by Pietro Bracchi -(1700-1773) in St Peter's was erected to her memory by order of Pope -Benedict XIV. - -His wife's death seems to have affected James's health and spirits -greatly, and he now began to grow feeble and indifferent, so that the -political adherents of the Stuarts were gradually led to fix their hopes -upon the two young princes rather than upon their father. Travellers to -Rome at this period note that James appeared seldom in public, and that -much of his time was given up to religious exercises; he was _devot a -l'exces_, so Charles de Brosses, an unprejudiced Frenchman, informs us. -It was with great reluctance that James allowed his elder son to leave -Italy for France in 1744; nevertheless in the following year, he -permitted Henry to follow his brother's example, but with the news of -Culloden he evidently came to regard his cause as definitely lost. The -estrangement from his elder and favourite son, which arose over Henry's -adoption of an ecclesiastical career, so embittered his last years that -he sank into a moping invalid and rarely left his chamber. With the -crushing failure of the "Forty-five" and his quarrel with his heir, the -once-dreaded James soon became a mere cipher in British politics, and -his death at Rome on the 2nd of January 1766 passed almost unnoticed in -London. He was buried with regal pomp in St Peter's, where Canova's -famous monument, erected by Pius VII. in 1819, commemorates him and his -two sons. As to James's personal character, there is abundant evidence -to show that he was grave, high-principled, industrious, abstemious and -dignified, and that the unflattering portrait drawn of him by Thackeray -in _Esmond_ is utterly at variance with historical facts. Although a -fervent Roman Catholic, he was far more reasonable and liberal in his -religious views than his father, as many extant letters testify. - - See Earl Stanhope, _History of England and Decline of the Last - Stuarts_ (1853); _Calendar of the Stuart Papers at Windsor Castle_; J. - H. Jesse, _Memories of the Pretenders and their Adherents_ (1845); Dr - John Doran, _"Mann" and Manners at the Court of Florence_ (1876); - _Relazione della morte di Giacomo III., Re d'Inghilterra_; and Charles - de Brosses, _Lettres sur l'Italie_ (1885). (H. M. V.) - - - - -JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893), English actor, was born in London, his real -name being Belasco. He began his stage career at an early age, and after -1863 gradually made his way in humorous parts. His creation, in 1875, of -the part of Perkyn Middlewick in Our Boys made him famous as a comedian, -the performance obtaining for the piece a then unprecedented run from -the 16th of January 1875 till the 18th of April 1879. In 1885 he had -another notable success as Blueskin in _Little Jack Sheppard_ at the -Gaiety Theatre, his principal associates being Fred Leslie and Nellie -Farren. His song in this burlesque, "Botany Bay," became widely popular. -In the part of John Dory in _Wild Oats_ he again made a great hit at the -Criterion Theatre in 1886; and among his other most successful -impersonations were Simon Ingot in _David Garrick_, Tweedie in -_Tweedie's Rights_, Macclesfield in _The Guv'nor_, and Eccles in -_Caste_. His unctuous humour and unfailing spirits made him a great -favourite with the public. He died on the 2nd of October 1893. - - - - -JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFORD (1799-1860), English novelist, son of -Pinkstan James, physician, was born in George Street, Hanover Square, -London, on the 9th of August 1799. He was educated at a private school -at Putney, and afterwards in France. He began to write early, and had, -according to his own account, composed the stories afterwards published -as _A String of Pearls_ before he was seventeen. As a contributor to -newspapers and magazines, he came under the notice of Washington Irving, -who encouraged him to produce his _Life of Edward the Black Prince_ -(1822). _Richelieu_ was finished in 1825, and was well thought of by Sir -Walter Scott (who apparently saw it in manuscript), but was not brought -out till 1829. Perhaps Irving and Scott, from their natural amiability, -were rather dangerous advisers for a writer so inclined by nature to -abundant production as James. But he took up historical romance writing -at a lucky moment. Scott had firmly established the popularity of the -style, and James in England, like Dumas in France, reaped the reward of -their master's labours as well as of their own. For thirty years the -author of _Richelieu_ continued to pour out novels of the same kind -though of varying merit. His works in prose fiction, verse narrative, -and history of an easy kind are said to number over a hundred, most of -them being three-volume novels of the usual length. Sixty-seven are -catalogued in the British Museum. The best examples of his style are -perhaps _Richelieu_ (1829); _Philip Augustus_ (1831); _Henry Masterton_, -probably the best of all (1832); _Mary of Burgundy_ (1833); _Darnley_ -(1839); _Corse de Leon_ (1841); _The Smuggler_ (1845). His poetry does -not require special mention, nor does his history, though for a short -time during the reign of William IV. he held the office of -historiographer royal. After writing copiously for about twenty years, -James in 1850 went to America as British Consul for Massachusetts. He -was consul at Richmond, Virginia, from 1852 to 1856, when he was -appointed to a similar post at Venice, where he died on the 9th of June -1860. - -James has been compared to Dumas, and the comparison holds good in -respect of kind, though by no means in respect of merit. Both had a -certain gift of separating from the picturesque parts of history what -could without much difficulty be worked up into picturesque fiction, and -both were possessed of a ready pen. Here, however, the likeness ends. Of -purely literary talent James had little. His plots are poor, his -descriptions weak, his dialogue often below even a fair average, and he -was deplorably prone to repeat himself. The "two cavaliers" who in one -form or another open most of his books have passed into a proverb, and -Thackeray's good-natured but fatal parody of _Barbazure_ is likely to -outlast _Richelieu_ and _Darnley_ by many a year. Nevertheless, though -James cannot be allowed any very high rank among novelists, he had a -genuine narrative gift, and, though his very best books fall far below -_Les trois mousquetaires_ and _La reine Margot_, there is a certain even -level of interest to be found in all of them. James never resorted to -illegitimate methods to attract readers, and deserves such credit as may -be due to a purveyor of amusement who never caters for the less -creditable tastes of his guests. - - His best novels were published in a revised form in 21 volumes - (1844-1849). - - - - -JAMES, HENRY (1843- ), American author, was born in New York on the -15th of April 1843. His father was Henry James (1811-1882), a -theological writer of great originality, from whom both he and his -brother Professor William James derived their psychological subtlety and -their idiomatic, picturesque English. Most of Henry's boyhood was spent -in Europe, where he studied under tutors in England, France and -Switzerland. In 1860 he returned to America, and began reading law at -Harvard, only to find speedily that literature, not law, was what he -most cared for. His earliest short tale, "The Story of a Year," appeared -in 1865, in the _Atlantic Monthly_, and frequent stories and sketches -followed. In 1869 he again went to Europe, where he subsequently made -his home, for the most part living in London, or at Rye in Sussex. Among -his specially noteworthy works are the following: _Watch and Ward_ -(1871); _Roderick Hudson_ (1875); _The American_ (1877); _Daisy Miller_ -(1878); _French Poets and Novelists_ (1878); _A Life of Hawthorne_ -(1879); _The Portrait of a Lady_ (1881); _Portraits of Places_ (1884); -_The Bostonians_ (1886); _Partial Portraits_ (1888); _The Tragic Muse_ -(1890); _Essays in London_ (1893); _The Two Magics_ (1898); _The Awkward -Age_ (1898); _The Wings of the Dove_ (1902); _The Ambassadors_ (1903); -_The Golden Bowl_ (1904); _English Hours_ (1905); _The American Scene_ -(1907); _The High Bid_ (1909); _Italian Hours_ (1909). - -As a novelist, Henry James is a modern of the moderns both in subject -matter and in method. He is entirely loyal to contemporary life and -reverentially exact in his transcription of the phase. His characters -are for the most part people of the world who conceive of life as a fine -art and have the leisure to carry out their theories. Rarely are they at -close quarters with any ugly practical task. They are subtle and complex -with the subtlety and the complexity that come from conscious -preoccupation with themselves. They are specialists in conduct and past -masters in casuistry, and are full of variations and shadows of turning. -Moreover, they are finely expressive of _milieu_; each belongs -unmistakably to his class and his race; each is true to inherited moral -traditions and delicately illustrative of some social code. To reveal -the power and the tragedy of life through so many minutely limiting and -apparently artificial conditions, and by means of characters who are -somewhat self-conscious and are apt to make of life only a pleasant -pastime, might well seem an impossible task. Yet it is precisely in this -that Henry James is pre-eminently successful. The essentially human is -what he really cares for, however much he may at times seem preoccupied -with the _technique_ of his art or with the mask of conventions through -which he makes the essentially human reveal itself. Nor has "the vista -of the spiritual been denied him." No more poignant spiritual tragedy -has been recounted in recent fiction than the story of Isabel Archer in -_The Portrait of a Lady_. His method, too, is as modern as his subject -matter. He early fell in love with the "point of view," and the good -and the bad qualities of his work all follow from this literary passion. -He is a very sensitive impressionist, with a technique that can fix the -most elusive phase of character and render the most baffling surface. -The skill is unending with which he places his characters in such -relations and under such lights that they flash out in due succession -their continuously varying facets. At times he may seem to forget that a -character is something incalculably more than the sum of all its phases; -and then his characters tend to have their existence, as Positivists -expect to have their immortality, simply and solely in the minds of -other people. But when his method is at its best, the delicate phases of -character that he transcribes coalesce perfectly into clearly defined -and suggestive images of living, acting men and women. Doubtless, there -is a certain initiation necessary for the enjoyment of Mr James. He -presupposes a cosmopolitan outlook, a certain interest in art and in -social artifice, and no little abstract curiosity about the workings of -the human mechanism. But for speculative readers, for readers who care -for art in life as well as for life in art, and for readers above all -who want to encounter and comprehend a great variety of very modern and -finely modulated characters, Mr James holds a place of his own, -unrivalled as an interpreter of the world of to-day. - - For a list of the short stories of Mr Henry James, collections of them - in volume form, and other works, see bibliographies by F. A. King, in - _The Novels of Henry James_, by Elisabeth L. Cary (New York and - London, 1905), and by Le Roy Phillips, _A Bibliography of the Writings - of Henry James_ (Boston, Mass., 1906). In 1909 an _edition de luxe_ of - Henry James's novels was published in 24 volumes. - - - - -JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859), English Nonconformist divine, was born -at Blandford, Dorsetshire, on the 6th of June 1785. At the close of his -seven years' apprenticeship to a linen-draper at Poole he decided to -become a preacher, and in 1802 he went to David Bogue's training -institution at Gosport. A year and a half later, on a visit to -Birmingham, his preaching was so highly esteemed by the congregation of -Carr's Lane Independent chapel that they invited him to exercise his -ministry amongst them; he settled there in 1805, and was ordained in May -1806. For several years his success as a preacher was comparatively -small; but he jumped into popularity about 1814, and began to attract -large crowds wherever he officiated. At the same time his religious -writings, the best known of which are _The Anxious Inquirer_ and _An -Earnest Ministry_, acquired a wide circulation. James was a typical -Congregational preacher of the early 19th century, massive and elaborate -rather than original. His preaching displayed little or nothing of -Calvinism, the earlier severity of which had been modified in Birmingham -by Edward Williams, one of his predecessors. He was one of the founders -of the Evangelical Alliance and of the Congregational Union of England -and Wales. Municipal interests appealed strongly to him, and he was also -for many years chairman of Spring Hill (afterwards Mansfield) College. -He died at Birmingham on the 1st of October 1859. - - A collected edition of James's works appeared in 1860-1864. See _A - Review of the Life and Character of J. Angell James_ (1860), by J. - Campbell, and _Life and Letters of J. A. James_ (1861), edited by his - successor, R. W. Dale, who also contributed a sketch of his - predecessor to _Pulpit Memorials_ (1878). - - - - -JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573-1629), English librarian, was born at Newport, -Isle of Wight. He was educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford, -and became a fellow of New College in 1593. His wide knowledge of books, -together with his skill in deciphering manuscripts and detecting -literary forgeries, secured him in 1602 the post of librarian to the -library founded in that year by Sir Thomas Bodley at Oxford. At the same -time he was made rector of St Aldate's, Oxford. In 1605 he compiled a -classified catalogue of the books in the Bodleian Library, but in 1620 -substituted for it an alphabetical catalogue. The arrangement in 1610, -whereby the Stationers' Company undertook to supply the Bodleian Library -with every book published, was James's suggestion. Ill health compelled -him to resign his post in 1620, and he died at Oxford in August 1629. - - - - -JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827), English naval historian, author of the _Naval -History of Great Britain from the Declaration of War by France in 1793 -to the Accession of George IV._, practised as a proctor in the admiralty -court of Jamaica between 1801 and 1813. He was in the United States when -the war of 1812 broke out, and was detained as a prisoner, but escaped -to Halifax. His literary career began by letters to the _Naval -Chronicle_ over the signature of "Boxer." In 1816 he published _An -Inquiry into the Merits of the Principal Naval Actions between Great -Britain and the United States_. In this pamphlet, which James reprinted -in 1817, enlarged and with a new title, his object was to prove that the -American frigates were stronger than their British opponents nominally -of the same class. In 1819 he began his _Naval History_, which appeared -in five volumes (1822-1824), and was reprinted in six volumes (1826). It -is a monument of painstaking accuracy in all such matters as dates, -names, tonnage, armament and movements of ships, though no attempt is -ever made to show the connexion between the various movements. James -died on the 28th of May 1827 in London, leaving a widow who received a -civil list pension of L100. - - An edition of the _Naval History_ in six volumes, with additions and - notes by Capt. F. Chamier, was published in 1837, and a further one in - 1886. An edition epitomized by R. O'Byrne appeared in 1888, and an - _Index_ by C. G. Toogood was issued by the Navy Records Society in - 1895. - - - - -JAMES, WILLIAM (1842-1910), American philosopher, son of the -Swedenborgian theologian Henry James, and brother of the novelist Henry -James, was born on the 11th of January 1842 at New York City. He -graduated M.D. at Harvard in 1870. Two years after he was appointed a -lecturer at Harvard in anatomy and physiology, and later in psychology -and philosophy. Subsequently he became assistant professor of philosophy -(1880-1885), professor (1885-1889), professor of psychology (1889-1897) -and professor of philosophy (1897-1907). In 1899-1901 he delivered the -Gifford lectures on natural religion at the university of Edinburgh, and -in 1908 the Hibbert lectures at Manchester College, Oxford. With the -appearance of his _Principles of Psychology_ (2 vols., 1890), James at -once stepped into the front rank of psychologists as a leader of the -physical school, a position which he maintained not only by the -brilliance of his analogies but also by the freshness and -unconventionality of his style. In metaphysics he upheld the idealist -position from the empirical standpoint. Beside the _Principles of -Psychology_, which appeared in a shorter form in 1892 (_Psychology_), -his chief works are: _The Will to Believe_ (1897); _Human Immortality_ -(Boston, 1898); _Talks to Teachers_ (1899); _The Varieties of Religious -Experience_ (New York, 1902); _Pragmatism--a New Name for some Old Ways -of Thinking_ (1907); _A Pluralistic Universe_ (1909; Hibbert lectures), -in which, though he still attacked the hypothesis of absolutism, he -admitted it as a legitimate alternative. He received honorary degrees -from Padua (1893), Princeton (1896), Edinburgh (1902), Harvard (1905). -He died on the 27th of August 1910. - - - - -JAMES OF HEREFORD, HENRY JAMES, 1ST BARON (1828- ), English lawyer and -statesman, son of P. T. James, surgeon, was born at Hereford on the 30th -of October 1828, and educated at Cheltenham College. A prizeman of the -Inner Temple, he was called to the bar in 1852 and joined the Oxford -circuit, where he soon came into prominence. In 1867 he was made -"postman" of the court of exchequer, and in 1869 became a Q.C. At the -general election of 1868 he obtained a seat in parliament for Taunton as -a Liberal, by the unseating of Mr Serjeant Cox on a scrutiny in March -1869, and he kept the seat till 1885, when he was returned for Bury. He -attracted attention in parliament by his speeches in 1872 in the debates -on the Judicature Act. In 1873 (September) he was made solicitor-general, -and in November attorney-general, and knighted; and when Gladstone -returned to power in 1880 he resumed his office. He was responsible for -carrying the Corrupt Practices Act of 1883. On Gladstone's conversion to -Home Rule, Sir Henry James parted from him and became one of the most -influential of the Liberal Unionists: Gladstone had offered him the lord -chancellorship in 1886, but he declined it; and the knowledge of the -sacrifice he had made in refusing to follow his old chief in his new -departure lent great weight to his advocacy of the Unionist cause in the -country. He was one of the leading counsel for _The Times_ before the -Parnell Commission, and from 1892 to 1895 was attorney-general to the -prince of Wales. From 1895 to 1902 he was a member of the Unionist -ministry as chancellor for the duchy of Lancaster, and in 1895 he was -made a peer as Baron James of Hereford. In later years he was a prominent -opponent of the Tariff Reform movement, adhering to the section of Free -Trade Unionists. - - - - -JAMES, EPISTLE OF, a book of the New Testament. The superscription (Jas. -i. 1) ascribes it to that pre-eminent "pillar" (Gal. ii. 9) of the -original mother church who later came to be regarded in certain quarters -as the "bishop of bishops" (Epist. of James to Clement, _ap. Clem. Hom._ -Superscription). As such he appears in a position to address an -encyclical to "the twelve tribes of the dispersion"; for the context (i. -18, v. 7 seq.) and literary relation (cf. 1 Pet. i. 1, 3, 23-25) prove -this to be a figure for the entire new people of God, without the -distinction of carnal birth, as Paul had described "the Israel of God" -(Gal. vi. 16), spiritually begotten, like Isaac, by the word received in -faith (Gal. iii. 28 seq., iv. 28; Rom. ix. 6-9, iv. 16-18). This idea of -the spiritually begotten Israel becomes current after 1 Pet., as appears -in John i. 11-13, iii. 3-8; Barn. iv. 6, xiii. 13; 2 Clem. ii. 2, &c. - -The interpretation which takes the expression "the twelve tribes" -literally, and conceives the brother of the Lord as sending an epistle -written in the Greek language throughout the Christian world, but as -addressing Jewish Christians only (so e.g. Sieffert, s.v. "Jacobus im -N.T." in Hauck, _Realencykl._ ed. 1900, vol. viii.), assumes not only -such divisive interference as Paul might justly resent (cf. Gal. ii. -1-10), but involves a strange idea of conditions. Were worldliness, -tongue religion, moral indifference, the distinctive marks of the Jewish -element? Surely the rebukes of James apply to conditions of the whole -Church and not sporadic Jewish-Christian conventicles in the -Greek-speaking world, if any such existed. - -It is at least an open question whether the superscription (connected -with that of Jude) be not a later conjecture prefixed by some compiler -of the catholic epistles, but of the late date implied in our -interpretation of ver. 1 there should be small dispute. Whatever the -currency in classical circles of the epistle as a literary form, it is -irrational to put first in the development of Christian literature a -general epistle, couched in fluent, even rhetorical, Greek, and -afterwards the Pauline letters, which both as to origin and subsequent -circulation were a product of urgent conditions. The order consonant -with history is (1) Paul's "letters" to "the churches of" a province -(Gal. i. 2; 2 Cor. i. 1); (2) the address to "the elect of the -dispersion" in a group of the Pauline provinces (1 Pet. i. 1); (3) the -address to "the twelve tribes of the dispersion" everywhere (Jas. i. 1; -cf. Rev. vii. 2-4). James, like 1 John, is a homily, even more lacking -than 1 John in every epistolary feature, not even supplied with the -customary epistolary farewell. The superscription, if original, compels -us to treat the whole writing as not only late but pseudonymous. If -prefixed by conjecture, to secure recognition and authority for the -book, even this was at first a failure. The earliest trace of any -recognition of it is in Origen (A.D. 230) who refers to it as "said to -be from James" ([Greek: pheromege he Iakobou Epistole]), seeming thus to -regard ver. 1 as superscription rather than part of the text. Eusebius -(A.D. 325) classifies it among the disputed books, declaring that it is -regarded as spurious, and that not many of the ancients have mentioned -it. Even Jerome (A.D. 390), though personally he accepted it, admits -that it was "said to have been published by another in the name of -James." The Syrian canon of the Peshitta was the first to admit it. - - Modern criticism naturally made the superscription its starting-point, - endeavouring first to explain the contents of the writing on this - theory of authorship, but generally reaching the conclusion that the - two do not agree. Conservatives as a rule avoid the implication of a - direct polemic against Paul in ii. 14-26, which would lay open the - author to the bitter accusations launched against the interlopers of 2 - Cor. x.-xiii., by dating before the Judaistic controversy. Other - critics regard the very language alone as fatal to such a theory of - date, authorship and circle addressed. The contents, ignoring the - conflict of Jew and Gentile, complaining of worldiness and - tongue-religion (cf. 1 John iii. 17 seq. with James ii. 14-16) suggest - a much later date than the death of James (A.D. 62-66). They also - require a different character in the author, if not also a different - circle of readers from those addressed in i. 1. - - The prevalent conditions seem to be those of the Greek church of the - post-apostolic period, characterized by worldiness of life, profession - without practice, and a contentious garrulity of teaching (1 John iii. - 3-10, 18; 1 Tim. i. 6 seq., vi. 3-10; 2 Tim. iii. 1-5, iv. 3 seq.). - The author meets these with the weapons commanded for the purpose in 1 - Tim. vi. 3, but quite in the spirit of one of the "wise men" of the - Hebrew wisdom literature. His gospel is completely denationalized, - humanitarian; but, while equally universalistic, is quite - unsympathetic towards the doctrine and the mysticism of Paul. He has - nothing whatever to say of the incarnation, life, example, suffering - or resurrection of Jesus, and does not interest himself in the - doctrines of Christ's person, which were hotly debated up to this - time. The absence of all mention of Christ (with the single exception - of ii. 1, where there is reason to think the words [Greek: hemou Iesou - Xristou] interpolated) has even led to the theory, ably but - unconvincingly maintained by Spitta, that the writing is a mere recast - of a Jewish moralistic writing like the _Two Ways_. The thoughts are - loosely strung together: yet the following seems to be the general - framework on which the New Testament preacher has collected his - material. - - 1. The problem of evil (i. 1-19a). Outward trials are for our - development through aid of divinely given "wisdom" (2-11). Inward - (moral) trials are not to be imputed to God, the author of all good, - whose purpose is the moral good of his creation (12-19a; cf. 1 John i. - 5). - - 2. The righteousness God intends is defined in the eternal moral law. - It is a product of deeds, not words (i. 19b-27). - - 3. The "royal law" of love is violated by discrimination against the - poor (ii. 1-13); and by professions of faith barren of good works - (14-26). - - 4. The true spirit of wisdom appears not in aspiring to teach, but in - goodness and meekness of life (ch. iii.). Strife and self-exaltation - are fruits of a different spirit, to be resisted and overcome by - humble prayer for more grace (iv. 1-10). - - 5. God's judgment is at hand. The thought condemns censoriousness (iv. - 11 et seq.), presumptuous treatment of life (13-17), and the tyranny - of the rich (v. 1-6). It encourages the believer to patient endurance - to the end without murmuring or imprecations (7-12). It impels the - church to diligence in its work of worship, care and prayer (13-18), - and in the reclamation of the erring (19-20). - - The use made by James of earlier material is as important for - determining the _terminus a quo_ of its own date as the use of it by - later writers for the _terminus ad quem_. Acquaintance with the - evangelic tradition is apparent. It is conceived, however, more in the - Matthaean sense of "commandments to be observed" (Matt. xxviii. 20) - than the Pauline, Markan and Johannine of the drama of the incarnation - and redemption. There is no traceable literary contact with the - synoptic gospels. Acquaintance, however, with some of the Pauline - epistles "must be regarded as incontestably established" (O. Cone, - _Ency. Bibl._ ii. 2323). Besides scattered reminiscences of Romans, 1 - Corinthians and Galatians, enumerated in the article referred to, the - section devoted to a refutation of the doctrine of "justification by - faith apart from works" undeniably presupposes the Pauline - terminology. Had the author been consciously opposing the great - apostle to the Gentiles he would probably have treated the subject - less superficially. What he really opposes is the same ultra-Pauline - moral laxity which Paul himself had found occasion to rebuke among - would-be adherents in Corinth (1 Cor. vi. 12; viii. 1-3, 11, 12; x. 23 - seq., 32 seq.) and which appears still more marked in the pastoral - epistles and 1 John. In rebuking it James unconsciously retracts the - misapplied Pauline principle itself. To suppose that the technical - terminology of Paul, including even his classic example of the faith - of Abraham, could be employed here independently of Rom. ii. 21-23, - iii. 28, iv. 1; Gal. ii. 16, iii. 6, is to pass a judgment which in - every other field of literary criticism would be at once repudiated. - To imagine it current in pre-Pauline Judaism is to misconceive the - spirit of the synagogue.[1] To make James the coiner and Paul the - borrower not only throws back James to a date incompatible with the - other phenomena, but implies a literary polemic tactlessly waged by - Paul against the head of the Jerusalem church. Acquaintance with - Hebrews is only slightly less probable, for James ii. 25 adds an - explication of the case of Rahab also, cited in Heb. xi. 31 along with - Abraham as an example of justification by faith only, to his - correction of the Pauline scriptural argument. The question whether - James is dependent on 1 Peter or conversely is still actively - disputed. As regards the superscription the relation has been defined - above. Dependence on Revelation (A.D. 95) is probable (cf. i. 12 and - ii. 5 with Rev. ii. 9, 10 and v. 9 with Rev. iii. 20), but the - contacts with Clement of Rome (A.D. 95-120) indicate the reverse - relation. James iv. 6 and v. 20 = 1 Clem. xlix. 5 and xxx. 2; but as - both passages are also found in 1 Peter (iv. 8, v. 5), the latter may - be the common source. Clement's further development of the cases of - Abraham and Rahab, however, adding as it does to the demonstration of - James from Scripture of their justification "by works and not by faith - only," that the particular good work which "wrought with the faith" of - Abraham and Rahab to their justification was "hospitality" (1 Clem, - x.-xii.) seems plainly to presuppose James. Priority is more difficult - to establish in the case of Hermas (A.D. 120-140), where the contacts - are undisputed (cf. James iv. 7, 12 with Mand. xii, 5, 6; Sim. ix. - 23).[2] - -The date (A.D. 95-120) implied by the literary contacts of James of -course precludes authorship by the Lord's brother, though this does not -necessarily prove the superscription later still. The question whether -the writing as a whole is pseudonymous, or only the superscription a -mistaken conjecture by the scribe of Jude 1 is of secondary importance. -A date about 100-120 for the substance of the writing is accepted by the -majority of modern scholars and throws real light upon the author's -endeavour. Pfleiderer in pointing out the similarities of James and the -_Shepherd_ of Hermas declares it to be "certain that both writings -presuppose like historical circumstances, and, from a similar point of -view, direct their admonitions to their contemporaries, among whom a lax -worldly-mindedness and unfruitful theological wrangling threatened to -destroy the religious life."[3] Holtzmann has characterized this as "the -right visual angle" for the judgment of the book. Questions as to the -obligation of Mosaism and the relations of Jew and Gentile have utterly -disappeared below the horizon. Neither the attachment to the religious -forms of Judaism, which we are informed was characteristic of James, nor -that personal relation to the Lord which gave him his supreme -distinction are indicated by so much as a single word. Instead of being -written in Aramaic, as it would almost necessarily be if antecedent to -the Pauline epistles, or even in the Semitic style characteristic of the -older and more Palestinian elements of the New Testament we have a Greek -even more fluent than Paul's and metaphors and allusions (i. 17, iii. -1-12) of a type more like Greek rhetoric than anything else in the New -Testament. Were we to judge by the contacts with Hebrews, Clement of -Rome and Hermas and the similarity of situation evidenced in the -last-named, Rome would seem the most natural place of origin. The -history of the epistle's reception into the canon is not opposed to -this; for, once it was attributed to James, Syria would be more likely -to take it up, while the West, more sceptical, if not better informed as -to its origin, held back; just as happened in the case of Hebrews. - -It is the author's conception of the nature of the gospel which mainly -gives us pause in following this pretty general disposition of modern -scholarship. With all the phenomena of vocabulary and style which seem -to justify such conceptions as von Soden's that c. iii. and iv. 11-v. 6 -represent excerpts respectively from the essay of an Alexandrian scribe, -and a triple fragment of Jewish apocalypse, the analysis above given -will be found the exponent of a real logical sequence. We might almost -admit a resemblance in form to the general literary type which Spitta -adduces. The term "wisdom" in particular is used in the special and -technical sense of the "wise men" of Hebrew literature (Matt. xxiii. -34), the sense of "the wisdom of the just" of Luke i. 17. True, the -mystical sense given to the term in one of the sources of Luke, by Paul -and some of the Church fathers, is not present. While the gospel is -pre-eminently the divine gift of "wisdom," "wisdom" is not personified, -but conceived primarily as a system of humanitarian ethics, i. 21-25, -and only secondarily as a spiritual effluence, imparting the regenerate -disposition, the "mind that was in Christ Jesus," iii. 13-18. And yet -for James as well as for Paul Christ is "the wisdom of God." The -difference in conception of the term is similar to that between -Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon. Our author, like Paul, expects -the hearers of the word to be "a kind of first-fruits to God of his -creation." (i. 18 cf. 1 Pet. i. 23), and bids them depend upon the gift -of grace (i. 5, iv. 5 seq.), but for the evils of the world he has no -remedy but the patient endurance of the Christian philosopher (i. 2-18). -For the faithlessness ([Greek: dipsychia] i. 6-8; cf. _Didache_ and -Hermas), worldliness (ii. 1-13) and hollow profession (ii. 14-26) of the -church life of his time, with its "theological wrangling" (iii. 1-12), -his remedy is again the God-given, peaceable spirit of the Christian -philosopher (iii. 13-18), which is the antithesis of the spirit of -self-seeking and censoriousness (iv. 1-12), and which appreciates the -pettiness of earthly life with its sordid gains and its unjust -distribution of wealth (iv. 13-v. 6). This attitude of the Christian -stoic will maintain the individual in his patient waiting for the -expected "coming of the Lord" (v. 7-11); while the church sustains its -official functions of healing and prayer, and reclamation of the erring -(v. 13-20).[4] For this conception of the gospel and of the officially -organized church, our nearest analogy is in Matthew, or rather in the -blocks of precepts of the Lord which after subtraction of the Markan -narrative framework are found to underlie our first gospel. It may be -mere coincidence that the material in Matthew as well as in the -_Didache_ seems to be arranged in five divisions, beginning with a -commendation of the right way, and ending with warnings of the judgment, -while the logical analysis of James yields something similar; but of the -affinity of spirit there can be no doubt. - -The type of ethical thought exemplified in James has been called -Ebionite (Hilgenfeld). It is clearly manifest in the humanitarianism of -Luke also. But with the possible exception of the prohibition of oaths -there is nothing which ought to suggest the epithet. The strong sense of -social wrongs, the impatience with tongue-religion, the utter ignoring -of ceremonialism, the reflection on the value and significance of -"life," are distinctive simply of the "wisdom" writers. Like these our -author holds himself so far aloof from current debate of ceremonial or -doctrine as to escape our principal standards of measurement regarding -place and time. Certain general considerations, however, are fairly -decisive. The prolonged effort, mainly of English scholarship, to -vindicate the superscription, even on the condition of assuming priority -to the Pauline epistles, grows only increasingly hopeless with -increasing knowledge of conditions, linguistic and other, in that early -period. The moralistic conception of the gospel as a "law of liberty," -the very phrase recalling the expression of Barn. ii., "the new law of -Christ, which is without the yoke of constraint," the conception of the -church as primarily an ethical society, its functions already officially -distributed, suggest the period of the _Didache_, Barnabas and Clement -of Rome. Independently of the literary contacts we should judge the -period to be about A.D. 100-120. The connexions with the Pauline -epistles are conclusive for a date later than the death of James; those -with Clement and Hermas are perhaps sufficient to date it as prior to -the former, and suggest Rome as the place of origin. The connexions with -wisdom-literature favour somewhat the Hellenistic culture of Syria, as -represented for example at Antioch. - - The most important commentaries on the epistle are those of Matt. - Schneckenburger (1832), K. G. W. Theile (1833), J. Kern (1838), G. H. - Ewald (1870), C. F. D. Erdmann (1881), H. v. Soden (1898), J. B. Mayor - (1892) and W. Patrick (1906). The pre-Pauline date is championed by B. - Weiss (_Introd._), W. Beyschlag (Meyer's _Commentary_), Th. Zahn - (_Introd._), J. B. Mayor and W. Patrick. J. V. Bartlet (_Ap. Age_, pp. - 217-250) pleads for it, and the view is still common among English - interpreters. F. K. Zimmer (_Z. w. Th._, 1893) showed the priority of - Paul, with many others. A. Hilgenfeld (_Einl._) and A. C. McGiffert - (_Ap. Age_) place it in the period of Domitian; Baur (_Ch. History_), - Schwegler (_Nachap. Zeitalt._), Zeller, Volkmar (_Z. w. Th._), - Hausrath (_Ap. Age_), H. J. Holtzmann (_Einl._), Julicher (_Einl._), - Usteri (St. _u. Kr._, 1889), W. Bruckner (_Chron._), H. v. Soden - (_Handcomm._) and A. Harnack (_Chron._) under Hadrian. A convenient - synopsis of results will be found in J. Moffat, _Historical New - Test._^2 (pp. 576-581), and in the articles _s.v._ "James" in _Encycl. - Bibl._ and the Bible Dictionaries. (B. W. B.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Nothing adduced by Lightfoot (_Comm. on Gal._ Exc. "The faith of - Abraham") justifies the unsupported and improbable assertion that the - quotation James ii. 21 seq. "was probably in common use among the - Jews to prove that orthodoxy of doctrine sufficed for salvation" - (Mayor, s.v. "James, Epistle of" in Hasting's _Dict. Bible_, p. 546). - - [2] On the contacts in general see Moffat, _Hist. N.T._^2 p. 578, on - relation to Clem. R. see Bacon, "Doctrine of Faith in Hebrews, James - and Clement of Rome," in _Jour. of Bib. Lit._, 1900, pp. 12-21. - - [3] _Das Urchristenthum_, 868, quoted by Cone, _loc. cit._ - - [4] The logical relation of v. 12 to the context is problematical. - Perhaps it may be accounted for by the order of the compend of - Christian ethics the writer was following. Cf. Matt. v. 34-37 in - relation to Matt. v. 12 (cf. ver. 10) and vi. 19 sqq. (cf. ver. 2, - and iv. 13 seq.). The non-charismatic conception of healing, no - longer the "gift" of some layman in the community (1 Cor. xii. 9 - seq.) but a function of "the elders" (1 Tim. iv. 14), is another - indication of comparatively late date. - - - - -JAMESON, ANNA BROWNELL (1794-1860), British writer, was born in Dublin -on the 17th of May 1794. Her father, Denis Brownell Murphy (d. 1842), a -miniature and enamel painter, removed to England in 1798 with his -family, and eventually settled at Hanwell, near London. At sixteen years -of age Anna became governess in the family of the marquis of Winchester. -In 1821 she was engaged to Robert Jameson. The engagement was broken -off, and Anna Murphy accompanied a young pupil to Italy, writing in a -fictitious character a narrative of what she saw and did. This diary she -gave to a bookseller on condition of receiving a guitar if he secured -any profits. Colburn ultimately published it as _The Diary of an -Ennuyee_ (1826), which attracted much attention. The author was -governess to the children of Mr Littleton, afterwards Lord Hatherton, -from 1821 to 1825, when she married Robert Jameson. The marriage proved -unhappy; when, in 1829, Jameson was appointed puisne judge in the island -of Dominica the couple separated without regret, and Mrs Jameson visited -the Continent again with her father. - -The first work which displayed her powers of original thought was her -_Characteristics of Women_ (1832). These analyses of Shakespeare's -heroines are remarkable for delicacy of critical insight and fineness of -literary touch. They are the result of a penetrating but essentially -feminine mind, applied to the study of individuals of its own sex, -detecting characteristics and defining differences not perceived by the -ordinary critic and entirely overlooked by the general reader. German -literature and art had aroused much interest in England, and Mrs Jameson -paid her first visit to Germany in 1833. The conglomerations of hard -lines, cold colours and pedantic subjects which decorated Munich under -the patronage of King Louis of Bavaria, were new to the world, and Mrs -Jameson's enthusiasm first gave them an English reputation. - -In 1836 Mrs Jameson was summoned to Canada by her husband, who had been -appointed chancellor of the province of Toronto. He failed to meet her -at New York, and she was left to make her way alone at the worst season -of the year to Toronto. After six months' experiment she felt it useless -to prolong a life far from all ties of family happiness and -opportunities of usefulness. Before leaving, she undertook a journey to -the depths of the Indian settlements in Canada; she explored Lake Huron, -and saw much of emigrant and Indian life unknown to travellers, which -she afterwards embodied in her _Winter Studies and Summer Rambles_. She -returned to England in 1838. At this period Mrs Jameson began making -careful notes of the chief private art collections in and near London. -The result appeared in her _Companion to the Private Galleries_ (1842), -followed in the same year by the _Handbook to the Public Galleries_. She -edited the _Memoirs of the Early Italian Painters_ in 1845. In the same -year she visited her friend Ottilie von Goethe. Her friendship with Lady -Byron dates from about this time and lasted for some seven years; it was -brought to an end apparently through Lady Byron's unreasonable temper. A -volume of essays published in 1846 contains one of Mrs Jameson's best -pieces of work, _The House of Titian_. In 1847 she went to Italy with -her niece and subsequent biographer (_Memoirs_, 1878), Geraldine Bate -(Mrs Macpherson), to collect materials for the work on which her -reputation rests--her series of _Sacred and Legendary Art_. The time was -ripe for such contributions to the traveller's library. The _Acta -Sanctorum_ and the _Book of the Golden Legend_ had had their readers, -but no one had ever pointed out the connexion between these tales and -the works of Christian art. The way to these studies had been pointed -out in the preface to Kugler's _Handbook of Italian Painting_ by Sir -Charles Eastlake, who had intended pursuing the subject himself. -Eventually he made over to Mrs Jameson the materials and references he -had collected. She recognized the extent of the ground before her as a -mingled sphere of poetry, history, devotion and art. She infected her -readers with her own enthusiastic admiration; and, in spite of her -slight technical and historical equipment, Mrs. Jameson produced a book -which thoroughly deserved its great success. - -She also took a keen interest in questions affecting the education, -occupations and maintenance of her own sex. Her early essay on _The -Relative Social Position of Mothers and Governesses_ was the work of one -who knew both sides; and in no respect does she more clearly prove the -falseness of the position she describes than in the certainty with which -she predicts its eventual reform. To her we owe the first popular -enunciation of the principle of male and female co-operation in works of -mercy and education. In her later years she took up a succession of -subjects all bearing on the same principles of active benevolence and -the best ways of carrying them into practice. Sisters of charity, -hospitals, penitentiaries, prisons and workhouses all claimed her -interest--all more or less included under those definitions of "the -communion of love and communion of labour" which are inseparably -connected with her memory. To the clear and temperate forms in which she -brought the results of her convictions before her friends in the shape -of private lectures--published as _Sisters of Charity_ (1855) and _The -Communion of Labour_ (1856)--may be traced the source whence later -reformers and philanthropists took counsel and courage. - -Mrs Jameson died on the 17th of March 1860. She left the last of her -_Sacred and Legendary Art_ series in preparation. It was completed, -under the title of _The History of Our Lord in Art_, by Lady Eastlake. - - - - -JAMESON (or JAMESONE), GEORGE (c. 1587-1644), Scottish portrait-painter, -was born at Aberdeen, where his father was architect and a member of the -guild. After studying painting under Rubens at Antwerp, with Vandyck as -a fellow pupil, he returned in 1620 to Aberdeen, where he was married in -1624 and remained at least until 1630, after which he took up his -residence in Edinburgh. He was employed by the magistrates of Edinburgh -to copy several portraits of the Scottish kings for presentation to -Charles I. on his first visit to Scotland in 1633, and the king rewarded -him with a diamond ring from his own finger. This circumstance at once -established Jameson's fame, and he soon found constant employment in -painting the portraits of the Scottish nobility and gentry. He also -painted a portrait of Charles, which he declined to sell to the -magistrates of Aberdeen for the price they offered. He died at Edinburgh -in 1644. - - - - -JAMESON, LEANDER STARR (1853- ), British colonial statesman, son of R. -W. Jameson, a writer to the signet in Edinburgh, was born at Edinburgh -in 1853, and was educated for the medical profession at University -College Hospital, London (M.R.C.S. 1875; M.D. 1877). After acting as -house physician, house surgeon and demonstrator of anatomy, and showing -promise of a successful professional career in London, his health broke -down from overwork in 1878, and he went out to South Africa and settled -down in practice at Kimberley. There he rapidly acquired a great -reputation as a medical man, and, besides numbering President Kruger and -the Matabele chief Lobengula among his patients, came much into contact -with Cecil Rhodes. In 1888 his influence with Lobengula was successfully -exerted to induce that chieftain to grant the concessions to the agents -of Rhodes which led to the formation of the British South Africa -Company; and when the company proceeded to open up Mashonaland, Jameson -abandoned his medical practice and joined the pioneer expedition of -1890. From this time his fortunes were bound up with Rhodes's schemes in -the north. Immediately after the pioneer column had occupied -Mashonaland, Jameson, with F. C. Selous and A. R. Colquhoun, went east -to Manicaland and was instrumental in securing the greater part of that -country, to which Portugal was laying claim, for the Chartered Company. -In 1891 Jameson succeeded Colquhoun as administrator of Rhodesia. The -events connected with his vigorous administration and the wars with the -Matabele are narrated under RHODESIA. At the end of 1894 "Dr Jim" (as he -was familiarly called) came to England and was feted on all sides; he -was made a C.B., and returned to Africa in the spring of 1895 with -enhanced prestige. On the last day of that year the world was startled -to learn that Jameson, with a force of 600 men, had made a raid into the -Transvaal from Mafeking in support of a projected rising in -Johannesburg, which had been connived at by Rhodes at the Cape (see -RHODES and TRANSVAAL). Jameson's force was compelled to surrender at -Doornkop, receiving a guarantee that the lives of all would be spared; -he and his officers were sent to Pretoria, and, after a short delay, -during which time sections of the Boer populace clamoured for the -execution of Jameson, President Kruger on the surrender of Johannesburg -(January 7) handed them over to the British government for punishment. -They were tried in London under the Foreign Enlistment Act in May 1896, -and Dr Jameson was sentenced to fifteen months' imprisonment at -Holloway. He served a year in prison, and was then released on account -of ill health. He still retained the affections of the white population -of Rhodesia, and subsequently returned there in an unofficial capacity. -He was the constant companion of Rhodes on his journeys up to the end of -his life, and when Rhodes died in May 1902 Jameson was left one of the -executors of his will. In 1903 Jameson came forward as the leader of the -Progressive (British) party in Cape Colony; and that party being -victorious at the general election in January-February 1904, Jameson -formed an administration in which he took the post of prime minister. He -had to face a serious economic crisis and strenuously promoted the -development of the agricultural and pastoral resources of the colony. He -also passed a much needed Redistribution Act, and in the session of 1906 -passed an Amnesty Act restoring the rebel voters to the franchise. -Jameson, as prime minister of Cape Colony, attended the Colonial -conference held in London in 1907. In September of that year the Cape -parliament was dissolved, and as the elections for the legislative -council went in favour of the Bond, Jameson resigned office, 31st of -January 1908 (see CAPE COLONY: _History_). In 1908 he was chosen one of -the delegates from Cape Colony to the intercolonial convention for the -closer union of the South African states, and he took a prominent part -in settling the terms on which union was effected in 1909. It was at -Jameson's suggestion that the Orange River Colony was renamed Orange -Free State Province. - - - - -JAMESON, ROBERT (1774-1854), Scottish naturalist and mineralogist, was -born at Leith on the 11th of July 1774. He became assistant to a surgeon -in his native town; but, having studied natural history under Dr John -Walker in 1792 and 1793, he felt that his true province lay in that -science. He went in 1800 to Freiberg to study for nearly two years under -Werner, and spent two more in continental travel. In 1804 he succeeded -Dr Walker as regius professor of natural history in Edinburgh -university, and became perhaps the first eminent exponent in Great -Britain of the Wernerian geological system; but when he found that -theory untenable, he frankly announced his conversion to the views of -Hutton. As a teacher, Jameson was remarkable for his power of imparting -enthusiasm to his students, and from his class-room there radiated an -influence which gave a marked impetus to the study of geology in -Britain. His energy also, by means of government aid, private donation -and personal outlay, amassed a great part of the splendid collection -which now occupies the natural history department of the Royal Scottish -Museum in Edinburgh. In 1819 Jameson, with Sir David Brewster, started -the _Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_, which after the tenth volume -remained under his sole conduct till his death, which took place in -Edinburgh on the 19th of April 1854. His bust now stands in the hall of -the Edinburgh University library. - - Jameson was the author of _Outline of the Mineralogy of the Shetland - Islands and of the Island of Arran_ (1798), incorporated with - _Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles_ (1800); _Mineralogical Description - of Scotland_, vol. i. pt. 1. (Dumfries, 1805); this was to have been - the first of a series embracing all Scotland; _System of Mineralogy_ - (3 vols., 1804-1808; 3rd ed., 1820); _Elements of Geognosy_ (1809); - _Mineralogical Travels through the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland - Islands_ (2 vols., 1813); and _Manual of Mineralogy_ (1821); besides a - number of occasional papers, of which a list will be found in the - _Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal_ for July 1854, along with a - portrait and biographical sketch of the author. - - - - -JAMESTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Stutsman county, North Dakota, -U.S.A., on the James River, about 93 m. W. of Fargo. Pop. (1900), 2853, -of whom 587 were foreign-born; (1905) 5093; (1910) 4358. Jamestown is -served by the Northern Pacific railway, of which it is a division -headquarters. At Jamestown is St John's Academy, a school for girls, -conducted by the Sisters of St Joseph. The state hospital for the insane -is just beyond the city limits. The city is the commercial centre of a -prosperous farming and stock-raising region in the James River valley, -and has grain-elevators and flour-mills. Jamestown was first settled in -1873, near Fort Seward, a U.S. military post established in 1872 and -abandoned in 1877, and was chartered as a city in 1883. - - - - -JAMESTOWN, a city of Chautauqua county, New York, U.S.A., at the S. -outlet of Chautauqua Lake, 68 m. S. by W. of Buffalo. Pop. (1900), -22,892, of whom 7270 were foreign-born, mostly Swedish; (1910 census) -31,297. It is served by the Erie and the Jamestown, Chautauqua & Lake -Erie railways, by electric lines extending along Lake Chautauqua to Lake -Erie on the N. and to Warren, Pennsylvania, on the S., and by summer -steamboat lines on Lake Chautauqua. Jamestown is situated among the -hills of Chautauqua county, and is a popular summer resort. There is a -free public library. A supply of natural gas (from Pennsylvania) and a -fine water-power combine to render Jamestown a manufacturing centre of -considerable importance. In 1905 the value of its factory products was -$10,349,752, an increase of 33.9% since 1900. The city owns and operates -its electric-lighting plant and its water-supply system, the water, of -exceptional purity, being obtained from artesian wells 4 m. distant. -Jamestown was settled in 1810, was incorporated in 1827, and was -chartered as a city in 1886. The city was named in honour of James -Prendergast, an early settler. - - - - -JAMESTOWN, a former village in what is now James City county, Virginia, -U.S.A., on Jamestown Island, in the James River, about 40 m. above -Norfolk. It was here that the first permanent English settlement in -America was founded on the 13th of May 1607, that representative -government was inaugurated on the American Continent in 1619, and that -negro servitude was introduced into the original thirteen colonies, also -in 1619. In Jamestown was the first Anglican church built in America. -The settlement was in a low marshy district which proved to be -unhealthy; it was accidentally burned in January 1608, was almost -completely destroyed by Nathaniel Bacon in September 1676, the state -house and other buildings were again burned in 1698, and after the -removal of the seat of government of Virginia from Jamestown to the -Middle Plantations (now Williamsburg) in 1699 the village fell rapidly -into decay. Its population had never been large: it was about 490 in -1609, and 183 in 1623; the mortality was always very heavy. By the -middle of the 19th century the peninsula on which Jamestown had been -situated had become an island, and by 1900 the James River had worn away -the shore but had hardly touched the territory of the "New Towne" -(1619), immediately E. of the first settlement; almost the only visible -remains, however, were the tower of the brick church and a few -gravestones. In 1900 the association for the preservation of Virginia -antiquities, to which the site was deeded in 1893, induced the United -States government to build a wall to prevent the further encroachment of -the river; the foundations of several of the old buildings have since -been uncovered, many interesting relics have been found, and in 1907 -there were erected a brick church (which is as far as possible a -reproduction of the fourth one built in 1639-1647), a marble shaft -marking the site of the first settlement, another shaft commemorating -the first house of burgesses, a bronze monument to the memory of Captain -John Smith, and another monument to the memory of Pocahontas. At the -head of Jamestown peninsula Cornwallis, in July 1781, attempted to -trick the Americans under Lafayette and General Anthony Wayne by -displaying a few men on the peninsula and concealing the principal part -of his army on the mainland; but when Wayne discovered the trap he made -first a vigorous charge, and then a retreat to Lafayette's line. Early -in the Civil War the Confederates regarded the site (then an island) as -of such strategic importance that (near the brick church tower and -probably near the site of the first fortifications by the original -settlers) they erected heavy earthworks upon it for defence. (For -additional details concerning the early history of Jamestown, see -VIRGINIA: _History_.) - -The founding at Jamestown of the first permanent English-speaking -settlement in America was celebrated in 1907 by the Jamestown -tercentennial exposition, held on grounds at Sewell's Point on the shore -of Hampton Roads. About twenty foreign nations, the federal government, -and most of the states of the union took part in the exposition. - - See L. G. Tyler, _The Cradle of the Republic: Jamestown and James - River_ (Richmond, 2nd ed., 1906); Mrs R. A. Pryor, _The Birth of the - Nation: Jamestown, 1607_ (New York, 1907); and particularly S. H. - Yonge, _The Site of Old "James Towne," 1607-1698_ (Richmond, 1904), - embodying the results of the topographical investigations of the - engineer in charge of the river-wall built in 1900-1901. - - - - -JAMI (NUR-ED-DIN 'ABD-UR-RAHMAN IBN AHMAD) (1414-1492), Persian poet and -mystic, was born at Jam in Khorasan, whence the name by which he is -usually known. In his poems he mystically utilizes the connexion of the -name with the same word meaning "wine-cup." He was the last great -classic poet of Persia, and a pronounced mystic of the Sufic philosophy. -His three _diwans_ (1479-1401) contain his lyrical poems and odes; among -his prose writings the chief is his _Baharistan_ ("Spring-garden") -(1487); and his collection of romantic poems, _Haft Aurang_ ("Seven -Thrones"), contains the _Salaman wa Absal_ and his _Yusuf wa Zalikha_ -(Joseph and Potiphar's wife). - - On Jami's life and works see V. von Rosenzweig, _Biographische Notizen - uber Mewlana Abdurrahman Dschami_ (Vienna, 1840); Gore Ouseley, - _Biographical Notices of Persian Poets_ (1846); W. N. Lees, _A - Biographical Sketch of the Mystic Philosopher and Poet Jami_ - (Calcutta, 1859); E. Beauvois _s.v._ Djami in _Nouvelle Biographie - generale_; and H. Ethe in Geiger and Kuhn's _Grundriss der iranischen - Philologie_, ii. There are English translations of the _Baharistan_ by - E. Rehatsek (Benares, 1887) and Sorabji Fardunji (Bombay, 1899); of - _Salaman wa Absal_ by Edward FitzGerald (1856, with a notice of Jami's - life); of _Yusuf wa Zalikha_ by R. T. H. Griffith (1882) and A. Rogers - (1892); also selections in English by F. Hadland Davis, _The Persian - Mystics: Jami_ (1908). (See also PERSIA: _Literature_.) - - - - -JAMIESON, JOHN (1759-1838), Scottish lexicographer, son of a minister, -was born in Glasgow, on the 3rd of March 1759. He was educated at -Glasgow University, and subsequently attended classes in Edinburgh. -After six years' theological study, Jamieson was licensed to preach in -1789 and became pastor of an Anti-burgher congregation in Forfar; and in -1797 he was called to the Anti-burgher church in Nicolson Street, -Edinburgh. The union of the Burgher and Anti-burgher sections of the -Secession Church in 1820 was largely due to his exertions. He retired -from the ministry in 1830 and died in Edinburgh on the 12th of July -1838. - - Jamieson's name stands at the head of a tolerably long list of works - in the _Bibliotheca britannica_; but by far his most important book is - the laborious and erudite compilation, best described by its own - title-page: _An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language; - illustrating the words in their different significations by examples - from Ancient and Modern Writers; shewing their Affinity to those of - other Languages, and especially the Northern; explaining many terms - which though now obsolete in England were formerly common to both - countries; and elucidating National Rites, Customs and Institutions in - their Analogy to those of other nations; to which is prefixed a - Dissertation on the Origin of the Scottish Language_. This appeared in - 2 vols., 4to, at Edinburgh in 1808, followed in 1825 by a - _Supplement_, in 2 vols., 4to, in which he was assisted by scholars in - all parts of the country. A revised edition by Longmuir and Donaldson - was issued in 1879-1887. - - - - -JAMIESON, ROBERT (c. 1780-1844), Scottish antiquary, was born in -Morayshire. In 1806 he published a collection of _Popular Ballads and -Songs from Tradition, Manuscript and Scarce Editions_. Two pleasing -lyrics of his own were included. Scott, through whose assistance he -received a government post at Edinburgh, held Jamieson in high esteem -and pointed out his skill in discovering the connexion between -Scandinavian and Scottish legends. Jamieson's work preserved much oral -tradition which might otherwise have been lost. He was associated with -Henry Weber and Scott in _Illustrations of Northern Antiquities_ (1814). -He died on the 24th of September 1844. - - - - -JAMKHANDI, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay, -ranking as one of the southern Mahratta Jagirs. Area, 524 sq. m. Pop. -(1901), 105,357; estimated revenue, L37,000; tribute, L1300. The chief -is a Brahman of the Patwardhan family. Cotton, wheat and millet are -produced, and cotton and silk cloth are manufactured, though not -exported. The town of JAMKHANDI, the capital, is situated 68 m. E. of -Kolhapur. Pop. (1901), 13,029. - - - - -JAMMU, or JUMMOO, the capital of the state of Jammu and Kashmir in -Northern India, on the river Tavi (Ta-wi), a tributary of the Chenab. -Pop. (1901), 36,130. The town and palace stand upon the right bank of -the river; the fort overhangs the left bank at an elevation of 150 ft. -above the stream. The lofty whitened walls of the palace and citadel -present a striking appearance from the surrounding country. Extensive -pleasure grounds and ruins of great size attest the former prosperity of -the city when it was the seat of a Rajput dynasty whose dominions -extended into the plains and included the modern district of Sialkot. It -was afterwards conquered by the Sikhs, and formed part of Ranjit Singh's -dominions. After his death it was acquired by Gulab Singh as the nucleus -of his dominions, to which the British added Kashmir in 1846. It is -connected with Sialkot in the Punjab by a railway 16 m. long. In 1898 -the town was devastated by a fire, which destroyed most of the public -offices. - -The state of Jammu proper, as opposed to Kashmir, consists of a -submontane tract, forming the upper basin of the Chenab. Pop. (1901), -1,521,307, showing an increase of 5% in the decade. A land settlement -has recently been introduced under British supervision. - - - - -JAMNIA ([Greek: Iamnia] or [Greek: Iamneia]), the Greek form of the -Hebrew name Jabneel--i.e. "God causeth to build" (Josh. xv. 11)--or -Jabneh (2 Chron. xxvi. 6), the modern Arabic YEBNA, a town of Palestine, -on the border between Dan and Judah, situated 13 m. S. of Jaffa, and 4 -m. E. of the seashore. The modern village stands on an isolated sandy -hillock, surrounded by gardens with olives to the north and sand-dunes -to the west. It contains a small crusaders' church, now a mosque. Jamnia -belonged to the Philistines, and Uzziah of Judah is said to have taken -it (2 Chron. xxvi. 6). In Maccabean times Joseph and Azarias attacked it -unsuccessfully (1 Macc. v. 55-62; 2 Macc. xii. 8 seq. is untrustworthy). -Alexander Jannaeus subdued it, and under Pompey it became Roman. It -changed hands several times, is mentioned by Strabo (xvi. 2) as being -once very populous, and in the Jewish war was taken by Vespasian. The -population was mainly Jewish (Philo, _Leg. ad Gaium_, S 30), and the -town is principally famous as having been the seat of the Sanhedrin and -the religious centre of Judaism from A.D. 70 to 135. It sent a bishop to -Nicaea in 325. In 1144 a crusaders' fortress was built on the hill, -which is often mentioned under the name Ibelin. There was also a Jabneel -in Lower Galilee (Josh. xix. 33), called later Caphar Yama, the present -village Yemma, 8 m. S. of Tiberias; and another fortress in Upper -Galilee was named Jamnia (Josephus, _Vita_, 37). Attempts have been made -to unify these two Galilean sites, but without success. - - - - -JAMRUD, a fort and cantonment in India, just beyond the border of -Peshawar district, North-West Frontier Province, situated at the mouth -of the Khyber Pass, 10(1/2) m. W. of Peshawar city, with which it is -connected by a branch railway. It was occupied by Hari Singh, Ranjit -Singh's commander in 1836; but in April 1837 Dost Mahommed sent a body -of Afghans to attack it. The Sikhs gained a doubtful victory, with the -loss of their general. During the military operations of 1878-79 Jamrud -became a place of considerable importance as the frontier outpost on -British territory towards Afghanistan, and it was also the base of -operations for a portion of the Tirah campaign in 1897-1898. It is the -headquarters of the Khyber Rifles, and the collecting station for the -Khyber tolls. Pop. (1901), 1848. - - - - -JAMS AND JELLIES. In the article FOOD PRESERVATION it is pointed out -that concentrated sugar solution inhibits the growth of organisms and -has, therefore, a preservative action. The preparation of jams and -jellies is based upon that fact. All fresh and succulent fruit contains -a large percentage of water, amounting to at least four-fifths of the -whole, and a comparatively small proportion of sugar, not exceeding as a -rule from 10 to 15%. Such fruit is naturally liable to decomposition -unless the greater proportion of the water is removed or the percentage -of sugar is greatly increased. The jams and jellies of commerce are -fruit preserves containing so much added sugar that the total amount of -sugar forms about two-thirds of the weight of the articles. All ordinary -edible fruit can be and is made into jam. The fruit is sometimes pulped -and stoned, sometimes used whole and unbroken; oranges are sliced or -shredded. For the preparation of jellies only certain fruit is suitable, -namely such as contains a peculiar material which on boiling becomes -dissolved and on cooling solidifies with the formation of a gelatinous -mass. This material, often called pectin, occurs mainly in comparatively -acid fruit like gooseberries, currants and apples, and is almost absent -from strawberries and raspberries. It is chemically a member of the -group of carbohydrates, is closely allied with vegetable gums abundantly -formed by certain sea-weeds and mosses (agar-agar and Iceland moss), and -is probably a mixture of various pentoses. Pentoses are devoid of -food-value, but, like animal gelatine, with which they are in no way -related, can form vehicles for food material. Some degree of -gelatinization is aimed at also in jams; hence to such fruits as have no -gelatinizing power an addition of apple or gooseberry juice, or even of -Iceland moss or agar-agar, is made. Animal gelatin is very rarely used. - -The art of jam and jelly making was formerly domestic, but has become a -very large branch of manufacture. For the production of a thoroughly -satisfactory conserve the boiling-down must be carried out very rapidly, -so that the natural colour of the fruit shall be little affected. -Considerable experience is required to stop at the right point; too -short boiling leaves an excess of water, leading to fermentation, while -over-concentration promotes crystallization of the sugar. The -manufactured product is on that account, as a rule, more uniform and -bright than the domestic article. The finish of the boiling is mostly -judged by rule of thumb, but in some scientifically conducted factories -careful thermometric observation is employed. Formerly jams and jellies -consisted of nothing but fruit and sugar; now starch-glucose is -frequently used by manufacturers as an ingredient. This permits of the -production of a slightly more aqueous and gelatinous product, alleged -also to be devoid of crystallizing power, as compared with the homemade -article. The addition of starch-glucose is not held to be an -adulteration. Aniline colours are very frequently used by manufacturers -to enhance the colour, and the effect of an excess of water is sought to -be counteracted by the addition of some salicylic acid or other -preservative. There has long been, and still exists to some extent, a -popular prejudice in favour of sugar obtained from the sugar-cane as -compared with that of the sugar-beet. This prejudice is absolutely -baseless, and enormous quantities of beet-sugar are used in the boiling -of jam. Adulteration in the gross sense, such as a substantial addition -of coarse pulp, like that of turnips or mangolds, very rarely occurs; -but the pulp of apple and other cheap fruit is often admixed without -notice to the purchaser. The use of colouring matters and preservatives -is discussed at length in the article ADULTERATION. (O. H.*) - - - - -JANESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Rock County, Wisconsin, -U.S.A., situated on both sides of the Rock river, 70 m. S.W. of -Milwaukee and 90 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 13,185, of whom 2409 -were foreign-born; (1910 census), 13,894. It is served by the Chicago & -North-Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by -electric lines connecting with Madison and Beloit, Wis., and Rockford, -Illinois. The Rock river is not commercially navigable at this point, -but furnishes valuable water-power for manufacturing purposes. The city -is picturesquely situated on bluffs above the river. Janesville is the -centre of the tobacco trade of the state, and has various manufactures. -The total value of the city's factory product in 1905 was $3,846,038, an -increase of 20.8% since 1900. Its public buildings include a city hall, -court house, post office, city hospital and a public library. It is the -seat of a school for the blind, opened as a private institution in 1849 -and taken over by the state in 1850, the first charitable institution -controlled by the state, ranking as one of the most successful of its -kind in the United States. The first settlement was made here about -1834. Janesville was named in honour of Henry F. Janes, an early -settler, and was chartered as a city in 1853. - - - - -JANET, PAUL (1823-1899), French philosophical writer, was born in Paris -on the 30th of April 1823. He was professor of moral philosophy at -Bourges (1845-1848) and Strassburg (1848-1857), and of logic at the -lycee Louis-le-Grand, Paris (1857-1864). In 1864 he was appointed to the -chair of philosophy at the Sorbonne, and elected a member of the academy -of the moral and political sciences. He wrote a large number of books -and articles upon philosophy, politics and ethics, on idealistic lines: -_La Famille, Histoire de la philosophie dans l'antiquite et dans le -temps moderne, Histoire de la science politique, Philosophie de la -Revolution Francaise_, &c. They are not characterized by much -originality of thought. In philosophy he was a follower of Victor -Cousin, and through him of Hegel. His principal work in this line, -_Theorie de la morale_, is little more than a somewhat patronizing -reproduction of Kant. He died in October 1899. - - - - -JANGIPUR, or JAHANGIRPUR, a town of British India, in Murshidabad -district, Bengal, situated on the Bhagirathi. Pop. (1901), 10,921. The -town is said to have been founded by the Mogul emperor Jahangir. During -the early years of British rule it was an important centre of the silk -trade, and the site of one of the East India Company's commercial -residencies. Jangipur is now best known as the toll station for -registering all the traffic on the Bhagirathi. The number of boats -registered annually is about 10,000. - - - - -JANIN, JULES GABRIEL (1804-1874), French critic, was born at St Etienne -(Loire) on the 16th of February 1804, and died near Paris on the 19th of -June 1874. His father was a lawyer, and he was well educated, first at -St Etienne, and then at the lycee Louis-le-Grand in Paris. He betook -himself to journalism very early, and worked on the _Figaro_, the -_Quotidienne_, &c., until in 1830 he became dramatic critic of the -_Journal des Debats_. Long before this, however, he had made a -considerable literary reputation, for which indeed his strange novel -_L'Ane mort et la femme guillotinee_ (1829) would have sufficed. _La -Confession_ (1830), which followed, was less remarkable in substance but -even more so in style; and in _Barnave_ (1831) he attacked the Orleans -family. From the day, however, when Janin became the theatrical critic -of the _Debats_, though he continued to write books indefatigably, he -was to most Frenchmen a dramatic critic and nothing more. He was -outrageously inconsistent, and judged things from no general point of -view whatsoever, though his judgment was usually good-natured. Few -journalists have ever been masters of a more attractive fashion of -saying the first thing that came into their heads. After many years of -_feuilleton_ writing he collected some of his articles in the work -called _Histoire de la litterature dramatique en France_ (1853-1858), -which by no means deserves its title. In 1865 he made his first attempt -upon the Academy, but was not successful till five years later. -Meanwhile he had not been content with his _feuilletons_, written -persistently about all manner of things. No one was more in request with -the Paris publishers for prefaces, letterpress to illustrated books and -such trifles. He travelled (picking up in one of his journeys a curious -windfall, a country house at Lucca, in a lottery), and wrote accounts of -his travels; he wrote numerous tales and novels, and composed many other -works, of which by far the best is the _Fin d'un monde et du neveu de -Rameau_ (1861), in which, under the guise of a sequel to Diderot's -masterpiece, he showed his great familiarity with the late 18th century. -He married in 1841; his wife had money, and he was always in easy -circumstances. In the early part of his career he had many quarrels, -notably one with Felix Pyat (1810-1889), whom he prosecuted successfully -for defamation of character. For the most part his work is mere -improvisation, and has few elements of vitality except a light and vivid -style. His _Oeuvres choisies_ (12 vols., 1875-1878) were edited by A. de -la Fitzeliere. - - A study on Janin with a bibliography was published by A. Piedagnel in - 1874. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, ii. and v., and - Gustave Planche, _Portraits litteraires_. - - - - -JANISSARIES (corrupted from Turkish _yeni cheri_, new troops), an -organized military force constituting until 1826 the standing army of -the Ottoman empire. At the outset of her history Turkey possessed no -standing army. All Moslems capable of bearing arms served as a kind of -volunteer yeomanry known as _akinjis_; they were summoned by public -criers, or, if the occasion required it, by secret messengers. It was -under Orkhan that a regular paid army was first organized: the soldiers -were known as _yaya_ or _piyade_. The result was unsatisfactory, as the -Turcomans, from whom these troops were recruited, were unaccustomed to -fight on foot or to submit to military discipline. Accordingly in 1330, -on the advice of Chendereli Kara Khalil, the system known as _devshurme_ -or forced levy, was adopted, whereby a certain number of Christian -youths (at first 1000) were every year taken from their parents and, -after undergoing a period of apprenticeship, were enrolled as _yeni -cheri_ or new troops. The venerable saint Haji Bektash, founder of the -Bektashi dervishes, blessed the corps and promised them victory; he -remained ever after the patron saint of the janissaries. - -At first the corps was exclusively recruited by the forced levy of -Christian children, for which purpose the officer known as -_tournaji-bashi_, or head-keeper of the cranes, made periodical tours in -the provinces. The fixed organization of the corps dates only from -Mahommed II., and its regulations were subsequently modified by Suleiman -I. In early days all Christians were enrolled indiscriminately; later -those from Albania, Bosnia and Bulgaria were preferred. The recruits -while serving their apprenticeship were instructed in the principles of -the faith by _khojas_, but according to D'Ohsson (vii. 327) they were -not obliged to become Moslems. - -The entire corps, commanded by the aga of the janissaries, was known as -the _ojak_ (hearth); it was divided into _ortas_ or units of varying -numbers; the _oda_ (room) was the name given to the barracks in which -the janissaries were lodged. There were, after the reorganization of -Suleiman I., 196 ortas of three classes, viz. the _jemaat_, comprising -101 ortas, the _beuluk_, 61 ortas, and the _sekban_, or _seimen_, 34 -ortas; to these must be added 34 ortas of _ajami_ or apprentices. The -strength of the orta varied greatly, sometimes being as low as 100, -sometimes rising considerably beyond its nominal war strength of 500. -The distinction between the different classes seems to have been -principally in name; in theory the jemaat, or _yaya beiler_, were -specially charged with the duty of frontier-guards; the _beuluks_ had -the privilege of serving as the sultan's guards and of keeping the -sacred banner in their custody. - -Until the accession of Murad III. (1574) the total effective of the -janissaries, including the ajami or apprentices, did not exceed 20,000. -In 1582 irregularities in the mode of admission to the ranks began. Soon -parents themselves begged to have their children enrolled, so great were -the privileges attaching to the corps; later the privilege of enlistment -was restricted to the children or relatives of former janissaries; -eventually the regulations were much relaxed, and any person was -admitted, only negroes being excluded. In 1591 the ojak numbered 48,688 -men. Under Ibrahim (1640-1648) it was reduced by Kara Mustafa to 17,000; -but it soon rose again, and at the accession of Mahommed IV. (1648), -the accession-bakshish was distributed to 50,000 janissaries. During the -war of 1683-1698 the rules for admission were suspended, 30,000 recruits -being received at one time, and the effective of the corps rising to -70,000; about 1805 it numbered more than 112,000; it went on increasing -until the destruction of the janissaries, when it reached 135,000. It -would perhaps be more correct to say that these are the numbers figuring -on the pay-sheets, and that they doubtless largely exceed the total of -the men actually serving in the ranks. - -Promotion to the rank of warrant officer was obtained by long or -distinguished service; it was by seniority up to the rank of _odabashi_, -but odabashis were promoted to the rank of _chorbaji_ (commander of an -orta) solely by selection. Janissaries advanced in their own orta, which -they left only to assume the command of another. Ortas remained -permanently stationed in the fortress towns in which they were in -garrison, being displaced in time of peace only when some violent -animosity broke out between two companies. There were usually 12 in -garrison at Belgrade, 14 at Khotin, 16 at Widdin, 20 at Bagdad, &c. The -commander was frequently changed. A new chorbaji was usually appointed -to the command of an orta stationed at a frontier post; he was then -transferred elsewhere, so that in course of time he passed through -different provinces. - -In time of peace the janissary received no pay. At first his war pay was -limited to one aspre per diem, but it was eventually raised to a minimum -of three aspres, while veterans received as much as 29 aspres, and -retired officers from 30 to 120. The aga received 24,000 piastres per -annum; the ordinary pay of a commander was 120 aspres per diem. The aga -and several of his subordinates received a percentage of the pay and -allowance of the troops; they also inherited the property of deceased -janissaries. Moreover, the officers profited largely by retaining the -names of dead or fictitious janissaries on the pay-rolls. Rations of -mutton, bread and candles were furnished by the government, the supply -of rice, butter and vegetables being at the charge of the commandant. -The rations would have been entirely inadequate if the janissaries had -not been allowed, contrary to the regulations, to pursue different -callings, such as those of baker, butcher, glazier, boatman, &c. At -first the janissaries bore no other distinctive mark save the white felt -cap. Soon the red cap with gold embroidery was substituted. Later a -uniform was introduced, of which the distinctive mark was less the -colour than the cut of the coat and the shape of the head-dress and -turban. The only distinction in the costume of commanding officers was -in the colour of their boots, those of the beuluks being red while the -others were yellow; subordinate officers wore black boots. - -The fundamental laws of the janissaries, which were very early -infringed, were as follows: implicit obedience to their officers; -perfect accord and union among themselves; abstinence from luxury, -extravagance and practices unseemly for a soldier and a brave man; -observance of the rules of Haji Bektash and of the religious law; -exclusion from the ranks of all save those properly levied; special -rules for the infliction of the death-penalty; promotion to be by -seniority; janissaries to be admonished or punished by their own -officers only; the infirm and unfit to be pensioned; janissaries were -not to let their beards grow, not to marry, nor to leave their barracks, -nor to engage in trade; but were to spend their time in drill and in -practising the arts of war. - -In time of peace the state supplied no arms, and the janissaries on -service in the capital were armed only with clubs; they were forbidden -to carry any arm save a cutlass, the only exception being at the -frontier-posts. In time of war the janissaries provided their own arms, -and these might be any which took their fancy. However, they were -induced by rivalry to procure the best obtainable and to keep them in -perfect order. The banner of the janissaries was of white silk on which -verses from the Koran were embroidered in gold. This banner was planted -beside the aga's tent in camp, with four other flags in red cases, and -his three horse-tails. Each orta had its flag, half-red and -half-yellow, placed before the tent of its commander. Each orta had two -or three great caldrons used for boiling the soup and pilaw; these were -under the guard of subordinate officers. A particular superstition -attached to them: if they were lost in battle all the officers were -disgraced, and the orta was no longer allowed to parade with its -caldrons in public ceremonies. The janissaries were stationed in most of -the guard-houses of Constantinople and other large towns. No sentries -were on duty, but rounds were sent out two or three times a day. It was -customary for the sultan or the grand vizier to bestow largess on an -orta which they might visit. - -The janissaries conducted themselves with extreme violence and brutality -towards civilians. They extorted money from them on every possible -pretext: thus, it was their duty to sweep the streets in the immediate -vicinity of their barracks, but they forced the civilians, especially if -rayas, to perform this task or to pay a bribe. They were themselves -subject to severe corporal punishments; if these were to take place -publicly the ojak was first asked for its consent. - -At first a source of strength to Turkey as being the only well-organized -and disciplined force in the country, the janissaries soon became its -bane, thanks to their lawlessness and exactions. One frequent means of -exhibiting their discontent was to set fire to Constantinople; 140 such -fires are said to have been caused during the 28 years of Ahmed III.'s -reign. The janissaries were at all times distinguished for their want of -respect towards the sultans; their outbreaks were never due to a real -desire for reforms of abuses or of misgovernment, but were solely caused -to obtain the downfall of some obnoxious minister. - -The first recorded revolt of the janissaries is in 1443, on the occasion -of the second accession of Mahommed II., when they broke into rebellion -at Adrianople. A similar revolt happened at his death, when Bayazid II. -was forced to yield to their demands and thus the custom of the -accession-bakshish was established; at the end of his reign it was the -janissaries who forced Bayazid to summon Prince Selim and to hand over -the reins of power to him. During the Persian campaign of Selim I. they -mutinied more than once. Under Osman II. their disorders reached their -greatest height and led to the dethronement and murder of the sultan. It -would be tedious to recall all their acts of insubordination. Throughout -Turkish history they were made use of as instruments by unscrupulous and -ambitious statesmen, and in the 17th century they had become a -praetorian guard in the worst sense of the word. Sultan Selim III. in -despair endeavoured to organize a properly drilled and disciplined -force, under the name of _nizam-i-jedid_, to take their place; for some -time the janissaries regarded this attempt in sullen silence; a curious -detail is that Napoleon's ambassador Sebastiani strongly dissuaded the -sultan from taking this step. Again serving as tools, the janissaries -dethroned Selim III. and obtained the abolition of the nizam-i-jedid. -But after the successful revolution of Bairakdar Pasha of Widdin the new -troops were re-established and drilled: the resentment of the -janissaries rose to such a height that they attacked the grand vizier's -house, and after destroying it marched against the sultan's palace. They -were repulsed by cannon, losing 600 men in the affair (1806). But such -was the excitement and alarm caused at Constantinople that the -nizam-i-jedid, or _sekbans_ as they were now called, had to be -suppressed. During the next 20 years the misdeeds and turbulence of the -janissaries knew no bounds. Sultan Mahmud II., powerfully impressed by -their violence and lawlessness at his accession, and with the example of -Mehemet Ali's method of suppressing the Mamlukes before his eyes, -determined to rid the state of this scourge; long biding his time, in -1825 he decided to form a corps of regular drilled troops known as -_eshkenjis_. A _fetva_ was obtained from the Sheikh-ul-Islam to the -effect that it was the duty of Moslems to acquire military science. The -imperial decree announcing the formation of the new troops was -promulgated at a grand council, and the high dignitaries present -(including certain of the principal officers of the janissaries who -concurred) undertook to comply with its provisions. But the janissaries -rose in revolt, and on the 10th of June 1826, began to collect on the -Et Meidan square at Constantinople; at midnight they attacked the house -of the aga of janissaries, and, finding he had made good his escape, -proceeded to overturn the caldrons of as many ortas as they could find, -thus forcing the troops of those ortas to join the insurrection. Then -they pillaged and robbed throughout the town. Meanwhile the government -was collecting its forces; the ulema, consulted by the sultan, gave the -following fetva: "If unjust and violent men attack their brethren, fight -against the aggressors and send them before their natural judge!" On -this the sacred standard of the prophet was unfurled, and war was -formally declared against these disturbers of order. Cannon were brought -against the Et Meidan, which was surrounded by troops. Ibrahim Aga, -known as Kara Jehennum, the commander of the artillery, made a last -appeal to the janissaries to surrender; they refused, and fire was -opened upon them. Such as escaped were shot down as they fled; the -barracks where many found refuge were burnt; those who were taken -prisoner were brought before the grand vizier and hanged. Before many -days were over the corps had ceased to exist, and the janissaries, the -glory of Turkey's early days and the scourge of the country for the last -two centuries, had passed for ever from the page of her history. - - See M. d'Ohsson, _Tableaux de l'empire ottoman_ (Paris, 1787-1820); - Ahmed Vefyk, _Lehje-i-osmanie_ (Constantinople, 1290-1874); A. Djevad - Bey, _Etat militaire ottoman_ (Constantinople, 1885). - - - - -JANIUAY, a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Islands, on -the Suague river, about 20 m. W.N.W. of Iloilo, the capital. Pop. -(1903), 27,399, including Lambunao (6661) annexed to Janiuay in 1903. -The town commands delightful views of mountain and valley scenery. An -excellent road connects it with Pototan, about 10 m. E. The surrounding -country is hilly but fertile and well cultivated, producing rice, sugar, -tobacco, vegetables (for the Iloilo market), hemp and Indian corn. The -women weave and sell beautiful fabrics of pina, silk, cotton and abaca. -The language is Panay-Visayan. Janiuay was founded in 1578; it was first -established in the mountains and was subsequently removed to its present -site. - - - - -JANJIRA, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of Bombay, -situated along the coast among the spurs of the Western Ghats, 40 m. S. -of Bombay city. Area, 324 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 85,414, showing an -increase of 4% in the decade. The estimated revenue is about L37,000; -there is no tribute. The chief, whose title is Nawab Sahib, is by -descent a Sidi or Abyssinian Mahommedan; and his ancestors were for many -generations admirals of the Mahommedan rulers of the Deccan. The state, -popularly known as Habsan (= Abyssinian), did not come under direct -subordination to the British until 1870. It supplies sailors and -fishermen, and also fire-wood, to Bombay, with which it is in regular -communication by steamer. - -The Nawab of Janjira is also chief of the state of JAFARABAD (q.v.). - - - - -JAN MAYEN, an arctic island between Greenland and the north of Norway, -about 71 deg. N. 8 deg. W. It is 34 m. long and 9 in greatest breadth, -and is divided into two parts by a narrow isthmus. The island is of -volcanic formation and mountainous, the highest summit being Beerenberg -in the north (8350 ft.). Volcanic eruptions have been observed. Glaciers -are fully developed. Henry Hudson discovered the island in 1607 and -called it Hudson's Tutches or Touches. Thereafter it was several times -observed by navigators who successively claimed its discovery and -renamed it. Thus, in 1611 or the following year whalers from Hull named -it Trinity Island; in 1612 Jean Vrolicq, a French whaler, called it Ile -de Richelieu; and in 1614 Joris Carolus named one of its promontories -Jan Meys Hoek after the captain of one of his ships. The present name of -the island is derived from this, the claim of its discovery by a Dutch -navigator, Jan Mayen, in 1611, being unsupportable. The island is not -permanently inhabited, but has been frequently visited by explorers, -sealers and whalers; and an Austrian station for scientific observations -was maintained here for a year in 1882-1883. During this period a mean -temperature of 27.8 deg. F. was recorded. - - - - -JANSEN, CORNELIUS (1585-1638), bishop of Ypres, and father of the -religious revival known as Jansenism, was born of humble Catholic -parentage at Accoy in the province of Utrecht on the 28th of October -1585. In 1602 he entered the university of Louvain, then in the throes -of a violent conflict between the Jesuit, or scholastic, party and the -followers of Michael Baius, who swore by St Augustine. Jansen ended by -attaching himself strongly to the latter party, and presently made a -momentous friendship with a like-minded fellow-student, Du Vergier de -Hauranne, afterwards abbot of Saint Cyran. After taking his degree he -went to Paris, partly to recruit his health by a change of scene, partly -to study Greek. Eventually he joined Du Vergier at his country home near -Bayonne, and spent some years teaching at the bishop's college. All his -spare time was spent in studying the early Fathers with Du Vergier, and -laying plans for a reformation of the Church. In 1616 he returned to -Louvain, to take charge of the college of St Pulcheria, a hostel for -Dutch students of theology. Pupils found him a somewhat choleric and -exacting master and academic society a great recluse. However, he took -an active part in the university's resistance to the Jesuits; for these -had established a theological school of their own in Louvain, which was -proving a formidable rival to the official faculty of divinity. In the -hope of repressing their encroachments, Jansen was sent twice to Madrid, -in 1624 and 1626; the second time he narrowly escaped the Inquisition. -He warmly supported the Catholic missionary bishop of Holland, Rovenius, -in his contests with the Jesuits, who were trying to evangelize that -country without regard to the bishop's wishes. He also crossed swords -more than once with the Dutch Presbyterian champion, Voetius, still -remembered for his attacks on Descartes. Antipathy to the Jesuits -brought Jansen no nearer Protestantism; on the contrary, he yearned to -beat these by their own weapons, chiefly by showing them that Catholics -could interpret the Bible in a manner quite as mystical and pietistic as -theirs. This became the great object of his lectures, when he was -appointed regius professor of scriptural interpretation at Louvain in -1630. Still more was it the object of his _Augustinus_, a bulky treatise -on the theology of St Augustine, barely finished at the time of his -death. Preparing it had been his chief occupation ever since he went -back to Louvain. But Jansen, as he said, did not mean to be a -school-pedant all his life; and there were moments when he dreamed -political dreams. He looked forward to a time when Belgium should throw -off the Spanish yoke and become an independent Catholic republic on the -model of Protestant Holland. These ideas became known to his Spanish -rulers, and to assuage them he wrote a philippic called the _Mars -gallicus_ (1635), a violent attack on French ambitions generally, and on -Richelieu's indifference to international Catholic interests in -particular. The _Mars gallicus_ did not do much to help Jansen's friends -in France, but it more than appeased the wrath of Madrid with Jansen -himself; in 1636 he was appointed bishop of Ypres. Within two years he -was cut off by a sudden illness on the 6th of May 1638; the -_Augustinus_, the book of his life, was published posthumously in 1640. - - Full details as to Jansen's career will be found in Reuchlin's - _Geschichte von Port Royal_ (Hamburg, 1839), vol. i. See also - _Jansenius_ by the Abbes Callawaert and Nols (Louvain, 1893). - (St C.) - - - - -JANSENISM, the religious principles laid down by Cornelius Jansen in his -_Augustinus_. This was simply a digest of the teaching of St Augustine, -drawn up with a special eye to the needs of the 17th century. In -Jansen's opinion the church was suffering from three evils. The official -scholastic theology was anything but evangelical. Having set out to -embody the mysteries of faith in human language, it had fallen a victim -to the excellence of its own methods; language proved too strong for -mystery. Theology sank into a branch of dialectic; whatever would not -fit in with a logical formula was cast aside as useless. But average -human nature does not take kindly to a syllogism, and theology had -ceased to have any appreciable influence on popular religion. Simple -souls found their spiritual pasture in little mincing "devotions"; while -robuster minds built up for themselves a natural moralistic religion, -quite as close to Epictetus as to Christianity. All these three evils -were attacked by Jansen. As against the theologians, he urged that in a -spiritual religion experience, not reason, must be our guide. As against -the stoical self-sufficiency of the moralists, he dwelt on the -helplessness of man and his dependence on his maker. As against the -ceremonialists, he maintained that no amount of church-going will save a -man, unless the love of God is in him. But this capacity for love no one -can give himself. If he is born without the religious instinct, he can -only receive it by going through a process of "conversion." And whether -God converts this man or that depends on his good pleasure. Thus -Jansen's theories of conversion melt into predestination; although, in -doing so, they somewhat modify its grimness. Even for the worst -miscreant there is hope--for who can say but that God may yet think fit -to convert him? Jansen's thoughts went back every moment to his two -spiritual heroes, St Augustine and St Paul, each of whom had been "the -chief of sinners." - -Such doctrines have a marked analogy to those of Calvin; but in many -ways Jansen differed widely from the Protestants. He vehemently rejected -their doctrine of justification by faith; conversion might be -instantaneous, but it was only the beginning of a long and gradual -process of justification. Secondly, although the one thing necessary in -religion was a personal relation of the human soul to its maker, Jansen -held that that relation was only possible in and through the Roman -Church. Herein he was following Augustine, who had managed to couple -together a high theory of church authority and sacramental grace with a -strongly personal religion. But the circumstances of the 17th century -were not those of the 5th; and Jansen landed his followers in an -inextricable confusion. What were they to do, when the outward church -said one thing, and the inward voice said another? Some time went by, -however, before the two authorities came into open conflict. Jansen's -ideas were popularized in France by his friend Du Vergier, abbot of St -Cyran; and he dwelt mainly on the practical side of the matter--on the -necessity of conversion and love of God, as the basis of the religious -life. This brought him into conflict with the Jesuits, whom he accused -of giving absolution much too easily, without any serious inquiry into -the dispositions of their penitent. His views are expounded at length by -his disciple, Antoine Arnauld, in a book on _Frequent Communion_ (1643). -This book was the first manifestation of Jansenism to the general public -in France, and raised a violent storm. But many divines supported -Arnauld; and no official action was taken against his party till 1649. -In that year the Paris University condemned five propositions from -Jansen's _Augustinus_, all relative to predestination. This censure, -backed by the signatures of eighty-five bishops, was sent up to Rome for -endorsement; and in 1653 Pope Innocent X. declared all five propositions -heretical. - -This decree placed the Jansenists between two fires; for although the -five propositions only represented one side of Jansen's teaching, it was -recognized by both parties that the whole question was to be fought out -on this issue. Under the leadership of Arnauld, who came of a great -family of lawyers, the Jansenists accordingly took refuge in a series of -legal tactics. Firstly, they denied that Jansen had meant the -propositions in the sense condemned. Alexander VII. replied (1656) that -his predecessor had condemned them in the sense intended by their -author. Arnauld retorted that the church might be infallible in abstract -questions of theology; but as to what was passing through an author's -mind it knew no more than any one else. However, the French government -supported the pope. In 1656 Arnauld was deprived of his degree, in spite -of Pascal's _Provincial Letters_ (1656-1657), begun in an attempt to -save him (see PASCAL; CASUISTRY). In 1661 a formulary, or solemn -renunciation of Jansen, was imposed on all his suspected followers; -those who would not sign it went into hiding, or to the Bastille. Peace -was only restored under Clement IX. in 1669. - -This peace was treated by Jansenist writers as a triumph; really it was -the beginning of their downfall. They had set out to reform the Church -of Rome; they ended by having to fight hard for a doubtful foothold -within it. Even that foothold soon gave way. Louis XIV. was a fanatic -for uniformity, civil and religious; the last thing he was likely to -tolerate was a handful of eccentric recluses, who believed themselves to -be in special touch with Heaven, and therefore might at any moment set -their conscience up against the law. During the lifetime of his cousin, -Madame de Longueville, the great protectress of the Jansenists, Louis -stayed his hand; on her death (1679) the reign of severity began. That -summer Arnauld, who had spent the greater part of his life in hiding, -was forced to leave France for good. - -Six years later he was joined in exile by Pasquier Quesnel who succeeded -him as leader of the party. Long before his flight from France Quesnel -had published a devotional commentary--_Reflexions morales sur le -Nouveau Testament_--which had gone through many editions without -exciting official suspicion. But in 1695 Louis Antoine de Noailles, -bishop of Chalons, was made archbishop of Paris. He was known to be very -hostile to the Jesuits, and at Chalons had more than once expressed -official approval of Quesnel's _Reflexions_. So the Jesuit party -determined to wreck archbishop and book at the same time. The Jansenists -played into their hands by suddenly raising (1701) in the Paris divinity -school the question whether it was necessary to accept the condemnation -of Jansen with interior assent, or whether a "respectful silence" was -enough. Very soon ecclesiastical France was in a blaze. In 1703 Louis -XIV. wrote to Pope Clement XI., proposing that they should take joint -action to make an end of Jansenism for ever. Clement replied in 1705 -with a bull condemning respectful silence. This measure only whetted -Louis's appetite. He was growing old and increasingly superstitious; the -affairs of his realm were going from bad to worse; he became frenziedly -anxious to propitiate the wrath of his maker by making war on the -enemies of the Church. In 1711 he asked the pope for a second, and still -stronger bull, that would tear up Jansenism by the roots. The pope's -choice of a book to condemn fell on Quesnel's _Reflexions_; in 1713 -appeared the bull _Unigenitus_, anathematizing no less than -one-hundred-and-one of its propositions. Indeed, in his zeal against the -Jansenists the pope condemned various practices in no way peculiar to -their party; thus, for instance, many orthodox Catholics were -exasperated at the heavy blow he dealt at popular Bible reading. Hence -the bull met with much opposition from Archbishop de Noailles and others -who did not call themselves Jansenists. In the midst of the conflict -Louis XIV. died (September 1715); but the freethinking duke of Orleans, -who succeeded him as regent, continued after some wavering to support -the bull. Thereupon four bishops appealed against it to a general -council; and the country became divided into "appellants" and -"acceptants" (1717). The regent's disreputable minister, Cardinal -Dubois, patched up an abortive truce in 1720, but the appellants -promptly "re-appealed" against it. During the next ten years, however, -they were slowly crushed, and in 1730 the _Unigenitus_ was proclaimed -part and parcel of the law of France. This led to a great quarrel with -the judges, who were intensely Gallican in spirit (see GALLICANISM), and -had always regarded the _Unigenitus_ as a triumph of ultramontanism. The -quarrel dragged indefinitely on through the 18th century, though the -questions at issue were really constitutional and political rather than -religious. - -Meanwhile the most ardent Jansenists had followed Quesnel to Holland. -Here they met with a warm welcome from the Dutch Catholic body, which -had always been in close sympathy with Jansenism, although without -regarding itself as formally pledged to the _Augustinus_. But it had -broken loose from Rome in 1702, and was now organizing itself into an -independent church (see UTRECHT). The Jansenists who remained in France -had meanwhile fallen on evil days. Persecution usually begets hysteria -in its victims; and the more extravagant members of the party were far -advanced on the road which leads to apocalyptic prophecy and "speaking -with tongues." About 1728 the "miracles of St Medard" became the talk of -Paris. This was the cemetery where was buried Francois de Paris, a -young Jansenist deacon of singularly holy life, and a perfervid -opponent of the _Unigenitus_. All sorts of miraculous cures were -believed to have been worked at his tomb, until the government closed -the cemetery in 1732. This gave rise to the famous epigram: - - _De par le roi, defense a Dieu - De faire miracle en ce lieu._ - -On the miracles soon followed the rise of the so-called Convulsionaries. -These worked themselves up, mainly by the use of frightful -self-tortures, into a state of frenzy, in which they prophesied and -cured diseases. They were eventually disowned by the more reputable -Jansenists, and were severely repressed by the police. But in 1772 they -were still important enough for Diderot to enter the field against them. -Meanwhile genuine Jansenism survived in many country parsonages and -convents, and led to frequent quarrels with the authorities. Only one of -its latter-day disciples, however, rose to real eminence; this was the -Abbe Henri Gregoire, who played a considerable part in the French -Revolution. A few small Jansenist congregations still survive in France; -and others have been started in connexion with the Old Catholic Church -in Holland. - - LITERATURE.--For the 17th century see the _Port Royal_ of Sainte-Beuve - (5th ed., Paris, 1888) in six volumes. See also H. Reuchlin, - _Geschichte von Port Royal_ (2 vols., Hamburg, 1839-1844), and C. - Beard, _Port Royal_ (2 vols., London, 1861). No satisfactory Roman - Catholic history of the subject exists, though reference may be made - to Count Joseph de Maistre's _De l'eglise gallicane_ (last ed., Lyons, - 1881). On the Jansenism of the 18th century no single work exists, - though much information will be found in the _Gallican Church_ of - Canon Jervis (2 vols., London, 1872). For a series of excellent - sketches see also Seche, _Les Derniers Jansenistes_ (3 vols., Paris, - 1891). A more detailed list of books bearing on the subject will be - found in the 5th volume of the _Cambridge Modern History_; and J. - Paquier's _Le Jansenisme_ (Paris, 1909) may also be consulted. - (St C.) - - - - -JANSSEN, or JANSEN (sometimes JOHNSON), CORNELIUS (1593-1664), Flemish -painter, was apparently born in London, and baptized on the 14th of -October 1593. There seems no reason to suppose, as was formerly stated, -that he was born at Amsterdam. He worked in England from 1618 to 1643, -and afterwards retired to Holland, working at Middelburg, Amsterdam, The -Hague and Utrecht, and dying at one of the last two places about 1664. -In England he was patronized by James I. and the court, and under -Charles I. he continued to paint the numerous portraits which adorn many -English mansions and collections. Janssen's pictures, chiefly portraits, -are distinguished by clear colouring, delicate touch, good taste and -careful finish. He generally painted upon panel, and often worked on a -small scale, sometimes producing replicas of his larger works. A -characteristic of his style is the very dark background, which throws -the carnations of his portraits into rounded relief. In all probability -his earliest portrait (1618) was that of John Milton as a boy of ten. - - - - -JANSSEN, JOHANNES (1820-1891), German historian, was born at Xanten on -the 10th of April 1829, and was educated as a Roman Catholic at Munster, -Louvain, Bonn and Berlin, afterwards becoming a teacher of history at -Frankfort-on-the-Main. He was ordained priest in 1860; became a member -of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies in 1875; and in 1880 was made -domestic prelate to the pope and apostolic pronotary. He died at -Frankfort on the 24th of December 1891. Janssen was a stout champion of -the Ultramontane party in the Roman Catholic Church. His great work is -his _Geschichte des deutschen Volkes seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters_ -(8 vols., Freiburg, 1878-1894). In this book he shows himself very -hostile to the Reformation, and attempts to prove that the Protestants -were responsible for the general unrest in Germany during the 16th and -17th centuries. The author's partisanship led to some controversy, and -Janssen wrote _An meine Kritiker_ (Freiburg, 1882) and _Ein zweites Wort -an meine Kritiker_ (Freiburg, 1883) in reply to the _Janssens Geschichte -des deutschen Volkes_ (Munich, 1883) of M. Lenz, and other criticisms. - - The _Geschichte_, which has passed through numerous editions, has been - continued and improved by Ludwig Pastor, and the greater part of it - has been translated into English by M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie - (London, 1896, fol.). Of his other works perhaps the most important - are: the editing of _Frankfurts Reichskorrespondenz, 1376-1519_ - (Freiburg, 1863-1872); and of the _Leben, Briefe und kleinere - Schriften_ of his friend J. F. Bohmer (Leipzig, 1868); a monograph, - _Schiller als Historiker_ (Freiburg, 1863); and _Zeit- und - Lebensbilder_ (Freiburg, 1875). - - See L. Pastor, _Johannes Janssen_ (Freiburg, 1893); F. Meister, - _Erinnerung an Johannes Janssen_ (Frankfort, 1896); Schwann, _Johannes - Janssen und die Geschichte der deutschen Reformation_ (Munich, 1892). - - - - -JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CESAR (1824-1907), French astronomer, was born in -Paris on the 22nd of February 1824, and studied mathematics and physics -at the faculty of sciences. He taught at the lycee Charlemagne in 1853, -and in the school of architecture 1865-1871, but his energies were -mainly devoted to various scientific missions entrusted to him. Thus in -1857 he went to Peru in order to determine the magnetic equator; in -1861-1862 and 1864, he studied telluric absorption in the solar spectrum -in Italy and Switzerland; in 1867 he carried out optical and magnetic -experiments at the Azores; he successfully observed both transits of -Venus, that of 1874 in Japan, that of 1882 at Oran in Algeria; and he -took part in a long series of solar eclipse-expeditions, e.g. to Trani -(1867), Guntoor (1868), Algiers (1870), Siam (1875), the Caroline -Islands (1883), and to Alcosebre in Spain (1905). To see the eclipse of -1870 he escaped from besieged Paris in a balloon. At the great Indian -eclipse of 1868 he demonstrated the gaseous nature of the red -prominences, and devised a method of observing them under ordinary -daylight conditions. One main purpose of his spectroscopic inquiries was -to answer the question whether the sun contains oxygen or not. An -indispensable preliminary was the virtual elimination of -oxygen-absorption in the earth's atmosphere, and his bold project of -establishing an observatory on the top of Mont Blanc was prompted by a -perception of the advantages to be gained by reducing the thickness of -air through which observations have to be made. This observatory, the -foundations of which were fixed in the snow that appears to cover the -summit to a depth of ten metres, was built in September 1893, and -Janssen, in spite of his sixty-nine years, made the ascent and spent -four days taking observations. In 1875 he was appointed director of the -new astrophysical observatory established by the French government at -Meudon, and set on foot there in 1876 the remarkable series of solar -photographs collected in his great _Atlas de photographies solaires_ -(1904). The first volume of the _Annales de l'observatoire de Meudon_ -was published by him in 1896. He died at Paris on the 23rd of December -1907. - - See A. M. Clerke, _Hist. of Astr. during the 19th Century_ (1903); H. - Macpherson, _Astronomers of To-Day_ (1905). - - - - -JANSSENS (or JANSENS), VICTOR HONORIUS (1664-1739), Flemish painter, was -born at Brussels. After seven years in the studio of an obscure painter -named Volders, he spent four years in the household of the duke of -Holstein. The next eleven years Janssens passed in Rome, where he took -eager advantage of all the aids to artistic study, and formed an -intimacy with Tempesta, in whose landscapes he frequently inserted -figures. Rising into popularity, he painted a large number of cabinet -historical scenes; but, on his return to Brussels, the claims of his -increasing family restricted him almost entirely to the larger and more -lucrative size of picture, of which very many of the churches and -palaces of the Netherlands contain examples. In 1718 Janssens was -invited to Vienna, where he stayed three years, and was made painter to -the emperor. The statement that he visited England is based only upon -the fact that certain fashionable interiors of the time in that country -have been attributed to him. Janssen's colouring was good, his touch -delicate and his taste refined. - - - - -JANSSENS (or JANSENS) VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM (1567-1632), Flemish painter, -was born at Antwerp in 1567. He studied under Jan Snellinck, was a -"master" in 1602, and in 1607 was dean of the master-painters. Till the -appearance of Rubens he was considered perhaps the best historical -painter of his time. The styles of the two artists are not unlike. In -correctness of drawing Janssens excelled his great contemporary; in -bold composition and in treatment of the nude he equalled him; but in -faculty of colour and in general freedom of disposition and touch he -fell far short. A master of chiaroscuro, he gratified his taste for -strong contrasts of light and shade in his torchlights and similar -effects. Good examples of this master are to be seen in the Antwerp -museum and the Vienna gallery. The stories of his jealousy of Rubens and -of his dissolute life are quite unfounded. He died at Antwerp in 1632. - - - - -JANUARIUS, ST, or SAN GENNARO, the patron saint of Naples. According to -the legend, he was bishop of Benevento, and flourished towards the close -of the 3rd century. On the outbreak of the persecution by Diocletian and -Maximian, he was taken to Nola and brought before Timotheus, governor of -Campania, on account of his profession of the Christian religion. After -various assaults upon his constancy, he was sentenced to be cast into -the fiery furnace, through which he passed wholly unharmed. On the -following day, along with a number of fellow martyrs, he was exposed to -the fury of wild beasts, which, however, laid themselves down in tame -submission at his feet. Timotheus, again pronouncing sentence of death, -was struck with blindness, but immediately healed by the powerful -intercession of the saint, a miracle which converted nearly five -thousand men on the spot. The ungrateful judge, only roused to further -fury by these occurrences, caused the execution of Januarius by the -sword to be forthwith carried out. The body was ultimately removed by -the inhabitants of Naples to that city, where the relic became very -famous for its miracles, especially in counteracting the more dangerous -eruptions of Vesuvius. Whatever the difficulties raised by his _Acta_, -the cult of St Januarius, bishop and martyr, is attested historically at -Naples as early as the 5th century (_Biblioth. hagiog. latina_, No. -6558). Two phials preserved in the cathedral are believed to contain the -blood of the martyr. The relic is shown twice a year--in May and -September. On these occasions the substance contained in the phial -liquefies, and the Neapolitans see in this phenomenon a supernatural -manifestation. The "miracle of St Januarius" did not occur before the -middle of the 15th century. - -A great number of saints of the name of Januarius are mentioned in the -martyrologies. The best-known are the Roman martyr (festival, the 10th -of July), whose epitaph was written by Pope Damasus (De Rossi, -_Bullettino_, p. 17, 1863), and the martyr of Cordova, who forms along -with Faustus and Martialis the group designated by Prudentius -(_Peristephanon_, iv. 20) by the name of _tres coronae_. The festival of -these martyrs is celebrated on the 13th of October. - - See _Acta sanctorum_, September, vi. 761-891; G. Scherillo, _Esame di - un codice greco pubblicato nel tomo secondo della bibliotheca - casinensis_ (Naples, 1876); G. Taglialatela, _Memorie storico-critiche - del culto del sangue di S. Gennaro_ (Naples, 1893), which contains - many facts, but little criticism; G. Albini, _Sulla mobilita dei - liquidi viscosi non omogenei_ (_Societa reale di Napoli, Rendiconti_, - 2nd series, vol. iv., 1890); _Acta sanctorum_, October, vi. 187-193. - (H. De.) - - - - -JANUARY, the first month in the modern calendar, consisting of -thirty-one days. The name (Lat. _Januarius_) is derived from the -two-faced Roman god Janus, to whom the month was dedicated. As -doorkeeper of heaven, as looking both into the past and the future, and -as being essentially the deity who busied himself with the beginnings of -all enterprises, he was appropriately made guardian of the fortunes of -the new year. The consecration of the month took place by an offering of -meal, salt, frankincense and wine, each of which was new. The -Anglo-Saxons called January _Wulfmonath_, in allusion to the fact that -hunger then made the wolves bold enough to come into the villages. The -principal festivals of the month are: New Year's Day; Feast of the -Circumcision; Epiphany; Twelfth-Day; and Conversion of St Paul (see -CALENDAR). - - - - -JANUS, in Roman mythology one of the principal Italian deities. The name -is generally explained as the masculine form of Diana (Jana), and Janus -as originally a god of light and day, who gradually became the god of -the beginning and origin of all things. According to some, however, he -is simply the god of doorways (_januae_) and in this connexion is the -patron of all entrances and beginnings. According to Mommsen, he was -"the spirit of opening," and the double-head was connected with the gate -that opened both ways. Others, attributing to him an Etruscan origin, -regard him as the god of the vault of heaven, which the Etruscan arch is -supposed to resemble. The rationalists explained him as an old king of -Latium, who built a citadel for himself on the Janiculum. It was -believed that his worship, which was said to have existed as a local -cult before the foundation of Rome, was introduced there by Romulus, and -that a temple was dedicated to him by Numa. This temple, in reality only -an arch or gateway (_Janus geminus_) facing east and west, stood at the -north-east end of the forum. It was open during war and closed during -peace (Livy i. 19); it was shut only four times before the Christian -era. A possible explanation is, that it was considered a bad omen to -shut the city gates while the citizens were outside fighting for the -state; it was necessary that they should have free access to the city, -whether they returned victorious or defeated. Similarly, the door of a -private house was kept open while the members of the family were away, -but when all were at home it was closed to keep out intruders. There was -also a temple of Janus near the theatre of Marcellus, in the forum -olitorium, erected by Gaius Duilius (Tacitus, _Ann._ ii. 49), if not -earlier. - -The beginning of the day (hence his epithet Matutinus), of the month, -and of the year (January) was sacred to Janus; on the 9th of January the -festival called Agonia was celebrated in his honour. He was invoked -before any other god at the beginning of any important undertaking; his -priest was the Rex Sacrorum, the representative of the ancient king in -his capacity as religious head of the state. All gateways, housedoors -and entrances generally, were under his protection; he was the inventor -of agriculture (hence Consivius, "he who sows or plants"), of civil -laws, of the coining of money and of religious worship. He was -worshipped on the Janiculum as the protector of trade and shipping; his -head is found on the as, together with the prow of a ship. He is usually -represented on the earliest coins with two bearded faces, looking in -opposite directions; in the time of Hadrian the number of faces is -increased to four. In his capacity as porter or doorkeeper he holds a -staff in his right hand, and a key (or keys) in his left; as such he is -called Patulcius (opener) and Clusius (closer). His titles Curiatius, -Patricius, Quirinus originate in his worship in the gentes, the curiae -and the state, and have no reference to any special functions or -characteristics. In late times, he is both bearded and unbearded; in -place of the staff and keys, the fingers of his right hand show the -number 300 (CCC.), those of his left the number of the remaining days of -the year (LXV.). According to A. B. Cook (_Classical Review_, xviii. -367), Janus is only another form of Jupiter, the name under which he was -worshipped by the pre-Latin (aboriginal) inhabitants of Rome; after -their conquest by the Italians, Janus and Jana took their place as -independent divinities by the side of the Italian Jupiter and Juno. He -considers it probable that the three-headed Janus was a triple oak-god -worshipped in the form of two vertical beams and a cross-bar (such as -the _tigillum sororium_, for which see HORATII); hence also the door, -consisting of two lintels and side-posts, was sacred to Janus. The -three-headed type may have been the original, from which the two-headed -and four-headed types were developed. J. G. Frazer (_The Early History -of the Kingship_, pp. 214, 285), who also identifies Janus with Jupiter, -is of opinion that Janus was not originally a doorkeeper, but that the -door was called after him, not vice versa. _Janua_ may be an adjective, -_janua foris_ meaning a door with a symbol of Janus close by the chief -entrance, to serve as a protection for the house; then _janua_ alone -came to mean a door generally, with or without the symbol of Janus. The -double head may have been due to the desire to make the god look both -ways for greater protection. By J. Rhys (_Hibbert Lectures_, 1886, pp. -82, 94) Janus is identified with the three-faced (sometimes -three-headed) Celtic god Cernunnus, a chthonian divinity, compared by -Rhys with the Teutonic Heimdal, the warder of the gods of the -under-world; like Janus, Cernunnus and Heimdal were considered to be the -fons et origo of all things. - - See S. Linde, _De Jano summo romanorum deo_ (Lund, 1891); J. S. - Speyer, "Le Dieu romain Janus," in _Revue de l'histoire des religions_ - (xxvi., 1892); G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Romer_ (1902); W. - Deecke, _Etruskische Forschungen_, vol. ii.; W. Warde Fowler, _The - Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (1899), pp. 282-290; - articles in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and Daremberg and - Saglio's _Dictionnaire des Antiquites_; J. Toutain, _Etudes de - Mythologie_ (1909). On other jani (arched passages) in Rome, - frequented by business men and money changers, see O. Richter, - _Topographie der Stadt Rom_ (1901). (J. H. F.) - - - - -JAORA, a native state of Central India, in the Malwa agency. It consists -of two isolated tracts, between Ratlam and Neemuch Area, with the -dependencies of Piplauda and Pant Piplauda, 568 sq. m. Pop. (1901), -84,202. The estimated revenue is L57,000; tribute, L9000. The chief, -whose title is nawab, is a Mahommedan of Afghan descent. The state was -confirmed by the British government in 1818 by the Treaty of Mandsaur. -Nawab Mahommed Ismail, who died in 1895, was an honorary major in the -British army. His son, Iftikhar Ali Khan, a minor at his accession, was -educated in the Daly College at Indore, with a British officer for his -tutor, and received powers of administration in 1906. The chief crops -are millets, cotton, maize and poppy. The last supplies a large part of -the Malwa opium of commerce. The town of JAORA is on the Rajputana-Malwa -railway, 20 m. N. of Ratlam. Pop. (1901), 23,854. It is well laid out, -with many good modern buildings, and has a high school and dispensary. -To celebrate Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, the Victoria Institute -and a zenana dispensary were opened in 1898. - - - - -JAPAN, an empire of eastern Asia, and one of the great powers of the -world. The following article is divided for convenience into ten -sections:--I. GEOGRAPHY; II. THE PEOPLE; III. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE; -IV. ART; V. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS; VI. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION; VII. -RELIGION; VIII. FOREIGN INTERCOURSE; IX. DOMESTIC HISTORY; X. THE CLAIM -OF JAPAN. - - -I.--GEOGRAPHY - - Position and Extent. - -The continent of Asia stretches two arms into the Pacific Ocean, -Kamchatka in the north and Malacca in the south, between which lies a -long cluster of islands constituting the Japanese empire, which covers -37 deg. 14' of longitude and 29 deg. 11' of latitude. On the extreme -north are the Kuriles (called by the Japanese _Chishima_, or the "myriad -isles"), which extend to 156 deg. 32' E. and to 50 deg. 56' N.; on the -extreme south is Formosa (called by the Japanese _Taiwan_), which -extends to 122 deg. 6' E., and to 21 deg. 45' N. There are six large -islands, namely Sakhalin (called by the Japanese _Karafuto_); Yezo or -Ezo (which with the Kuriles is designated _Hokkaido_, or the north-sea -district); Nippon (the "origin of the sun"), which is the main island; -Shikoku (the "four provinces"), which lies on the east of Nippon; -Kiushiu or Kyushu (the "nine provinces"), which lies on the south of -Nippon, and Formosa, which forms the most southerly link of the chain. -Formosa and the Pescadores were ceded to Japan by China after the war of -1894-1895, and the southern half of Sakhalin--the part south of 50 deg. -N.--was added to Japan by cession from Russia in 1905. Korea, annexed in -August 1910, is separately noticed. - - _Coast-line._--The following table shows the numbers, the lengths of - coast-line, and the areas of the various groups of islands, only those - being indicated that have a coast-line of at least 1 _ri_ (2(1/2) m.), - or that, though smaller, are inhabited; except in the case of Formosa - and the Pescadores, where the whole numbers are given:-- - - Length of Area - Number. coast in in square - miles. miles. - - Nippon 1 4,765.03 99,373.57 - Isles adjacent to Nippon 167 1,275.09 470.30 - Shikoku 1 1,100.85 6,461.39 - Isles adjacent to Shikoku 75 548.12 175.40 - Kiushiu 1 2,101.28 13,778.68 - Isles adjacent to Kiushiu 150 2,405.06 1,821.85 - Yezo 1 1,423.32 30,148.41 - Isles adjacent to Yezo 13 110.24 30.51 - Sakhalin (Karafuto) 1 Unsurveyed 12,487.64 - Sado 1 130.05 335.92 - Okishima 1 182.27 130.40 - Isles adjacent to Okishima 1 3.09 0.06 - Awaji 1 94.43 217.83 - Isles adjacent to Awaji 1 5.32 0.83 - Iki 1 86.47 50.96 - Isles adjacent to Iki 1 4.41 0.47 - Tsushima 1 409.23 261.72 - Isles adjacent to Tsushima 5 118.80 4.58 - Riukiu (or Luchu) Islands 55 768.74 935.18 - Kuriles (Chishima) 31 1,496.23 6,159.42 - Bonin (Ogasawara Islands) 20 174.65 26.82 - Taiwan (Formosa) 1 731.31 13,429.31 - Isles adjacent to Formosa 7 128.32 Not surveyed - Pescadores (Hoko-to) 12 98.67 85.50 - --- --------- ---------- - Totals 549 18,160.98 173,786.75 - - If the various smaller islands be included, a total of over 3000 is - reached, but there has not been any absolutely accurate enumeration. - - [Illustration: Map of Japan and Korea.] - - It will be observed that the coast-line is very long in proportion to - the area, the ratio being 1 m. of coast to every 9.5 in. of area. The - Pacific Ocean, which washes the eastern shores, moulds their outline - into much greater diversity than does the Sea of Japan which washes - the western shores. Thus the Pacific sea-board measures 10,562 m. - against 2887 m. for that of the Japan Sea. In depth of water, too, the - advantage is on the Pacific side. There the bottom slopes very - abruptly, descending precipitously at a point not far from the - north-east coast of the main island, where soundings have shown 4655 - fathoms. This, the deepest sea-bed in the world, is called the - Tuscarora Deep, after the name of the United States' man-of-war which - made the survey. The configuration seems to point to a colossal crater - under the ocean, and many of the earthquakes which visit Japan appear - to have their origin in this submarine region. On the other hand, the - average depth of the Japan Sea is only 1200 fathoms, and its maximum - depth is 3200. The east coast, from Cape Shiriya (Shiriyazaki) in the - north to Cape Inuboye (Inuboesaki) near Tokyo Bay, though abounding in - small indentations, has only two large bays, those of Sendai and - Matsushima; but southward from Tokyo Bay to Cape Satta (Satanomisaki) - in Kiushiu there are many capacious inlets which offer excellent - anchorage, as the Gulf of Sagami (Sagaminada), the Bays of Suruga - (Surugawan), Ise (Isenumi) and Osaka, the Kii Channel, the Gulf of - Tosa (Tosonada), &c. Opening into both the Pacific and the Sea of - Japan and separating Shikoku and Kiushiu from the main island as well - as from each other, is the celebrated Inland Sea, one of the most - picturesque sheets of water in the world. Its surface measures 1325 - sq. m.; it has a length of 255 m. and a maximum width of 56 m.; its - coast-lines aggregate 700 m.; its depth is nowhere more than 65 - fathoms, and it is studded with islands which present scenery of the - most diverse and beautiful character. There are four narrow avenues - connecting this remarkable body of water with the Pacific and the - Japan Sea; that on the west, called Shimonoseki Strait, has a width of - 3000 yds., that on the south, known as Hayamoto Strait, is 8 m. - across; and the two on the north, Yura and Naruto Straits, measure - 3000 and 1500 yds. respectively. It need scarcely be said that these - restricted approaches give little access to the storms which disturb - the seas outside. More broken into bays and inlets than any other part - of the coast is the western shore of Kiushiu. Here three - promontories--Nomo, Shimabara and Kizaki--enclose a large bay having - on its shores Nagasaki, the great naval port of Sasebo, and other - anchorages. On the south of Kiushiu the Bay of Kagoshima has - historical interest, and on the west are the bays of Ariakeno-ura and - Yatsushiro. To the north of Nagasaki are the bays of Hakata, Karatsu - and Imari. Between this coast and the southern extremity of the Korean - peninsula are situated the islands of Iki and Tsushima, the latter - being only 30 m. distant from the peninsula. Passing farther north, - the shoreline of the main island along the Japan Sea is found to be - comparatively straight and monotonous, there being only one noteworthy - indentation, that of Wakasa-wan, where are situated the naval port of - Maizuru and the harbour of Tsuruga, the Japanese point of - communication with the Vladivostok terminus of the Trans-Asian - railway. From this harbour to Osaka Japan's waist measures only 77 m., - and as the great lake of Biwa and some minor sheets of water break the - interval, a canal may be dug to join the Pacific and the Sea of Japan. - Yezo is not rich in anchorages. Uchiura (Volcano Bay), Nemuro - (Walfisch) Bay and Ishikari Bay are the only remarkable inlets. As for - Formosa, the peculiarity of its outline is that the eastern coast - falls precipitously into deep water, while the western slopes slowly - to shelving bottoms and shoals. The Pescadores Islands afford the best - anchorage in this part of Japan. - - _Mountains._--The Japanese islands are traversed from north to south - by a range of mountains which sends out various lateral branches. - Lofty summits are separated by comparatively low passes, which lie at - the level of crystalline rocks and schists constituting the original - uplands upon which the summits have been piled by volcanic action. The - scenery among the mountains is generally soft. Climatic agencies have - smoothed and modified everything rugged or abrupt, until an impression - of gentle undulation rather than of grandeur is suggested. Nowhere is - the region of eternal snow reached, and masses of foliage enhance the - gentle aspect of the scenery and glorify it in autumn with tints of - striking brilliancy. Mountain alternates with valley, so that not more - than one-eighth of the country's entire area is cultivable. - - - Fuji. - - The king of Japanese mountains is Fuji-yama or Fuji-san (peerless - mount), of which the highest point (Ken-ga-mine) is 12,395 ft. above - sea-level. The remarkable grace of this mountain's curve--an inverted - catenary--makes it one of the most beautiful in the world, and has - obtained for it a prominent place in Japanese decorative art. Great - streams of lava flowed from the crater in ancient times. The course of - one is still visible to a distance of 15 m. from the summit, but the - rest are covered, for the most part, with deep deposits of ashes and - scoriae. On the south Fuji slopes unbroken to the sea, but on the - other three sides the plain from which it rises is surrounded by - mountains, among which, on the north and west, a series of most - picturesque lakes has been formed in consequence of the rivers having - been dammed by ashes ejected from Fuji's crater. To a height of some - 1500 ft. the slopes of the mountain are cultivated; a grassy moorland - stretches up the next 2500 ft.; then follows a forest, the upper edge - of which climbs to an altitude of nearly 8000 ft., and finally there - is a wide area of ashes and scoriae. There is entire absence of the - Alpine plants found abundantly on the summits of other high mountains - in Japan, a fact due, doubtless, to the comparatively recent activity - of the volcano. The ascent of Fuji presents no difficulties. A - traveller can reach the usual point of departure, Gotemba, by rail - from Yokohama, and thence the ascent and descent may be made in one - day by a pedestrian. - - - The Japanese Alps. - - The provinces of Hida and Etchiu are bounded on the east by a chain of - mountains including, or having in their immediate vicinity, the - highest peaks in Japan after Fuji. Six of these summits rise to a - height of 9000 ft. or upwards, and constitute the most imposing - assemblage of mountains in the country. The ridge runs due north and - south through 60 to 70 m., and has a width of 5 to 10 m. It is mostly - of granite, only two of the mountains--Norikura and Tateyama--showing - clear traces of volcanic origin. Its lower flanks are clothed with - forests of beech, conifers and oak. Farther south, in the same range, - stands Ontake (10,450 ft.), the second highest mountain in Japan - proper (as distinguished from Formosa); and other remarkable though - not so lofty peaks mark the same regions. This grand group of - mountains has been well called the "Alps of Japan," and a good account - of them may be found in The _Japanese Alps_ (1896) by the Rev. W. - Weston. On the summit of Ontake are eight large and several small - craters, and there also may be seen displays of trance and "divine - possession," such as are described by Mr Percival Lowell in _Occult - Japan_ (1895). - - - The Nikko Mountains. - - Even more picturesque, though less lofty, than the Alps of Japan, are - the Nikko mountains, enclosing the mausolea of the two greatest of the - Tokugawa _shoguns_. The highest of these are Shirane-san (7422 ft.), - Nantai-san (8169 ft.), Nyoho-zan (8100 ft.), and Omanago (7546 ft.). - They are clothed with magnificent vegetation, and everywhere they echo - the voices of waterfalls and rivulets. - - - Mountains of the North. - - In the north of the main island there are no peaks of remarkable - height. The best known are Chiokai-zan, called "Akita-Fuji" (the Fuji - of the Akita province), a volcano 7077 ft. high, which was active as - late as 1861; Ganju-san (6791 ft.), called also "Nambu-Fuji" or - Iwate-zan, remarkable for the beauty of its logarithmic curves; - Iwaki-san (5230 ft.), known as Tsugaru-Fuji, and said by some to be - even more imposing than Fuji itself; and the twin mountains Gassan - (6447 ft.) and Haguro-san (5600 ft.). A little farther south, - enclosing the fertile plain of Aizu (Aizu-taira, as it is called) - several important peaks are found, among them being Iide-san (6332 - ft.); Azuma-yama (7733 ft.), which, after a long interval of - quiescence, has given many evidences of volcanic activity during - recent years; Nasu-dake (6296 ft.), an active volcano; and Bandai-san - (6037 ft.). A terrible interest attaches to the last-named mountain, - for, after having remained quiet so long as to lull the inhabitants of - the neighbouring district into complete security, it suddenly burst - into fierce activity on the 15th of July 1888, discharging a vast - avalanche of earth and rock, which dashed down its slopes like an - inundation, burying four hamlets, partially destroying seven villages, - killing 461 people and devastating an area of 27 sq. m. - - - Mountains of Kozuke, Kai and Shinano. - - In the province of Kozuke, which belongs to the central part of the - main island, the noteworthy mountains are Asama-yama (8136 ft.), one - of the best known and most violently active volcanoes of Japan; - Akagi-san, a circular range of peaks surrounding the basin of an old - crater and rising to a height of 6210 ft.; the Haruna group, - celebrated for scenic beauties, and Myogi-san, a cluster of pinnacles - which, though not rising higher than 3880 ft., offer scenery which - dispels the delusion that nature as represented in the classical - pictures (_bunjingwa_) of China and Japan exists only in the artist's - imagination. Farther south, in the province of Kai (Koshiu), and - separating two great rivers, the Fuji-kawa and the Tenriu-gawa, there - lies a range of hills with peaks second only to those of the Japanese - Alps spoken of above. The principal elevations in this range are - Shirane-san--with three summits, Nodori (9970 ft.), Ai-no-take (10,200 - ft.) and Kaigane (10,330 ft.)--and Hoozan (9550 ft.). It will be - observed that all the highest mountains of Japan form a species of - belt across the widest part of the main island, beginning on the west - with the Alps of Etchiu, Hida and Shinano, and ending on the east with - Fuji-yama. In all the regions of the main island southward of this - belt the only mountains of conspicuous altitude are Omine (6169 ft.) - and Odai-gaharazan (5540 ft.) in Yamato and Daisen or Oyama (5951 ft.) - in Hoki. - - - Mountains of Shikoku. - - The island of Shikoku has no mountains of notable magnitude. The - highest is Ishizuchi-zan (7727 ft.), but there are several peaks - varying from 3000 to 6000 ft. - - - Mountains of Kiushiu. - - Kiushiu, though abounding in mountain chains, independent or - connected, is not remarkable for lofty peaks. In the neighbourhood of - Nagasaki, over the celebrated solfataras of Unzen-take (called also - Onsen) stands an extinct volcano, whose summit, Fugen-dake, is 4865 - ft. high. More notable is Aso-take, some 20 m. from Kumamoto; for, - though the highest of its five peaks has an altitude of only 5545 ft., - it boasts the largest crater in the world, with walls nearly 2000 ft. - high and a basin from 10 to 14 m. in diameter. Aso-take is still an - active volcano, but its eruptions during recent years have been - confined to ashes and dust. Only two other mountains in Kiushiu need - be mentioned--a volcano (3743 ft.) on the island Sakura-jima, in the - extreme south; and Kirishima-yama (5538 ft.), on the boundary of - Hiuga, a mountain specially sacred in Japanese eyes, because on its - eastern peak (Takachiho-dake) the god Ninigi descended as the - forerunner of the first Japanese sovereign, Jimmu. - - - Volcanoes. - - Among the mountains of Japan there are three volcanic ranges, namely, - that of the Kuriles, that of Fuji, and that of Kirishima. Fuji is the - most remarkable volcanic peak. The Japanese regard it as a sacred - mountain, and numbers of pilgrims make the ascent in midsummer. From - 500 to 600 ft. is supposed to be the depth of the crater. There are - neither sulphuric exhalations nor escapes of steam at present, and it - would seem that this great volcano is permanently extinct. But - experience in other parts of Japan shows that a long quiescent crater - may at any moment burst into disastrous activity. Within the period of - Japan's written history several eruptions are recorded the last having - been in 1707, when the whole summit burst into flame, rocks were - shattered, ashes fell to a depth of several inches even in Yedo - (Tokyo), 60 m. distant, and the crater poured forth streams of lava. - Among still active volcanoes the following are the best known:-- - - Name of Volcano. - Height in feet. Remarks. - - Tarumai (Yezo) 2969. - Forms southern wall of a large ancient crater now occupied by a lake - (Shikotsu). A little steam still issues from several smaller cones - on the summit of the ridge, as well as from one, called Eniwa, on - the northern side. - - Noboribetsu (Yezo) 1148. - In a state of continuous activity, with frequent detonations and - rumblings. The crater is divided by a wooded rock-wall. The northern - part is occupied by a steaming lake, while the southern part - contains numerous solfataras and boiling springs. - - Komagatake (Yezo) 3822. - The ancient crater-wall, with a lofty pinnacle on the western side, - contains a low new cone with numerous steaming rifts and vents. In a - serious eruption in 1856 the S.E. flank of the mountain and the - country side in that direction were denuded of trees. - - Esan 2067. - A volcano-promontory at the Pacific end of the Tsugaru Strait: a - finely formed cone surrounded on three sides by the sea, the crater - breached on the land side. The central vent displays considerable - activity, while the rocky walls are stained with red, yellow and - white deposits from numerous minor vents. - - Agatsuma (Iwaki) 5230. - Erupted in 1903 and killed two geologists. - - Bandai-san (Iwashiro) 6037. - Erupted in 1888 after a long period of quiescence. The outbreak - was preceded by an earthquake of some severity, after which about 20 - explosions took place. A huge avalanche of earth and rocks buried - the Nagase Valley with its villages and inhabitants, and devastated - an area of over 27 sq. m. The number of lives lost was 461; four - hamlets were completely entombed with their inhabitants and cattle; - seven villages were partially wrecked; forests were levelled or the - trees entirely denuded of bark; rivers were blocked up, and lakes - were formed. The lip of the fracture is now marked by a line of - steaming vents. - - Azuma-yama (Fukushima) 7733. - Long considered extinct, but has erupted several times since 1893, - the last explosion having been in 1900, when 82 sulphur-diggers were - killed or injured; ashes were thrown to a distance of 5 m., - accumulating in places to a depth of 5 ft.; and a crater 300 ft. in - diameter, and as many in depth, was formed on the E. side of the - mountain. This crater is still active. The summit-crater is occupied - by a beautiful lake. On the Fukushima (E.) side of the volcano rises - a large parasitic cone, extinct. - - Nasu (Tochigi) 6296. - Has both a summit and a lateral crater, which are apparently - connected and perpetually emitting steam. At or about the main vents - are numerous solfataras. The whole of the upper part of the cone - consists of grey highly acidic lava. At the base is a thermal - spring, where baths have existed since the 7th century. - - Shirane (Nikko) 7422. - The only remaining active vent of the once highly volcanic Nikko - district. Eruption in 1889. - - Shirane (Kai) 10,330. - Eruption in 1905, when the main crater was enlarged to a length of - 3000 ft. It is divided into three parts, separated by walls, and - each containing a lake, of which the middle one emits steam and the - two others are cold. The central lake, during the periods of - eruption (which are frequent), displays a geyser-like activity. - These lakes contain free sulphuric acid, mixed with iron and alum. - - Unzen (Hizen) 4865. - A triple-peaked volcano in the solfatara stage, extinct at the - summit, but displaying considerable activity at its base in the form - of numerous fumaroles and boiling sulphur springs. - - Aso-take (Higo) 5545. - Remarkable for the largest crater in the world. It measures 10 m. by - 15, and rises almost symmetrically to a height of about 2000 ft., - with only one break through which the river Shira flows. The centre - is occupied by a mass of peaks, on the W. flank of which lies the - modern active crater. Two of the five compartments into which it is - divided by walls of deeply striated volcanic ash are constantly - emitting steam, while a new vent displaying great activity has been - opened at the base of the cone on the south side. Eruptions have - been recorded since the earliest days of Japanese history. In 1884 - the ejected dust and ashes devastated farmlands through large areas. - An outbreak in 1894 produced numerous rifts in the inner walls from - which steam and smoke have issued ever since. - - Kaimon (Kagoshima Bay) 3041. - One of the most beautiful volcanoes of Japan, known as the - Satsuma-Fuji. The symmetry of the cone is marred by a convexity on - the seaward (S.) side. This volcano is all but extinct. - - Sakura-jima (Kagomshima Bay) 3743. - An island-volcano, with several parasitic cones (extinct), on the N. - and E. sides. At the summit are two deep craters, the southern of - which emits steam. Grass grows, however, to the very edges of the - crater. The island is celebrated for thermal springs, oranges and - _daikon_ (radishes), which sometimes grow to a weight of 70 lb. - - Kiri-shima (Kagoshima Bay) 5538. - A volcanic range of which Takachiho, the only active cone, forms the - terminal (S.E.) peak. The crater, situated on the S.W. side of the - volcano, lies some 500 ft. below the summit-peak. It is of - remarkably regular formation, and the floor is pierced by a number - of huge fumaroles whence issue immense volumes of steam. - - Izuno Oshima (Vries Island) (Izu) 2461. - The volcano on this island is called Mihara. There is a double - crater, the outer being almost complete. The diameter of the outer - crater, within which rises the modern cone to a height of 500 ft. - above the surrounding floor, is about 2 m.; while the present - crater, which displays incessant activity, has itself a diameter of - 1/4 m. - - Asama (Ise) 8136. - The largest active volcano in Japan. An eruption in 1783, with a - deluge of lava, destroyed an extensive forest and overwhelmed - several villages. The present cone is the third, portions of two - concentric crater rings remaining. The present crater is remarkable - for the absolute perpendicularity of its walls, and has an immense - depth--from 600 to 800 ft. It is circular, 3/4 m. in circumference, - with sides honeycombed and burned to a red hue. - - Some of the above information is based upon Mr. C. E. Bruce-Mitford's - valuable work (see _Geog. Jour._, Feb. 1908, &c.). - - _Earthquakes._--Japan is subject to marked displays of seismic - violence. One steadily exercised influence is constantly at work, for - the shores bordering the Pacific Ocean are slowly though appreciably - rising, while on the side of the Japan Sea a corresponding subsidence - is taking place. Japan also experiences a vast number of petty - vibrations not perceptible without the aid of delicate instruments. - But of earthquakes proper, large or small, she has an exceptional - abundance. Thus in the thirteen years ending in 1897--that is to say, - the first period when really scientific apparatus for recording - purposes was available--she was visited by no fewer than 17,750 - shocks, being an average of something over 3(1/2) daily. The frequency - of these phenomena is in some degree a source of security, for the - minor vibrations are believed to exercise a binding effect by removing - weak cleavages. Nevertheless the annals show that during the three - centuries before 1897 there were 108 earthquakes sufficiently - disastrous to merit historical mention. If the calculation be carried - farther back--as has been done by the seismic disaster investigation - committee of Japan, a body of scientists constantly engaged in - studying these phenomena under government auspices,--it is found that, - since the country's history began to be written in the 8th century - A.D., there have been 2006 major disturbances; but inasmuch as 1489 of - these occurred before the beginning of the Tokugawa administration - (early in the 17th century, and therefore in an era when methods of - recording were comparatively defective), exact details are naturally - lacking. The story, so far as it is known, may be gathered from the - following table:-- - - Date A.D. Region. Houses Deaths. - destroyed. - 684 Southern part of Tosa -- -- (1) - 869 Mutsu -- -- (2) - 1361 Kioto -- -- - 1498 Tokaido -- 2,000(3) - 1569 Bungo -- 700 - 1596 Kioto -- 2,000 - 1605 (31/1) Pacific Coast -- 5,000 - 1611 (27/9) Aizu -- 3,700 - 1614 (2/12) Pacific Coast (N.E.) -- 1,700 - 1662 (16/6) Kioto 5,500 500 - 1666 (2/2) Pacific Coast (N.E.) -- 1,500 - 1694 (19/12) Ugo 2,760 390 - 1703 (30/12) Tokyo 20,162 5,233 - 1707 (28/10) Pacific Coast of Kiushiu - and Shikoku 29,000 4,900 - 1751 (20/5) Echigo 9,100 1,700 - 1766 (8/3) Hirosaki 7,500 1,335 - 1792 (10/2) Hizen and Higo 12,000 15,000 - 1828 (18/2) Echigo 11,750 1,443 - 1844 (8/5) Echigo 34,000 12,000 - 1854 (6/7) Yamato, Iga, Ise 5,000 2,400 - 1854 (23/12) Tokaido (Shikoku) 60,000 3,000 - 1855 (11/11) Yedo, (Tokyo) 50,000 6,700 - 1891 (28/10) Mino, Owari 222,501 7,273 - 1894 (22/10) Shonai 8,403 726 - 1896 (15/6) Sanriku 13,073 27,122 - 1896 (31/8) Ugo, Rikuchu 8,996 209 - 1906 (12/2) Formosa 5,556 1,228 - - (1) An area of over 1,200,000 acres swallowed up by the sea. - (2) Tidal wave killed thousands of people. - (3) Hamana lagoon formed. - - In the capital (Tokyo) the average yearly number of shocks throughout - the 26 years ending in 1906 was 96, exclusive of minor vibrations, but - during the 50 years then ending there were only two severe shocks - (1884 and 1894), and they were not directly responsible for any damage - to life or limb. The Pacific coast of the Japanese islands is more - liable than the western shore to shocks disturbing a wide area. - Apparent proof has been obtained that the shocks occurring in the - Pacific districts originate at the bottom of the sea--the Tuscarora - Deep is supposed to be the centre of seismic activity--and they are - accompanied in most cases by tidal waves. It would seem that of late - years Tajima, Hida, Kozuke and some other regions in central Japan - have enjoyed the greatest immunity, while Musashi (in which province - Tokyo is situated) and Sagami have been most subject to disturbance. - - _Plains._--Japan, though very mountainous, has many extensive plains. - The northern island--Yezo--contains seven, and there are as many more - in the main and southern islands, to say nothing of flat lands of - minor dimensions. The principal are given in the following table:-- - - Name. Situation. Area. Remarks. - - Tokachi plain Yezo. 744,000 acres. -- - Ishikari " " 480,000 " -- - Kushiro " " 1,229,000 " -- - Nemuro " " 320,000 " -- - Kitami " " 230,000 " -- - Hidaka " " 200,000 " -- - Teshio " " 180,000 " -- - Echigo " Main Island. Unascertained. -- - Sendai " " " -- - Kwanto " " " In this plain lie the - capital, Tokyo, and the - town of Yokohama. It - supports about 6 millions - of people. - Mino-Owari " " " Has 1(1/2) million inhabitants. - Kinai " " " Has the cities of Osaka, - Kioto and Kobe, and 2(1/2) - million people. - Tsukushi " Kiushiu. " The chief coalfield of - Japan. - - _Rivers._--Japan is abundantly watered. Probably no country in the - world possesses a closer network of streams, supplemented by canals - and lakes. But the quantity of water carried seawards varies within - wide limits; for whereas, during the rainy season in summer and while - the snows of winter are melting in spring, great volumes of water - sweep down from the mountains, these broad rivers dwindle at other - times to petty rivulets trickling among a waste of pebbles and - boulders. Nor are there any long rivers, and all are so broken by - shallows and rapids that navigation is generally impossible except by - means of flat-bottomed boats drawing only a few inches. The chief - rivers are given in the following table:-- - - Length - in miles. Source. Mouth. - - Ishikari-gawa 275 Ishikari-dake Otaru. - Shinano-gawa 215 Kimpu-san Niigata. - Teshio-gawa 192 Teshio-take Sea of Japan. - Tone-gawa 177 Monju-zan, Kozuke Choshi (Shimosa). - Mogami-gawa 151 Dainichi-dake(Uzen) Sakata. - Yoshino-gawa 149 Yahazu-yama (Tosa) Tokushima (Awa). - Kitakami-gawa 146 Nakayama-dake Ishinomaki - (Rikuchiu) (Rikuzen). - Tenriu-gawa 136 Suwako (Shinano) Totomi Bay. - Go-gawa or - Iwa-megawa 122 Maruse-yama (Bingo) Iwami Bay. - Abukuma-gawa 122 Asahi-take (Iwashiro) Matsushima Bay. - Tokachi-gawa 120 Tokachi-dake Tokachi Bay. - Sendai-gawa 112 Kunimi-zan (Hiuga) Kumizaki (Satsuma). - Oi-gawa 112 Shirane-san (Kai) Suruga Bay. - Kiso-gawa 112 Kiso-zan (Shinano) Bay of Isenumi. - Arakawa 104 Chichibu-yama Tokyo Bay. - Naga-gawa 102 Nasu-yama (Shimotsuke) Naka-no-minato - (Huachi). - - _Lakes and Waterfalls._--Japan has many lakes, remarkable for the - beauty of their scenery rather than for their extent. Some are - contained in alluvial depressions in the river valleys; others have - been formed by volcanic eruptions, the ejecta damming the rivers until - exits were found over cliffs or through gorges. Some of these lakes - have become favourite summer resorts for foreigners. To that category - belong especially the lakes of Hakone, of Chiuzenji, of Shoji, of - Inawashiro, and of Biwa. Among these the highest is Lake Chiuzenji, - which is 4375 ft. above sea-level, has a maximum depth of 93 fathoms, - and empties itself at one end over a fall (Kegon) 250 ft. high. The - Shoji lakes lie at a height of 3160 ft., and their neighbourhood - abounds in scenic charms. Lake Hakone is at a height of 2428 ft.; - Inawashiro, at a height of 1920 ft. and Biwa at a height of 328 ft. - The Japanese associate Lake Biwa (Omi) with eight views of special - loveliness (_Omi-no-hakkei_). Lake Suwa, in Shinano, which is emptied - by the Tenriu-gawa, has a height of 2624 ft. In the vicinity of many - of these mountain lakes thermal springs, with remarkable curative - properties, are to be found. (F. By.) - - _Geology._--It is a popular belief that the islands of Japan consist - for the most part of volcanic rocks. But although this conception - might reasonably be suggested by the presence of many active and - extinct volcanoes, Professor J. Milne has pointed out that it is - literally true of the Kuriles alone, partially true for the northern - half of the Main Island and for Kiushiu, and quite incorrect as - applied to the southern half of the Main Island and to Shikoku. This - authority sums up the geology of Japan briefly and succinctly as - follows (in _Things Japanese_, by Professor Chamberlain): "The - backbone of the country consists of primitive gneiss and schists. - Amongst the latter, in Shikoku, there is an extremely interesting rock - consisting largely of piedmontite. Overlying these amongst the - Palaeozoic rocks, we meet in many parts of Japan with slates and other - rocks possibly of Cambrian or Silurian age. Trilobites have been - discovered in Rikuzen. Carboniferous rocks are represented by mountain - masses of _Fusulina_ and other limestones. There is also amongst the - Palaeozoic group an interesting series of red slates containing - Radiolaria. Mesozoic rocks are represented by slates containing - _Ammonites_ and _Monotis_, evidently of Triassic age, rocks containing - _Ammonites Bucklandi_ of Liassic age, a series of beds rich in plants - of Jurassic age, and beds of Cretaceous age containing _Trigonia_ and - many other fossils. The Cainozoic or Tertiary system forms a fringe - round the coasts of many portions of the empire. It chiefly consists - of stratified volcanic tuffs rich in coal, lignite, fossilized plants - and an invertebrate fauna. Diatomaceous earth exists at several places - in Yezo. In the alluvium which covers all, the remains have been - discovered of several species of elephant, which, according to Dr - Edmund Naumann, are of Indian origin. The most common eruptive rock is - andesite. Such rocks as basalt, diorite and trachyte are comparatively - rare. Quartz porphyry, quartzless porphyry, and granite are largely - developed." Drs von Richthofen and Rein discuss the subject in greater - detail. They have pointed out that in the mountain system of Japan - there are three main lines. One runs from S.W. to N.E.; another from - S.S.W. to N.N.E., and the third is meridional. These they call - respectively the "southern schist range," the "northern schist range," - and the "snow range," the last consisting mainly of old crystalline - massive rocks. The rocks predominating in Japan fall also into three - groups. They are, first, plutonic rocks, especially granite; secondly, - volcanic rocks, chiefly trachyte and dolerite; and thirdly, palaeozoic - schists. On the other hand, limestone and sandstone, especially of the - Mesozoic strata, are strikingly deficient. The strike of the old - crystalline rocks follows, in general, the main direction of the - islands (S.W. to N.E.). They are often overlain by schists and - quartzites, or broken through by volcanic masses. "The basis of the - islands consist of granite, syenite, diorite, diabase and related - kinds of rock, porphyry appearing comparatively seldom. Now the - granite, continuing for long distances, forms the prevailing rock; - then, again, it forms the foundation for thick strata of schist and - sandstone, itself only appearing in valleys of erosion and river - boulders, in rocky projections on the coasts or in the ridges of the - mountains.... In the composition of many mountains in Hondo (the main - island) granite plays a prominent part.... It appears to form the - central mass which crops up in hundreds of places towards the coast - and in the interior. Old schists, free from fossils and rich in - quartz, overlie it in parallel chains through the whole length of the - peninsula, especially in the central and highest ridges, and bear the - ores of Chu-goku (the central provinces), principally copper pyrites - and magnetic pyrites. These schist ridges rich in quartz show, to a - depth of 20 metres, considerable disintegration. The resulting pebble - and quartz-sand is very unproductive, and supports chiefly a poor - underwood and crippled pines with widely spreading roots which seek - their nourishment afar. In the province of Settsu granite everywhere - predominates, which may be observed also in the railway cuttings - between Hiogo and Osaka, as well as in the temples and walls of these - towns. The waterfalls near Kobe descend over granite walls and the - _mikageishi_ (stone of Mikage), famous throughout Japan, is granite - from Settsu.... In the hill country on the borders of Ise, Owari, - Mikawa and Totomi, on the one side, and Omi, Mino and Shinano, on the - other, granite frequently forms dark grey and much disintegrated - rock-projections above schist and diluvial quartz pebbles. The - feldspar of a splendid pegmatite and its products of disintegration on - the borders of Owari, Mino and Mikawa form the raw material of the - very extensive ceramic industry of this district, with its chief - place, Seto. Of granite are chiefly formed the meridional mountains of - Shinano. Granite, diorite and other plutonic rocks hem in the winding - upper valleys of the Kiso-gawa, the Saigawa (Shinano river) and many - other rivers of this province, their clear water running over granite. - Also in the hills bordering on the plain of Kwanto these old - crystalline rocks are widely spread. Farther northwards they give way - again, as in the south, to schists and eruptive rocks. Yet even here - granite may be traced in many places. Of course it is not always a - pure granite; even hablit and granite-porphyry are found here and - there. Thus, for instance, near Nikko in the upper valley of the - Daiya-gawa, and in several other places in the neighbouring mountains, - a granite-porphyry appears with large, pale, flesh-coloured crystals - of orthoclase, dull triclinic felspar, quartz and hornblende." "From - the mine of Ichinokawa in Shikoku come the wonderful crystals of - antimonite, which form such conspicuous objects in the mineralogical - cabinets of Europe." (Rein's _Japan_ and Milne in _Things Japanese_.) - The above conditions suggest the presence of tertiary formations, yet - only the younger groups of that formation appear to be developed. Nor - is there any sign of moraines, glacier-scorings or other traces of the - ice-age. - - The oldest beds which have yielded fossils in any abundance belong to - the Carboniferous System. The Trias proper is represented by truly - marine deposits, while the Rhaetic beds contain plant remains. The - Jurassic and Cretaceous beds are also in part marine and in part - terrestrial. During the whole of the Mesozoic era Japan appears to - have lain on or near the margin of the Asiatic continent, and the - marine deposits are confined for the most part to the eastern side of - the islands. - - The igneous rocks occur at several geological horizons, but the great - volcanic eruptions did not begin until the Tertiary period. The - existing volcanoes belong to four separate arcs or chains. On the - south is the arc of the Luchu islands, which penetrates into Kiu Shiu. - In the centre there is the arc of the Izu-no-Shichito islands, which - is continued into Hondo along the Fossa Magna. In North Hondo the - great Bandai arc forms the axis of the island and stretches into Yezo - (Hokkaido). Finally in the east of Yezo rise the most westerly - volcanoes of the Kurile chain. The lavas and ashes ejected by these - volcanoes consist of liparite, dacite, andesite and basalt. - - Structurally Japan is divided into two regions by a depression (the - "Fossa Magna" of Naumann) which stretches across the island of Hondo - from Shimoda to Nagano. The depression is marked by a line of - volcanoes, including Fuji, and is in part buried beneath the products - of their eruptions. It is supposed to be due to a great fault along - its western margin. South and west of the Fossa Magna the beds are - thrown into folds which run approximately parallel to the general - direction of the coast, and two zones may be recognized--an outer, - consisting of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic beds, and an inner, consisting - of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks, with granitic intrusions. Nearly - along the boundary between the two zones lie the inland seas of south - Japan. Towards the Fossa Magna the folds bend northwards. - - North and east of the Fossa Magna the structure is concealed, to a - very large extent, by the outpourings of the volcanoes which form so - marked a feature in the northern part of Hondo. But the foundation on - which the volcanoes rest is exposed along the east coast of Hondo (in - the Kwanto, Abukuma and Kitakami hills), and also in the island of - Yezo. This foundation consists of Archean, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic - beds folded together, the direction of the folds being N. by W. to S. - by E., that is to say, slightly oblique to the general direction of - this part of the island. Towards the Fossa Magna the folds bend - sharply round until they are nearly parallel to the Fossa itself. - (P. La.) - - - Secular Movement - - It has been abundantly demonstrated by careful observations that the - east coasts of Japan are slowly rising. This phenomenon was first - noticed in the case of the plain on which stands the capital, Tokyo. - Maps of sufficiently trustworthy accuracy show that in the 11th - century Tokyo Bay penetrated much more deeply in a northern direction - than it does now; the point where the city's main river (Sumida or - Arakawa) enters the sea was considerably to the north of its present - position, and low-lying districts, to-day thickly populated, were - under water. Edmund Naumann was the discoverer of these facts, and his - attention was first drawn to them by learning that an edible sea-weed, - which flourishes only in salt water, is called Asakusa-nori, from the - place (Asakusa) of its original provenance, which now lies some 3 m. - inland. Similar phenomena were found in Sakhalin by Schmidt and on the - north-east coast of the main island by Rein, and there can be little - doubt that they exist at other places also. Naumann has concluded that - "formerly Tokyo Bay stretched further over the whole level country of - Shimosa and Hitachi and northwards as far as the plain of Kwanto - extends;" that "the mountain country of Kasusa-Awa emerged from it an - island, and that a current ran in a north-westerly direction between - this island and the northern mountain margin of the present plain - toward the north-east into the open ocean." - - _Mineral Springs._--The presence of so many active volcanoes is - partially compensated by a wealth of mineral springs. Since many of - these thermal springs possess great medicinal value, Japan may become - one of the world's favourite health-resorts. There are more than a - hundred spas, some hot, some cold, which, being easily accessible and - highly efficacious, are largely visited by the Japanese. The most - noteworthy are as follows:-- - - Name of Spa. Prefecture. Quality. Temp., F deg. - - Arima Hiogo Salt 100 - Asama Nagano Pure 111--127 - Asamushi Aomori Salt 134--168 - Atami Shizuoka " 131--226 - Beppu Oita Carbonic Acid 109--132 - Bessho Nagano Pure or Sulphurous 108--113 - Dogo Ehime Pure 70--110 - Hakone Kanagawa Pure, Salt or Sulphurous 98--168 - Higashi-yama Fukushima Pure or Salt 117--144 - Ikao Gumma Salt 111--127 - Isobe " " Cold - Kusatsu " Sulphurous 127--148 - Nasu Tochigi Sulphurous 162--172 - Noboribetsu Ishikari " 125 - Shibu Nagano Salt 98--115 - Chiuzenji Shizuoka Carbonate of Soda and - Sulphur 114--185 - Takarazuka Hiogo Carbonic Acid Cold - Ureshino Saga " 230 - Unzen Nagasaki Sulphurous 158--204 - Wagura Ishikawa Salt 180 - Yamashiro " " 165 - Yunoshima Hiogo " 104--134 - - _Climate._--The large extension of the Japanese islands in a northerly - and southerly direction causes great varieties of climate. General - characteristics are hot and humid though short summers, and long, cold - and clear winters. The equatorial currents produce conditions - differing from those existing at corresponding latitudes on the - neighbouring continent. In Kiushiu, Shikoku and the southern half of - the main island, the months of July and August alone are marked by - oppressive heat at the sea-level, while in elevated districts a cool - and even bracing temperature may always be found, though the direct - rays of the sun retain distressing power. Winter in these districts - does not last more than two months, from the end of December to the - beginning of March; for although the latter month is not free from - frost and even snow, the balminess of spring makes itself plainly - perceptible. In the northern half of the main island, in Yezo and in - the Kuriles, the cold is severe during the winter, which lasts for at - least four months, and snow falls sometimes to great depths. Whereas - in Tokyo the number of frosty nights during a year does not average - much over 60, the corresponding number in Sapporo on the north-west of - Yezo is 145. But the variation of the thermometer in winter and summer - being considerable--as much as 72 deg. F. in Tokyo--the climate proves - somewhat trying to persons of weak constitution. On the other hand, - the mean daily variation is in general less than that in other - countries having the same latitude: it is greatest in January, when it - reaches 18 deg. F., and least in July, when it barely exceeds 9 deg. - F. The monthly variation is very great in March, when it usually - reaches 43 deg. F. - - - Meteorology. - - During the first 40 years of the _Meiji_ era numerous meteorological - stations were established. Reports are constantly forwarded by - telegraph to the central observatory in Tokyo, which issues daily - statements of the climatic conditions during the previous twenty-four - hours, as well as forecasts for the next twenty-four. The whole - country is divided into districts for meteorological purposes, and - storm-warnings are issued when necessary. At the most important - stations observations are taken every hour; at the less important, six - observations daily; and at the least important, three observations. - From the record of three decades the following yearly averages of - temperature are obtained:-- - - F deg. - - Taihoku (in Formosa) 71 - Nagasaki (Kiushiu) 60 - Kobe (Main Island) 59 - Osaka (Main Island) 59 - Okayama (Main Island) 58 - Nagoya (Main Island) 58 - Sakai (Main Island) 58 - Tokyo (Capital) 57 - Kioto (Main Island) 57 - Niigata (Main Island) 55 - Ishinomaki (Main Island) 52 - Aomori (Main Island) 50 - Sapporo (Yezo) 44 - - The following table affords data for comparing the climates of Peking, - Shanghai, Hakodate, Tokyo and San Francisco:-- - - Mean - Longitude. Latitude. Temp., F deg. - - Peking 116 deg. 29' E. 39 deg. 57' N. 53 - Shanghai 121 deg. 20' E. 31 deg. 12' N. 59 - Hakodate 140 deg. 45' E. 41 deg. 46' N. 47 - Tokyo 138 deg. 47' E. 35 deg. 41' N. 57 - San Francisco 122 deg. 25' E. 37 deg. 48' N. 56 - - Mean Temp. of - Hottest Month. Hottest Month. - - Peking July 80 - Shanghai " 84 - Hakodate August 71 - Tokyo " 79 - San Francisco September 63 - - Mean Temp. of - Coldest Month. Coldest Month. - - Peking January 22 - Shanghai " 26 - Hakodate " 28 - Tokyo " 36 - San Francisco " 49 - - - Rainfall. - - There are three wet seasons in Japan: the first, from the middle of - April to the beginning of May; the second, from the middle of June to - the beginning of July; and the third, from early in September to early - in October. The dog days (_doyo_) are from the middle of July till the - second half of August. September is the wettest month; January the - driest. During the four months from November to February inclusive - only about 18% of the whole rain for the year falls. In the district - on the east of the main island the snowfall is insignificant, seldom - attaining a depth of more than four or five inches and generally - melting in a few days, while bright, sunny skies are usual. But in the - mountainous provinces of the interior and in those along the western - coast, deep snow covers the ground throughout the whole winter, and - the sky is usually wrapped in a veil of clouds. These differences are - due to the action of the north-westerly wind that blows over Japan - from Siberia. The intervening sea being comparatively warm, this wind - arrives at Japan having its temperature increased and carrying - moisture which it deposits as snow on the western faces of the - Japanese mountains. Crossing the mountains and descending their - eastern slopes, the wind becomes less saturated and warmer, so that - the formation of clouds ceases. Japan is emphatically a wet country so - far as quantity of rainfall is concerned, the average for the whole - country being 1570 mm. per annum. Still there are about four sunny - days for every three on which rain or snow falls, the actual figures - being 150 days of snow or rain and 215 days of sunshine. - - - Wind. - - During the cold season, which begins in October and ends in April, - northerly and westerly winds prevail throughout Japan. They come from - the adjacent continent of Asia, and they develop considerable strength - owing to the fact that there is an average difference of some 22 mm. - between the atmospheric pressure (750 mm.) in the Pacific and that - (772 mm.) in the Japanese islands. But during the warm season, from - May to September, these conditions of atmospheric pressure are - reversed, that in the Pacific rising to 767 mm. and that in Japan - falling to 750 mm. Hence throughout this season the prevailing winds - are light breezes from the west and south. A comparison of the force - habitually developed by the wind in various parts of the islands shows - that at Suttsu in Yezo the average strength is 9 metres per second, - while Izuhara in the island Tsushima, Kumamoto in Kiushiu and Gifu in - the east centre of the main island stand at the bottom of the list - with an average wind velocity of only 2 metres. A calamitous - atmospheric feature is the periodical arrival of storms called - "typhoons" (Japanese _tai-fu_ or "great wind"). These have their - origin, for the most part, in the China Sea, especially in the - vicinity of Luzon. Their season is from June to October, but they - occur in other months also, and they develop a velocity of 5 to 75 m. - an hour. The meteorological record for ten years ended 1905 shows a - total of 120 typhoons, being an average of 12 annually. September had - 14 of these phenomena, March 11 and April 10, leaving 85 for the - remaining 9 months. But only 65 out of the whole number developed - disastrous force. It is particularly unfortunate that September should - be the season of greatest typhoon frequency, for the earlier varieties - of rice flower in that month and a heavy storm does much damage. Thus, - in 1902--by no means an abnormal year--statistics show the following - disasters owing to typhoons: casualties to human life, 3639; ships and - boats lost, 3244; buildings destroyed wholly or partially, 695,062; - land inundated, 1,071,575 acres; roads destroyed, 1236 m.; bridges - washed away, 13,685; embankments broken, 705 m.; crops damaged, - 8,712,655 bushels. The total loss, including cost of repairs, was - estimated at nearly 3 millions sterling, which may be regarded as an - annual average. - - _Flora._--The flora of Japan has been carefully studied by many - scientific men from Siebold downwards. Foreigners visiting Japan are - immediately struck by the affection of the people for flowers, trees - and natural beauties of every kind. In actual wealth of blossom or - dimensions of forest trees the Japanese islands cannot claim any - special distinction. The spectacles most admired by all classes are - the tints of the foliage in autumn and the glory of flowering trees in - the spring. In beauty and variety of pattern and colour the autumnal - tints are unsurpassed. The colours pass from deep brown through purple - to yellow and white, thrown into relief by the dark green of - non-deciduous shrubs and trees. Oaks and wild prunus, wild vines and - sumachs, various kinds of maple, the dodan (_Enkianthus Japonicus_ - Hook.)--a wonderful bush which in autumn develops a hue of ruddy - red--birches and other trees, all add multitudinous colours to the - brilliancy of a spectacle which is further enriched by masses of - feathery bamboo. The one defect is lack of green sward. The grass used - for Japanese lawns loses its verdure in autumn and remains from - November to March a greyish-brown blot upon the scene. Spring is - supposed to begin in February when, according to the old calendar, the - new year sets in, but the only flowers then in bloom are the _camellia - japonica_ and some kinds of daphne. The former--called by the Japanese - _tsubaki_--may often be seen glowing fiery red amid snow, but the pink - (_otome tsubaki_), white (_shiro-tsubaki_) and variegated - (_shibori-no-tsubaki_) kinds do not bloom until March or April. - Neither the camellia nor the daphne is regarded as a refined flower: - their manner of shedding their blossoms is too unsightly. Queen of - spring flowers is the plum (_ume_). The tree lends itself with - peculiar readiness to the skilful manipulation of the gardener, and - is by him trained into shapes of remarkable grace. Its pure white or - rose-red blossoms, heralding the first approach of genial weather, are - regarded with special favour and are accounted the symbol of - unassuming hardihood. The cherry (_sakura_) is even more esteemed. It - will not suffer any training, nor does it, like the plum, improve by - pruning, but the sunshine that attends its brief period of bloom in - April, the magnificence of its flower-laden boughs and the picturesque - flutter of its falling petals, inspired an ancient poet to liken it to - the "soul of Yamato" (Japan), and it has ever since been thus - regarded. The wild peach (_momo_) blooms at the same time, but - attracts little attention. All these trees--the plum, the cherry and - the peach--bear no fruit worthy of the name, nor do they excel their - Occidental representatives in wealth of blossom, but the admiring - affection they inspire in Japan is unique. Scarcely has the cherry - season passed when that of the wistaria (_fuji_) comes, followed by - the azalea (_tsutsuji_) and the iris (_shobu_), the last being almost - contemporaneous with the peony (_botan_), which is regarded by many - Japanese as the king of flowers and is cultivated assiduously. A - species of weeping maple (_shidare-momiji_) dresses itself in - peachy-red foliage and is trained into many picturesque shapes, though - not without detriment to its longevity. Summer sees the lotus - (_renge_) convert wide expanses of lake and river into sheets of white - and red blossoms; a comparatively flowerless interval ensues until, in - October and November, the chrysanthemum arrives to furnish an excuse - for fashionable gatherings. With the exception of the dog-days and the - dead of winter, there is no season when flowers cease to be an object - of attention to the Japanese, nor does any class fail to participate - in the sentiment. There is similar enthusiasm in the matter of - gardens. From the 10th century onwards the art of landscape gardening - steadily grew into a science, with esoteric as well as exoteric - aspects, and with a special vocabulary. The underlying principle is to - reproduce nature's scenic beauties, all the features being drawn to - scale, so that however restricted the space, there shall be no - violation of proportion. Thus the artificial lakes and hills, the - stones forming rockeries or simulating solitary crags, the trees and - even the bushes are all selected or manipulated so as to fall - congruously into the general scheme. If, on the one hand, huge stones - are transported hundreds of miles from seashore or river-bed where, in - the lapse of long centuries, waves and cataracts have hammered them - into strange shapes, and if the harmonizing of their various colours - and the adjustment of their forms to environment are studied with - profound subtlety, so the training and tending of the trees and shrubs - that keep them company require much taste and much toil. Thus the red - pine (_aka-matsu_ or _pinus densiflora_), which is the favourite - garden tree, has to be subjected twice a year to a process of - spray-dressing which involves the careful removal of every weak or - aged needle. One tree occupies the whole time of a gardener for about - ten days. The details are endless, the results delightful. But it has - to be clearly understood that there is here no mention of a - flower-garden in the Occidental sense of the term. Flowers are - cultivated, but for their own sakes, not as a feature of the landscape - garden. If they are present, it is only as an incident. This of course - does not apply to shrubs which blossom at their seasons and fall - always into the general scheme of the landscape. Forests of - cherry-trees, plum-trees, magnolia trees, or _hiyaku-jikko_ - (_Lagerstroemia indica_), banks of azalea, clumps of hydrangea, groups - of camellia--such have their permanent places and their foliage adds - notes of colour when their flowers have fallen. But chrysanthemums, - peonies, roses and so forth, are treated as special shows, and are - removed or hidden when out of bloom. There is another remarkable - feature of the Japanese gardener's art. He dwarfs trees so that they - remain measurable only by inches after their age has reached scores, - even hundreds, of years, and the proportions of leaf, branch and stem - are preserved with fidelity. The pots in which these wonders of - patient skill are grown have to be themselves fine specimens of the - ceramist's craft, and as much as L200 is sometimes paid for a notably - well trained tree. - - There exists among many foreign observers an impression that Japan is - comparatively poor in wild-flowers; an impression probably due to the - fact that there are no flowery meadows or lanes. Besides, the flowers - are curiously wanting in fragrance. Almost the only notable exceptions - are the _mokusei_ (_Osmanthus fragrans_), the daphne and the magnolia. - Missing the perfume-laden air of the Occident, a visitor is prone to - infer paucity of blossoms. But if some familiar European flowers are - absent, they are replaced by others strange to Western eyes--a wealth - of _lespedeza_ and _Indigo-fera_; a vast variety of lilies; graceful - grasses like the eulalia and the _ominameshi_ (_Patrina - scabiosaefolia_); the richly-hued _Pyrus japonica_; azaleas, - diervillas and deutzias; the _kikyo_ (_Platycodon grandiflorum_), the - _giboshi_ (_Funkia ovata_), and many another. The same is true of - Japanese forests. It has been well said that "to enumerate the - constituents and inhabitants of the Japanese mountain-forests would be - to name at least half the entire flora." - - According to Franchet and Savatier Japan possesses:-- - - Families. Genera. Species. - - Dicotyledonous plants 121 795 1934 - Monocotyledonous plants 28 202 613 - Higher Cryptogamous plants 5 38 196 - --- ---- ---- - Vascular plants 154 1035 2743 - - - The investigations of Japanese botanists are adding constantly to the - above number, and it is not likely that finality will be reached for - some time. According to a comparison made by A. Gray with regard to - the numbers of genera and species respectively represented in the - forest trees of four regions of the northern hemisphere, the following - is the case:-- - - Atlantic Forest-region of N. America 66 genera and 155 species. - Pacific Forest-region of N. America 31 genera and 78 species. - Japan and Manchuria Forest-region 66 genera and 168 species. - Forests of Europe 33 genera and 85 species. - - While there can be no doubt that the luxuriance of Japan's flora is - due to rich soil, to high temperature and to rainfall not only - plentiful but well distributed over the whole year, the wealth and - variety of her trees and shrubs must be largely the result of - immigration. Japan has four insular chains which link her to the - neighbouring continent. On the south, the Riukiu Islands bring her - within reach of Formosa and the Malayan archipelago; on the west, Oki, - Iki, and Tsushima bridge the sea between her and Korea; on the - north-west Sakhalin connects her with the Amur region; and on the - north, the Kuriles form an almost continuous route to Kamchatka. By - these paths the germs of Asiatic plants were carried over to join the - endemic flora of the country, and all found suitable homes amid - greatly varying conditions of climate and physiography. - - _Fauna._--Japan is an exception to the general rule that continents - are richer in fauna than are their neighbouring islands. It has been - said with truth that "an industrious collector of beetles, - butterflies, neuroptera, &c., finds a greater number of species in a - circuit of some miles near Tokyo than are exhibited by the whole - British Isles." - - Of mammals 50 species have been identified and catalogued. Neither the - lion nor the tiger is found. The true Carnivora are three only, the - bear, the dog and the marten. Three species of bears are - scientifically recognized, but one of them, the ice-bear (_Ursus - maritimus_), is only an accidental visitor, carried down by the Arctic - current. In the main island the black bear (_kuma_, _Ursus japonicus_) - alone has its habitation, but the island of Yezo has the great brown - bear (called _shi-guma_, _oki-kuma_ or _aka-kuma_), the "grisly" of - North America. The bear does not attract much popular interest in - Japan. Tradition centres rather upon the fox (_kitsune_) and the - badger (_mujina_), which are credited with supernatural powers, the - former being worshipped as the messenger of the harvest god, while the - latter is regarded as a mischievous rollicker. Next to these comes the - monkey (_saru_), which dwells equally among the snows of the north and - in the mountainous regions of the south. _Saru_ enters into the - composition of many place-names, an evidence of the people's - familiarity with the animal. There are ten species of bat (_komori_) - and seven of insect-eaters, and prominent in this class are the mole - (_mugura_) and the hedgehog (_hari-nezumi_). Among the martens there - is a weasel (_itachi_), which, though useful as a rat-killer, has the - evil repute of being responsible for sudden and mysterious injuries to - human beings; there is a river-otter (_kawauso_), and there is a - sea-otter (_rakko_) which inhabits the northern seas and is highly - valued for its beautiful pelt. The rodents are represented by an - abundance of rats, with comparatively few mice, and by the ordinary - squirrel, to which the people give the name of tree-rat (_ki-nezumi_), - as well as the flying squirrel, known as the _momo-dori_ (peach-bird) - in the north, where it hides from the light in hollow tree-trunks, and - in the south as the _ban-tori_ (or bird of evening). There are no - rabbits, but hares (_usagi_) are to be found in very varying numbers, - and those of one species put on a white coat during winter. The wild - boar (_shishi_ or _ii-no-shishi_) does not differ appreciably from its - European congener. Its flesh is much relished, and for some - unexplained reason is called by its vendors "mountain-whale" - (_yama-kujira_). A very beautiful stag (_shika_), with eight-branched - antlers, inhabits the remote woodlands, and there are five species of - antelope (_kamo-shika_) which are found in the highest and least - accessible parts of the mountains. Domestic animals have for - representatives the horse (_uma_), a small beast with little beauty of - form though possessing much hardihood and endurance; the ox (_ushi_) - mainly a beast of burden or draught; the pig (_buta_), very - occasionally; the dog (_inu_), an unsightly and useless brute; the cat - (_neko_), with a stump in lieu of a tail; barndoor fowl (_niwa-tori_), - ducks (_ahiro_) and pigeons (_hato_). The turkey (_shichi-mencho_) and - the goose (_gacho_) have been introduced but are little appreciated as - yet. - - Although so-called singing birds exist in tolerable numbers, those - worthy of the name of songster are few. Eminently first is a species - of nightingale (_uguisu_), which, though smaller than its congener of - the West, is gifted with exquisitely modulated flute-like notes of - considerable range. The _uguisu_ is a dainty bird in the matter of - temperature. After May it retires from the low-lying regions and - gradually ascends to higher altitudes as midsummer approaches. A - variety of the cuckoo called _holotogisu_ (_Cuculus poliocephalus_) in - imitation of the sound of its voice, is heard as an accompaniment of - the _uguisu_, and there are also three other species, the _kakkodori_ - (_Cuculus canorus_), the _tsutsu-dori_ (_C. himalayanus_), and the - _masuhakari_, or _juichi_ (_C. hyperythrus_). To these the lark, - _hibari_ (_Alauda japonica_), joins its voice, and the cooing of the - pigeon (_hato_) is supplemented by the twittering of the ubiquitous - sparrow (_suzume_), while over all are heard the raucous caw of the - raven (_karasu_) and the harsh scream of the kite (_tombi_), between - which and the raven there is perpetual feud. The falcon (_taka_), - always an honoured bird in Japan, where from time immemorial hawking - has been an aristocratic pastime, is common enough, and so is the - sparrow-hawk (_hai-taka_), but the eagle (_washi_) affects solitude. - Two English ornithologists, Blakiston and Pryer, are the recognized - authorities on the birds of Japan, and in a contribution to the - _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_ (vol. x.) they have - enumerated 359 species. Starlings (_muku-dori_) are numerous, and so - are the wagtail (_sekirei_), the swallow (_tsubame_) the martin - (_ten_), the woodchat (_mozu_) and the jay (_kakesu_ or _kashi-dori_), - but the magpie (_togarasu_), though common in China, is rare in Japan. - Blackbirds and thrushes are not found, nor any species of parrot, but - on the other hand, we have the hoopoe (_yatsugashira_), the red-breast - (_komadori_), the bluebird (_ruri_), the wren (_miso-sazai_), the - golden-crested wren (_itadaki_), the golden-eagle (_inu-washi_), the - finch (_hiwa_), the longtailed rose-finch (_benimashiko_), the - ouzel--brown (_akahara_), dusky (_tsugumi_) and water - (_kawa-garasu_)--the kingfisher (_kawasemi_), the crake (_kuina_) and - the tomtit (_kara_). Among game-birds there are the quail (_uzura_), - the heathcock (_ezo-racho_), the ptarmigan (_ezo-raicho_ or - _ezo-yama-dori_), the woodcock (hodo-shigi), the snipe - (_ta-shigi_)--with two special species, the solitary snipe - (_yama-shigi_) and the painted snipe (_tama-shigi_)--and the pheasant - (_kiji_). Of the last there are two species, the _kiji_ proper, a bird - presenting no remarkable features, and the copper pheasant, a - magnificent bird with plumage of dazzling beauty. Conspicuous above - all others, not only for grace of form but also for the immemorial - attention paid to them by Japanese artists, are the crane (_tsuru_) - and the heron (_sagi_). Of the crane there are seven species, the - stateliest and most beautiful being the _Grus japonensis_ (_tancho_ or - _tancho-zuru_), which stands some 5 ft. high and has pure white - plumage with a red crown, black tail-feathers and black upper neck. It - is a sacred bird, and it shares with the tortoise the honour of being - an emblem of longevity. The other species are the demoiselle crane - (_anewa-zuru_), the black crane (_kuro-zuru_ or _nezumi-zuru_, i.e. - _Grus cinerea_), the _Grus leucauchen_ (_mana-zuru_), the _Grus - monachus_ (_nabe-zuru_), and the white crane (_shiro-zuru_). The - Japanese include in this category the stork (_kozuru_), but it may be - said to have disappeared from the island. The heron (_sagi_) - constitutes a charming feature in a Japanese landscape, especially the - silver heron (_shira-sagi_), which displays its brilliant white - plumage in the rice-fields from spring to early autumn. The - night-heron (_goi-sagi_) is very common. Besides these waders there - are plover (_chidori_); golden (_muna-guro_ or _ai-guro_); gray - (_daizen_); ringed (_shiro-chidori_); spur-winged (_keri_) and - Harting's sand-plover (_ikaru-chidori_); sand-pipers--green - (_ashiro-shigi_) and spoon-billed (_hera-shigi_)--and water-hens - (_ban_). Among swimming birds the most numerous are the gull - (_kamome_), of which many varieties are found; the cormorant - (_u_)--which is trained by the Japanese for fishing purposes--and - multitudinous flocks of wild-geese (_gan_) and wild-ducks (_kamo_), - from the beautiful mandarin-duck (_oshi-dori_), emblem of conjugal - fidelity, to teal (_kogamo_) and widgeon (_hidori-gamo_) of several - species. Great preserves of wild-duck and teal used to be a frequent - feature in the parks attached to the feudal castles of old Japan, when - a peculiar method of netting the birds or striking them with falcons - was a favourite aristocratic pastime. A few of such preserves still - exist, and it is noticeable that in the Palace-moats of Tokyo all - kinds of water-birds, attracted by the absolute immunity they enjoy - there, assemble in countless numbers at the approach of winter and - remain until the following spring, wholly indifferent to the close - proximity of the city. - - Of reptiles Japan has only 30 species, and among them is included the - marine turtle (_umi-game_) which can scarcely be said to frequent her - waters, since it is seen only at rare intervals on the southern coast. - This is even truer of the larger species (the _shogakubo_, i.e. - _Chelonia cephalo_). Both are highly valued for the sake of the shell, - which has always been a favourite material for ladies' combs and - hairpins. By carefully selecting certain portions and welding them - together in a perfectly flawless mass, a pure amber-coloured object is - obtained at heavy cost. Of the fresh-water tortoise there are two - kinds, the _suppon_ (_Trionyx japonica_) and the _kame-no-ko_ (_Emys - vulgaris japonica_). The latter is one of the Japanese emblems of - longevity. It is often depicted with a flowing tail, which appendix - attests close observation of nature; for the _mino-game_, as it is - called, represents a tortoise to which, in the course of many scores - of years, confervae have attached themselves so as to form an - appendage of long green locks as the creature swims about. Sea-snakes - occasionally make their way to Japan, being carried thither by the - Black Current (Kuro Shiwo) and the monsoon, but they must be regarded - as merely fortuitous visitors. There are 10 species of land-snakes - (_hebi_), among which one only (the _mamushi_, or _Trigonocephalus - Blomhoffi_) is venomous. The others for the most part frequent the - rice-fields and live upon frogs. The largest is the _aodaisho_ - (_Elaphis virgatus_), which sometimes attains a length of 5 ft., but - is quite harmless. Lizards (_tokage_), frogs (_kawazu_ or _kaeru_), - toads (_ebogayeru_) and newts (_imori_) are plentiful, and much - curiosity attaches to a giant salamander (_sansho-uwo_, called also - _hazekai_ and other names according to localities), which reaches to a - length of 5 ft., and (according to Rein) is closely related to the - _Andrias Scheuchzeri_ of the Oeningen strata. - - The seas surrounding the Japanese islands may be called a resort of - fishes, for, in addition to numerous species which abide there - permanently, there are migatory kinds, coming and going with the - monsoons and with the great ocean streams that set to and from the - shores. In winter, for example, when the northern monsoon begins to - blow, numbers of denizens of the Sea of Okhotsk swim southward to the - more genial waters of north Japan; and in summer the Indian Ocean and - the Malayan archipelago send to her southern coasts a crowd of - emigrants which turn homeward again at the approach of winter. It thus - falls out that in spite of the enormous quantity of fish consumed as - food or used as fertilizers year after year by the Japanese, the seas - remain as richly stocked as ever. Nine orders of fishes have been - distinguished as the piscifauna of Japanese waters. They may be found - carefully catalogued with all their included species in Rein's - _Japan_, and highly interesting researches by Japanese physiographists - are recorded in the Journal of the College of Science of the Imperial - University of Tokyo. Briefly, the chief fish of Japan are the bream - (_tai_), the perch (_suzuki_), the mullet (_bora_), the rock-fish - (_hatatate_), the grunter (_oni-o-koze_), the mackerel (_saba_), the - sword-fish (_tachi-uwo_), the wrasse (_kusabi_), the haddock (_tara_), - the flounder (_karei_), and its congeners the sole (_hirame_) and the - turbot (_ishi-garei_), the shad (_namazu_), the salmon (_shake_), the - _masu_, the carp (_koi_), the _funa_, the gold fish (_kingyo_), the - gold carp (_higoi_), the loach (_dojo_), the herring (_nishin_), the - _iwashi_(_Clupea melanosticta_), the eel (_unagi_), the conger eel - (_anago_), the coffer-fish (_hako-uwo_), the _fugu_ (_Tetrodon_), the - _ai_ (_Plecoglossus altivelis_), the sayori (_Hemiramphus sayori_), - the shark (same), the dogfish (_manuka-zame_), the ray (_e_), the - sturgeon (_cho-zame_) and the _maguro_ (_Thynnus sibi_). - - The insect life of Japan broadly corresponds with that of temperate - regions in Europe. But there are also a number of tropical species, - notably among butterflies and beetles. The latter--for which the - generic term in Japan is _mushi_ or _kaichu_--include some beautiful - species, from the "jewel beetle" (_tama-mushi_), the "gold beetle" - (_kogane-mushi_) and the _Chrysochroa fulgidissima_, which glow and - sparkle with the brilliancy of gold and precious stones, to the jet - black _Melanauster chinensis_, which seems to have been fashioned out - of lacquer spotted with white. There is also a giant nasicornous - beetle. Among butterflies (_chocho_) Rein gives prominence to the - broad-winged kind (_Papilio_), which recall tropical brilliancy. One - (_Papilio macilentus_) is peculiar to Japan. Many others seem to be - practically identical with European species. That is especially true - of the moths (_yacho_), 100 species of which have been identified with - English types. There are seven large silk-moths, of which two only - (_Bombyx mori_ and _Antheraea yama-mai_) are employed in producing - silk. Fishing lines are manufactured from the cocoons of the - _genjiki-mushi_ (_Caligula japonica_), which is one of the commonest - moths in the islands. Wasps, bees and hornets, generically known as - _hachi_, differ little from their European types, except that they are - somewhat larger and more sluggish. The gad-fly (_abu_), the housefly - (_hai_), the mosquito (_ka_), the flea (_nomi_) and occasionally the - bedbug (called by the Japanese _kara-mushi_ because it is believed to - be imported from China), are all fully represented, and the dragon-fly - (_tombo_) presents itself in immense numbers at certain seasons. - Grasshoppers (_batta_) are abundant, and one kind (_inago_), which - frequent the rice-fields when the cereal is ripening, are caught and - fried in oil as an article of food. On the moors in late summer the - mantis (_kama-kiri-mushi_) is commonly met with, and the cricket - (_kurogi_) and the cockroach abound. Particularly obtrusive is the - cicada (_semi_), of which there are many species. Its strident voice - is heard most loudly at times of great heat, when the song of the - birds is hushed. The dragon-fly and the cicada afford ceaseless - entertainment to the Japanese boy. He catches them by means of a rod - smeared with bird-lime, and then tying a fine string under their - wings, he flies them at its end. Spiders abound, from a giant species - to one of the minutest dimensions, and the tree-bug is always ready to - make a destructive lodgment in any sickly tree-stem. The scorpion - (_sasori_) exists but is not poisonous. - - Japanese rivers and lakes are the habitation of several--seven or - eight--species of fresh-water crab (_kani_), which live in holes on - the shore and emerge in the daytime, often moving to considerable - distances from their homes. Shrimps (_kawa-ebi_) also are found in the - rivers and rice-fields. These shrimps as well as a large species of - crab--_mokuzo-gani_--serve the people as an article of food, but the - small crabs which live in holes have no recognized _raison d'etre_. In - Japan, as elsewhere, the principal crustacea are found in the sea. - Flocks of _lupa_ and other species swim in the wake of the tropical - fishes which move towards Japan at certain seasons. Naturally these - migratory crabs are not limited to Japanese waters. Milne Edwards has - identified ten species which occur in Australian seas also, and Rein - mentions, as belonging to the same category, the "helmet-crab" or - "horse-shoe crab" (_kabuto-gani_; _Limulus longispina_ Hoeven). Very - remarkable is the giant _Taka-ashi_--long legs (_Macrocheirus - Kaempferi_), which has legs 1(1/2) metres long and is found in the - seas of Japan and the Malay archipelago. There is no lobster on the - coasts of Japan, but there are various species of crayfish - (_Palinurus_ and _Scyllarus_) the principal of which, under the names - of ise-ebi (_Palinurus japonicus_) and _kuruma-ebi_ (_Penaeus - canaliculatus_) are greatly prized as an article of diet. - - Already in 1882, Dunker in his _Index Molluscorum Maris Japonici_ - enumerated nearly 1200 species of marine molluscs found in the - Japanese archipelago, and several others have since then been added - to the list. As for the land and fresh-water molluscs, some 200 of - which are known, they are mainly kindred with those of China and - Siberia, tropical and Indian forms being exceptional. There are 57 - species of _Helix_ (_maimaitsuburi_, _dedemushi_, _katatsumuri_ or - _kwagyu_) and 25 of Clausilia (_kiseru-gai_ or pipe-snail), including - the two largest snails in Japan, namely the _Cl. Martensi_ and the - _Cl. Yoko-hamensis_, which attain to a length of 58 mm. and 44 mm. - respectively. The mussel (_i-no-kai_) is well represented by the - species _numa-gai_ (marsh-mussel), _karasu-gai_ (raven-mussel), - _kamisori-gai_ (razor-mussel), _shijimi-no-kai_ (_Corbicula_), of - which there are nine species, &c. Unlike the land-molluscs, the great - majority of Japanese sea-molluscs are akin to those of the Indian - Ocean and the Malay archipelago. Some of them extend westward as far - as the Red Sea. The best known and most frequent forms are the _asari_ - (_Tapes philippinarum_), the _hamaguri_ (_Meretrix lusoria_), the - _baka_ (_Mactra sulcataria_), the _aka-gai_ (_Scapharca inflata_), the - _kaki_ (oyster), the _awabi_ (_Haliotis japonica_), the _sazae_ - (_Turbo cornutus_), the _hora-gai_ (_Tritonium tritonius_), &c. Among - the cephalopods several are of great value as articles of food, e.g. - the _surume_ (_Onychotheuthis Banksii_), the _tako_ (octopus), the - _shidako_ (Eledone), the _ika_ (Sepia) and the _tako-fune_ - (Argonauta). - - Greeff enumerates, as denizens of Japanese seas, 26 kinds of - sea-urchins (_gaze_ or _uni_) and 12 of starfish (_hitode_ or - _tako-no-makura_). These, like the mollusca, indicate the influence of - the Kuro Shiwo and the south-west monsoon, for they have close - affinity with species found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. For - edible purposes the most valuable of the Japanese echinoderms is the - sea-slug or _beche de mer_ (_namako_), which is greatly appreciated - and forms an important staple of export to China. Rein writes: "Very - remarkable in connexion with the starfishes is the occurrence of - _Asterias rubens_ on the Japanese coast. This creature displays an - almost unexampled frequency and extent of distribution in the whole - North Sea, in the western parts of the Baltic, near the Faroe Islands, - Iceland, Greenland and the English coasts, so that it may be regarded - as a characteristic North Sea echinoderm form. Towards the south this - starfish disappears, it seems, completely; for it is not yet known - with certainty to exist either in the Mediterranean or in the southern - parts of the Atlantic Ocean. In others also _Asterias rubens_ is not - known--and then it suddenly reappears in Japan. _Archaster typicus_ - has a pretty wide distribution over the Indian Ocean; other - _Asteridae_ of Japan, on the other hand, appear to be confined to its - shores." - - Japan is not rich in corals and sponges. Her most interesting - contributions are crust-corals (_Gorgonidae_, _Corallium_, _Isis_, - &c.), and especially flint-sponges, called by the Japanese _hoshi-gai_ - and known as "glass-coral" (_Hyalonema sieboldi_). These last have not - been found anywhere except at the entrance of the Bay of Tokyo at a - depth of some 200 fathoms. - - -II.--THE PEOPLE - -_Population._--The population was as follows on the 31st of December -1907:-- - - Population - Population. Males. Females. Totals. per sq. m. - - Japan proper 24,601,658 24,172,627 48,774,285 330 - Formosa (Taiwan) 1,640,778 1,476,137 3,116,915 224 - Sakhalin 7,175 3,631 10,806 0.1 - ---------- ---------- ---------- - Totals 26,249,611 25,652,395 51,902,006 - -The following table shows the rate of increase in the four quadrennial -periods between 1891 and 1907 in Japan proper:-- - - Average Population - Year. Males. Females. Totals. increase per - per cent. sq. m. - - 1891 20,563,416 20,155,261 40,718,677 1.09 272 - 1895 21,345,750 20,904,870 42,270,620 1.09 286 - 1899 22,330,112 21,930,540 44,260,652 1.14 299 - 1903 23,601,640 23,131,236 46,732,876 1.54 316 - 1907 24,601,658 24,172,627 48,774,285 1.13 330 - -The population of Formosa (Taiwan) during the ten-year period 1898-1907 -grew as follows:-- - - Average Population - Year. Males. Females. Totals. increase per - per cent. sq. m. - - 1898 1,307,428 1,157,539 2,464,967 -- 182 - 1902 1,513,280 1,312,067 2,825,347 2.70 209 - 1907 1,640,778 1,476,137 3,116,915 2.37 224 - - - According to quasi-historical records, the population of the empire in - the year A.D. 610 was 4,988,842, and in 736 it had grown to 8,631,770. - It is impossible to say how much reliance may be placed on these - figures, but from the 18th century, when the name of every subject had - to be inscribed on the roll of a temple as a measure against his - adoption of Christianity, a tolerably trustworthy census could always - be taken. The returns thus obtained show that from the year 1723 until - 1846 the population remained almost stationary, the figure in the - former year being 26,065,422, and that in the latter year 26,907,625. - There had, indeed, been five periods of declining population in that - interval of 124 years, namely, the periods 1738-1744, 1759-1762, - 1773-1774, 1791-1792, and 1844-1846. But after 1872, when the census - showed a total of 33,110,825, the population grew steadily, its - increment between 1872 and 1898 inclusive, a period of 27 years, being - 10,649,990. Such a rate of increase invests the question of - subsistence with great importance. In former times the area of land - under cultivation increased in a marked degree. Returns prepared at - the beginning of the 10th century showed 2(1/2) million acres under - crops, whereas the figure in 1834 was over 8 million acres. But the - development of means of subsistence has been outstripped by the growth - of population in recent years. Thus, during the period between 1899 - and 1907 the population received an increment of 11.6% whereas the - food-producing area increased by only 4.4%. This discrepancy caused - anxiety at one time, but large fields suitable for colonization have - been opened in Sakhalin, Korea, Manchuria and Formosa, so that the - problem of subsistence has ceased to be troublesome. The birth-rate, - taking the average of the decennial period ended 1907, is 3.05% of the - population, and the death-rate is 2.05. Males exceed females in the - ratio of 2% approximately. But this rule does not hold after the age - of 65, where for every 100 females only 83 males are found. The - Japanese are of low stature as compared with the inhabitants of - Western Europe: about 16% of the adult males are below 5 ft. But there - are evidences of steady improvement in this respect. Thus, during the - period of ten years between 1893 and 1902, it was found that the - percentage of recruits of 5 ft. 5 in. and upward grew from 10.09 to - 12.67, the rate of increase having been remarkably steady; and the - percentage of those under 5 ft. declined from 20.21 to 16.20. - - _Towns._--There are in Japan 23 towns having a population of over - 50,000, and there are 76 having a population of over 20,000. The - larger towns, their populations and the growth of the latter during - the five-year period commencing with 1898 were as follow:-- - - URBAN POPULATIONS - - 1898. 1903. - - Tokyo 1,440,121 1,795,128 - Osaka 821,235 988,200 - Kioto 353,139 379,404 - Nagoya 244,145 284,829 - Kobe 215,780 283,839 - Yokohama 193,762 324,776 - Hiroshima 122,306 113,545 - Nagasaki 107,422 151,727 - Kanazawa 83,595 97,548 - Sendai 83,325 93,773 - Hakodate 78,040 84,746 - Fukuoka 66,190 70,107 - Wakayama 63,667 67,908 - Tokushima 61,501 62,998 - Kumamoto 61,463 55,277 - Toyama 59,558 86,276 - Okayama 58,025 80,140 - Otaru 56,961 79,746 - Kagoshima 53,481 58,384 - Niigata 53,366 58,821 - Sakai 50,203 -- - Sapporo -- 55,304 - Kure -- 62,825 - Sasebo -- 52,607 - - The growth of Kure and Sasebo is attributable to the fact that they - have become the sites of large ship-building yards, the property of - the state. - - The number of houses in Japan at the end of 1903, when the census was - last taken, was 8,725,544, the average number of inmates in each house - being thus 5.5. - -_Physical Characteristics._--The best authorities are agreed that the -Japanese people do not differ physically from their Korean and Chinese -neighbours as much as the inhabitants of northern Europe differ from -those of southern Europe. It is true that the Japanese are shorter in -stature than either the Chinese or the Koreans. Thus the average height -of the Japanese male is only 5 ft. 3(1/2) in., and that of the female 4 -ft. 10(1/2) in., whereas in the case of the Koreans and the northern -Chinese the corresponding figures for males are 5 ft. 5(3/4) in. and 5 -ft. 7 in. respectively. Yet in other physical characteristics the -Japanese, the Koreans and the Chinese resemble each other so closely -that, under similar conditions as to costume and coiffure, no -appreciable difference is apparent. Thus since it has become the fashion -for Chinese students to flock to the schools and colleges of Japan, -there adopting, as do their Japanese fellow-students, Occidental -garments and methods of hairdressing, the distinction of nationality -ceases to be perceptible. The most exhaustive anthropological study of -the Japanese has been made by Dr E. Baelz (emeritus professor of -medicine in the Imperial University of Tokyo), who enumerates the -following sub-divisions of the race inhabiting the Japanese islands. The -first and most important is the Manchu-Korean type; that is to say, the -type which prevails in north China and in Korea. This is seen specially -among the upper classes in Japan. Its characteristics are exceptional -tallness combined with slenderness and elegance of figure; a face -somewhat long, without any special prominence of the cheekbones but -having more or less oblique eyes; an aquiline nose; a slightly receding -chin; largish upper teeth; a long neck; a narrow chest; a long trunk, -and delicately shaped, small hands with long, slender fingers. The most -plausible hypothesis is that men of this type are descendants of Korean -colonists who, in prehistoric times, settled in the province of Izumo, -on the west coast of Japan, having made their way thither from the -Korean peninsula by the island of Oki, being carried by the cold current -which flows along the eastern coast of Korea. The second type is the -Mongol. It is not very frequently found in Japan, perhaps because, under -favourable social conditions, it tends to pass into the Manchu-Korean -type. Its representative has a broad face, with prominent cheekbones, -oblique eyes, a nose more or less flat and a wide mouth. The figure is -strongly and squarely built, but this last characteristic can scarcely -be called typical. There is no satisfactory theory as to the route by -which the Mongols reached Japan, but it is scarcely possible to doubt -that they found their way thither at one time. More important than -either of these types as an element of the Japanese nation is the Malay. -Small in stature, with a well-knit frame, the cheekbones prominent, the -face generally round, the nose and neck short, a marked tendency to -prognathism, the chest broad and well developed, the trunk long, the -hands small and delicate--this Malay type is found in nearly all the -islands along the east coast of the Asiatic continent as well as in -southern China and in the extreme south-west of Korean peninsula. -Carried northward by the warm current known as the Kuro Shiwo, the -Malays seem to have landed in Kiushiu--the most southerly of the main -Japanese islands--whence they ultimately pushed northward and conquered -their Manchu-Korean predecessors, the Izumo colonists. None of the above -three, however, can be regarded as the earliest settlers in Japan. -Before them all was a tribe of immigrants who appear to have crossed -from north-eastern Asia at an epoch when the sea had not yet dug broad -channels between the continent and the adjacent islands. These -people--the Ainu--are usually spoken of as the aborigines of Japan. They -once occupied the whole country, but were gradually driven northward by -the Manchu-Koreans and the Malays, until only a mere handful of them -survived in the northern island of Yezo. Like the Malay and the Mongol -types they are short and thickly built, but unlike either they have -prominent brows, bushy locks, round deep-set eyes, long divergent -lashes, straight noses and much hair on the face and the body. In short, -the Ainu suggest much closer affinity with Europeans than does any other -of the types that go to make up the population of Japan. It is not to be -supposed, however, that these traces of different elements indicate any -lack of homogeneity in the Japanese race. Amalgamation has been -completely effected in the course of long centuries, and even the Ainu, -though the small surviving remnant of them now live apart, have left a -trace upon their conquerors. - -The typical Japanese of the present day has certain marked physical -peculiarities. In the first place, the ratio of the height of his head -to the length of his body is greater than it is in Europeans. The -Englishman's head is often one-eighth of the length of his body or even -less, and in continental Europeans, as a rule, the ratio does not -amount to one-seventh; but in the Japanese it exceeds the latter figure. -In all nations men of short stature have relatively large heads, but in -the case of the Japanese there appears to be some racial reason for the -phenomenon. Another striking feature is shortness of legs relatively to -length of trunk. In northern Europeans the leg is usually much more than -one-half of the body's length, but in Japanese the ratio is one-half or -even less; so that whereas the Japanese, when seated, looks almost as -tall as a European, there may be a great difference between their -statures when both are standing. This special feature has been -attributed to the Japanese habit of kneeling instead of sitting, but -investigation shows that it is equally marked in the working classes who -pass most of their time standing. In Europe the same physical -traits--relative length of head and shortness of legs--distinguish the -central race (Alpine) from the Teutonic, and seem to indicate an -affinity between the former and the Mongols. It is in the face, however, -that we find specially distinctive traits, namely, in the eyes, the -eye-lashes, the cheekbones and the beard. Not that the eyeball itself -differs from that of an Occidental. The difference consists in the fact -that "the socket of the eye is comparatively small and shallow, and the -osseous ridges at the brows being little marked, the eye is less deeply -set than in the European. In fact, seen in profile, forehead and upper -lip often form an unbroken line." Then, again, the shape of the eye, as -modelled by the lids, shows a striking peculiarity. For whereas the open -eye is almost invariably horizontal in the European, it is often oblique -in the Japanese on account of the higher level of the upper corner. "But -even apart from obliqueness, the shape of the corners is peculiar in the -Mongolian eye. The inner corner is partly or entirely covered by a fold -of the upper lid continuing more or less into the lower lid. This fold -often covers also the whole free rim of the upper lid, so that the -insertion of the eye-lashes is hidden" and the opening between the lids -is so narrowed as to disappear altogether at the moment of laughter. As -for the eye-lashes, not only are they comparatively short and sparse, -but also they converge instead of diverging, so that whereas in a -European the free ends of the lashes are further distant from each other -than their roots, in a Japanese they are nearer together. Prominence of -cheekbones is another special feature, but it is much commoner in the -lower than in the upper classes, where elongated faces may almost be -said to be the rule. Finally, there is marked paucity of hair on the -face of the average Japanese--apart from the Ainu--and what hair there -is is nearly always straight. It is not to be supposed, however, that -because the Japanese is short of stature and often finely moulded, he -lacks either strength or endurance. On the contrary, he possesses both -in a marked degree, and his deftness of finger is not less remarkable -than the suppleness and activity of his body. - -_Moral Characteristics._--The most prominent trait of Japanese -disposition is gaiety of heart. Emphatically of a laughter-loving -nature, the Japanese passes through the world with a smile on his lips. -The petty ills of life do not disturb his equanimity. He takes them as -part of the day's work, and though he sometimes grumbles, rarely, if -ever, does he repine. Exceptional to this general rule, however, is a -mood of pessimism which sometimes overtakes youths on the threshold of -manhood. Finding the problem of life insolvable, they abandon the -attempt to solve it and take refuge in the grave. It seems as though -there were always a number of young men hovering on the brink of such -suicidal despair. An example alone is needed finally to destroy the -equilibrium. Some one throws himself over a cataract or leaps into the -crater of a volcano, and immediately a score or two follow. Apparently -the more picturesquely awful the manner of the demise, the greater its -attractive force. The thing is not a product of insanity, as the term is -usually interpreted; letters always left behind by the victims prove -them to have been in full possession of their reasoning faculties up to -the last moment. Some observers lay the blame at the door of Buddhism, a -creed which promotes pessimism by begetting the anchorite, the ascetic -and the shuddering believer in seven hells. But Buddhism did not -formerly produce such incidents, and, for the rest, the faith of Shaka -has little sway over the student mind in Japan. The phenomenon is -modern: it is not an outcome of Japanese nature nor yet of Buddhist -teaching, but is due to the stress of endeavouring to reach the -standards of Western acquirement with grievously inadequate equipment, -opportunities and resources. In order to support himself and pay his -academic fees many a Japanese has to fall into the ranks of the physical -labourer during a part of each day or night. Ill-nourished, over-worked -and, it may be, disappointed, he finds the struggle intolerable and so -passes out into the darkness. But he is not a normal type. The normal -type is light-hearted and buoyant. One naturally expects to find, and -one does find, that this moral sunshine is associated with good temper. -The Japanese is exceptionally serene. Irascibility is regarded as -permissible in sickly children only: grown people are supposed to be -superior to displays of impatience. But there is a limit of -imperturbability, and when that limit is reached, the subsequent passion -is desperately vehement. It has been said that these traits go to make -the Japanese soldier what he is. The hardships of a campaign cause him -little suffering since he never frets over them, but the hour of combat -finds him forgetful of everything save victory. In the case of the -military class--and prior to the Restoration of 1867 the term "military -class" was synonymous with "educated class"--this spirit of stoicism was -built up by precept on a solid basis of heredity. The _samurai_ -(soldier) learned that his first characteristic must be to suppress all -outward displays of emotion. Pain, pleasure, passion and peril must all -find him unperturbed. The supreme test, satisfied so frequently as to be -commonplace, was a shocking form of suicide performed with a placid -mien. This capacity, coupled with readiness to sacrifice life at any -moment on the altar of country, fief or honour, made a remarkably heroic -character. On the other hand, some observers hold that the education of -this stoicism was effected at the cost of the feelings it sought to -conceal. In support of that theory it is pointed out that the average -Japanese, man or woman, will recount a death or some other calamity in -his own family with a perfectly calm, if not a smiling, face. Probably -there is a measure of truth in the criticism. Feelings cannot be -habitually hidden without being more or less blunted. But here another -Japanese trait presents itself--politeness. There is no more polite -nation in the world than the Japanese. Whether in real courtesy of heart -they excel Occidentals may be open to doubt, but in all the forms of -comity they are unrivalled. Now one of the cardinal rules of politeness -is to avoid burdening a stranger with the weight of one's own woes. -Therefore a mother, passing from the chamber which has just witnessed -her paroxysms of grief, will describe calmly to a stranger--especially a -foreigner--the death of her only child. The same suppression of -emotional display in public is observed in all the affairs of life. -Youths and maidens maintain towards each other a demeanour of reserve -and even indifference, from which it has been confidently affirmed that -love does not exist in Japan. The truth is that in no other country do -so many dual suicides occur--suicides of a man and woman who, unable to -be united in this world, go to a union beyond the grave. It is true, -nevertheless, that love as a prelude to marriage finds only a small -place in Japanese ethics. Marriages in the great majority of cases are -arranged with little reference to the feelings of the parties concerned. -It might be supposed that conjugal fidelity must suffer from such a -custom. It does suffer seriously in the case of the husband, but -emphatically not in the case of the wife. Even though she be -cognisant--as she often is--of her husband's extra-marital relations, -she abates nothing of the duty which she has been taught to regard as -the first canon of female ethics. From many points of view, indeed, -there is no more beautiful type of character than that of the Japanese -woman. She is entirely unselfish; exquisitely modest without being -anything of a prude; abounding in intelligence which is never obscured -by egoism; patient in the hour of suffering; strong in time of -affliction; a faithful wife; a loving mother; a good daughter; and -capable, as history shows, of heroism rivalling that of the stronger -sex. As to the question of sexual virtue and morality in Japan, grounds -for a conclusive verdict are hard to find. In the interests of hygiene -prostitution is licensed, and that fact is by many critics construed as -proof of tolerance. But licensing is associated with strict segregation, -and it results that the great cities are conspicuously free from -evidences of vice, and that the streets may be traversed by women at all -hours of the day and night with perfect impunity and without fear of -encountering offensive spectacles. The ratio of marriages is -approximately 8.46 per thousand units of the population, and the ratio -of divorces is 1.36 per thousand. There are thus about 16 divorces for -every hundred marriages. Divorces take place chiefly among the lower -orders, who frequently treat marriage merely as a test of a couple's -suitability to be helpmates in the struggles of life. If experience -develops incompatibility of temper or some other mutually repellent -characteristic, separation follows as a matter of course. On the other -hand, divorces among persons of the upper classes are comparatively -rare, and divorces on account of a wife's unfaithfulness are almost -unknown. - -Concerning the virtues of truth and probity, extremely conflicting -opinions have been expressed. The Japanese _samurai_ always prided -himself on having "no second word." He never drew his sword without -using it; he never gave his word without keeping it. Yet it may be -doubted whether the value attached in Japan to the abstract quality, -truth, is as high as the value attached to it in England, or whether the -consciousness of having told a falsehood weighs as heavily on the heart. -Much depends upon the motive. Whatever may be said of the upper class, -it is probably true that the average Japanese will not sacrifice -expediency on the altar of truth. He will be veracious only so long as -the consequences are not seriously injurious. Perhaps no more can be -affirmed of any nation. The "white lie" of the Anglo-Saxon and the -_hoben no uso_ of the Japanese are twins. In the matter of probity, -however, it is possible to speak with more assurance. There is -undoubtedly in the lower ranks of Japanese tradesmen a comparatively -large fringe of persons whose standard of commercial morality is -defective. They are descendants of feudal days when the mercantile -element, being counted as the dregs of the population, lost its -self-respect. Against this blemish--which is in process of gradual -correction--the fact has to be set that the better class of merchants, -the whole of the artisans and the labouring classes in general, obey -canons of probity fully on a level with the best to be found elsewhere. -For the rest, frugality, industry and patience characterize all the -bread-winners; courage and burning patriotism are attributes of the -whole nation. - -There are five qualities possessed by the Japanese in a marked degree. -The first is frugality. From time immemorial the great mass of the -people have lived in absolute ignorance of luxury in any form and in the -perpetual presence of a necessity to economize. Amid these circumstances -there has emerged capacity to make a little go a long way and to be -content with the most meagre fare. The second quality is endurance. It -is born of causes cognate with those which have begotten frugality. The -average Japanese may be said to live without artificial heat; his paper -doors admit the light but do not exclude the cold. His brazier barely -suffices to warm his hands and his face. Equally is he a stranger to -methods of artificial cooling. He takes the frost that winter inflicts -and the fever that summer brings as unavoidable visitors. The third -quality is obedience; the offspring of eight centuries passed under the -shadow of military autocracy. Whatever he is authoritatively bidden to -do, that the Japanese will do. The fourth quality is altruism. In the -upper classes the welfare of the family has been set above the interests -of each member. The fifth quality is a genius for detail. Probably this -is the outcome of an extraordinarily elaborate system of social -etiquette. Each generation has added something to the canons of its -predecessor, and for every ten points preserved not more than one has -been discarded. An instinctive respect for minutiae has thus been -inculcated, and has gradually extended to all the affairs of life. That -this accuracy may sometimes degenerate into triviality, and that such -absorption in trifles may occasionally hide the broad horizon, is -conceivable. But the only hitherto apparent evidence of such defects is -an excessive clinging to the letter of the law; a marked reluctance to -exercise discretion; and that, perhaps, is attributable rather to the -habit of obedience. Certainly the Japanese have proved themselves -capable of great things, and their achievements seem to have been helped -rather than retarded by their attention to detail. - - -III.--LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE - -_Language._--Since the year 1820, when Klaproth concluded that the -Japanese language had sprung from the Ural-Altaic stock, philologists -have busied themselves in tracing its affinities. If the theories -hitherto held with regard to the origin of the Japanese people be -correct, close relationship should exist between the Japanese and the -Korean tongues, and possibly between the Japanese and the Chinese. Aston -devoted much study to the former question, but although he proved that -in construction the two have a striking similarity, he could not find -any corresponding likeness in their vocabularies. As far back as the -beginning of the Christian era the Japanese and the Koreans could not -hold intercourse without the aid of interpreters. If then the languages -of Korea and Japan had a common stock, they must have branched off from -it at a date exceedingly remote. As for the languages of Japan and -China, they have remained essentially different throughout some twenty -centuries in spite of the fact that Japan adopted Chinese calligraphy -and assimilated Chinese literature. Mr K. Hirai has done much to -establish his theory that Japanese and Aryan had a common parent. But -nothing has yet been substantiated. Meanwhile an inquirer is confronted -by the strange fact that of three neighbouring countries between which -frequent communication existed, one (China) never deviated from an -ideographic script; another (Korea) invented an alphabet, and the third -(Japan) devised a syllabary. Antiquaries have sought to show that Japan -possessed some form of script before her first contact with either Korea -or China. But such traces of prehistoric letters as are supposed to have -been found seem to be corruptions of the Korean alphabet rather than -independent symbols. It is commonly believed that the two Japanese -syllabaries--which, though distinct in form, have identical sounds--were -invented by Kukai (790) and Kibi Daijin (760) respectively. But the -evidence of old documents seems to show that these syllabaries had a -gradual evolution and that neither was the outcome of a single scholar's -inventive genius. - - The sequence of events appears to have been this:--Japan's earliest - contact with an over-sea people was with the Koreans, and she made - some tentative efforts to adapt their alphabet to the expression of - her own language. Traces of these efforts survived, and inspired the - idea that the art of writing was practised by the Japanese before the - opening of intercourse with their continental neighbours. Korea, - however, had neither a literary nor an ethical message to deliver, and - thus her script failed to attract much attention. Very different was - the case when China presented her noble code of Confucian philosophy - and the literature embodying it. The Japanese then recognized a lofty - civilization and placed themselves as pupils at its feet, learning its - script and deciphering its books. Their veneration extended to - ideographs. At first they adapted them frankly to their own tongue. - For example, the ideographs signifying _rice_ or _metal_ or _water_ in - Chinese were used to convey the same ideas in Japanese. Each ideograph - thus came to have two sounds, one Japanese, the other Chinese--e.g. - the ideograph for _rice_ had for Japanese sound _kome_ and for Chinese - sound _bei_. Nor was this the whole story. There were two epochs in - Japan's study of the Chinese language: first, the epoch when she - received Confucianism through Korea; and, secondly, the epoch when she - began to study Buddhism direct from China. Whether the sounds that - came by Korea were corrupt, or whether the interval separating these - epochs had sufficed to produce a sensible difference of pronunciation - in China itself, it would seem that the students of Buddhism who - flocked from Japan to the Middle Kingdom during the Sui era (A.D. - 589-619) insisted on the accuracy of the pronunciation acquired there, - although it diverged perceptibly from the pronunciation already - recognized in Japan. Thus, in fine, each word came to have three - sounds--two Chinese, known as the _kan_ and the _go_, and one - Japanese, known as the _kun_. For example:-- - - "KAN" "GO" JAPANESE - SOUND. SOUND. SOUND. MEANING. - - _Sei_ _Jo_ _Koe_ Voice - _Nen_ _Zen_ _Toshi_ Year - _Jinkan_ _Ningen_ _Hito no aida_ Human being. - - - As to which of the first two methods of pronunciation had - chronological precedence, the weight of opinion is that the kan came - later than the _go_. Evidently this triplication of sounds had many - disadvantages, but, on the other hand, the whole Chinese language may - be said to have been grafted on the Japanese. Chinese has the widest - capacity of any tongue ever invented. It consists of thousands of - monosyllabic roots, each having a definite meaning. These - monosyllables may be used singly or combined, two, three or four at a - time, so that the resulting combinations convey almost any conceivable - shades of meaning. Take, for example, the word "electricity." The very - idea conveyed was wholly novel in Japan. But scholars were immediately - able to construct the following:-- - - Lightning. _Den._ - Exhalation. _Ki._ - Electricity. _Denki._ - Telegram. _Dempo._ _Ho_ = tidings. - Electric light. _Dento._ _To_ = lamp. - Negative electricity. _Indenki._ _In_ = the negative principle. - Positive electricity. _Yodenki._ _Yo_ = the positive principle. - Thermo-electricity. _Netsudenki._ _Netsu_ = heat. - Dynamic-electricity. _Ryudo-denki._ _Ryudo_ = fluid. - Telephone. _Denwa._ _Wa_= conversation. - - Every branch of learning can thus be equipped with a vocabulary. - Potent, however, as such a vehicle is for expressing thought, its - ideographic script constitutes a great obstacle to general - acquisition, and the Japanese soon applied themselves to minimizing - the difficulty by substituting a phonetic system. Analysis showed that - all the required sounds could be conveyed with 47 syllables, and - having selected the ideographs that corresponded to those sounds, they - reduced them, first, to forms called _hiragana_, and, secondly, to - still more simplified forms called _katakana_. - - Such, in brief, is the story of the Japanese language. When we come to - dissect it, we find several striking characteristics. First, the - construction is unlike that of any European tongue: all qualifiers - precede the words they qualify, except prepositions which become - postpositions. Thus instead of saying "the house of Mr Smith is in - that street," a Japanese says "Smith Mr of house that street in is." - Then there is no relative pronoun, and the resulting complication - seems great to an English-speaking person, as the following - illustration will show:-- - - JAPANESE. ENGLISH. - - _Zenaku wo saiban suru tame no_ The unique standard which is used - Virtue vice-judging sake of for judging virtue or vice is - _mochiitaru yuitsu no hyojun wa_ benevolent conduct solely. - used unique standard - _jiai no koi tada_ - benevolence of conduct only - _kore nomi._ - this alone. - - It will be observed that in the above sentence there are two - untranslated words, _wo_ and _wa_. These belong to a group of four - auxiliary particles called _te_ _ni_ _wo_ _ha_ (or _wa_), which serve - to mark the cases of nouns, _te_ (or _de_) being the sign of the - instrumental ablative; _ni_ that of the dative; _wo_ that of the - objective, and _wa_ that of the nominative. These exist in the Korean - language also, but not in any other tongue. There are also polite and - ordinary forms of expression, often so different as to constitute - distinct languages; and there are a number of honorifics which - frequently discharge the duty of pronouns. Another marked peculiarity - is that active agency is never attributed to neuter nouns. A Japanese - does not say "the poison killed him" but "he died on account of the - poison;" nor does he say "the war has caused commodities to - appreciate," but "commodities have appreciated in consequence of the - war." That the language loses much force owing to this limitation - cannot be denied: metaphor and allegory are almost completely - banished. - - The difficulties that confront an Occidental who attempts to learn - Japanese are enormous. There are three languages to be acquired: - first, the ordinary colloquial; second, the polite colloquial; and, - third, the written. The ordinary colloquial differs materially from - its polite form, and both are as unlike the written form as modern - Italian is unlike ancient Latin. "Add to this," writes Professor B. H. - Chamberlain, "the necessity of committing to memory two syllabaries, - one of which has many variant forms, and at least two or three - thousand Chinese ideographs, in forms standard and - cursive--ideographs, too, most of which are susceptible of three or - four different readings according to circumstance,--add, further, that - all these kinds of written symbols are apt to be encountered pell mell - on the same page, and the task of mastering Japanese becomes almost - Herculean." In view of all this there is a strong movement in favour - of romanizing the Japanese script: that is to say, abolishing the - ideograph and adopting in its place the Roman alphabet. But while - every one appreciates the magnitude of the relief that would thus be - afforded, there has as yet been little substantial progress. A - language which has been adapted from its infancy to ideographic - transmission cannot easily be fitted to phonetic uses. - - _Dictionaries._--F. Brinkley, _An Unabridged Japanese-English - Dictionary_ (Tokyo, 1896); Y. Shimada, _English-Japanese Dictionary_, - (Tokyo, 1897); _Webster's Dictionary, trans. into Japanese_, (Tokyo, - 1899); J. H. Gubbins, _Dictionary of Chinese-Japanese Words_ (3 - vols., London, 1889); J. C. Hepburn, _Japanese-English and - English-Japanese Dictionary_ (London, 1903); E. M. Satow and I. - Masakata, _English-Japanese Dictionary_ (London, 1904). - -_Literature._--From the neighbouring continent the Japanese derived the -art of transmitting ideas to paper. But as to the date of that -acquisition there is doubt. An authenticated work compiled A.D. 720 -speaks of historiographers having been appointed to collect local -records for the first time in 403, from which it is to be inferred that -such officials had already existed at the court. There is also a -tradition that some kind of general history was compiled in 620 but -destroyed by fire in 645. At all events, the earliest book now extant -dates from 712. Its origin is described in its preface. When the emperor -Temmu (673-686) ascended the throne, he found that there did not exist -any revised collection of the fragmentary annals of the chief families. -He therefore caused these annals to be collated. There happened to be -among the court ladies one Hiyeda no Are, who was gifted with an -extraordinary memory. Measures were taken to instruct her in the genuine -traditions and the old language of former ages, the intention being to -have the whole ultimately dictated to a competent scribe. But the -emperor died before the project could be consummated, and for -twenty-five years Are's memory remained the sole depository of the -collected annals. Then, under the auspices of the empress Gemmyo, the -original plan was carried out in 712, Yasumaro being the scribe. The -work that resulted is known as the _Kojiki_ (_Record of Ancient -Matters_). It has been accurately translated by Professor B. H. -Chamberlain (_Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. x.), -who, in a preface justly regarded by students of Japan as an exegetical -classic, makes the pertinent comment: "Taking the word Altaic in its -usual acceptation, viz. as the generic name of all the languages -belonging to the Manchu, Mongolian, Turkish and Finnish groups, not only -the archaic, but the classical, literature of Japan carries us back -several centuries beyond the earliest extant documents of any other -Altaic tongue." By the term "archaic" is to be understood the pure -Japanese language of earliest times, and by the term "classical" the -quasi-Chinese language which came into use for literary purposes when -Japan appropriated the civilization of her great neighbours. The -_Kojiki_ is written in the archaic form: that is to say, the language is -the language of old Japan, the script, although ideographic, is used -phonetically only, and the case-indicators are represented by Chinese -characters having the same sounds. It is a species of saga, setting -forth not only the heavenly beginnings of the Japanese race, but also -the story of creation, the succession of the various sovereigns and the -salient events of their reigns, the whole interspersed with songs, many -of which may be attributed to the 6th century, while some doubtless date -from the fourth or even the third. This _Kojiki_ marks the parting of -the ways. Already by the time of its compilation the influence of -Chinese civilization and Chinese literature had prevailed so greatly in -Japan that the next authentic work, composed only eight years later, was -completely Chinese in style and embodied Chinese traditions and Chinese -philosophical doctrines, not distinguishing them from their Japanese -context. This volume was called the _Nihongi_ (_Chronicles of Japan_). -It may be said to have wholly supplanted its predecessor in popular -favour, for the classic style--that is to say, the Chinese--had now come -to be regarded as the only erudite script. The _Chronicles_ re-traversed -much of the ground already gone over by the _Record_, preserving many of -the songs in occasionally changed form, omitting some portions, -supplementing others, and imparting to the whole such an exotic -character as almost to disqualify the work for a place in Japanese -literature. Yet this was the style which thenceforth prevailed among the -litterati of Japan. "Standard Chinese soon became easier to understand -than archaic Japanese, as the former alone was taught in the schools, -and the native language changed rapidly during the century or two that -followed the diffusion of the foreign tongue and civilization" -(CHAMBERLAIN). The neglect into which the _Kojiki_ fell lasted until the -17th century. Almost simultaneously with its appearance in type (1644) -and its consequent accessibility, there arose a galaxy of scholars -under whose influence the archaic style and the ancient Japanese -traditions entered a period of renaissance. The story of this period and -of its products has been admirably told by Sir Ernest Satow ("Revival of -Pure Shinto," _Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. iii.), -whose essay, together with Professor Chamberlain's _Kojiki_, the same -author's introduction to _The Classical Poetry of the Japanese_, and Mr -W. G. Aston's _Nihongi_, are essential to every student of Japanese -literature. To understand this 17th century renaissance, knowledge of -one fact is necessary, namely, that about the year A. D. 810, a -celebrated Buddhist priest, Kukai, who had spent several years studying -in China, compounded out of Buddhism, Confucianism and Shinto a system -of doctrine called _Ryobu Shinto_ (Dual Shinto), the prominent tenet of -which was that the Shinto deities were merely transmigrations of -Buddhist divinities. By this device Japanese conservatism was -effectually conciliated, and Buddhism became in fact the creed of the -nation, its positive and practical precepts entirely eclipsing the -agnostic intuitionalism of Shinto. Against this hybrid faith several -Japanese scholars arrayed themselves in the 17th and 18th centuries, the -greatest of them being Mabuchi and Motoori. The latter's _magnum opus_, -_Kojikiden_ (_Exposition of the Record of Ancient Matters_), declared by -Chamberlain to be "perhaps the most admirable work of which Japanese -erudition can boast," consists of 44 large volumes, devoted to -elucidating the _Kojiki_ and resuscitating the Shinto cult as it existed -in the earliest days. This great work of reconstruction was only one -feature of the literary activity which marked the 17th and 18th -centuries, when, under Tokugawa rule, the blessing of long-unknown peace -came to the nation. Iyeyasu himself devoted the last years of his life -to collecting ancient manuscripts. In his country retreat at Shizuoka he -formed one of the richest libraries ever brought together in Japan, and -by will he bequeathed the Japanese section of it to his eighth son, the -feudal chief of Owari, and the Chinese section to his ninth son, the -prince of Kishu, with the result that under the former feudatory's -auspices two works of considerable merit were produced treating of -ancient ceremonials and supplementing the _Nihongi_. Much more -memorable, however, was a library formed by Iyeyasu's grandson the -feudal chief of Mito (1662-1700), who not only collected a vast quantity -of books hitherto scattered among Shinto and Buddhist monasteries and -private houses, but also employed a number of scholars to compile a -history unprecedented in magnitude, the _Dai-Nihon-shi_. It consisted of -240 volumes, and it became at once the standard in its own branch of -literature. Still more comprehensive was a book emanating from the same -source and treating of court ceremonials. It ran to more than 500 -volumes, and the emperor honoured the work by bestowing on it the title -_Reigi Ruiten_ (_Rules of Ceremonials_). These compilations together -with the _Nihon Gwaishi_ (_History of Japan Outside the Court_), written -by Rai Sanyo and published in 1827, constituted the chief sources of -historical knowledge before the Meiji era. Rai Sanyo devoted twenty -years to the preparation of his 22 volumes and took his materials from -259 Japanese and Chinese works. But neither he nor his predecessors -recognized in history anything more than a vehicle for recording the -mere sequence of events and their relations, together with some account -of the personages concerned. Their volumes make profoundly dry reading. -Vicarious interest, however, attaches to the productions of the Mito -School on account of the political influence they exercised in -rehabilitating the nation's respect for the throne by unveiling the -picture of an epoch prior to the usurpations of military feudalism. The -struggles of the great rival clans, replete with episodes of the most -tragic and stirring character, inspired quasi-historical narrations of a -more popular character, which often took the form of illuminated -scrolls. But it was not until the Meiji era that history, in the modern -sense of the term, began to be written. During recent times many -students have turned their attention to this branch of literature. Works -of wide scope and clear insight have been produced, and the -Historiographers' section in the Imperial University of Tokyo has been -for several years engaged in collecting and collating materials for a -history which will probably rank with anything of the kind in existence. - - - Poetry. - - In their poetry above everything the Japanese have remained impervious - to alien influences. It owes this conservation to its prosody. Without - rhyme, without variety of metre, without elasticity of dimensions, it - is also without known counterpart. To alter it in any way would be to - deprive it of all distinguishing characteristics. At some remote date - a Japanese maker of songs seems to have discovered that a peculiar and - very fascinating rhythm is produced by lines containing 5 syllables - and 7 syllables alternately. That is Japanese poetry (_uta_ or - _tanka_). There are generally five lines: the first and third - consisting of 5 syllables, the second, fourth and fifth of 7, making a - total of 31 in all. The number of lines is not compulsory: sometimes - they may reach to thirty, forty or even more, but the alternation of 5 - and 7 syllables is compulsory. The most attenuated form of all is the - _hokku_ (or _haikai_) which consists of only three lines, namely, 17 - syllables. Necessarily the ideas embodied in such a narrow vehicle - must be fragmentary. Thus it results that Japanese poems are, for the - most part, impressionist; they suggest a great deal more than they - actually express. Here is an example:-- - - Momiji-ha wo \ - Kaze ni makasete | More fleeting than the glint of - Miru yori mo > withered leaf wind-blown, the - Hakanaki mono wa | thing called life. - Inochi nari keri / - - There is no English metre with this peculiar cadence. - - It is not to be inferred that the writers of Japan, enamoured as they - were of Chinese ideographs and Chinese style, deliberately excluded - everything Chinese from the realm of poetry. On the contrary, many of - them took pleasure in composing versicles to which Chinese words were - admitted and which showed something of the "parallelism" peculiar to - Chinese poetry, since the first ideograph of the last line was - required to be identical with the final ideograph. But rhyme was not - attempted, and the syllabic metre of Japan was preserved, the - alternation of 5 and 7 being, however, dispensed with. Such couplets - were called _shi_ to distinguish them from the pure Japanese _uta_ or - _tanka_. The two greatest masters of Japanese poetry were Hitomaro and - Akahito, both of the early 8th century, and next to them stands - Tsurayuki, who flourished at the beginning of the 10th century, and is - not supposed to have transmitted his mantle to any successor. The - choicest productions of the former two with those of many other poets - were brought together in 756 and embodied in a book called the - _Manyoshu (Collection of a Myriad Leaves)_. The volume remained unique - until the beginning of the 10th century, when (A.D. 905) Tsurayuki and - three coadjutors compiled the _Kokinshu (Collection of Odes Ancient - and Modern)_, the first of twenty-one similar anthologies between the - 11th and the 15th centuries, which constitute the _Niju-ichi Dai-shu - (Anthologies of the One-and-Twenty Reigns)_. If to these we add the - _Hyaku-ninshu (Hundred Odes by a Hundred Poets)_ brought together by - Teika Kyo in the 13th century, we have all the classics of Japanese - poetry. For the composition of the _uta_ gradually deteriorated from - the end of the 9th century, when a game called _uta-awase_ became a - fashionable pastime, and aristocratic men and women tried to string - together versicles of 31 syllables, careful of the form and careless - of the thought. The _uta-awase_, in its later developments, may not - unjustly be compared to the Occidental game of _bouts-rimes_. The - poetry of the nation remained immovable in the ancient groove until - very modern times, when, either by direct access to the originals or - through the medium of very defective translations, the nation became - acquainted with the masters of Occidental song. A small coterie of - authors, headed by Professor Toyama, then attempted to revolutionize - Japanese poetry by recasting it on European lines. But the project - failed signally, and indeed it may well be doubted whether the - Japanese language can be adapted to such uses. - - - Influence of Women in Japanese Literature. - - It was under the auspices of an empress (Suiko) that the first - historical manuscript is said to have been compiled in 620. It was - under the auspices of an empress (Gemmyo) that the _Record of Ancient - Matters_ was transcribed (712) from the lips of a court lady. And it - was under the auspices of an empress that the _Chronicles of Japan_ - were composed (720). To women, indeed, from the 8th century onwards - may be said to have been entrusted the guardianship of the pure - Japanese language, the classical, or Chinese, form being adopted by - men. The distinction continued throughout the ages. To this day the - spoken language of Japanese women is appreciably simpler and softer - than that of the men, and to this day while the educated woman uses - the hiragana syllabary in writing, eschews Chinese words and rarely - pens an ideograph, the educated man employs the ideograph entirely, - and translates his thoughts as far as possible into the mispronounced - Chinese words without recourse to which it would be impossible for him - to discuss any scientific subject, or even to refer to the details of - his daily business. Japan was thus enriched with two works of very - high merit, the _Genji Monogatari_ (c. 1004) and the _Makura no Zoshi_ - (about the same date). The former, by Murasaki no Shikibu--probably a - pseudonym--was the first novel composed in Japan. Before her time - there had been many _monogatari_ (narratives), but all consisted - merely of short stories, mythical or quasi-historical, whereas - Murasaki no Shikibu did for Japan what Fielding and Richardson did for - England. Her work was "a prose epic of real life," the life of her - hero, _Genji_. Her language is graceful and natural, her sentiments - are refined and sober; and, as Mr Aston well says, her "story flows on - easily from one scene of real life to another, giving us a varied and - minutely detailed picture of life and society in Kioto, such as we - possess for no other country at the same period." The _Makura no Zoshi - (Pillow Sketches)_, like the _Genji Monogatari_, was by a noble - lady--Sei Shonagon--but it is simply a record of daily events and - fugitive thoughts, though not in the form of a diary. The book is one - of the most natural and unaffected compositions ever written. - Undesignedly it conveys a wonderfully realistic picture of - aristocratic life and social ethics in Kioto at the beginning of the - 11th century. "If we compare it with anything that Europe has to show - at this period, it must be admitted that it is indeed a remarkable - work. What a revelation it would be if we had the court life of - Alfred's or Canute's reign depicted to us in a similar way?" - - - The Dark Age. - - The period from the early part of the 14th century to the opening of - the 17th is generally regarded as the dark age of Japanese literature. - The constant wars of the time left their impress upon everything. To - them is due the fact that the two principal works compiled during this - epoch were, one political, the other quasi-historical. In the former, - _Jinkoshoto-ki (History of the True Succession of the Divine - Monarchs)_, Kitabatake Chikafusa (1340) undertook to prove that of the - two sovereigns then disputing for supremacy in Japan, Go-Daigo was the - rightful monarch; in the latter, _Taihei-ki (History of Great Peace)_, - Kojima (1370) devoted his pages to describing the events of - contemporaneous history. Neither work can be said to possess signal - literary merit, but both had memorable consequences. For the - _Jinkoshoto-ki_, by its strong advocacy of the mikado's administrative - rights as against the usurpations of military feudalism, may be said - to have sowed the seeds of Japan's modern polity; and the _Taihei-ki_, - by its erudite diction, skilful rhetoric, simplification of old - grammatical constructions and copious interpolation of Chinese words, - furnished a model for many imitators and laid the foundations of - Japan's 19th-century style. The _Taihei-ki_ produced another notable - effect; it inspired public readers who soon developed into historical - _raconteurs_; a class of professionals who are almost as much in vogue - to-day as they were 500 years ago. Belonging to about the same period - as the _Jinkoshoto-ki_, another classic occupies a leading place in - Japanese esteem. It is the _Tsure-zure-gusa (Materials for Dispelling - Ennui)_, by Kenko-boshi, described by Mr Aston as "one of the most - delightful oases in Japanese literature; a collection of short - sketches, anecdotes and essays on all imaginable subjects, something - in the manner of Selden's _Table Talk_." - - - The Drama. - - The so-called dark age of Japanese literature was not entirely - unproductive: it gave the drama (_No_) to Japan. Tradition ascribes - the origin of the drama to a religious dance of a pantomimic - character, called _Kagura_ and associated with Shinto ceremonials. The - No, however, owed its development mainly to Buddhist influence. During - the medieval era of internecine strife the Buddhist priests were the - sole depositaries of literary talent, and seeing that, from the close - of the 14th century, the Shinto mime (Kagura) was largely employed by - the military class to invoke or acknowledge the assistance of the - gods, the monks of Buddha set themselves to compose librettos for this - mime, and the performance, thus modified, received the name of No. - Briefly speaking, the No was a dance of the most stately character, - adapted to the incidents of dramas "which embrace within their scope a - world of legendary lore, of quaint fancies and of religious - sentiment." Their motives were chiefly confined to such themes as the - law of retribution to which all human beings are subjected, the - transitoriness of life and the advisability of shaking off from one's - feet the dust of this sinful world. But some were of a purely martial - nature. This difference is probably explained by the fact that the - idea of thus modifying the Kagura had its origin in musical - recitations from the semi-romantic semi-historical narratives of the - 14th century. Such recitations were given by itinerant Bonzes, and it - is easy to understand the connexion between them and the No. Very soon - the No came to occupy in the estimation of the military class a - position similar to that held by the _tanka_ as a literary pursuit, - and the _gagaku_ as a musical, in the Imperial court. All the great - aristocrats not only patronized the No but were themselves ready to - take part in it. Costumes of the utmost magnificence were worn, and - the chiselling of masks for the use of the performers occupied scores - of artists and ranked as a high glyptic accomplishment. There are 335 - classical dramas of this kind in a compendium called the _Yokyoka - Tsuge_, and many of them are inseparably connected with the names of - Kwanami Kiyotsugu (1406) and his son Motokiyo (1455), who are counted - the fathers of the art. For a moment, when the tide of Western - civilization swept over Japan, the No seemed likely to be permanently - submerged. But the renaissance of nationalism (_kokusui hoson_) saved - the venerable drama, and owing to the exertions of Prince Iwakura, the - artist Hosho Kuro and Umewaka Minoru, it stands as high as ever in - popular favour. Concerning the five schools into which the No is - divided, their characteristics and their differences--these are - matters of interest to the initiated alone. - - - The Farce. - - The Japanese are essentially a laughter-loving people. They are highly - susceptible of tragic emotions, but they turn gladly to the brighter - phases of life. Hence a need was soon felt of something to dispel the - pessimism of the No, and that something took the form of comedies - played in the interludes of the No and called _Kyogen_ (mad words). - The Kyogen needs no elaborate description: it is a pure farce, never - immodest or vulgar. - - - The Theatre. - - The classic drama No and its companion the Kyogen had two children, - the _Joruri_ and the _Kabuki_. They were born at the close of the 16th - century and they owed their origin to the growing influence of the - commercial class, who asserted a right to be amused but were excluded - from enjoyment of the aristocratic No and the Kyogen. The Joruri is a - dramatic ballad, sung or recited to the accompaniment of the _samisen_ - and in unison with the movements of puppets. It came into existence in - Kioto and was thence transferred to Yedo (Tokyo), where the greatest - of Japanese playwrights, Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1724), and a - musician of exceptional talent, Takemoto Gidayu, collaborated to - render this puppet drama a highly popular entertainment. It flourished - for nearly 200 years in Yedo, and is still occasionally performed in - Osaka. Like the No the Joruri dealt always with sombre themes, and was - supplemented by the Kabuki (farce). This last owed its inception to a - priestess who, having abandoned her holy vocation at the call of love, - espoused dancing as a means of livelihood and trained a number of - girls for the purpose. The law presently interdicted these female - comedians (_onna-kabuki_) in the interests of public morality, and - they were succeeded by "boy comedians" (_wakashu-kabuki_) who - simulated women's ways and were vetoed in their turn, giving place to - _yaro-kabuki_ (comedians with queues). Gradually the Kabuki developed - the features of a genuine theatre; the actor and the playwright were - discriminated, and, the performances taking the form of domestic drama - (_Wagoto_ and _Sewamono_) or historical drama (_Aragoto_ or - _Jidaimono_), actors of perpetual fame sprang up, as Sakata Tojuro and - Ichikawa Danjinro (1660-1704). Mimetic posture-dances (_Shosagoto_) - were always introduced as interludes; past and present - indiscriminately contributed to the playwright's subjects; realism was - carried to extremes; a revolving stage and all mechanical accessories - were supplied; female parts were invariably taken by males, who - attained almost incredible skill in these simulations; a chorus--relic - of the No--chanted expositions of profound sentiments or thrilling - incidents; and histrionic talent of the very highest order was often - displayed. But the _Kabuki-za_ and its _yakusha_ (actors) remained - always a plebeian institution. No _samurai_ frequented the former or - associated with the latter. With the introduction of Western - civilization in modern times, however, the theatre ceased to be - tabooed by the aristocracy. Men and women of all ranks began to visit - it; the emperor himself consented (1887) to witness a performance by - the great stars of the stage at the private residence of Marquis - Inouye; a dramatic reform association was organized by a number of - prominent noblemen and scholars; drastic efforts were made to purge - the old historical dramas of anachronisms and inconsistencies, and at - length a theatre (the _Yuraku-za_) was built on purely European lines, - where instead of sitting from morning to night witnessing one - long-drawn-out drama with interludes of whole farces, a visitor may - devote only a few evening-hours to the pastime. The Shosagoto has not - been abolished, nor is there any reason why it should be. It has - graces and beauties of its own. There remains to be noted the - incursion of amateurs into the histrionic realm. In former times the - actor's profession was absolutely exclusive in Japan. Children were - trained to wear their fathers' mantles, and the idea that a - non-professional could tread the hallowed ground of the stage did not - enter any imagination. But with the advent of the new regimen in Meiji - days there arose a desire for social plays depicting the life of the - modern generation, and as these "croppy dramas" (_zampatsu-mono_)--so - called in allusion to the European method of cutting the hair - close--were not included in the repertoire of the orthodox theatre, - amateur troupes (known as _soshi-yakusha_) were organized to fill the - void. Even Shakespeare has been played by these amateurs, and the - abundant wit of the Japanese is on the way to enrich the stage with - modern farces of unquestionable merit. - - - Literature of the Tokugawa Era. - - The Tokugawa era (1603-1867), which popularized the drama, had other - memorable effects upon Japanese literature. Yedo, the shogun's - capital, displaced Kioto as the centre of literary activity. Its - population of more than a million, including all sorts and conditions - of men--notably wealthy merchants and mechanics--constituted a new - audience to which authors had to address themselves; and an - unparalleled development of mental activity necessitated wholesale - drafts upon the Chinese vocabulary. To this may be attributed the - appearance of a group of men known as _kangakusha_ (Chinese scholars). - The most celebrated among them were: Fujiwara Seikwa (1560-1619), who - introduced his countrymen to the philosophy of Chu-Hi; Hayashi Rasan - (1583-1657), who wrote 170 treatises on scholastic and moral subjects; - Kaibara Ekken (1630-1714), teacher of a fine system of ethics; Arai - Hakuseki (1657-1725), historian, philosopher, statesman and financier: - and Muro Kiuso, the second great exponent of Chu-Hi's philosophy. - "Japan owes a profound debt of gratitude to the _kangakusha_ of that - time. For their day and country they were emphatically the salt of - earth." But naturally not all were believers in the same philosophy. - The fervour of the followers of Chu-Hi (the orthodox school) could not - fail to provoke opposition. Thus some arose who declared allegiance to - the idealistic intuitionalism of Wang Yang-ming, and others advocated - direct study of the works of Confucius and Mencius. Connected with - this rejection of Chu-Hi were such eminent names as those of Ito - Junsai (1627-1718), Ito Togai (1617-1736), Ogyu Sorai (1666-1728) and - Dazai Shuntai (1679-1747). These Chinese scholars made no secret of - their contempt for Buddhism, and in their turn they were held in - aversion by the Buddhists and the Japanese scholars (_wagakusha_), so - that the second half of the 18th century was a time of perpetual - wrangling and controversy. The worshippers at the shrine of Chinese - philosophy evoked a reactionary spirit of nationalism, just as the - excessive worship of Occidental civilization was destined to do in the - 19th century. - - Apart from philosophical researches and the development of the drama, - as above related, the Tokugawa era is remarkable for folk-lore, moral - discourses, fiction and a peculiar form of poetry. This last does not - demand much attention. Its principal variety is the _haikai_, which is - nothing more than a _tanka_ shorn of its concluding fourteen - syllables, and therefore virtually identical with the _hokku_, already - described. The name of Basho is immemorially associated with this kind - of lilliputian versicle, which reached the extreme of impressionism. A - more important addition to Japanese literature was made in the 17th - century in the form of children's tales (_Otogibanashi_). They are - charmingly simple and graceful, and they have been rendered into - English again and again since the beginning of the Meiji era. But - whether they are to be regarded as genuine folk-lore or merely as a - branch of the fiction of the age when they first appeared in book - form, remains uncertain. Of fiction proper there was an abundance. The - pioneer of this kind of literature is considered to have been Saikaku - (1641-1693), who wrote sketches of everyday life as he saw it, short - tales of some merit and novels which deal with the most disreputable - phases of human existence. His notable successors in the same line - were two men of Kioto, named Jisho (1675-1745) and Kiseki (1666-1716). - They had their own publishing house, and its name _Hachimonji-ya_ - (figure-of-eight store) came to be indelibly associated with this kind - of literature. But these men did little more than pave the way for the - true romantic novel, which first took shape under the hand of Santo - Kyoden (1761-1816), and culminated in the works of Bakin, Tanehiko, - Samba, Ikku, Shunsui and their successors. Of nearly all the books in - this class it may be said that they deal largely in sensationalism and - pornography, though it does not follow that their language is either - coarse or licentious. The life of the virtuous Japanese woman being - essentially uneventful, these romancists not unnaturally sought their - female types among dancing-girls and courtesans. The books were - profusely illustrated with woodcuts and chromoxylographs from pictures - of the _ukiyoe_ masters, who, like the playwright, the actor and the - romancer, ministered to the pleasure of the "man in the street." Brief - mention must also be made of two other kinds of books belonging to - this epoch; namely, the _Shingaku-sho_ (ethical essays) and the - _Jitsuroku-mono_ (true records). The latter were often little more - than historical novels founded on facts; and the former, though - nominally intended to engraft the doctrines of Buddhism and Shinto - upon the philosophy of China, were really of rationalistic tendency. - - - The Meiji Era. - - Although the incursions made into Chinese philosophy and the revival - of Japanese traditions during the Tokugawa Epoch contributed - materially to the overthrow of feudalism and the restoration of the - Throne's administrative power, the immediate tendency of the last two - events was to divert the nation's attention wholly from the study of - either Confucianism or the _Record of Ancient Matters_. A universal - thirst set in for Occidental science and literature, so that students - occupied themselves everywhere with readers and grammars modelled on - European lines rather than with the Analects or the _Kojiki_. English - at once became the language of learning. Thus the three colleges which - formed the nucleus of the Imperial University of Tokyo were presided - over by a graduate of Michigan College (Professor Toyama), a member of - the English bar (Professor Hozumi) and a graduate of Cambridge (Baron - Kikuchi). If Japan was eminently fortunate in the men who directed her - political career at that time, she was equally favoured in those that - presided over her literary culture. Fukuzawa Yukichi, founder of the - Keio Gijuku, now one of Japan's four universities, did more than any - of his contemporaries by writing and speaking to spread a knowledge of - the West, its ways and its thoughts, and Nakamura Keiu laboured in the - same cause by translating Smiles's _Self-help_ and Mill's - _Representative Government_. A universal geography (by Uchida Masao); - a history of nations (by Mitsukuri Rinsho); a translation of - _Chambers's Encyclopaedia_ by the department of education; Japanese - renderings of Herbert Spencer and of Guizot and Buckle--all these made - their appearance during the first fourteen years of the epoch. The - influence of politics may be strongly traced in the literature of that - time, for the first romances produced by the new school were all of a - political character: _Keikoku Bidan_ (_Model for Statesmen_, with - Epaminondas for hero) by Yano Fumio; _Setchubai (Plum-blossoms in - snow)_ and _Kwakwan-o (Nightingale Among Flowers)_ by Suyehiro. This - idea of subserving literature to political ends is said to have been - suggested by Nakae Tokusuke's translation of Rousseau's _Contrat - social_. The year 1882 saw _Julius Caesar_ in a Japanese dress. The - translator was Tsubouchi Shoyo, one of the greatest writers of the - Meiji era. His _Shosetsu Shinsui (Essentials of a Novel)_ was an - eloquent plea for realism as contrasted with the artificiality of the - characters depicted by Bakin, and his own works illustrative of this - theory took the public by storm. He also brought out the first - literary periodical published in Japan, namely, the _Waseda Bungaku_, - so called because Tsubouchi was professor of literature in the Waseda - University, an institution founded by Count Okuma, whose name cannot - be omitted from any history of Meiji literature, not as an author but - as a patron. As illustrating the rapid development of familiarity with - foreign authors, a Japanese retrospect of the Meiji era notes that - whereas Macaulay's _Essays_ were in the curriculum of the Imperial - University in 1881-1882, they were studied, five or six years later, - in secondary schools, and pupils of the latter were able to read with - understanding the works of Goldsmith, Tennyson and Thackeray. Up to - Tsubouchi's time the Meiji literature was all in the literary - language, but there was then formed a society calling itself - _Kenyusha_, some of whose associates--as Bimyosai--used the colloquial - language in their works, while others--as Koyo, Rohan, &c.--went back - to the classical diction of the Genroku era (1655-1703). Rohan is one - of the most renowned of Japan's modern authors, and some of his - historical romances have had wide vogue. Meanwhile the business of - translating went on apace. Great numbers of European and American - authors were rendered into Japanese--Calderon, Lytton, Disraeli, - Byron, Shakespeare, Milton, Turgueniev, Carlyle, Daudet, Emerson, - Hugo, Heine, De Quincey, Dickens, Korner, Goethe--their name is legion - and their influence upon Japanese literature is conspicuous. In 1888 a - special course of German literature was inaugurated at the Imperial - University, and with it is associated the name of Mori Ogai, Japan's - most faithful interpreter of German thought and speech. Virtually - every literary magnate of the Occident has found one or more - interpreters in modern Japan. Accurate reviewers of the era have - divided it into periods of two or three years each, according to the - various groups of foreign authors that were in vogue, and every year - sees a large addition to the number of Japanese who study the - masterpieces of Western literature in the original. - - - Newspapers and Periodicals. - - Newspapers, as the term is understood in the West, did not exist in - old Japan, though block-printed leaflets were occasionally issued to - describe some specially stirring event. Yet the Japanese were not - entirely unacquainted with journalism. During the last decades of the - factory at Deshima the Dutch traders made it a yearly custom to submit - to the governor of Nagasaki selected extracts from newspapers arriving - from Batavia, and these extracts, having been translated into - Japanese, were forwarded to the court in Yedo together with their - originals. To such compilations the name of _Oranda fusetsu-sho (Dutch - Reports)_ was given. Immediately after the conclusion of the first - treaty in 1857, the Yedo authorities instructed the office for - studying foreign books _(Bunsho torishirabe-dokoro)_ to translate - excerpts from European and American journals. Occasionally these - translations were copied for circulation among officials, but the bulk - of the people knew nothing of them. Thus the first real newspaper did - not see the light until 1861, when a Yedo publisher brought out the - _Batavia News_, a compilation of items from foreign newspapers, - printed on Japanese paper from wooden blocks. Entirely devoid of local - interest, this journal did not survive for more than a few months. It - was followed, in 1864, by the _Shimbun-shi (News)_, which was - published in Yokohama, with Kishida Ginko for editor and John Hiko for - sub-editor. The latter had been cast away, many years previously, on - the coast of the United States and had become a naturalized American - citizen. He retained a knowledge of spoken Japanese, but the - ideographic script was a sealed book to him, and his editorial part - was limited to oral translations from American journals which the - editor committed to writing. The _Shimbun-shi_ essayed to collect - domestic news as well as foreign. It was published twice a month and - might possibly have created a demand for its wares had not the editor - and sub-editor left for America after the issue of the 10th number. - The example, however, had now been set. During the three years that - separated the death of the _Shimbun-shi_ from the birth of the Meiji - era (October 1867) no less than ten quasi-journals made their - appearance. They were in fact nothing better than inferior magazines, - printed from wood-blocks, issued weekly or monthly, and giving little - evidence of enterprise or intellect, though connected with them were - the names of men destined to become famous in the world of literature, - as Fukuchi Genichiro, Tsuji Shinji (afterwards Baron Tsuji) and Suzuki - Yuichi. These publications attracted little interest and exercised no - influence. Journalism was regarded as a mere pastime. The first - evidence of its potentialities was furnished by the _Koko Shimbun (The - World)_ under the editorship of Fukuchi Genichiro and Sasano Dempei. - To many Japanese observers it seemed that the restoration of 1867 had - merely transferred the administrative authority from the Tokugawa - Shogun to the clans of Satsuma and Choshu. The _Koko Shimbun_ severely - attacked the two clans as specious usurpers. It was not in the mood of - Japanese officialdom at that time to brook such assaults. The _Koko - Shimbun_ was suppressed; Fukuchi was thrust into prison, and all - journals or periodicals except those having official sanction were - vetoed. At the beginning of 1868 only two newspapers remained in the - field. Very soon, however, the enlightened makers of modern Japan - appreciated the importance of journalism, and in 1871 the _Shimbun - Zasshi (News Periodical)_ was started under the auspices of the - illustrious Kido. Shortly afterwards there appeared in - Yokohama--whence it was subsequently transferred to Tokyo--the - _Mainichi Shimbun (Daily News)_, the first veritable daily and also - the first journal printed with movable types and foreign presses. Its - editors were Numa Morikage, Shimada Saburo and Koizuka Ryu, all - destined to become celebrated not only in the field of journalism but - also in that of politics. It has often been said of the Japanese that - they are slow in forming a decision but very quick to act upon it. - This was illustrated in the case of journalism. In 1870 the country - possessed only two quasi-journals, both under official auspices. In - 1875 it possessed over 100 periodicals and daily newspapers. The most - conspicuous were the _Nichi Nichi Shimbun (Daily News)_, the _Yubin - Hochi (Postal Intelligence)_, the _Choya Shimbun (Government and - People News)_, the _Akebono Shimbun (The Dawn)_, and the _Mainichi - Shimbun (Daily News)_. These were called "the five great journals." - The _Nichi Nichi Shimbun_ had an editor of conspicuous literary - ability in Fukuchi Genichiro, and the _Hochi Shimbun_, its chief - rival, received assistance from such men as Yano Fumio, Fujita - Makichi, Inukai Ki and Minoura Katsundo. Japan had not yet any - political parties, but the ferment that preceded their birth was - abroad. The newspaper press being almost entirely in the hands of men - whose interests suggested wider opening of the door to official - preferment, nearly all editorial pens were directed against the - government. So strenuous did this campaign become that, in 1875, a - press law was enacted empowering the minister of home affairs and the - police to suspend or suppress a journal and to fine or imprison its - editor without public trial. Many suffered under this law, but the - ultimate effect was to invest the press with new popularity, and very - soon the newspapers conceived a device which effectually protected - their literary staff, for they employed "dummy editors" whose sole - function was to go to prison in lieu of the true editor. - - Japanese journalistic writing in these early years of Meiji was marred - by extreme and pedantic classicism. There had not yet been any real - escape from the tradition which assigned the crown of scholarship to - whatever author drew most largely upon the resources of the Chinese - language and learning. The example set by the Imperial court, and - still set by it, did not tend to correct this style. The sovereign, - whether speaking by rescript or by ordinance, never addressed the bulk - of his subjects. His words were taken from sources so classical as to - be intelligible to only the highly educated minority. The newspapers - sacrificed their audience to their erudition and preferred classicism - to circulation. Their columns were thus a sealed book to the whole of - the lower middle classes and to the entire female population. The - _Yomiuri Shimbun (Buy and Read News)_ was the first to break away from - this pernicious fashion. Established in 1875, it adopted a style - midway between the classical and the colloquial, and it appended the - syllabic characters to each ideograph, so that its columns became - intelligible to every reader of ordinary education. It was followed by - the _Yeiri Shimbun (Pictorial Newspaper)_, the first to insert - illustrations and to publish _feuilleton_ romances. Both of these - journals devoted space to social news, a radical departure from the - austere restrictions observed by their aristocratic contemporaries. - - - Era of Political Parties. - - The year 1881 saw the nation divided into political parties and within - measured distance of constitutional government. Thenceforth the great - majority of the newspapers and periodicals ranged themselves under the - flag of this or that party. An era of embittered polemics ensued. The - journals, while fighting continuously against each other's principles, - agreed in attacking the ministry, and the latter found it necessary to - establish organs of its own which preached the German system of state - autocracy. Editors seemed to be incapable of rising above the dead - level of political strife, and their utterances were not relieved even - by a semblance of fairness. Readers turned away in disgust, and - journal after journal passed out of existence. The situation was saved - by a newspaper which from the outset of its career obeyed the best - canons of journalism. Born in 1882, the _Jiji Shimpo (Times)_ enjoyed - the immense advantage of having its policy controlled by one of the - greatest thinkers of modern Japan, Fukuzawa Yukichi. Its basic - principle was liberty of the individual, liberty of the family and - liberty of the nation; it was always found on the side of broad-minded - justice, and it derived its materials from economic, social and - scientific sources. Other newspapers of greatly improved character - followed the _Jiji Shimpo_, especially notable among them being the - _Kokumin Shimbun_. - - - Commercial Journalism. - - In the meanwhile Osaka, always pioneer in matters of commercial - enterprise, had set the example of applying the force of capital to - journalistic development. Tokyo journals were all on a literary or - political basis, but the _Osaka Asahi Shimbun (Osaka Rising Sun News)_ - was purely a business undertaking. Its proprietor, Maruyama Ryuhei, - spared no expense to obtain news from all quarters of the world, and - for the first time the Japanese public learned what stores of - information may be found in the columns of a really enterprising - journal. Very soon the Asahi had a keen competitor in the _Osaka - Mainichi Shimbun_ (_Osaka Daily News_) and these papers ultimately - crushed all rivals in Osaka. In 1888 Maruyama established another - _Asahi_ in Tokyo, and thither he was quickly followed by his Osaka - rival, which in Tokyo took the name of _Mainichi Dempo_ (_Daily - Telegraph_). These two newspapers now stand alone as purveyors of - copious telegraphic news, and in the next rank, not greatly lower, - comes the _Jiji Shimpo_. - - With the opening of the diet in 1890, politics again obtruded - themselves into newspaper columns, but as practical living issues now - occupied attention, readers were no longer wearied by the abstract - homilies of former days. Moreover, freedom of the press was at length - secured. Already (1887) the government had voluntarily made a great - step in advance by divesting itself of the right to imprison or fine - editors by executive order. But it reserved the power of suppressing - or suspending a newspaper, and against that reservation a majority of - the lower house voted, session after session, only to see the bill - rejected by the peers, who shared the government's opinion that to - grant a larger measure of liberty would certainly encourage licence. - Not until 1897 was this opposition fully overcome. A new law, passed - by both houses and confirmed by the emperor, took from the executive - all power over journals, except in cases of lese majeste, and nothing - now remains of the former arbitrary system except that any periodical - having a political complexion is required to deposit security varying - from 175 to 1000 yen. The result has falsified all sinister - forebodings. A much more moderate tone pervades the writings of the - press since restrictions were entirely removed, and although there are - now 1775 journals and periodicals published throughout the empire, - with a total annual circulation of some 700 million copies, - intemperance of language, such as in former times would have provoked - official interference, is practically unknown to-day. Moreover, the - best Japanese editors have caught with remarkable aptitude the spirit - of modern journalism. But a few years ago they used to compile - laborious essays, in which the inspiration was drawn from Occidental - textbooks, and the alien character of the source was hidden under a - veneer of Chinese aphorisms. To-day they write terse, succinct, - closely-reasoned articles, seldom diffuse, often witty; and generally - free from extravagance of thought or diction. Incidentally they are - hastening the assimilation of the written and the spoken languages - (_genbun itchi_) which may possibly prelude a still greater reform, - abolition of the ideographic script. Yet, with few exceptions, the - profession of journalism is not remunerative. Very low rates of - subscription, and almost prohibitory charges for advertising, are - chiefly to blame.[1] The vicissitudes of the enterprise may be - gathered from the fact that, whereas 2767 journals and periodicals - were started between 1889 and 1894 (inclusive), no less than 2465 - ceased publishing. The largest circulation recorded in 1908 was about - 150,000 copies daily, and the honour of attaining that exceptional - figure belonged to the _Osaka Asahi Shimbun_. (F. By.) - - -IV.--JAPANESE ART - - Pictorial Art. - -_Painting and Engraving._--In Japanese art the impressionist element is -predominant. Pictures, as the term is understood in Europe, can scarcely -be said to have existed at any time in Japan. The artist did not depict -emotion: he depicted the subjects that produce emotion. Therefore he -took his motives from nature rather than from history; or, if he -borrowed from the latter, what he selected was a scene, not the pains or -the passions of its actors. Moreover, he never exhausted his subject, -but was always careful to leave a wide margin for the imagination of the -spectator. This latter consideration sometimes impelled him to represent -things which, to European eyes, seem trivial or insignificant, but which -really convey hints of deep significance. In short, Japanese pictures -are like Japanese poetry: they do not supply thought but only awaken it. -Often their methods show conventionalism, but it is conventionalism so -perfect and free in its allurements that nature seems to suggest both -the motive and the treatment. Thus though neither botanically nor -ornithologically correct, their flowers and their birds show a truth to -nature, and a habit of minute observation in the artist, which cannot be -too much admired. Every blade of grass, each leaf and feather, has been -the object of loving and patient study. - -It has been rashly assumed by some writers that the Japanese do not -study from nature. All their work is an emphatic protest against this -supposition. It can in fact be shown conclusively that the Japanese have -derived all their fundamental ideas of symmetry, so different from -ours, from a close study of nature and her processes in the attainment -of endless variety. A special feature of their art is that, while often -closely and minutely imitating natural objects, such as birds, flowers -and fishes, the especial objects of their predilection and study, they -frequently combine the facts of external nature with a conventional mode -of treatment better suited to their purpose. During the long -apprenticeship that educated Japanese serve to acquire the power of -writing with the brush the complicated characters borrowed from Chinese, -they unconsciously cultivate the habit of minute observation and the -power of accurate imitation, and with these the delicacy of touch and -freedom of hand which only long practice can give. A hair's-breadth -deviation in a line is fatal to good calligraphy, both among the Chinese -and the Japanese. When they come to use the pencil in drawing, they -already possess accuracy of eye and free command of the brush. Whether a -Japanese art-worker sets himself to copy what he sees before him or to -give play to his fancy in combining what he has seen with some ideal in -his mind, the result shows perfect facility of execution and easy grace -in all the lines. - -The beauties of the human form never appealed to the Japanese artist. -Associating the nude solely with the performance of menial tasks, he -deemed it worse than a solecism to transfer such subjects to his canvas, -and thus a wide field of motive was closed to him. On the other hand, -the draped figure received admirable treatment from his brush, and the -naturalistic school of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries reached a high -level of skill in depicting men, women and children in motion. Nor has -there ever been a Japanese Landseer. Sosen's monkeys and badgers -constitute the one possible exception, but the horses, oxen, deer, -tigers, dogs, bears, foxes and even cats of the best Japanese artists -were ill drawn and badly modelled. In the field of landscape the -Japanese painter fully reached the eminence on which his great Chinese -masters stood. He did not obey the laws of linear perspective as they -are formulated in the Occident, nor did he show cast shadows, but his -aerial perspective and his foreshortening left nothing to be desired. It -has been suggested that he deliberately eschewed chiaroscuro because his -pictures, destined invariably to hang in an alcove, were required to be -equally effective from every aspect and had also to form part of a -decorative scheme. But the more credible explanation is that he merely -followed Chinese example in this matter, as he did also in linear -perspective, accepting without question the curious canon that lines -converge as they approach the spectator. - - - Decorative Art. - -It is in the realm of decorative art that the world has chiefly -benefited by contact with Japan. Her influence is second only to that of -Greece. Most Japanese decorative designs consist of natural objects, -treated sometimes in a more or less conventional manner, but always -distinguished by delicacy of touch, graceful freedom of conception and -delightfully harmonized tints. Perhaps the admiration which the Japanese -artist has won in this field is due not more to his wealth of fancy and -skilful adaptation of natural forms, than to his individuality of -character in treating his subjects. There is complete absence of -uniformity and monotony. Repetition without any variation is abhorrent -to every Japanese. He will not tolerate the stagnation and tedium of a -dull uniformity by mechanical reproduction. His temperament will not let -him endure the labour of always producing the same pattern. Hence the -repetition of two articles exactly like each other, and, generally, the -division of any space into equal parts are instinctively avoided, as -nature avoids the production of any two plants, or even any two leaves -of the same tree, which in all points shall be exactly alike. - -[Illustration: PLATE I. PAINTING - - (_These illustrations are reproduced by permission of the Kokka - Company, Tokyo, Japan._) - - FIG. 1.--MANJUSRI, DEITY OF WISDOM. Kose School (13th century). - - FIG. 2.--WATERFALL OF NACHI. Attributed to Kanaoka (9th century). - - FIG. 3.--PORTRAIT OF THE PRIEST DAITO-KOKUSHI. Tosa School (14th - century).] - -[Illustration: PLATE II. PAINTING - - FIG. 4.--PRIESTS CARICATURED BY ANIMALS. By Toba Sojo (1053-1140). - - FIG. 5.--ESCAPE OF THE EMPEROR DISGUISED AS A WOMAN. Scene from the - Civil War. By Keion (13th century).] - -The application of this principle in the same free spirit is the secret -of much of the originality and the excellence of the decorative art of -Japan. Her artists and artisans alike aim at symmetry, not by an equal -division of parts, as we do, but rather by a certain balance of -corresponding parts, each different from the other, and not numerically -even, with an effect of variety and freedom from formality. They seek -it, in fact, as nature attains the same end. If we take for instance the -skins of animals that are striped or spotted, we have the best -possible illustration of nature's methods in this direction. Examining -the tiger or the leopard, in all the beauty of their symmetrical -adornment, we do not see in any one example an exact repetition of the -same stripes or spots on each side of the mesial line. They seem to be -alike, and yet are all different. The line of division along the spine, -it will be observed, is not perfectly continuous or defined, but in part -suggested; and each radiating stripe on either side is full of variety -in size, direction, and to some extent in colour and depth of shade. -Thus nature works, and so, following in her footsteps, works the -Japanese artist. The same law prevailing in all nature's creation, in -the plumage of birds, the painting of butterflies' wings, the marking of -shells, and in all the infinite variety and beauty of the floral -kingdom, the lesson is constantly renewed to the observant eye. Among -flowers the orchids, with all their fantastic extravagance and mimic -imitations of birds and insects, are especially prolific in examples of -symmetrical effects without any repetition of similar parts or divisions -into even numbers. - -The orchids may be taken as offering fair types of the Japanese artist's -ideal in all art work. And thus, close student of nature's processes, -methods, and effects as the Japanese art workman is, he ever seeks to -produce humble replicas from his only art master. Thus he proceeds in -all his decorative work, avoiding studiously the exact repetition of any -lines and spaces, and all diametrical divisions, or, if these be forced -upon him by the shape of the object, exercising the utmost ingenuity to -disguise the fact, and train away the eye from observing the weak point, -as nature does in like circumstances. Thus if a lacquer box in the form -of a parallelogram is the object, Japanese artists will not divide it in -two equal parts by a perpendicular line, but by a diagonal, as offering -a more pleasing line and division. If the box be round, they will seek -to lead the eye away from the naked regularity of the circle by a -pattern distracting attention, as, for example, by a zigzag breaking the -circular outline, and supported by other ornaments. A similar feeling is -shown by them as colourists, and, though sometimes eccentric and daring -in their contrasts, they never produce discords in their chromatic -scale. They have undoubtedly a fine sense of colour, and a similarly -delicate and subtle feeling for harmonious blending of brilliant and -sober hues. As a rule they prefer a quiet and refined style, using full -but low-toned colours. They know the value of bright colours, however, -and how best to utilize them, both supporting and contrasting them with -their secondaries and complementaries. - - - Division into Periods. - -The development of Japanese painting may be divided into the following -six periods, each signalized by a wave of progress. (1) From the middle -of the 6th to the middle of the 9th century: the naturalization of -Chinese and Chino-Buddhist art. (2) From the middle of the 9th to the -middle of the 15th century: the establishment of great native schools -under Kose no Kanaoka and his descendants and followers, the pure -Chinese school gradually falling into neglect. (3) From the middle of -the 15th to the latter part of the 17th century: the revival of the -Chinese style. (4) From the latter part of the 17th to the latter part -of the 18th century: the establishment of a popular school. (5) From the -latter part of the 18th to the latter part of the 19th century: the -foundation of a naturalistic school, and the first introduction of -European influence into Japanese painting; the acme and decline of the -popular school. (6) From about 1875 to the present time: a period of -transition. - - - First Period. - -Tradition refers to the advent of a Chinese artist named Nanriu, invited -to Japan in the 5th century as a painter of the Imperial banners, but of -the labours and influence of this man and of his descendants we have no -record. The real beginnings of the study of painting and sculpture in -their higher branches must be dated from the introduction of Buddhism -from China in the middle of the 6th century, and for three centuries -after this event there is evidence that the practice of the arts was -carried on mainly by or under the instruction of Korean and Chinese -immigrants. - - The paintings of which we have any mention were almost limited to - representations of Buddhist masters of the Tang dynasty (618-905), - notably Wu Tao-zu (8th century), of whose genius romantic stories are - related. The oldest existing work of this period is a mural decoration - in the hall of the temple of Horyu-ji, Nara, attributed to a Korean - priest named Doncho, who lived in Japan in the 6th century; and this - painting, in spite of the destructive effects of time and exposure, - shows traces of the same power of line, colour and composition that - stamps the best of the later examples of Buddhist art. - - - Second Period. - -The native artist who crested the first great wave of Japanese painting -was a court noble named Kose no Kanaoka, living under the patronage of -the emperor Seiwa (850-859) and his successors down to about the end of -the 9th century, in the midst of a period of peace and culture. Of his -own work few, if any, examples have reached us; and those attributed -with more or less probability to his hand are all representations of -Buddhist divinities, showing a somewhat formal and conventional design, -with a masterly calligraphic touch and perfect harmony of colouring. -Tradition credits him with an especial genius for the delineation of -animals and landscape, and commemorates his skill by a curious anecdote -of a painted horse which left its frame to ravage the fields, and was -reduced to pictorial stability only by the sacrifice of its eyes. He -left a line of descendants extending far into the 15th century, all -famous for Buddhist pictures, and some engaged in establishing a native -style, the _Wa-gwa-ryu_. - -At the end of the 9th century there were two exotic styles of painting, -Chinese and Buddhist, and the beginning of a native style founded upon -these. All three were practised by the same artists, and it was not -until a later period that each became the badge of a school. - - - Chinese Style. - - The Chinese style (_Kara-ryu_), the fundamental essence of all - Japanese art, has a fairly distinct history, dating back to the - introduction of Buddhism into China (A.D. 62), and it is said to have - been chiefly from the works of Wu Tao-zu, the master of the 8th - century, that Kanaoka drew his inspiration. This early Chinese manner, - which lasted in the parent country down to the end of the 13th - century, was characterized by a virile grace of line, a grave dignity - of composition, striking simplicity of technique, and a strong but - incomplete naturalistic ideal. The colouring, harmonious but subdued - in tone, held a place altogether secondary to that of the outline, and - was frequently omitted altogether, even in the most famous works. - Shadows and reflections were ignored, and perspective, approximately - correct for landscape distances, was isometrical for near objects, - while the introduction of a symbolic sun or moon lent the sole - distinction between a day and a night scene. The art was one of - imperfect evolution, but for thirteen centuries it was the only living - pictorial art in the world, and the Chinese deserve the honour of - having created landscape painting. The materials used were - water-colours, brushes, usually of deer-hair, and a surface of unsized - paper, translucid silk or wooden panel. The chief motives were - landscapes of a peculiarly wild and romantic type, animal life, trees - and flowers, and figure compositions drawn from Chinese and Buddhist - history and Taoist legend; and these, together with the grand aims and - strange shortcomings of its principles and the limited range of its - methods, were adopted almost without change by Japan. It was a noble - art, but unfortunately the rivalry of the Buddhist and later native - styles permitted it to fall into comparative neglect, and it was left - for a few of the faithful, the most famous of whom was a priest of the - 14th century named Kawo, to preserve it from inanition till the great - Chinese renaissance that lent its stamp to the next period. The - reputed founder of Japanese caricature may also be added to the list. - He was a priest named Kakuyu, but better known as the abbot of Toba, - who lived in the 12th century. An accomplished artist in the Chinese - manner, he amused himself and his friends by burlesque sketches, - marked by a grace and humour that his imitators never equalled. Later, - the motive of the Toba pictures, as such caricatures were called, - tended to degenerate, and the elegant figures of Kakuyu were replaced - by scrawls that often substituted indecency and ugliness for art and - wit. Some of the old masters of the Yamato school were, however, - admirable in their rendering of the burlesque, and in modern times - Kyosai, the last of the Hokusai school, outdid all his predecessors in - the riotous originality of his weird and comic fancies. A new phase of - the art now lives in the pages of the newspaper press. - - - Buddhist Style. - - The Buddhist style was probably even more ancient than the Chinese, - for the scheme of colouring distinctive of the Buddhist picture was - almost certainly of Indian origin; brilliant and decorative, and - heightened by a lavish use of gold, it was essential to the effect of - a picture destined for the dim light of the Buddhist temple. The style - was applied only to the representations of sacred personages and - scenes, and as the traditional forms and attributes of the Brahmanic - and Buddhist divinities were mutable only within narrow limits, the - subjects seldom afforded scope for originality of design or - observation of nature. The principal Buddhist painters down to the - 14th century were members of the Kose, Takuma and Kasuga lines, the - first descended from Kanaoka, the second from Takuma Tameuji (ending - 10th century), and the third from Fujiwara no Motomitsu (11th - century). The last and greatest master of the school was a priest - named Meicho, better known as Cho Densu, the Japanese Fra Angelico. It - is to him that Japan owes the possession of some of the most stately - and most original works in her art, sublime in conception, line and - colour, and deeply instinct with the religious spirit. He died in - 1427, at the age of seventy-six, in the seclusion of the temple where - he had passed the whole of his days. - - - Native Style. - - The native style, _Yamato_ or _Wa-gwa-ryu_, was an adaptation of - Chinese art canons to motives drawn from the court life, poetry and - stories of old Japan. It was undoubtedly practised by the Kose line, - and perhaps by their predecessors, but it did not take shape as a - school until the beginning of the 11th century under Fujiwara no - Motomitsu, who was a pupil of Kose no Kinmochi; it then became known - as _Yamato-ryu_, a title which two centuries later was changed to that - of _Tosa_, on the occasion of one of its masters, Fujiwara no - Tsunetaka, assuming that appellation as a family name. The Yamato-Tosa - artists painted in all styles, but that which was the speciality of - the school, to be found in nearly all the historical rolls bequeathed - to us by their leaders, was a lightly-touched outline filled in with - flat and bright body-colours, in which verdigris-green played a great - part. The originality of the motive did not prevent the adoption of - all the Chinese conventions, and of some new ones of the artist's own. - The curious expedient of spiriting away the roof of any building of - which the artist wished to show the interior was one of the most - remarkable of these. Amongst the foremost names of the school are - those of Montomitsu (11th century), Nobuzane (13th century), Tsunetaka - (13th century), Mitsunobu (15th and 16th centuries), his son - Mitsushige, and Mitsuoki (17th century). The struggle between the - Taira and Minamoto clans for the power that had long been practically - abandoned by the Imperial line lasted through the 11th and the greater - part of the 12th centuries, ending only with the rise of Yoritomo to - the shogunate in 1185. These internecine disturbances had been - unfavourable to any new departure in art, except in matters - appertaining to arms and armour, and the strife between two puppet - emperors for a shadow of authority in the 14th century brought another - distracting element. It was not until the triumph of the northern - dynasty was achieved through the prowess of an interested champion of - the Ashikaga clan that the culture of ancient Japan revived. The - palace of the Ashikaga shoguns then replaced the Imperial court as the - centre of patronage of art and literature and established a new era in - art history. - - - Third Period. - -Towards the close of the Ashikaga shogunate painting entered on a new -phase. Talented representatives of the Kose, Takuma and Tosa lines -maintained the reputation of the native and Buddhist schools, and the -long-neglected Chinese school was destined to undergo a vigorous -revival. The initiation of the new movement is attributed to a priest -named Josetsu, who lived in the early part of the 15th century, and of -whom little else is known. It is not even certain whether he was of -Chinese or Japanese birth; he is, however, believed by some authorities -to have been the teacher of three great artists--Shubun, Sesshu and Kano -Masanobu--who became the leaders of three schools: Shubun, that of the -pure Chinese art of the Sung and Yuan dynasties (10th and 13th -centuries); Sesshu, that of a modified school bearing his name; and -Masanobu, of the great Kano school, which has reached to the present -day. The qualities of the new Chinese schools were essentially those of -the older dynasties: breadth, simplicity, a daringly calligraphic play -of brush that strongly recalled the accomplishments of the famous -scribes, and a colouring that varied between sparing washes of flat -local tints and a strength and brilliancy of decorative effort that -rivalled even that of the Buddhist pictures. The motives remained almost -identical with those of the Chinese masters, and so imbued with the -foreign spirit were many of the Japanese disciples that it is said they -found it difficult to avoid introducing Chinese accessories even into -pictures of native scenery. - - Sesshu (1421-1507) was a priest who visited China and studied painting - there for several years, at length returning in 1469, disappointed - with the living Chinese artists, and resolved to strike out a style of - his own, based upon that of the old masters. He was the boldest and - most original of Japanese landscape artists, leaving powerful and - poetic records of the scenery of his own land as well as that of - China, and trusting more to the sure and sweeping stroke of the brush - than to colour. Shubun was an artist of little less power, but he - followed more closely his exemplars, the Chinese masters of the 12th - and 13th centuries; while Kano Masanobu (1424-1520), trained in the - love of Chinese art, departed little from the canons he had learned - from Josetsu or Oguri Sotan. It was left to his more famous son, - Motonobu, to establish the school which bears the family name. Kano - Motonobu (1477-1559) was one of the greatest Japanese painters, an - eclectic of genius, who excelled in every style and every branch of - his art. His variety was inexhaustible, and he remains to this day a - model whom the most distinguished artists are proud to imitate. The - names of the celebrated members of this long line are too many to - quote here, but the most accomplished of his descendants was Tanyu, - who died in 1674, at the age of seventy-three. The close of this long - period brought a new style of art, that of the Korin school. Ogata - Korin (1653-1716) is claimed by both the Tosa and Kano schools, but - his work bears more resemblance to that of an erratic offshoot of the - Kano line named Sotatsu than to the typical work of the academies. He - was an artist of eccentric originality, who achieved wonders in bold - decorative effects in spite of a studied contempt for detail. As a - lacquer painter he left a strong mark upon the work of his - contemporaries and successors. His brother and pupil, Kenzan, adopted - his style, and left a reputation as a decorator of pottery hardly less - brilliant than Korin's in that of lacquer; and a later follower, - Hoitsu (1762-1828), greatly excelled the master in delicacy and - refinement, although inferior to him in vigour and invention. Down to - the end of this era painting was entirely in the hands of a patrician - caste--courtiers, priests, feudal nobles and their military retainers, - all men of high education and gentle birth, living in a polished - circle. It was practised more as a phase of aesthetic culture than - with any utilitarian views. It was a labour of loving service, - untouched by the spirit of material gain, conferring upon the work of - the older masters a dignity and poetic feeling which we vainly seek in - much of the later work. Unhappily, but almost inevitably, over-culture - led to a gradual falling-off from the old virility. The strength of - Meicho, Sesshu, Motonobu and Tanyu gave place to a more or less - slavish imitation of the old Japanese painters and their Chinese - exemplars, till the heirs to the splendid traditions of the great - masters preserved little more than their conventions and shortcomings. - It was time for a new departure, but there seemed to be no sufficient - strength left within the charmed circle of the orthodox schools, and - the new movement was fated to come from the masses, whose voice had - hitherto been silent in the art world. - - - Fourth Period: Popular School. - -A new era in art began in the latter half of the 17th century with the -establishment of a popular school under an embroiderer's draughtsman -named Hishigawa Moronobu (c. 1646-1713). Perhaps no great change is ever -entirely a novelty. The old painters of the Yamato-Tosa line had -frequently shown something of the daily life around them, and one of the -later scions of the school, named Iwasa Matahei, had even made a -specialty of this class of motive; but so little is known of Matahei and -his work that even his period is a matter of dispute, and the few -pictures attributed to his pencil are open to question on grounds of -authenticity. He probably worked some two generations before the time of -Moronobu, but there is no reason to believe that his labours had any -material share in determining the creation and trend of the new school. - - Moronobu was a consummate artist, with all the delicacy and - calligraphic force of the best of the Tosa masters, whom he - undoubtedly strove to emulate in style; and his pictures are not only - the most beautiful but also the most trustworthy records of the life - of his time. It was not to his paintings, however, that he owed his - greatest influence, but to the powerful impulse he gave to the - illustration of books and broadsides by wood-engravings. It is true - that illustrated books were known as early as 1608, if not before, but - they were few and unattractive, and did little to inaugurate the great - stream of _ehon_, or picture books, that were to take so large a share - in the education of his own class. It is to Moronobu that Japan owes - the popularization of artistic wood-engravings, for nothing before his - series of xylographic albums approached his best work in strength and - beauty, and nothing since has surpassed it. Later there came abundant - aid to the cause of popular art, partly from pupils of the Kano and - Tosa schools, but mainly from the artisan class. Most of these artists - were designers for books and broadsides by calling, painters only on - occasion, but a few of them did nothing for the engravers. Throughout - the whole of this period, embracing about a hundred years, there still - continued to work, altogether apart from the men who were making the - success of popular art, a large number of able painters of the Kano, - Tosa and Chinese schools, who multiplied pictures that had every merit - except that of originality. These men, living in the past, paid little - attention to the great popular movement, which seemed to be quite - outside their social and artistic sphere and scarcely worthy of - cultured criticism. It was in the middle of the 18th century that the - decorative, but relatively feeble, Chinese art of the later Ming - period found favour in Japan and a clever exponent in a painter named - Ryurikyo. It must be regarded as a sad decadence from the old Chinese - ideals, which was further hastened, from about 1765, by the popularity - of the southern Chinese style. This was a weak affectation that found - its chief votaries amongst literary men ambitious of an easily earned - artistic reputation. The principal Japanese supporter of this school - was Taigado (1722-1775), but the volume of copies of his sketches, - _Taigado sansui juseki_, published about 1870, is one of the least - attractive albums ever printed in Japan. - - - Fifth Period: Naturalistic School. - -The fifth period was introduced by a movement as momentous as that which -stamped its predecessor--the foundation of a naturalistic school under a -group of men outside the orthodox academical circles. The naturalistic -principle was by no means a new one; some of the old Chinese masters -were naturalistic in a broad and noble manner, and their Japanese -followers could be admirably and minutely accurate when they pleased; -but too many of the latter were content to construct their pictures out -of fragmentary reminiscences of ancient Chinese masterpieces, not -presuming to see a rock, a tree, an ox, or a human figure, except -through Chinese spectacles. It was a farmer's son named Okyo, trained in -his youth to paint in the Chinese manner, who was first bold enough to -adopt as a canon what his predecessors had only admitted under rare -exceptions, the principle of an exact imitation of nature. -Unfortunately, even he had not all the courage of his creed, and while -he would paint a bird or a fish with perfect realism, he no more dared -to trust his eyes in larger motives than did the most devout follower of -Shubun or Motonobu. He was essentially a painter of the classical -schools, with the speciality of elaborate reproduction of detail in -certain sections of animal life, but fortunately this partial concession -to truth, emphasized as it was by a rare sense of beauty, did large -service. - - Okyo rose into notice about 1775, and a number of pupils flocked to - his studio in Shijo Street, Kioto (whence Shijo school). Amongst these - the most famous were Goshun (1742-1811), who is sometimes regarded as - one of the founders of the school; Sosen (1757-1821), an animal - painter of remarkable power, but especially celebrated for pictures of - monkey life; Shuho, the younger brother of the last, also an animal - painter; Rosetsu (1755-1799), the best landscape painter of his - school; Keibun, a younger brother of Goshun, and some later followers - of scarcely less fame, notably Hoyen, a pupil of Keibun; Tessan, an - adopted son of Sosen; Ippo and Yosai (1788-1878), well known for a - remarkable set of volumes, the _Zenken kojitsu_, containing a long - series of portraits of ancient Japanese celebrities. Ozui and Ojyu, - the sons of Okyo, painted in the style of their father, but failed to - attain great eminence. Lastly, amongst the associates of the Shijo - master was the celebrated Ganku (1798-1837), who developed a special - style of his own, and is sometimes regarded as the founder of a - distinct school. He was, however, greatly influenced by Okyo's - example, and his sons, Gantai, Ganryo, and Gantoku or Renzan, drifted - into a manner almost indistinguishable from that of the Shijo school. - - - European School. - -It remains only to allude to the European school, if school it can be -called, founded by Kokan and Denkichi, two contemporaries of Okyo. These -artists, at first educated in one of the native schools, obtained from a -Hollander in Nagasaki some training in the methods and principles of -European painting, and left a few oil paintings in which the laws of -light and shade and perspective were correctly observed. They were not, -however, of sufficient capacity to render the adopted manner more than a -subject of curiosity, except to a few followers who have reached down to -the present generation. It is possible that the essays in perspective -found in the pictures of Hokusai, Hiroshige, and some of the popular -artists of the 19th century, were suggested by Kokan's drawings and -writings. - - - Sixth Period. - -The sixth period began about 1875, when an Italian artist was engaged by -the government as a professor of painting in the Engineering College at -Tokyo. Since that time some distinguished European artists have visited -Japan, and several Japanese students have made a pilgrimage to Europe to -see for themselves what lessons may be gained from Western art. These -students, confronted by a strong reaction in favour of pure Japanese -art, have fought manfully to win public sympathy, and though their -success is not yet crowned, it is not impossible that an Occidental -school may ultimately be established. Thus far the great obstacle has -been that pictures painted in accordance with Western canons are not -suited to Japanese interiors and do not appeal to the taste of the most -renowned Japanese connoisseurs. Somewhat more successful has been an -attempt--inaugurated by Hashimoto Gaho and Kawabata Gyokusho--to combine -the art of the West with that of Japan by adding to the latter the -chiaroscuro and the linear perspective of the former. If the disciples -of this school could shake off the Sesshu tradition of strong outlines -and adopt the Kano Motonobu revelation of modelling by mass only, their -work would stand on a high place. But they, too, receive little -encouragement. The tendency of the time is conservative in art matters. - - A series of magnificent publications has popularized art and its best - products in a manner such as could never have been anticipated. The - _Kokka_, a monthly magazine richly and beautifully illustrated and - edited by Japanese students, has reached its 223rd number; the _Shimbi - Daikan_, a colossal album containing chromoxylographic facsimiles of - celebrated examples in every branch of art, has been completed in 20 - volumes; the masterpieces of Korin and Motonobu have been reproduced - in similar albums; the masterpieces of the _Ukiyo-e_ are in process of - publication, and it seems certain that the Japanese nation will - ultimately be educated to such a knowledge of its own art as will make - for permanent appreciation. Meanwhile the intrepid group of painters - in oil plod along unflinchingly, having formed themselves into an - association (the _hakuba-kai_) which gives periodical exhibitions, and - there are, in Tokyo and Kioto, well-organized and flourishing art - schools which receive a substantial measure of state aid, as well as a - private academy founded by Okakura with a band of seceders from the - hybrid fashions of the Gaho system. Altogether the nation seems to be - growing more and more convinced that its art future should not wander - far from the lines of the past. (W. An.; F. By.) - - - Engraving. - -Although a little engraving on copper has been practised in Japan of -late years, it is of no artistic value, and the only branch of the art -which calls for recognition is the cutting of wood-blocks for use either -with colours or without. This, however, is of supreme importance, and as -its technique differs in most respects from the European practice, it -demands a somewhat detailed description. - - The wood used is generally that of the cherry-tree, _sakura_, which - has a grain of peculiar evenness and hardness. It is worked plankwise - to a surface parallel with the grain, and not across it. A design is - drawn by the artist, to whom the whole credit of the production - generally belongs, with a brush on thin paper, which is then pasted - face downwards on the block. The engraver, who is very rarely the - designer, then cuts the outlines into the block with a knife, - afterwards removing the superfluous wood with gouges and chisels. - Great skill is shown in this operation, which achieves perhaps the - finest facsimile reproduction of drawings ever known without the aid - of photographic processes. A peculiar but highly artistic device is - that of gradually rounding off the surfaces where necessary, in order - to obtain in printing a soft and graduated mass of colour which does - not terminate too abruptly. In printing with colours a separate block - is made in this manner for each tint, the first containing as a rule - the mere lines of the composition, and the others providing for the - masses of tint to be applied. In all printing the paper is laid on the - upper surface of the block, and the impression rubbed off with a - circular pad, composed of twisted cord within a covering of paper - cloth and bamboo-leaf, and called the _baren_. In colour-printing, the - colours, which are much the same as those in use in Europe, are mixed, - with rice-paste as a medium, on the block for each operation, and the - power of regulating the result given by this custom to an intelligent - craftsman (who, again, is neither the artist nor the engraver) was - productive in the best period of very beautiful and artistic effects, - such as could never have been obtained by any mechanical device. A - wonderfully accurate register, or successive superposition of each - block, is got mainly by the skill of the printer, who is assisted only - by a mark defining one corner and another mark showing the opposite - side limit. - -The origins of this method of colour-printing are obscure. It has been -practised to some extent in China and Korea, but there is no evidence of -its antiquity in these countries. It appears to be one of the few -indigenous arts of Japan. But before accepting this conclusion as final, -one must not lose sight of the fact that the so-called chiaroscuro -engraving was at the height of its use in Italy at the same time that -embassies from the Christians in Japan visited Rome, and that it is thus -possible that the suggestion at least may have been derived from -Europe. The fact that no traces of it have been discovered in Japan -would be easily accounted for, when it is remembered that the examples -taken home would almost certainly have been religious pictures, would -have been preserved in well-known and accessible places, and would thus -have been entirely destroyed in the terrible and minute extermination of -Christianity by Hideyoshi at the beginning of the 17th century. Japanese -tradition ascribes the invention of colour-printing to Idzumiya -Gonshiro, who, about the end of the 17th century, first made use of a -second block to apply a tint of red (_beni_) to his prints. Sir Ernest -Satow states more definitely that "Sakakibara attributes its origin to -the year 1695, when portraits of the actor Ichikawa Danjiuro, coloured -by this process, were sold in the streets of Yedo for five cash apiece." -The credit of the invention is also given to Torii Kiyonobu, who worked -at about this time, and, indeed, is said to have made the prints above -mentioned. But authentic examples of his work now remaining, printed in -three colours, seem to show a technique too complete for an origin quite -so recent. However, he is the first artist of importance to have -produced the broadsheets--for many years chiefly portraits of notable -actors, historical characters and famous courtesans--which are the -leading and characteristic use to which the art was applied. Pupils, the -chief of whom were Kiyomasa, Kiyotsume, Kiyomitsu, Kiyonaga and -Kiyomine, carried on his tradition until the end of the 18th century, -the three earlier using but few colours, while the works of the two last -named show a technical mastery of all the capabilities of the process. - - The next artist of importance is Suzuki Harunobu (worked c. - 1760-1780), to whom the Japanese sometimes ascribe the invention of - the process, probably on the grounds of an improvement in his - technique, and the fact that he seems to have been one of the first of - the colour-print makers to attain great popularity. Katsukawa Shunsho - (d. 1792) must next be mentioned, not only for the beauty of his own - work, but because he was the first master of Hokusai; then Yeishi - (worked c. 1781-1800), the founder of the Hosoda school; Utamaro - (1754-1806), whose prints of beautiful women were collected by - Dutchmen while he was still alive, and have had in our own day a vogue - greater, perhaps, than those of any other of his fellows; and Toyokuni - I. (1768-1825), who especially devoted himself to broadsheet portraits - of actors and dramatic scenes. The greatest of all the artists of the - popular school was, however, Hokusai (1760-1849). His most famous - series of broadsheets is the _Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji_ - (1823-1829), which, in spite of the conventional title, includes at - least forty-six. His work is catalogued in detail by E. de Goncourt. - At the beginning of the 19th century the process was technically at - its greatest height, and in the hands of the great landscape artist, - Hiroshige I., as well as the pupils of Toyokuni I.--Kunisada and - Kuniyoshi--and those of Hokusai, it at first kept up an excellent - level. But an undue increase in the number of blocks used, combined - with the inferiority of the imported colours and carelessness or loss - of skill in printing, brought about a rapid decline soon after 1840. - This continued until the old traditions were well-nigh exhausted, but - since 1880 there has been a distinct revival. The prints of the - present day are cut with great skill, and the designs are excellent, - though both these branches seem to lack the vigour of conception and - breadth of execution of the older masters. The colours now used are - almost invariably of cheap German origin, and though they have a - certain prettiness--ephemeral, it is to be feared--they again can not - compare with the old native productions. Among workers in this style, - Yoshitoshi (d. c. 1898) was perhaps the best. Living artists in 1908 - included Toshihide, Miyagawa Shuntei, Yoshiu Chikanobu--one of the - elder generation--Tomisuka Yeishu, Toshikata and Gekko. Formerly the - colour-print artist was of mean extraction and low social position, - but he now has some recognition at the hands of the professors of more - esteemed branches of art. This change is doubtless due in part to - Occidental appreciation of the products of his art, which were - formerly held in little honour by his own countrymen, the place - assigned to them being scarcely higher than that accorded to magazine - illustrations in Europe and America. But it is also largely due to his - displays of unsurpassed skill in preparing xylographs for the - beautiful art publications issued by the _Shimbi Shoin_ and the - _Kokka_ company. These xylographs prove that the Japanese art-artisan - of the present day was not surpassed by the greatest of his - predecessors in this line. (E. F. S.; F. By.) - - - Book Illustration. - -The history of the illustrated book in Japan may be said to begin with -the _Ise monogatari_, a romance first published in the 10th century, of -which an edition adorned with woodcuts appeared in 1608. In the course -of the 17th century many other works of the same nature were issued, -including some in which the cuts were roughly coloured by hand; but the -execution of these is not as good as contemporary European work. The -date of the first use of colour-printing in Japanese book illustration -is uncertain. In 1667 a collection of designs for _kimono_ (garments) -appeared, in which inks of several colours were made use of; but these -were only employed in turn for single printings, and in no case were two -of them used on the same print. It is certain, however, that the mere -use of coloured inks must soon have suggested the combination of two or -more of them, and it is probable that examples of this will be -discovered much earlier in date than those known at present. - - About the year 1680 Hishigawa Moronobu achieved a great popularity for - woodcut illustration, and laid the foundations of the splendid school - which followed. The names of the engravers who cut his designs are not - known, and in fact the reputation of these craftsmen is curiously - subordinated to that of the designers in all Japanese work of the - kind. With Moronobu must be associated Okumura Masanobu, a little - later perhaps in date, whose work is also of considerable value. - During the ensuing thirty years numerous illustrated books appeared, - including the earliest yet known which are illustrated by - colour-printing. Nishikawa Sukenobu (1671-1751) illustrated a very - large number of books, many of which were not published until after - his death. With him may be associated Ichio Shumboku (d. c. 1773) and - Tsukioka Tange (1717-1786), the latter of whom made the drawings for - many of the _meisho_ or guide-books which form so interesting and - distinctive a branch of Japanese illustration. The work of Tachibana - Morikuni (1670-1748) is also of great importance. The books - illustrated by the men of this school were mainly collections of - useful information, guide-books, romances and historical and religious - compilations; but much of the best of their work is to be found in the - collections of pictorial designs, very often taken from Chinese - sources, which were produced for the use of workers in lacquer, - pottery and similar crafts. These, both for design and for skill of - cutting, hold their own with the best work of European wood-cutting of - any period. The development of the art of Japanese colour-printing - naturally had its effect on book-illustration, and the later years of - the 18th and the earlier of the 19th century saw a vast increase of - books illustrated by this process. The subjects also now include a new - series of landscapes and views drawn as seen by the designers, and not - reproductions of the work of other men; and also sketches of scenes - and characters of everyday life and of the folk-lore in which Japan is - so rich. Among the artists of this period, as of all others in Japan, - Hokusai (1760-1849) is absolutely pre-eminent. His greatest production - in book-illustration was the _Mangwa_, a collection of sketches which - cover the whole ground of Japanese life and legend, art and - handicraft. It consists of fifteen volumes, which appeared at - intervals from 1812 to 1875, twelve being published during his life - and the others from material left by him. Among his many other works - may be mentioned the _Azuma Asobi_ (_Walks round Yedo_, 1799). Of his - pupils, Hokkei (1780-1856) and Kyosai were the greatest. Most of the - artists, whose main work was the designing of broadsheets, produced - elaborately illustrated books; and this series includes specimens of - printing in colours from wood-blocks, which for technique have never - been excelled. Among them should be mentioned Shunsho (_Seiro bijin - awase kagami_, 1776); Utamaro (_Seiro nenjyu gyoji_, 1804); Toyokuni - I. (_Yakusha kono teikishiwa_, 1801); as well as Harunobu Yeishi - (_Onna sanjyu rokkasen_, 1798), Kitao Masanobu and Tachibana Minko, - each of whom produced beautiful work of the same nature. In the period - next following, the chief artists were Keisai Yeisen (_Keisai so-gwa_, - 1832) and Kikuchi Yosai (_Zenken kojitsu_), the latter of whom ranks - perhaps as highly as any of the artists who confined their work to - black and white. The books produced in the period 1880-1908 in Japan - are still of high technical excellence. The colours are, - unfortunately, of cheap European manufacture; and the design, although - quite characteristic and often beautiful, is as a rule merely pretty. - The engraving is as good as ever. Among the book-illustrators of our - own generation must be again mentioned Kyosai; Kono Bairei (d. 1895), - whose books of birds--the _Bairei hyakucho gwafu_ (1881 and 1884) and - _Yuaka-no-tsuki_ (1889)--are unequalled of their kind; Imao Keinen, - who also issued a beautiful set of illustrations of birds and flowers - (_Keinen kwacho gwafu_), engraved by Tanaka Jirokichi and printed by - Miki Nisaburo (1891-1892); and Watanabe Seitei, whose studies of - similar subjects have appeared in _Seitei kwacho gwafu_ (1890-1891) - and the _Bijutsu sekai_ (1894), engraved by Goto Tokujiro. Mention - should also be made of several charming series of fairy tales, of - which that published in English by the _Kobunsha_ in Tokyo in 1885 is - perhaps the best. In their adaptation of modern processes of - illustration the Japanese are entirely abreast of Western nations, the - chromo-lithographs and other reproductions in the _Kokka_, a - periodical record of Japanese works of art (begun in 1889), in the - superb albums of the _Shimbi Shoin_, and in the publications of Ogawa - being of quite a high order of merit. (E. F. S.; F. By.) - -[Illustration: PLATE III. PAINTING - - FIG. 6.--KWANNON, GODDESS OF MERCY. By Mincho or Cho Densu - (1352-1431). - - FIG. 7.--LANDSCAPE IN SNOW. By Kano Motonobu (1476-1559). - - FIG. 8.--JUROJIN. By Sesshiu (1420-1506).] - -[Illustration: PLATE IV. PAINTING - - FIG. 9.--PLUM TREES AND STREAM--SCREEN ON GOLD GROUND. By Korin - (1661-1716). - - FIG. 10.--PEACOCKS. By Ganku (1749-1838).] - - - Historical Sketch. - -_Sculpture and Carving._--Sculpture in wood and metal is of ancient -date in Japan. Its antiquity is not, indeed, comparable to that of -ancient Egypt or Greece, but no country besides Japan can boast a living -and highly developed art that has numbered upwards of twelve centuries -of unbroken and brilliant productiveness. Setting aside rude prehistoric -essays in stone and metal, which have special interest for the -antiquary, we have examples of sculpture in wood and metal, magnificent -in conception and technique, dating from the earliest periods of what we -may term historical Japan; that is, from near the beginning of the great -Buddhist propaganda under the emperor Kimmei (540-571) and the princely -hierarch, Shotoku Taishi (573-621). Stone has never been in favour in -Japan as a material for the higher expression of the sculptor's art. - - - First Period. - -The first historical period of glyptic art in Japan reaches from the end -of the 6th to the end of the 12th century, culminating in the work of -the great Nara sculptors, Unkei and his pupil Kwaikei. Happily, there -are still preserved in the great temples of Japan, chiefly in the -ancient capital of Nara, many noble relics of this period. - - The place of honour may perhaps be conferred upon sculptures in wood, - representing the Indian Buddhists, Asangha and Vasabandhu, preserved - in the Golden Hall of Kofuku-ji, Nara. These are attributed to a - Kamakura sculptor of the 8th or 9th century, and in simple and - realistic dignity of pose and grand lines of composition are worthy of - comparison with the works of ancient Greece. With these may be named - the demon lantern-bearers, so perfect in the grotesque treatment of - the diabolical heads and the accurate anatomical forms of the sturdy - body and limbs; the colossal temple guardians of the great gate of - Todai-ji, by Unkei and Kwaikei (11th century), somewhat - conventionalized, but still bearing evidence of direct study from - nature, and inspired with intense energy of action; and the smaller - but more accurately modelled temple guardians in the Saikondo, Nara, - which almost compare with the "fighting gladiator" in their - realization of menacing strength. The "goddess of art" of - Akishino-dera, Nara, attributed to the 8th century, is the most - graceful and least conventional of female sculptures in Japan, but - infinitely remote from the feminine conception of the Greeks. The - wooden portrait of Vimalakirtti, attributed to Unkei, at Kofuku-ji, - has some of the qualities of the images of the two Indian Buddhists. - The sculptures attributed to Jocho, the founder of the Nara school, - although powerful in pose and masterly in execution, lack the truth of - observation seen in some of the earlier and later masterpieces. - - The most perfect of the ancient bronzes is the great image of - Bhaicha-djyaguru in the temple of Yakushi-ji, Nara, attributed to a - Korean monk of the 7th century, named Giogi. The bronze image of the - same divinity at Horyu-ji, said to have been cast at the beginning of - the 7th century by Tori Busshi, the grandson of a Chinese immigrant, - is of good technical quality, but much inferior in design to the - former. The colossal Nara Daibutsu (Vairocana) at Todai-ji, cast in - 749 by a workman of Korean descent, is the largest of the great - bronzes in Japan, but ranks far below the Yakushi-ji image in artistic - qualities. The present head, however, is a later substitute for the - original, which was destroyed by fire. - - The great Nara school of sculpture in wood was founded in the early - part of the 11th century by a sculptor of Imperial descent named - Jocho, who is said to have modelled his style upon that of the Chinese - wood-carvers of the Tang dynasty; his traditions were maintained by - descendants and followers down to the beginning of the 13th century. - All the artists of this period were men of aristocratic rank and - origin, and were held distinct from the carpenter-architects of the - imposing temples which were to contain their works. - - Sacred images were not the only specimens of glyptic art produced in - these six centuries; reliquaries, bells, vases, incense-burners, - candlesticks, lanterns, decorated arms and armour, and many other - objects, showing no less mastery of design and execution, have reached - us. Gold and silver had been applied to the adornment of helmets and - breastplates from the 7th century, but it was in the 12th century that - the decoration reached the high degree of elaboration shown us in the - armour of the Japanese Bayard, Yoshitsune, which is still preserved at - Kasuga, Nara. - - Wooden masks employed in the ancient theatrical performances were made - from the 7th century, and offer a distinct and often grotesque phase - of wood-carving. Several families of experts have been associated with - this class of sculpture, and their designs have been carefully - preserved and imitated down to the present day. - - - Second Period. - -The second period in Japanese glyptic art extends from the beginning of -the 13th to the early part of the 17th century. The great struggle -between the Taira and Minamoto clans had ended, but the militant spirit -was still strong, and brought work for the artists who made and -ornamented arms and armour. The Miyochins, a line that claimed ancestry -from the 7th century, were at the head of their calling, and their work -in iron breastplates and helmets, chiefly in _repousse_, is still -unrivalled. It was not until the latter half of the 15th century that -there came into vogue the elaborate decoration of the sword, a fashion -that was to last four hundred years. - - The metal guard (_tsuba_), made of iron or precious alloy, was adorned - with engraved designs, often inlaid with gold and silver. The free end - of the hilt was crowned with a metallic cap or pommel (_kashira_), the - other extremity next the tsuba was embraced by an oval ring (_fuchi_), - and in the middle was affixed on each side a special ornament called - the _menuki_, all adapted in material and workmanship to harmonize - with the guard. The _kodzuka_, or handle of a little knife implanted - into the sheath of the short sword or dagger, was also of metal and - engraved with like care. The founder of the first great line of tsuba - and menuki artists was Goto Yujo (1440-1512), a friend of the painter - Kano Motonobu, whose designs he adopted. Many families of sword - artists sprang up at a later period, furnishing treasures for the - collector even down to the present day, and their labours reached a - level of technical mastery and refined artistic judgment almost - without parallel in the art industries of Europe. Buddhist sculpture - was by no means neglected during this period, but there are few works - that call for special notice. The most noteworthy effort was the - casting by Ono Goroyemon in 1252 of the well-known bronze image, the - Kamakura Daibutsu. - - - Third Period. - -The third period includes the 17th, 18th and the greater part of the -19th centuries. It was the era of the artisan artist. The makers of -Buddhist images and of sword ornaments carried on their work with -undiminished industry and success, and some famous schools of the latter -arose during this period. The Buddhist sculptors, however, tended to -grow more conventional and the metal-workers more naturalistic as the -18th century began to wane. It was in connexion with architecture that -the great artisan movement began. The initiator was Hidari Jingoro -(1594-1652), at first a simple carpenter, afterwards one of the most -famous sculptors in the land of great artists. The gorgeous decoration -of the mausoleum of Iyeyasu at Nikko, and of the gateway of the Nishi -Hongwan temple at Kioto, are the most striking instances of his -handiwork or direction. - - The pillars, architraves, ceilings, panels, and almost every available - part of the structure, are covered with arabesques and sculptured - figures of dragons, lions, tigers, birds, flowers, and even pictorial - compositions with landscapes and figures, deeply carved in solid or - open work--the wood sometimes plain, sometimes overlaid with pigment - and gilding, as in the panelled ceiling of the chapel of Iyeyasu in - Tokyo. The designs for these decorations, like those of the sword - ornaments, were adopted from the great schools of painting, but the - invention of the sculptor was by no means idle. From this time the - temple carvers, although still attached to the carpenters' guild, took - a place apart from the rest of their craft, and the genius of Hidari - Jingoro secured for one important section of the artisan world a - recognition like that which Hishigawa Moronobu, the painter and - book-illustrator, afterwards won for another. - -A little later arose another art industry, also emanating from the -masses. The use of tobacco, which became prevalent in the 17th century, -necessitated the pouch. In order to suspend this from the girdle there -was employed a kind of button or toggle--the _netsuke_. The metallic -bowl and mouthpiece of the pipe offered a tempting surface for -embellishment, as well as the clasp of the pouch; and the netsuke, being -made of wood, ivory or other material susceptible of carving, also gave -occasion for art and ingenuity. - - The engravers of pipes, pouch clasps, and the metallic discs - (_kagami-buta_) attached to certain netsuke, sprang from the same - class and were not less original. They worked, too, with a skill - little inferior to that of the Gotos, Naras, and other aristocratic - sculptors of sword ornaments, and often with a refinement which their - relative disadvantages in education and associations render especially - remarkable. The netsuke and the pipe, with all that pertained to it, - were for the commoners what the sword-hilt and guard were for the - gentry. Neither class cared to bestow jewels upon their persons, but - neither spared thought or expense in the embellishment of the object - they most loved. The final manifestation of popular glyptic art was - the _okimono_, an ornament pure and simple, in which utility was - altogether secondary in intention to decorative effect. Its - manufacture as a special branch of art work dates from the rise of the - naturalistic school of painting and the great expansion of the popular - school under the Katsugawa, but the okimono formed an occasional - amusement of the older glyptic artists. Some of the most exquisite and - most ingenious of these earlier productions, such as the magnificent - iron eagle in the South Kensington Museum, the wonderful articulated - models of crayfish, dragons, serpents, birds, that are found in many - European collections, came from the studios of the Miyochins; but - these were the play of giants, and were not made as articles of - commerce. The new artisan makers of the okimono struck out a line for - themselves, one influenced more by the naturalistic and popular - schools than by the classical art, and the quails of Kamejo, the - tortoises of Seimin, the dragons of Toun and Toryu, and in recent - years the falcons and the peacocks of Suzuki Chokichi, are the joy of - the European collector. The best of these are exquisite in - workmanship, graceful in design, often strikingly original in - conception, and usually naturalistic in ideal. They constitute a phase - of art in which Japan has few rivals. - -The present generation is more systematically commercial in its glyptic -produce than any previous age. Millions of commercial articles in -metal-work, wood and ivory flood the European markets, and may be bought -in any street in Europe at a small price, but they offer a variety of -design and an excellence of workmanship which place them almost beyond -Western competition. Above all this, however, the Japanese sculptor is a -force in art. He is nearly as thorough as his forefathers, and maintains -the same love of all things beautiful; and if he cannot show any -epoch-making novelty, he is at any rate doing his best to support -unsurpassed the decorative traditions of the past. - - - Sword-making Families. - -History has been eminently careful to preserve the names and records of -the men who chiselled sword furniture. The sword being regarded as the -soul of the samurai, every one who contributed to its manufacture, -whether as forger of the blade or sculptor of the furniture, was held in -high repute. The Goto family worked steadily during 14 generations, and -its 19th century representative--Goto Ichijo--will always be remembered -as one of the family's greatest experts. But there were many others -whose productions fully equalled and often excelled the best efforts of -the Goto. The following list gives the names and periods of the most -renowned families:-- - - (It should be noted that the division by centuries indicates the time - of a family's origin. In a great majority of cases the representatives - of each generation worked on through succeeding centuries). - - _15th and 16th Centuries._ - - Miyochin; Goto; Umetada; Muneta; Aoki; Soami; Nakai. - - _17th Century._ - - Kuwamura; Mizuno; Koichi; Nagayoshi; - Kuninaga; Yoshishige; Katsugi; Tsuji; - Muneyoshi; Tadahira; Shoami; Hosono; - Yokoya; Nara; Okada; Okamoto; Kinai; Akao; - Yoshioka; Hirata; Nomura; Wakabayashi; Inouye; - Yasui; Chiyo; Kaneko; Uemura; Iwamoto. - - _18th Century._ - - Gorobei; Shoemon; Kikugawa; Yasuyama; Noda; Tamagawa; Fujita; Kikuoka; - Kizaemon; Hamano; Omori; Okamoto; Kashiwaya; Kusakari; Shichibei; Ito. - - _19th Century._ - - Natsuo; Ishiguro; Yanagawa; Honjo; Tanaka; Okano; Kawarabayashi; Oda; - and many masters of the Omori, Hamano and Iwamoto families, as well as - the five experts, Shuraku, Temmin, Ryumin, Minjo and Minkoku. - (W. An.; F. By.) - - - Japanese Point of View. - -There is a radical difference between the points of view of the Japanese -and the Western connoisseur in estimating the merits of sculpture in -metal. The quality of the chiselling is the first feature to which the -Japanese directs his attention; the decorative design is the prime -object of the Occidental's attention. With very rare exceptions, the -decorative motives of Japanese sword furniture were always supplied by -painters. Hence it is that the Japanese connoisseur draws a clear -distinction between the decorative design and its technical execution, -crediting the former to the pictorial artist and the latter to the -sculptor. He detects in the stroke of a chisel and the lines of a -graving tool subjective beauties which appear to be hidden from the -great majority of Western dilettanti. He estimates the rank of a -specimen by the quality of the chisel-work. The Japanese _kinzoku-shi_ -(metal sculptor) uses thirty-six principal classes of chisel, each with -its distinctive name, and as most of these classes comprise from five to -ten sub-varieties, his cutting and graving tools aggregate about two -hundred and fifty. - - - The Field for Sculptured Decoration. - -Scarcely less important in Japanese eyes than the chiselling of the -decorative design itself is the preparation of the field to which it is -applied. There used to be a strict canon with reference to this in -former times. _Namako_ (fish-roe) grounds were essential for the -mountings of swords worn on ceremonial occasions, the _ishime_ -(stone-pitting) or _jimigaki_ (polished) styles being considered less -aristocratic. - - Namako is obtained by punching the whole surface--except the portion - carrying the decorative design--into a texture of microscopic dots. - The first makers of namako did not aim at regularity in the - distribution of these dots; they were content to produce the effect of - millet-seed sifted haphazard over the surface. But from the 15th - century the punching of the dots in rigidly straight lines came to be - considered essential, and the difficulty involved was so great that - namako-making took its place among the highest technical achievements - of the sculptor. When it is remembered that the punching tool was - guided solely by the hand and eye, and that three or more blows of the - mallet had to be struck for every dot, some conception may be formed - of the patience and accuracy needed to produce these tiny - protuberances in perfectly straight lines, at exactly equal intervals - and of absolutely uniform size. Namako disposed in straight parallel - lines originally ranked at the head of this kind of work. But a new - kind was introduced in the 16th century. It was obtained by punching - the dots in intersecting lines, so arranged that the dots fell - uniformly into diamond-shaped groups of five each. This is called - _go-no-me-namako_, because of its resemblance to the disposition of - chequers in the Japanese game of _go_. A century later, the _daimyo - namako_ was invented, in which lines of dots alternated with lines of - polished ground. _Ishime_ may be briefly described as diapering. There - is scarcely any limit to the ingenuity and skill of the Japanese - expert in diapering a metal surface. It is not possible to enumerate - here even the principal styles of ishime, but mention may be made of - the _zara-maki_ (broad-cast), in which the surface is finely but - irregularly pitted after the manner of the face of a stone; the - _nashi-ji_ (pear-ground), in which we have a surface like the rind of - a pear; the _hari-ishime_ (needle ishime), where the indentations are - so minute that they seem to have been made with the point of a needle; - the _gama-ishime_, which is intended to imitate the skin of a toad; - the _tsuya-ishime_, produced with a chisel sharpened so that its - traces have a lustrous appearance; the _ore-kuchi_ (broken-tool), a - peculiar kind obtained with a jagged tool; and the _gozame_, which - resembles the plaited surface of a fine straw mat. - - - Patina. - - Great importance has always been attached by Japanese experts to the - patina of metal used for artistic chiselling. It was mainly for the - sake of their patina that value attached to the remarkable alloys - _shakudo_ (3 parts of gold to 97 of copper) and _shibuichi_ (1 part of - silver to 3 of copper). Neither metal, when it emerges from the - furnace, has any beauty, shakudo being simply dark-coloured copper and - shibuichi pale gun-metal. But after proper treatment[2] the former - develops a glossy black patina with violet sheen, and the latter shows - beautiful shades of grey with silvery lustre. Both these compounds - afford delicate, unobtrusive and effective grounds for inlaying with - gold, silver and other metals, as well as for sculpture, whether - incised or in relief. Copper, too, by patina-producing treatment, is - made to show not merely a rich golden sheen with pleasing limpidity, - but also red of various hues, from deep coral to light vermilion, - several shades of grey, and browns of numerous tones from dead-leaf to - chocolate. Even greater value has always been set upon the patina of - iron, and many secret recipes were preserved in artist families for - producing the fine, satin-like texture so much admired by all - connoisseurs. - - - Methods of Chiselling. - - In Japan, as in Europe, three varieties of relief carving are - distinguished--_alto_ (_taka-bori_), mezzo (_chuniku-bori_) and - _basso_ (_usuniku-bori_). In the opinion of the Japanese expert, these - styles hold the same respective rank as that occupied by the three - kinds of ideographic script in caligraphy. High relief carving - corresponds to the _kaisho_, or most classical form of writing; medium - relief to the _gyosho_, or semi-cursive style; and low relief to the - _sosho_ or grass character. With regard to incised chiselling, the - commonest form is _kebori_ (hair-carving), which may be called - engraving, the lines being of uniform thickness and depth. Very - beautiful results are obtained by the kebori method, but incomparably - the finest work in the incised class is that known as - _kata-kiri-bori_. In this kind of chiselling the Japanese artist can - claim to be unique as well as unrivalled. Evidently the idea of the - great Yokoya experts, the originators of the style, was to break away - from the somewhat formal monotony of ordinary engraving, where each - line performs exactly the same function, and to convert the chisel - into an artist's brush instead of using it as a common cutting tool. - They succeeded admirably. In the kata-kiri-bori every line has its - proper value in the pictorial design, and strength and directness - become cardinal elements in the strokes of the burin just as they do - in the brushwork of the picture-painter. The same fundamental rule - applied, too, whether the field of the decoration was silk, paper or - metal. The artist's tool, be it brush or burin, must perform its task - by one effort. There must be no appearance of subsequent deepening, or - extending, or re-cutting or finishing. Kata-kiri-bori by a great - expert is a delight. One is lost in astonishment at the nervous yet - perfectly regulated force and the unerring fidelity of every trace of - the chisel. Another variety of carving much affected by artists of the - 17th century, and now largely used, is called _shishi-ai-bori_ or - _niku-ai-bori_. In this style the surface of the design is not raised - above the general plane of the field, but an effect of projection is - obtained either by recessing the whole space immediately surrounding - the design, or by enclosing the latter in a scarped frame. Yet another - and very favourite method, giving beautiful results, is to model the - design on both faces of the metal so as to give a sculpture in the - round. The fashion is always accompanied by chiselling _a jour_ - (_sukashi-bori_), so that the sculptured portions stand out in their - entirety. - - - Inlaying. - - Inlaying with gold or silver was among the early forms of decoration - in Japan. The skill developed in modern times is at least equal to - anything which the past can show, and the results produced are much - more imposing. There are two principal kinds of inlaying: the first - called _hon-zogan_ (true inlaying), the second _nunome-zogan_ - (linen-mesh inlaying). As to the former, the Japanese method does not - differ from that seen in the beautiful iron censers and vases inlaid - with gold which the Chinese produced from the _Suen-te_ era - (1426-1436). In the surface of the metal the workman cuts grooves - wider at the base than at the top, and then hammers into them gold or - silver wire. Such a process presents no remarkable features, except - that it has been carried by the Japanese to an extraordinary degree of - elaborateness. The nunome-zogan is more interesting. Suppose, for - example, that the artist desires to produce an inlaid diaper. His - first business is to chisel the surface in lines forming the basic - pattern of the design. Thus, for a diamond-petal diaper the chisel is - carried across the face of the metal horizontally, tracing a number of - parallel bands divided at fixed intervals by ribs which are obtained - by merely straightening the chisel and striking it a heavy blow. The - same process is then repeated in another direction, so that the new - bands cross the old at an angle adapted to the nature of the design. - Several independent chisellings may be necessary before the lines of - the diaper emerge clearly, but throughout the whole operation no - measurement of any kind is taken, the artist being guided entirely by - his hand and eye. The metal is then heated, not to redness, but - sufficiently to develop a certain degree of softness, and the workman, - taking a very thin sheet of gold (or silver), hammers portions of it - into the salient points of the design. In ordinary cases this is the - sixth process. The seventh is to hammer gold into the outlines of the - diaper; the eighth, to hammer it into the pattern filling the spaces - between the lines, and the ninth and tenth to complete the details. Of - course the more intricate the design the more numerous the processes. - It is scarcely possible to imagine a higher effort of hand and eye - than this _nunome-zogan_ displays, for while intricacy and - elaborateness are carried to the very extreme, absolute mechanical - accuracy is obtained. Sometimes in the same design we see gold of - three different hues, obtained by varying the alloy. A third kind of - inlaying, peculiar to Japan, is _sumi-zogan_ (ink-inlaying), so called - because the inlaid design gives the impression of having been painted - with Indian ink beneath the transparent surface of the metal. The - difference between this process and ordinary inlaying is that for - _sumi-zogan_ the design to be inlaid is fully chiselled out of an - independent block of metal with sides sloping so as to be broader at - the base than at the top. The object which is to receive the - decoration is then channelled in dimensions corresponding to those of - the design block, and the latter having been fixed in the channels, - the surface is ground and polished until an intimate union is obtained - between the inlaid design and the metal forming its field. Very - beautiful effects are thus produced, for the design seems to have - grown up to the surface of the metal field rather than to have been - planted in it. Shibuichi inlaid with shakudo used to be the commonest - combination of metals in this class of decoration, and the objects - usually depicted were bamboos, crows, wild-fowl under the moon, peony - sprays and so forth. - - - Wood-grained Grounds. - - A variety of decoration much practised by early experts, and carried - to a high degree of excellence in modern times, is _mokume-ji_ - (wood-grained ground). The process in this case is to take a thin - plate of metal and beat it into another plate of similar metal, so - that the two, though welded together, retain their separate forms. The - mass, while still hot, is coated with _hena-tsuchi_ (a kind of marl) - and rolled in straw ash, in which state it is roasted over a charcoal - fire raised to glowing heat with the bellows. The clay having been - removed, another plate of the same metal is beaten in, and the same - process is repeated. This is done several times, the number depending - on the quality of graining that the expert desires to produce. The - manifold plate is then heavily punched from one side, so that the - opposite face protrudes in broken blisters, which are then hammered - down until each becomes a centre of wave propagation. In fine work the - apex of the blister is ground off before the final hammering. Iron was - the metal used exclusively for work of this kind down to the 16th - century, but various metals began thenceforth to be combined. Perhaps - the choicest variety is gold graining in a shakudo field. By repeated - hammering and polishing the expert obtains such control of the - wood-grain pattern that its sinuosities and eddies seem to have - developed symmetry without losing anything of their fantastic grace. - There are other methods of producing _mokume-ji_. - - - Modern and Ancient Skill. - -It has been frequently asserted by Western critics that the year (1876) -which witnessed the abolition of sword-wearing in Japan, witnessed also -the end of her artistic metal-work. That is a great mistake. The art has -merely developed new phases in modern times. Not only are its masters as -skilled now as they were in the days of the Goto, the Nara, the Yokoya -and the Yanagawa celebrities, but also their productions must be called -greater in many respects and more interesting than those of their -renowned predecessors. They no longer devote themselves to the -manufacture of sword ornaments, but work rather at vases, censers, -statuettes, plaques, boxes and other objects of a serviceable or -ornamental nature. All the processes described above are practised by -them with full success, and they have added others quite as remarkable. - - Of these, one of the most interesting is called _kiribame_ - (insertion). The decorative design having been completely chiselled in - the round, is then fixed in a field of a different metal, in which a - design of exactly similar outline has been cut out. The result is that - the picture has no blank reverse. For example, on the surface of a - shibuichi box-lid we see the backs of a flock of geese chiselled in - silver, and when the lid is opened, their breasts and the under-sides - of their pinions appear. The difficulty of such work is plain. - Microscopic accuracy has to be attained in cutting out the space for - the insertion of the design, and while the latter must be soldered - firmly in its place, not the slightest trace of solder or the least - sign of junction must be discernible between the metal of the inserted - picture and that of the field in which it is inserted. Suzuki Gensuke - is the inventor of this method. He belongs to a class of experts - called _uchimono-shi_ (hammerers) who perform preparatory work for - glyptic artists in metal. The skill of these men is often wonderful. - Using the hammer only, some of them can beat out an intricate shape as - truly and delicately as a sculptor could carve it with his chisels. - Ohori Masatoshi, an uchimono-shi of Aizu (d. 1897), made a silver - cake-box in the form of a sixteen-petalled chrysanthemum. The shapes - of the body and lid corresponded so intimately that, whereas the lid - could be slipped on easily and smoothly without any attempt to adjust - its curves to those of the body, it always fitted so closely that the - box could be lifted by grasping the lid only. Another feat of his was - to apply a lining of silver to a shakudo box by shaping and hammering - only, the fit being so perfect that the lining clung like paper to - every part of the box. Suzuki Gensuke and Hirata Soko are scarcely - less expert. The latter once exhibited in Tokyo a silver game-cock - with soft plumage and surface modelling of the most delicate - character. It had been made by means of the hammer only. Suzuki's - kiribame process is not to be confounded with the _kiribame-zogan_ - (inserted inlaying) of Toyoda Koko, also a modern artist. The gist of - the latter method is that a design chiselled _a jour_ has its outlines - veneered with other metal which serves to emphasize them. Thus, having - pierced a spray of flowers in a thin sheet of shibuichi, the artist - fits a slender rim of gold, silver or shakudo to the petals, leaves - and stalks, so that an effect is produced of transparent blossoms - outlined in gold, silver or purple. Another modern achievement--also - due to Suzuki Gensuke--is _maze-gane_ (mixed metals). It is a singular - conception, and the results obtained depend largely on chance. - Shibuichi and shakudo are melted separately, and when they have cooled - just enough not to mingle too intimately, they are cast into a bar - which is subsequently beaten flat. The plate thus obtained shows - accidental clouding, or massing of dark tones, and these patches are - taken as the basis of a pictorial design to which final character is - given by inlaying with gold and silver, and by kata-kiri sculpture. - Such pictures partake largely of the impressionist character, but they - attain much beauty in the hands of the Japanese artist with his - extensive _repertoire_ of suggestive symbols. A process resembling - maze-gane, but less fortuitous, is _shibuichi-doshi_ (combined - shibuichi), which involves beating together two kinds of shibuichi and - then adding a third variety, after which the details of the picture - are worked in as in the case of maze-gane. The charm of these methods - is that certain parts of the decorative design seem to float, not on - the surface of the metal, but actually within it, an admirable effect - of depth and atmosphere being thus produced. Mention must also be made - of an extraordinarily elaborate and troublesome process invented by - Kajima Ippu, a great artist of the present day. It is called - _togi-dashi-zogan_ (ground-out inlaying). In this exquisite and - ingenious kind of work the design appears to be growing up from the - depths of the metal, and a delightful impression of atmosphere and - water is obtained. All these processes, as well as that of _repousse_, - in which the Japanese have excelled from a remote period, are now - practised with the greatest skill in Tokyo, Kioto, Osaka and Kanazawa. - At the art exhibitions held twice a year in the principal cities there - may be seen specimens of statuettes, alcove ornaments, and household - utensils which show that the Japanese worker in metals stands more - indisputably than ever at the head of the world's artists in that - field. The Occident does not yet appear to have full realized the - existence of such talent in Japan; partly perhaps because its displays - in former times were limited chiefly to sword-furniture, possessing - little interest for the average European or American; and partly - because the Japanese have not yet learned to adapt their skill to - foreign requirements. They confine themselves at present to decorating - plaques, boxes and cases for cigars or cigarettes, and an occasional - tea or coffee service; but the whole domain of salvers, - dessert-services, race-cups and so on remains virtually unexplored. - Only within the past few years have stores been established in the - foreign settlements for the sale of silver utensils, and already the - workmanship on these objects displays palpable signs of the - deterioration which all branches of Japanese art have undergone in the - attempt to cater for foreign taste. In a general sense the European or - American connoisseur is much less exacting than the Japanese. Broad - effects of richness and splendour captivate the former, whereas the - latter looks for delicacy of finish, accuracy of detail and, above - all, evidences of artistic competence. It is nothing to a Japanese - that a vase should be covered with profuse decoration of flowers and - foliage: he requires that every blossom and every leaf shall be - instinct with vitality, and the comparative costliness of fine - workmanship does not influence his choice. But if the Japanese - sculptor adopted such standards in working for foreign patrons, his - market would be reduced to very narrow dimensions. He therefore adapts - himself to his circumstances, and, using the mould rather than the - chisel, produces specimens which snow tawdry handsomeness and are - attractively cheap. It must be admitted, however, that even though - foreign appreciative faculty were sufficiently educated, the Japanese - artist in metals would still labour under the great difficulty of - devising shapes to take the place of those which Europe and America - have learned to consider classical. - - - Bronze Casting. - -Bronze is called by the Japanese _kara-kane_, a term signifying "Chinese -metal" and showing clearly the source from which knowledge of the alloy -was obtained. It is a copper-lead-tin compound, the proportions of its -constituents varying from 72 to 88% of copper, from 4 to 20% of lead and -from 2 to 8% of tin. There are also present small quantities of arsenic -and antimony, and zinc is found generally as a mere trace, but sometimes -reaching to 6%. Gold is supposed to have found a place in ancient -bronzes, but its presence has never been detected by analysis, and of -silver not more than 2% seems to have been admitted at any time. Mr W. -Gowland has shown that, whatever may have been the practice of Japanese -bronze makers in ancient and medieval eras, their successors in later -days deliberately introduced arsenic and antimony into the compound in -order to harden the bronze without impairing its fusibility, so that it -might take a sharper impression of the mould. Japanese bronze is well -suited for castings, not only because of its low melting-point, great -fluidity and capacity for taking sharp impressions, but also because it -has a particularly smooth surface and readily develops a fine patina. -One variety deserves special mention. It is a golden yellow bronze, -called _sentoku_--this being the Japanese pronunciation of _Suen-te_, -the era of the Ming dynasty of China when this compound was invented. -Copper, tin, lead and zinc, mixed in various proportions by different -experts, are the ingredients, and the beautiful golden hues and glossy -texture of the surface are obtained by patina-producing processes, in -which branch of metal-work the Japanese show altogether unique skill. - - From the time when they began to cast bronze statues, Japanese experts - understood how to employ a hollow, removable core round which the - metal was run in a skin just thick enough for strength without waste - of material; and they also understood the use of wax for modelling - purposes. In ordinary circumstances, a casting thus obtained took the - form of a shell without any break of continuity. But for very large - castings the process had to be modified. The great image of Lochana - Buddha at Nara, for example, would measure 138 ft. in height were it - standing erect, and its weight is about 550 tons. The colossal Amida - at Kamakura has a height only 3 ft. less. It would have been scarcely - possible to cast such statues in one piece _in situ_, or, if cast - elsewhere, to transport them and elevate them on their pedestals. The - plan pursued was to build them up gradually in their places by - casting segment after segment. Thus, for the Nara Daibutsu, the mould - was constructed in a series of steps ascending 12 in. at a time, until - the head and neck were reached, which, of course, had to be cast in - one shell, 12 ft. high. - - The term "parlour bronzes" serves to designate objects for domestic - use, as flower-vases, incense-burners and alcove ornaments. - Bronze-casters began to turn their attention to these objects about - the middle of the 17th century. The art of casting bronze reached its - culmination in the hands of a group of great experts--Seimin, Toun, - Masatune, Teijo, Somin, Keisai, Takusai, Gido, Zenryusai and - Hotokusai--who flourished during the second half of the 18th century - and the first half of the 19th. Many brilliant specimens of these - men's work survive, their general features being that the motives are - naturalistic, that the quality of the metal is exceptionally fine, - that in addition to beautifully clear casting obtained by highly - skilled use of the _cera-perduta_ process, the chisel was employed to - impart delicacy and finish to the design, and that modelling in high - relief is most successfully introduced. But it is a mistake to assert, - as many have asserted, that after the era of the above ten - masters--the latest of whom, Somin, ceased to work in 1871--no bronzes - comparable with theirs were cast. Between 1875 and 1879 some of the - finest bronzes ever produced in Japan were turned out by a group of - experts working under the business name of Sanseisha. Started by two - brothers, Oshima Katsujiro (art-name Joun) and Oshima Yasutaro - (art-name Shokaku), this association secured the services of a number - of skilled chisellers of sword-furniture, who had lost their - occupation by the abandonment of sword-wearing. Nothing could surpass - the delicacy of the works executed at the Sanseisha's atelier in - Tokyo, but unfortunately such productions were above the standard of - the customers for whom they were intended. Foreign buyers, who alone - stood in the market at that time, failed to distinguish the fine and - costly bronzes of Joun, Shokaku and their colleagues from cheap - imitations which soon began to compete with them, so that ultimately - the Sanseisha had to be closed. This page in the modern history of - Japan's bronzes needs little alteration to be true of her applied art - in general. Foreign demand has shown so little discrimination that - experts, finding it impossible to obtain adequate remuneration for - first-class work, have been obliged to abandon the field altogether, - or to lower their standard to the level of general appreciation, or by - forgery to cater for the perverted taste which attaches unreasoning - value to age. Joun has produced, and is thoroughly capable of - producing, bronzes at least equal to the best of Seimin's - masterpieces, yet he has often been induced to put Seimin's name on - objects for the sake of attracting buyers who attach more value to - cachet than to quality. If to the names of Joun and his brilliant - pupil Ryuki we add those of Suzuki Chokichi, Okazaki Sessei, Hasegawa - Kumazo, Kanaya Gorosaburo and Jomi Eisuke, we have a group of modern - bronze-casters who unquestionably surpass the ten experts beginning - with Seimin and ending with Somin. Okazaki Sessei has successfully - achieved the casting of huge panels carrying designs in high relief; - and whether there is question of patina or of workmanship, Jomi Eisuke - has never been surpassed. - - Occidental influence has been felt, of course, in the field of modern - bronze-casting. At a school of art officially established in Tokyo in - 1873 under the direction of Italian teachers--a school which owed its - signal failure partly to the incompetence and intemperate behaviour of - some of its foreign professors, and partly to a strong renaissance of - pure Japanese classicism--one of the few accomplishments successfully - taught was that of modelling in plaster and chiselling in marble after - Occidental methods. Marble statues are out of place in the wooden - buildings as well as in the parks of Japan, and even plaster busts or - groups, though less incongruous perhaps, have not yet found favour. - Hence the skill undoubtedly possessed by several graduates of the - defunct art school has to be devoted chiefly to a subordinate purpose, - namely, the fashioning of models for metal-casters. To this - combination of modellers in European style and metal-workers of such - force as Suzuki and Okazaki, Japan owes various memorial bronzes and - effigies which are gradually finding a place in her parks, her - museums, her shrines or her private houses. There is here little - departure from the well-trodden paths of Europe. Studies in drapery, - prancing steeds, ideal poses, heads with fragments of torsos attached - (in extreme violation of true art), crouching beasts of prey--all the - stereotyped styles are reproduced. The imitation is excellent. - - - Carving in Wood and Ivory. - -Among the artists of early times it is often difficult to distinguish -between the carver of wood and the caster of bronze. The latter -sometimes made his own models in wax, sometimes chiselled them in wood, -and sometimes had recourse to a specialist in wood-carving. The group of -splendid sculptors in wood that graced the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries -left names never to be forgotten, but undoubtedly many other artists of -scarcely less force regarded bronze-casting as their principal business. -Thus the story of wood-carving is very difficult to trace. Even in the -field of architectural decoration for interiors, tradition tells us -scarcely anything about the masters who carved such magnificent works as -those seen in the Kioto temples, the Tokugawa mausolea, and some of the -old castles. There are, however, no modern developments of such work to -be noted. The ability of former times exists and is exercised in the old -way, though the field for its employment has been greatly narrowed. - -[Illustration: PLATE V. SCULPTURE - - FIG. 11.--VAJRA MALLA. By Unkei (13th century). - - FIG. 12.--STATUE OF ASANGA (12th century, artist unknown). - - FIG. 13.--STATUES OF BUDDHA AMI'TABHA AND TWO BODHISATTVAS (7th - century).] - -[Illustration: PLATE VI. METAL WORK AND LACQUER - - FIG 14.--DOOR OF BRONZE LANTERN IN THE TODAI TEMPLE (8th century). - - FIG. 15.--BRONZE DUCK INCENSE BURNER (15th century). British Museum. - - FIG. 16.--BRONZE MIRROR (12th to 13th century). - - FIG. 17.--INKSTONE BOX IN LACQUER. By Koyetsu (1557-1637).] - - - Netsuke Carvers. - - When Japanese sculpture in wood or ivory is spoken of, the first idea - that presents itself is connected with the netsuke, which, of all the - art objects found in Japan, is perhaps the most essentially Japanese. - If Japan had given us nothing but the netsuke, we should still have no - difficulty in differentiating the bright versatility of her national - genius from the comparatively sombre, mechanic and unimaginative - temperament of the Chinese. But the netsuke may now be said to be a - thing of the past. The _inro_ (medicine-box), which it mainly served - to fix in the girdle, has been driven out of fashion by the new - civilization imported from the West, and artists who would have carved - netsuke in former times now devote their chisels to statuettes and - alcove ornaments. It is not to be inferred, however, though it is a - favourite assertion of collectors, that no good netsuke have been made - in modern times. That theory is based upon the fact that after the - opening of the country to foreign intercourse in 1857, hundreds of - inferior specimens of netsuke were chiselled by inexpert hands, - purchased wholesale by treaty-port merchants, and sent to New York, - London and Paris, where, though they brought profit to the exporter, - they also disgusted the connoisseur and soon earned discredit for - their whole class. But in fact the glyptic artists of Tokyo, Osaka and - Kioto, though they now devote their chisels chiefly to works of more - importance than the netsuke, are in no sense inferior to their - predecessors of feudal days, and many beautiful netsuke bearing their - signatures are in existence. As for the modern ivory statuette or - alcove ornament, of which great numbers are now carved for the foreign - market, it certainly stands on a plane much higher than the netsuke, - since anatomical defects which escape notice in the latter owing to - its diminutive size, become obtrusive in the former. - - - The Realistic Departure. - - One of the most remarkable developments of figure sculpture in modern - Japan was due to Matsumoto Kisaburo (1830-1869). He carved human - figures with as much accuracy as though they were destined for - purposes of surgical demonstration. Considering that this man had - neither art education nor anatomical instruction, and that he never - enjoyed an opportunity of studying from a model in a studio, his - achievements were remarkable. He and the craftsmen of the school he - established completely refute the theory that the anatomical solecisms - commonly seen in the works of Japanese sculptors are due to faulty - observation. Without scientific training of any kind Matsumoto and his - followers produced works in which the eye of science cannot detect any - error. But it is impossible to admit within the circle of high-art - productions these wooden figures of everyday men and women, unrelieved - by any subjective element, and owing their merit entirely to the - fidelity with which their contours are shaped, their muscles modelled, - and their anatomical proportions preserved. They have not even the - attraction of being cleanly sculptured in wood, but are covered with - thinly lacquered muslin, which, though doubtless a good preservative, - accentuates their puppet-like character. Nevertheless, Matsumoto's - figures marked an epoch in Japanese wood sculpture. Their vivid - realism appealed strongly to the taste of the average foreigner. A - considerable school of carvers soon began to work in the Matsumoto - style, and hundreds of their productions have gone to Europe and - America, finding no market in Japan. - - - The Semi-foreign School. - - Midway between the Matsumoto school and the pure style approved by the - native taste in former times stand a number of wood-carvers headed by - Takamura Koun, who occupies in the field of sculpture much the same - place as that held by Hashimoto Gaho in the realm of painting. Koun - carves figures in the round which not only display great power of - chisel and breadth of style, but also tell a story not necessarily - drawn from the motives of the classical school. This departure from - established canons must be traced to the influence of the short-lived - academy of Italian art established by the Japanese government early in - the Meiji era. In the forefront of the new movement are to be found - men like Yoneharu Unkai and Shinkai Taketaro; the former chiselled a - figure of Jenner for the Medical Association of Japan when they - celebrated the centenary of the great physician, and the latter has - carved life-size effigies of two Imperial princes who lost their lives - in the war with China (1894-95). The artists of the Koun school, - however, do much work which appeals to emotions in general rather than - to individual memories. Thus Arakawa Reiun, one of Koun's most - brilliant pupils, has exhibited a figure of a swordsman in the act of - driving home a furious thrust. The weapon is not shown. Reiun - sculptured simply a man poised on the toes of one foot, the other foot - raised, the arm extended, and the body straining forward in strong yet - elastic muscular effort. A more imaginative work by the same artist - is a figure of a farmer who has just shot an eagle that swooped upon - his grandson. The old man holds his bow still raised. Some of the - eagle's feathers, blown to his side, suggest the death of the bird; at - his feet lies the corpse of the little boy, and the horror, grief and - anger that such a tragedy would inspire are depicted with striking - realism in the farmer's face. Such work has very close affinities with - Occidental conceptions. The chief distinguishing feature is that the - glyptic character is preserved at the expense of surface finish. The - undisguised touches of the chisel tell a story of technical force and - directness which could not be suggested by perfectly smooth surfaces. - To subordinate process to result is the European canon; to show the - former without marring the latter is the Japanese ideal. Many of - Koun's sculptures appear unfinished to eyes trained in Occidental - galleries, whereas the Japanese connoisseur detects evidence of a - technical feat in their seeming roughness. - - - Private Dwellings. - -_Architecture._--From the evidence of ancient records it appears that -before the 5th century the Japanese resided in houses of a very rude -character. The sovereign's palace itself was merely a wooden hut. Its -pillars were thrust into the ground and the whole framework--consisting -of posts, beams, rafters, door-posts and window-frames--was tied -together with cords made by twisting the long fibrous stems of climbing -plants. The roof was thatched, and perhaps had a gable at each end with -a hole to allow the smoke of the wood fire to escape. Wooden doors swung -on a kind of hook; the windows were mere holes in the walls. Rugs of -skins or rush matting were used for sitting on, and the whole was -surrounded with a palisade. In the middle of the 5th century -two-storeyed houses seem to have been built, but the evidence on the -subject is slender. In the 8th century, however, when the court was -moved to Nara, the influence of Chinese civilization made itself felt. -Architects, turners, tile-makers, decorative artists and sculptors, -coming from China and from Korea, erected grand temples for the worship -of Buddha enshrining images of much beauty and adorned with paintings -and carvings of considerable merit. The plan of the city itself was -taken from that of the Chinese metropolis. A broad central avenue led -straight to the palace, and on either side of it ran four parallel -streets, crossed at right angles by smaller thoroughfares. During this -century the first sumptuary edict ordered that the dwellings of all high -officials and opulent civilians should have tiled roofs and be coloured -red, the latter injunction being evidently intended to stop the use of -logs carrying their bark. Tiles thenceforth became the orthodox covering -for a roof, but vermilion, being regarded as a religious colour, found -no favour in private dwellings. In the 9th century, after the capital -had been established at Kioto, the palace of the sovereigns and the -mansions of ministers and nobles were built on a scale of unprecedented -grandeur. It is true that all the structures of the time had the defect -of a box-like appearance. Massive, towering roofs, which impart an air -of stateliness even to a wooden building and yet, by their graceful -curves, avoid any suggestion of ponderosity, were still confined to -Buddhist edifices. The architect of private dwellings attached more -importance to satin-surfaced boards and careful joinery than to any -appearance of strength or solidity. - - Except for the number of buildings composing it, the palace had little - to distinguish it from a nobleman's mansion. The latter consisted of a - principal hall, where the master of the house lived, ate and slept, - and of three suites of chambers, disposed on the north, the east and - the west of the principal hall. In the northern suite the lady of the - house dwelt, the eastern and western suites being allotted to other - members of the family. Corridors joined the principal hall to the - subordinate edifices, for as yet the idea had not been conceived of - having more than one chamber under the same roof. The principal hall - was usually 42 ft. square. Its centre was occupied by a "parent - chamber," 30 ft. square, around which ran an ambulatory and a veranda, - each 6 ft. wide. The parent chamber and the ambulatory were ceiled, - sometimes with interlacing strips of bark or broad laths, so as to - produce a plaited effect; sometimes with plain boards. The veranda had - no ceiling. Sliding doors, a characteristic feature of modern Japanese - houses, had not yet come into use, and no means were provided for - closing the veranda, but the ambulatory was surrounded by a wall of - latticed timber or plain boards, the lower half of which could be - removed altogether, whereas the upper half, suspended from hooks, - could be swung upward and outward. Privacy was obtained by blinds of - split bamboo, and the parent chamber was separated from the - ambulatory by similar bamboo blinds with silk cords for raising or - lowering them, or by curtains. The thick rectangular mats of uniform - size which, fitting together so as to present a level unbroken - surface, cover the floor of all modern Japanese houses, were not yet - in use: floors were boarded, having only a limited space matted. This - form of mansion underwent little modification until the 12th century, - when the introduction of the Zen sect of Buddhism with its - contemplative practice called for greater privacy. Interiors were then - divided into smaller rooms by means of sliding doors covered with thin - rice-paper, which permitted the passage of light while obstructing - vision; the hanging lattices were replaced by wooden doors which could - be slid along a groove so as to be removable in the daytime, and an - alcove was added in the principal chamber for a sacred picture or - Buddhist image to serve as an object of contemplation for a devotee - while practising the rite of abstraction. Thus the main features of - the Japanese dwelling-house were evolved, and little change took place - subsequently, except that the brush of the painter was freely used for - decorating partitions, and in aristocratic mansions unlimited care was - exercised in the choice of rare woods. - - - Buddhist Temple Architecture. - -The Buddhist temple underwent little change at Japanese hands except in -the matter of decoration. Such as it was in outline when first erected -in accordance with Chinese models, such it virtually remained, though in -later times all the resources of the sculptor and the painter were -employed to beautify it externally and internally. - - "The building, sometimes of huge dimensions, is invariably surrounded - by a raised gallery, reached by a flight of steps in the centre of the - approach front, the balustrade of which is a continuation of the - gallery railing. This gallery is sometimes supported upon a deep - system of bracketing, corbelled out from the feet of the main pillars. - Within this raised gallery, which is sheltered by the over-sailing - eaves, there is, in the larger temples, a columned loggia passing - round the two sides and the front of the building, or, in some cases, - placed on the facade only. The ceilings of the loggias are generally - sloping, with richly carved roof-timbers showing below at intervals; - and quaintly carved braces connect the outer pillars with the main - posts of the building. Some temples are to be seen in which the - ceiling of the loggia is boarded flat and decorated with large - paintings of dragons in black and gold. The intercolumniation is - regulated by a standard of about six or seven feet, and the general - result of the treatment of columns, wall-posts, &c., is that the whole - mural space, not filled in with doors or windows, is divided into - regular oblong panels, which sometimes receive plaster, sometimes - boarding and sometimes rich framework and carving or painted panels. - Diagonal bracing or strutting is nowhere to be found, and in many - cases mortises and other joints are such as very materially to weaken - the timbers at their points of connexion. It would seem that only the - immense weight of the roofs and their heavy projections prevent a - collapse of some of these structures in high winds. The principal - facade of the temple is filled in one, two or three compartments with - hinged doors, variously ornamented and folding outwards, sometimes in - double folds. From these doorways, generally left open, the interior - light is principally obtained, windows, as the term is generally - understood, being rare. An elaborate cornice of wooden bracketing - crowns the walls, forming one of the principal ornaments of the - building. The whole disposition of pillars, posts, brackets and - rafters is harmonically arranged according to some measure of the - standard of length. A very important feature of the facade is the - portico or porch-way, which covers the principal steps and is - generally formed by producing the central portion of the main roof - over the steps and supporting such projection upon isolated wooden - pillars braced together near the top with horizontal ties, carved, - moulded and otherwise fantastically decorated. Above these ties are - the cornice brackets and beams, corresponding in general design to the - cornice of the walls, and the intermediate space is filled with open - carvings of dragons or other characteristic designs. The forms of roof - are various, but mostly they commence in a steep slope at the top, - gradually flattening towards the eaves so as to produce a slightly - concave appearance, this concavity being rendered more emphatic by the - tilt which is given to the eaves at the four corners. The appearance - of the ends of the roof is half hip, half gable. Heavy ribs of - tile-cresting with large terminals are carried along the ridge and the - slope of the gable. The result of the whole is very picturesque, and - has the advantage of looking equally satisfactory from any point of - view. The interior arrangement of wall columns, horizontal beams and - cornice bracketing corresponds with that on the outside. The ceiling - is invariably boarded and subdivided by ribs into small rectangular - coffers. Sometimes painting is introduced into these panels and - lacquer and metal clasps are added to the ribs. When the temple is of - very large dimensions an interior peristyle of pillars is introduced - to assist in supporting the roof, and in such cases each pillar - carries profuse bracketing corresponding to that of the cornice. The - construction of the framework of the Japanese roof is such that the - weights all act vertically; there is no thrust on the outer walls, - and every available point of the interior is used as a means of - support. - - "The floor is partly boarded and partly matted. The shrines, altars - and oblatory tables are placed at the back in the centre, and there - are often other secondary shrines at the sides. In temples of the best - class the floor of the gallery and of the central portion of the main - building from entrance to altar are richly lacquered; in those of - inferior class they are merely polished by continued rubbing."--(J. - Conder, in the _Proceedings of the Royal Institute of British - Architects._) - - - Shinto Architecture. - -None of the magnificence of the Buddhist temple belongs to the Shinto -shrine. In the case of the latter conservatism has been absolute from -time immemorial. The shrines of Ise, which may be called the Mecca of -Shinto devotees, are believed to present to-day precisely the appearance -they presented in 478, when they were moved thither in obedience to a -revelation from the Sun-goddess. It has been the custom to rebuild them -every twentieth year, alternately on each of two sites set apart for the -purpose, the features of the old edifice being reproduced in the new -with scrupulous accuracy. - - They are enlarged replicas of the primeval wooden hut described above, - having rafters with their upper ends crossed; thatched or shingled - roof; boarded floors, and logs laid on the roof-ridge at right angles - for the purpose of binding the ridge and the rafters firmly together. - A thatched roof is imperative in the orthodox shrine, but in modern - days tiles or sheets of copper are sometimes substituted. At Ise, - however, no such novelties are tolerated. The avenue of approach - generally passes under a structure called _torii_. Originally designed - as a perch for fowls which sang to the deities at daybreak, this torii - subsequently came to be erroneously regarded as a gateway - characteristic of the Shinto shrine. It consists of two thick trunks - placed upright, their upper ends mortised into a horizontal log which - projects beyond them at either side. The structure derives some grace - from its extreme simplicity. - -_Textile Fabrics and Embroidery._--In no branch of applied art does the -decorative genius of Japan show more attractive results than in that of -textile fabrics, and in none has there been more conspicuous progress -during recent years. Her woven and embroidered stuffs have always been -beautiful; but in former times few pieces of size and splendour were -produced, if we except the curtains used for draping festival cars and -the hangings of temples. Tapestry, as it is employed in Europe, was not -thought of, nor indeed could the small hand-looms of the period be -easily adapted to such work. All that has been changed, however. Arras -of large dimensions, showing remarkable workmanship and grand -combinations of colours, is now manufactured in Kioto, the product of -years of patient toil on the part of weaver and designer alike. -Kawashima of Kioto has acquired high reputation for work of this kind. -He inaugurated the new departure a few years ago by copying a Gobelin, -but it may safely be asserted that no Gobelin will bear comparison with -the pieces now produced in Japan. - - The most approved fashion of weaving is called _tsuzure-ori_ - (linked-weaving); that is to say, the cross threads are laid in with - the fingers and pushed into their places with a comb by hand, very - little machinery being used. The threads extend only to the outlines - of each figure, and it follows that every part of the pattern has a - rim of minute holes like pierced lines separating postage stamps in a - sheet, the effect being that the design seems to hang suspended in the - ground--linked into it, as the Japanese term implies.[3] A specimen of - this nature recently manufactured by Kawashima's weavers measured 20 - ft. by 13, and represented the annual festival at the Nikko mausolea. - The chief shrine was shown, as were also the gate and the long flight - of stone steps leading up to it, several other buildings, the groves - of cryptomeria that surround the mausolea, and the festival - procession. All the architectural and decorative details, all the - carvings and colours, all the accessories--everything was wrought in - silk, and each of the 1500 figures forming the procession wore exactly - appropriate costume. Even this wealth of detail, remarkable as it was, - seemed less surprising than the fact that the weaver had succeeded in - producing the effect of atmosphere and aerial perspective. Through the - graceful cryptomerias distant mountains and the still more distant sky - could be seen, and between the buildings in the foreground and those - in the middle distance atmosphere appeared to be perceptible. Two - years of incessant labour with relays of artisans working steadily - throughout the twenty-four hours were required to finish this piece. - Naturally such specimens are not produced in large numbers. Next in - decorative importance to tsuzure-ori stands _yuzen birodo_, commonly - known among English-speaking people as cut velvet. Dyeing by the - _yuzen_ process is an innovation of modern times. The design is - painted on the fabric, after which the latter is steamed, and the - picture is ultimately fixed by methods which are kept secret. The soft - silk known as _habutaye_ is a favourite ground for such work, but silk - crape also is largely employed. No other method permits the decorator - to achieve such fidelity and such boldness of draughtsmanship. The - difference between the results of the ordinary and the yuzen processes - of dyeing is, in fact, the difference between a stencilled sketch and - a finished picture. In the case of cut velvet, the yuzen process is - supplemented as follows: The cutter, who works at an ordinary wooden - bench, has no tool except a small sharp chisel with a V-shaped point. - This chisel is passed into an iron pencil having at the end guards, - between which the point of the chisel projects, so that it is - impossible for the user to cut beyond a certain depth. When the velvet - comes to him, it already carries a coloured picture permanently fixed - by the yuzen process, but the wires have not been withdrawn. It is, in - fact, velvet that has passed through all the usual stages of - manufacture except the cutting of the thread along each wire and the - withdrawal of the wires. The cutting artist lays the piece of - unfinished velvet on his bench, and proceeds to carve into the pattern - with his chisel, just as though he were shading the lines of the - design with a steel pencil. When the pattern is lightly traced, he - uses his knife delicately; when the lines are strong and the shadows - heavy, he makes the point pierce deeply. In short, the little chisel - becomes in his fingers a painter's brush, and when it is remembered - that, the basis upon which he works being simply a thread of silk, his - hand must be trained to such delicacy of muscular effort as to be - capable of arresting the edge of the knife at varying depths within - the diameter of the tiny filament, the difficulty of the achievement - will be understood. Of course it is to be noted that the edge of the - cutting tool is never allowed to trespass upon a line which the - exigencies of the design require to be solid. The veining of a cherry - petal, for example, the tessellation of a carp's scales, the serration - of a leaf's edge--all these lines remain intact, spared by the - cutter's tool, while the leaf itself, or the petal, or the scales of - the fish, have the threads forming them cut so as to show the velvet - nap and to appear in soft, low relief. In one variety of this fabric, - a slip of gold foil is laid under each wire, and left in position - after the wire is withdrawn, the cutting tool being then used with - freedom in some parts of the design, so that the gold gleams through - the severed thread, producing a rich and suggestive effect. Velvet, - however, is not capable of being made the basis for pictures so - elaborate and microscopically accurate as those produced by the yuzen - process on silk crape or habutaye. The rich-toned, soft plumage of - birds or the magnificent blending of colours in a bunch of peonies or - chrysanthemums cannot be obtained with absolute fidelity on the ribbed - surface of velvet. - - - Embroidery. - -The embroiderer's craft has been followed for centuries in Japan with -eminent success, but whereas it formerly ranked with dyeing and weaving, -it has now come to be regarded as an art. Formerly the embroiderer was -content to produce a pattern with his needle, now he paints a picture. So -perfectly does the modern Japanese embroiderer elaborate his scheme of -values that all the essential elements of pictorial effects--chiaroscuro, -aerial perspective and atmosphere are present in his work. Thus a -graceful and realistic school has replaced the comparatively stiff and -conventional style of former times. - - Further, an improvement of a technical character was recently made, - which has the effect of adding greatly to the durability of these - embroideries. Owing to the use of paper among the threads of the - embroidery and sizing in the preparation of the stuff forming the - ground, every operation of folding used to cause perceptible injury to - a piece, so that after a few years it acquired a crumpled and dingy - appearance. But by the new method embroiderers now succeed in - producing fabrics which defy all destructive influences--except, of - course, dirt and decay. - - - Early Period. - -_Ceramics._--All research proves that up to the 12th century of the -Christian era the ceramic ware produced in Japan was of a very rude -character. The interest attaching to it is historical rather than -technical. Pottery was certainly manufactured from an early date, and -there is evidence that kilns existed in some fifteen provinces in the -10th century. But although the use of the potter's wheel had long been -understood, the objects produced were simple utensils to contain -offerings of rice, fruit and fish at the austere ceremonials of the -Shinto faith, jars for storing seeds, and vessels for common domestic -use. In the 13th century, however, the introduction of tea from China, -together with vessels for infusing and serving it, revealed to the -Japanese a new conception of ceramic possibilities, for the potters of -the Middle Kingdom had then (Sung dynasty) fully entered the road which -was destined to carry them ultimately to a high pinnacle of their craft. -It had long been customary in Japan to send students to China for the -purpose of studying philosophy and religion, and she now (1223) sent a -potter, Kato Shirozaemon, who, on his return, opened a kiln at Seto in -the province of Owari, and began to produce little jars for preserving -tea and cups for drinking it. These were conspicuously superior to -anything previously manufactured. Kato is regarded as the father of -Japanese ceramics. But the ware produced by him and his successors at -the Seto kilns, or by their contemporaries in other parts of the -country, had no valid claim to decorative excellence. Nearly three -centuries elapsed before a radically upward movement took place, and on -this occasion also the inspiration came from China. In 1520 a potter -named Gorodayu Goshonzui (known to posterity as Shonzui) made his way to -Fuchow and thence to King-te-chen, where, after five years' study, he -acquired the art of manufacturing porcelain, as distinguished from -pottery, together with the art of applying decoration in blue under the -glaze. He established his kiln at Arita in Hizen, and the event marked -the opening of the second epoch of Japanese ceramics. Yet the new -departure then made did not lead far. The existence of porcelain clay in -Hizen was not discovered for many years, and Shonzui's pieces being made -entirely with kaolin imported from China, their manufacture ceased after -his death, though knowledge of the processes learned by him survived and -was used in the production of greatly inferior wares. The third clearly -differentiated epoch was inaugurated by the discovery of true kaolin at -Izumi-yama in Hizen, the discoverer being one of the Korean potters who -came to Japan in the train of Hideyoshi's generals returning from the -invasion of Korea, and the date of the discovery being about 1605. Thus -much premised, it becomes possible to speak in detail of the various -wares for which Japan became famous. - -The principal kinds of ware are Hizen, Kioto, Satsuma, Kutani, Owari, -Bizen, Takatori, Banko, Izumo and Yatsushiro. - - - Hizen. - - There are three chief varieties of Hizen ware, namely, (1) the - enamelled porcelain of Arita--the "old Japan" of European collectors; - (2) the enamelled porcelain of Nabeshima; and (3) the blue and white, - or plain white, porcelain of Hirado. The earliest manufacture of - porcelain--as distinguished from pottery--began in the opening years - of the 16th century, but its materials were exotic. Genuine Japanese - porcelain dates from about a century later. The decoration was - confined to blue under the glaze, and as an object of art the ware - possessed no special merit. Not until the year 1620 do we find any - evidence of the style for which Arita porcelain afterwards became - famous, namely, decoration with vitrifiable enamels. The first efforts - in this direction were comparatively crude; but before the middle of - the 17th century, two experts--Goroshichi and Kakiemon--carried the - art to a point of considerable excellence. From that time forward the - Arita factories turned out large quantities of porcelain profusely - decorated with blue under the glaze and coloured enamels over it. Many - pieces were exported by the Dutch, and some also were specially - manufactured to their order. Specimens of the latter are still - preserved in European collections, where they are classed as genuine - examples of Japanese ceramic art, though beyond question their style - of decoration was greatly influenced by Dutch interference. The - porcelains of Arita were carried to the neighbouring town of Imari for - sale and shipment. Hence the ware came to be known to Japanese and - foreigners alike as _Imari-yaki_ (_yaki_ = anything baked; hence - ware). - - - Nabeshima. - - The Nabeshima porcelain--so called because of its production at - private factories under the special patronage of Nabeshima Naoshige, - feudal chief of Hizen--was produced at Okawachiyama. It differed from - Imari-yaki in the milky whiteness and softness of its glaze, the - comparative sparseness of its enamelled decoration, and the relegation - of blue _sous couverte_ to an entirely secondary place. This is - undoubtedly the finest jewelled porcelain in Japan; the best examples - leave nothing to be desired. The factory's period of excellence began - about the year 1680, and culminated at the close of the 18th century. - - - Hirado. - - The Hirado porcelain--so called because it enjoyed the special - patronage of Matsuura, feudal chief of Hirado--was produced at - Mikawa-uchi-yama, but did not attain excellence until the middle of - the 18th century, from which time until about 1830 specimens of rare - beauty were produced. They were decorated with blue under the glaze, - but some were pure white with exquisitely chiselled designs incised or - in relief. The production was always scanty, and, owing to official - prohibitions, the ware did not find its way into the general market. - - - Kioto. - - The history of Kioto ware--which, being for the most part faience, - belongs to an entirely different category from the Hizen porcelains - spoken of above--is the history of individual ceramists rather than of - special manufactures. Speaking broadly, however, four different - varieties are usually distinguished. They are _raku-yaki_, - _awata-yaki_, _iwakura-yaki_ and _kiyomizu-yaki_. - - - Raku. - - Raku-yaki is essentially the domestic faience of Japan; for, being - entirely hand-made and fired at a very low temperature, its - manufacture offers few difficulties, and has consequently been carried - on by amateurs in their own homes at various places throughout the - country. The raku-yaki of Kioto is the parent of all the rest. It was - first produced by a Korean who emigrated to Japan in the early part of - the 16th century. But the term _raku-yaki_ did not come into use until - the close of the century, when Chojiro (artistic name, Choryu) - received from Hideyoshi (the Taiko) a seal bearing the ideograph - _raku_, with which he thenceforth stamped his productions. Thirteen - generations of the same family carried on the work, each using a stamp - with the same ideograph, its calligraphy, however, differing - sufficiently to be identified by connoisseurs. The faience is thick - and clumsy, having soft, brittle and very light _pate_. The staple - type has black glaze showing little lustre, and in choice varieties - this is curiously speckled and pitted with red. Salmon-coloured, red, - yellow and white glazes are also found, and in late specimens gilding - was added. The raku faience owed much of its popularity to the - patronage of the tea clubs. The nature of its paste and glaze adapted - it for the infusion of powdered tea, and its homely character suited - the austere canons of the tea ceremonies. - - - Awata. - - Awata-yaki is the best known among the ceramic productions of Kioto. - There is evidence to show that the art of decoration with enamels over - the glaze reached Kioto from Hizen in the middle of the 17th century. - Just at that time there flourished in the Western capital a potter of - remarkable ability, called Nomura Seisuke. He immediately utilized the - new method, and produced many beautiful examples of jewelled faience, - having close, hard _pate_, yellowish-white, or brownish-white, glaze - covered with a network of fine crackle, and sparse decoration in pure - full-bodied colours--red, green, gold and silver. He worked chiefly at - Awata, and thus brought that factory into prominence. Nomura Seisuke, - or Ninsei as he is commonly called, was one of Japan's greatest - ceramists. Genuine examples of his faience have always been highly - prized, and numerous imitations were subsequently produced, all - stamped with the ideograph Ninsei. After Ninsei's time, the most - renowned ceramists of the Awata factories were Kenzan (1688-1740); - Ebisei, a contemporary of Kenzan; Dohachi (1751-1763), who - subsequently moved to Kiyomizu-zaka, another part of Kioto, the - faience of which constitutes the Kiyomizu-yaki mentioned above; - Kinkozan (1745-1760); Hozan (1690-1721); Taizan (1760-1800); Bizan - (1810-1838); and Tanzan, who was still living in 1909. It must be - noted that several of these names, as Kenzan, Dohachi, Kinkozan, Hozan - and Taizan, were not limited to one artist. They are family names, and - though the dates we have given indicate the eras of the most noted - ceramists in each family, amateurs must not draw any chronological - conclusion from the mere fact that a specimen bears such and such a - name. - - - Iwakura. - - The origin of the Iwakura-yaki is somewhat obscure, and its history, - at an early date, becomes confused with that of the Awata yaki, from - which, indeed, it does not materially differ. - - - Kiyomizu. - - In the term Kiyomizu-yaki may be included roughly all the faience of - Kioto, with the exception of the three varieties described above. The - distinction between Kiyomizu, Awata and Iwakura is primarily local. - They are parts of the same city, and if their names have been used to - designate particular classes of pottery, it is not because the - technical or decorative features of each class distinguish it from the - other two, but chiefly for the purpose of identifying the place of - production. On the slopes called Kiyomizu-zaka and Gojo-zaka lived a - number of ceramists, all following virtually the same models with - variations due to individual genius. The principal Kiyomizu artists - were: Ebisei, who moved from Awata to Gojo-zaka in 1688; Eisen and - Rokubei, pupils of Ebisei; Mokubei, a pupil of Eisen, but more - celebrated than his master; Shuhei (1790-1810), Kentei (1782-1820), - and Zengoro Hozen, generally known as Eiraku (1790-1850). Eisen was - the first to manufacture porcelain (as distinguished from faience) in - Kioto, and this branch of the art was carried to a high standard of - excellence by Eiraku, whose speciality was a rich coral-red glaze with - finely executed decoration in gold. The latter ceramist excelled also - in the production of purple, green and yellow glazes, which he - combined with admirable skill and taste. Some choice ware of the - latter type was manufactured by him in Kishu, by order of the feudal - chief of that province. It is known as _Kaira-ku-yen-yaki_ (ware of - the Kairaku park). - - [Illustration: PLATE VIII. POTTERY AND PORCELAIN - - FIG. 23.--TEA BOWL. By Kenzan. - - FIG. 24.--TEA JAR. By Ninsei. - - FIG. 25.--FIGURE. By Kakiemon. Arita porcelain. - - FIG. 26.--LION. By Chojiro Raku. - - FIG. 27.--CENSER, WITH KOCHI GLAZE. By Eisen. - - FIG. 28.--TEA JAR. By Ninsei. - - FIG. 29.--BIZEN WARE. Samantabhadra - - FIG. 30.--CENSER. By Kenzan.] - - [Illustration: PLATE VII. LACQUER - - FIG. 18.--LID OF BOX. By Korin. - - FIG. 19.--CASE FOR HEAD OF A SKAKUJO. - - FIG. 20.--OWL ON A BRANCH. By Ritsuo. - - FIG. 21.--BOX WITH BUTTERFLIES AND FLOWERS IN GOLD (12th century). - - FIG. 22.--LACQUERED BOXES. By Koami (1598-1651).] - - - Satsuma. - - No phrase is commoner in the mouths of Western collectors than "Old - Satsuma"; no ware is rarer in Western collections. Nine hundred and - ninety-nine pieces out of every thousand that do duty as genuine - examples of this prince of faiences are simply examples of the skill - of modern forgers. In point of fact, the production of faience - decorated with gold and coloured enamels may be said to have commenced - at the beginning of the eighth century in Satsuma. Some writers maintain - that it did actually commence then, and that nothing of the kind had - existed there previously. Setting aside, however, the strong - improbability that a style of decoration so widely practised and so - highly esteemed could have remained unknown during a century and a - half to experts working for one of the most puissant chieftains in - Japan, we have the evidence of trustworthy traditions and written - records that enamelled faience was made by the potters at - Tatsumonji--the principal factory of Satsuma-ware in early days--as - far back as the year 1676. Mitsuhisa, then feudal lord of Satsuma, was - a munificent patron of art. He summoned to his fief the painter - Tangen--a pupil of the renowned Tanyu, who died in 1674--and employed - him to paint faience or to furnish designs for the ceramists of - Tatsumonji. The ware produced under these circumstances is still known - by the name of Satsuma Tangen. But the number of specimens was small. - Destined chiefly for private use or for presents, their decoration was - delicate rather than rich, the colour chiefly employed being brown, or - reddish brown, under the glaze, and the decoration over the glaze - being sparse and chaste. Not until the close of the l8th century or - the beginning of the 19th did the more profuse fashion of enamelled - decoration come to be largely employed. It was introduced by two - potters who had visited Kioto, and there observed the ornate methods - so well illustrated in the wares of Awata and Kiyomizu. At the same - time a strong impetus was given to the production of faience at - Tadeno--then the chief factory in Satsuma--owing to the patronage of - Shimazu Tamanobu, lord of the province. To this increase in production - and to the more elaborate application of verifiable enamels may be - attributed the erroneous idea that Satsuma faience decorated with gold - and coloured enamels had its origin at the close of the 18th century. - For all the purposes of the ordinary collector it may be said to have - commenced then, and to have come to an end about 1860; but for the - purposes of the historian we must look farther back. - - The ceramic art in Satsuma owed much to the aid of a number of Korean - experts who settled there after the return of the Japanese forces from - Korea. One of these men, Boku Heii, discovered (1603) clay fitted for - the manufacture of white _craquele_ faience. This was the subsequently - celebrated _Satsuma-yaki_. But in Boku's time, and indeed as long as - the factories flourished, many other kinds of faience were produced, - the principal having rich black or _flambe_ glazes, while a few were - green or yellow monochromes. One curious variety, called _same-yaki_, - had glaze chagrined like the skin of a shark. Most of the finest - pieces of enamelled faience were the work of artists at the Tadeno - factory, while the best specimens of other kinds were by the artists - of Tatsumonji. - - - Kutani. - - The porcelain of Kutani is among those best known to Western - collectors, though good specimens ofthe old ware have always been - scarce. Its manufacture dates from the close of the 17th century, when - the feudal chief of Kaga took the industry under his patronage. There - were two principal varieties of the ware: _ao-Kutani_, so called - because of a green (_ao_) enamel of great brilliancy and beauty which - was largely used in its decoration, and Kutani with painted and - enamelled _pate_ varying from hard porcelain to pottery. Many of the - pieces are distinguished by a peculiar creamy whiteness of glaze, - suggesting the idea that they were intended to imitate the soft-paste - wares of China. The enamels are used to delineate decorative subjects - and are applied in masses, the principal colours being green, yellow - and soft Prussian blue, all brilliant and transparent, with the - exception of the last which is nearly opaque. In many cases we find - large portions of the surface completely covered with green or yellow - enamel overlying black diapers or scroll patterns. The second variety - of Kutani ware may often be mistaken for "old Japan" (i.e. Imari - porcelain). The most characteristic examples of it are - distinguishable, however, by the preponderating presence of a peculiar - russet red, differing essentially from the full-bodied and - comparatively brilliant colour of the Arita pottery. Moreover, the - workmen of Kaga did not follow the Arita precedent of massing blue - under the glaze. In the great majority of cases they did not use blue - at all in this position, and when they did, its place was essentially - subordinate. They also employed silver freely for decorative purposes, - whereas we rarely find it thus used on "old Japan" porcelain. - - About the time (1843) of the ao-Kutani revival, a potter called lida - Hachiroemon introduced a style of decoration which subsequently came - to be regarded as typical of all Kaga procelains. Taking the Eiraku - porcelains of Kioto as models, Hachiroemon employed red grounds with - designs traced on them in gold. The style was not absolutely new in - Kaga. We find similar decoration on old and choice examples of - Kutani-yaki. But the character of the old red differs essentially from - that of the modern manufacture--the former being a soft, subdued - colour, more like a bloom than an enamel; the latter a glossy and - comparatively crude pigment. In Hachiroemon's time and during the - twenty years following the date of his innovation, many beautiful - examples of elaborately decorated Kutani porcelain were produced. The - richness, profusion and microscopic accuracy of their decoration could - scarcely have been surpassed; but, with very rare exceptions, their - lack of delicacy of technique disqualifies them to rank as fine - porcelains. - - - Owari. - - It was at the little village of Seto, some five miles from Nagoya, the - chief town of the province of Owari, or Bishu, that the celebrated - Kato Shirozaemon made the first Japanese faience worthy to be - considered a technical success. Shirozaemon produced dainty little - tea-jars, ewers and other _cha-no-yu_ utensils. These, being no longer - stoved in an inverted position, as had been the habit before - Shirozaemon's time, were not disfigured by the bare, blistered lips of - their predecessors. Their _pate_ was close and well-manufactured - pottery, varying in colour from dark brown to russet, and covered with - thick, lustrous glazes--black, amber-brown, chocolate and yellowish - grey. These glazes were not monochromatic: they showed differences of - tint, and sometimes marked varieties of colour; as when - chocolate-brown passed into amber, or black was relieved by streaks - and clouds of grey and dead-leaf red. This ware came to be known as - _Toshiro-yaki_, a term obtained by combining the second syllable of - Kato with the two first of Shirozaemon. A genuine example of it is at - present worth many times its weight in gold to Japanese dilettanti, - though in foreign eyes it is little more than interesting. Shirozaemon - was succeeded at the kiln by three generations of his family, each - representative retaining the name of Toshiro, and each distinguishing - himself by the excellence of his work. Thenceforth Seto became the - headquarters of the manufacture of _cha-no-yu_ utensils, and many of - the tiny pieces turned out there deserve high admiration, their - technique being perfect, and their mahogany, russet-brown, amber and - buff glazes showing wonderful lustre and richness. Seto, in fact, - acquired such a widespread reputation for its ceramic productions that - the term _seto-mono_ (Seto article) came to be used generally for all - pottery and porcelain, just as "China" is in the West. Seto has now - ceased to be a pottery-producing centre, and has become the chief - porcelain manufactory of Japan. The porcelain industry was inaugurated - in 1807 by Tamikichi, a local ceramist, who had visited Hizen and - spent three years there studying the necessary processes. Owari - abounds in porcelain stone; but it does not occur in constant or - particularly simple forms, and as the potters have not yet learned to - treat their materials scientifically, their work is often marred by - unforeseen difficulties. For many years after Tamikichi's processes - had begun to be practised, the only decoration employed was blue under - the glaze. Sometimes Chinese cobalt was used, sometimes Japanese, and - sometimes a mixture of both. To Kawamoto Hansuke, who flourished about - 1830-1845, belongs the credit of having turned out the richest and - most attractive ware of this class. But, speaking generally, Japanese - blues do not rank on the same decorative level with those of China. At - Arita, although pieces were occasionally turned out of which the - colour could not be surpassed in purity and brilliancy, the general - character of the blue _sous couverte_ was either thin or dull. At - Hirado the ceramists affected a lighter and more delicate tone than - that of the Chinese, and, in order to obtain it, subjected the choice - pigment of the Middle Kingdom to refining processes of great severity. - The Hirado blue, therefore, belongs to a special aesthetic category. - But at Owari the experts were content with an inferior colour, and - their blue-and-white porcelains never enjoyed a distinguished - reputation, though occasionally we find a specimen of great merit. - - Decoration with vitrifiable enamels over the glaze, though it began to - be practised at Owari about the year 1840, never became a speciality - of the place. Nowadays, indeed, numerous examples of porcelains - decorated in this manner are classed among Owari products. But they - receive their decoration, almost without exception, in Tokyo or - Yokohama, where a large number of artists, called _e-tsuke-shi_, - devote themselves entirely to porcelain-painting. These men seldom use - vitrifiable enamels, pigments being much more tractable and less - costly. The dominant feature of the designs is pictorial. They are - frankly adapted to Western taste. Indeed, of this porcelain it may be - said that, from the monster pieces of blue-and-white manufactured at - Seto--vases six feet high and garden pillar-lamps half as tall again - do not dismay the Bishu ceramist--to tiny coffee-cups decorated in - Tokyo, with their delicate miniatures of birds, flowers, insects, - fishes and so forth, everything indicates the death of the old severe - aestheticism. To such a depth of debasement had the ceramic art fallen - in Owari, that before the happy renaissance of the past ten years, - Nagoya discredited itself by employing porcelain as a base for - cloisonne enamelling. Many products of this vitiated industry have - found their way into the collections of foreigners. - - - Bizen. - - Pottery was produced at several hamlets in Bizen as far back as the - 14th century, but ware worthy of artistic notice did not make its - appearance until the close of the 16th century, when the Taiko himself - paid a visit to the factory at Imbe. Thenceforth utensils for the use - of the tea clubs began to be manufactured. This _Bizen-yaki_ was red - stoneware, with thin diaphanous glaze. Made of exceedingly refractory - clay, it underwent stoving for more than three weeks, and was - consequently remarkable for its hardness and metallic timbre. Some - fifty years later, the character of the choicest Bizen-yaki underwent - a marked change. It became slate-coloured or bluish-brown faience, - with _pate_ as fine as pipe-clay, but very hard. In the _ao-Bizen_ - (blue Bizen), as well as in the red variety, figures of mythical - beings and animals, birds, fishes and other natural objects, were - modelled with a degree of plastic ability that can scarcely be spoken - of in too high terms. Representative specimens are truly - admirable--every line, every contour faithful. The production was very - limited, and good pieces soon ceased to be procurable except at long - intervals and heavy expense. The Bizen-yaki familiar to Western - collectors is comparatively coarse brown or reddish brown, stoneware, - modelled rudely, though sometimes redeemed by touches of the genius - never entirely absent from the work of the Japanese artisan-artist. - Easy to be confounded with it is another ware of the same type - manufactured at Shidoro in the province of Totomi. - - - Takatori. - - The Japanese potters could never vie with the Chinese in the - production of glazes: the wonderful monochromes and polychromes of the - Middle Kingdom had no peers anywhere. In Japan they were most closely - approached by the faience of Takatori in the province of Chikuzen. In - its early days the ceramic industry of this province owed something to - the assistance of Korean experts who settled there after the - expedition of 1592. But its chief development took place under the - direction of Igarashi Jizaemon, an amateur ceramist, who, happening to - visit Chikuzen about 1620, was taken under the protection of the chief - of the fief and munificently treated. Taking the renowned - _yao-pien-yao_, or "transmutation ware" of China as a model, the - Takatori potters endeavoured, by skilful mixing of colouring - materials, to reproduce the wonderful effects of oxidization seen in - the Chinese ware. They did not, indeed, achieve their ideal, but they - did succeed in producing some exquisitely lustrous glazes of the - _flambe_ type, rich transparent brown passing into claret colour, with - flecks or streaks of white and clouds of "iron dust." The _pate_ of - this faience was of the finest description, and the technique in every - respect faultless. Unfortunately, the best experts confined themselves - to working for the tea clubs, and consequently produced only - insignificant pieces, as tea-jars, cups and little ewers. During the - 18th century, a departure was made from these strict canons. From this - period date most of the specimens best known outside Japan--cleverly - modelled figures of mythological beings and animals covered with - lustrous variegated glazes, the general colours being grey or buff, - with tints of green, chocolate, brown and sometimes blue. - - - Awaji. - - A ware of which considerable quantities have found their way westward - of late years in the _Awaji-yaki_, so called from the island of Awaji - where it is manufactured in the village of Iga. It was first produced - between the years 1830 and 1840 by one Kaju Mimpei, a man of - considerable private means who devoted himself to the ceramic art out - of pure enthusiasm. His story is full of interest, but it must suffice - here to note the results of his enterprise. Directing his efforts at - first to reproducing the deep green and straw-yellow glazes of China, - he had exhausted almost his entire resources before success came, and - even then the public was slow to recognize the merits of his ware. - Nevertheless he persevered, and in 1838 we find him producing not only - green and yellow monochromes, but also greyish white and mirror-black - glazes of high excellence. So thoroughly had he now mastered the - management of glazes that he could combine yellow, green, white and - claret colour in regular patches to imitate tortoise-shell. Many of - his pieces have designs incised or in relief, and others are skilfully - decorated with gold and silver. Awaji-yaki, or _Mimpei-yaki_ as it is - often called, is generally porcelain, but we occasionally find - specimens which may readily be mistaken for Awata faience. - - - Banko. - - Banko faience is a universal favourite with foreign collectors. The - type generally known to them is exceedingly light ware, for the most - part made of light grey, unglazed clay, and having hand-modelled - decoration in relief. But there are numerous varieties. Chocolate or - dove-coloured grounds with delicate diapers in gold and _engobe_; - brown or black faience with white, yellow and pink designs incised or - in relief; pottery curiously and deftly marbled by combinations of - various coloured clays--these and many other kinds are to be found, - all, however, presenting one common feature, namely, skilful - finger-moulding and a slight roughening of the surface as though it - had received the impression of coarse linen or crape before baking. - This modern _banko-yaki_ is produced chiefly at Yokkaichi in the - province of Ise. It is entirely different from the original banko-ware - made in Kuwana, in the same province, by Numanami Gozaemon at the - close of the 18th century. Gozaemon was an imitator. He took for his - models the raku faience of Kioto, the masterpieces of Ninsei and - Kenzan, the rococo wares of Korea, the enamelled porcelain of China, - and the blue-and-white ware of Delft. He did not found a school, - simply because he had nothing new to teach, and the fact that a modern - ware goes by the same name as his productions is simply because his - seal--the inscription on which (_banko_, everlasting) suggested the - name of the ware--subsequently (1830) fell into the hands of one Mori - Yusetsu, who applied it to his own ware. Mori Yusetsu, however, had - more originality than Numanami. He conceived the idea of shaping his - pieces by putting the mould inside and pressing the clay with the hand - into the matrix. The consequence was that his wares received the - design on the inner as well as the outer surface, and were moreover - thumb-marked--essential characteristics of the banko-yaki now so - popular. - - - Izumo. - - Among a multitude of other Japanese wares, space allows us to mention - only two, those of Izumo and Yatsushiro. The chief of the former is - faience, having light grey, close _pate_ and yellow or straw-coloured - glaze, with or without crackle, to which is applied decoration in - gold and green enamel. Another variety has chocolate glaze, clouded - with amber and flecked with gold dust. The former faience had its - origin at the close of the 17th century, the latter at the close of - the 18th; but the _Izumo-yaki_ now procurable is a modern production. - - - Yatsushiro. - - The Yatsushiro faience is a production of the province of Higo, where - a number of Korean potters settled at the close of the 17th century. - It is the only Japanese ware in which the characteristics of a Korean - original are unmistakably preserved. Its diaphanous, pearl-grey glaze, - uniform, lustrous and finely crackled, overlying encaustic decoration - in white slip, the fineness of its warm reddish _pate_, and the - general excellence of its technique, have always commanded admiration. - It is produced now in considerable quantities, but the modern ware - falls far short of its predecessor. - -Many examples of the above varieties deserve the enthusiastic admiration -they have received, yet they unquestionably belong to a lower rank of -ceramic achievements than the choice productions of Chinese kilns. The -potters of the Middle Kingdom, from the early eras of the Ming dynasty -down to the latest years of the 18th century, stood absolutely without -rivals as makers of porcelain. Their technical ability was -incomparable--though in grace of decorative conception they yielded the -palm to the Japanese--and the representative specimens they bequeathed -to posterity remained, until quite recently, far beyond the imitative -capacity of European or Asiatic experts. As for faience and pottery, -however, the Chinese despised them in all forms, with one notable -exception, the _yi-hsing-yao_, known in the Occident as _boccaro_. Even -the _yi-hsing-yao_, too, owed much of its popularity to special utility. -It was essentially the ware of the tea-drinker. If in the best specimens -exquisite modelling, wonderful accuracy of finish and _pates_ of -interesting tints are found, such pieces are, none the less, stamped -prominently with the character of utensils rather than with that of -works of art. In short, the artistic output of Chinese kilns in their -palmiest days was, not faience or pottery, but porcelain, whether of -soft or hard paste. Japan, on the contrary, owes her ceramic distinction -in the main to her faience. A great deal has been said by enthusiastic -writers about the _famille chrysanthemo-peonienne_ of Imari and the -_genre Kakiemon_ of Nabeshima, but these porcelains, beautiful as they -undoubtedly are, cannot be placed on the same level with the _kwan-yao_ -and _famille rose_ of the Chinese experts. The Imari ware, even though -its thick biscuit and generally ungraceful shapes be omitted from the -account, shows no enamels that can rival the exquisitely soft, broken -tints of the _famille rose_; and the _Kakiemon_ porcelain, for all its -rich though chaste contrasts, lacks the delicate transmitted tints of -the shell-like _kwan-yao_. So, too, the blue-and-white porcelain of -Hirado, though assisted by exceptional tenderness of sous-pate colour, -by milk-white glaze, by great beauty of decorative design, and often by -an admirable use of the modelling or graving tool, represents a ceramic -achievement palpably below the soft paste _kai-pien-yao_ of -King-te-chen. It is a curious and interesting fact that this last -product of Chinese skill remained unknown in Japan down to very recent -days. In the eyes of a Chinese connoisseur, no blue-and-white porcelain -worthy of consideration exists, or ever has existed, except the -_kai-pien-yao_, with its imponderable _pate_, its wax-like surface, and -its rich, glowing blue, entirely free from superficiality or garishness -and broken into a thousand tints by the microscopic crackle of the -glaze. The Japanese, although they obtained from their neighbour almost -everything of value she had to give them, did not know this wonderful -ware, and their ignorance is in itself sufficient to prove their ceramic -inferiority. There remains, too, a wide domain in which the Chinese -developed high skill, whereas the Japanese can scarcely be said to have -entered it at all; namely, the domain of monochromes and polychromes, -striking every note of colour from the richest to the most delicate; the -domain of _truite_ and _flambe_ glazes, of _yo-pien-yao_ (transmutation -ware), and of egg-shell with incised or translucid decoration. In all -that region of achievement the Chinese potters stood alone and seemingly -unapproachable. The Japanese, on the contrary, made a specialty of -faience, and in that particular line they reached a high standard of -excellence. No faience produced either in China or any other Oriental -country can dispute the palm with really representative specimens of -Satsuma ware. Not without full reason have Western connoisseurs lavished -panegyrics upon that exquisite production. The faience of the Kioto -artists never reached quite to the level of the Satsuma in quality of -_pate_ and glowing mellowness of decoration; their materials were -slightly inferior. But their skill as decorators was as great as its -range was wide, and they produced a multitude of masterpieces on which -alone Japan's ceramic fame might safely be rested. - - - Change of Style after the Restoration. - -When the mediatization of the fiefs, in 1871, terminated the local -patronage hitherto extended so munificently to artists, the Japanese -ceramists gradually learned that they must thenceforth depend chiefly -upon the markets of Europe and America. They had to appeal, in short, to -an entirely new public, and how to secure its approval was to them a -perplexing problem. Having little to guide them, they often interpreted -Western taste incorrectly, and impaired their own reputation in a -corresponding degree. Thus, in the early years of the Meiji era, there -was a period of complete prostitution. No new skill was developed, and -what remained of the old was expended chiefly upon the manufacture of -meretricious objects, disfigured by excess of decoration and not -relieved by any excellence of technique. In spite of their artistic -defects, these specimens were exported in considerable numbers by -merchants in the foreign settlements, and their first cost being very -low, they found a not unremunerative market. But as European and -American collectors became better acquainted with the capacities of the -pre-Meiji potters, the great inferiority of these new specimens was -recognized, and the prices commanded by the old wares gradually -appreciated. What then happened was very natural: imitations of the old -wares were produced, and having been sufficiently disfigured by staining -and other processes calculated to lend an air of rust and age, they were -sold to ignorant persons, who laboured under the singular yet common -hallucination that the points to be looked for in specimens from early -kilns were, not technical excellence, decorative tastefulness and -richness of colour, but dinginess, imperfections and dirt; persons who -imagined, in short, that defects which they would condemn at once in new -porcelains ought to be regarded as merits in old. Of course a trade of -that kind, based on deception, could not have permanent success. One of -the imitators of "old Satsuma" was among the first to perceive that a -new line must be struck out. Yet the earliest results of his awakened -perception helped to demonstrate still further the depraved spirit that -had come over Japanese art. For he applied himself to manufacture wares -having a close affinity with the shocking monstrosities used for -sepulchral purposes in ancient Apulia, where fragments of dissected -satyrs, busts of nymphs or halves of horses were considered graceful -excrescences for the adornment of an amphora or a pithos. This _Makuzu_ -faience, produced by the now justly celebrated Miyagawa Shozan of Ota -(near Yokohama), survives in the form of vases and pots having birds, -reptiles, flowers, crustacea and so forth plastered over the -surface--specimens that disgrace the period of their manufacture, and -represent probably the worst aberration of Japanese ceramic conception. - - - Adoption of Chinese Models. - -A production so degraded as the early Makuzu faience could not possibly -have a lengthy vogue. Miyagawa soon began to cast about for a better -inspiration, and found it in the monochromes and polychromes of the -Chinese _Kang-hsi_ and _Yung-cheng kilns_. The extraordinary value -attaching to the incomparable red glazes of China, not only in the -country of their origin but also in the United States, where collectors -showed a fine instinct in this matter, seems to have suggested to -Miyagawa the idea of imitation. He took for model the rich and delicate -"liquid-dawn" monochrome, and succeeded in producing some specimens of -considerable merit. Thenceforth his example was largely followed, and it -may now be said that the tendency of many of the best Japanese ceramists -is to copy Chinese _chefs-d'oeuvre_. To find them thus renewing their -reputation by reverting to Chinese models, is not only another tribute -to the perennial supremacy of Chinese porcelains, but also a fresh -illustration of the eclectic genius of Japanese art. All the products of -this new effort are porcelains proper. Seven kilns are devoted, wholly -or in part, to the new wares: belonging to Miyagawa Shozan of Ota, Seifu -Yohei of Kioto, Takemoto Hayata and Kato Tomojiro of Tokyo, Higuchi -Haruzane of Hirado, Shida Yasukyo of Kaga and Kato Masukichi of Seto. - - - Seifu of Kioto. - - Among the seven ceramists here enumerated, Seifu of Kioto probably - enjoys the highest reputation. If we except the ware of Satsuma, it - may be said that nearly all the fine faience of Japan was manufactured - formerly in Kioto. Nomura Ninsei, in the middle of the 17th century, - inaugurated a long era of beautiful productions with his cream-like - "fish-roe" _craquele_ glazes, carrying rich decoration of clear and - brilliant vitrifiable enamels. It was he who gave their first really - artistic impulse to the kilns of Awata, Mizoro and Iwakura, whence so - many delightful specimens of faience issued almost without - interruption until the middle of the 19th century and continue to - issue to-day. The three Kenzan, of whom the third died in 1820; - Ebisei; the four Dohachi, of whom the fourth was still alive in 1909; - the Kagiya family, manufacturers of the celebrated Kinkozan ware; - Hozan, whose imitations of Delft faience and his _pate-sur-pate_ - pieces with fern-scroll decoration remain incomparable; Taizan Yohei, - whose ninth descendant of the same name now produces fine specimens of - Awata ware for foreign markets; Tanzan Yoshitaro and his son Rokuro, - to whose credit stands a new departure in the form of faience having - _pate-sur-pate_ decoration of lace patterns, diapers and archaic - designs executed in low relief with admirable skill and minuteness; - the two Bizan, renowned for their representations of richly apparelled - figures as decorative motives; Rokubei, who studied painting under - Maruyama Okyo and followed the naturalistic style of that great - artist; Mokubei, the first really expert manufacturer of translucid - porcelain in Kioto; Shuhei, Kintei, and above all, Zengoro Hozen, the - celebrated potter of Eiraku wares--these names and many others give to - Kioto ceramics an eminence as well as an individuality which few other - wares of Japan can boast. Nor is it to be supposed that the ancient - capital now lacks great potters. Okamura Yasutaro, commonly called - Shozan, produces specimens which only a very acute connoisseur can - distinguish from the work of Nomura Ninsei; Tanzan Rokuro's half-tint - enamels and soft creamy glazes would have stood high in any epoch; - Taizan Yohei produces Awata faience not inferior to that of former - days; Kagiya Sobei worthily supports the reputation of the Kinkozan - ware; Kawamoto Eijiro has made to the order of a well-known Kioto firm - many specimens now figuring in foreign collections as old - masterpieces; and Ito Tozan succeeds in decorating faience with seven - colours _sous couverte_ (black, green, blue, russet-red, tea-brown, - purple and peach), a feat never before accomplished. It is therefore - an error to assert that Kioto has no longer a title to be called a - great ceramic centre. Seifu Yohei, however, has the special faculty of - manufacturing monochromatic and jewelled porcelain and faience, which - differ essentially from the traditional Kioto types, their models - being taken directly from China. But a sharp distinction has to be - drawn between the method of Seifu and that of the other six ceramists - mentioned above as following Chinese fashions. It is this, that - whereas the latter produce their chromatic effects by mixing the - colouring matter with the glaze, Seifu paints the biscuit with a - pigment over which he runs a translucid colourless glaze. The Kioto - artist's process is much easier than that of his rivals, and although - his monochromes are often of most pleasing delicacy and fine tone, - they do not belong to the same category of technical excellence as the - wares they imitate. From this judgment must be excepted, however, his - ivory-white and _celadon_ wares, as well as his porcelains decorated - with blue, or blue and red _sous couverte_, and with vitrifiable - enamels over the glaze. In these five varieties he is emphatically - great. It cannot be said, indeed, that his _celadon_ shows the velvety - richness of surface and tenderness of colour that distinguished the - old _Kuang-yao_ and _Lungchuan-yao_ of China, or that he has ever - essayed the moss-edged crackle of the beautiful _Ko-yao_. But his - _celadon_ certainly equals the more modern Chinese examples from the - _Kang-hsi_ and _Yung-cheng_ kilns. As for his ivory-white, it - distinctly surpasses the Chinese Ming _Chen-yao_ in every quality - except an indescribable intimacy of glaze and _pate_ which probably - can never be obtained by either Japanese or European methods. - - - Miyagawa Shozan. - - Miyagawa Shozan, or Makuzu, as he is generally called, has never - followed Seifu's example in descending from the difficult manipulation - of coloured glazes to the comparatively simple process of painted - biscuit. This comment does not refer to the use of blue and red _sous - couverte_. In that class of beautiful ware the application of pigment - to the unglazed _pate_ is inevitable, and both Seifu and Miyagawa, - working on the same lines as their Chinese predecessors, produce - porcelains that almost rank with choice Kang-hsi specimens, though - they have not yet mastered the processes sufficiently to employ them - in the manufacture of large imposing pieces or wares of moderate - price. But in the matter of true monochromatic and polychromatic - glazes, to Shozan belongs the credit of having inaugurated Chinese - fashions, and if he has never fully succeeded in achieving _lang-yao_ - (sang-de-boeuf), _chi-hung_ (liquid-dawn red), _chiang-tou-hung_ - (bean-blossom red, the "peach-blow" of American collectors), or above - all _pin-kwo-tsing_ (apple-green with red bloom), his efforts to - imitate them have resulted in some very interesting pieces. - - - Tokyo Ceramists. - - Takemoto and Kato of Tokyo entered the field subsequently to Shozan, - but followed the same models approximately. Takemoto, however, has - made a speciality of black glazes, his aim being to rival the _Sung - Chien-yao_, with its glaze of mirror-black or raven's-wing green, and - its leveret fur streaking or russet-moss dappling, the prince of all - wares in the estimation of the Japanese tea-clubs. Like Shozan, he is - still very far from his original, but, also like Shozan, he produces - highly meritorious pieces in his efforts to reach an ideal that will - probably continue to elude him for ever. Of Kato there is not much to - be said. He has not succeeded in winning great distinction, but he - manufactures some very delicate monochromes, fully deserving to be - classed among prominent evidences of the new departure. Tokyo was - never a centre of ceramic production. Even during the 300 years of its - conspicuous prosperity as the administrative capital of the Tokugawa - shoguns, it had no noted factories, doubtless owing to the absence of - any suitable potter's clay in the immediate vicinity. Its only notable - production of a ceramic character was the work of Miura Kenya - (1830-1843), who followed the methods of the celebrated Haritsu - (1688-1704) of Kioto in decorating plain or lacquered wood with - mosaics of raku faience having coloured glazes. Kenya was also a - skilled modeller of figures, and his factory in the Imado suburb - obtained a considerable reputation for work of that nature. He was - succeeded by Tozawa Benshi, an old man of over seventy in 1909, who, - using clay from Owari or Hizen, has turned out many porcelain - statuettes of great beauty. But although the capital of Japan formerly - played only an insignificant part in Japanese ceramics, modern Tokyo - has an important school of artist-artisans. Every year large - quantities of porcelain and faience are sent from the provinces to the - capital to receive surface decoration, and in wealth of design as well - as carefulness of execution the results are praiseworthy. But of the - pigments employed nothing very laudatory could be said until very - recent times. They were generally crude, of impure tone, and without - depth or brilliancy. Now, however, they have lost these defects and - entered a period of considerable excellence. Figure-subjects - constitute the chief feature of the designs. A majority of the artists - are content to copy old pictures of Buddha's sixteen disciples, the - seven gods of happiness, and other similar assemblages of mythical or - historical personages, not only because such work offers large - opportunity for the use of striking colours and the production of - meretricious effects, dear to the eye of the average Western - householder and tourist, but also because a complicated design, as - compared with a simple one, has the advantage of hiding the technical - imperfections of the ware. Of late there have happily appeared some - decorators who prefer to choose their subjects from the natural field - in which their great predecessors excelled, and there is reason to - hope that this more congenial and more pleasing style will supplant - its modern usurper. The best known factory in Tokyo for decorative - purposes is the Hyochi-en. It was established in the Fukagawa suburb - in 1875, with the immediate object of preparing specimens for the - first Tokyo exhibition held at that time. Its founders obtained a - measure of official aid, and were able to secure the services of some - good artists, among whom may be mentioned Obanawa and Shimauchi. The - porcelains of Owari and Arita naturally received most attention at the - hands of the Hyochi-en decorators, but there was scarcely one of the - principal wares of Japan upon which they did not try their skill, and - if a piece of monochromatic Minton or Sevres came in their way, they - undertook to improve it by the addition of designs copied from old - masters or suggested by modern taste. The cachet of the Fukagawa - atelier was indiscriminately applied to all such pieces, and has - probably proved a source of confusion to collectors. Many other - factories for decoration were established from time to time in Tokyo. - Of these some still exist; others, ceasing to be profitable, have been - abandoned. On the whole, the industry may now be said to have assumed - a domestic character. In a house, presenting no distinctive features - whatsoever, one finds the decorator with a cupboard full of bowls and - vases of glazed biscuit, which he adorns, piece by piece, using the - simplest conceivable apparatus and a meagre supply of pigments. - Sometimes he fixes the decoration himself, employing for that purpose - a small kiln which stands in his back garden; sometimes he entrusts - this part of the work to a factory. As in the case of everything - Japanese, there is no pretence, no useless expenditure about the - process. Yet it is plain that this school of Tokyo decorators, though - often choosing their subjects badly, have contributed much to the - progress of the ceramic art during the past few years. Little by - little there has been developed a degree of skill which compares not - unfavourably with the work of the old masters. Table services of Owari - porcelain--the ware itself excellently manipulated and of almost - egg-shell fineness--are now decorated with floral scrolls, landscapes, - insects, birds, figure-subjects and all sorts of designs, chaste, - elaborate or quaint; and these services, representing so much artistic - labour and originality, are sold for prices that bear no due ratio to - the skill required in their manufacture. - - There is only one reservation to be made in speaking of the modern - decorative industry of Japan under its better aspects. In Tokyo, - Kioto, Yokohama and Kobe--in all of which places decorating ateliers - (_etsuke-dokoro_), similar to those of Tokyo, have been established in - modern times--the artists use chiefly pigments, seldom venturing to - employ vitrifiable enamels. That the results achieved with these - different materials are not comparable is a fact which every - connoisseur must admit. The glossy surface of a porcelain glaze is ill - fitted for rendering artistic effects with ordinary colours. The - proper field for the application of these is the biscuit, in which - position the covering glaze serves at once to soften and to preserve - the pigment. It can scarcely be doubted that the true instincts of the - ceramist will ultimately counsel him to confine his decoration over - the glaze to vitrifiable enamels, with which the Chinese and Japanese - potters of former times obtained such brilliant results. But to employ - enamels successfully is an achievement demanding special training and - materials not easy to procure or to prepare. The Tokyo decorators are - not likely, therefore, to change their present methods immediately. - - An impetus was given to ceramic decoration by the efforts of a new - school, which owed its origin to Dr G. Wagener, an eminent German - expert formerly in the service of the Japanese government. Dr Wagener - conceived the idea of developing the art of decoration under the - glaze, as applied to faience. Faience thus decorated has always been - exceptional in Japan. Rare specimens were produced in Satsuma and - Kioto, the colour employed being chiefly blue, though brown and black - were used in very exceptional instances. The difficulty of obtaining - clear, rich tints was nearly prohibitive, and though success, when - achieved, seemed to justify the effort, this class of ware never - received much attention in Japan. By careful selection and preparation - of _pate_, glaze and pigments, Dr Wagener proved not only that the - manufacture was reasonably feasible, but also that decoration thus - applied to pottery possesses unique delicacy and softness. Ware - manufactured by his direction at the Tokyo school of technique - (_shokko gakko_), under the name of _asahi-yaki_, ranks among the - interesting productions of modern Japan. The decorative colour chiefly - employed is chocolate brown, which harmonizes excellently with the - glaze. But the ware has never found favour in Japanese eyes, an - element of unpleasant garishness being imparted to it by the vitreous - appearance of the glaze, which is manufactured according to European - methods. The modern faience of Ito Tozan of Kioto, decorated with - colour under the glaze, is incomparably more artistic than the Tokyo - _asahi-yaki_, from which, nevertheless, the Kioto master doubtless - borrowed some ideas. The decorative industry in Tokyo owed much also - to the kosho-kaisha, an institution started by Wakai and Matsuo in - 1873, with official assistance. Owing to the intelligent patronage of - this company, and the impetus given to the ceramic trade by its - enterprise, the style of the Tokyo _etsuke_ was much improved and the - field of their industry extended. It must be acknowledged, however, - that the Tokyo artists often devote their skill to purposes of - forgery, and that their imitations, especially of old Satsuma-yaki, - are sometimes franked by dealers whose standing should forbid such - frauds. In this context it may be mentioned that, of late years, - decoration of a remarkably microscopic character has been successfully - practised in Kioto, Osaka and Kobe, its originator being Meisan of - Osaka. Before dismissing the subject of modern Tokyo ceramics, it may - be added that Kato Tomataro, mentioned above in connexion with the - manufacture of special glazes, has also been very successful in - producing porcelains decorated with blue _sous couverte_ at his - factory in the Koishikawa suburb. - - - Modern Wares of Hirado. - - Higuchi of Hirado is to be classed with ceramists of the new school on - account of one ware only, namely, porcelain having translucid - decoration, the so-called "grains of rice" of American collectors, - designated _hotaru-de_ (firefly style) in Japan. That, however, is an - achievement of no small consequence, especially since it had never - previously been essayed outside China. The Hirado expert has not yet - attained technical skill equal to that of the Chinese. He cannot, like - them, cover the greater part of a specimen's surface with a lacework - of transparent decoration, exciting wonder that _pate_ deprived so - greatly of continuity could have been manipulated without accident. - But his artistic instincts are higher than those of the Chinese, and - there is reasonable hope that in time he may excel their best works. - In other respects the Hirado factories do not produce wares nearly so - beautiful as those manufactured there between 1759 and 1840, when the - _Hirado-yaki_ stood at the head of all Japanese porcelain on account - of its pure, close-grained _pate_, its lustrous milk-white glaze, and - the soft clear blue of its carefully executed decoration. - - - Ware of Owari. - - The Owari potters were slow to follow the lead of Miyagawa Shozan and - Seifu Yohei. At the industrial exhibition in Kioto (1895) the first - results of their efforts were shown, attracting attention at once. In - medieval times Owari was celebrated for faience glazes of various - colours, much affected by the tea-clubs, but its staple manufacture - from the beginning of the 19th century was porcelain decorated with - blue under the glaze, the best specimens of which did not approach - their Chinese prototypes in fineness of _pate_, purity of glaze or - richness of colour. During the first twenty-five years of the Meiji - era the Owari potters sought to compensate the technical and artistic - defects of their pieces by giving them magnificent dimensions; but at - the Tokyo industrial exhibition (1891) they were able to contribute - some specimens showing decorative, plastic and graving skill of no - mean order. Previously to that time, one of the Seto experts, Kato - Gosuke, had developed remarkable ability in the manufacture of - _celadon_, though in that field he was subsequently distanced by Seifu - of Kioto. Only lately did Owari feel the influence of the new movement - towards Chinese types. Its potters took _flambe_ glazes for models, - and their pieces possessed an air of novelty that attracted - connoisseurs. But the style was not calculated to win general - popularity, and the manufacturing processes were too easy to occupy - the attention of great potters. On a far higher level stood egg-shell - porcelain, remarkable examples of which were sent from Seto to the - Kioto industrial exhibition of 1895. Chinese potters of the Yung-lo - era (1403-1414) enriched their country with a quantity of ware to - which the name of _totai-ki_ (bodiless utensil) was given on account - of its wonderfully attenuated _pate_. The finest specimens of this - porcelain had incised decoration, sparingly employed but adding much - to the beauty of the piece. In subsequent eras the potters of - King-te-chen did not fail to continue this remarkable manufacture, but - its only Japanese representative was a porcelain distinctly inferior - in more than one respect, namely, the egg-shell utensils of Hizen and - Hirado, some of which had finely woven basket-cases to protect their - extreme fragility. The Seto experts, however, are now making bowls, - cups and vases that rank nearly as high as the celebrated Yung-lo - totai-ki. In purity of tone and velvet-like gloss of surface there is - distinct inferiority on the side of the Japanese ware, but in thinness - of _pate_ it supports comparison, and in profusion and beauty of - incised decoration it excels its Chinese original. - - - Ware of Kaga. - - Latest of all to acknowledge the impulse of the new departure have - been the potters of Kaga. For many years their ware enjoyed the - credit, or discredit, of being the most lavishly decorated porcelain - in Japan. It is known to Western collectors as a product blazing with - red and gold, a very degenerate offspring of the Chinese Ming type, - which Hozen of Kioto reproduced so beautifully at the beginning of the - 19th century under the name of _eiraku-yaki_. Undoubtedly the best - specimens of this _kinran-de_ (brocade) porcelain of Kaga merit praise - and admiration; but, on the whole, ware so gaudy could not long hold a - high place in public esteem. The Kaga potters ultimately appreciated - that defect. They still manufacture quantities of tea and coffee sets, - and dinner or dessert services of red-and-gold porcelain for foreign - markets; but about 1885 some of them made zealous and patient efforts - to revert to the processes that won so much fame for the old - Kutani-yaki, with its grand combinations of rich, lustrous, soft-toned - glazes. The attempt was never entirely successful, but its results - restored something of the Kaga kilns' reputation. Since 1895, again, a - totally new departure has been made by Morishita Hachizaemon, a - ceramic expert, in conjunction with Shida Yasukyo, president of the - Kaga products joint stock company (_Kaga bussan kabushiki kaisha_) and - teacher in the Kaga industrial school. The line chosen by these - ceramists is purely Chinese. Their great aim seems to be the - production of the exquisite Chinese monochromes known as - _u-kwo-tien-tsing_ (blue of the sky after rain) and _yueh-peh_ - (_clair-de-lune_). But they also devote much attention to porcelains - decorated with blue or red _sous couverte_. Their work shows much - promise, but like all fine specimens of the Sino-Japanese school, the - prices are too high to attract wide custom. - - - Summary. - -The sum of the matter is that the modern Japanese ceramist, after many -efforts to cater for the taste of the Occident, evidently concludes that -his best hope consists in devoting all his technical and artistic -resources to reproducing the celebrated wares of China. In explanation -of the fact that he did not essay this route in former times, it may be -noted, first, that he had only a limited acquaintance with the wares in -question; secondly, that Japanese connoisseurs never attached any value -to their countrymen's imitation of Chinese porcelains so long as the -originals were obtainable; thirdly, that the ceramic art of China not -having fallen into its present state of decadence, the idea of competing -with it did not occur to outsiders; and fourthly, that Europe and -America had not developed their present keen appreciation of Chinese -masterpieces. Yet it is remarkable that China, at the close of the 19th -century, should have again furnished models to Japanese eclecticism. - -_Lacquer._--Japan derived the art of lacquering from China (probably -about the beginning of the 6th century), but she ultimately carried it -far beyond Chinese conception. At first her experts confined themselves -to plain black lacquer. From the early part of the 8th century they -began to ornament it with dust of gold or mother-of-pearl, and -throughout the Heian epoch (9th to 12th century) they added pictorial -designs, though of a formal character, the chief motives being floral -subjects, arabesques and scrolls. All this work was in the style known -as _hira-makie_ (flat decoration); that is to say, having the decorative -design in the same plane as the ground. In the days of the great -dilettante Yoshimasa (1449-1490), lacquer experts devised a new style, -_taka-makie_, or decoration in relief, which immensely augmented the -beauty of the ware, and constituted a feature altogether special to -Japan. Thus when, at the close of the 16th century, the Taiko -inaugurated the fashion of lavishing all the resources of applied art on -the interior decoration of castles and temples, the services of the -lacquerer were employed to an extent hitherto unknown, and there -resulted some magnificent work on friezes, coffered ceilings, door -panels, altar-pieces and cenotaphs. This new departure reached its -climax in the Tokugawa mausolea of Yedo and Nikko, which are enriched by -the possession of the most splendid applications of lacquer decoration -the world has ever seen, nor is it likely that anything of comparable -beauty and grandeur will be again produced in the same line. Japanese -connoisseurs indicate the end of the 17th century as the golden period -of the art, and so deeply rooted is this belief that whenever a date has -to be assigned to any specimen of exceptionally fine quality, it is -unhesitatingly referred to the time of Joken-in (Tsunayoshi). - - Among the many skilled artists who have practised this beautiful craft - since the first on record, Kiyohara Norisuye (c. 1169), may be - mentioned Koyetsu (1558-1637) and his pupils, who are especially noted - for their inro (medicine-cases worn as part of the costume); Kajikawa - Kinjiro (c. 1680), the founder of the great Kajikawa family, which - continued up to the 19th century; and Koma Kyuhaku (d. 1715), whose - pupils and descendants maintained his traditions for a period of equal - length. Of individual artists, perhaps the most notable is Ogata Korin - (d. 1716), whose skill was equally great in the arts of painting and - pottery. He was the eldest son of an artist named Ogato Soken, and - studied the styles of the Kano and Tosa schools successively. Among - the artists who influenced him were Kano Tsunenobu, Nomura Sotatsu and - Koyetsu. His lacquer-ware is distinguished for a bold and at times - almost eccentric impressionism, and his use of inlay is strongly - characteristic. Ritsuo (1663-1747), a pupil and contemporary of Korin, - and like him a potter and painter also, was another lacquerer of great - skill. Then followed Hanzan, the two Shiome, Yamamoto Shunsho and his - pupils, Yamada Joka and Kwanshosai Toyo (late 18th century). In the - beginning of the 19th century worked Shokwasai, who frequently - collaborated with the metal-worker Shibayama, encrusting his lacquer - with small decorations in metal by the latter. - - - Modern Work. - - No important new developments have taken place during modern times in - Japan's lacquer manufacture. Her artists follow the old ways - faithfully; and indeed it is not easy to see how they could do better. - On the other hand, there has not been any deterioration; all the skill - of former days is still active. The contrary has been repeatedly - affirmed by foreign critics, but no one really familiar with modern - productions can entertain such a view. Lacquer-making, however, being - essentially an art and not a mere handicraft, has its eras of great - masters and its seasons of inferior execution. Men of the calibre of - Koyetsu Korin, Ritsuo, Kajikawa and Mitsutoshi must be rare in any - age, and the epoch when they flourished is justly remembered with - enthusiasm. But the Meiji era has had its Zeshin, and it had in 1909 - Shirayama Fukumatsu, Kawanabe Itcho, Ogawa Shomin, Uematsu Homin, - Shibayama Soichi, Morishita Morihachi and other lesser experts, all - masters in designing and execution. Zeshin, shortly before he died, - indicated Shirayama Fukumatsu as the man upon whom his mantle should - descend, and that the judgment of this really great craftsman was - correct cannot be denied by any one who has seen the works of - Shirayama. He excels in his representations of landscapes and - waterscapes, and has succeeded in transferring to gold-lacquer panels - tender and delicate pictures of nature's softest moods--pictures that - show balance, richness, harmony and a fine sense of decorative - proportion. Kawanabe Itcho is celebrated for his representations of - flowers and foliage, and Morishita Morihachi and Asano Saburo (of - Kaga) are admirable in all styles, but especially, perhaps, in the - charming variety called _togi-dashi_ (ground down), which is - pre-eminent for its satin-like texture and for the atmosphere of - dreamy softness that pervades the decoration. The togi-dashi design, - when finely executed, seems to hang suspended in the velvety lacquer - or to float under its silky surface. The magnificent sheen and - richness of the pure _kin-makie_ (gold lacquer) are wanting, but in - their place we have inimitable tenderness and delicacy. - - - New Development. - - The only branch of the lacquerer's art that can be said to have shown - any marked development in the Meiji era is that in which parts of the - decorative scheme consist of objects in gold, silver, shakudo, - shibuichi, iron, or, above all, ivory or mother-of-pearl. It might - indeed be inferred, from some of the essays published in Europe on the - subject of Japan's ornamental arts, that this application of ivory and - mother-of-pearl holds a place of paramount importance. Such is not the - case. Cabinets, fire-screens, plaques and boxes resplendent with gold - lacquer grounds carrying elaborate and profuse decoration of ivory and - mother-of-pearl[4] are not objects that appeal to Japanese taste. They - belong essentially to the catalogue of articles called into existence - to meet the demand of the foreign market, being, in fact, an attempt - to adapt the lacquerer's art to decorative furniture for European - houses. On the whole it is a successful attempt. The plumage of - gorgeously-hued birds, the blossoms of flowers (especially the - hydrangea), the folds of thick brocade, microscopic diapers and - arabesques, are built up with tiny fragments of iridescent shell, in - combination with silver-foil, gold-lacquer and coloured bone, the - whole producing a rich and sparkling effect. In fine specimens the - workmanship is extraordinarily minute, and every fragment of metal, - shell, ivory or bone, used to construct the decorative scheme, is - imbedded firmly in its place. But in a majority of cases the work of - building is done by means of paste and glue only, so that the result - lacks durability. The employment of mother-of-pearl to ornament - lacquer grounds dates from a period as remote as the 8th century, but - its use as a material for constructing decorative designs began in the - 17th century, and was due to an expert called Shibayama, whose - descendant, Shibayama Soichi, has in recent years been associated with - the same work in Tokyo. - - - Processes. - - In the manufacture of Japanese lacquer there are three processes. The - first is the extraction and preparation of the lac; the second, its - application; and the third, the decoration of the lacquered surface. - The lac, when taken from an incision in the trunk of the _Rhus - vernicifera_ (_urushi-no-ki_), contains approximately 70% of lac acid, - 4% of gum arabic, 2% of albumen, and 24% of water. It is strained, - deprived of its moisture, and receives an admixture of gamboge, - cinnabar, acetous protoxide or some other colouring matter. The object - to be lacquered, which is generally made of thin white pine, is - subjected to singularly thorough and painstaking treatment, one of the - processes being to cover it with a layer of Japanese paper or thin - hempen cloth, which is fixed by means of a pulp of rice-paste and - lacquer. In this way the danger of warping is averted, and exudations - from the wooden surface are prevented from reaching the overlaid coats - of lacquer. Numerous operations of luting, sizing, lacquering, - polishing, drying, rubbing down, and so on, are performed by the - _nurimono-shi_, until, after many days' treatment, the object emerges - with a smooth, lustre-like dark-grey or coloured surface, and is ready - to pass into the hands of the makie-shi, or decorator. The latter is - an artist; those who have performed the preliminary operations are - merely skilled artisans. The _makie-shi_ may be said to paint a - picture on the surface of the already lacquered object. He takes for - subject a landscape, a seascape, a battle-scene, flowers, foliage, - birds, fishes, insects--in short, anything. This he sketches in - outline with a paste of white lead, and then, having filled in the - details with gold and colours, he superposes a coat of translucid - lacquer, which is finally subjected to careful polishing. If parts of - the design are to be in relief, they are built up with a putty of - black lacquer, white lead, camphor and lamp-black. In all fine - lacquers gold predominates so largely that the general impression - conveyed by the object is one of glow and richness. It is also an - inviolable rule that every part must show beautiful and highly - finished work, whether it be an external or an internal part. The - makie-shi ranks almost as high as the pictorial artist in Japanese - esteem. He frequently signs his works, and a great number of names - have been thus handed down during the past two centuries. - -_Cloisonne Enamel._--Cloisonne enamel is essentially of modern -development in Japan. The process was known at an early period, and was -employed for the purpose of subsidiary decoration from the close of the -16th century, but not until the 19th century did Japanese experts begin -to manufacture the objects known in Europe as "enamels;" that is to say, -vases, plaques, censers, bowls, and so forth, having their surface -covered with vitrified pastes applied either in the _champleve_ or the -_cloisonne_ style. It is necessary to insist upon this fact, because it -has been stated with apparent authority that numerous specimens which -began to be exported from 1865 were the outcome of industry commencing -in the 16th century and reaching its point of culmination at the -beginning of the 18th. There is not the slenderest ground for such a -theory. The work began in 1838, and Kaji Tsunekichi of Owari was its -originator. During 20 years previously to the reopening of the country -in 1858, cloisonne enamelling was practised in the manner now -understood by the term; when foreign merchants began to settle in -Yokohama, several experts were working skilfully in Owari after the -methods of Kaji Tsunekichi. Up to that time there had been little demand -for enamels of large dimensions, but when the foreign market called for -vases, censers, plaques and such things, no difficulty was found in -supplying them. Thus, about the year 1865, there commenced an export of -enamels which had no prototypes in Japan, being destined frankly for -European and American collectors. From a technical point of view these -specimens had much to recommend them. The base, usually of copper, was -as thin as cardboard; the cloisons, exceedingly fine and delicate, were -laid on with care and accuracy; the colours were even, and the designs -showed artistic judgment. Two faults, however, marred the work--first, -the shapes were clumsy and unpleasing, being copied from bronzes whose -solidity justified forms unsuited to thin enamelled vessels; secondly, -the colours, sombre and somewhat impure, lacked the glow and mellowness -that give decorative superiority to the technically inferior Chinese -enamels of the later Ming and early Tsing eras. Very soon, however, the -artisans of Nagoya (Owari), Yokohama and Tokyo--where the art had been -taken up--found that faithful and fine workmanship did not pay. The -foreign merchant desired many and cheap specimens for export, rather -than few and costly. There followed then a period of gradual decline, -and the enamels exported to Europe showed so much inferiority that they -were supposed to be the products of a widely different era and of -different makers. The industry was threatened with extinction, and would -certainly have dwindled to insignificant dimensions had not a few -earnest artists, working in the face of many difficulties and -discouragements, succeeded in striking out new lines and establishing -new standards for excellence. - - - New Schools. - - Three clearly differentiated schools now (1875) came into existence. - One, headed by Namikawa Yasuyuki of Kioto, took for its objects the - utmost delicacy and perfection of technique, richness of decoration, - purity of design and harmony of colour. The thin clumsily-shaped vases - of the Kaji school, with their uniformly distributed decoration of - diapers, scrolls and arabesques in comparatively dull colours, ceased - altogether to be produced, their place being taken by graceful - specimens, technically flawless, and carrying designs not only free - from stiffness, but also executed in colours at once rich and soft. - This school may be subdivided, Kioto representing one branch, Nagoya, - Tokyo and Yokohama the other. In the products of the Kioto branch the - decoration generally covered the whole surface of the piece; in the - products of the other branch the artist aimed rather at pictorial - effect, placing the design in a monochromatic field of low tone. It is - plain that such a method as the latter implies great command of - coloured pastes, and, indeed, no feature of the manufacture is more - conspicuous than the progress made during the period 1880-1900 in - compounding and firing vitrifiable enamels. Many excellent examples of - cloisonne enamel have been produced by each branch of this school. - There has been nothing like them in any other country, and they stand - at an immeasurable distance above the works of the early Owari school - represented by Kaji Tsunekichi and his pupils and colleagues. - - - Cloisonless Enamels. - - The second of the modern schools is headed by Namikawa Sosuke of - Tokyo. It is an easily traced outgrowth of the second branch of the - first school just described, for one can readily understand that from - placing the decorative design in a monochromatic field of low tone, - which is essentially a pictorial method, development would proceed in - the direction of concealing the mechanics of the art in order to - enhance the pictorial effect. Thus arose the so-called "cloisonless - enamels" (_musenjippo_). They are not always without cloisons. The - design is generally framed at the outset with a ribbon of thin metal, - precisely after the manner of ordinary cloisonne ware. But as the work - proceeds the cloisons are hidden--unless their presence is necessary - to give emphasis to the design--and the final result is a picture in - vitrified enamels. - - - Monochromatic Enamels. - - The characteristic productions of the third among the modern schools - are monochromatic and translucid enamels. All students of the ceramic - art know that the monochrome porcelains of China owe their beauty to - the fact that the colour is in the glaze, not under it. The ceramist - finds no difficulty in applying a uniform coat of pigment to porcelain - biscuit, and covering the whole with a diaphanous glaze. The colour is - fixed and the glaze set by secondary firing at a lower temperature - than that necessary for hardening the _pate_. Such porcelains, - however, lack the velvet-like softness and depth of tone so justly - prized in the genuine monochrome, where the glaze itself contains the - colouring matter, _pate_ and glaze being fired simultaneously at the - same high temperature. It is apparent that a vitrified enamel may be - made to perform, in part at any rate, the function of a porcelain - glaze. Acting upon that theory, the experts of Tokyo and Nagoya have - produced many very beautiful specimens of monochrome enamel--yellow - (canary or straw), _rose du Barry_, liquid-dawn, red, aubergine - purple, green (grass or leaf), dove-grey and lapis lazuli blue. The - pieces do not quite reach the level of Chinese monochrome porcelains, - but their inferiority is not marked. The artist's great difficulty is - to hide the metal base completely. A monochrome loses much of its - attractiveness when the colour merges into a metal rim, or when the - interior of a vase is covered with crude unpolished paste. But to - spread and fix the enamel so that neither at the rim nor in the - interior shall there be any break of continuity, or any indication - that the base is copper, not porcelain, demands quite exceptional - skill. - - - Translucid Enamel. - - The translucid enamels of the modern school are generally associated - with decorative bases. In other words, a suitable design is chiselled - in the metal base so as to be visible through the diaphanous enamel. - Very beautiful effects of broken and softened lights, combined with - depth and delicacy of colour, are thus obtained. But the decorative - designs which lend themselves to such a purpose are not numerous. A - gold base deeply chiselled in wave-diaper and overrun with a paste of - aubergine purple is the most pleasing. A still higher achievement is - to apply to the chiselled base designs executed in coloured enamels, - finally covering the whole with translucid paste. Admirable results - are thus produced; as when, through a medium of cerulean blue, bright - goldfish and blue-backed carp appear swimming in silvery waves, or - brilliantly plumaged birds seem to soar among fleecy clouds. The - artists of this school show also much skill in using enamels for the - purposes of subordinate decoration--suspending enamelled butterflies, - birds or floral sprays, among the reticulations of a silver vase - chiselled a jour; or filling with translucid enamels parts of a - decorative scheme sculptured in iron, silver, gold or shakudo. - - -V.--ECONOMIC CONDITIONS - - Roads and Posts in Early Times. - -_Communications._--From the conditions actually existing in the 8th -century after the Christian era the first compilers of Japanese history -inferred the conditions which might have existed in the 7th century -before that era. One of their inferences was that, in the early days, -communication was by water only, and that not until 549 B.C. did the -most populous region of the empire--the west coast--come into possession -of public roads. Six hundred years later, the local satraps are -represented as having received instructions to build regular highways, -and in the 3rd century the massing of troops for an over-sea expedition -invested roads with new value. Nothing is yet heard, however, about -posts. These evidences of civilization did not make their appearance -until the first great era of Japanese reform, the Taika period -(645-650), when stations were established along the principal highways, -provision was made of post-horses, and a system of bells and checks was -devised for distinguishing official carriers. In those days ordinary -travellers were required to carry passports, nor had they any share in -the benefits of the official organization, which was entirely under the -control of the minister of war. Great difficulties attended the -movements of private persons. Even the task of transmitting to the -central government provincial taxes paid in kind had to be discharged by -specially organized parties, and this journey from the north-eastern -districts to the capital generally occupied three months. At the close -of the 7th century the emperor Mommu is said to have enacted a law that -wealthy persons living near the highways must supply rice to travellers, -and in 745 an empress (Koken) directed that a stock of medical -necessaries must be kept at the postal stations. Among the benevolent -acts attributed to renowned Buddhist priests posterity specially -remembers their efforts to encourage the building of roads and bridges. -The great emperor Kwammu (782-806) was constrained to devote a space of -five years to the reorganization of the whole system of post-stations. -Owing to the anarchy which prevailed during the 10th, 11th and 12th -centuries, facilities of communication disappeared almost entirely, even -for men of rank a long journey involved danger of starvation or fatal -exposure, and the pains and perils of travel became a household word -among the people. - - Yoritomo, the founder of feudalism at the close of the 12th century, - was too great a statesman to underestimate the value of roads and - posts. The highway between his stronghold, Kamakura, and the imperial - city, Kioto, began in his time to develop features which ultimately - entitled it to be called one of the finest roads in the world. But - after Yoritomo's death the land became once more an armed camp, in - which the rival barons discouraged travel beyond the limits of their - own domains. Not until the Tokugawa family obtained military control - of the whole empire (1603), and, fixing its capital at Yedo, required - the feudal chiefs to reside there every second year, did the problem - of roads and post-stations force itself once more on official - attention. Regulations were now strictly enforced, fixing the number - of horses and carriers available at each station, the loads to be - carried by them and their charges, as well as the transport services - that each feudal chief was entitled to demand and the fees he had to - pay in return. Tolerable hostelries now came into existence, but they - furnished only shelter, fuel and the coarsest kind of food. By - degrees, however, the progresses of the feudal chiefs to and from - Yedo, which at first were simple and economical, developed features of - competitive magnificence, and the importance of good roads and - suitable accommodation received increased attention. This found - expression in practice in 1663. A system more elaborate than anything - antecedent was then introduced under the name of "flying transport." - Three kinds of couriers operated. The first class were in the direct - employment of the shogunate. They carried official messages between - Yedo and Osaka--a distance of 348 miles--in four days by means of a - well organized system of relays. The second class maintained - communications between the fiefs and the Tokugawa court as well as - their own families in Yedo, for in the alternate years of a - feudatory's compulsory residence in that city his family had to live - there. The third class were maintained by a syndicate of 13 merchants - as a private enterprise for transmitting letters between the three - great cities of Kioto, Osaka and Yedo and intervening places. This - syndicate did not undertake to deliver a letter direct to an - addressee. The method pursued was to expose letters and parcels at - fixed places in the vicinity of their destination, leaving the - addressees to discover for themselves that such things had arrived. - Imperfect as this system was, it represented a great advance from the - conditions in medieval times. - - - The Tokaido. - - The Nakasendoo. - - The Oshukaido. - - The nation does not seem to have appreciated the deficiencies of the - syndicate's service, supplemented as it was by a network of waterways - which greatly increased the facilities for transport. After the - cessation of civil wars under the sway of the Tokugawa, the building - and improvement of roads went on steadily. It is not too much to say, - indeed, that when Japan opened her doors to foreigners in the middle - of the 19th century, she possessed a system of roads some of which - bore striking testimony to her medieval greatness. The most remarkable - was the Tokaido (eastern-seaway), so called because it ran eastward - along the coast from Kioto. This great highway, 345 m. long, connected - Osaka and Kioto with Yedo. The date of its construction is not - recorded, but it certainly underwent signal improvement in the 12th - and 13th centuries, and during the two and a half centuries of - Tokugawa sway in Yedo. A wide, well-made and well-kept avenue, it was - lined throughout the greater part of its length by giant pine-trees, - rendering it the most picturesque highway in the world. Iyeyasu, the - founder of the Tokugawa dynasty of shoguns, directed that his body - should be interred at Nikko, a place of exceptional beauty, - consecrated eight hundred years previously. This meant an extension of - the Tokaido (under a different name) nearly a hundred miles northward, - for the magnificent shrines erected then at Nikko and the periodical - ceremonies thenceforth performed there demanded a correspondingly fine - avenue of approach. The original Tokaido was taken for model, and Yedo - and Nikko were joined by a highway flanked by rows of cryptomeria. - Second only to the Tokaido is the Nakasendo (mid-mountain road), which - also was constructed to join Kioto with Yedo, but follows an inland - course through the provinces of Yamashiro, Omi, Mino, Shinshu, Kotzuke - and Musashi. Its length is 340 m., and though not flanked by trees or - possessing so good a bed as the Tokaido, it is nevertheless a - sufficiently remarkable highway. A third road, the Oshukaido runs - northward from Yedo (now Tokyo) to Aomori on the extreme north of the - main island, a distance of 445 m., and several lesser highways give - access to other regions. - - - Modern Superintendence of Roads. - -The question of road superintendence received early attention from the -government of the restoration. At a general assembly of local prefects -held at Tokyo in June 1875 it was decided to classify the different -roads throughout the empire, and to determine the several sources from -which the sums necessary for their maintenance and repair should be -drawn. After several days' discussion all roads were eventually ranged -under one or other of the following heads:-- - - I. National roads, consisting of-- - - Class 1. Roads leading from Tokyo to the various treaty ports. - - Class 2. Roads leading from Tokyo to the ancestral shrines in the - province of Ise, and also to the cities or to military stations. - - Class 3. Roads leading from Tokyo to the prefectural offices, and - those forming the lines of connexion between cities and military - stations. - - II. Prefectural roads, consisting of-- - - Class 1. Roads connecting different prefectures, or leading from - military stations to their outposts. - - Class 2. Roads connecting the head offices of cities and prefectures - with their branch offices. - - Class 3. Roads connecting noted localities with the chief town of - such neighbourhoods, or leading to seaports convenient of access. - - III. Village roads, consisting of-- - - Class 1. Roads passing through several localities in succession, or - merely leading from one locality to another. - - Class 2. Roads specially constructed for the convenience of - irrigation, pasturage, mines, factories, &c., in accordance with - measures determined by the people of the locality. - - Class 3. Roads constructed for the benefit of Shinto shrines, - Buddhist temples, or to facilitate the cultivation of rice-fields - and arable land. - -Of the above three headings, it was decided that all national roads -should be maintained at the national expense, the regulations for their -up-keep being entrusted to the care of the prefectures along the line of -route, and the cost incurred being paid from the Imperial treasury. -Prefectural roads are maintained by a joint contribution from the -government and from the particular prefecture, each paying one-half of -the sum needed. Village roads, being for the convenience of local -districts alone, are maintained at the expense of such districts under -the general supervision of the corresponding prefecture. The width of -national roads was determined at 42 ft. for class 1, 36 ft. for class 2, -and 30 ft. for class 3; the prefectural roads were to be from 24 to 30 -ft., and the dimensions of the village roads were optional, according to -the necessity of the case. - - - Vehicles. - - The Jinrikisha. - - The vehicles chiefly employed in ante-Meiji days were ox-carriages, - _norimono_, _kago_ and carts drawn by hand. Ox-carriages were used - only by people of the highest rank. They were often constructed of - rich lacquer; the curtains suspended in front were of the finest - bamboo workmanship, with thick cords and tassels of plaited silk, and - the draught animal, an ox of handsome proportions, was brilliantly - caparisoned. The care and expense lavished upon these highly ornate - structures would have been deemed extravagant even in medieval Europe. - They have passed entirely out of use, and are now to be seen in - museums only, but the type still exists in China. The norimono - resembled a miniature house slung by its roof-ridge from a massive - pole which projected at either end sufficiently to admit the shoulders - of a carrier. It, too, was frequently of very ornamental nature and - served to carry aristocrats or officials of high position. The kago - was the humblest of all conveyances recognized as usable by the upper - classes. It was an open palanquin, V-shaped in cross section, slung - from a pole which rested on the shoulders of two bearers. - Extraordinary skill and endurance were shown by the men who carried - the norimono and the kago, but none the less these vehicles were both - profoundly uncomfortable. They have now been relegated to the - warehouses of undertakers, where they serve as bearers for folks too - poor to employ catafalques, their place on the roads and in the - streets having been completely taken by the _jinrikisha_, a - two-wheeled vehicle pulled by one or two men who think nothing of - running 20 m. at the rate of 6 m. an hour. The jinrikisha was devised - by a Japanese in 1870, and since then it has come into use throughout - the whole of Asia eastward of the Suez Canal. Luggage, of course, - could not be carried by norimono or kago. It was necessary to have - recourse to packmen, pack-horses or baggage-carts drawn by men or - horses. All these still exist and are as useful as ever within certain - limits. In the cities and towns horses used as beasts of burden are - now shod with iron, but in rural or mountainous districts straw shoes - are substituted, a device which enables the animals to traverse rocky - or precipitous roads with safety. - -_Railways._--It is easy to understand that an enterprise like railway -construction, requiring a great outlay of capital with returns long -delayed, did not at first commend itself to the Japanese, who were -almost entirely ignorant of co-operation as a factor of business -organization. Moreover, long habituated to snail-like modes of travel, -the people did not rapidly appreciate the celerity of the locomotive. -Neither the ox-cart, the norimono, nor the kago covered a daily distance -of over 20 m. on the average, and the packhorse was even slower. Amid -such conditions the idea of railways would have been slow to germinate -had not a catastrophe furnished some impetus. In 1869 a rice-famine -occurred in the southern island, Kiushiu, and while the cereal was -procurable abundantly in the northern provinces, people in the south -perished of hunger owing to lack of transport facilities. Sir Harry -Parkes, British representative in Tokyo, seized this occasion to urge -the construction of railways. Ito and Okuma, then influential members of -the government, at once recognized the wisdom of his advice. -Arrangements were made for a loan of a million sterling in London on the -security of the customs revenue, and English engineers were engaged to -lay a line between Tokyo and Yokohama (18 m.). Vehement voices of -opposition were at once raised in private and official circles alike, -all persons engaged in transport business imagined themselves threatened -with ruin, and conservative patriots detected loss of national -independence in a foreign loan. So fierce was the antagonism that the -military authorities refused to permit operations of survey in the -southern suburb of Tokyo, and the road had to be laid on an embankment -constructed in the sea. Ito and Okuma, however, never flinched, and they -were ably supported by Marquis M. Inouye and M. Mayejima. The latter -published, in 1870, the first Japanese work on railways, advocating the -building of lines from Tokyo to Kioto and Osaka; the former, appointed -superintendent of the lines, held that post for 30 years, and is justly -spoken of as "the father of Japanese railways." - - September 1872 saw the first official opening of a railway (the - Tokyo-Yokohama line) in Japan, the ceremony being performed by the - emperor himself, a measure which effectually silenced all further - opposition. Eight years from the time of turning the first sod saw 71 - m. of road open to traffic, the northern section being that between - Tokyo and Yokohama, and the southern that between Kioto and Kobe. A - period of interruption now ensued, owing to domestic troubles and - foreign complications, and when, in 1878, the government was able to - devote attention once again to railway problems, it found the treasury - empty. Then for the first time a public works loan was floated in the - home market, and about L300,000 of the total thus obtained passed into - the hands of the railway bureau, which at once undertook the building - of a road from Kioto to the shore of Lake Biwa, a work memorable as - the first line built in Japan without foreign assistance.[5] During - all this time private enterprise had remained wholly inactive in the - matter of railways, and it became a matter of importance to rouse the - people from this apathetic attitude. For the ordinary process of - organizing a joint-stock company and raising share-capital the nation - was not yet prepared. But shortly after the abolition of feudalism - there had come into the possession of the former feudatories state - loan-bonds amounting to some 18 millions sterling, which represented - the sum granted by the treasury in commutation of the revenues - formerly accruing to these men from their fiefs. Already events had - shown that the feudatories, quite devoid of business experience, were - not unlikely to dispose of these bonds and devote the proceeds to - unsound enterprises. Prince Iwakura, one of the leaders of the Meiji - statesmen, persuaded the feudatories to employ a part of the bonds as - capital for railway construction, and thus the first private railway - company was formed in Japan under the name _Nippon tetsudo kaisha_ - (Japan railway company), the treasury guaranteeing 8% on the paid-up - capital for a period of 15 years. Some time elapsed before this - example found followers, but ultimately a programme was elaborated and - carried out having for its basis a grand trunk line extending the - whole length of the main island from Aomori on the north to - Shimonoseki on the south, a distance of 1153 m.; and a continuation of - the same line throughout the length of the southern island of Kiushiu, - from Moji on the north--which lies on the opposite side of the strait - from Shimonoseki--to Kagoshima on the south, a distance of 232(3/4) - m.; as well as a line from Moji to Nagasaki, a distance of 163(1/2) m. - Of this main road the state undertook to build the central section - (376 m.), between Tokyo and Kobe (via Kioto); the Japan railway - company undertook the portion (457 m.) northward of Tokyo to Aomori; - the Sanyo railway company undertook the portion (320 m.) southward of - Tokyo to Shimonoseki; and the Kiushiu railway company undertook the - lines in Kiushiu. The whole line is now in operation. The first - project was to carry the Tokyo-Kioto line through the interior of the - island so as to secure it against enterprises on the part of a - maritime enemy. Such engineering difficulties presented themselves, - however, that the coast route was ultimately chosen, and though the - line through the interior was subsequently constructed, strategical - considerations were not allowed completely to govern its direction. - - When this building of railways began in Japan, much discussion was - taking place in England and India as to the relative advantages of the - wide and narrow gauges, and so strongly did the arguments in favour of - the latter appeal to the English advisers of the Japanese government - that the metre gauge was chosen. Some fitful efforts made in later - years to change the system proved unsuccessful. The lines are single, - for the most part; and as the embankments, the cuttings, the culverts - and the bridge-piers have not been constructed for a double line, any - change now would be very costly. The average speed of passenger trains - in Japan is 18 m. an hour, the corresponding figure over the - metre-gauge roads in India being 16 m., and the figure for English - parliamentary trains from 19 to 28 m. British engineers surveyed the - routes for the first lines and superintended the work of construction, - but within a few years the Japanese were able to dispense with foreign - aid altogether, both in building and operating their railways. They - also construct carriages, wagons and locomotives, and they may - therefore be said to have become entirely independent in the matter of - railways, for a government iron-foundry at Wakamatsu in Kiushiu is - able to manufacture steel rails. - - The total length of lines open for traffic at the end of March 1906 - was 4746 m., 1470 m. having been built by the state and 3276 by - private companies; the former at a cost of 16 millions sterling for - construction and equipment, and the latter at a cost of 25 millions. - Thus the expenditure by the state averaged L10,884 per mile, and that - by private companies, L7631. This difference is explained by the facts - that the state lines having been the pioneers, portions of them were - built before experience had indicated cheap methods; that a very large - and costly foreign staff was employed on these roads in the early - days, whereas no such item appeared in the accounts of private lines; - that extensive works for the building of locomotives and rolling stock - are connected with the government's roads, and that it fell to the lot - of the state to undertake lines in districts presenting exceptional - engineering difficulties, such districts being naturally avoided by - private companies. The gross earnings of all the lines during the - fiscal year 1905-1906 were 7 millions sterling, approximately, and the - gross expenses (including the payment of interest on loans and - debentures) were under 3(1/2) millions, so that there remained a net - profit of 3(1/2) millions, being at the rate of a little over 8(1/2)% - on the invested capital. The facts that the outlays averaged less than - 47% of the gross income, and that accidents and irregularities are not - numerous, prove that Japanese management in this kind of enterprise is - efficient. - - - Nationalization of Private Railways. - - When the fiscal year 1906-1907 opened, the number of private companies - was no less than 36, owning and operating 3276 m. of railway. To say - that this represented an average of 91 m. per company is to convey an - over-favourable idea, for, as a matter of fact, 15 of the companies - averaged less than 24 m. Anything like efficient co-operation was - impossible in such circumstances, and constant complaints were heard - about delays in transit and undue expense. The defects of divided - ownership had long suggested the expediency of nationalization, but - not until 1906 could the diet be induced to give its consent. On March - 31 of that year, a railway nationalization law was promulgated. It - enacted that, within a period of 10 years from 1906 to 1915, the state - should purchase the 17 principal private roads, which had a length of - 2812 m., and whose cost of construction and equipment had been 23(1/2) - millions sterling. The original scheme included 15 other railways, - with an aggregate mileage of only 353 m.; but these were eliminated as - being lines of local interest only. The actual purchase price of the - 17 lines was calculated at 43 millions sterling (about double their - cost price), on the following basis: (a) An amount equal to 20 times - the sum obtained by multiplying the cost of construction at the date - of purchase by the average ratio of the profit to the cost of - construction during the six business terms of the company from the - second half-year of 1902 to the first half-year of 1905. (b) The - amount of the actual cost of stored articles converted according to - current prices thereof into public loan-bonds at face value, except in - the case of articles which had been purchased with borrowed money. The - government agreed to hand over the purchase money within 5 years from - the date of the acquisition of the lines, in public loan-bonds bearing - 5% interest calculated at their face value; the bonds to be redeemed - out of the net profits accruing from the purchased railways. It was - calculated that this redemption would be effected in a period of 32 - years, after which the annual profit accruing to the state from the - lines would be 5(1/2) millions sterling. But the nationalization - scheme, though apparently the only effective method of linking - together and co-ordinating an excessively subdivided system of lines, - has proved a source of considerable financial embarrassment. For when - the state constituted itself virtually the sole owner of railways, it - necessarily assumed responsibility for extending them so that they - should suffice to meet the wants of a nation numbering some 50 - millions. Such extension could be effected only by borrowing money. - Now the government was pledged by the diet in 1907 to an expenditure - of 11(1/2) millions (spread over 8 years) for extending the old state - system of roads, and an expenditure of 6(1/4) millions (spread over 12 - years) for improving them. But from the beginning of that year, a - period of extreme commercial and financial depression set in, and the - treasury had to postpone all recourse to loans for whatever purpose, - so that railway progress was completely checked in the field alike of - the original and the acquired state lines. Moreover, all securities - underwent such sharp depreciation that, on the one hand, the - government hesitated to hand over the bonds representing the - purchase-price of the railways, lest such an addition to the volume of - stocks should cause further depreciation, and, on the other, the - former owners of the nationalized lines found the character of their - bargain greatly changed. In these circumstances the government decided - to take a strong step, namely, to place the whole of the railways - owned by it--the original state lines as well as those - nationalized--in an account independent of the regular budget, and to - devote their entire profits to works of extension and improvement, - supplementing the amount with loans from the treasury when necessary. - - - South Manchuria Railway. - - In the sequel of the war of 1904-5 Japan, with China's consent, - acquired from Russia the lease of the portion of the South-Manchuria - railway (see MANCHURIA) between Kwang-cheng-tsze (Chang-chun) on the - north and Tairen (Dalny), Port Arthur and Niuchwang on the south--a - total length of 470 m. At the close of 1906 this road was handed over - to a joint-stock company with a capital of 20 millions sterling, the - government contributing 10 millions in the form of the road and its - associated properties; the public subscribing 2 millions, and the - company being entitled to issue debentures to the extent of 8 - millions, the principal and interest of these debentures being - officially guaranteed. Four millions' worth of debentures were issued - in London in 1907 and 4 millions in 1908. This company's programme is - not limited to operating the railway. It also works coal-fields at - Yentai and Fushun; has a line of steamers plying between Tairen and - Shanghai; and engages in enterprises of electricity, warehousing and - the management of houses and lands within zones 50 _li_ (17 m.) wide - on either side of the line. The government guarantees 6% interest on - the capital paid up by the general public. - - - Electric Railways. - - Not until 1905 did Japan come into possession of an electric railway. - It was a short line of 8 m., built in Kioto for the purposes of a - domestic exhibition held in that city. Thenceforth this class of - enterprise grew steadily in favour, so that, in 1907, there were 16 - companies with an aggregate capital of 8 millions sterling, having 165 - m. open to traffic and 77 m. under construction. Fifteen other - companies with an aggregate capital of 3 millions had also obtained - charters. The principal of these is the Tokyo railway company, with a - subscribed capital of 6 millions (3(1/2) paid up), 90(1/2) m. of line - open and 149 m. under construction. In 1907 it carried 153 million - passengers, and its net earnings were L300,000. - - - Maritime Communications. - -The traditional story of prehistoric Japan indicates that the first -recorded emperor was an over-sea invader, whose followers must therefore -have possessed some knowledge of ship-building and navigation. But in -what kind of craft they sailed and how they handled them, there is -nothing to show clearly. Nine centuries later, but still 500 years -before the era of surviving written annals, an empress is said to have -invaded Korea, embarking her forces at Kobe (then called Takekura) in -500 vessels. In the middle of the 6th century we read of a general named -Abe-no-hirafu who led a flotilla up the Amur river to the invasion of -Manchuria (then called Shukushin). All these things show that the -Japanese of the earliest era navigated the high sea with some skill, and -at later dates down to medieval times they are found occasionally -sending forces to Korea and constantly visiting China in vessels which -seem to have experienced no difficulty in making the voyage. The 16th -century was a period of maritime activity so marked that, had not -artificial checks been applied, the Japanese, in all probability, would -have obtained partial command of Far-Eastern waters. They invaded Korea; -their corsairs harried the coasts of China; two hundred of their -vessels, sailing under authority of the Taiko's vermilion seal, visited -Siam, Luzon, Cochin China and Annam, and they built ships in European -style which crossed the Pacific to Acapulco. But this spirit of -adventure was chilled at the close of the 16th century and early in the -17th, when events connected with the propagation of Christianity taught -the Japanese to believe that national safety could not be secured -without international isolation. In 1638 the ports were closed to all -foreign ships except those flying the flag of Holland or of China, and a -strictly enforced edict forbade the building of any vessel having a -capacity of more than 500 _koku_ (150 tons) or constructed for purposes -of ocean navigation. Thenceforth, with rare exceptions, Japanese craft -confined themselves to the coastwise trade. Ocean-going enterprise -ceased altogether. - -Things remained thus until the middle of the 19th century, when a -growing knowledge of the conditions existing in the West warned the -Tokugawa administration that continued isolation would be suicidal. In -1853 the law prohibiting the construction of sea-going ships was revoked -and the Yedo government built at Uraga a sailing vessel of European type -aptly called the "Phoenix" ("Howo Maru"). Just 243 years had elapsed -since the founder of the Tokugawa dynasty constructed Japan's first ship -after a foreign model, with the aid of an English pilot, Will Adams. In -1853 Commodore M. C. Perry made his appearance, and thenceforth -everything conspired to push Japan along the new path. The Dutch, who -had been proximately responsible for the adoption of the seclusion -policy in the 17th century, now took a prominent part in promoting a -liberal view. They sent to the Tokugawa a present of a man-of-war and -urged the vital necessity of equipping the country with a navy. Then -followed the establishment of a naval college at Tsukiji in Yedo, the -building of iron-works at Nagasaki, and the construction at Yokosuka of -a dockyard destined to become one of the greatest enterprises of its -kind in the East. This last undertaking bore witness to the patriotism -of the Tokugawa rulers, for they resolutely carried it to completion -during the throes of a revolution which involved the downfall of their -dynasty. Their encouragement of maritime enterprise had borne fruit, for -when, in 1867, they restored the administration to the Imperial court, -44 ocean-going ships were found among their possessions and 94 were in -the hands of the feudatories, a steamer and 20 sailing vessels having -been constructed in Japan and the rest purchased abroad. - -If the Tokugawa had been energetic in this respect, the new government -was still more so. It caused the various maritime carriers to amalgamate -into one association called the _Nippon-koku yubin jokisen kaisha_ (Mail -SS. Company of Japan), to which were transferred, free of charge, the -steamers, previously the property of the Tokugawa or the feudatories, -and a substantial subsidy was granted by the state. This, the first -steamship company ever organized in Japan, remained in existence only -four years. Defective management and incapacity to compete with -foreign-owned vessels plying between the open ports caused its downfall -(1875). Already, however, an independent company had appeared upon the -scene. Organized and controlled by a man (Iwasaki Yataro) of exceptional -enterprise and business faculty, this _mitsubishi kaisha_ (three lozenge -company, so called from the design on its flag), working with steamers -chartered from the former feudatory of Tosa, to which clan Iwasaki -belonged, proved a success from the outset, and grew with each -vicissitude of the state. For when (1874) the Meiji government's first -complications with a foreign country necessitated the despatch of a -military expedition to Formosa, the administration had to purchase 63 -foreign steamers for transport purposes, and these were subsequently -transferred to the mitsubishi company together with all the vessels (17) -hitherto in the possession of the Mail SS. Company, the Treasury further -granting to the mitsubishi a subsidy of L50,000 annually. Shortly -afterwards it was decided to purchase a service maintained by the -Pacific Mail SS. Company with 4 steamers between Yokohama and Shanghai, -and money for the purpose having been lent by the state to the -mitsubishi, Japan's first line of steamers to a foreign country was -firmly established, just 20 years after the law interdicting the -construction of ocean-going vessels had been rescinded. - - The next memorable event in this chapter of history occurred in 1877, - when the Satsuma clan, eminently the most powerful and most warlike - among all the former feudatories, took the field in open rebellion. - For a time the fate of the government hung in the balance, and only by - a flanking movement over-sea was the rebellion crushed. This strategy - compelled the purchase of 10 foreign steamers, and these too were - subsequently handed over to the mitsubishi company, which, in 1880, - found itself possessed of 32 ships aggregating 25,600 tons, whereas - all the other vessels of foreign type in the country totalled only 27 - with a tonnage of 6500. It had now become apparent that the country - could not hope to meet emergencies which might at any moment arise, - especially in connexion with Korean affairs, unless the development of - the mercantile marine proceeded more rapidly. Therefore in 1881 the - formation of a new company was officially promoted. It had the name of - the _kyodo unyu kaisha_ (Union Transport Company); its capital was - about a million sterling; it received a large subsidy from the state, - and its chief purpose was to provide vessels for military uses and as - commerce-carriers. Japan had now definitely embraced the policy of - entrusting to private companies rather than to the state the duty of - acquiring a fleet of vessels capable of serving as transports or - auxiliary cruisers in time of war. But there was now seen the curious - spectacle of two companies (the Mitsubishi and the Union Transport) - competing in the same waters and both subsidized by the treasury. - After this had gone on for four years, the two companies were - amalgamated (1885) into the _Nippon yusen kaisha_ (Japan Mail SS. - Company) with a capital of L1,100,000 and an annual subsidy of - L88,000, fixed on the basis of 8% of the capital. Another company had - come into existence a few months earlier. Its fleet consisted of 100 - small steamers, totalling 10,000 tons, which had hitherto been - competing in the Inland Sea. - - Japan now possessed a substantial mercantile marine, the rate of whose - development is indicated by the following figures:-- - - Year. Steamers. Sailing Vessels. Totals. - Number. Tons. Number. Tons. Number. Tons. - - 1870 35 15,498 11 2,454 46 17,952 - 1892 642 122,300 780 46,065 1,422 168,365 - - Nevertheless, only 23% of the exports and imports was transported in - Japanese bottoms in 1892, whereas foreign steamers took 77%. This - discrepancy was one of the subjects discussed in the first session of - the diet, but a bill presented by the government for encouraging - navigation failed to obtain parliamentary consent, and in 1893 the - Japan Mail SS. Company, without waiting for state assistance, opened a - regular service to Bombay mainly for the purpose of carrying raw - cotton from India to supply the spinning industry which had now - assumed great importance in Japan. Thus the rising sun flag flew for - the first time outside Far-Eastern waters. Almost immediately after - the establishment of this line, Japan had to engage in war with China, - which entailed the despatch of some two hundred thousand men to the - neighbouring continent and their maintenance there for more than a - year. All the country's available shipping resources did not suffice - for this task. Additional vessels had to be purchased or chartered, - and thus, by the beginning of 1896, the mercantile marine of Japan had - grown to 899 steamers of 373,588 tons, while the sailing vessels had - diminished to 644 of 44,000 tons. - - In 1897 there occurred an event destined to exercise a potent - influence on the fortunes not only of Japan herself but also of her - mercantile marine. No sooner had she exchanged with China - ratifications of a treaty of peace which seemed to prelude a long - period of tranquillity, than Russia, Germany and France ordered her to - restore all the continental territory ceded to her by China. Japan - then recognized that her hope of peace was delusive, and that she must - be prepared to engage in a struggle incomparably more serious than the - one from which she had just emerged. Determined that when the crucial - moment came she should not be found without ample means for - transporting her armies, the government, under the leadership of - Prince Ito and with the consent of the diet, enacted, in March 1896 - laws liberally encouraging ship-building and navigation. Under the - navigation law "any Japanese subject or any commercial company whose - partners or shareholders were all Japanese subjects, engaged in - carrying passengers and cargo between Japan and foreign countries or - between foreign ports, in their own vessels, which must be of at least - 1000 tons and registered in the shipping list of the Empire, became - entitled to subsidies proportionate to the distance run and the - tonnage of the vessels"; and under the ship-building law, bounties - were granted for the construction of iron or steel vessels of not less - than 700 tons gross by any Japanese subject or any commercial company - whose partners and shareholders were all Japanese. The effect of this - legislation was marked. In the period of six years ended 1902, no less - than 835 vessels of 455,000 tons were added to the mercantile marine, - and the treasury found itself paying encouragement money which - totalled six hundred thousand pounds annually. Ship-building underwent - remarkable development. Thus, while in 1870 only 2 steamers - aggregating 57 tons had been constructed in Japanese yards, 53 - steamers totalling 5380 tons and 193 sailing vessels of 17,873 tons - were launched in 1900. By the year 1907 Japan had 216 private ship - yards and 42 private docks,[6] and while the government yards were - able to build first-class line-of-battle ships of the largest size, - the private docks were turning out steamers of 9000 tons burden. When - war broke out with Russia in 1904, Japan had 567,000 tons of steam - shipping, but that stupendous struggle obliged her to materially - augment even this great total. In operations connected with the war - she lost 71,000 tons, but on the other hand, she built 27,000 tons at - home and bought 177,000 abroad, so that the net increase to her - mercantile fleet of steamers was 133,000 tons. The following table - shows the growth of her marine during the ten years ending 1907:-- - - Steamers. Sailing Vessels. Totals. - - Gross Gross Gross - Year. Number. Tonnage. Number. Tonnage. Number. Tonnage. - - 1898 1130 477,430 1914 170,194 3044 648,324 - 1899 1221 510,007 3322 286,923 4543 467,930 - 1900 1329 543,365 3850 320,572 5179 863,937 - 1901 1395 583,532 4026 336,528 5471 920,060 - 1902 1441 610,445 3907 336,154 5348 946,600 - 1903 1570 663,220 3934 328,953 5504 992,173 - 1904 1815 798,240 3940 329,125 5755 1,127,365 - 1905 1988 939,749 4132 336,571 6170 1,276,320 - 1906 2103 1,041,569 4547 353,356 6700 1,395,925 - 1907 2139 1,115,880 4728 365,559 6867 1,481,439 - - With regard to the development of ship-building in Japanese yards the - following figures convey information:-- - - NUMBERS OF VESSELS BUILT IN JAPAN AND NUMBERS PURCHASED ABROAD - - Built in Japan. Purchased abroad. - - Year. Steamers. Sailing Vessels. Steamers. Sailing Vessels. - 1898 479 1301 194 9 - 1899 554 2771 199 12 - 1900 653 3302 206 7 - 1901 754 3559 215 6 - 1902 813 3585 220 6 - 1903 855 5304 233 8 - 1904 947 3324 277 8 - 1905 1028 3508 357 11 - 1906 1100 3859 387 11 - 1907 1150 4033 419 12 - - In the building of iron and steel ships the Japanese are obliged to - import much of the material used, but a large steel-foundry has been - established under government auspices at Wakamatsu in Kiushiu, that - position having been chosen on account of comparative proximity to the - Taiya iron mine in China, where the greater part of the iron ore used - for the foundry is procured. - - - Seamen. - - Simultaneously with the growth of the mercantile marine there has been - a marked development in the number of licensed mariners; that is to - say, seamen registered by the government as having passed the - examination prescribed by law. In 1876 there were only 4 Japanese - subjects who satisfied that definition as against 74 duly qualified - foreigners holding responsible positions. In 1895 the numbers were - 4135 Japanese and 835 foreigners, and ten years later the - corresponding figures were 16,886 and 349 respectively. In 1904 the - ordinary seamen of the mercantile marine totalled 202,710. - - - Education of Mariners. - - There are in Japan various institutions where the theory and practice - of navigation are taught. The principal of these is the _Tokyo shosen - gakko_ (Tokyo mercantile marine college, established in 1875), where - some 600 of the men now serving as officers arid engineers have - graduated. Well equipped colleges exist also in seven other places, - all having been established with official co-operation. Mention must - be made of a mariners' assistance association (_kaiin ekizai-kai_, - established in 1800) which acts as a kind of agency for supplying - mariners to shipowners, and of a distressed mariners' relief - association (_suinan kyusai-kai_) which has succoured about a hundred - thousand seamen since its establishment in 1899. - - - Maritime Administration. - - The duty of overseeing all matters relating to the maritime carrying - trade devolves on the department of state for communications, and is - delegated by the latter to one of its bureaus (the _Kwansen-kyoku_, or - ships superintendence bureau), which, again, is divided into three - sections: one for inspecting vessels, one for examining mariners, and - one for the general control of all shipping in Japanese waters. For - the better discharge of its duties this bureau parcels out the empire - into 4 districts, having their headquarters at Tokyo, Osaka, Nagasaki - and Hakodate; and these four districts are in turn subdivided into 18 - sections, each having an office of marine affairs (_kwaiji-kyoku_). - - - Competition between Japanese and Foreign Ships. - - Competition between Japanese and foreign ships in the carriage of the - country's over-sea trade soon began to assume appreciable dimensions. - Thus, whereas in 1891 the portion carried in Japanese bottoms was only - 1(1/2) millions sterling against 12(1/2) millions carried by foreign - vessels, the corresponding figures in 1902 were 20(1/2) millions - against 32(1/4) millions. In other words, Japanese steamers carried - only 11% of the total trade in 1891, but their share rose to 39% in - 1902. The prospect suggested by this record caused some uneasiness, - which was not allayed by observing that while the tonnage of Japanese - vessels in Chinese ports was only 2% in 1896 as compared with foreign - vessels, the former figure grew to 16% in 1902; while in Korean ports - Japanese steamers almost monopolized the carrying trade, leaving only - 18% to their foreign rivals, and even in Hong-Kong the tonnage of - Japanese ships increased from 3% in 1896 to 13% in 1900. In 1898 Japan - stood eleventh on the list of the thirteen principal maritime - countries of the world, but in 1907 she rose to the fifth place. Her - principal company, the Nippon yusen kaisha, though established as - lately as 1885, now ranks ninth in point of tonnage among the 21 - leading maritime companies of the world. This company was able to - supply 55 out of a total fleet of 207 transports furnished by all the - steamship companies of Japan for military and naval purposes during - the war with Russia in 1904-5. It may be noted in conclusion that the - development of Japan's steam-shipping during the five decades ended - 1907 was as follows:-- - - Tons. - - At the end of 1868 17,952 - At the end of 1878 63,468 - At the end of 1888 197,365 - At the end of 1898 648,324 - At the end of 1907 1,115,880 - - - Open Ports. - - There are 33 ports in Japan open as places of call for foreign - steamers. Their names with the dates of their opening are as follow:-- - - Name. Date of Opening. Situation. - - Yokohama 1859 Main Island. - Kobe 1868 " - Niigata 1867 " - Osaka 1899 " - Yokkaichi " " - Shimonoseki " " - Itozaki " " - Taketoyo " " - Shimizu " " - Tsuruga " " - Nanao " " - Fushiki " " - Sakai " " - Hamada " " - Miyazu " " - Aomori 1906 " - Nagasaki 1859 Kiushiu. - Moji 1899 " - Hakata " " - Karatsu " " - Kuchinotsu " " - Misumi " " - Suminoye 1906 " - Izuhara 1899 Tsushima. - Sasuna " " - Shikami " " - Nafa " Riukiu. - Otaru " Yezo. - Kushiro " " - Mororan " " - Hakodate 1865 " - Kelung 1899 Formosa. - Tamsui " " - Takow " " - Anping " " - -_Emigration._--Characteristic of the Japanese is a spirit of adventure: -they readily emigrate to foreign countries if any inducement offers. A -strong disposition to exclude them has displayed itself in the United -States of America, in Australasia and in British Columbia, and it is -evident that, since one nation cannot force its society on another at -the point of the sword, this anti-Asiatic prejudice will have to be -respected, though it has its origin in nothing more respectable than the -jealousy of the labouring classes. One result is an increase in the -number of Japanese emigrating to Korea, Manchuria and S. America. The -following table shows the numbers residing at various places outside -Japan in 1904 and 1906 respectively:-- - - Number in Number in - Place. 1904. 1906. - - China 9,417 27,126 - Korea 31,093 100,000 - Manchuria -- 43,823 - Hong-Kong 600 756 - Singapore 1,292 1,428 - British India 413 530 - Europe 183 697 - United States of America 33,849 130,228 - Canada 3,838 5,088 - Mexico 456 1,294 - S. America 1,496 2,500 - Philippines 2,652 2,185 - Hawaii 65,008 64,319 - Australasia 71,129 3,274 - -_Foreign Residents._--The number of foreigners residing in Japan and -their nationalities in 1889, 1899 and 1906, respectively, were as -follow:-- - - 1889. 1899. 1906. - - Americans 899 1,296 1,650 - British 1,701 2,013 2,155 - Russians 63 134 211 - French 335 463 540 - Portuguese 108 158 165 - Germans 550 532 670 - Chinese 4,975 6,372 12,425 - Koreans 8 188 254 - -There are also small numbers of Dutch, Peruvians, Belgians, Swiss, -Italians, Danes, Swedes, Austrians, Hungarians, &c. This slow growth of -the foreign residents is remarkable when contrasted with the fact that -the volume of the country's foreign trade, which constitutes their main -business, grew in the same period from 13(1/2) millions sterling to 92 -millions. - -_Posts and Telegraphs._--The government of the Restoration did not wait -for the complete abolition of feudalism before organizing a new system -of posts in accordance with modern needs. At first, letters only were -carried, but before the close of 1871 the service was extended so as to -include newspapers, printed matter, books and commercial samples, while -the area was extended so as to embrace all important towns between -Hakodate in the northern island of Yezo and Nagasaki in the southern -island of Kiushiu. Two years later this field was closed to private -enterprise, the state assuming sole charge of the business. A few years -later saw Japan in possession of an organization comparable in every -respect with the systems existing in Europe. In 1892 a foreign service -was added. Whereas in 1871 the number of post-offices throughout the -empire was only 179, it had grown to 6449 in 1907, while the mail matter -sent during the latter year totalled 1254 millions (including 15 -millions of parcels), and 67,000 persons were engaged in handling it. -Japan labours under special difficulties for postal purposes, owing to -the great number of islands included in the empire, the exceptionally -mountainous nature of the country, and the wide areas covered by the -cities in proportion to the number of their inhabitants. It is not -surprising to find, therefore, that the means of distribution are -varied. The state derives a net revenue of 5 million _yen_ approximately -from its postal service. It need scarcely be added that the system of -postal money-orders was developed _pari passu_ with that of ordinary -correspondence, but in this context one interesting fact may be noted, -namely, that while Japan sends abroad only some L25,000 annually to -foreign countries through the post, she receives over L450,000 from her -over-sea emigrants. - - - Postal Savings Bank. - - Japan at the time of the Restoration (1867) was not entirely without - experience which prepared her for the postal money-order system. Some - 600 years ago the idea of the bill of exchange was born in the little - town of Totsugawa (Yamato province), though it did not obtain much - development before the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate in the - 17th century. The feudal chiefs, having then to transmit large sums to - Yedo for the purposes of their compulsory residence there, availed - themselves of bills of exchange, and the shogun's government, which - received considerable amounts in Osaka, selected ten brokers to whom - the duty of effecting the transfer of these funds was entrusted. - Subsequently the 10 chosen brokers were permitted to extend their - services to the general public, and a recent Japanese historian notes - that Osaka thus became the birthplace of banking business in Japan. - Postal money-orders were therefore easily appreciated at the time of - their introduction in 1875. This was not true of the postal savings - bank, however, an institution which came into existence in the same - year. It was altogether a novel idea that the public at large, - especially the lower sections of it, should entrust their savings to - the government for safe keeping, especially as the minimum and maximum - deposited at one time were fixed at such petty sums as 10 _sen_ - (2(1/4)d.) and 50 _sen_ (1s.), respectively. Indeed, in the - circumstances, the fact that L1500 was deposited in the first year - must be regarded as notable. Subsequently deposits were taken in - postage stamps, and arrangements were effected for enabling depositors - to pay money to distant creditors through the bank by merely stating - the destination and the amount of the nearest post office. In 1908 the - number of depositors in the post office savings bank was 8217, and - their deposits exceeded 10 millions sterling. Thirty per cent. of the - depositors belonged to the agricultural classes, 13 to the commercial - and only 6 to the industrial. - - - Telegraphs. - - Rapid communication by means of beacons was not unknown in ancient - Japan, but code-signalling by the aid of flags was not introduced - until the 17th century and was probably suggested by observing the - practice of foreign merchantmen. Its use, however, was peculiar. The - central office stood at Osaka, between which city and many of the - principal provincial towns rudely constructed towers were placed at - long distances, and from one to another of these intelligence as to - the market price of rice was flashed by flag-shaking, the signals - being read with telescopes. The Japanese saw a telegraph for the first - time in 1854, when Commodore Perry presented a set of apparatus to the - shogun, and four years later the feudal chief of Satsuma (Shimazu - Nariakira) caused wires to be erected within the enclosure of his - castle. The true value of electric telegraphy was first demonstrated - to the Japanese in connexion with an insurrection in 1877, under the - leadership of Saigo, the favourite of this same Shimazu Nariakira. - Before that time, however, a line of telegraph had been put up between - Tokyo and Yokohama (18 m.) and a code of regulations had been enacted. - Sudden introduction to such a mysterious product of foreign science - created superstitious dread in the minds of a few of the lower orders, - and occasional attempts were made at the outset to wreck the wires. In - 1886 the postal and telegraph offices were amalgamated and both - systems underwent large development. Whereas the length of wires at - the end of the fourth year after the introduction of the system was - only 53 m., and the number of messages 20,000, these figures had grown - in 1907 to 95,623 and 25 millions, respectively. Several cables are - included in these latter figures, the longest being that to Formosa - (1229 m.). Wireless telegraphy began to come into general use in 1908, - when several vessels belonging to the principal steamship companies - were equipped with the apparatus. It had already been employed for - some years by the army and navy, especially during the war with - Russia, when the latter service installed a new system, the joint - invention of Captain Tonami of the navy, Professor S. Kimura of the - naval college and Mr M. Matsushiro of the department of - communications. The telegraph service in Japan barely pays the cost of - operating and maintenance. - - - Telephones. - - The introduction of the telephone into Japan took place in 1877, but - it served official purposes solely during 13 years, and even when - (1890) it was placed at the disposal of the general public its - utilities found at first few appreciators. But this apathy soon - yielded to a mood of eager employment, and the resources of the - government (which monopolized the enterprise) proved inadequate to - satisfy public demand. Automatic telephones were ultimately set up at - many places in the principal towns and along the most frequented - highways. The longest distance covered was from Tokyo to Osaka (348 - m.). In 1907 Japan had 140,440 m. of telephone wires, 262 exchanges, - 159 automatic telephones, and the approximate number of messages sent - was 160 millions. The telephone service pays a net revenue of about - L100,000 annually. - -_Agriculture._--The gross area of land in Japan--excluding Formosa and -Sakhalin--is 89,167,880 acres, of which 53,487,022 acres represent the -property of the crown, the state and the communes, the rest (35,680,868 -acres) being owned by private persons. Of the grand total the arable -lands represent 15,301,297 acres. With regard to the immense expanse -remaining unproductive, experts calculate that if all lands inclined at -less than 15 deg. be considered cultivable, an area of 10,684,517 acres -remains to be reclaimed, though whether the result would repay the cost -is a question hitherto unanswered. The cultivated lands are thus -classified, namely, wet fields (called also paddy fields or rice lands), -6,871,437 acres; dry fields (or upland farms), 5,741,745 acres, and -others, 2,688,115 acres. - - - Rice. - - Paddy fields are to be seen in every valley or dell where farming is - practicable; they are divided into square, oblong or triangular plots - by grass-grown ridges a few inches in height and on an average a foot - in breadth--the rice being planted in the soft mud thus enclosed. - Narrow pathways intersect these rice-valleys at intervals, and - rivulets (generally flowing between low banks covered with clumps of - bamboo) feed ditches cut for purposes of irrigation. The fields are - generally kept under water to a depth of a few inches while the crops - are young, but are drained immediately before harvesting. They are - then dug up, and again flooded before the second crop is planted out. - The rising grounds which skirt the rice-land are tilled by the hoe, - and produce Indian corn, millet and edible roots. The well-wooded - slopes supply the peasants with timber and firewood. Thirty-six per - cent. of the rice-fields yield two crops yearly. The seed is sown in - small beds, and the seedlings are planted out in the fields after - attaining the height of about 4 in. The finest rice is produced in the - fertile plains watered by the Tone-gawa in the province of Shimosa, - but the grain of Kaga and of the two central provinces of Settsu and - Harima is also very good. - - - Sake. - - Not only does rice form the chief food of the Japanese but also the - national beverage, called sake, is brewed from it. In colour the best - sake resembles very pale sherry; the taste is rather acid. None but - the finest grain is used in its manufacture. Of sake there are many - varieties, from the best quality down to _shiro-zake_ or "white sake," - and the turbid sort, drunk only in the poorer districts, known as - _nigori-zake_; there is also a sweet sort, called _mirin_. - - The various cereal and other crops cultivated in Japan, the areas - devoted to them and the annual production are shown in the following - table:-- - - 1898. 1902. 1906. - Acres. Acres. Acres. - - Rice 7,044,060 7,117,990 7,246,982 - Barley 1,649,240 1,613,270 1,674,595 - Rye 1,703,410 1,688,635 1,752,095 - Wheat 1,164,020 1,210,435 1,107,967 - Millet 693,812 652,492 594,280 - Beans 1,503,395 1,488,600 1,478,345 - Buckwheat 450,100 414,375 402,575 - Rape-seed 377,070 392,612 352,807 - Potatoes 92,297 105,350 140,197 - Sweet Potatoes 668,130 693,427 717,620 - Cotton 100,720 51,750 24,165 - Hemp 62,970 42,227 34,845 - Indigo (leaf) 122,180 92,982 40,910 - - 1903. 1905. 1906. - - Sugar Cane 41,750 43,308 45,087 - - It is observable that no marked increase is taking place in the area - under cultivation, and that the business of growing cotton, hemp and - indigo is gradually diminishing, these staples being supplied from - abroad. In Germany and Italy the annual additions made to the arable - area average 8% whereas in Japan the figure is only 5%. Moreover, of - the latter amount the rate for paddy fields is only 3.3% against 7.9% - in the case of upland farms. This means that the population is rapidly - outgrowing its supply of home-produced rice, the great food-stuff of - the nation, and the price of that cereal consequently shows a steady - tendency to appreciate. Thus whereas the market value was 5s. 5d. per - bushel in 1901, it rose to 6s. 9d. in 1906. - - - Silk and Tea. - - Scarcely less important to Japan than the cereals she raises are her - silk and tea, both of which find markets abroad. Her production of the - latter staple does not show any sign of marked development, for though - tea is almost as essential an article of diet in Japan as rice, its - foreign consumers are practically limited to the United States and - their demand does not increase. The figures for the 10-year period - ended 1906 are as follow:-- - - Area under cultivation Tea produced - (acres). (lb. av.). - - 1897 147,230 70,063,076 - 1901 122,120 57,975,486 - 1906 126,125 58,279,286 - - Sericulture, on the contrary, shows steady development year by year. - The demand of European and American markets has very elastic limits, - and if Japanese growers are content with moderate, but still - substantial, gains they can find an almost unrestricted sale in the - West. The development from 1886 to 1906 was as follows:-- - - Raw silk produced - yearly (lb.). - - Average from 1886 to 1889 8,739,273 - 1895 19,087,310 - 1900 20,705,644 - 1905 21,630,829 - 1906 24,215,324 - - The chief silk-producing prefectures in Japan, according to the order - of production, are Nagano, Gumma, Yamanashi, Fukushima, Aichi and - Saitama. At the close of 1906 there were 3843 filatures throughout the - country, and the number of families engaged in sericulture was - 397,885. - - Lacquer, vegetable wax and tobacco are also important staples of - production. The figures for the ten-year period, 1897 to 1906, are as - follow:-- - - Lacquer Vegetable Tobacco - (lb.). wax (lb.). (lb.). - - 1897 344,267 25,850,790 110,572,925 - 1906 668,266 39,714,661 101,718,592 - - While the quantity of certain products increases, the number of - filatures and factories diminishes, the inference being that - industries are coming to be conducted on a larger scale than was - formerly the case. Thus in sericulture the filatures diminished from - 4723 in 1897 to 3843 in 1906; the number of lacquer factories from - 1637 to 1123 at the same dates, and the number of wax factories from - 2619 to 1929. - - - Agricultural Improvements. - - It is generally said that whereas more than 60% of Japan's entire - population is engaged in agriculture, she remains far behind the - progressive nations of Europe in the application of scientific - principles to farming. Nevertheless if we take for unit the average - value of the yield per hectare in Italy, we obtain the following - figures:-- - - Yield per hectare - - Italy 100 - India 51 - Germany 121 - France 122 - Egypt 153 - Japan 213 - - In the realm of agriculture, as in all departments of modern Japan's - material development, abundant traces are found of official activity. - Thus, in the year 1900, the government enacted laws designed to - correct the excessive subdivision of farmers' holdings; to utilize - unproductive areas lying between cultivated fields; to straighten - roads; to facilitate irrigation; to promote the use of machinery; to - make known the value of artificial fertilizers; to conserve streams - and to prevent inundations. Further, in order to furnish capital for - the purposes of farming, 46 agricultural and commercial banks--one in - each prefecture--were established with a central institution called - the hypothec bank which assists them to collect funds. A Hokkaido - colonial bank and subsequently a bank of Formosa were also organized, - and a law was framed to encourage the formation of co-operative - societies which should develop a system of credit, assist the business - of sale and purchase and concentrate small capitals. Experimental - stations were another official creation. Their functions were to carry - on investigations relating to seeds, diseases of cereals, insect - pests, stock-breeding, the use of implements, the manufacture of - agricultural products and cognate matters. Encouragement by grants in - aid was also given to the establishment of similar experimental farms - by private persons in the various prefectures, and such farms are now - to be found everywhere. This official initiative, with equally - successful results, extended to the domain of sericulture and - tea-growing. There are two state sericultural training institutions - where not only the rearing of silk-worms and the management of - filatures are taught, but also experiments are made; and these - institutions, like the state agricultural stations, have served as - models for institutes on the same lines under private auspices. A - silk-conditioning house at Yokohama; experimental tea-farms; laws to - prevent and remove diseases of plants, cereals, silk-worms and cattle, - and regulations to check dishonesty in the matter of fertilizers, - complete the record of official efforts in the realm of agriculture - during the Meiji era. - - - Stockbreeding. - - One of the problems of modern Japan is the supply of cattle. With a - rapidly growing taste for beef--which, in former days, was not an - article of diet--there is a slow but steady diminution in the stock of - cattle. Thus while the number of the latter in 1897 was 1,214,163, out - of which total 158,504 were slaughtered, the corresponding figures in - 1906 were 1,190,373 and 167,458, respectively. The stock of sheep - (3500 in 1906) increases slowly, and the stocks of goats (58,694 in - 1897 and 74,750 in 1906) and swine (206,217 in 1897 and 284,708 in - 1906) grow with somewhat greater rapidity, but mutton and pork do not - suit Japanese taste, and goats are kept mainly for the sake of their - milk. The government has done much towards the improvement of cattle - and horses by importing bulls and sires, but, on the whole, the mixed - breed is not a success, and the war with Russia in 1904-5 having - clearly disclosed a pressing need of heavier horses for artillery and - cavalry purposes, large importations of Australian, American and - European cattle are now made, and the organization of race-clubs has - been encouraged throughout the country. - - _Forests._--Forests occupy an area of 55 millions of acres, or 60% of - the total superficies of Japan, and one-third of that expanse, namely, - 18 million acres, approximately, is the property of the state. It - cannot be said that any very practical attempt has yet been made to - develop this source of wealth. The receipts from forests stood at only - 13 million _yen_ in the budget for 1907-1908, and even that figure - compares favourably with the revenue of only 3 millions derived from - the same source in the fiscal year 1904-1905. This failure to utilize - a valuable asset is chiefly due to defective communications, but the - demand for timber has already begun to increase. In 1907 a revised - forestry law was promulgated, according to which the administration is - competent to prevent the destruction of forests and to cause the - planting of plains and waste-lands, or the re-planting of denuded - areas. A plan was also elaborated for systematically turning the state - forests to valuable account, while, at the same time, providing for - their conservation. - - _Fisheries._--From ancient times the Japanese have been great - fishermen. The seas that encircle their many-coasted islands teem with - fish and aquatic products, which have always constituted an essential - article of diet. Early in the 18th century, the Tokugawa - administration, in pursuance of a policy of isolation, interdicted the - construction of ocean-going ships, and the people's enterprise in the - matter of deep-sea fishing suffered a severe check. But shortly after - the Restoration in 1867, not only was this veto rescinded, but also - the government, organizing a marine bureau and a marine products - examination office, took vigorous measures to promote pelagic - industry. Then followed the formation of the marine products - association under the presidency of an imperial prince. Fishery - training schools were the next step; then periodical exhibitions of - fishery and marine products; then the introduction and improvement of - fishing implements; and then by rapid strides the area of operations - widened until Japanese fishing boats of improved types came to be seen - in Australasia, in Canada, in the seas of Sakhalin, the Maritime - Province, Korea and China; in the waters of Kamchatka and in the Sea - of Okhotsk. No less than 9000 fishermen with 2000 boats capture yearly - about L300,000 worth of fish in Korean waters; at least 8000 find a - plentiful livelihood off the coasts of Sakhalin and Siberia, and 200 - Japanese boats engage in the salmon-fishing of the Fraser River. In - 1893, the total value of Japanese marine products and fish captured - did not exceed 1(1/4) millions sterling, whereas in 1906 the figure - had grown to 5(1/2) millions, to which must be added 3{1/8} millions - of manufactured marine products. Fourteen kinds of fish represent more - than 50% of the whole catch, namely, (in the order of their - importance) bonito (_katsuo_), sardines (_iwashi_), pagrus (_toi_), - cuttle-fish and squid (_tako_ and _ika_), mackerel (_saba_), yellow - tail (_buri_), tunny-fish (_maguro_), prawns (_ebi_), sole (_karei_), - grey mullet (_bora_), eels (_unagi_), salmon (_shake_), sea-ear - (_awabi_) and carp (_koi_). Altogether 700 kinds of aquatic products - are known in Japan, and 400 of them constitute articles of diet. Among - manufactured aquatic products the chief are (in the order of their - importance) dried bonito, fish guano, dried cuttle-fish, dried and - boiled sardines, dried herring and dried prawns. The export of marine - products amounted to L900,000 in 1906 against L400,000 ten years - previously; China is the chief market. As for imports, they were - insignificant at the beginning of the Meiji era, but by degrees a - demand was created for salted fish, dried sardines (for fertilizing), - edible sea-weed, canned fish and turtle-shell, so that whereas the - total imports were only L1600 in 1868, they grew to over L400,000 in - 1906. - - _Minerals._--Crystalline schists form the axis of Japan. They run in a - general direction from south-west to north-east, with chains starting - east and west from Shikoku. On these schists rocks of every age are - superimposed, and amid these somewhat complicated geological - conditions numerous minerals occur. Precious stones, however, are not - found, though crystals of quartz and antimony as well as good - specimens of topaz and agate are not infrequent. - - - Gold. - - Gold occurs in quartz veins among schists, paleozoic or volcanic rocks - and in placers. The quantity obtained is not large, but it shows - tolerably steady development, and may possibly be much increased by - more generous use of capital and larger recourse to modern methods. - - - Silver. - - The value of the silver mined is approximately equal to that of the - gold. It is found chiefly in volcanic rocks (especially tuff), in the - form of sulphide, and it is usually associated with gold, copper, lead - or zinc. - - - Copper. - - Much more important in Japan's economics than either of the precious - metals is copper. Veins often showing a thickness of from 70 to 80 - ft., though of poor quality (2 to 8%), are found bedded in crystalline - schists or paleozoic sedimentary rocks, but the richest (10 to 30%) - occur in tuff and other volcanic rocks. - - - Iron. - - There have not yet been found any evidences that Japan is rich in iron - ores. Her largest known deposit (magnetite) occurs at Kamaishi in - Iwate prefecture, but the quantity of pig-iron produced from the ore - mined there does not exceed 37,000 tons annually, and Japan is obliged - to import from the neighbouring continent the greater part of the iron - needed by her for ship-building and armaments. - - - Coal. - - Considerable deposits of coal exist, both anthracite and bituminous. - The former, found chiefly at Amakusa, is not greatly inferior to the - Cardiff mineral; and the latter--obtained in abundance in Kiuushiu and - Yezo--is a brown coal of good medium quality. Altogether there are 29 - coal-fields now actually worked in Japan, and she obtained an - important addition to her sources of supply in the sequel to the war - with Russia, when the Fushun mines near Mukden, Manchuria, were - transferred to her. During the 10 years ending in 1906, the market - value of the coal mined in Japan grew from less than 2 millions - sterling to over 6 millions. - - - Petroleum. - - Petroleum also has of late sprung into prominence on the list of her - mineral products. The oil-bearing strata--which occur mainly in - tertiary rocks--extend from Yezo to Formosa, but the principal are in - Echigo, which yields the greater part of the petroleum now obtained, - the Yezo and Formosa wells being still little exploited, the quantity - of petroleum obtained in Japan in 1897 was 9 million gallons, whereas - the quantity obtained in 1906 was 55 millions. - - Japanese mining enterprise was more than trebled during the decade - 1897 to 1906, for the value of the minerals taken out in the former - year was only 3(1/2) millions sterling, whereas the corresponding - figure for 1906 was 11 millions. The earliest mention of gold-mining - in Japan takes us back to the year A.D. 696, and by the 16th century - the country had acquired the reputation of being rich in gold. During - the days of her medieval intercourse with the outer world, her stores - of the precious metals were largely reduced, for between the years - 1602 and 1766, Holland, Spain, Portugal and China took from her - 313,800 lb. (troy) of gold and 11,230,000 lb. of silver. - - Copper occupied a scarcely less important place in Old Japan. From a - period long anterior to historic times this metal was employed to - manufacture mirrors and swords, and the introduction of Buddhism in - the 6th century was quickly followed by the casting of sacred images, - many of which still survive. Finding in the 18th century that her - foreign intercourse not only had largely denuded her of gold and - silver, but also threatened to denude her of copper, Japan set a limit - (3415 tons) to the yearly export of the latter metal. After the - resumption of administrative power by the emperor in 1867, attention - was quickly directed to the question of mineral resources; several - Western experts were employed to conduct surveys and introduce - Occidental mining methods, and ten of the most important mines were - worked under the direct auspices of the state in order to serve as - object lessons. Subsequently these mines were all transferred to - private hands, and the government now retains possession of only a few - iron and coal mines whose products are needed for dockyard and arsenal - purposes. The following table shows the recent progress and present - condition of mining industry in Japan:-- - - Gold Silver Copper Lead - - Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity Value. - oz. L oz. L Tons. L Tons. L - - 1897 34,553 136,834 1,809,805 208,200 19,722 869,266 746 10,343 - 1901 82,517 330,076 1,824,842 211,682 26,495 1,625,244 1,744 24,640 - 1906 90,842 363,715 2,623,212 243,914 37,254 3,007,992 2,721 49,690 - - Iron Coal Petroleum Sulphur - - Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. - Tons. L Tons. L Gallons. L Tons. L - - 1897 35,178 103,559 5,229,662 1,899,592 9,248,800 44,389 13,138 33,588 - 1901 46,456 123,701 9,025,325 3,060,931 39,351,960 227,841 16,007 38,612 - 1906 85,203 268,911 12,980,103 6,314,400 55,135,880 314,550 27,406 61,386 - - Antimony Manganese Others - - Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Value. Total Values. - Tons. L Tons. L L L - - 1897 1,133 27,362 13,175 8,758 3,863 3,345,662 - 1901 529 13,481 15,738 10,846 3,450 5,670,508 - 1906 293 22,862 12,322 51,365 41,338 10,839,783 - - The number of mine employees in 1907 was 190,000, in round numbers; - the number of mining companies, 189; and the aggregate paid-up - capital, 10 millions sterling. - -_Industries._--In the beginning of the Meiji era Japan was practically -without any manufacturing industries, as the term is understood in the -Occident, and she had not so much as one joint-stock company. At the end -of 1906, her joint-stock companies and partnerships totalled 9329, their -paid up capital exceeded 100 millions sterling, and their reserves -totalled 26 millions. It is not to be inferred, however, from the -absence of manufacturing organizations 50 years ago that such pursuits -were deliberately eschewed or despised in Japan. On the contrary, at the -very dawn of the historical epoch we find that sections of the people -took their names from the work carried on by them, and that specimens of -expert industry were preserved in the sovereign's palace side by side -with the imperial insignia. Further, skilled artisans from the -neighbouring continent always found a welcome in Japan, and when Korea -was successfully invaded in early times, one of the uses which the -victors made of their conquest was to import Korean weavers and dyers. -Subsequently the advent of Buddhism, with its demand for images, -temples, gorgeous vestments and rich paraphernalia, gave a marked -impulse to the development of artistic industry, which at the outset -took its models from China, India and Greece, but gradually, while -assimilating many of the best features of the continental schools, -subjected them to such great modifications in accordance with Japanese -genius that they ceased to retain more than a trace of their originals. -From the 9th century luxurious habits prevailed in Kioto under the sway -of the Fujiwara regents, and the imperial city's munificent patronage -drew to its precincts a crowd of artisans. But these were not -industrials, in the Western sense of the term, and, further, their -organization was essentially domestic, each family selecting its own -pursuit and following it from generation to generation without -co-operation or partnership with any outsider. The establishment of -military feudalism in the 12th century brought a reaction from the -effeminate luxury of the metropolis, and during nearly 300 years no -industry enjoyed large popularity except that of the armourer and the -sword-smith. No sooner, however, did the prowess of Oda Nobunaga and, -above all, of Hideyoshi, the taiko, bring within sight a cessation of -civil war and the unification of the country, than the taste for -beautiful objects and artistic utensils recovered vitality. By degrees -there grew up among the feudal barons a keen rivalry in art industry, -and the shogun's court in Yedo set a standard which the feudatories -constantly strove to attain. Ultimately, in the days immediately -antecedent to its fall, the shogun's administration sought to induce a -more logical system by encouraging local manufacturers to supply local -needs only, leaving to Kioto and Yedo the duty of catering to general -wants. - -But before this reform had approached maturity, the second advent of -Western nations introduced to Japan the products of an industrial -civilization centuries in advance of her own from the point of view of -utility, though nowise superior in the application of art. Immediately -the nation became alive to the necessity of correcting its own -inferiority in this respect. But the people being entirely without -models for organization, without financial machinery and without the -idea of joint stock enterprise, the government had to choose between -entering the field as an instructor, and leaving the nation to struggle -along an arduous and expensive way to tardy development. There could be -no question as to which course would conduce more to the general -advantage, and thus, in days immediately subsequent to the resumption of -administrative power by the emperor, the spectacle was seen of official -excursions into the domains of silk-reeling, cement-making, cotton and -silk spinning, brick-burning, printing and book-binding, soap-boiling, -type-casting and ceramic decoration, to say nothing of their -establishing colleges and schools where all branches of applied science -were taught. Domestic exhibitions also were organized, and specimens cf -the country's products and manufactures were sent under government -auspices to exhibitions abroad. On the other hand, the effect of this -new departure along Western lines could not but be injurious to the old -domestic industries of the country, especially to those which owed their -existence to tastes and traditions now regarded as obsolete. Here again -the government came to the rescue by establishing a firm whose functions -were to familiarize foreign markets with the products of Japanese -artisans, and to instruct the latter in adaptations likely to appeal to -Occidental taste. Steps were also taken for training women as artisans, -and the government printing bureau set the example of employing female -labour, an innovation which soon developed large dimensions. In short, -the authorities applied themselves to educate an industrial disposition -throughout the country, and as soon as success seemed to be in sight, -they gradually transferred from official to private direction the -various model enterprises, retaining only such as were required to -supply the needs of the state. - - The result of all this effort was that whereas, in the beginning of - the Meiji era, Japan had virtually no industries worthy of the name, - she possessed in 1896--that is to say, after an interval of 25 years - of effort--no less than 4595 industrial and commercial companies, - joint stock or partnership, with a paid-up capital of 40 millions - sterling. Her development during the decade ending in 1906 is shown in - the following table:-- - - Reserves - Number of Paid-up capital (millions - companies. (millions sterling). sterling). - - 1897 6,113 53 6 - 1901 8,602 83 12 - 1906 9,329 107 26 - - What effect this development exercised upon the country's over-sea - trade may be inferred from the fact that, whereas the manufactured - goods exported in 1870 were nil, their value in 1901 was 8 millions - sterling, and in 1906 the figure rose to over 20 millions. In the - following table are given some facts relating to the principal - industries in which foreign markets are interested:-- - - COTTON YARNS - - +------+----------+---------------+-------------+-------------------------+ - | | | Operatives. | Quantity | | - | | Spindles.+-------+-------+ produced. | Remarks. | - | | | Male. |Female.| | | - +------+----------+-------+-------+-------------+-------------------------+ - | | | | | lb. | This is a wholly new | - | 1897 | 768,328 | 9,933 |35,059 | 216,913,196 | had industry in Japan. | - | 1901 |1,181,762 |13,481 |49,540 | 274,861,380 | It no existence before | - | 1906 |1,425,406 |13,032 |59,281 | 383,359,113 | the Meiji era. | - +------+----------+-------+-------+-------------+-------------------------+ - - WOVEN GOODS - - +------+--------+----------------+------------+--------------------------+ - | | | Operatives. | Market | | - | | Looms. +----------------+ value of | Remarks. | - | | | Male. |Female. | products. | | - +------+--------+-------+--------+------------+--------------------------+ - | | | | | Millions | It is observable that a | - | | | | | sterling. | decrease in the number of| - | 1897 |947,134 |54,119 |987,110 | 19 | operatives is concurrent | - | 1901 |719,550 |43,172 |747,946 | 24 | with an increase of | - | 1906 |736,828 |40,886 |751,605 | 36 | production. | - +------+--------+-------+--------+------------+--------------------------+ - - MATCHES - - +------+--------+---------------+-----------+----------+-----------------------+ - | |Families| Operatives. | Quantity | Value. | | - | |engaged.+-------+-------+ produced. | | Remarks. | - | | | Male. |Female.| | | | - +------+--------+-------+-------+-----------+----------+-----------------------+ - | | | | | Gross. | L | This is an altogether | - | 1897 | 269 |21,447 |26,277 |24,038,960 | 654,849 | new industry. Japanese| - | 1901 | 261 | 5,656 |16,504 |32,901,319 | 926,689 | matches now hold the | - | 1906 | 250 | 5,468 |18,721 |54,802,293 |1,551,698 | leading place in all | - | | | | | | | Far-Eastern markets. | - +------+--------+-------+-------+-----------+----------+-----------------------+ - - FOREIGN PAPER (as distinguished from Japanese) - - +------+----------+-------+-------+------------+----------+--------------------+ - | | | Operatives. | Quantity | | | - | |Factories.+-------+-------+ produced. | Value. | Remarks. | - | | | Male. |Female.| | | | - +------+----------+-------+-------+------------+----------+--------------------+ - | | | | | lb. | L | Had not Japanese | - | 1897 | 9 | 164 | 109 | 46,256,649 | 300,662 | factories been | - | 1901 | 13 | 2,635 | 1,397 |113,348,340 | 714,094 | established all | - | 1906 | 22 | 3,774 | 1,778 |218,022,434 |1,415,778 | this paper must | - | | | | | | | have been imported.| | - +------+----------+-------+-------+------------+----------+--------------------+ - - In the field of what may be called minor manufactures--as ceramic - wares, lacquers, straw-plaits, &c.--there has been corresponding - growth, for the value of these productions increased from 1(1/4) - millions sterling in 1897 to 3(1/2) millions in 1906. But as these - manufactures do not enter into competition with foreign goods in - either Eastern or Western markets, they are interesting only as - showing the development of Japan's producing power. They contribute - nothing to the solution of the problem whether Japanese industries are - destined ultimately to drive their foreign rivals from the markets of - Asia, if not to compete injuriously with them even in Europe and - America. Japan seems to have one great advantage over Occidental - countries: she possesses an abundance of dexterous and exceptionally - cheap labour. It has been said, indeed, that this latter advantage is - not likely to be permanent, since the wages of labour and the cost of - living are fast increasing. The average cost of labour doubled in the - interval between 1895 and 1906, but, on the other hand, the number of - manufacturing organizations doubled in the same time, while the amount - of their paid-up capital nearly trebled. As to the necessaries of - life, if those specially affected by government monopolies be - excluded, the rate of appreciation between 1900 and 1906 averaged - about 30%, and it thus appears that the cost of living is not - increasing with the same rapidity as the remuneration earned by - labour. The manufacturing progress of the nation seems, therefore, to - have a bright future, the only serious impediment being deficient - capital. There is abundance of coal, and steps have been taken on a - large scale to utilize the many excellent opportunities which the - country offers for developing electricity by water-power. - - - Silk-weaving - - The fact that Japan's exports of raw silk amount to more than 12 - millions sterling, while she sends over-sea only 3(1/2) millions' - worth of silk fabrics, suggests some marked inferiority on the part of - her weavers. But the true explanation seems to be that her distance - from the Occident handicaps her in catering for the changing fashions - of the West. There cannot be any doubt that the skill of Japanese - weavers was at one time eminent. The sun goddess herself, the - predominant figure in the Japanese pantheon, is said to have practised - weaving; the names of four varieties of woven fabrics were known in - prehistoric times; the 3rd century of the Christian era saw the - arrival of a Korean maker of cloth; after him came an influx of - Chinese who were distributed throughout the country to improve the - arts of sericulture and silk-weaving; a sovereign (Yuriaku) of the 5th - century employed 92 groups of naturalized Chinese for similar - purposes; in 421 the same emperor issued a decree encouraging the - culture of mulberry trees and calling for taxes on silk and cotton; - the manufacture of textiles was directly supervised by the consort of - this sovereign; in 645 a bureau of weaving was established; many other - evidences are conclusive as to the great antiquity of the art of silk - and cotton weaving in Japan. - - The coming of Buddhism in the 6th century contributed not a little to - the development of the art, since not only did the priests require for - their own vestments and for the decoration of temples silken fabrics - of more and more gorgeous description, but also these holy men - themselves, careful always to keep touch with the continental - developments of their faith, made frequent voyages to China, whence - they brought back to Japan a knowledge of whatever technical or - artistic improvements the Middle Kingdom could show. When Kioto became - the permanent metropolis of the empire, at the close of the 8th - century, a bureau was established for weaving brocades and rich silk - stuffs to be used in the palace. This preluded an era of some three - centuries of steadily developing luxury in Kioto; an era when an - essential part of every aristocratic mansion's furniture was a - collection of magnificent silk robes for use in the sumptuous _No_. - Then, in the 15th century came the "Tea Ceremonial," when the brocade - mountings of a picture or the wrapper of a tiny tea-jar possessed an - almost incredible value, and such skill was attained by weavers and - dyers that even fragments of the fabrics produced by them command - extravagant prices to-day. Kioto always remained, and still remains, - the chief producing centre, and to such a degree has the science of - colour been developed there that no less than 4000 varieties of tint - are distinguished. The sense of colour, indeed, seems to have been a - special endowment of the Japanese people from the earliest times, and - some of the combinations handed down from medieval times are treasured - as incomparable examples. During the long era of peace under the - Tokugawa administration the costumes of men and women showed an - increasing tendency to richness and beauty. This culminated in the - Genroku epoch (1688-1700), and the aristocracy of the present day - delight in viewing histrionic performances where the costumes of that - age and of its rival, the Momoyama (end of the 16th century) are - reproduced. - - It would be possible to draw up a formidable catalogue of the various - kinds of silk fabrics manufactured in Japan before the opening of the - Meiji era, and the signal ability of her weavers has derived a new - impulse from contact with the Occident. Machinery has been largely - introduced, and though the products of hand-looms still enjoy the - reputation of greater durability, there has unquestionably been a - marked development of producing power. Japanese looms now turn out - about 17 millions sterling of silk textiles, of which less than 4 - millions go abroad. Nor is increased quantity alone to be noted, for - at the factory of Kawashima in Kioto Gobelins are produced such as - have never been rivalled elsewhere. - -_Commerce in Tokugawa Times._--The conditions existing in Japan during -the two hundred and fifty years prefatory to the modern opening of the -country were unfavourable to the development alike of national and of -international trade. As to the former, the system of feudal government -exercised a crippling influence, for each feudal chief endeavoured to -check the exit of any kind of property from his fief, and free -interchange of commodities was thus prevented so effectually that cases -are recorded of one feudatory's subjects dying of starvation while those -of an adjoining fief enjoyed abundance. International commerce, on the -other hand, lay under the veto of the central government, which punished -with death anyone attempting to hold intercourse with foreigners. Thus -the fiefs practised a policy of mutual seclusion at home, and united to -maintain a policy of general seclusion abroad. Yet it was under the -feudal system that the most signal development of Japanese trade took -place, and since the processes of that development have much historical -interest they invite close attention. - - As the bulk of a feudal chief's income was paid in rice, arrangements - had to be made for sending the grain to market and transmitting its - proceeds. This was effected originally by establishing in Osaka stores - (_kura-yashiki_), under the charge of samurai, who received the rice, - sold it to merchants in that city and remitted the proceeds by - official carriers. But from the middle of the 17th century these - stores were placed in the charge of tradesmen to whom was given the - name of _kake-ya_ (agent). They disposed of the products entrusted to - them by a fief and held the money, sending it by monthly instalments - to an appointed place, rendering yearly accounts and receiving - commission at the rate of from 2 to 4%. They had no special licence, - but they were honourably regarded and often distinguished by an - official title or an hereditary pension. In fact a kake-ya, of such - standing as the Mitsui and the Konoike families, was, in effect, a - banker charged with the finances of several fiefs. In Osaka the method - of sale was uniform. Tenders were invited, and these having been - opened in the presence of all the store officials and kake-ya, the - successful tenderers had to deposit bargain-money, paying the - remainder within ten days, and thereafter becoming entitled to take - delivery of the rice in whole or by instalments within a certain time, - no fee being charged for storage. A similar system existed in Yedo, - the shogun's capital. Out of the custom of deferred delivery developed - the establishment of exchanges where advances were made against sale - certificates, and purely speculative transactions came into vogue. - There followed an experience common enough in the West at one time: - public opinion rebelled against these transactions in margins on the - ground that they tended to enhance the price of rice. Several of the - brokers were arrested and brought to trial; marginal dealings were - thenceforth forbidden, and a system of licences was inaugurated in - Yedo, the number of licensed dealers[7] being restricted to 108. - - The system of organized trading companies had its origin in the 12th - century, when, the number of merchants admitted within the confines of - Yedo being restricted, it became necessary for those not obtaining - that privilege to establish some mode of co-operation, and there - resulted the formation of companies with representatives stationed in - the feudal capital and share-holding members in the provinces. The - Ashikaga shoguns developed this restriction by selling to the highest - bidder the exclusive right of engaging in a particular trade, and the - Tokugawa administration had recourse to the same practice. But whereas - the monopolies instituted by the Ashikaga had for sole object the - enrichment of the exchequer, the Tokugawa regarded it chiefly as a - means of obtaining worthy representatives in each branch of trade. The - first licences were issued in Yedo to keepers of bath-houses in the - middle of the 17th century. As the city grew in dimensions these - licences increased in value, so that pawnbrokers willingly accepted - them in pledge for loans. Subsequently almanack-sellers were obliged - to take out licences, and the system was afterwards extended to - money-changers. - - It was to the fishmongers, however, that the advantages of commercial - organization first presented themselves vividly. The greatest - fish-market in Japan is at Nihon-bashi in Tokyo (formerly Yedo). It - had its origin in the needs of the Tokugawa court. When Iyeyasu - (founder of the Tokugawa dynasty) entered Yedo in 1590, his train was - followed by some fishermen of Settsu, to whom he granted the privilege - of plying their trade in the adjacent seas, on condition that they - furnished a supply of their best fish for the use of the garrison. The - remainder they offered for sale at Nihon-bashi. Early in the 17th - century one Sukegoro of Yamato province (hence called Yamato-ya) went - to Yedo and organized the fishmongers into a great gild. Nothing is - recorded about this man's antecedents, though his mercantile genius - entitles him to historical notice. He contracted for the sale of all - the fish obtained in the neighbouring seas, advanced money to the - fishermen on the security of their catch, constructed preserves for - keeping the fish alive until they were exposed in the market, and - enrolled all the dealers in a confederation which ultimately consisted - of 391 wholesale merchants and 246 brokers. The main purpose of - Sukegoro's system was to prevent the consumer from dealing direct with - the producer. Thus in return for the pecuniary accommodation granted - to fishermen to buy boats and nets they were required to give every - fish they caught to the wholesale merchant from whom they had received - the advance; and the latter, on his side, had to sell in the open - market at prices fixed by the confederation. A somewhat similar system - applied to vegetables, though in this case the monopoly was never so - close. - - It will be observed that this federation of fishmongers approximated - closely to a trust, as the term is now understood; that is to say, an - association of merchants engaged in the same branch of trade and - pledged to observe certain rules in the conduct of their business as - well as to adhere to fixed rates. The idea was extended to nearly - every trade, 10 monster confederations being organized in Yedo and 24 - in Osaka. These received official recognition, and contributed a sum - to the exchequer under the euphonious name of "benefit money," - amounting to nearly L20,000 annually. They attained a high state of - prosperity, the whole of the cities' supplies passing through their - hands.[8] No member of a confederation was permitted to dispose of his - licence except to a near relative, and if anyone not on the roll of a - confederation engaged in the same business he became liable to - punishment at the hands of the officials. In spite of the limits thus - imposed on the transfer of licences, one of these documents commanded - from L80 to L6,400, and in the beginning of the 19th century the - confederations, or gilds, had increased to 68 in Yedo, comprising 1195 - merchants. The gild system extended to maritime enterprise also. In - the beginning of the 17th century a merchant of Sakai (near Osaka) - established a junk service between Osaka and Yedo, but this kind of - business did not attain any considerable development until the close - of that century, when 10 gilds of Yedo and 24 of Osaka combined to - organize a marine-transport company for the purpose of conveying their - own merchandise. Here also the principle of monopoly was strictly - observed, no goods being shipped for unaffiliated merchants. This - carrying trade rapidly assumed large dimensions. The number of junks - entering Yedo rose to over 1500 yearly. They raced from port to port, - just as tea-clippers from China to Europe used to race in recent - times, and troubles incidental to their rivalry became so serious that - it was found necessary to enact stringent rules. Each junk-master had - to subscribe a written oath that he would comply strictly with the - regulations and observe the sequence of sailing as determined by lot. - The junks had to call _en route_ at Uraga for the purpose of - undergoing official examination. The order of their arrival there was - duly registered, and the master making the best record throughout the - year received a present in money as well as a complimentary garment, - and became the shippers' favourite next season. - - Operations relating to the currency also were brought under the - control of gilds. The business of money-changing seems to have been - taken up as a profession from the beginning of the 15th century, but - it was then in the hands of pedlars who carried strings of copper cash - which they exchanged for gold or silver coins, then in rare - circulation, or for parcels of gold dust. From the early part of the - 17th century exchanges were opened in Yedo, and in 1718 the men - engaged in this business formed a gild after the fashion of the time. - Six hundred of these received licences, and no unlicensed person was - permitted to purchase the avocation. Four representatives of the chief - exchange met daily and fixed the ratio between gold and silver, the - figure being then communicated to the various exchanges and to the - shogun's officials. As for the prices of gold or silver in terms of - copper or bank-notes, 24 representatives of the exchanges met every - evening, and, in the presence of an official censor, settled the - figure for the following day and recorded the amount of transactions - during the past 24 hours, full information on these points being at - once sent to the city governors and the street elders. - - The exchanges in their ultimate form approximated very closely to the - Occidental idea of banks. They not only bought gold, silver and copper - coins, but they also received money on deposit, made loans and issued - vouchers which played a very important part in commercial - transactions. The voucher seems to have come into existence in Japan - in the 14th century. It originated in the Yoshino market of Yamato - province, where the hilly nature of the district rendered the carriage - of copper money so arduous that rich merchants began to substitute - written receipts and engagements which quickly became current. Among - these documents there was a "joint voucher" (_kumiai-fuda_), signed by - several persons, any one of whom might be held responsible for its - redemption. This had large vogue, but it did not obtain official - recognition until 1636, when the third Tokugawa shogun selected 30 - substantial merchants and divided them into 3 gilds, each authorized - to issue vouchers, provided that a certain sum was deposited by way of - security. Such vouchers were obviously a form of bank-note. Their - circulation by the exchange came about in a similar manner. During - many years the treasure of the shogun and of the feudal chiefs was - carried to Yedo by pack-horses and coolies of the regular postal - service. But the costliness of such a method led to the selection in - 1691 of 10 exchange agents who were appointed bankers to the Tokugawa - government and were required to furnish money within 30 days of the - date of an order drawn on them. These agents went by the name of the - "ten-men gild." Subsequently the firm of Mitsui was added, but it - enjoyed the special privilege of being allowed 150 days to collect a - specified amount. The gild received moneys on account of the Tokugawa - or the feudal chiefs at provincial centres, and then made its own - arrangements for cashing the cheques drawn upon it by the shogun or - the daimyo in Yedo. If coin happened to be immediately available, it - was employed to cash the cheques; otherwise the vouchers of the gild - served instead. It was in Osaka, however, that the functions of the - exchanges acquired fullest development. That city has exhibited, in - all eras, a remarkable aptitude for trade. Its merchants, as already - shown, were not only entrusted with the duty of selling the rice and - other products of the surrounding fiefs, but also they became - depositories of the proceeds, which they paid out on account of the - owners in whatever sums the latter desired. Such an evidence of - official confidence greatly strengthened their credit, and they - received further encouragement from the second Tokugawa shogun - (1605-1623)and from Ishimaru Sadatsugu, governor of the city in 1661. - He fostered wholesale transactions, sought to introduce a large - element of credit into commerce by instituting a system of credit - sales; took measures to promote the circulation of cheques; - inaugurated market sales of gold and silver and appointed ten chiefs - of exchange who were empowered to oversee the business of - money-exchanging in general. These ten received exemption from - municipal taxation and were permitted to wear swords. Under them were - 22 exchanges forming a gild, whose members agreed to honour one - another's vouchers and mutually to facilitate business. Gradually they - elaborated a regular system of banking, so that, in the middle of the - 18th century, they issued various descriptions of paper-orders for - fixed sums payable at certain places within fixed periods; deposit - notes redeemable on the demand of an indicated person or his order; - bills of exchange drawn by _A_ upon _B_ in favour of _C_ (a common - form for use in monthly or annual settlements); promissory notes to be - paid at a future time, or cheques payable at sight, for goods - purchased; and storage orders engaging to deliver goods on account of - which earnest money had been paid. These last, much employed in - transactions relating to rice and sugar, were generally valid for a - period of 3 years and 3 months, were signed by a confederation of - exchanges or merchants on joint responsibility, and guaranteed the - delivery of the indicated merchandise independently of all accidents. - They passed current as readily as coin, and advances could always be - obtained against them from pawnbrokers. - - All these documents, indicating a well-developed system of credit, - were duly protected by law, severe penalties being inflicted for any - failure to implement the pledges they embodied. The merchants of Yedo - and Osaka, working on the system of trusts here described, gradually - acquired great wealth and fell into habits of marked luxury. It is - recorded that they did not hesitate to pay L5 for the first bonito of - the season and L11 for the first egg-fruit. Naturally the spectacle of - such extravagance excited popular discontent. Men began to grumble - against the so-called "official merchants" who, under government - auspices, monopolized every branch of trade; and this feeling grew - almost uncontrollable in 1836, when rice rose to an unprecedented - price owing to crop failure. Men loudly ascribed that state of affairs - to regrating on the part of the wholesale companies, and murmurs - similar to those raised at the close of the 19th century in America - against the trust system began to reach the ears of the authorities - perpetually. The celebrated Fujita Toko of Mito took up the question. - He argued that the monopoly system, since it included Osaka, exposed - the Yedo market to all the vicissitudes of the former city, which had - then lost much of its old prosperity. - - Finally, in 1841, the shogun's chief minister, Mizuno Echizen-no-Kami, - withdrew all trading licences, dissolved the gilds and proclaimed that - every person should thenceforth be free to engage in any commerce - without let or hindrance. This recklessly drastic measure, vividly - illustrating the arbitrariness of feudal officialdom, not only - included the commercial gilds, the shipping gilds, the exchange gilds - and the land transport gilds, but was also carried to the length of - forbidding any company to confine itself to wholesale dealings. The - authorities further declared that in times of scarcity wholesale - transactions must be abandoned altogether and retail business alone - carried on, their purpose being to bring retail and wholesale prices - to the same level. The custom of advancing money to fishermen or to - producers in the provincial districts was interdicted; even the - fuda-sashi might no longer ply their calling, and neither bath-house - keepers nor hairdressers were allowed to combine for the purpose of - adopting uniform rates of charges. But this ill-judged interference - produced evils greater than those it was intended to remedy. The gilds - had not really been exacting. Their organization had reduced the cost - of distribution, and they had provided facilities of transport which - brought produce within quick and cheap reach of central markets. - - Ten years' experience showed that a modified form of the old system - would conduce to public interests. The gilds were re-established, - licence fees, however, being abolished, and no limit set to the - number of firms in a gild. Things remained thus until the beginning of - the Meiji era (1867), when the gilds shared the cataclysm that - overtook all the country's old institutions. - - Japanese commercial and industrial life presents another feature which - seems to suggest special aptitude for combination. In mercantile or - manufacturing families, while the eldest son always succeeded to his - father's business, not only the younger sons but also the apprentices - and employees, after they had served faithfully for a number of years, - expected to be set up as branch houses under the auspices of the - principal family, receiving a place of business, a certain amount of - capital and the privilege of using the original house-name. Many an - old-established firm thus came to have a plexus of branches all - serving to extend its business and strengthen its credit, so that the - group held a commanding position in the business world. It will be - apparent from the above that commercial transactions on a large scale - in pre-Meiji days were practically limited to the two great cities of - Yedo and Osaka, the people in the provincial fiefs having no direct - association with the gild system, confining themselves, for the most - part, to domestic industries on a small scale, and not being allowed - to extend their business beyond the boundaries of the fief to which - they belonged. - -_Foreign Commerce during the Meiji Era._--If Japan's industrial -development in modern times has been remarkable, the same may be said -even more emphatically about the development of her over-sea commerce. -This was checked at first not only by the unpopularity attaching to all -intercourse with outside nations, but also by embarrassments resulting -from the difference between the silver price of gold in Japan and its -silver price in Europe, the precious metals being connected in Japan by -a ratio of 1 to 8, and in Europe by a ratio of 1 to 15. This latter fact -was the cause of a sudden and violent appreciation of values; for the -government, seeing the country threatened with loss of all its gold, -tried to avert the catastrophe by altering and reducing the weights of -the silver coins without altering their denominations, and a -corresponding difference exhibited itself, as a matter of course, in the -silver quotations of commodities. Another difficulty was the attitude of -officialdom. During several centuries Japan's over-sea trade had been -under the control of officialdom, to whose coffers it contributed a -substantial revenue. But when the foreign exporter entered the field -under the conditions created by the new system, he diverted to his own -pocket the handsome profit previously accruing to the government; and -since the latter could not easily become reconciled to this loss of -revenue, or wean itself from its traditional habit of interference in -affairs of foreign commerce, and since the foreigner, on his side, not -only desired secrecy in order to prevent competition, but was also -tormented by inveterate suspicions of Oriental espionage, not a little -friction occurred from time to time. Thus the scanty records of that -early epoch suggest that trade was beset with great difficulties, and -that the foreigner had to contend against most adverse circumstances, -though in truth his gains amounted to 40 or 50%. - - - Tea and Silk. - -The chief staples of the early trade were tea and silk. It happened that -just before Japan's raw silk became available for export, the production -of that article in France and Tea and Italy had been largely curtailed -owing to a novel disease of the silkworm. Thus, when the first bales of -Japanese silk appeared in London, and when it was found to possess -qualities entitling it to the highest rank, a keen demand sprang up. -Japanese green tea also, differing radically in flavour and bouquet from -the black tea of China, appealed quickly to American taste, so that by -the year 1907 Japan found herself selling to foreign countries tea to -the extent of 1(1/4) millions sterling, and raw silk to the extent of -12(1/4) millions. This remarkable development is typical of the general -history of Japan's foreign trade in modern times. Omitting the first -decade and a half, the statistics for which are imperfect, the volume of -the trade grew from 5 millions sterling in 1873--3 shillings per head of -the population--to 93 millions in 1907--or 38 shillings per head. It was -not a uniform growth. The period of 35 years divides itself -conspicuously into two eras: the first, of 15 years (1873-1887), during -which the development was from 5 millions to 9.7 millions, a ratio of 1 -to 2, approximately; the second, of 20 years (1887-1907), during which -the development was from 9.7 millions to 93 millions, a ratio of 1 to -10. - -That a commerce which scarcely doubled itself in the first fifteen years -should have grown nearly tenfold in the next twenty is a fact inviting -attention. There are two principal causes: one general, the other -special. The general cause was that several years necessarily elapsed -before the nation's material condition began to respond perceptibly to -the improvements effected by the Meiji government in matters of -administration, taxation and transport facilities. Fiscal burdens had -been reduced and security of life and property obtained, but railway -building and road-making, harbour construction, the growth of posts, -telegraphs, exchanges and banks, and the development of a mercantile -marine did not exercise a sensible influence on the nation's prosperity -until 1884 or 1885. From that time the country entered a period of -steadily growing prosperity, and from that time private enterprise may -be said to have finally started upon a career of independent activity. -The special cause which, from 1885, contributed to a marked growth of -trade was the resumption of specie payments. Up to that time the -treasury's fiat notes had suffered such marked fluctuations of specie -value that sound or successful commerce became very difficult. Against -the importing merchant the currency trouble worked with double potency. -Not only did the gold with which he purchased goods appreciate -constantly in terms of the silver for which he sold them, but the silver -itself appreciated sharply and rapidly in terms of the fiat notes paid -by Japanese consumers. Cursory reflection may suggest that these factors -should have stimulated exports as much as they depressed imports. But -such was not altogether the case in practice. For the exporter's -transactions were hampered by the possibility that a delay of a week or -even a day might increase the purchasing power of his silver in Japanese -markets by bringing about a further depreciation of paper, so that he -worked timidly and hesitatingly, dividing his operations as minutely as -possible in order to take advantage of the downward tendency of the fiat -notes. Not till this element of pernicious disturbance was removed did -the trade recover a healthy tone and grow so lustily as to tread closely -on the heels of the foreign commerce of China, with her 300 million -inhabitants and long-established international relations. - - - The Foreign Middleman. - -Japan's trade with the outer world was built up chiefly by the energy -and enterprise of the foreign middleman. He acted the part of an almost -ideal agent. As an exporter, his command of cheap capital, his -experience, his knowledge of foreign markets, and his connexions enabled -him to secure sales such as must have been beyond reach of the Japanese -working independently. Moreover, he paid to native consumers ready cash -for their staples, taking upon his own shoulders all the risks of -finding markets abroad. As an importer, he enjoyed, in centres of -supply, credit which the Japanese lacked, and he offered to native -consumers foreign produce brought to their doors with a minimum of -responsibility on their part. Finally, whether as exporters or -importers, foreign middlemen always competed with each other so keenly -that their Japanese clients obtained the best possible terms from them. -Yet the ambition of the Japanese to oust them cannot be regarded as -unnatural. Every nation must desire to carry on its own commerce -independently of alien assistance; and moreover, the foreign middleman's -residence during many years within Japanese territory, but without the -pale of Japanese sovereignty, invested him with an aggressive character -which the anti-Oriental exclusiveness of certain Occidental nations -helped to accentuate. Thus from the point of view of the average -Japanese there are several reasons for wishing to dispense with alien -middlemen, and it is plain that these reasons are operative; for -whereas, in 1888, native merchants carried on only 12% of the country's -over-sea trade without the intervention of the foreign middlemen, their -share rose to 35% in 1899 and has since been slowly increasing. - - - Balance of Trade. - - Analysis of Japan's foreign trade during the Meiji era shows that - during the 35-year period ending in 1907, imports exceeded exports in - 21 years and exports exceeded imports in 14 years. This does not - suggest a very badly balanced trade. But closer examination - accentuates the difference, for when the figures are added, it is - found that the excesses of exports aggregated only 11 millions - sterling, whereas the excesses of imports totalled 71 millions, there - being thus a so-called "unfavourable balance" of 60 millions over all. - The movements of specie do not throw much light upon this subject, for - they are complicated by large imports of gold resulting from war - indemnities and foreign loans. Undoubtedly the balance is materially - redressed by the expenditures of the foreign communities in the former - settlements, of foreign tourists visiting Japan and of foreign vessels - engaged in the carrying trade, as well as by the earnings of Japanese - vessels and the interest on investments made by foreigners. - Nevertheless there remains an appreciable margin against Japan, and it - is probably to be accounted for by the consideration that she is still - engaged equipping herself for the industrial career evidently lying - before her. - - - Trade with Various Countries. - - The manner in which Japan's over-sea trade was divided in 1907 among - the seven foreign countries principally engaged in it may be seen from - the following table:-- - - Exports to Imports from Total - L (millions). L (millions). L (millions). - - United States 13(1/2) 8(1/2) 22 - China 8(3/4) 6(1/4) 15 - Great Britain 2(1/4) 11(3/4) 14 - British India 1{1/3} 7(2/3) 9 - Germany 1{1/8} 4(7/8) 6 - France 4{1/3} (2/3) 5 - Korea 3{1/3} 1(2/3) 5 - - Among the 33 open ports of Japan, the first place belongs to Yokohama - in the matter of foreign trade, and Kobe ranks second. The former far - outstrips the latter in exports, but the case is reversed when imports - are considered. As to the percentages of the whole trade standing to - the credit of the five principal ports, the following figures may be - consulted:--Yokohama, 40%; Kobe, 35.6; Osaka, 10; Moji, 5; and - Nagasaki, 2. - - -VI.--GOVERNMENT, ADMINISTRATION, &C. - -_Emperor and Princes._--At the head of the Japanese State stands the -emperor, generally spoken of by foreigners as the _mikado_ (honourable -gate[9]), a title comparable with sublime porte and by his own subjects -as _tenshi_ (son of heaven) or _tenno_ (heavenly king). The emperor -Mutou Hito (q.v.) was the 121st of his line, according to Japanese -history, which reckons from 660 B.C., when Jimmu ascended the throne. -But as written records do not carry us back farther than A.D. 712, the -reigns and periods of the very early monarchs are more or less -apocryphal. Still the fact remains that Japan has been ruled by an -unbroken dynasty ever since the dawn of her history, in which respect -she is unique among all the nations in the world. There are four -families of princes of the blood, from any one of which a successor to -the throne may be taken in default of a direct heir: Princes Arisugawa, -Fushimi, Kanin and Higashi Fushimi. These families are all direct -descendants of emperors, and their heads have the title of _shinno_ -(prince of the blood), whereas the other imperial princes, of whom there -are ten, have only the second syllable of _shinno_ (pronounced _wo_ when -separated from _shin_). Second and younger sons of a _shinno_ are all -_wo_, and eldest sons lose the title _shin_ and become _wo_ from the -fifth generation. - -_The Peerage._--In former times there were no Japanese titles of -nobility, as the term is understood in the Occident. Nobles there were, -however, namely, _kuge_, or court nobles, descendants of younger sons of -emperors, and _daimyo_ (great name), some of whom could trace their -lineage to mikados; but all owed their exalted position as feudal chiefs -to military prowess. The Meiji restoration of 1867 led to the abolition -of the _daimyos_ as feudal chiefs, and they, together with the kuge, -were merged into one class called _kwazoku_ (flower families), a term -corresponding to aristocracy, all inferior persons being _heimin_ -(ordinary folk). In 1884, however, the five Chinese titles of _ki_ -(prince), _ko_ (marquis), _haku_ (count), _shi_ (viscount) and _dan_ -(baron) were introduced, and patents were not only granted to the -ancient nobility but also conferred on men who had rendered conspicuous -public service. The titles are all hereditary, but they descend to the -firstborn only, younger children having no distinguishing appellation. -The first list in 1884 showed 11 princes, 24 marquises, 76 counts, 324 -viscounts and 74 barons. After the war with China (1894-95) the total -grew to 716, and the war with Russia (1904-5) increased the number to -912, namely, 15 princes, 39 marquises, 100 counts, 376 viscounts and 382 -barons. - - _Household Department._--The Imperial household department is - completely differentiated from the administration of state affairs. It - includes bureaux of treasury, forests, peerage and hunting, as well as - boards of ceremonies and chamberlains, officials of the empress's - household and officials of the crown prince's household. The annual - allowance made to the throne is L300,000, and the Imperial estate - comprises some 12,000 acres of building land, 3,850,000 acres of - forests, and 300,000 acres of miscellaneous lands, the whole valued at - some 19 millions sterling, but probably not yielding an income of more - than L200,000 yearly. Further, the household owns about 3 millions - sterling (face value) of bonds and shares, from which a revenue of - some L250,000 is derived, so that the whole income amounts to - three-quarters of a million sterling, approximately. Out of this the - households of the crown prince and all the Imperial princes are - supported; allowances are granted at the time of conferring titles of - nobility; a long list of charities receive liberal contributions, and - considerable sums are paid to encourage art and education. The emperor - himself is probably one of the most frugal sovereigns that ever - occupied a throne. - -_Departments of State._--There are nine departments of state presided -over by ministers--foreign affairs, home affairs, finance, war, navy, -justice, education, agriculture and commerce, communications. These -ministers form the cabinet, which is presided over by the minister -president of state, so that its members number ten in all. Ministers of -state are appointed by the emperor and are responsible to him alone. But -between the cabinet and the crown stand a small body of men, the -survivors of those by whose genius modern Japan was raised to her -present high position among the nations. They are known as "elder -statesmen" (_genro_). Their proved ability constitutes an invaluable -asset, and in the solution of serious problems their voice may be said -to be final. At the end of 1909 four of these renowned statesmen -remained--Prince Yamagata, Marquises Inouye and Matsukata and Count -Okuma. There is also a privy council, which consists of a variable -number of distinguished men--in 1909 there were 29, the president being -Field-Marshal Prince Yamagata. Their duty is to debate and advise upon -all matters referred to them by the emperor, who sometimes attends their -meetings in person. - - _Civil Officials._--The total number of civil officials was 137,819 in - 1906. It had been only 68,876 in 1898, from which time it grew - regularly year by year. The salaries and allowances paid out of the - treasury every year on account of the civil service are 4 millions - sterling, approximately, and the annual emoluments of the principal - officials are as follow:--Prime minister, L960; minister of a - department, L600; ambassador, L500, with allowances varying from L2200 - to L3000; president of privy council, L500; resident-general in Seoul, - L600; governor-general of Formosa, L600; vice-minister, L400; minister - plenipotentiary, L400, with allowances from L1000 to L1700; governor - of prefecture, L300 to L360; judge of the court of cassation, L200 to - L500; other judges, L60 to L400; professor of imperial university, - from L80 to L160, with allowances from L40 to L120; privy councillor, - L400; director of a bureau, L300; &c. - -_Legislature._--The first Japanese Diet was convoked the 29th of -November, 1890. There are two chambers, a house of peers (_kizoku-in_) -and a house of representatives (_shugi-in_). Each is invested with the -same legislative power. - -The upper chamber consists of four classes of members. They are, first, -hereditary members, namely, princes and marquises, who are entitled to -sit when they reach the age of 25; secondly, counts, viscounts and -barons, elected--after they have attained their 25th year--by their -respective orders in the maximum ratio of one member to every five -peers; thirdly, men of education or distinguished service who are -nominated by the emperor; and, fourthly, representatives of the highest -tax-payers, elected, one for each prefecture, by their own class. The -minimum age limit for non-titled members is 30, and it is provided that -their total number must not exceed that of the titled members. The house -was composed in 1909 of 14 princes of the blood, 15 princes, 39 -marquises, 17 counts, 69 viscounts, 56 barons, 124 Imperial nominees, -and 45 representatives of the highest tax-payers--that is to say, 210 -titled members and 169 non-titled. - -The lower house consists of elected members only. Originally the -property qualification was fixed at a minimum annual payment of 30s. in -direct taxes (i.e. taxes imposed by the central government), but in -1900 the law of election was amended, and the property qualification for -electors is now a payment of L1 in direct taxes, while for candidates no -qualification is required either as to property or as to locality. -Members are of two kinds, namely, those returned by incorporated cities -and those returned by prefectures. In each case the ratio is one member -for every 130,000 electors, and the electoral district is the city or -prefecture. - -Voting is by ballot, one man one vote, and a general election must take -place once in 4 years for the house of representatives, and once in 7 -years for the house of peers. The house of representatives, however, is -liable to be dissolved by order of the sovereign as a disciplinary -measure, in which event a general election must be held within 5 months -from the date of dissolution, whereas the house of peers is not liable -to any such treatment. Otherwise the two houses enjoy equal rights and -privileges, except that the budget must first be submitted to the -representatives. Each member receives a salary of L200; the president -receives L500, and the vice-president L300. The presidents are nominated -by the sovereign from three names submitted by each house, but the -appointment of a vice-president is within the independent right of each -chamber. The lower house consists of 379 members, of whom 75 are -returned by the urban population and 304 by the rural. Under the -original property qualification the number of franchise-holders was only -453,474, or 11.5 to every 1000 of the nation, but it is now 1,676,007, -or 15.77 to every 1000. By the constitution which created the diet -freedom of conscience, of speech and of public meeting, inviolability of -domicile and correspondence, security from arrest or punishment except -by due process of law, permanence of judicial appointments and all the -other essential elements of civil liberty were granted. In the diet full -legislative authority is vested: without its consent no tax can be -imposed, increased or remitted; nor can any public money be paid out -except the salaries of officials, which the sovereign reserves the right -to fix at will. In the emperor are vested the prerogatives of declaring -war and making peace, of concluding treaties, of appointing and -dismissing officials, of approving and promulgating laws, of issuing -urgent ordinances to take the temporary place of laws, and of conferring -titles of nobility. - - _Procedure of the Diet._--It could scarcely have been expected that - neither tumult nor intemperance would disfigure the proceedings of a - diet whose members were entirely without parliamentary experience, but - not without grievances to ventilate, wrongs (real or fancied) to - avenge, and abuses to redress. On the whole, however, there has been a - remarkable absence of anything like disgraceful licence. The - politeness, the good temper, and the sense of dignity which - characterize the Japanese, generally saved the situation when it - threatened to degenerate into a "scene." Foreigners entering the house - of representatives in Tokyo for the first time might easily - misinterpret some of its habits. A number distinguishes each member. - It is painted in white on a wooden indicator, the latter being - fastened by a hinge to the face of the member's desk. When present he - sets the indicator standing upright, and lowers it when leaving the - house. Permission to speak is not obtained by catching the president's - eye, but by calling out the aspirant's number, and as members often - emphasize their calls by hammering their desks with the indicators, - there are moments of decided din. But, for the rest, orderliness and - decorum habitually prevail. Speeches have to be made from a rostrum. - There are few displays of oratory or eloquence. The Japanese - formulates his views with remarkable facility. He is absolutely free - from _gaucherie_ or self-consciousness when speaking in public: he can - think on his feet. But his mind does not usually busy itself with - abstract ideas and subtleties of philosophical or religious thought. - Flights of fancy, impassioned bursts of sentiment, appeals to the - heart rather than to the reason of an audience, are devices strange to - his mental habit. He can be rhetorical, but not eloquent. Among all - the speeches hitherto delivered in the Japanese diet it would be - difficult to find a passage deserving the latter epithet. - - From the first the debates were recorded verbatim. Years before the - date fixed for the promulgation of the constitution, a little band of - students elaborated a system of stenography and adapted it to the - Japanese syllabary. Their labours remained almost without recognition - or remuneration until the diet was on the eve of meeting, when it was - discovered that a competent staff of shorthand reporters could be - organized at an hour's notice. Japan can thus boast that, alone among - the countries of the world, she possesses an exact record of the - proceedings of her Diet from the moment when the first word was spoken - within its walls. - - A special feature of the Diet's procedure helps to discourage - oratorical displays. Each measure of importance has to be submitted to - a committee, and not until the latter's report has been received does - serious debate take place. But in ninety-nine cases out of every - hundred the committee's report determines the attitude of the house, - and speeches are felt to be more or less superfluous. One result of - this system is that business is done with a degree of celerity - scarcely known in Occidental legislatures. For example, the meetings - of the house of representatives during the session 1896-1897 were 32, - and the number of hours occupied by the sittings aggregated 116. Yet - the result was 55 bills debated and passed, several of them measures - of prime importance, such as the gold standard bill, the budget and a - statutory tariff law. It must be remembered that although actual - sittings of the houses are comparatively few and brief, the committees - remain almost constantly at work from morning to evening throughout - the twelve weeks of the session's duration. - - _Divisions of the Empire._--The earliest traditional divisions of - Japan into provinces was made by the emperor Seimu (131-190), in whose - time the sway of the throne did not extend farther north than a line - curving from Sendai Bay, on the north-east coast of the main island, - to the vicinity of Niigata (one of the treaty ports), on the - north-west coast. The region northward of this line was then occupied - by barbarous tribes, of whom the Ainu (still to be found in Yezo) are - probably the remaining descendants. The whole country was then divided - into thirty-two provinces. In the 3rd century the empress Jingo, on - her return from her victorious expedition against Korea, portioned out - the empire into five home provinces and seven circuits, in imitation - of the Korean system. By the emperor Mommu (696-707) some of the - provinces were subdivided so as to increase the whole number to - sixty-six, and the boundaries then fixed by him were re-surveyed in - the reign of the emperor Shomu (723-756). The old division is as - follows[10]:-- - - I. The _Go-kinai_ or "five home provinces" i.e. those lying - immediately around Kyoto, the capital, viz.:-- - - _Yamashiro_, also called Joshu | Izumi, also called _Senshu_ - _Yamato_ " Washu | _Settsu_ " Sesshu - _Kawachi_ " Kashu | - - II. The seven circuits, as follow:-- - - 1. The _Tokaido_, or "eastern-sea circuit," which comprised - fifteen provinces, viz.:-- - - _Iga_ or Ishu | Kai or _Koshyu_ - _Ise_ " _Seishu_ | _Sagami_ " _Soshyu_ - _Shima_ " Shinshu | Musashi " _Bushyu_ - _Owari_ " _Bishu_ | Awa " _Boshu_ - Mikawa " _Sanshu_ | Kazusa " Soshu - Totomi " _Enshu_ | Shimosa " Soshu - Suruga " _Sunshu_ | Hitachi " Joshu - _Izu_ " Dzushu | - - 2. The _Tozando_, or "eastern-mountain circuit," which comprised - eight provinces, viz.:-- - - Omi or _Goshu_ | Kozuke or _Joshu_ - _Mino_ " Noshu | Shimotsuke " _Yashu_ - _Hida_ " Hishu | Mutsu " _Oshu_ - Shinano " _Shinshu_ | _Dewa_ " Ushu - - 3. The _Hokurikudo_, or "northern-land circuit," which comprised - seven provinces, viz.:-- - - Wakasa or _Jakushu_ | _Etchiu_ or Esshu - _Echizen_ " Esshu | _Echigo_ " Esshu - _Kaga_ " _Kashu_ | _Sado_ (island) " Sashu - _Noto_ " Noshu | - - 4. The _Sanindo_, or "mountain-back circuit," which comprised - eight provinces, viz.:-- - - _Tamba_ or Tanshu | _Hoki_ or Hakushu - _Tango_ " Tanshu | Izumo " _Unshu - _Tajima_ " Tanshu | Iwami " _Sekishu_ - Inaba " _Inshu_ | _Oki_ (group of islands) - - 5. The _Sanyodo_, or "mountain-front circuit," which comprised - eight provinces, viz.:-- - - Harima or Banshu | _Bingo or Bishu - Mimasaka " Sakushu | Aki " _Geishu_ - _Bizen_ " Bishu | _Suwo_ " Boshu - _Bitchiu_ " Bishu | Nagato " _Choshu_ - - 6. The _Nankaido_, or "southern-sea circuit," which comprised, - six provinces, viz.:-- - - Kii or _Kishu_ | _Sanuki_ or Sanshu - _Awaji (island)_ " Tanshu | _Iyo_ " Yoshu - Awa " _Ashu_ | _Tosa_ " _Toshu_ - - 7. The _Saikaido_, or "western-sea circuit," which comprised - nine provinces, viz:-- - - _Chikuzen_ or Chikushu | _Higo_ or Hishu - _Chikugo_ " Chikushu | _Hiuga_ " Nisshu - _Buzen_ " Hoshu | _Osumi_ " Gushu - _Bungo_ " Hoshu | Satsuma " _Sasshu_ - _Hizen_ " Hishu | - - III. The two islands, viz.:-- - - 1. Tsushima or _Taishu_ | 2. _Iki_ or Ishu - - Upon comparing the above list with a map of Japan, it will be seen - that the main island contains the Go-kinai, Tokaido, Tozando, - Hokurikudo, Sanindo, Sanyodo, and one province (Kishu) of the - Nankaido. Omitting also the island of Awaji, the remaining provinces - of the Nankaido give the name Shikoku (the "four provinces") to the - island in which they lie; while Saikaido coincides exactly with the - large island Kiushiu (the "nine provinces"). - - In 1868, when the rebellious nobles of Oshu and Dewa, in the Tozando, - had submitted to the emperor, those two provinces were subdivided, - Dewa into Uzen and Ugo, and Oshu into Iwaki, Iwashiro, Rikuzen, - Rikuchu and Michinoku (usually called Mutsu). This increased the old - number of provinces from sixty-six to seventy-one. At the same time - there was created a new circuit, called the _Hokkaido_, or - "northern-sea circuit," which comprised the eleven provinces into - which the large island of Yezo was then divided (viz. Oshima, - Shiribeshi, Ishikari, Teshibo, Kitami, Iburi, Hiaka, Tokachi, Kushiro, - and Nemuro) and the Kurile Islands (Chishima). - - Another division of the old sixty-six provinces was made by taking as - a central point the ancient barrier of Osaka on the frontier of Omi - and Yamashiro,--the region lying on the east, which consisted of - thirty-three provinces, being called _Kwanto_, or "east of the - barrier," the remaining thirty-three provinces on the west being - styled _Kwansei_, or "west of the barrier." At the present time, - however, the term Kwanto is applied to only the eight provinces of - Musashi, Sagami, Kozuke, Shimotsuke, Kazusa, Shimosa, Awa and - Hitachi,--all lying immediately to the east of the old barrier of - Hakone, in Sagami. - - _Chu-goku_, or "central provinces," is a name in common use for the - Sanindo and Sanyodo taken together. _Saikoku_, or "western provinces," - is another name for Kiushiu, which in books again is frequently called - _Chinsei_. - - _Local Administrative Divisions._--For purposes of local - administration Japan is divided into 3 urban prefectures (_fu_), 43 - rural prefectures (_ken_), and 3 special dominions (_cho_), namely - Formosa; Hokkaido and South Sakhalin. Formosa and Sakhalin not having - been included in Japan's territories until 1895 and 1905, - respectively, are still under the military control of a - governor-general, and belong, therefore, to an administrative system - different from that prevailing throughout the rest of the country. The - prefectures and Hokkaido are divided again into 638 sub-prefectures - (_gun_ or _kori_); 60 towns (_shi_); 125 urban districts (_cho_) and - 12,274 rural districts (_son_). The three urban prefectures are Tokyo, - Osaka and Kioto, and the urban and rural districts are distinguished - according to the number of houses they contain. Each prefecture is - named after its chief town, with the exception of Okinawa, which is - the appellation of a group of islands called also Riukiu (Luchu). The - following table shows the names of the prefectures, their areas, - populations, number of sub-prefectures, towns and urban and rural - divisions:-- - - Prefecture. Area in Population Sub- Towns Urban Rural - sq. m. Prefectures. Districts Districts - - Tokyo 749.76 1,795,128* 8 1 20 157 - Kanagawa 927.79 776,642 11 1 19 202 - Saitama 1,585.30 1,174,094 9 -- 42 343 - Chiba 1,943.85 1,273,387 12 -- 69 286 - Ibaraki 2,235.67 1,131,556 14 1 45 335 - Tochigi 2,854.14 788,324 8 1 30 145 - Gumma 2,427.21 774,654 11 2 38 169 - Nagano 5,088.41 1,237,584 16 1 22 371 - Yamanashi 1,727.50 498,539 9 1 7 235 - Shizuoka 3,002.76 1,199,805 13 1 38 306 - Aichi 1,864.17 1,591,357 19 1 74 592 - Miye 2,196.56 495,389 15 2 19 325 - Gifu 4,001.84 996,062 18 1 42 299 - Shiga 1,540.30 712,024 12 1 12 190 - Fukui 1,621.50 633,840 11 1 9 171 - Ishikawa 1,611.59 392,905 8 1 16 259 - Toyama 1,587.80 785,554 8 2 31 239 - - The above 17 prefectures form Central Japan. - - Niigata 4,914.55 1,812,289 16 1 47 401 - Fukushima 5,042.57 1,057,971 17 1 37 388 - Miyagi 3,223.11 835,830 16 1 31 172 - Yamagata 3,576.89 829,210 11 2 24 206 - Akita 4,493.84 775,077 9 1 42 197 - - Iwate 5,359.17 726,380 13 1 23 217 - Aomori 3,617.89 612,171 8 2 9 159 - - The above 7 prefectures form Northern Japan. - - Kioto 1,767.43 931,576* 18 1 20 260 - Osaka 689.69 1,311,909* 9 2 13 289 - Nara 1,200.46 538,507 10 1 18 142 - Wakayama 1,851.29 681,572 7 1 16 215 - Hiogo 3,318.31 1,667,226 25 2 29 403 - Okayama 2,509.04 1,132,000 19 1 29 383 - Hiroshima 3,103.84 1,436,415 16 3 27 420 - Yamaguchi 1,324.34 986,161 11 1 10 215 - Shimane 2,597.48 721,448 16 1 14 276 - Tottori 1,335.99 418,929 6 1 8 227 - - The above 10 prefectures form Southern Japan. - - Tokushima 1,616.82 699,398 10 1 2 137 - Kagawa 976.46 700,462 7 2 12 166 - Ehime 2,033.57 997,481 12 1 18 283 - Kochi 2,720.13 616,549 6 1 14 183 - - The above 4 prefectures form the island of Shikoku. - - Nagasaki 1,401.49 821,323 9 2 15 288 - Saga 984.07 621,011 8 1 7 127 - Fukuoka 1,894.14 1,362,743 19 4 38 340 - Kumamoto 2,774.20 1,151,401 12 1 33 331 - Oita 2,400.27 839,485 12 -- 28 251 - Miyazaki 2,904.54 454,707 8 -- 9 91 - Kagoshima 3,589.76 1,104,631 12 1 -- 380 - Okinawa 935.18 469,203 5 2 -- 52 - - The above 8 prefectures form Kiushiu. - - Hokkaido 36,328.34 610,155 88 3 19 456 - - * This is not the population of the city proper, but that of the - urban prefecture. - -_Local Administrative System._--In the system of local administration -full effect is given to the principle of popular representation. Each -prefecture (urban or rural), each sub-prefecture, each town and each -district (urban or rural) has its local assembly, the number of members -being fixed in proportion to the population. There is no superior limit -of number in the case of a prefectural assembly, but the inferior limit -is 30. For a town assembly, however, the superior limit is 60 and the -inferior 30; for a sub-prefectural assembly the corresponding figures -are 40 and 15, and for a district assembly, 30 and 8. These bodies are -all elective. The property qualification for the franchise in the case -of prefectural and sub-prefectural assemblies is an annual payment of -direct national taxes to the amount of 3 _yen;_ and in the case of town -and district assemblies, 2 _yen_; while to be eligible for election to a -prefectural assembly a yearly payment of 10 _yen_ of direct national -taxes is necessary; to a sub-prefectural assembly, 5 _yen_, and to a -town or district assembly, 2 _yen_. Under these qualifications the -electors aggregate 2,009,745, and those eligible for election total -919,507. In towns and districts franchise-holders are further divided -into classes with regard to their payment of local taxes. Thus for town -electors there are three classes, differentiated by the following -process: On the list of ratepayers the highest are checked off until -their aggregate payments are equal to one-third of the total taxes. -These persons form the first class. Next below them the persons whose -aggregate payments represent one-third of the total amount are checked -off to form the second class, and all the remainder form the third -class. Each class elects one-third of the members of assembly. In the -districts there are only two classes, namely, those whose payments, in -order from the highest, aggregate one-half of the total, the remaining -names on the list being placed in the second class. Each class elects -one-half of the members. This is called the system of _o-jinushi_ (large -landowners) and is found to work satisfactorily as a device for -conferring representative rights in proportion to property. The -franchise is withheld from all salaried local officials, from judicial -officials, from ministers of religion, from persons who, not being -barristers by profession, assist the people in affairs connected with -law courts or official bureaux, and from every individual or member of a -company that contracts for the execution of public works or the supply -of articles to a local administration, as well as from persons unable to -write their own names and the name of the candidate for whom they vote. -Members of assembly are not paid. For prefectural and sub-prefectural -assemblies the term is four years; for town and district assemblies, six -years, with the provision that one-half of the members must be elected -every third year. The prefectural assemblies hold one session of 30 days -yearly; the sub-prefectural assemblies, one session of not more than 14 -days. The town and district assemblies have no fixed session; they are -summoned by the mayor or the head-man when their deliberations appear -necessary, and they continue in session till their business is -concluded. - - The chief function of the assemblies is to deal with all questions of - local finance. They discuss and vote the yearly budgets; they pass the - settled accounts; they fix the local taxes within a maximum limit - which bears a certain ratio to the national taxes; they make - representations to the minister for home affairs; they deal with the - fixed property of the locality; they raise loans, and so on. It is - necessary, however, that they should obtain the consent of the - minister for home affairs, and sometimes of the minister of finance - also, before disturbing any objects of scientific, artistic or - historical importance; before contracting loans; before imposing - special taxes or passing the normal limits of taxation; before - enacting new local regulations or changing the old; before dealing - with grants in aid made by the central treasury, &c. The governor of a - prefecture, who is appointed by the central administration, is - invested with considerable power. He oversees the carrying out of all - works undertaken at the public expense; he causes bills to be drafted - for discussion by an assembly; he is responsible for the - administration of the funds and property of the prefecture; he orders - payments and receipts; he directs the machinery for collecting taxes - and fees; he summons a prefectural assembly, opens it and closes it, - and has competence to suspend its session should such a course seem - necessary. Many of the functions performed by the governor with regard - to prefectural assemblies are discharged by a head-man (_gun-cho_) in - the case of sub-prefectural assemblies. This head-man is a salaried - official appointed by the central administration. He convenes, opens - and closes the sub-prefectural assembly; he may require it to - reconsider any of its financial decisions that seem improper, - explaining his reasons for doing so, and should the assembly adhere to - its original view, he may refer the matter to the governor of the - prefecture. On the other hand, the assembly is competent to appeal to - the home minister from the governor's decision. The sub-prefectural - head-man may also take upon himself, in case of emergency, any of the - functions falling within the competence of the sub-prefectural - assembly, provided that he reports the fact to the assembly and seeks - its sanction at the earliest possible opportunity. In each district - also there is a head-man, but his post is always elective and - generally non-salaried. He occupies towards a district assembly the - same position that the sub-prefecture head-man holds towards a - sub-prefectural assembly. Over the governors stands the minister for - home affairs, who discharges general duties of superintendence and - sanction, has competence to delete any item of a local budget, and - may, with the emperor's consent, order the dissolution of a local - assembly, provided that steps are taken to elect and convene another - within three months. - - The machinery of local administration is completed by councils, of - which the governor of a prefecture, the mayor[11] of a town, or the - head-man of a sub-prefecture or district, is _ex officio_ president, - and the councillors are partly elective, partly nominated by the - central government. The councils may be said to stand in an executive - position towards the local legislatures, namely, the assemblies, for - the former give effect to the measures voted by the latter, take their - place in case of emergency and consider questions submitted by them. - This system of local government has now been in operation since 1885, - and has been found to work well. It constitutes a thorough method of - political education for the people. In feudal days popular - representation had no existence, but a very effective chain of local - responsibility was manufactured by dividing the people--apart from the - samurai--into groups of five families, which were held jointly liable - for any offence committed by one of their members. Thus it cannot be - said that the people were altogether unprepared for this new system. - - - The Ancient System. - -_The Army._--The Japanese--as distinguished from the aboriginal -inhabitants of Japan--having fought their way into the country, are -naturally described in their annals as a nation of soldiers. The -sovereign is said to have been the commander-in-chief and his captains -were known as _o-omi_ and _o-muraji_, while the duty of serving in the -ranks devolved on all subjects alike. This information is indeed -derived from tradition only, since the first written record goes back -no further than 712. We are justified, however, in believing that at the -close of the 7th century of the Christian era, when the empress Jito sat -upon the throne, the social system of the Tang dynasty of China -commended itself for adoption; the distinction of civil and military is -said to have been then established for the first time, though it -probably concerned officials only. Certain officers received definitely -military commissions, as generals, brigadiers, captains and so on; a -military office (_hyobu-sho_) was organized, and each important district -throughout the empire had its military division (_gundan_). -One-third--some say one-fourth--of the nation's able-bodied males -constituted the army. Tactically there was a complete organization, from -the squad of 5 men to the division of 600 horse and 400 foot. Service -was for a defined period, during which taxes were remitted, so that -military duties always found men ready to discharge them. Thus the -hereditary soldier--afterwards known as the _samurai_ or _bushi_--did -not yet exist, nor was there any such thing as an exclusive right to -carry arms. Weapons of war, the property of the state, were served out -when required for fighting or for training purposes. - -At the close of the 8th century stubborn insurrections on the part of -the aborigines gave new importance to the soldier. The conscription list -had to be greatly increased, and it came to be a recognized principle -that every stalwart man should bear arms, every weakling become a -bread-winner. Thus, for the first time, the distinction between -"soldier" and "working man"[12] received official recognition, and in -consequence of the circumstances attending the distinction a measure of -contempt attached to the latter. The next stage of development had its -origin in the assumption of high offices of state by great families, who -encroached upon the imperial prerogatives, and appropriated as -hereditary perquisites posts which should have remained in the gift of -the sovereign. The Fujiwara clan, taking all the civil offices, resided -in the capital, whereas the military posts fell to the lot of the Taira -and the Minamoto, who, settling in the provinces and being thus required -to guard and police the outlying districts, found it expedient to -surround themselves with men who made soldiering a profession. These -latter, in their turn, transmitted their functions to their sons, so -that there grew up in the shadow of the great houses a number of -military families devoted to maintaining the power and promoting the -interests of their masters, from whom they derived their own privileges -and emoluments. - -From the middle of the 10th century, therefore, the terms _samurai_ and -_bushi_ acquired a special significance, being applied to themselves and -their followers by the local magnates, whose power tended more and more -to eclipse even that of the throne, and finally, in the 12th century, -when the Minamoto brought the whole country under the sway of military -organization, the privilege of bearing arms was restricted to the -samurai. Thenceforth the military class entered upon a period of -administrative and social superiority which lasted, without serious -interruption, until the middle of the 19th century. But it is to be -observed that the distinction between soldier and civilian, samurai and -commoner, was not of ancient existence, nor did it arise from any -question of race or caste, victor or vanquished, as is often supposed -and stated. It was an outcome wholly of ambitious usurpations, which, -relying for success on force of arms, gave practical importance to the -soldier, and invested his profession with factitious honour. - - - Weapons. - - The bow was always the chief weapon of the fighting-man in Japan. - "War" and "bow-and-arrow" were synonymous terms. Tradition tells how - Tametomo shot an arrow through the crest of his brother's helmet, in - order to recall the youth's allegiance without injuring him; how - Nasuno Michitaka discharged a shaft that severed the stem of a fan - swayed by the wind; how Mutsuru, ordered by an emperor to rescue a - fish from the talons of an osprey without killing bird or fish, cut - off the osprey's feet with a crescent-headed arrow so that the fish - dropped into the palace lake and the bird continued its flight; and - there are many similar records of Japanese skill with the weapon. - Still better authenticated were the feats performed at the - "thirty-three-span halls" in Kioto and Yedo, where the archer had to - shoot an arrow through the whole length of a corridor 128 yards long - and only 16 ft. high. Wada Daihachi, in the 17th century, succeeded in - sending 8133 arrows from end to end of the corridor in 24 consecutive - hours, being an average of over 5 shafts per minute; and Masatoki, in - 1852, made 5383 successful shots in 20 hours, more than 4 a minute. - The lengths of the bow and arrow were determined with reference to the - capacity of the archer. In the case of the bow, the unit of - measurement was the distance between the tips of the thumb and the - little finger with the hand fully stretched. Fifteen of these units - gave the length of the bow--the maximum being about 7(1/2) ft. The - unit for the arrow was from 12 to 15 hand-breadths, or from 3 ft. to - 3(3/4) ft. Originally the bow was of unvarnished boxwood or _zelkowa_; - but subsequently bamboo alone came to be employed. Binding with cord - or rattan served to strengthen the bow, and for precision of flight - the arrow had three feathers, an eagle's wing being most esteemed for - that purpose, and after it, in order, that of the copper pheasant, the - crane, the adjutant and the snipe. - - Next in importance to the bow came the sword, which is often spoken of - as the samurai's chief weapon, though there can be no doubt that - during long ages it ranked after the bow. It was a single-edged weapon - remarkable for its three exactly similar curves--edge, face-line and - back; its almost imperceptibly convexed blade; its admirable - tempering; its consummately skilled forging; its razor-like sharpness; - its cunning distribution of weight, giving a maximum efficiency of - stroke. The 10th century saw this weapon carried to perfection, and it - has been inferred that only from that epoch did the samurai begin to - esteem his sword as the greatest treasure he possessed, and to rely on - it as his best instrument of attack and defence. But it is evident - that the evolution of such a blade must have been due to an urgent, - long-existing demand, and that the _katana_ came as the sequel of - innumerable efforts on the part of the sword-smith and generous - encouragement on that of the soldier. Many pages of Japanese annals - and household traditions are associated with its use. In every age - numbers of men devoted their whole lives to acquiring novel skill in - swordsmanship. Many of them invented systems of their own, differing - from one another in some subtle details unknown to any save the master - himself and his favourite pupils. Not merely the method of handling - the weapon had to be studied. Associated with sword-play was an art - variously known as _shinobi_, _yawara_, and _jujutsu_, names which - imply the exertion of muscular force in such a manner as to produce a - maximum of effect with a minimum of effort, by directing an - adversary's strength so as to become auxiliary to one's own. It was an - essential element of the expert's art not only that he should be - competent to defend himself with any object that happened to be within - reach, but also that without an orthodox weapon he should be capable - of inflicting fatal or disabling injury on an assailant. In the many - records of great swordsmen instances are related of men seizing a - piece of firewood, a brazier-iron, or a druggist's pestle as a weapon - of offence, while, on the other side, an umbrella, an iron fan or even - a pot-lid served for protection. The samurai had to be prepared for - every emergency. Were he caught weaponless by a number of assailants, - his art of yawara was supposed to supply him with expedients for - emerging unscathed. Nothing counted save the issue. The methods of - gaining victory or the circumstances attending defeat were scarcely - taken into consideration. The true samurai had to rise superior to all - contingencies. Out of this perpetual effort on the part of hundreds of - experts to discover and perfect novel developments of swordsmanship, - there grew a habit which held its vogue down to modern times, namely, - that when a man had mastered one style of sword-play in the school of - a teacher, he set himself to study all others, and for that purpose - undertook a tour throughout the provinces, challenging every expert, - and, in the event of defeat, constituting himself the victor's pupil. - The sword exercised a potent influence on the life of the Japanese - nation. The distinction of wearing it, the rights that it conferred, - the deeds wrought with it, the fame attaching to special skill in its - use, the superstitions connected with it, the incredible value set - upon a fine blade, the honours bestowed on an expert sword-smith, the - traditions that had grown up around celebrated weapons, the profound - study needed to be a competent judge of a sword's qualities--all these - things conspired to give the katana an importance beyond the limits of - ordinary comprehension. A samurai carried at least two swords, a long - and a short. Their scabbards of lacquered wood were thrust into his - girdle, not slung from it, being fastened in their place by cords of - plaited silk. Sometimes he increased the number of swords to three, - four or even five, before going into battle, and this array was - supplemented by a dagger carried in the bosom. The short sword was not - employed in the actual combat. Its use was to cut off an enemy's head - after overthrowing him, and it also served a defeated soldier in his - last resort--suicide. In general the long sword did not measure more - than 3 ft., including the hilt; but some were 5 ft. long, and some 7. - Considering that the scabbard, being fastened to the girdle, had no - play, the feat of drawing one of these very long swords demanded - extraordinary aptitude. - - Spear and glaive were also ancient Japanese weapons. The oldest form - of spear was derived from China. Its handle measured about 6 ft. and - its blade 8 in., and it had sickle-shaped horns at the junction of - blade and hilt (somewhat resembling a European _ranseur_). This weapon - served almost exclusively for guarding palisades and gates. In the - 14th century a true lance came into use. Its length varied greatly, - and it had a hog-backed blade tempered almost as finely as the sword - itself. This, too, was a Chinese type, as was also the glaive. The - glaive (_naginata_, long sword) was a scimitar-like blade, some 3 ft. - in length, fixed on a slightly longer haft. Originally the warlike - monks alone employed this weapon, but from the 12th century it found - much favour among military men. Ultimately, however, its use may be - said to have been limited to women and priests. The spear, however, - formed a useful adjunct of the sword, for whereas the latter could not - be used except by troops in very loose formation, the former served - for close-order fighting. - - - Armour. - - Japanese armour (_gusoku_) may be broadly described as plate armour, - but the essential difference between it and the European type was - that, whereas the latter took its shape from the body, the former - neither resembled nor was intended to resemble ordinary garments. - Hence the only changes that occurred in Japanese armour from - generation to generation had their origin in improved methods of - construction. In general appearance it differed from the panoply of - all other nations, so that, although to its essential parts we may - apply with propriety the European terms--helmet, corselet, - &c.--individually and in combination these parts were not at all like - the originals of those names. Perhaps the easiest way of describing - the difference is to say that whereas a European knight seemed to be - clad in a suit of metal clothes, a Japanese samurai looked as if he - wore protective curtains. The Japanese armour was, in fact, suspended - from, rather than fitted to, the person. Only one of its elements - found a counterpart in the European suit, namely, a tabard, which, in - the case of men of rank, was made of the richest brocade. Iron and - leather were the chief materials, and as the laminae were strung - together with a vast number of coloured cords--silk or leather--an - appearance of considerable brilliancy was produced. Ornamentation did - not stop there. Plating and inlaying with gold and silver, and finely - wrought decoration in chiselled, inlaid and _repousse_ work were - freely applied. On the whole, however, despite the highly artistic - character of its ornamentation, the loose, pendulous nature of - Japanese armour detracted greatly from its workmanlike aspect, - especially when the _horo_ was added--a curious appendage in the shape - of a curtain of fine transparent silk, which was either stretched in - front between the horns of the helmet and the tip of the bow, or worn - on the shoulders and back, the purpose in either case being to turn - the point of an arrow. A true samurai observed strict rules of - etiquette with regard even to the garments worn under his armour, and - it was part of his soldierly capacity to be able to bear the great - weight of the whole without loss of activity, a feat impossible to any - untrained man of modern days. Common soldiers were generally content - with a comparatively light helmet and a corselet. - - - War-horses. - - The Japanese never had a war-horse worthy to be so called. The - mis-shapen ponies which carried them to battle showed qualities of - hardiness and endurance, but were so deficient in stature and - massiveness that when mounted by a man in voluminous armour they - looked painfully puny. Nothing is known of the early Japanese saddle, - but at the beginning of historic times it approximated closely to the - Chinese type. Subsequently a purely Japanese shape was designed. It - consisted of a wooden frame so constructed that a padded numnah could - be fastened to it. Galled backs or withers were unknown with such a - saddle: it fitted any horse. The stirrup, originally a simple affair - resembling that of China and Europe, afterwards took the form of a - shoe-sole with upturned toe. Both stirrups and saddle-frame were often - of beautiful workmanship, the former covered with rich gold lacquer, - the latter inlaid with gold or silver. In the latter part of the - military epoch chain-armour was adopted for the horse, and its head - was protected by a monster-faced mask of iron. - - - Early Strategy and Tactics. - -Flags were used in battle as well as on ceremonial occasions. Some were -monochrome, as the red and white flags of the Taira and the Minamoto -clans in their celebrated struggle during the 12th century; and some -were streamers emblazoned with figures of the sun, the moon, a dragon, a -tiger and so forth, or with religious legends. Fans with iron ribs were -carried by commanding officers, and signals to advance or retreat were -given by beating drums and metal gongs and blowing conches. During the -military epoch a campaign was opened or a contest preluded by a human -sacrifice to the god of war, the victim at this rite of blood -(_chi-matsuri_) being generally a prisoner or a condemned criminal. -Although ambuscades and surprises played a large part in all strategy, -pitched battles were the general rule, and it was essential that notice -of an intention to attack should be given by discharging a singing -arrow. Thereafter the assaulting army, taking the word from its -commander, raised a shout of "Ei! Ei!" to which the other side replied, -and the formalities having been thus satisfied, the fight commenced. In -early medieval days tactics were of the crudest description. An army -consisted of a congeries of little bands, each under the order of a -chief who considered himself independent, and instead of subordinating -his movements to a general plan, struck a blow wherever he pleased. From -time immemorial a romantic value has attached in Japan to the first of -anything: the first snow of winter; the first water drawn from the well -on New Year's Day; the first blossom of the spring; the first note of -the nightingale. So in war the first to ride up to the foe or the -wielder of the first spear was held in high honour, and a samurai strove -for that distinction as his principal duty. It necessarily resulted, -too, not only from the nature of the weapons employed, but also from the -immense labour devoted by the true samurai to perfecting himself in -their use, that displays of individual prowess were deemed the chief -object in a battle. Some tactical formations borrowed from China were -familiar in Japan, but their intelligent use and their modification to -suit the circumstances of the time were inaugurated only by the great -captains of the 15th and 16th centuries. Prior to that epoch a battle -resembled a gigantic fencing match. Men fought as individuals, not as -units of a tactical formation, and the engagement consisted of a number -of personal duels, all in simultaneous progress. It was the samurai's -habit to proclaim his name and titles in the presence of the enemy, -sometimes adding from his own record or his father's any details that -might tend to dispirit his hearers. Then some one advancing to cross -weapons with him would perform the same ceremony of self-introduction, -and if either found anything to upbraid in the other's antecedents or -family history, he did not fail to make loud reference to it, such a -device being counted efficacious as a means of disturbing an adversary's -_sang-froid_, though the principle underlying the mutual introduction -was courtesy. The duellists could reckon on finishing their fight -undisturbed, but the victor frequently had to endure the combined -assault of a number of the comrades or retainers of the vanquished. Of -course a skilled swordsman did not necessarily seek a single combat; he -was equally ready to ride into the thick of the fight without -discrimination, and a group of common soldiers never hesitated to make a -united attack upon a mounted officer if they found him disengaged. But -the general feature of a battle was individual contests, and when the -fighting had ceased, each samurai proceeded to the tent[13] of the -commanding officer and submitted for inspection the heads of those whom -he had killed. - - - Change of Tactics. - -The disadvantage of such a mode of fighting was demonstrated for the -first time when the Mongols invaded Japan in 1274. The invaders moved in -phalanx, guarding themselves with pavises, and covering their advance -with a host of archers shooting clouds of poisoned arrows.[14] When a -Japanese samurai advanced singly and challenged one of them to combat, -they opened their ranks, enclosed the challenger and cut him to pieces. -Many Japanese were thus slain, and it was not until they made a -concerted movement of attack that they produced any effect upon the -enemy. But although the advantage of massing strength seems to have been -recognized, the Japanese themselves did not adopt the formation which -the Mongols had shown to be so formidable. Individual prowess continued -to be the prominent factor in battles down to a comparatively recent -period. The great captains Takeda Shingen and Uyesugi Kenshin are -supposed to have been Japan's pioneer tacticians. They certainly -appreciated the value of a formation in which the action of the -individual should be subordinated to the unity of the whole. But when it -is remembered that fire-arms had already been in the hands of the -Japanese for several years, and that they had means of acquainting -themselves with the tactics of Europe through their intercourse with -the Dutch, it is remarkable that the changes attributed to Takeda and -Uyesugi were not more drastic. Speaking broadly, what they did was to -organize a column with the musqueteers and archers in front; the -spearmen and swordsmen in the second line; the cavalry in the third -line; the commanding officer in the rear, and the drums and standards in -the centre. At close quarters the spear proved a highly effective -weapon, and in the days of Hideyoshi (1536-1598) combined flank and -front attacks by bands of spearmen became a favourite device. The -importance of a strong reserve also received recognition, and in theory, -at all events, a tolerably intelligent system of tactics was adopted. -But not until the close of the 17th century did the doctrine of strictly -disciplined action obtain practical vogue. Yamaga Soko is said to have -been the successful inculcator of this principle, and from his time the -most approved tactical formation was known as the _Yamagaryu_ (Yamaga -style), though it showed no other innovation than strict subordination -of each unit to the general plan. - - - Military Principles. - -Although, tactically speaking, the samurai was everything and the system -nothing before the second half of the 17th century, and although -strategy was chiefly a matter of deception, surprises and ambushes, it -must not be supposed that there were no classical principles. The -student of European military history searches in vain for the rules and -maxims of war so often invoked by glib critics, but the student of -Japanese history is more successful. Here, as in virtually every field -of things Japanese, retrospect discovers the ubiquitous Chinaman. The -treatises of Sung and 'Ng (called in Japan Son and Go) Chinese generals -of the third century after Christ, were the classics of Far-Eastern -captains through all generations. (See _The Book of War_, tr. E. F. -Calthrop, 1908.) Yoshitsune, in the 12th century, deceived a loving girl -to obtain a copy of Sung's work which her father had in his possession, -and Yamaga, in the 17th century, when he set himself to compose a book -on tactics, derived his materials almost entirely from the two Chinese -monographs. These treatises came into the hands of the Japanese in the -8th century, when the celebrated Kibi no Mabi went to study civilization -in China, just as his successors of the 19th century went to study a new -civilization in Europe and America. Thenceforth Son and Go became -household words among Japanese soldiers. Their volumes were to the -samurai what the _Mahayana_ was to the Buddhist. They were believed to -have collected whatever of good had preceded them, and to have forecast -whatever of good the future might produce. The character of their -strategic methods, somewhat analogous to those of 18th-century Europe, -may be gathered from the following:-- - - "An army undertaking an offensive campaign must be twice as numerous - as the enemy. A force investing a fortress should be numerically ten - times the garrison. When the adversary holds high ground, turn his - flank; do not deliver a frontal attack. When he has a mountain or a - river behind him, cut his lines of communication. If he deliberately - assumes a position from which victory is his only escape, hold him - there, but do not molest him. If you can surround him, leave one route - open for his escape, since desperate men fight fiercely. When you have - to cross a river, put your advance-guard and your rear-guard at a - distance from the banks. When the enemy has to cross a river, let him - get well engaged in the operation before you strike at him. In a - march, make celerity your first object. Pass no copse, enter no - ravine, nor approach any thicket until your scouts have explored it - fully." - -Such precepts are multiplied; but when these ancient authors discuss -tactical formations, they do not seem to have contemplated anything like -rapid, well-ordered changes of mobile, highly trained masses of men from -one formation to another, or their quick transfer from point to point of -a battlefield. The basis of their tactics is _The Book of Changes_. Here -again is encountered the superstition that underlies nearly all Chinese -and Japanese institutions: the superstition that took captive even the -great mind of Confucius. The positive and the negative principles; the -sympathetic and the antipathetic elements; cosmos growing out of chaos; -chaos re-absorbing cosmos--on such fancies they founded their tactical -system. The result was a phalanx of complicated organization, difficult -to manoeuvre and liable to be easily thrown into confusion. Yet when -Yamaga in the 17th century interpreted these ancient Chinese treatises, -he detected in them suggestions for a very shrewd use of the principle -of echelon, and applied it to devise formations which combined much of -the frontal expansion of the line with the solidity of the column. More -than that cannot be said for Japanese tactical genius. The samurai was -the best fighting unit in the Orient--probably one of the best fighting -units the world ever produced. It was perhaps because of that excellence -that his captains remained indifferent tacticians. - - - Ethics of the Samurai. - -In estimating the military capacity of the Japanese, it is essential to -know something of the ethical code of the samurai, the _bushido_ (way of -the warrior) as it was called. A typical example of the rules of conduct -prescribed by feudal chieftains is furnished in the code of Kato -Kiyomasa, a celebrated general of the 16th century:-- - - _Regulations for Samurai of every Rank; the Highest and Lowest alike._ - - 1. The routine of service must be strictly observed. From 6 a.m. - military exercises shall be practised. Archery, gunnery and - horsemanship must not be neglected. If any man shows exceptional - proficiency he shall receive extra pay. - - 2. Those that desire recreation may engage in hawking, deer-hunting or - wrestling. - - 3. With regard to dress, garments of cotton or pongee shall be worn. - Any man incurring debts owing to extravagance of costume or living - shall be considered a law-breaker. If, however, being zealous in the - practice of military arts suitable to his rank, he desires to hire - instructors, an allowance may be granted to him for that purpose. - - 4. The staple of diet shall be unhulled rice. At social entertainments - one guest for one host is the proper limit. Only when men are - assembled for military exercises shall many dine together. - - 5. It is the duty of every samurai to make himself acquainted with the - principles of his craft. Extravagant displays of adornment are - forbidden in battle. - - 6. Dancing or organizing dances is unlawful; it is likely to betray - sword-carrying men into acts of violence. Whatever a man does should - be done with his heart. Therefore for the soldier military amusements - alone are suitable. The penalty for violating this provision is death - by suicide. - - 7. Learning shall be encouraged. Military books must be read. The - spirit of loyalty and filial piety must be educated before all things. - Poem-composing pastimes are not to be engaged in by samurai. To be - addicted to such amusements is to resemble a woman. A man born a - samurai should live and die sword in hand. Unless he is thus trained - in time of peace, he will be useless in the hour of stress. To be - brave and warlike must be his invariable condition. - - 8. Whosoever finds these rules too severe shall be relieved from - service. Should investigation show that any one is so unfortunate as - to lack manly qualities, he shall be singled out and dismissed - forthwith. The imperative character of these instructions must not be - doubted. - -The plainly paramount purpose of these rules was to draw a sharp line of -demarcation between the samurai and the courtiers living in Kioto. The -dancing, the couplet-composing, the sumptuous living and the fine -costumes of the officials frequenting the imperial capital were strictly -interdicted by the feudatories. Frugality, fealty and filial -piety--these may be called the fundamental virtues of the samurai. Owing -to the circumstances out of which his caste had grown, he regarded all -bread-winning pursuits with contempt, and despised money. To be swayed -in the smallest degree by mercenary motives was despicable in his eyes. -Essentially a stoic, he made self-control the ideal of his existence, -and practised the courageous endurance of suffering so thoroughly that -he could without hesitation inflict on his own body pain of the most -horrible description. Nor can the courage of the samurai justly be -ascribed to bluntness of moral sensibility resulting from semi-savage -conditions of life. From the 8th century onwards the current of -existence in Japan set with general steadiness in the direction of -artistic refinement and voluptuous luxury, amidst which men could -scarcely fail to acquire habits and tastes inconsistent with acts of -high courage and great endurance. The samurai's mood was not a product -of semi-barbarism, but rather a protest against emasculating -civilization. He schooled himself to regard death by his own hand as a -normal eventuality. The story of other nations shows epochs when death -was welcomed as a relief and deliberately invited as a refuge from the -mere weariness of living. But wherever there has been liberty to choose, -and leisure to employ, a painless mode of exit from the world, men have -invariably selected it. The samurai, however, adopted in _harakiri_ -(disembowelment) a mode of suicide so painful and so shocking that to -school the mind to regard it with indifference and perform it without -flinching was a feat not easy to conceive. Assistance was often rendered -by a friend who stood ready to decapitate the victim immediately after -the stomach had been gashed; but there were innumerable examples of men -who consummated the tragedy without aid, especially when the sacrifice -of life was by way of protest against the excesses of a feudal chief or -the crimes of a ruler, or when some motive for secrecy existed. It must -be observed that the suicide of the samurai was never inspired by any -doctrine like that of Hegesias. Death did not present itself to him as a -legitimate means of escaping from the cares and disappointments of life. -Self-destruction had only one consolatory aspect, that it was the -soldier's privilege to expiate a crime with his own sword, not under the -hand of the executioner. It rested with his feudal chief to determine -his guilt, and his peremptory duty was never to question the justice of -an order to commit suicide, but to obey without murmur or protest. For -the rest, the general motives for suicide were to escape falling into -the hands of a victorious enemy, to remonstrate against some official -abuse which no ordinary complaint could reach, or, by means of a dying -protest, to turn a liege lord from pursuing courses injurious to his -reputation and his fortune. This last was the noblest and by no means -the most infrequent reason for suicide. Scores of examples are recorded -of men who, with everything to make existence desirable, deliberately -laid down their lives at the prompting of loyalty. Thus the samurai rose -to a remarkable height of moral nobility. He had no assurance that his -death might not be wholly fruitless, as indeed it often proved. If the -sacrifice achieved its purpose, if it turned a liege lord from evil -courses, the samurai could hope that his memory would be honoured. But -if the lord resented such a violent and conspicuous mode of reproving -his excesses, then the faithful vassal's retribution would be an -execrated memory and, perhaps, suffering for his family and relatives. -Yet the deed was performed again and again. It remains to be noted that -the samurai entertained a high respect for the obligations of truth; "A -bushi has no second word," was one of his favourite mottoes. However, a -reservation is necessary here. The samurai's doctrine was not truth for -truth's sake, but truth for the sake of the spirit of uncompromising -manliness on which he based all his code of morality. A pledge or a -promise must never be broken, but the duty of veracity did not override -the interests or the welfare of others. Generosity to a defeated foe was -also one of the tenets of the samurai's ethics. History contains many -instances of the exercise of that quality. - - - Religious Influence. - -Something more, however, than a profound conception of duty was needed -to nerve the samurai for sacrifices such as he seems to have been always -ready to make. It is true that Japanese parents of the military class -took pains to familiarize their children of both sexes from very tender -years with the idea of self-destruction at any time. But superadded to -the force of education and the incentive of tradition there was a -transcendental influence. Buddhism supplied it. The tenets of that creed -divided themselves, broadly speaking, into two doctrines, salvation by -faith and salvation by works, and the chief exponent of the latter -principle is the sect which prescribes meditation as the vehicle of -enlightenment. Whatever be the mental processes induced by this rite, -those who have practised it insist that it leads finally to a state of -absorption, in which the mind is flooded by an illumination revealing -the universe in a new aspect, absolutely free from all traces of -passion, interest or affection, and showing, written across everything -in flaming letters, the truth that for him who has found Buddha there is -neither birth nor death, growth nor decay. Lifted high above his -surroundings, he is prepared to meet every fate with indifference. The -attainment of that state seems to have been a fact in the case both of -the samurai of the military epoch and of the Japanese soldier to-day. - - - Abolition of the Samurai. - -The policy of seclusion adopted by the Tokugawa administration after the -Shimabara insurrection included an order that no samurai should acquire -foreign learning. Nevertheless some knowledge could not fail to filter -in through the Dutch factory at Deshima, and thus, a few years before -the advent of the American ships, Takashima Shuhan, governor of -Nagasaki, becoming persuaded of the fate his country must invite if she -remained oblivious of the world's progress, memorialized the Yedo -government in the sense that, unless Japan improved her weapons of war -and reformed her military system, she could not escape humiliation such -as had just overtaken China. He obtained small arms and field-guns of -modern type from Holland, and, repairing to Yedo with a company of men -trained according to the new tactics, he offered an object lesson for -the consideration of the conservative officials. They answered by -throwing him into prison. But Egawa, one of his retainers, proved a -still more zealous reformer, and his foresight being vindicated by the -appearance of the American war-vessels in 1853, he won the government's -confidence and was entrusted with the work of planning and building -forts at Shinagawa and Shimoda. At Egawa's instance rifles and cannon -were imported largely from Europe, and their manufacture was commenced -in Japan, a powder-mill also being established with machinery obtained -from Holland. Finally, in 1862, the shogun's government adopted the -military system of the West, and organized three divisions of all arms, -with a total strength of 13,600 officers and men. Disbanded at the fall -of the shogunate in 1867, this force nevertheless served as a model for -a similar organization under the imperial government, and in the -meanwhile the principal fiefs had not been idle, some--as -Satsuma--adopting English tactics, others following France or Germany, -and a few choosing Dutch. There appeared upon the stage at this juncture -a great figure in the person of Omura Masujiro, a samurai of the Choshu -clan. He established Japan's first military school at Kioto in 1868; he -attempted to substitute for the hereditary soldier conscripts taken from -all classes of the people, and he conceived the plan of dividing the -whole empire into six military districts. An assassin's dagger removed -him on the threshold of these great reforms, but his statue now stands -in Tokyo and his name is spoken with reverence by all his countrymen. In -1870 Yamagata Aritomo (afterwards Field-Marshal Prince Yamagata) and -Saigo Tsugumichi (afterwards Field-Marshal Marquis Saigo) returned from -a tour of military inspection in Europe, and in 1872 they organized a -corps of Imperial guards, taken from the three clans which had been -conspicuous in the work of restoring the administrative power to the -sovereign, namely, the clans of Satsuma, Choshu and Tosa. They also -established garrisons in Tokyo, Sendai, Osaka and Kumamoto, thus placing -the military authority in the hands of the central government. Reforms -followed quickly. In 1872, the _hyobusho_, an office which controlled -all matters relating to war, was replaced by two departments, one of war -and one of the navy, and, in 1873, an imperial decree substituted -universal conscription for the system of hereditary militarism. Many -persons viewed this experiment with deep misgiving. They feared that it -would not only alienate the samurai, but also entrust the duty of -defending the country to men unfitted by tradition and custom for such a -task, namely, the farmers, artisans and tradespeople, who, after -centuries of exclusion from the military pale, might be expected to have -lost all martial spirit. The government, however, was not deterred by -these apprehensions. It argued that since the distinction of samurai and -commoner had not originally existed, and since the former was a product -simply of accidental conditions, there was no valid reason to doubt the -military capacity of the people at large. The justice of this reasoning -was put to a conclusive test a few years later. Originally the period of -service with the colours was fixed at 3 years, that of service with the -first and second reserves being 2 years each. One of the serious -difficulties encountered at the outset was that samurai conscripts were -too proud to stand in the ranks with common rustics or artisans, and -above all to obey the commands of plebeian officers. But patriotism soon -overcame this obstacle. The whole country--with the exception of the -northern island, Yezo--was parcelled out into six military districts -(headquarters Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Sendai, Hiroshima and Kumamoto) each -furnishing a division of all arms and services. There was also from 1876 -a guards division in Tokyo. The total strength on a peace footing was -31,680 of all arms, and on a war footing, 46,350. The defence of Yezo -was entrusted to a colonial militia. It may well be supposed that to -find competent officers for this army greatly perplexed its organizers. -The military school--now in Tokyo but originally founded by Omura in -Kioto--had to turn out graduates at high pressure, and private soldiers -who showed any special aptitude were rapidly promoted to positions of -command. French military instructors were engaged, and the work of -translating manuals was carried out with all celerity. In 1877, this new -army of conscripts had to endure a crucial test: it had to take the -field against the Satsuma samurai, the very flower of their class, who -in that year openly rebelled against the Tokyo government. The campaign -lasted eight months; as there had not yet been time to form the -reserves, the Imperial forces were soon seriously reduced in number by -casualties in the field and by disease, the latter claiming many victims -owing to defective commissariat. It thus became necessary to have -recourse to volunteers, but as these were for the most part samurai, the -expectation was that their hereditary instinct of fighting would -compensate for lack of training. That expectation was not fulfilled. -Serving side by side in the field, the samurai volunteer and the -heimin[15] regular were found to differ by precisely the degree of their -respective training. The fact was thus finally established that the -fighting qualities of the farmer and artisan reached as high a standard -as those of the bushi. - - Thenceforth the story of the Japanese army is one of steady progress - and development. In 1878, the military duties of the empire were - divided among three offices: namely, the army department, the general - staff and the inspection department, while the six divisions of troops - were organized into three army corps. - - In 1879, the total period of colour and reserve service became 10 - years. In 1883 the period was extended to 12 years, the list of - exemptions was abbreviated, and above all substitution was no longer - allowed. Great care was devoted to the training of officers; promotion - went by merit, and at least ten of the most promising officers were - sent abroad every year to study. A comprehensive system of education - for the rank and file was organized. Great difficulty was experienced - in procuring horses suitable for cavalry, and indeed the Japanese army - long remained weak in this arm. In 1886, the whole littoral of the - empire was divided into five districts, each with its admiralty and - its naval port, and the army being made responsible for coast defence, - a battery construction corps was formed. Moreover, an exhaustive - scheme was elaborated to secure full co-operation between the army and - navy. In 1888 the seven divisions of the army first found themselves - prepared to take the field, and, in 1893, a revised system of - mobilization was sanctioned, to be put into operation the following - year, for the Chino-Japanese War (q.v.). At this period the division, - mobilized for service in the field, consisted of 12 battalions of - infantry, 3 troops of cavalry, 4 batteries of field and 2 of mountain - artillery, 2 companies of sappers and train, totalling 18,492 of all - arms with 5633 horses. The guards had only 8 battalions and 4 - batteries (field). The field army aggregated over 120,000, with 168 - field and 72 mountain guns, and the total of all forces, field, - garrison and depot, was 220,580 of all arms, with 47,220 horses and - 294 guns. Owing, however, to various modifications necessitated by - circumstances, the numbers actually on duty were over 240,000, with - 6495 non-combatant employees and about 100,000 coolies who acted as - carriers. The infantry were armed with the Murata single-loader rifle, - but the field artillery was inferior, and the only two divisions - equipped with magazine rifles and smokeless powder never came into - action. The experiences gained in this war bore large fruit. The total - term of service with the colours and the reserves was slightly - increased; the colonial militia of Yezo (Hokkaido) was organized as a - seventh line division; 5 new divisions were added, bringing the whole - number of divisions to 13 (including the guards); a mixed brigade was - stationed in Formosa (then newly added to Japan's dominions); a high - military council composed of field-marshals was created; the cavalry - was brigaded; the garrison artillery was increased; strenuous efforts - were made to improve the education of officers and men; and lastly, - sanitary arrangements underwent much modification. An arsenal had been - established in Tokyo, in 1868, for the manufacture of small arms and - small-arm ammunition; this was followed by an arsenal in Osaka for the - manufacture of guns and gun-ammunition; four powder factories were - opened, and in later years big-gun factories at Kure and Mororan. - Japan was able to make 12-inch guns in 1902, and her capacity for this - kind of work was in 1909 second to none. She has her own patterns of - rifle and field gun, so that she is independent of foreign aid so far - as armaments are concerned. In 1900, she sent a force to North China - to assist in the campaign for the relief of the foreign legations in - Peking, and on that occasion her troops were able to observe at first - hand the qualities and methods of European soldiers. In 1904 took - place the great war with Russia (see RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR). After the - war important changes were made in the direction of augmenting and - improving the armed forces. The number of divisions was increased to - 19 (including the guards), of which one division is for service in - Korea and one for service in Manchuria. Various technical corps were - organized, as well as horse artillery, heavy field artillery and - machine-gun units. The field-gun was replaced by a quick-firer - manufactured at Osaka, and much attention was given to the question of - remounts--for, both in the war with China and in that with Russia, the - horsing of the cavalry had been poor. Perhaps the most far-reaching - change in all armies of late years is the shortening of the term of - service with the colours to 2 years for the infantry, 3 years - remaining the rule for other arms. This was adopted by Japan after the - war, the infantry period of service with the reserves being extended - to 14{1/3} years, and of course has the effect of greatly augmenting - the potential war strength. As to this, figures are kept secret, nor - can any accurate approximation be attempted without danger of error. - Rough estimates of Japan's war strength have, however, been made, - giving 550,000 as the war strength of the first line army, plus 34,000 - for garrisons overseas and 150,000 special reserves (_hoju_); 370,000 - second line or _kobi_, and 110,000 for the fully trained portion of - the territorial forces, or _Kokumin-hei_. All these branches can - further draw upon half-trained elements to the number of about 800,000 - to replace losses. Japan's available strength in the last resort for - home defence was recently (1909) stated by the Russian _Novoye Vremya_ - at 3,000,000. In 20 years, when the present system has produced its - full effect, the first line should be 740,000 strong, the second line - 780,000, and the third line about 3,850,000 (3,000,000 untrained and - 850,000 partly trained). Details can be found in _Journal of the R. - United Service Institution_, Dec. 1909-Jan. 1910. - - - Recruiting. - - At 20 years of age every Japanese subject, of whatever status, becomes - liable for military service. But the difficulty of making service - universal in the case of a growing population is felt here as in - Europe, and practically the system has elements of the old-fashioned - conscription. The minimum height is 5.2 ft. (artillery and engineers, - 5.4 ft.). There are four principal kinds of service, namely, service - with the colours (_genyeki_), for two years; service with the first - reserves (_yobi_), for 7{1/3} years; service with the second reserves - (_kobi_), for 7 years; and service with the territorial troops (_ko - kumin-hei_) up to the age of 40. Special reserve (_hoju_) takes up men - who, though liable for conscription and medically qualified, have - escaped the lot for service with the colours. It consists of two - classes, one of men remaining in the category of _hoju_ for 7{1/3} - years, the other for 1{1/3} year, before passing into the territorial - army. Their purpose is similar to that of special or _ersatz_ reserves - elsewhere. The first class receives the usual short initial training. - Men of the second class, in ordinary circumstances, pass, after their - 1{1/3} year's inability, to the territorial army untrained. As for the - first and second general reserves (_yobi_ and _kobi_), each is called - out twice during its full term for short "refresher" courses. After - reaching the territorial army a man is relieved from all further - training. The total number of youths eligible for conscription each - year is about 435,000, but the annual contingent for full service is - not much more than 100,000. Conscripts in the active army may be - discharged before the expiration of two years if their conduct and - aptitude are exceptional. - - A youth is exempted if it be clearly established[16] that his family - is dependent upon his earnings. Except for permanent deformities men - are put back for one year before being finally rejected on medical - grounds. Men who have been convicted of crime are disqualified, but - those who have been temporarily deprived of civil rights must present - themselves for conscription at the termination of their sentence. - Educated men may enrol themselves as one-year volunteers instead of - drawing lots, this privilege of entry enduring up to the age of 28, - after which, service for the full term without drawing lots is - imposed. Residence in a foreign country secures exemption up to the - age of 32--provided that official permission to go abroad has been - obtained. A man returning after the age of 32 is drafted into the - territorial army, but if he returns before that age he must volunteer - to receive training, otherwise he is taken without lot for service - with the colours. The system of volunteering is largely resorted to by - persons of the better classes. Any youth who possesses certain - educational qualifications is entitled to volunteer for training. If - accepted after medical inspection, he serves with the colours for one - year, during three months of which time he must live in - barracks--unless a special permit be granted by his commanding - officer. A volunteer has to contribute to his maintenance and - equipment, although youths who cannot afford the full expense, if - otherwise qualified, are assisted by the state. At the conclusion of a - year's training the volunteer is drafted into the first reserve for - 6(1/4) years, and then into the second reserve for 5 years, so that - his total period (12(1/4) years) of service before passing into the - territorial army is the same as that of an ordinary conscript. The - main purpose of the one-year voluntariat, as in Germany, is to provide - officers for the reserves to territorial troops. Qualified teachers in - the public service are only liable to a very short initial training, - after which they pass at once into the territorial army. But if a - teacher abandons that calling before the age of 28, he becomes liable, - without lot,[17] to two years with the colours, unless he adopts the - alternative of volunteering. - - - Officers. - - Officers are obtained in two ways. There are six local preparatory - cadet schools (_yonen-gakko_) in various parts of the empire, for boys - of from 13 to 15. After 3 years at one of these schools[18] a graduate - spends 21 months at the central preparatory school - (_chuo-yonen-gakko_), Tokyo, and if he graduates with sufficient - credit at the latter institution, he becomes eligible for admission to - the officers' college (_shikan-gakko_) without further test of - proficiency. The second method of obtaining officers is by competitive - examination for direct admission to the officers' college. In either - case the cadet is sent to serve with the colours for 6 to 12 months as - a private and non-commissioned officer, before commencing his course - at the officers' college. The period of study at the officers' college - is one year, and after graduating successfully the cadet serves with - troops for 6 months on probation. If at the end of that time he is - favourably reported on, he is commissioned as a sub-lieutenant. Young - officers of engineers and artillery receive a year's further training - at a special college. Officers' ranks are the same as in the British - army, but the nomenclature is more simple. The terms, with their - English equivalents, are _shoi_ (second lieutenant), _chui_ (first - lieutenant), _tai_ (captain), _shosa_ (major), _chusa_ - (lieut.-colonel), _taisa_ (colonel), _shosho_ (major-general), _chujo_ - (lieut.-general), _taisho_ (general), _gensui_ (field-marshal). All - these except the last apply to the same relative ranks in the navy. - Promotion of officers in the junior grades is by seniority or merit, - but after the rank of captain all promotion is by merit, and thus many - officers never rise higher than captain, in which case retirement is - compulsory at the age of 48. Except in the highest ranks, a certain - minimum period has to be spent in each rank before promotion to the - next. - - - Soldiers. - - There are three grades of privates: upper soldiers (_joto-hei_), - first-class soldiers (_itto-sotsu_), and second-class soldiers - (_nito-sotsu_). A private on joining is a second-class soldier. For - proficiency and good conduct he is raised to the rank of first-class - soldier, and ultimately to that of upper soldier. Non-commissioned - officers are obtained from the ranks, or from those who wish to make - soldiering a profession, as in European armies. The grades are - corporal (_gocho_), sergeant (_gunso_), sergeant-major (_socho_) and - special sergeant-major (_tokumu-socho_). - - The pay of the conscript is, as it is everywhere, a trifle (1s. - 10d.-3s. 0(1/2)d. per month). The professional non-commissioned - officers are better paid, the lowest grade receiving three times as - much as an upper soldier. Officers' pay is roughly at about - three-quarters of the rates prevailing in Germany, sub-lieutenants - receiving about L34, captains L71, colonels L238 per annum, &c. - Pensions for officers and non-commissioned officers, according to - scale, can be claimed after 11 years' colour service. - - The emperor is the commander-in-chief of the army, and theoretically - the sole source of military authority, which he exercises through a - general staff and a war department, with the assistance of a board of - field-marshals (_gensuifu_). The general staff has for chief a - field-marshal, and for vice-chief a general or lieutenant-general. It - includes besides the usual general staff departments, various survey - and topographical officers, and the military college is under its - direction. The war department is presided over by a general officer on - the active list, who is a member of the cabinet without being - necessarily affected by ministerial changes. There are, further, - artillery and engineer committees, and a remount bureau. The - headquarters of coast defences under general officers are Tokyo, - Yokohama, Shimonoseki and Yura. The whole empire is divided into three - military districts--eastern, central and western--each under the - command of a general or lieutenant-general. The divisional - headquarters are as follows:--Guard Tokyo, I. Tokyo, II. Sendai, III. - Nagoya, IV. Wakayama, V. Hiroshima, VI. Kumamoto, VII. Asahikawa, - VIII. Hirosaki, IX. Kasanava, X. Himeji, XI. Senzui, XII. Kokura, - XIII. Takata, XIV. Utsonomia, XV. Fushimi, XVI. Kioto, XVII. Okayama, - XVIII. Kurume. Some of these divisions are permanently on foreign - service, but their recruiting areas in Japan are maintained. There are - also four cavalry brigades, and a number of unassigned regiments of - field and mountain artillery, as well as garrison artillery and army - technical troops. The organization of the active army by regiments is - 176 infantry regiments of 3 battalions; 27 cavalry regiments; 30 field - artillery regiments each of 6 and 3 mountain artillery regiments each - of 3 batteries; 6 regiments and 6 battalions of siege, heavy field and - fortress artillery; 20 battalions engineers; 19 supply and transport - battalions. - - - Medical Service. - - The medical service is exceptionally well organized. It received - unstinted praise from European and American experts who observed it - closely during the wars of 1900 and 1904-5. The establishment of - surgeons to each division is approximately 100, and arrangements - complete in every detail are made for all lines of medical assistance. - Much help is rendered by the red cross society of Japan, which has an - income of 2,000,000 yen annually, a fine hospital in Tokyo, a large - nursing staff and two specially built and equipped hospital ships. - During the early part of the campaign in Pechili, in 1900, the French - column entrusted its wounded to the care of the Japanese. - - - Supply. - - The staple article of commissariat for a Japanese army in the field is - _hoshii_ (dried rice), of which three days' supply can easily be - carried in a bag by the soldier. When required for use the rice, being - placed in water, swells to its original bulk, and is eaten with a - relish of salted fish, dried sea-weed or pickled plums. The task of - provisioning an army on these lines is comparatively simple. The - Japanese soldier, though low in stature, is well set up, muscular and - hardy. He has great powers of endurance, and manoeuvres with - remarkable celerity, doing everything at the run, if necessary, and - continuing to run without distress for a length of time astonishing to - European observers. He is greatly subject, however, to attacks of - _kakke_ (beri-beri), and if he has recourse to meat diet, which - appears to be the best preventive, he will probably lose something of - his capacity for prolonged rapid movement. He attacks with apparent - indifference to danger, preserves his cheerfulness amid hardships, is - splendidly patriotic and has always shown himself thoroughly amenable - to discipline. - - - Military Schools. - - Of the many educational and training establishments, the most - important is the _rikugun daigakko_, or army college, where officers, - (generally subalterns), are prepared for service in the upper ranks - and for staff appointments, the course of study extending over three - years. The Toyama school stands next in importance. The courses - pursued there are attended chiefly by subaltern officers of dismounted - branches, non-commissioned officers also being allowed to take the - musketry course. The term of training is five months. Young officers - of the scientific branches are instructed at the _hokogakko_ (school - of artillery and engineers). There are, further, two special schools - of gunnery--one for field, the other for garrison artillery, attended - chiefly by captains and senior subalterns of the two branches. There - is an inspection department of military education, the - inspector-general being a lieutenant-general, under whom are fifteen - field and general officers, who act as inspectors of the various - schools and colleges and of military educational matters in general. - - The Japanese officer's pay is small and his mode of life frugal. He - lives out of barracks, frequently with his own family. His uniform is - plain and inexpensive,[19] and he has no desire to exchange it for - mufti. He has no mess expenses, contribution to a band, or luxuries of - any kind, and as he is nearly always without private means to - supplement his pay, his habits are thoroughly economical. He devotes - himself absolutely to his profession, living for nothing else, and - since he is strongly imbued with an effective conception of the honour - of his cloth, instances of his incurring disgrace by debt or - dissipation are exceptional. The samurai may be said to have been - revived in the officers of the modern army, who preserve and act up to - all the old traditions. The system of promotion has evidently much to - do with this good result, for no Japanese officer can hope to rise - above the rank of captain unless, by showing himself really zealous - and capable, he obtains from his commanding officer the recommendation - without which all higher educational opportunities are closed to him. - Yet promotion by merit has not degenerated into promotion by favour, - and corruption appears to be virtually absent. In the stormiest days - of parliamentary warfare, when charges of dishonesty were freely - preferred by party politicians against all departments of officialdom, - no whisper ever impeached the integrity of army officers. - - The training of the troops is thorough and strictly progressive, the - responsibility of the company, squadron and battery commanders for the - training of their commands, and the latitude granted them in choice of - means being, as in Germany, the keystone of the system. - - - Foreign Assistance. - - Originally the government engaged French officers to assist in - organizing the army and elaborating its system of tactics and - strategy, and during several years a military mission of French - officers resided in Tokyo and rendered valuable aid to the Japanese. - Afterwards German officers were employed, with Jakob Meckel at their - head, and they left a perpetually grateful memory. But ultimately the - services of foreigners were dispensed with altogether, and Japan now - adopts the plan of sending picked men to complete their studies in - Europe. Up to 1904 she followed Germany in military matters almost - implicitly, but since then, having the experience of her own great war - to guide her, she has, instead of modelling herself on any one foreign - system, chosen from each whatever seemed most desirable, and also, in - many points, taken the initiative herself. - - - Military Finance. - - When the power of the sword was nominally restored to the Imperial - government in 1868, the latter planned to devote one-fourth of the - state's ordinary revenue to the army and navy. Had the estimated - revenue accrued, this would have given a sum of about 3 millions - sterling for the two services. But not until 1871, when the troops of - the fiefs were finally disbanded, did the government find itself in a - position to include in the annual budgets an adequate appropriation on - account of armaments. Thenceforth, from 1872 to 1896, the ordinary - expenditures of the army varied from three-quarters of a million - sterling to 1(1/2) millions, and the extraordinary outlays ranged from - a few thousands of pounds to a quarter of a million. Not once in the - whole period of 25 years--if 1877 (the year of the Satsuma rebellion) - be excepted--did the state's total expenditures on account of the army - exceed 1(1/2) millions sterling, and it redounds to the credit of - Japan's financial management that she was able to organize, equip and - maintain such a force at such a small cost. In 1896, as shown above, - she virtually doubled her army, and a proportionate increase of - expenditure ensued, the outlays for maintenance jumping at once from - an average of about 1(1/4) millions sterling to 2(1/4) millions, and - growing thenceforth with the organization of the new army, until in - the year (1903) preceding the outbreak of war with Russia, they - reached the figure of 4 millions. Then again, in 1906, six divisions - were added, and additional expenses had to be incurred on account of - the new overseas garrisons, so that, in 1909, the ordinary outlays - reached a total of 7 millions, or about one-seventh of the ordinary - revenue of the state. This takes no account of extraordinary outlays - incurred for building forts and barracks, providing new patterns of - equipment, &c. In 1909 the latter, owing to the necessity of replacing - the weapons used in the Russian War, and in particular the field - artillery gun (which was in 1905 only a semi-quickfirer), involved a - relatively large outlay. - - - Early Japanese War-vessels. - -_The Navy._--The traditions of Japan suggest that the art of navigation -was not unfamiliar to the inhabitants of a country consisting of -hundreds of islands and abounding in bays and inlets. Some interpreters -of her cosmography discover a great ship in the "floating bridge of -heaven" from which the divine procreators of the islands commenced their -work, and construe in a similar sense other poetically named vehicles of -that remote age. But though the seas were certainly traversed by the -early invaders of Japan, and though there is plenty of proof that in -medieval times the Japanese flag floated over merchantmen which voyaged -as far as Siam and India, and over piratical craft which harassed the -coasts of Korea and China, it is unquestionable that in the matter of -naval architecture Japan fell behind even her next-door neighbours. -Thus, when a Mongol fleet came to Kiushiu in the 13th century, Japan had -no vessels capable of contending against the invaders, and when, at the -close of the 16th century, a Japanese army was fighting in Korea, -repeated defeats of Japan's squadrons by Korean war-junks decided the -fate of the campaign on shore as well as on sea. It seems strange that -an enterprising nation like the Japanese should not have taken for -models the great galleons which visited the Far East in the second half -of the 16th century under the flags of Spain, Portugal, Holland and -England. With the exception, however, of two ships built by a castaway -English pilot to order of Iyeyasu, no effort in that direction appears -to have been made, and when an edict vetoing the construction of -sea-going vessels was issued in 1636 as part of the Tokugawa policy of -isolation, it can scarcely be said to have checked the growth of Japan's -navy, for she possessed nothing worthy of the name. It was to the object -lesson furnished by the American ships which visited Yedo bay in 1853 -and to the urgent counsels of the Dutch that Japan owed the inception of -a naval policy. A seamen's training station was opened under Dutch -instructors in 1855 at Nagasaki, a building-slip was constructed and an -iron factory established at the same place, and shortly afterwards a -naval school was organized at Tsukiji in Yedo, a war-ship the "Kwanko -Maru"[20]--presented by the Dutch to the shogun's government--being used -for exercising the cadets. To this vessel two others, purchased from the -Dutch, were added in 1857 and 1858, and these, with one given by Queen -Victoria, formed the nucleus of Japan's navy. In 1860, we find the -Pacific crossed for the first time by a Japanese war-ship--the "Kwanrin -Maru"--and subsequently some young officers were sent to Holland for -instruction in naval science. In fact the Tokugawa statesmen had now -thoroughly appreciated the imperative need of a navy. Thus, in spite of -domestic unrest which menaced the very existence of the Yedo government, -a dockyard was established and fully equipped, the place chosen as its -site being, by a strange coincidence, the village of Yokosuka where -Japan's first foreign ship-builder, Will Adams, had lived and died 250 -years previously. This dockyard was planned and its construction -superintended by a Frenchman, M. Bertin. But although the Dutch had been -the first to advise Japan's acquisition of a navy, and although French -aid was sought in the case of the important and costly work at Yokosuka, -the shogun's government turned to England for teachers of the art of -maritime warfare. Captain Tracey, R.N., and other British officers and -warrant-officers were engaged to organize and superintend the school at -Tsukiji. They arrived, however, on the eve of the fall of the Tokugawa -shogunate, and as the new administration was not prepared to utilize -their services immediately, they returned to England. It is not to be -inferred that the Imperial government underrated the importance of -organizing a naval force. One of the earliest Imperial rescripts ranked -a navy among "the country's most urgent needs" and ordered that it -should be "at once placed on a firm foundation." But during the four -years immediately subsequent to the restoration, a semi-interregnum -existed in military affairs, the power of the sword being partly -transferred to the hands of the sovereign and partly retained by the -feudal chiefs. Ultimately, not only the vessels which had been in the -possession of the shogunate but also several obtained from Europe by the -great feudatories had to be taken over by the Imperial government, -which, on reviewing the situation, found itself owner of a motley -squadron of 17 war-ships aggregating 13,812 tons displacement, of which -two were armoured, one was a composite ship, and the rest were of wood. -Steps were now taken to establish and equip a suitable naval college in -Tsukiji, and application having been made to the British government for -instructors, a second naval mission was sent from England in 1873, -consisting of 30 officers and warrant-officers under Commander -(afterwards Vice-Admiral Sir) Archibald Douglas. At the very outset -occasions for active service afloat presented themselves. In 1868, the -year after the fall of the shogunate, such ships as could be assembled -had to be sent to Yezo to attack the main part of the Tokugawa squadron -which had raised the flag of revolt and retired to Hakodate under the -command of the shogun's admiral, Enomoto. Then in 1874 the duty of -convoying a fleet of transports to Formosa had to be undertaken; and in -1877 sea power played its part in crushing the formidable rebellion in -Satsuma. Meanwhile the work of increasing and organizing the navy went -on steadily. The first steam war-ship constructed in Japan had been a -gunboat (138 tons) launched in 1866 from a building-yard established at -Ishikawajima, an island near the mouth of the Sumida river on which -Tokyo stands. At this yard and at Yokosuka two vessels of 897 tons and -1450 tons, respectively, were launched in 1875 and 1876, and Japan now -found herself competent not only to execute all repairs but also to -build ships of considerable size. An order was placed in England in -1875, which produced, three years later, the "Fuso," Japan's first -ironclad (3717 tons) and the "Kongo" and "Hiei," steel-frame -sister-cruisers of 2248 tons. Meanwhile training, practical and -theoretical, in seamanship, gunnery, torpedo-practice and naval -architecture went on vigorously, and in 1878 the Japanese flag was for -the first time seen in European waters, floating over the cruiser -"Seiki" (1897 tons) built in Japan and navigated solely by Japanese. The -government, constantly solicitous of increasing the fleet, inaugurated, -in 1882, a programme of 30 cruisers and 12 torpedo-boats, and in 1886 -this was extended, funds being obtained by an issue of naval loan-bonds. -But the fleet did not yet include a single battleship. When the diet -opened for the first time in 1890, a plan for the construction of two -battleships encountered stubborn opposition in the lower house, where -the majority attached much less importance to voting money for war-ships -than to reducing the land tax. Not until 1892 was this opposition -overcome in deference to an order from the throne that thirty thousand -pounds sterling should be contributed yearly from the privy purse and -that a tithe of all official salaries should be devoted during the same -interval to naval needs. Had the house been more prescient, Japan's -position at the outbreak of war with China in 1894 would have been very -different. She entered the contest with 28 fighting craft, aggregating -57,600 tons, and 24 torpedo-boats, but among them the most powerful was -a belted cruiser of 4300 tons. Not one battleship was included, whereas -China had two ironclads of nearly 8000 tons each. Under these conditions -the result of the naval conflict was awaited with much anxiety in Japan. -But the Chinese suffered signal defeats (see CHINO-JAPANESE WAR) off the -Yalu and at Wei-hai-wei, and the victors took possession of 17 Chinese -craft, including one battleship. The resulting addition to Japan's -fighting force was, however, insignificant. But the naval strength of -Japan did not depend on prizes. Battleships and cruisers were ordered -and launched in Europe one after the other, and when the Russo-Japanese -War (q.v.) came, the fleet promptly asserted its physical and moral -superiority in the surprise of Port Arthur, the battle of the 10th of -August 1904, and the crowning victory of Tsushima. - - As to the development of the navy from 1903 onwards, it is not - possible to detail with absolute accuracy the plans laid down by the - admiralty in Tokyo, but the actual state of the fleet in the year 1909 - will be apparent from the figures given below. - - Japan's naval strength at the outbreak of the war with Russia in 1904 - was:-- - - Number. Displacement. - Tons. - - Battleships 6 84,652 - Armoured cruisers 8 73,982 - Other cruisers 44 111,470 - Destroyers 19 6,519 - Torpedo-boats 80 7,119 - -- ------- - Totals 157 283,742 - - Losses during the war were:-- - - Battleships 2 27,300 - Cruisers (second - and smaller classes) 8 18,009 - Destroyers 2 705 - Torpedo-boats 7 557 - -- ------ - Totals 19 46,571 - - The captured vessels repaired and added to the fleet were:-- - - Battleships 5 62,524 - Cruisers 11 71,276 - Destroyers 5 1,740 - -- ------- - Totals 21 135,530 - - The vessels built or purchased after the war and up to the close of - 1908 were:-- - - Battleships 4 71,500 - Armoured cruisers 4 56,700 - Other cruisers 5 7,000 - Destroyers 33 12,573 - Torpedo-boats 5 760 - -- ------- - Totals 51 148,533 - - Some of the above have been superannuated, and the serviceable fleet - in 1909 was:-- - - Battleships 13 191,380 - Armoured cruisers 12 130,683 - Other cruisers, coast- - defence ships and - gun-boats 47 165,253 - Destroyers 55 20,508 - Torpedo-boats 77 7,258 - --- ------- - Totals 204 515,082 - - To the foregoing must be added two armoured cruisers--the "Kurama" - (14,000) launched at Yokosuka in October 1907, and the "Ibuki" - (14,700) launched at Kure in November 1907, but no other battleships - or cruisers were laid down in Japan or ordered abroad up to the close - of 1908. - - - Naval Dockyards. - - There are four naval dockyards, namely, at Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo and - Maizuru. Twenty-one vessels built at Yokosuka since 1876 included a - battleship (19,000 tons) and an armoured cruiser (14,000 tons); seven - built at Kure since 1898 included a battleship (19,000 tons) and an - armoured cruiser (14,000 tons). The yards at Sasebo and Maizuru had - not yet been used in 1909 for constructing large vessels. Two private - yards--the Mitsubishi at Nagasaki and Kobe, and the Kawasaki at the - latter place--have built several cruisers, gun-boats and torpedo - craft, and are competent to undertake more important work. - Nevertheless in 1909 Japan did not yet possess complete independence - in this matter, for she was obliged to have recourse to foreign - countries for a part of the steel used in ship-building. Kure - manufactures practically all the steel it requires, and there is a - government steel-foundry at Wakamatsu on which more than 3 millions - sterling had been spent in 1909, but it did not yet keep pace with the - country's needs. When this independence has been attained, it is hoped - to effect an economy of about 18% on the outlay for naval - construction, owing to the cheapness of manual labour and the - disappearance both of the manufacturer's profit and of the expenses of - transfer from Europe to Japan. - - There are five admiralties--Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, Maizuru and Port - Arthur; and four naval stations--Takeshiki (in Tsushima), Mekong (in - the Pescadores), Ominato and Chinhai (in southern Korea). - - - Personnel. - - The navy is manned partly by conscripts and partly by volunteers. - About 5500 are taken every year, and the ratio is, approximately, 55% - of volunteers and 45% of conscripts. The period of active service is 4 - years and that of service with the reserve 7 years. On the average 200 - cadets are admitted yearly, of whom 50 are engineers, and in 1906 the - personnel of the navy consisted of the following:-- - - Admirals, combative and non-combative 77 - Officers, combative and non-combative, - below the rank of admiral 2,867 - Warrant officers 9,075 - Bluejackets 29,667 - Cadets 721 - ------ - Total 42,407 - - - Naval Education. - - The highest educational institution for the navy is the naval staff - college, in which there are five courses for officers alone. The - gunnery and torpedo schools are attended by officers, and also by - selected warrant-officers and bluejackets, who consent to extend their - service. There is also a mechanical school for junior engineers, - warrant-officers and ordinary artificers. - - At the naval cadet academy--originally situated in Tokyo but now at - Etajima near Kure--aspirants for service as naval officers receive a 3 - years' academical course and 1 year's training at sea; and, finally, - there is a naval engineering college collateral to the naval cadet - academy. - - Since 1882, foreign instruction has been wholly dispensed with in the - Japanese navy; since 1886 she has manufactured her own prismatic - powder; since 1891 she has been able to make quick-firing guns and - Schwartzkopf torpedoes, and in 1892 one of her officers invented a - particularly potent explosive, called (after its inventor) Shimose - powder. - - - The Feudal Period. - -_Finance._--Under the feudal system of the Tokugawa (1603-1871), all -land in Japan was regarded as state property, and parcelled out into 276 -fiefs, great and small, which were assigned to as many feudatories. -These were empowered to raise revenue for the support of their -households, for administrative purposes, and for the maintenance of -troops. The basis of taxation varied greatly in different districts, -but, at the time of the Restoration in 1867, the general principle was -that four-tenths of the gross produce should go to the feudatory, -six-tenths to the farmer. In practice this rule was applied to the rice -crop only, the assessments for other kinds of produce being levied -partly in money and partly in manufactured goods. Forced labour also was -exacted, and artisans and tradesmen were subjected to pecuniary levies. -The yield of rice in 1867 was about 154 million bushels,[21] of which -the market value at prices then ruling was L24,000,000, or 240,000,000 -_yen_.[22] Hence the grain tax represented, at the lowest calculation, -96,000,000 _yen_. When the administration reverted to the emperor in -1867 the central treasury was empty, and the funds hitherto employed for -governmental purposes in the fiefs continued to be devoted to the -support of the feudatories, to the payment of the samurai, and to -defraying the expenses of local administration, the central treasury -receiving only whatever might remain after these various outlays. - -The shogun himself, whose income amounted to about L3,500,000, did not, -on abdicating, hand over to the sovereign either the contents of his -treasury or the lands from which he derived his revenues. He contended -that funds for the government of the nation as a whole should be levied -from the people at large. Not until 1871 did the feudal system cease to -exist. The fiefs being then converted into prefectures, their revenues -became an asset of the central treasury, less 10% allotted for the -support of the former feudatories.[23] - - - Paper Money. - -But during the interval between 1867 and 1871, the men on whom had -devolved the direction of national affairs saw no relief from crippling -impecuniosity except an issue of paper money. This was not a novelty in -Japan. Paper money had been known to the people since the middle of the -17th century, and in the era of which we are now writing no less than -1694 varieties of notes were in circulation. There were gold notes, -silver notes, cash-notes, rice-notes, umbrella-notes, ribbon-notes, -lathe-article-notes, and so on through an interminable list, the -circulation of each kind being limited to the issuing fief. Many of -these notes had almost ceased to have any purchasing power, and nearly -all were regarded by the people as evidences of official greed. The -first duty of a centralized progressive administration should have been -to reform the currency. The political leaders of the time appreciated -that duty, but saw themselves compelled by stress of circumstances to -adopt the very device which in the hands of the feudal chiefs had -produced such deplorable results. The ordinary revenue amounted to only -3,000,000 _yen_, while the extraordinary aggregated 29,000,000, and was -derived wholly from issues of paper money or other equally unsound -sources. - - - Land Tax. - -Even on the abolition of feudalism in 1871 the situation was not -immediately relieved. The land tax, which constituted nine-tenths of the -feudal revenues, had been assessed by varying methods and at various -rates by the different feudatories, and re-assessment of all the land -became a preliminary essential to establishing a uniform system. Such a -task, on the basis of accurate surveys, would have involved years of -work, whereas the financial needs of the state had to be met -immediately. Under the pressure of this imperative necessity a -re-assessment was roughly made in two years, and being continued -thereafter with greater accuracy, was completed in 1881. This survey, -eminently liberal to the agriculturists, assigned a value of -1,200,000,000 _yen_ to the whole of the arable land, and the treasury -fixed the tax at 3% of the assessed value of the land, which was about -one-half of the real market value. Moreover, the government contemplated -a gradual reduction of this already low impost until it should -ultimately fall to 1%. Circumstances prevented the consummation of that -purpose. The rate underwent only one reduction of (1/2)%, and thereafter -had to be raised on account of war expenditures. On the whole, however, -no class benefited more conspicuously from the change of administration -than the peasants, since not only was their burden of taxation light, -but also they were converted from mere tenants into actual proprietors. -In brief, they acquired the fee-simple of their farms in consideration -of paying an annual rent equal to about one sixty-sixth of the market -value of the land. - - - State Revenue. - -In 1873, when these changes were effected, the ordinary revenue of the -state rose from 24,500,000 _yen_ to 70,500,000 _yen_. But seven millions -sterling is a small income for a country confronted by such problems as -Japan had to solve. She had to build railways; to create an army and a -navy; to organize posts, telegraphs, prisons, police and education; to -construct roads, improve harbours, light and buoy the coasts; to create -a mercantile marine; to start under official auspices numerous -industrial enterprises which should serve as object lessons to the -people, as well as to lend to private persons large sums in aid of -similar projects. Thus, living of necessity beyond its income, the -government had recourse to further issues of fiduciary notes, and in -proportion as the volume of the latter exceeded actual currency -requirements their specie value depreciated. - - - Banks. - -This question of paper currency inaugurates the story of banking; a -story on almost every page of which are to be found inscribed the names -of Prince Ito, Marquis Inouye, Marquis Matsukata, Count Okuma and Baron -Shibusawa, the fathers of their country's economic and financial -progress in modern times. The only substitutes for banks in feudal days -were a few private firms--"households" would, perhaps, be a more correct -expression--which received local taxes in kind, converted them into -money, paid the proceeds to the central government or to the -feudatories, gave accommodation to officials, did some exchange -business, and occasionally extended accommodation to private -individuals. They were not banks in the Occidental sense, for they -neither collected funds by receiving deposits nor distributed capital by -making loans. The various fiefs were so isolated that neither social nor -financial intercourse was possible, and moreover the mercantile and -manufacturing classes were regarded with some disdain by the gentry. The -people had never been familiarized with combinations of capital for -productive purposes, and such a thing as a joint-stock company was -unknown. In these circumstances, when the administration of state -affairs fell into the hands of the men who had made the restoration, -they not only lacked the first essential of rule, money, but were also -without means of obtaining any, for they could not collect taxes in the -fiefs, these being still under the control of the feudal barons; and in -the absence of widely organized commerce or finance, no access to funds -presented itself. Doubtless the minds of these men were sharpened by the -necessities confronting them, yet it speaks eloquently for their -discernment that, samurai as they were, without any business training -whatever, one of their first essays was to establish organizations which -should take charge of the national revenue, encourage industry and -promote trade and production by lending money at comparatively low rates -of interest. The tentative character of these attempts is evidenced by -frequent changes. There was first a business bureau, then a trade -bureau, then commercial companies, and then exchange companies, these -last being established in the principal cities and at the open ports, -their personnel consisting of the three great families--Mitsui, Shimada -and Ono--houses of ancient repute, as well as other wealthy merchants in -Kioto, Osaka and elsewhere. These exchange companies were partnerships, -though not strictly of the joint-stock kind. They formed the nucleus of -banks in Japan, and their functions included, for the first time, the -receiving of deposits and the lending of money to merchants and -manufacturers. They had power to issue notes, and, at the same time, the -government issued notes on its own account. Indeed, in this latter fact -is to be found one of the motives for organizing the exchange companies, -the idea being that if the state's notes were lent to the companies, the -people would become familiarized with the use of such currency, and the -companies would find them convenient capital. But this system was -essentially unsound: the notes, alike of the treasury and of the -companies, though nominally convertible, were not secured by any fixed -stock of specie. Four years sufficed to prove the unpracticality of such -an arrangement, and in 1872 the exchange companies were swept away, to -be succeeded in July 1873 by the establishment of national banks on a -system which combined some of the features of English banking with the -general bases of American. Each bank had to pay into the treasury 60% -of its capital in government notes. It was credited in return with -interest-bearing bonds, which bonds were to be left in the treasury as -security for the issue of bank-notes to an equal amount, the banks being -required to keep in gold the remaining 40% of their capital as a fund -for converting the notes, which conversion must always be effected on -application. The elaborators of this programme were Ito, Inouye, Okuma -and Shibusawa. They added a provision designed to prevent the -establishment of too small banks, namely, that the capital of each bank -must bear a fixed ratio to the population of its place of business. -Evidently the main object of the treasury was gradually to replace its -own fiat paper with convertible bank-notes. But experience quickly -proved that the scheme was unworkable. The treasury notes had been -issued in such large volume that sharp depreciation had ensued; gold -could not be procured except at a heavy cost, and the balance of foreign -trade being against Japan, some 300,000,000 _yen_ in specie flowed out -of the country between 1872 and 1874. - - It should be noted that at this time foreign trade was still invested - with a perilous character in Japanese eyes. In early days, while the - Dutch had free access to her ports, they sold her so much and bought - so little in return that an immense quantity of the precious metals - flowed out of her coffers. Again, when over-sea trade was renewed in - modern times, Japan's exceptional financial condition presented to - foreigners an opportunity of which they did not fail to take full - advantage. For, during her long centuries of seclusion, gold had come - to hold to silver in her coinage a ratio of 1 to 8, so that gold cost, - in terms of silver, only one-half of what it cost in the West. On the - other hand, the treaty gave foreign traders the right to exchange - their own silver coins against Japanese, weight for weight, and thus - it fell out that the foreigner, going to Japan with a supply of - Mexican dollars, could buy with them twice as much gold as they had - cost in Mexico. Japan lost very heavily by this system, and its - effects accentuated the dread with which her medieval experience had - invested foreign commerce. Thus, when the balance of trade swayed - heavily in the wrong direction between 1872 and 1874, the fact created - undue consternation, and moreover there can be no doubt that the - drafters of the bank regulations had over-estimated the quantity of - available gold in the country. - - All these things made it impossible to keep the bank-notes long in - circulation. They were speedily returned for conversion; no deposits - came to the aid of the banks, nor did the public make any use of them. - Disaster became inevitable. The two great firms of Ono and Shimada, - which had stood high in the nation's estimation alike in feudal and in - imperial days, closed their doors in 1874; a panic ensued, and the - circulation of money ceased almost entirely. - - - Change of the Banking System. - - Evidently the banking system must be changed. The government bowed to - necessity. They issued a revised code of banking regulations which - substituted treasury notes in the place of specie. Each bank was - thenceforth required to invest 80% of its capital in 6% state bonds, - and these being lodged with the treasury, the bank became competent to - issue an equal quantity of its own notes, forming with the remainder - of its capital a reserve of treasury notes for purposes of redemption. - This was a complete subversion of the government's original scheme. - But no alternative offered. Besides, the situation presented a new - feature. The hereditary pensions of the feudatories had been commuted - with bonds aggregating 174,000,000 _yen_. Were this large volume of - bonds issued at once, their heavy depreciation would be likely to - follow, and moreover their holders, unaccustomed to dealing with - financial problems, might dispose of the bonds and invest the proceeds - in hazardous enterprises. To devise some opportunity for the safe and - profitable employment of these bonds seemed, therefore, a pressing - necessity, and the newly organized national banks offered such an - opportunity. For bond-holders, combining to form a bank, continued to - draw from the treasury 6% on their bonds, while they acquired power to - issue a corresponding amount of notes which could be lent at - profitable rates. The programme worked well. Whereas, up to 1876, only - five banks were established under the original regulations, the number - under the new rule was 151 in 1879, their aggregate capital having - grown in the same interval from 2,000,000 _yen_ to 40,000,000 _yen_, - and their note issues from less than 1,000,000 to over 34,000,000. - Here, then, was a rapidly growing system resting wholly on state - credit. Something like a mania for bank-organizing declared itself, - and in 1878 the government deemed it necessary to legislate against - the establishment of any more national banks, and to limit to - 34,000,000 _yen_ the aggregate note issues of those already in - existence. - - It is possible that the conditions which prevailed immediately after - the establishment of the national banks might have developed some - permanency had not the Satsuma rebellion broken out in 1877. Increased - taxation to meet military outlay being impossible in such - circumstances, nothing offered except recourse to further note - issues. The result was that by 1881, fourteen years after the - Restoration, notes whose face value aggregated 164,000,000 _yen_ had - been put into circulation; the treasury possessed specie amounting to - only 8,000,000 _yen_, and 18 paper _yen_ could be purchased with 10 - silver ones. - - - Resumption of Specie Payments. - - Up to 1881 fitful efforts had been made to strengthen the specie value - of fiat paper by throwing quantities of gold and silver upon the - market from time to time, and 23,000,000 _yen_ had been devoted to the - promotion of industries whose products, it was hoped, would go to - swell the list of exports, and thus draw specie to the country. But - these devices were now finally abandoned, and the government applied - itself steadfastly to reducing the volume of the fiduciary currency on - the one hand, and accumulating a specie reserve on the other. The - steps of the programme were simple. By cutting down administrative - expenditure; by transferring certain charges from the treasury to the - local communes; by suspending all grants in aid of provincial public - works and private enterprises, and by a moderate increase of the tax - on alcohol, an annual surplus of revenue, totalling 7,500,000 _yen_, - was secured. This was applied to reducing the volume of the notes in - circulation. At the same time, it was resolved that all officially - conducted industrial and agricultural works should be sold--since - their purpose of instruction and example seemed now to have been - sufficiently achieved--and the proceeds, together with various - securities (aggregating 26,000,000 _yen_ in face value) held by the - treasury, were applied to the purchase of specie. Had the government - entered the market openly as a seller of its own fiduciary notes, its - credit must have suffered. There were also ample reasons to doubt - whether any available stores of precious metal remained in the - country. In obedience to elementary economical laws, the cheap money - had steadily driven out the dear, and although the government mint at - Osaka, founded in 1871, had struck gold and silver coins worth - 80,000,000 _yen_ between that date and 1881, the customs returns - showed that a great part of this metallic currency had flowed out of - the country. In these circumstances Japanese financiers decided that - only one course remained: the treasury must play the part of national - banker. Produce and manufactures destined for export must be purchased - by the state with fiduciary notes, and the metallic proceeds of their - sales abroad must be collected and stored in the treasury. This - programme required the establishment of consulates in the chief marts - of the Occident, and the organization of a great central bank--the - present Bank of Japan--as well as of a secondary bank--the present - Specie Bank of Yokohama--the former to conduct transactions with - native producers and manufacturers, the latter to finance the business - of exportation. The outcome of these various arrangements was that, by - the middle of 1885, the volume of fiduciary notes had been reduced to - 119,000,000 _yen_, their depreciation had fallen to 3%, and the - metallic reserve of the treasury had increased to 45,000,000 _yen_. - The resumption of specie payments was then announced, and became, in - the autumn of that year, an accomplished fact. From the time when this - programme began to be effective, Japan entered a period of favourable - balance of trade. According to accepted economic theories, the - influence of an appreciating currency should be to encourage imports; - but the converse was seen in Japan's case, for from 1882 her exports - annually exceeded her imports, the maximum excess being reached in - 1886, the very year after the resumption of specie payments. - - The above facts deserve to figure largely in a retrospect of Japanese - finance, not merely because they set forth a fine economic feat, - indicating clear insight, good organizing capacity, and courageous - energy, but also because volumes of adverse foreign criticism were - written in the margin of the story during the course of the incidents - it embodies. Now Japan was charged with robbing her own people because - she bought their goods with paper money and sold them for specie; - again, she was accused of an official conspiracy to ruin the foreign - local banks because she purchased exporters' bills on Europe and - America at rates that defied ordinary competition; and while some - declared that she was plainly without any understanding of her own - doings, others predicted that her heroic method of dealing with the - problem would paralyze industry, interrupt trade and produce - widespread suffering. Undoubtedly, to carry the currency of a nation - from a discount of 70 or 80% to par in the course of four years, - reducing its volume at the same time from 160 to 119 million _yen_, - was a financial enterprise violent and daring almost to rashness. The - gentler expedient of a foreign loan would have commended itself to the - majority of economists. But it may be here stated, once for all, that - until her final adoption of a gold standard in 1897, the foreign money - market was practically closed to Japan. Had she borrowed abroad it - must have been on a sterling basis. Receiving a fixed sum in silver, - she would have had to discharge her debt in rapidly appreciating gold. - Twice, indeed, she had recourse to London for small sums, but when she - came to cast up her accounts the cost of the accommodation stood out - in deterrent proportions. A 9% loan, placed in England in 1868 and - paid off in 1889, produced 3,750,000 _yen_, and cost altogether - 11,750,000 _yen_ in round figures; and a 7% loan, made in 1872 and - paid off in 1897, produced 10,750,000 _yen_, and cost 36,000,000 - _yen_. These considerations were supplemented by a strong aversion - from incurring pecuniary obligations to Western states before the - latter had consented to restore Japan's judicial and tariff autonomy. - The example of Egypt showed what kind of fate might overtake a - semi-independent state falling into the clutches of foreign - bond-holders. Japan did not wish to fetter herself with foreign debts - while struggling to emerge from the rank of Oriental powers. - - - Closing of the National Banks. - - After the revision of the national bank regulations, semi-official - banking enterprise won such favour in public eyes that the government - found it necessary to impose limits. This conservative policy proved - an incentive to private banks and banking companies, so that, by the - year 1883, no less than 1093 banking institutions were in existence - throughout Japan with an aggregate capital of 900,000,000 yen. But - these were entirely lacking in arrangements for combination or for - equalizing rates of interest, and to correct such defects, no less - than ultimately to constitute the sole note-issuing institution, a - central bank (the Bank of Japan) was organized on the model of the - Bank of Belgium, with due regard to corresponding institutions in - other Western countries and to the conditions existing in Japan. - Established in 1882 with a capital of 4,000,000 yen, this bank has now - a capital of 30 millions, a security reserve of 206 millions, a - note-issue of 266 millions, a specie reserve of 160 millions, and - loans of 525 millions. - - The banking machinery of the country being now complete, in a general - sense, steps were taken in 1883 for converting the national banks into - ordinary joint-stock concerns and for the redemption of all their - note-issues. Each national bank was required to deposit with the - treasury the government paper kept in its strong room as security for - its own notes, and further to take from its annual profits and hand to - the treasury a sum equal to 2(1/2)% of its notes in circulation. With - these funds the central bank was to purchase state bonds, devoting the - interest to redeeming the notes of the national banks. Formed with the - object of disturbing the money market as little as possible, this - programme encountered two obstacles. The first was that, in view of - the Bank of Japan's purchases, the market price of state bonds rose - rapidly, so that, whereas official financiers had not expected them to - reach par before 1897, they were quoted at a considerable premium in - 1886. The second was that the treasury having in 1886 initiated the - policy of converting its 6% bonds into 5% consols, the former no - longer produced interest at the rate estimated for the purposes of the - banking scheme. The national banks thus found themselves in an - embarrassing situation and began to clamour for a revision of the - programme. But the government, seeing compensations for them in other - directions, adhered firmly to its scheme. Few problems have caused - greater controversy in modern Japan than this question of the ultimate - fate of the national banks. Not until 1896 could the diet be induced - to pass a bill providing for their dissolution at the close of their - charter terms, or their conversion into ordinary joint-stock concerns - without any note-issuing power, and not until 1899 did their notes - cease to be legal tender. Out of a total of 153 of these banks, 132 - continued business as private institutions, and the rest were absorbed - or dissolved. Already (1890 and 1893) minute regulations had been - enacted bringing all the banks and banking institutions--except the - special banks to be presently described--within one system of - semi-annual balance-sheets and official auditing, while in the case of - savings banks the directors' responsibility was declared unlimited and - these banks were required to lodge security with the treasury for the - protection of their depositors. - - - Special Banks. - - Just as the ordinary banks were all centred on the Bank of Japan[24] - and more or less connected with it, so in 1895, a group of special - institutions, called agricultural and commercial banks, were organized - and centred on a hypothec bank, the object of this system being to - supply cheap capital to farmers and manufacturers on the security of - real estate. The hypothec bank had its head office in Tokyo and was - authorized to obtain funds by issuing premium-bearing bonds, while an - agricultural and industrial bank was established in each prefecture - and received assistance from the hypothec bank. Two years later - (1900), an industrial bank--sometimes spoken of as the _credit - mobilier_ of Japan--was brought into existence under official - auspices, its purpose being to lend money against bonds, debentures - and shares as well as to public corporations. These various - institutions, together with clearing houses, bankers' associations, - the Hokkaido colonial bank, the bank of Formosa, savings banks - (including a post-office savings bank), and a mint complete the - financial machinery of modern Japan. - - - Review of Banking Development. - - Reviewing this chapter of Japan's material development, we find that - whereas, at the beginning of the Meiji era (1867), the nation did not - possess so much as one banking institution worthy of the name, forty - years later it had 2211 banks, with a paid-up capital of L40,000,000, - reserves of L12,000,000, and deposits of L147,000,000; and whereas - there was not one savings bank in 1867, there were 487 in 1906 with - deposits of over L50,000,000. The average yearly dividends of these - banks in the ten years ending 1906 varied between 9.1 and 9.9%. - - - Insurance. - - Necessarily the movement of industrial expansion was accompanied by a - development of insurance business. The beginnings of this kind of - enterprise did not become visible, however, until 1881, and even at - that comparatively recent date no Japanese laws had yet been enacted - for the control of such operations. The commercial code, published in - March 1890, was the earliest legislation which met the need, and from - that time the number of insurance companies and the volume of their - transactions grew rapidly. In 1897, there were 35 companies with a - total paid-up capital of 7,000,000 _yen_ and policies aggregating - 971,000,000 _yen_, and in 1906 the corresponding figures were 65 - companies, 22,000,000 _yen_ paid up and policies of 4,149,000,000 - _yen_. The premium reserves grew in the same period from 7,000,000 to - 108,000,000. The net profits of these companies in 1906 were (in round - numbers) 10,000,000 _yen_. - - - Clearing Houses. - - The origin of clearing houses preceded that of insurance companies in - Japan by only two years (1879). Osaka set the example, which was - quickly followed by Tokyo, Kobe, Yokohama, Kioto and Nagoya. In 1898 - the bills handled at these institutions amounted to 1,186,000,000 - _yen_, and in 1907 to 7,484,000,000 _yen_. Japanese clearing houses - are modelled after those of London and New York. - - - Bourses. - - Exchanges existed in Japan as far back as the close of the 17th - century. At that time the income of the feudal chiefs consisted almost - entirely of rice, and as this was sold to brokers, the latter found it - convenient to meet at fixed times and places for conducting their - business. Originally their transactions were all for cash, but - afterwards they devised time bargains which ultimately developed into - a definite form of exchange. The reform of abuses incidental to this - system attracted the early attention of the Meiji government, and in - 1893 a law was promulgated for the control of exchanges, which then - numbered 146. Under this law the minimum share capital of a bourse - constituted as a joint-stock company was fixed at 100,000 _yen_, and - the whole of its property became liable for failure on the part of its - brokers to implement their contracts. There were 51 bourses in 1908. - - - The Government and Economic Development. - - Not less remarkable than this economic development was the large part - acted in it by officialdom. There were two reasons for this. One was - that a majority of the men gifted with originality and foresight were - drawn into the ranks of the administration by the great current of the - revolution; the other, that the feudal system had tended to check - rather than to encourage material development, since the limits of - each fief were also the limits of economical and industrial - enterprise. Ideas for combination and co-operation had been confined - to a few families, and there was nothing to suggest the organization - of companies nor any law to protect them if organized. Thus the - opening of the Meiji era found the Japanese nation wholly unqualified - for the commercial and manufacturing competition in which it was - thenceforth required to engage, and therefore upon those who had - brought the country out of its isolation there devolved the - responsibility of speedily preparing their fellow countrymen for the - new situation. To these leaders banking facilities seemed to be the - first need, and steps were accordingly taken in the manner already - described. But how to educate men of affairs at a moment's notice? How - to replace by a spirit of intelligent progress the ignorance and - conservatism of the hitherto despised traders and artisans? When the - first bank was organized, its two founders--men who had been urged, - nay almost compelled, by officialdom to make the essay--were obliged - to raise four-fifths of the capital themselves, the general public not - being willing to subscribe more than one-fifth--a petty sum of 500,000 - yen--and when its staff commenced their duties, they had not the most - shadowy conception of what to do. That was a faithful reflection of - the condition of the business world at large. If the initiative of the - people themselves had been awaited, Japan's career must have been slow - indeed. - - Only one course offered, namely, that the government itself should - organize a number of productive enterprises on modern lines, so that - they might serve as schools and also as models. Such, as already noted - under _Industries_, was the programme adopted. It provoked much - hostile criticism from foreign onlookers, who had learned to decry all - official incursions into trade and industry, but had not properly - appreciated the special conditions existing in Japan. The end - justified the means. At the outset of its administration we find the - Meiji government not only forming plans for the circulation of money, - building railways and organizing posts and telegraphs, but also - establishing dockyards, spinning mills, printing-houses, silk-reeling - filatures, paper-making factories and so forth, thus by example - encouraging these kinds of enterprise and by legislation providing for - their safe prosecution. Yet progress was slow. One by one and at long - intervals joint-stock companies came into existence, nor was it until - the resumption of specie payments in 1886 that a really effective - spirit of enterprise manifested itself among the people. Railways, - harbours, mines, spinning, weaving, paper-making, oil-refining, - brick-making, leather-tanning, glass-making and other industries - attracted eager attention, and whereas the capital subscribed for such - works aggregated only 50,000,000 _yen_ in 1886, it exceeded - 1,000,000,000 _yen_ in 1906. - - - Adoption of the Gold Standard. - - When specie payments were resumed in 1885, the notes issued by the - Bank of Japan were convertible into silver on demand, the silver - standard being thus definitely adopted, a complete reversal of the - system inaugurated at the establishment of the national banks on - Prince Ito's return from the United States. Japanese financiers - believed from the outset in gold monometallism. But, in the first - place, the country's stock of gold was soon driven out by her - depreciated fiat currency; and, in the second, not only were all other - Oriental nations silver-using, but also the Mexican silver dollar had - long been the unit of account in Far-Eastern trade. Thus Japan - ultimately drifted into silver monometallism, the silver _yen_ - becoming her unit of currency. So soon, however, as the indemnity that - she received from China after the war of 1894-95 had placed her in - possession of a stock of gold, she determined to revert to the gold - standard. Mechanically speaking, the operation was very easy. Gold - having appreciated so that its value in terms of silver had exactly - doubled during the first 30 years of the Meiji era, nothing was - necessary except to double the denominations of the gold coins in - terms of _yen_, leaving the silver subsidiary coins unchanged. Thus - the old 5-_yen_ gold piece, weighing 2.22221 _momme_ of 900 fineness, - became a 10-_yen_ piece in the new currency, and a new 5-_yen_ piece - of half the weight was coined. No change whatever was required in the - reckonings of the people. The _yen_ continued to be their coin of - account, with a fixed sterling value of a small fraction over two - shillings, and the denominations of the gold coins were doubled. Gold, - however, is little seen in Japan; the whole duty of currency is done - by notes. - - It is not to be supposed that all this economic and financial - development was unchequered by periods of depression and severe panic. - There were in fact six such seasons: in 1874, 1881, 1889, 1897, 1900 - and 1907. But no year throughout the whole period failed to witness an - increase in the number of Japan's industrial and commercial companies, - and in the amount of capital thus invested. - - - State Revenue. - - To obtain a comprehensive idea of Japan's state finance, the simplest - method is to set down the annual revenue at quinquennial periods, - commencing with the year 1878-1879, because it was not until 1876 that - the system of duly compiled and published budgets came into existence. - - REVENUE (omitting fractions) - - +--------+-----------+-------------+-------------+ - | | Ordinary |Extraordinary|Total Revenue| - | Year.* | Revenue | Revenue | (millions | - | | (millions | (millions | of _yen_). | - | | of _yen_).| of _yen_). | | - +--------+-----------+-------------+-------------+ - | 1878-9 | 53 | 9 | 62 | - | 1883-4 | 76 | 7 | 83 | - | 1888-9 | 74 | 18 | 92 | - | 1893-4 | 86 | 28 | 114 | - | 1898-9 | 133 | 87 | 220 | - | 1903-4 | 224 | 36 | 260 | - | 1908-9 | 476 | 144 | 620 | - +--------+-----------+-------------+-------------+ - - * The Japanese fiscal year is from April 1 to March 31. - - The most striking feature of the above table is the rapid growth of - revenue during the last three periods. So signal was the growth that - the revenue may be said to have sextupled in the 15 years ended 1909. - This was the result of the two great wars in which Japan was involved, - that with China in 1894-95 and that with Russia in 1904-5. The details - will be presently shown. - - Turning now to the expenditure and pursuing the same plan, we have the - following figures:-- - - EXPENDITURE (omitting fractions) - - +--------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ - | | Ordinary |Extraordinary| Total | - | Year. | Expenditures| Expenditures| Expenditures| - | | (millions | (millions | (millions | - | | of _yen_). | of _yen_). | of _yen_). | - +--------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ - | 1878-9 | 56 | 5 | 61 | - | 1883-4 | 68 | 15 | 83 | - | 1888-9 | 66 | 15 | 81 | - | 1893-4 | 64 | 20 | 84 | - | 1898-9 | 119 | 101 | 220 | - | 1903-4 | 170 | 80 | 250 | - | 1908-9 | 427 | 193 | 620 | - +--------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ - - It may be here stated that, with three exceptions, the working of the - budget showed a surplus in every one of the 41 years between 1867 and - 1908. - - The sources from which revenue is obtained are as follow:-- - - ORDINARY REVENUE - - +--------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ - | | 1894-5. | 1898-9. | 1903-4. | 1908-9. | - | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ - | |millions |millions |millions |millions | - | |of _yen_.|of _yen_.|of _yen_.|of _yen_.| - +--------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ - | Taxes | 70.50 | 96.20 | 146.10 | 299.61 | - | Receipts from | | | | | - | stamps and Public| | | | | - | Undertakings | 14.75 | 33.00 | 96.87 | 164.66 | - | Various Receipts | 4.58 | 3.67 | 8.15 | 11.48 | - +--------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ - - It appears from the above that during 15 years the weight of taxation - increased fourfold. But a correction has to be applied, first, on - account of the tax on alcoholic liquors and, secondly, on account of - customs dues, neither of which can properly be called general imposts. - The former grew from 16 millions in 1894-1895 to 72 millions in - 1908-1909, and the latter from 5(1/4) millions to 41(1/2) millions. If - these increases be deducted, it is found that taxes, properly so - called, grew from 70.5 millions in 1894-1895 to 207.86 millions in - 1908-1909, an increase of somewhat less than three-fold. Otherwise - stated, the burden per unit of population in 1894-1895 was 3s. 6d., - whereas in 1908-1909 it was 8s. 4d. To understand the principle of - Japanese taxation and the manner in which the above development took - place, it is necessary to glance briefly at the chief taxes - separately. - - - Land Tax. - - The land tax is the principal source of revenue. It was originally - fixed at 3% of the assessed value of the land, but in 1877 this ratio - was reduced to 2(1/2)%, on which basis the tax yielded from 37 to 38 - million _yen_ annually. After the war with China (1894-1895) the - government proposed to increase this impost in order to obtain funds - for an extensive programme of useful public works and expanded - armaments (known subsequently as the "first _post bellum_ programme"). - By that time the market value of agricultural land had largely - appreciated owing to improved communications, and urban land commanded - greatly enhanced prices. But the lower house of the diet, considering - itself guardian of the farmers' interests, refused to endorse any - increase of the tax. Not until 1889 could this resistance be overcome, - and then only on condition that the change should not be operative for - more than 5 years. The amended rates were 3.3% on rural lands and 5% - on urban building sites. Thus altered, the tax produced 46,000,000 - _yen_, but at the end of the five-year period it would have reverted - to its old figure, had not war with Russia broken out. An increase was - then made so that the impost varied from 3% to 17(1/2)% according to - the class of land, and under this new system the tax yielded 85 - millions. Thus the exigencies of two wars had augmented it from 38 - millions in 1889 to 85 millions in 1907. - - - Income Tax. - - The income tax was introduced in 1887. It was on a graduated scale, - varying from 1% on incomes of not less than 300 _yen_, to 3% on - incomes of 30,000 _yen_ and upwards. At these rates the tax yielded an - insignificant revenue of about 2,000,000 _yen_. In 1899, a revision - was effected for the purposes of the first _post bellum_ programme. - This revision increased the number of classes from five to ten, - incomes of 300 _yen_ standing at the bottom and incomes of 100,000 - _yen_ or upwards at the top, the minimum and maximum rates being 1% - and 5(1/2)%. The tax now produced approximately 8,000,000 _yen_. - Finally in 1904, when war broke out with Russia, these rates were - again revised, the minimum now becoming 2%, and the maximum 8.2%. Thus - revised, the tax yields a revenue of 27,000,000 _yen_. - - - Business Tax. - - The business tax was instituted in 1896, after the war with China, and - the rates have remained unchanged. For the purposes of the tax all - kinds of business are divided into nine classes, and the tax is levied - on the amounts of sales (wholesale and retail), on rental value of - buildings, on number of employees and on amount of capital. The yield - from the tax grows steadily. It was only 4,500,000 _yen_ in 1897, but - it figured at 22,000,000 _yen_ in the budget for 1908-1909. - - - Tax on Alcoholic Liquors. - - The above three imposts constitute the only direct taxes in Japan. - Among indirect taxes the most important is that upon alcoholic - liquors. It was inaugurated in 1871; doubled, roughly speaking, in - 1878; still further increased thenceforth at intervals of about 3 - years, until it is now approximately twenty times as heavy as it was - originally. The liquor taxed is mainly sake; the rate is about 50 - _sen_ (one shilling) per gallon, and the annual yield is 72,000,000 - _yen_. - - - Customs Duties. - - In 1859, when Japan re-opened her ports to foreign commerce, the - customs dues were fixed on a basis of 10% _ad valorem_, but this was - almost immediately changed to a nominal 5% and a real 3%. The customs - then yielded a very petty return--not more than three or four million - _yen_--and the Japanese government had no discretionary power to alter - the rates. Strenuous efforts to change this system were at length - successful, and, in 1899, the tariff was divided into two sections, - conventional and statutory; the rates in the former being governed by - a treaty valid for 12 years; those in the latter being fixed at - Japan's will. Things remained thus until the war with Russia - compelled a revision of the statutory tariff. Under this system the - ratio of the duties to the value of the dutiable goods was about - 15.65%. The customs yield a revenue of about 42,000,000 _yen_. - - - Other Taxes. - - In addition to the above there are eleven taxes, some in existence - before the war of 1904-5, and some created for the purpose of carrying - on the war or to meet the expenses of a _post bellum_ programme. - - Taxes in existence before 1904-1905:-- - - Yield - Name. (millions of _yen_). - - Tax on soy 4 - Tax on sugar 16(1/4) - Mining tax 2 - Tax on bourses 2 - Tax on issue of bank-notes 1 - Tonnage dues 1/2 - - Taxes created on account of the war (1904-5) or in its immediate - sequel:-- - - Yield - Name. (millions of _yen_). - - Consumption tax on textile fabrics 19(1/2) - Tax on dealers in patent medicines (1/4) - Tax on communications 2(1/3) - Consumption tax on kerosene 1(1/2) - Succession tax 1(1/2) - - Also, as shown above, the land tax was increased by 39 millions; the - income tax by 19 millions; the business tax by 15 millions; and the - tax on alcoholic liquors by 15 millions. On the whole, if taxes of - general incidence and those of special incidence be lumped together, - it appears that the burden swelled from 160,000,000 _yen_ before the - war to 320,000,000 after it. - - - State Monopolies and Manufactures. - - The government of Japan carries on many manufacturing undertakings for - purposes of military and naval equipment, for ship-building, for the - construction of railway rolling stock, for the manufacture of - telegraph and light-house materials, for iron-founding and - steel-making, for printing, for paper-making and so forth. There are - 48 of these institutions, giving employment to 108,000 male operatives - and 23,000 female, together with 63,000 labourers. But the financial - results do not appear independently in the general budget. Three other - government undertakings, however, constitute important budgetary - items: they are, the profits derived from the postal and telegraph - services, 39,000,000 _yen_; secondly, from forests, 13,000,000 _yen_; - and thirdly, from railways, 37,000,000 _yen_. The government further - exercises a monopoly of three important staples, tobacco, salt and - camphor. In each case the crude article is produced by private - individuals from whom it is taken over at a fair price by the - government, and, having been manufactured (if necessary), it is resold - by government agents at fixed prices. The tobacco monopoly yields a - profit of some 33,000,000 _yen_; the salt monopoly a profit of - 12,000,000 _yen_, and the camphor monopoly a profit of 1,000,000 - _yen_. Thus the ordinary revenue of the state consisted in 1908-1909 - of:-- - - _Yen._ - - Proceeds of taxes 320,000,000 - Proceeds of state enterprises (posts and - telegraphs, forests and railways) 89,000,000 - Proceeds of monopolies 56,000,000 - Sundries 11,000,000 - ----------- - Total 476,000,000 - - The ordinary expenditures of the nine departments of state - aggregated--in 1908-1909--427,000,000 _yen_, so that there was a - surplus revenue of 49,000,000 _yen_. - - - Extraordinary Expenditures. - - Japanese budgets have long included an extraordinary section, so - called because it embodies outlays of a special and terminable - character as distinguished from ordinary and perpetually recurring - expenditures. The items in this extraordinary section possessed deep - interest in the years 1896 and 1907, because they disclosed the - special programmes mapped out by Japanese financiers and statesmen - after the wars with China and Russia. Both programmes had the same - bases--expansion of armaments and development of the country's - material resources. After her war with China, Japan received a plain - intimation that she must either fight again after a few years or - resign herself to a career of insignificance on the confines of the - Far East. No other interpretation could be assigned to the action of - Russia, Germany and France in requiring her to retrocede the territory - which she had acquired by right of conquest. Japan therefore made - provision for the doubling of her army and her navy, for the growth of - a mercantile marine qualified to supply a sufficiency of troop-ships, - and for the development of resources which should lighten the burden - of these outlays. - - The war with Russia ensued nine years after these preparations had - begun, and Japan emerged victorious. It then seemed to the onlooking - nations that she would rest from her warlike efforts. On the contrary, - just as she had behaved after her war with China, so she now behaved - after her war with Russia--made arrangements to double her army and - navy and to develop her material resources. The government drafted for - the year 1907-1908 a budget with three salient features. First, - instead of proceeding to deal in a leisurely manner with the greatly - increased national debt, Japan's financiers made dispositions to pay - it off completely in the space of 30 years. Secondly, a total outlay - of 422,000,000 _yen_ was set down for improving and expanding the army - and the navy. Thirdly, expenditures aggregating 304,000,000 _yen_ were - estimated for productive purposes. All these outlays, included in the - extraordinary section of the budget, were spread over a series of - years commencing in 1907 and ending in 1913, so that the disbursements - would reach their maximum in the fiscal year 1908-1909 and would - thenceforth decline with growing rapidity. To finance this programme - three constant sources of annual revenue were provided, namely, - increased taxation, yielding some 30 millions yearly; domestic loans, - varying from 30 to 40 millions each year; and surpluses of ordinary - revenue amounting to from 45 to 75 millions. There were also some - exceptional and temporary assets: such as 100,000,000 _yen_ remaining - over from the war fund; 50 millions paid by Russia for the maintenance - of her officers and soldiers during their imprisonment in Japan; - occasional sales of state properties and so forth. But the backbone of - the scheme was the continuing revenue detailed above. - - The house of representatives unanimously approved this programme. By - the bulk of the nation, however, it was regarded with something like - consternation, and a very short time sufficed to demonstrate its - impracticability. From the beginning of 1907 a cloud of commercial and - industrial depression settled down upon Japan, partly because of so - colossal a programme of taxes and expenditures, and partly owing to - excessive speculation during the year 1906 and to unfavourable - financial conditions abroad. To float domestic loans became a hopeless - task, and thus one of the three sources of extraordinary revenue - ceased to be available. There remained no alternative but to modify - the programme, and this was accomplished by extending the original - period of years so as correspondingly to reduce the annual outlays. - The nation, however, as represented by its leading men of affairs, - clamoured for still more drastic measures, and it became evident that - the government must study retrenchment, not expansion, eschewing above - all things any increase of the country's indebtedness. A change of - ministry took place, and the new cabinet drafted a programme on five - bases: first, that all expenditures should be brought within the - margin of actual visible revenue, loans being wholly abstained from; - secondly, that the estimates should not include any anticipated - surpluses of yearly revenue; thirdly, that appropriations of at least - 50,000,000 _yen_ should be annually set aside to form a sinking fund, - the whole of the foreign debt being thus extinguished in 27 years; - fourthly, that the state railways should be placed in a separate - account, all their profits being devoted to extensions and repairs; - and fifthly, that the period for completing the _post bellum_ - programme should be extended from 6 years to 11. This scheme had the - effect of restoring confidence in the soundness of the national - finances. - - _National Debt._--When the fiefs were surrendered to the sovereign at - the beginning of the Meiji era, it was decided to provide for the - feudal nobles and the samurai by the payment of lump sums in - commutation, or by handing to them public bonds, the interest on which - should constitute a source of income. The result of this transaction - was that bonds having a total face value of 191,500,000 _yen_ were - issued, and ready-money payments were made aggregating 21,250,000 - _yen_.[25] This was the foundation of Japan's national debt. Indeed, - these public bonds may be said to have represented the bulk of the - state's liabilities during the first 25 years of the Meiji period. The - government had also to take over the debts of the fiefs, amounting to - 41,000,000 _yen_, of which 21,500,000 _yen_ were paid with - interest-bearing bonds, the remainder with ready money. If to the - above figures be added two foreign loans aggregating 16,500,000 _yen_ - (completely repaid by the year 1897); a loan of 15,000,000 _yen_ - incurred on account of the Satsuma revolt of 1877; loans of 33,000,000 - _yen_ for public works, 13,000,000 _yen_ for naval construction, and - 14,500,000 _yen_[26] in connexion with the fiat currency, we have a - total of 305,000,000 _yen_, being the whole national debt of Japan - during the first 28 years of her new era under Imperial - administration. - - The second epoch dates from the war with China in 1894-95. The direct - expenditures on account of the war aggregated 200,000,000 _yen_, of - which 135,000,000 _yen_ were added to the national debt, the remainder - being defrayed with accumulations of surplus revenue, with a part of - the indemnity received from China, and with voluntary contributions - from patriotic subjects. As the immediate sequel of the war, the - government elaborated a large programme of armaments and public works. - The expenditure for these unproductive purposes, as well as for coast - fortifications, dockyards, and so on, came to 314,000,000 _yen_, and - the total of the productive expenditures included in the programme was - 190,000,000 _yen_--namely, 120 millions for railways, telegraphs and - telephones; 20 millions for riparian improvements; 20 millions in aid - of industrial and agricultural banks and so forth--the whole programme - thus involving an outlay of 504,000,000 _yen_. To meet this large - figure, the Chinese indemnity, surpluses of annual revenue and other - assets, furnished 300 millions; and it was decided that the remaining - 204 millions should be obtained by domestic loans, the programme to be - carried completely into operation--with trifling exceptions--by the - year 1905. In practice, however, it was found impossible to obtain - money at home without paying a high rate of interest. The government, - therefore, had recourse to the London market in 1899, raising a loan - of L10,000,000 at 4%, and selling the L100 bonds at 90. In 1902, it - was not expected that Japan would need any further immediate recourse - to foreign borrowing. According to her financiers' forecast at that - time, her national indebtedness would reach its maximum, namely, - 575,000,000 _yen_, in the year 1903, and would thenceforward diminish - steadily. All Japan's domestic loans were by that time placed on a - uniform basis. They carried 5% interest, ran for a period of 5 years - without redemption, and were then to be redeemed within 50 years at - latest. The treasury had power to expedite the operation of redemption - according to financial convenience, but the sum expended on - amortization each year must receive the previous consent of the diet. - Within the limit of that sum redemption was effected either by - purchasing the stock of the loans in the open market or by drawing - lots to determine the bonds to be paid off. During the first two - periods (1867 to 1897) of the Meiji era, owing to the processes of - conversion, consolidation, &c., and to the various requirements of the - state's progress, twenty-two different kinds of national bonds were - issued; they aggregated 673,215,500 _yen_; 269,042,198 _yen_ of that - total had been paid off at the close of 1897, and the remainder was to - be redeemed by 1946, according to these programmes. - - But at this point the empire became involved in war with Russia, and - the enormous resulting outlays caused a signal change in the financial - situation. Before peace was restored in the autumn of 1905, Japan had - been obliged to borrow 405,000,000 _yen_ at home and 1,054,000,000 - abroad, so that she found herself in 1908 with a total debt of - 2,276,000,000 _yen_, of which aggregate her domestic indebtedness - stood for 1,110,000,000 and her foreign borrowings amounted to - 1,166,000,000. This meant that her debt had grown from 561,000,000 - _yen_ in 1904 to 2,276,000,000 _yen_[27] in 1908; or from 11.3 _yen_ - to 43.8 _yen_ per head of the population. Further, out of the grand - total, the sum actually spent on account of war and armaments - represented 1,357,000,000 _yen_. The debt carried interest varying - from 4 to 5%. - - It will be observed that the country's indebtedness grew by - 1,700,000,000 _yen_, in round numbers, owing to the war with Russia. - This added obligation the government resolved to discharge within the - space of 30 years, for which purpose the diet was asked to approve the - establishment of a national debt consolidation fund, which should be - kept distinct from the general accounts of revenue and expenditure, - and specially applied to payment of interest and redemption of - principal. The amount of this fund was never to fall below 110,000,000 - _yen_ annually. Immediately after the war, the diet approved a cabinet - proposal for the nationalization of 17 private railways, at a cost of - 500,000,000 _yen_, and this brought the state's debts to 2,776,000,000 - _yen_ in all. The people becoming impatient of this large burden, a - scheme was finally adopted in 1908 for appropriating a sum of at least - 50,000,000 _yen_ annually to the purpose of redemption. - - _Local Finance._--Between 1878 and 1888 a system of local autonomy in - matters of finance was fully established. Under this system the total - expenditures of the various corporations in the last year of each - quinquennial period commencing from the fiscal year 1889-1890 were as - follow:-- - - Total Expenditure - Year. (millions of _yen_). - - 1889-1890 22 - 1893-1894 52 - 1898-1899 97 - 1903-1904[28] 158 - 1907-1908 167 - - In the same years the total indebtedness of the corporations was:-- - - Debts - Year. (millions of _yen_). - - 1890 3/4 - 1894 10 - 1899 32 - 1904 65 - 1907 89[29] - - The chief purposes to which the proceeds of these loans were applied - are as follow:-- - - Millions of _yen_. - - Education 5 - Sanitation 12 - Industries 13 - Public works 52 - - Local corporations are not competent to incur unrestricted - indebtedness. The endorsement of the local assembly must be secured; - redemption must commence within 3 years after the date of issue and be - completed within 30 years; and, except in the case of very small - loans, the sanction of the minister of home affairs must be obtained. - - _Wealth of Japan._--With reference to the wealth of Japan, there is no - official census. So far as can be estimated from statistics for the - year 1904-1905, the wealth of Japan proper, excluding Formosa, - Sakhalin and some rights in Manchuria, amounts to about 19,896,000,000 - _yen_, the items of which are as follow:-- - - _Yen_ (10 _yen_ = L1). - - Lands 12,301,000,000 - Buildings 2,331,000,000 - Furniture and fittings 1,080,000,000 - Live stock 109,000,000 - Railways, telegraphs and telephones 707,000,000 - Shipping 376,000,000 - Merchandise 873,000,000 - Specie and bullion 310,000,000 - Miscellaneous 1,809,000,000 - -------------- - Grand total 19,896,000,000 - - - Early Education. - -_Education._--There is no room to doubt that the literature and learning -of China and Korea were transported to Japan in very ancient times, but -tradition is the sole authority for current statements that in the 3rd -century a Korean immigrant was appointed historiographer to the Imperial -court of Japan and another learned man from the same country introduced -the Japanese to the treasures of Chinese literature. About the end of -the 6th century the Japanese court began to send civilians and -religionists direct to China, there to study Confucianism and Buddhism, -and among these travellers there were some who passed as much as 25 or -30 years beyond the sea. The knowledge acquired by these students was -crystallized into a body of laws and ordinances based on the -administrative and legal systems of the Sui dynasty in China, and in the -middle of the 7th century the first Japanese school seems to have been -established by the emperor Tenchi, followed some 50 years later by the -first university. Nara was the site of the latter, and the subjects of -study were ethics, law, history and mathematics. - -Not until 794, the date of the transfer of the capital to Kioto, -however, is there any evidence of educational organization on a -considerable scale. A university was then opened in the capital, with -affiliated colleges; and local schools were built and endowed by noble -families, to whose scions admittance was restricted, but for general -education one institution only appears to have been provided. In this -Kioto university the curriculum included the Chinese classics, -calligraphy, history, law, etiquette, arithmetic and composition; while -in the affiliated colleges special subjects were taught, as medicine, -herbalism, acupuncture, shampooing, divination, the almanac and -languages. Admission was limited to youths of high social grade; the -students aggregated some 400, from 13 to 16 years of age; the faculty -included professors and teachers, who were known by the same titles -(_hakase_ and _shi_) as those applied to their successors to-day; and -the government supplied food and clothing as well as books. The family -schools numbered five, and their patrons were the Wage, the Fujiwara, -the Tachibana (one school each) and the Minamoto (two). At the one -institution--opened in 828--where youths in general might receive -instruction, the course embraced only calligraphy and the precepts of -Buddhism and Confucianism. - - - Combination of Native and Foreign Element. - -The above retrospect suggests that Japan, in those early days, borrowed -her educational system and its subjects of study entirely from China. -But closer scrutiny shows that the national factor was carefully -preserved. The ethics of administration required a combination of two -elements, _wakon_, or the soul of Japan, and _kwansai_, or the ability -of China; so that, while adopting from Confucianism the doctrine of -filial piety, the Japanese grafted on it a spirit of unswerving loyalty -and patriotism; and while accepting Buddha's teaching as to three states -of existence, they supplemented it by a belief that in the life beyond -the grave the duty of guarding his country would devolve on every man. -Great academic importance attached to proficiency in literary -composition, which demanded close study of the ideographic script, -endlessly perplexing in form and infinitely delicate in sense. To be -able to compose and indite graceful couplets constituted a passport to -high office as well as to the favour of great ladies, for women vied -with men in this accomplishment. The early years of the 11th century -saw, grouped about the empress Aki, a galaxy of female authors whose -writings are still accounted their country's classics--Murasaki no -Shikibu, Akazome Emon, Izumi Shikibu, Ise Taiyu and several lesser -lights. To the first two Japan owes the _Genji monogatari_ and the _Eiga -monogatari_, respectively, and from the Imperial court of those remote -ages she inherited admirable models of painting, calligraphy, poetry, -music, song and dance. But it is to be observed that all this refinement -was limited virtually to the noble families residing in Kioto, and that -the first object of education in that era was to fit men for office and -for society. - - - Education in the Middle Ages. - -Meanwhile, beyond the precincts of the capital there were rapidly -growing to maturity numerous powerful military magnates who despised -every form of learning that did not contribute to martial excellence. An -illiterate era ensued which reached its climax with the establishment of -feudalism at the close of the 12th century. It is recorded that, about -that time, only one man out of a force of five thousand could decipher -an Imperial mandate addressed to them. Kamakura, then the seat of feudal -government, was at first distinguished for absence of all intellectual -training, but subsequently the course of political events brought -thither from Kioto a number of court nobles whose erudition and -refinement acted as a potent leaven. Buddhism, too, had been from the -outset a strong educating influence. Under its auspices the first great -public library was established (1270) at the temple Shomyo-ji in -Kanazawa. It is said to have contained practically all the Chinese and -Japanese books then existing, and they were open for perusal by every -class of reader. To Buddhist priests, also, Japan owed during many years -all the machinery she possessed for popular education. They organized -schools at the temples scattered about in almost every part of the -empire, and at these _tera-koya_, as they were called, lessons in -ethics, calligraphy, reading and etiquette were given to the sons of -samurai and even to youths of the mercantile and manufacturing classes. - - - Education in the pre-Meiji Era. - -When, at the beginning of the 17th century, administrative supremacy -fell into the hands of the Tokugawa, the illustrious founder of that -dynasty of shoguns, Iyeyasu, showed himself an earnest promoter of -erudition. He employed a number of priests to make copies of Chinese and -Japanese books; he patronized men of learning and he endowed schools. It -does not appear to have occurred to him, however, that the spread of -knowledge was hampered by a restriction which, emanating originally from -the Imperial court in Kioto, forbade any one outside the ranks of the -Buddhist priesthood to become a public teacher. To his fifth successor -Tsunayoshi (1680-1709) was reserved the honour of abolishing this veto. -Tsunayoshi, whatever his faults, was profoundly attached to literature. -By his command a pocket edition of the Chinese classics was prepared, -and the example he himself set in reading and expounding rare books to -audiences of feudatories and their vassals produced something like a -mania for erudition, so that feudal chiefs competed in engaging teachers -and founding schools. The eighth shogun, Yoshimune (1716-1749), was an -even more enlightened ruler. He caused a geography to be compiled and an -astronomical observatory to be constructed; he revoked the veto on the -study of foreign books; he conceived and carried out the idea of -imparting moral education through the medium of calligraphy by preparing -ethical primers whose precepts were embodied in the head-lines of -copy-books, and he encouraged private schools. Iyenari (1787-1838), the -eleventh shogun, and his immediate successor, Iyeyoshi (1838-1853), -patronized learning no less ardently, and it was under the auspices of -the latter that Japan acquired her five classics, the primers of _True -Words_, of _Great Learning_, of _Lesser Learning_, of _Female Ethics_ -and of _Women's Filial Piety_. - -Thus it may be said that the system of education progressed steadily -throughout the Tokugawa era. From the days of Tsunayoshi the number of -fief schools steadily increased, and as students were admitted free of -all charges, a duty of grateful fealty as well as the impulse of -interfief competition drew thither the sons of all samurai. Ultimately -the number of such schools rose to over 240, and being supported -entirely at the expense of the feudal chiefs, they did no little honour -to the spirit of the era. From 7 to 15 years of age lads attended as day -scholars, being thereafter admitted as boarders, and twice a year -examinations were held in the presence of high officials of the fief. -There were also several private schools where the curriculum consisted -chiefly of moral philosophy, and there were many temple schools, where -ethics, calligraphy, arithmetic, etiquette and, sometimes, commercial -matters were taught. A prominent feature of the system was the bond of -reverential affection uniting teacher and student. Before entering -school a boy was conducted by his father or elder brother to the home of -his future teacher, and there the visitors, kneeling before the teacher, -pledged themselves to obey him in all things and to submit -unquestioningly to any discipline he might impose. Thus the teacher came -to be regarded as a parent, and the veneration paid to him was embodied -in a precept: "Let not a pupil tread within three feet of his teacher's -shadow." In the case of the temple schools the priestly instructor had -full cognisance of each student's domestic circumstances and was guided -by that knowledge in shaping the course of instruction. The universally -underlying principle was, "serve the country and be diligent in your -respective avocations." Sons of samurai were trained in military arts, -and on attaining proficiency many of them travelled about the country, -inuring their bodies to every kind of hardship and challenging all -experts of local fame. - -Unfortunately, however, the policy of national seclusion prevented for a -long time all access to the stores of European knowledge. Not until the -beginning of the 18th century did any authorized account of the great -world of the West pass into the hands of the people. A celebrated -scholar (Arai Hakuseki) then compiled two works--_Saiyo kibun_ (_Record -of Occidental Hearsay_), and _Sairan igen_ (_Renderings of Foreign -Languages_)--which embodied much information, obtained from Dutch -sources, about Europe, its conditions and its customs. But of course the -light thus furnished had very restricted influence. It was not -extinguished, however. Thenceforth men's interest centred more and more -on the astronomical, geographical and medical sciences of the West, -though such subjects were not included in academical studies until the -renewal of foreign intercourse in modern times. Then (1857), almost -immediately, the nation turned to Western learning, as it had turned to -Chinese thirteen centuries earlier. The Tokugawa government established -in Yedo an institution called _Bansho-shirabe-dokoro_ (place for -studying foreign books), where Occidental languages were learned and -Occidental works translated. Simultaneously a school for acquiring -foreign medical art (_Seiyo igaku-sho_) was opened, and, a little later -(1862), the _Kaisei-jo_ (place of liberal culture), a college for -studying European sciences, was added to the list of new institutions. -Thus the eve of the Restoration saw the Japanese people already -appreciative of the stores of learning rendered accessible to them by -contact with the Occident. - - - Commercial Education in Tokugawa Times. - -Commercial education was comparatively neglected in the schools. Sons of -merchants occasionally attended the _tera-koya_, but the instruction -they received there had seldom any bearing upon the conduct of trade. -Mercantile knowledge had to be acquired by a system of apprenticeship. A -boy of 9 or 10 was apprenticed for a period of 8 or 9 years to a -merchant, who undertook to support him and teach him a trade. Generally -this young apprentice could not even read or write. He passed through -all the stages of shop menial, errand boy, petty clerk, salesman and -senior clerk, and in the evenings he received instruction from a -teacher, who used for textbooks the manual of letter-writing (_Shosoku -orai_) and the manual of commerce (_Shobai orai_). The latter contained -much useful information, and a youth thoroughly versed in its contents -was competent to discharge responsible duties. When an apprentice, -having attained the position of senior clerk, had given proof of -practical ability, he was often assisted by his master to start business -independently, but under the same firm-name, for which purpose a sum of -capital was given to him or a section of his master's customers were -assigned. - - - Education in Modern Japan. - -When the government of the Restoration came into power, the emperor -solemnly announced that the administration should be conducted on the -principle of employing men of capacity wherever they could be found. -This amounted to a declaration that in choosing officials scholastic -acquirements would thenceforth take precedence of the claims of birth, -and thus unprecedented importance was seen to attach to education. But -so long as the feudal system survived, even in part, no general scheme -of education could be thoroughly enforced, and thus it was not until the -conversion of the fiefs into prefectures in 1871 that the government saw -itself in a position to take drastic steps. A commission of -investigation was sent to Europe and America, and on its return a very -elaborate and extensive plan was drawn up in accordance with French -models, which the commissioners had found conspicuously complete and -symmetrical. This plan subsequently underwent great modifications. It -will be sufficient to say that in consideration of the free education -hitherto provided by the feudatories in their various fiefs, the -government of the restoration resolved not only that the state should -henceforth shoulder the main part of this burden, but also that the -benefits of the system should be extended equally to all classes of the -population, and that the attendance at primary schools should be -compulsory. At the outset the sum to be paid by the treasury was fixed -at 2,000,000 _yen_, that having been approximately the expenditure -incurred by the feudatories. But the financial arrangements suffered -many changes from time to time, and finally, in 1877, the cost of -maintaining the schools became a charge on the local taxes, the central -treasury granting only sums in aid. - - Every child, on attaining the age of six, must attend a common - elementary school, where, during a six-years' course, instruction is - given in morals, reading, arithmetic, the rudiments of technical work, - gymnastics and poetry. Year by year the attendance at these schools - has increased. Thus, whereas in the year 1900, only 81.67% of the - school-age children of both sexes received the prescribed elementary - instruction, the figure in 1905 was 94.93%. The desire for instruction - used to be keener among boys than among girls, as was natural in view - of the difference of inducement; but ultimately this discrepancy - disappeared almost completely. Thus, whereas the percentage of girls - attending school was 75.90 in 1900, it rose to 91.46 in 1905, and the - corresponding figures for boys were 90.55 and 97.10 respectively. The - tuition fee paid at a common elementary school in the rural districts - must not exceed 5s. yearly, and in the urban districts, 10s.; but in - practice it is much smaller, for these elementary schools form part of - the communal system, and such portion of their expenses as is not - covered by tuition fees, income from school property and miscellaneous - sources, must be defrayed out of the proceeds of local taxation. In - 1909 there were 18,160 common elementary schools, and also 9105 - schools classed as elementary but having sections where, subsequently - to the completion of the regular curriculum, a special supplementary - course of study might be pursued in agriculture, commerce or industry - (needle-work in the case of girls). The time devoted to these special - courses is two, three or four years, according to the degree of - proficiency contemplated, and the maximum fees are 15d. per month in - urban districts and one-half of that amount in rural districts. - - There are also 294 kindergartens, with an attendance of 26,000 - infants, whose parents pay 3d. per month on the average for each - child. In general the kindergartens are connected with elementary - schools or with normal schools. - - If a child, after graduation at a common elementary school, desires to - extend its education, it passes into a common middle school, where - training is given for practical pursuits or for admission to higher - educational institutions. The ordinary curriculum at a common middle - school includes moral philosophy, English language, history, - geography, mathematics, natural history, natural philosophy, - chemistry, drawing and the Japanese language. Five years are required - to graduate, and from the fourth year the student may take up a - special technical course as well as the main course; or, in accordance - with local requirements, technical subjects may be taught conjointly - with the regular curriculum throughout the whole time. The law - provides that there must be at least one common middle school in each - prefecture. The actual number in 1909 was 216. - - Great inducements attract attendance at a common middle school. Not - only does the graduation certificate carry considerable weight as a - general qualification, but it also entitles a young man to volunteer - for one year's service with the colours, thus escaping one of the two - years he would have to serve as an ordinary conscript. - - The graduate of a common middle school can claim admittance, without - examination, to a high school, where he spends three years preparing - to pass to a university, or four years studying a special subject, as - law, engineering or medicine. By following the course in a high - school, a youth obtains exemption from conscription until the age of - 28, when one year as a volunteer will free him from all service with - the colours. A high-school certificate of graduation entitles its - holder to enter a university without examination, and qualifies him - for all public posts. - - For girls also high schools are provided, the object being to give a - general education of higher standard. Candidates for admission must be - over 12 years of age, and must have completed the second-year course - of a higher elementary school. The regular course of study requires 4 - years, and supplementary courses as well as special art courses may be - taken. - - In addition to the schools already enumerated, which may be said to - constitute the machinery of general education, there are special - schools, generally private, and technical schools (including a few - private), where instruction is given in medicine and surgery, - agriculture, commerce, mechanics, applied chemistry, navigation, - electrical engineering, art (pictorial and applied), veterinary - science, sericulture and various other branches of industry. There are - also apprentices' schools, classed under the heading of elementary, - where a course of not less than six months, and not more than four - years, may be taken in dyeing and weaving, embroidery, the making of - artificial flowers, tobacco manufacture, sericulture, reeling silk, - pottery, lacquer, woodwork, metal-work or brewing. There are also - schools--nearly all supported by private enterprise--for the blind and - the dumb. - - Normal schools are maintained for the purpose of training teachers, a - class of persons not plentiful in Japan, doubtless because of an - exceptionally low scale of emoluments, the yearly pay not exceeding - L60 and often falling as low as L15. - - There are two Imperial universities, one in Tokyo and one in Kioto. In - 1909 the former had about 220 professors and instructors and 2880 - students. Its colleges number six: law, medicine, engineering, - literature, science and agriculture. It has a university hall where - post-graduate courses are studied, and it publishes a quarterly - journal giving accounts of scientific researches, which indicate not - only large erudition, but also original talent. The university of - Kioto is a comparatively new institution and has not given any signs - of great vitality. In 1909 its colleges numbered four: law, medicine, - literature and science; its faculty consisted of about 60 professors - with 70 assistants, and its students aggregated about 1100. - - Except in the cases specially indicated, all the figures given above - are independent of private educational institutions. The system - pursued by the state does not tend to encourage private education, for - unless a private school brings its curriculum into exact accord with - that prescribed for public institutions of corresponding grade, its - students are denied the valuable privilege of partial exemption from - conscription, as well as other advantages attaching to state - recognition. Thus the quality of the instruction being nominally the - same, the rate of fees must also be similar, and no margin offers to - tempt private enterprise. - - Public education in Japan is strictly secular: no religious teaching - of any kind is permitted in the schools. There are about 100 - libraries. Progress is marked in this branch, the rate of growth - having been from 43 to 100 in the five-year period ended 1905. The - largest library is the Imperial, in Tokyo. It had about half a million - volumes in 1909, and the daily average of visitors was about 430. - - Apart from the universities, the public educational institutions in - Japan involve an annual expenditure of 3(1/2) millions sterling, out - of which total a little more than half a million is met by students' - fees; 2(3/4) millions are paid by the communes, and the remainder is - defrayed from various sources, the central government contributing - only some L28,000. It is estimated that public school property--in - land, buildings, books, furniture, &c., aggregates 11 millions - sterling. - - -VII.--RELIGION - - Shinto. - -The primitive religion of Japan is known by the name of Shinto, which -signifies "the divine way," but the Japanese maintain that this term is -of comparatively modern application. The term Shinto being obviously of -Chinese origin, cannot have been used in Japan before she became -acquainted with the Chinese language. Now Buddhism did not reach Japan -until the 6th century, and a knowledge of the Chinese language had -preceded it by only a hundred years. It is therefore reasonable to -conclude that the primitive religion of Japan had no name, and that it -did not begin to be called Shinto until Buddhism had entered the field. -The two creeds remained distinct, though not implacably antagonistic, -until the beginning of the 9th century, when they were welded together -into a system of doctrine to which the name _Ryobu-Shinto_ (dual Shinto) -was given. In this new creed the Shinto deities were regarded as avatars -of Buddhist divinities, and thus it may be said that Shinto was absorbed -into Buddhism. Probably that would have been the fate of the indigenous -creed in any circumstances, for a religion without a theory as to a -future state and without any code of moral duties could scarcely hope to -survive contact with a faith so well equipped as Buddhism in these -respects. But Shinto, though absorbed, was not obliterated. Its beliefs -survived; its shrines survived; its festivals survived, and something of -its rites survived also. - -Shinto, indeed, may be said to be entwined about the roots of Japan's -national existence. Its scripture--as the _Kojiki_ must be -considered--resembles the Bible in that both begin with the cosmogony. -But it represents the gods as peopling the newly created earth with -their own offspring instead of with human beings expressly made for the -purpose. The actual work of creation was done by a male deity, Izanagi, -and a female deity, Izanami. From the right eye of the former was born -Amaterasu, who became goddess of the sun; from his left eye, the god of -the moon; and from his nose, a species of Lucifer. The grandson of the -sun goddess was the first sovereign of Japan, and his descendants have -ruled the land in unbroken succession ever since, the 121st being on the -throne in 1909. Thus it is to Amaterasu (the heaven-illuminating -goddess) that the Japanese pay reverence above all other deities, and it -is to her shrine at Ise that pilgrims chiefly flock. - -The story of creation, as related in the _Kojiki_, is obviously based on -a belief that force is indestructible, and that every exercise of it is -productive of some permanent result. Thus by the motions of the creative -spirit there spring into existence all the elements that go to make up -the universe, and these, being of divine origin, are worshipped and -propitiated. Their number becomes immense when we add the deified ghosts -of ancestors who were descended from the gods and whose names are -associated with great deeds. These ancestors are often regarded as the -tutelary deities of districts, where they receive special homage and -where shrines are erected to them. The method of worship consists in -making offerings and in the recital of rituals (_norito_). Twenty-seven -of these rituals were reduced to writing and embodied in a work called -_Engishiki_ (927). Couched in antique language, these liturgies are -designed for the dedication of shrines, for propitiating evil, for -entreating blessings on the harvest, for purification, for obtaining -household security, for bespeaking protection during a journey, and so -forth. Nowhere is any reference found to a future state of reward or -punishment, to deliverance from evil, to assistance in the path of -virtue. One ceremonial only is designed to avert the consequences of sin -or crime; namely, the rite of purification, which, by washing with water -and by the sacrifice of valuables, removes the pollution resulting from -all wrong-doing. Originally performed on behalf of individuals, this -_o-barai_ ultimately came to be a semi-annual ceremony for sweeping away -the sins of all the people. - -Shinto is thus a mixture of ancestor-worship and of nature-worship -without any explicit code of morals. It regards human beings as virtuous -by nature; assumes that each man's conscience is his best guide; and -while believing in a continued existence beyond the grave, entertains no -theory as to its pleasures or pains. Those that pass away become -disembodied spirits, inhabiting the world of darkness (_yomi-no-yo_) and -possessing power to bring sorrow or joy into the lives of their -survivors, on which account they are worshipped and propitiated. Purity -and simplicity being essential characteristics of the cult, its shrines -are built of white wood, absolutely without decorative features of any -kind, and fashioned as were the original huts of the first Japanese -settlers. There are no graven images--a fact attributed by some critics -to ignorance of the glyptic art on the part of the original -worshippers--but there is an emblem of the deity, which generally takes -the form of a sword, a mirror or a so-called jewel, these being the -insignia handed by the sun goddess to her grandson, the first ruler of -Japan. This emblem is not exposed to public view: it is enveloped in -silk and brocade and enclosed in a box at the back of the shrine. The -mirror sometimes prominent is a Buddhist innovation and has nothing to -do with the true emblem of the creed. - -From the 9th century, when Buddhism absorbed Shinto, the two grew -together so intimately that their differentiation seemed hopeless. But -in the middle of the 17th century a strong revival of the indigenous -faith was effected by the efforts of a group of illustrious scholars and -politicians, at whose head stood Mabuchi, Motoori and Hirata. These men -applied themselves with great diligence and acumen to reproduce the pure -Shinto of the _Kojiki_ and to restore it to its old place in the -nation's reverence, their political purpose being to educate a spirit of -revolt against the feudal system which deprived the emperor of -administrative power. The principles thus revived became the basis of -the restoration of 1867; Shinto rites and Shinto rituals were readopted, -and Buddhism fell for a season into comparative disfavour, Shinto being -regarded as the national religion. But Buddhism had twined its roots too -deeply around the heart of the people to be thus easily torn up. It -gradually recovered its old place, though not its old magnificence, for -its disestablishment at the hands of the Meiji government robbed it of a -large part of its revenues. - - - Buddhism. - -Buddhism entered China at the beginning of the Christian era, but not -until the 4th century did it obtain any strong footing. Thence, two -centuries later (522), it reached Japan through Korea. The reception -extended to it was not encouraging at first. Its images and its -brilliant appurtenances might well deter a nation which had never seen -an idol nor ever worshipped in a decorated temple. But the ethical -teachings and the positive doctrines of the foreign faith presented an -attractive contrast to the colourless Shinto. After a struggle, not -without bloodshed, Buddhism won its way. It owed much to the active -patronage of Shotoku taishi, prince-regent during the reign of the -empress Suiko (593-621). At his command many new temples were built; the -country was divided into dioceses under Buddhist prelates; priests were -encouraged to teach the arts of road-making and bridge-building, and -students were sent to China to investigate the mysteries of the faith at -its supposed fountain-head. Between the middle of the 7th century and -that of the 8th, six sects were introduced from China, all imperfect and -all based on the teachings of the Hinayana system. Up to this time the -propagandists of the creed had been chiefly Chinese and Korean teachers. -But from the 8th century onwards, when Kioto became the permanent -capital of the empire, Japanese priests of lofty intelligence and -profound piety began to repair to China and bring thence modified forms -of the doctrines current there. It was thus that Dengyo daishi (c. 800) -became the founder of the Tendai (heavenly tranquillity) sect and Kobo -daishi (774-834) the apostle of the Shingon (true word). Other sects -followed, until the country possessed six principal sects in all with -thirty-seven sub-sects. It must be remembered that Buddhism offers an -almost limitless field for eclecticism. There is not in the world any -literary production of such magnitude as the Chinese scriptures of the -Mahayana. "The canon is seven hundred times the amount of the New -Testament. Hsuan Tsang's translation of the _Prajna paramita_ is -twenty-five times as large as the whole Christian Bible." - -It is natural that out of such a mass of doctrine different systems -should be elaborated. The Buddhism that came to Japan prior to the days -of Dengyo daishi was that of the Vaipulya school, which seems to have -been accepted in its entirety. But the Tendai doctrines, introduced by -Dengyo, Iikaku and other fellow-thinkers, though founded mainly on the -_Saddharma pundarika_, were subjected to the process of eclecticism -which all foreign institutions undergo at Japanese hands. Dengyo studied -it in the monastery of Tientai which "had been founded towards the close -of the 6th century of our era on a lofty range of mountains in the -province of Chehkiang by the celebrated preacher Chikai" (Lloyd, -"Developments of Japanese Buddhism," _Transactions of the Asiatic -Society of Japan_, vol. xxii.), and carrying it to Japan he fitted its -disciplinary and meditative methods to the foundations of the sects -already existing there. - -This eclecticism was even more marked in the case of the Shingon (true -word) doctrines, taught by Dengyo's illustrious contemporary, Kobo -daishi, who was regarded as the incarnation of Vairocana. He led his -countrymen, by a path almost wholly his own, from the comparatively low -platform of Hinayana Buddhism, whose sole aim is individual salvation, -to the Mahayana doctrine, which teaches its devotee to strive after -perfect enlightenment, not for his own sake alone, but also that he may -help his fellows and intercede for them. Then followed the Jodo (Pure -Land) sect, introduced in 1153 by a priest, Senku, who is remembered by -later generations as Honen shonin. He taught salvation by faith -ritualistically expressed. The virtue that saves comes, not from -imitation of and conformity to the person and character of the saviour -Amida, but from blind trust in his efforts and ceaseless repetition of -pious formulae. It is really a religion of despair rather than of hope, -and in that respect it reflects the profound sympathy awakened in the -bosom of its teacher by the sorrows and sufferings of the troublous -times in which he lived. - -A favourite pupil of Honen shonin was Shinran (1173-1262). He founded -the Jodo Shinshu (true sect of jodo), commonly called simply Shinshu and -sometimes Monto, which subsequently became the most influential of -Japanese sects, with its splendid monasteries, the two Hongwana-ji in -Kioto. The differences between the doctrines of this sect and those of -its predecessors were that the former "divested itself of all -metaphysics"; knew nothing of a philosophy of religion, dispensed with a -multiplicity of acts of devotion and the keeping of many commandments; -did not impose any vows of celibacy or any renunciation of the world, -and simply made faith in Amida the all in all. In modern days the -Shinshu sect has been the most progressive of all Buddhist sects and has -freely sent forth its promising priests to study in Europe and America. -Its devotees make no use of charms or spells, which are common among the -followers of other sects. - -Anterior by a few years to that introduction of the Shinshu was the Zen -sect, which has three main divisions, the Rinzai (1168), the Soto (1223) -and the Obaku (1650). This is essentially a contemplative sect. Truth is -reached by pure contemplation, and knowledge can be transmitted from -heart to heart without the use of words. In that simple form the -doctrine was accepted by the Rinzai believers. But the founders of the -Soto branch--Shoyo taishi and Butsuji zenshi--added scholarship and -research to contemplation, and taught that the "highest wisdom and the -most perfect enlightenment are attained when all the elements of -phenomenal existence are recognized as empty, vain and unreal." This -creed played an important part in the development of Bushido, and its -priests have always been distinguished for erudition and indifference to -worldly possessions. - -Last but not least important among Japanese sects of Buddhism is the -Nichiren or Hokke, called after its founder, Nichiren (1222-1282). It -was based on the _Saddharma pundarika_, and it taught that there was -only one true Buddha--the moon in the heavens--the other Buddhas being -like the moon reflected in the waters, transient, shadowy reflections of -the Buddha of truth. It is this being who is the source of all -phenomenal existence, and in whom all phenomenal existence has its -being. The imperfect Buddhism teaches a chain of cause and effect; true -Buddhism teaches that the first link in this chain of cause and effect -is the Buddha of original enlightenment. When this point has been -reached true wisdom has at length been attained. Thus the monotheistic -faith of Christianity was virtually reached in one God in whom all -creatures "live, move and have their being." It will readily be -conceived that these varied doctrines caused dissension and strife among -the sects professing them. Sectarian controversies and squabbles were -nearly as prominent among Japanese Buddhists as they were among European -Christians, but to the credit of Buddhism it has to be recorded that the -stake and the rack never found a place among its instruments of -self-assertion. On the other hand, during the wars that devastated Japan -from the 12th to the end of the 16th century, many of the monasteries -became military camps, and the monks, wearing armour and wielding -glaives, fought in secular as well as religious causes. - - - Christianity in Modern Japan. - - The story of the first Christian missionaries to Japan is told - elsewhere (see S VIII. FOREIGN INTERCOURSE). Their work suffered an - interruption for more than 200 years until, in 1858, almost - simultaneously with the conclusion of the treaties, a small band of - Catholic fathers entered Japan from the Riukiu islands, where they had - carried on their ministrations since 1846. They found that, in the - neighbourhood of Nagasaki, there were some small communities where - Christian worship was still carried on. It would seem that these - communities had not been subjected to any severe official scrutiny. - But the arrival of the fathers revived the old question, and the - native Christians, or such of them as refused to apostatize, were - removed from their homes and sent into banishment. This was the last - example of religious intolerance in Japan. At the instance of the - foreign representatives in Tokyo the exiles were set at liberty in - 1873, and from that time complete freedom of conscience existed in - fact, though it was not declared by law until the promulgation of the - constitution in 1889. In 1905 there were 60,000 Roman Catholic - converts in Japan forming 360 congregations, with 130 missionaries and - 215 teachers, including 145 nuns. These were all European. They were - assisted by 32 Japanese priests, 52 Japanese nuns, 280 male catechists - and 265 female catechists and nurses. Three seminaries for native - priests existed, together with 58 schools and orphanages and two - lepers' homes. The whole was presided over by an archbishop and three - bishops. - - The Anglican Church was established in Japan in 1859 by two American - clergymen who settled in Nagasaki, and now, in conjunction with the - Episcopal Churches of America and Canada, it has missions collectively - designated Nihon Sei-Kokai. There are 6 bishops--2 American and 4 - English--with about 60 foreign and 50 Japanese priests and deacons, - besides many foreign lay workers of both sexes and Japanese catechists - and school teachers. The converts number 11,000. The Protestant - missions include Presbyterian (Nihon Kirisuto Kyokai), Congregational - (Kumi-ai), Methodist, Baptist and the Salvation Army (Kyusei-gun). The - pioneer Protestant mission was founded in 1859 by representatives of - the American Presbyterian and Dutch Reformed Churches. To this mission - belongs the credit of having published, in 1880, the first complete - Japanese version of the New Testament, followed by the Old Testament - in 1887. The Presbyterians, representing 7 religious societies, have - over a hundred missionaries; 12,400 converts; a number of boarding - schools for boys and girls and day schools. The Congregational - churches are associated exclusively with the mission of the American - board of commissioners for foreign missions. They have about 11,400 - converts, and the largest Christian educational institution in Japan, - namely, the Doshisha in Kioto. The Methodists represent 6 American - societies and 1 Canadian. They have 130 missionaries and 10,000 - converts; boarding schools, day schools, and the most important - Christian college in Tokyo, namely, the Awoyama Gaku-in. The Baptists - represent 4 American societies; have 60 missionaries, a theological - seminary, an academy for boys, boarding schools for girls, day schools - and 3500 converts. The Salvation Army, which did not enter Japan until - 1895, has organized 15 corps, and publishes ten thousand copies of a - fortnightly magazine, the _War Cry_ (_Toki no Koe_). Finally, the - Society of Friends, the American and London Religious Tract Societies - and the Young Men's Christian Association have a number of missions. - It will be seen from the above that the missionaries in Japan, in the - space of half a century (1858 to 1908), had won 110,000 converts, in - round numbers. To these must be added the Orthodox Russian Church, - which has a fine cathedral in Tokyo, a staff of about 40 Japanese - priests and deacons and 27,000 converts, the whole presided over by a - bishop. Thus the total number of converts becomes 137,000. In spite - of the numerous sects represented in Japan there has been virtually no - sectarian strife, and it may be said of the Japanese converts that - they concern themselves scarcely at all about the subtleties of dogma - which divide European Christianity. Their tendency is to consider only - the practical aspects of the faith as a moral and ethical guide. They - are disposed, also, to adapt the creed to their own requirements just - as they adapted Buddhism, and this is a disposition which promises to - grow. - - -VIII.--FOREIGN INTERCOURSE - -_Foreign Intercourse in Early and Medieval Times._--There can be no -doubt that commerce was carried on by Japan with China and Korea earlier -that the 8th century of the Christian era. It would appear that from the -very outset over-sea trade was regarded as a government monopoly. -Foreigners were allowed to travel freely in the interior of the country -provided that they submitted their baggage for official inspection and -made no purchases of weapons of war, but all imported goods were bought -in the first place by official appraisers who subsequently sold them to -the people at arbitrarily fixed prices. Greater importance attached to -the trade with China under the Ashikaga shoguns (14th, 15th and 16th -centuries), who were in constant need of funds to defray the cost of -interminable military operations caused by civil disturbances. In this -distress they turned to the neighbouring empire as a source from which -money might be obtained. This idea seems to have been suggested to the -shogun Takauji by a Buddhist priest, when he undertook the construction -of the temple Tenryu-ji. Two ships laden with goods were fitted out, and -it was decided that the enterprise should be repeated annually. Within a -few years after this development of commercial relations between the two -empires, an interruption occurred owing partly to the overthrow of the -Yuen Mongols by the Chinese Ming, and partly to the activity of Japanese -pirates and adventurers who raided the coasts of China. The shogun -Yoshimitsu (1368-1394), however, succeeded in restoring commercial -intercourse, though in order to effect his object he consented that -goods sent from Japan should bear the character of tribute and that he -himself should receive investiture at the hands of the Chinese emperor's -ambassador. The Nanking government granted a certain number of -commercial passports, and these were given by the shogun to Ouchi, -feudal chief of Cho-shu, which had long been the principal port for -trade with the neighbouring empire. Tribute goods formed only a small -fraction of a vessel's cargo: the bulk consisted of articles which were -delivered into the government's stores in China, payment being received -in copper cash. It was from this transaction that the shogun derived a -considerable part of his profits, for the articles did not cost him -anything originally, being either presents from the great temples and -provincial governors or compulsory contributions from the house of -Ouchi. As for the gifts by the Chinese government and the goods shipped -in China, they were arbitrarily distributed among the noble families in -Japan at prices fixed by the shogun's assessor. Thus, so far as the -shogun was concerned, these enterprises could not fail to be lucrative. -They also brought large profits to the Ouchi family, for, in the absence -of competition, the products and manufactures of each country found -ready sale in the markets of the other. The articles found most suitable -in China were swords, fans, screens, lacquer wares, copper and agate, -and the goods brought back to Japan were brocade and other silk fabrics, -ceramic productions, jade and fragrant woods. The Chinese seem to have -had a just appreciation of the wonderful swords of Japan. At first they -were willing to pay the equivalent of 12 guineas for a pair of blades, -but by degrees, as the Japanese began to increase the supply, the price -fell, and at the beginning of the 16th century all the diplomacy of the -Japanese envoys was needed to obtain good figures for the large and -constantly growing quantity of goods that they took over by way of -supplement to the tribute. Buddhist priests generally enjoyed the -distinction of being selected as envoys, for experience showed that -their subtle reasoning invariably overcame the economical scruples of -the Chinese authorities and secured a fine profit for their master, the -shogun. In the middle of the 16th century these tribute-bearing -missions came to an end with the ruin of the Ouchi family and the -overthrow of the Ashikaga shoguns, and they were never renewed. - - - With Korea. - -Japan's medieval commerce with Korea was less ceremonious than that with -China. No passports had to be obtained from the Korean government. A -trader was sufficiently equipped when he carried a permit from the So -family, which held the island of Tsushima in fief. Fifty vessels were -allowed to pass yearly from ports in Japan to the three Japanese -settlements in Korea. Little is recorded about the nature of this trade, -but it was rudely interrupted by the Japanese settlers, who, offended at -some arbitrary procedure on the part of the local Korean authorities, -took up arms (A.D. 1510) and at first signally routed the Koreans. An -army from Seoul turned the tables, and the Japanese were compelled to -abandon the three settlements. Subsequently the shogun's -government--which had not been concerned in the struggle--approached -Korea with amicable proposals, and it was agreed that the ringleaders of -the raiders should be decapitated and their heads sent to Seoul, Japan's -compliance with this condition affording, perhaps, a measure of the -value she attached to neighbourly friendship. Thenceforth the number of -vessels was limited to 25 annually and the settlements were abolished. -Some years later, the Japanese again resorted to violent acts of -self-assertion, and on this occasion, although the offenders were -arrested by order of the shogun Yoshiharu, and handed over to Korea for -punishment, the Seoul court persisted in declining to restore the system -of settlements or to allow the trade to be resumed on its former basis. -Fifty years afterwards the taiko's armies invaded Korea, overrunning it -for seven years, and leaving, when they retired in 1598, a country so -impoverished that it no longer offered any attraction to commercial -enterprise from beyond the sea. - - - With Occidental Nations. - -The Portuguese discovered Japan by accident in 1542 or 1543--the exact -date is uncertain. On a voyage to Macao from Siam, a junk carrying three -Portuguese was blown from her course and fetched Tanegashima, a small -island lying south of the province of Satsuma. The Japanese, always -hospitable and inquisitive, welcomed the newcomers and showed special -curiosity about the arquebuses carried by the Portuguese, fire-arms -being then a novelty in Japan and all weapons of war being in great -request. Conversation was impossible, of course, but, by tracing -ideographs upon the sand, a Chinese member of the crew succeeded in -explaining the cause of the junk's arrival. She was then piloted to a -more commodious harbour, and the Portuguese sold two arquebuses to the -local feudatory, who immediately ordered his armourer to manufacture -similar weapons. Very soon the news of the discovery reached all the -Portuguese settlements in the East, and at least seven expeditions were -fitted out during the next few years to exploit this new market. Their -objective points were all in the island of Kiushiu--the principal stage -where the drama--ultimately converted into a tragedy--of Christian -propagandism and European commercial intercourse was acted in the -interval between 1542 and 1637. - - - Arrival of the Jesuits. - -It does not appear that the Jesuits at Macao, Goa or other centres of -Portuguese influence in the East took immediate advantage of the -discovery of Japan. The pioneer propagandist was Francis Xavier, who -landed at Kagoshima on the 15th of August 1549. During the interval of -six (or seven) years that separated this event from the drifting of the -junk to Tanegashima, the Portuguese had traded freely in the ports of -Kiushiu, had visited Kioto, and had reported the Japanese capital to be -a city of 96,000 houses, therefore larger than Lisbon. Xavier would -certainly have gone to Japan even though he had not been specially -encouraged, for the reports of his countrymen depicted the Japanese as -"very desirous of being instructed," and he longed to find a field more -promising than that inhabited by "all these Indian nations, barbarous, -vicious and without inclination to virtue." There were, however, two -special determinants. One was a request addressed by a feudatory, -supposed to have been the chief of the Bungo fief, to the viceroy of -the Indies at Goa; the other, an appeal made in person by a Japanese -named Yajiro, whom the fathers spoke of as Anjiro, and who subsequently -attained celebrity under his baptismal name, Paul of the holy faith. No -credible reason is historically assigned for the action of the Japanese -feudatory. Probably his curiosity had been excited by accounts which the -Portuguese traders gave of the noble devotion of their country's -missionaries, and being entirely without bigotry, as nearly all Japanese -were at that epoch, he issued the invitation partly out of curiosity and -partly from a sincere desire for progress. Anjiro's case was very -different. Labouring under stress of repentant zeal, and fearful that -his evil acts might entail murderous consequences, he sought an asylum -abroad, and was taken away in 1548 by a Portuguese vessel whose master -advised him to repair to Malacca for the purpose of confessing to -Xavier. This might well have seemed to the Jesuits a providential -dispensation, for Anjiro, already able to speak Portuguese, soon -mastered it sufficiently to interpret for Xavier and his -fellow-missionaries (without which aid they must have remained long -helpless in the face of the immense difficulty of the Japanese -language), and to this linguistic skill he added extraordinary gifts of -intelligence and memory. Xavier, with two Portuguese companions and -Anjiro, were excellently received by the feudal chiefs of Satsuma and -obtained permission to preach their doctrine in any part of the fief. -This permit is not to be construed as an evidence of official sympathy -with the foreign creed. Commercial considerations alone were in -question. A Japanese feudal chief in that era had sedulously to foster -every source of wealth or strength, and as the newly opened trade with -the outer world seemed full of golden promise, each feudatory was not -less anxious to secure a monopoly of it in the 16th century than the -Ashikaga shoguns had been in the 15th. The Satsuma daimyo was led to -believe that the presence of the Jesuits in Kagoshima would certainly -prelude the advent of trading vessels. But within a few months one of -the expected merchantmen sailed to Hirado without touching at Kagoshima, -and her example was followed by two others in the following year, so -that the Satsuma chief saw himself flouted for the sake of a petty -rival, Matsudaira of Hirado. This fact could not fail to provoke his -resentment. But there was another influence at work. Buddhism has always -been a tolerant religion, eclectic rather than exclusive. Xavier, -however, had all the bigoted intolerance of his time. The Buddhist -priests in Kagoshima received him with courtesy and listened -respectfully to the doctrines he expounded through the mouth of Anjiro. -Xavier rejoined with a display of aggressive intolerance which shocked -and alienated the Buddhists. They represented to the Satsuma chief that -peace and good order were inconsistent with such a display of militant -propagandism, and he, already profoundly chagrined by his commercial -disappointment, issued in 1550 an edict making it a capital offence for -any of his vassals to embrace Christianity. Xavier, or, more correctly -speaking, Anjiro, had won 150 converts, who remained without -molestation, but Xavier himself took ship for Hirado. There he was -received with salvoes of artillery by the Portuguese merchantmen lying -in the harbour and with marks of profound respect by the Portuguese -traders, a display which induced the local chief to issue orders that -courteous attention should be paid to the teaching of the foreign -missionaries. In ten days a hundred baptisms took place; another -significant index of the mood of the Japanese in the early era of -Occidental intercourse: the men in authority always showed a complaisant -attitude towards Christianity where trade could be fostered by so doing, -and wherever the men in authority showed such an attitude, considerable -numbers of the lower orders embraced the foreign faith. Thus, in -considering the commercial history of the era, the element of religion -constantly thrusts itself into the foreground. - - - First Visit of Europeans to Kioto. - -Xavier next resolved to visit Kioto. The first town of importance he -reached on the way was Yamaguchi, capital of the Choshu fief, situated -on the northern shore of the Shimonoseki Strait. There the feudal chief, -Ouchi, though sufficiently courteous and inquisitive, showed no special -cordiality towards humble missionaries unconnected with commerce, and -the work of proselytizing made no progress, so that Xavier and his -companion, Fernandez, pushed on to Kioto. The time was mid-winter; the -two fathers suffered terrible privations during their journey of two -months on foot, and on reaching Kioto they found a city which had been -almost wholly reduced to ruins by internecine war. Necessarily they -failed to obtain audience of either emperor or shogun, at that time the -most inaccessible potentates in the world, the Chinese "son of heaven" -excepted, and nothing remained but street preaching, a strange resource, -seeing that Xavier, constitutionally a bad linguist, had only a most -rudimentary acquaintance with the profoundly difficult tongue in which -he attempted to expound the mysteries of a novel creed. A fortnight -sufficed to convince him that Kioto was unfruitful soil. He therefore -returned to Yamaguchi. But he had now learned a lesson. He saw that -propagandism without scrip or staff and without the countenance of those -sitting in the seats of power would be futile in Japan. So he obtained -from Hirado his canonicals, together with a clock and other novel -products of European skill, which, as well as credentials from the -viceroy of India, the governor of Malacca and the bishop of Goa, he -presented to the Choshu chief. His prayer for permission to preach -Christianity was now readily granted, and Ouchi issued a proclamation -announcing his approval of the introduction of the new religion and -according perfect liberty to embrace it. Xavier and Fernandez now made -many converts. They also gained the valuable knowledge that the road to -success in Japan lay in associating themselves with over-sea commerce -and its directors, and in thus winning the co-operation of the feudal -chiefs. - - - Christian Propagandists. - -Nearly ten years had now elapsed since the first Portuguese landed in -Kagoshima, and during that time trade had gone on steadily and -prosperously. No attempt was made to find markets in the main island: -the Portuguese confined themselves to Kiushiu for two reasons: one, that -having no knowledge of the coasts, they hesitated to risk their ships -and their lives in unsurveyed waters; the other, that whereas the main -island, almost from end to end, was seething with internecine war, -Kiushiu remained beyond the pale of disturbance and enjoyed comparative -tranquillity. At the time of Xavier's second sojourn in Yamaguchi, a -Portuguese ship happened to be visiting Bungo, and at its master's -suggestion the great missionary proceeded thither, with the intention of -returning temporarily to the Indies. At Bungo there was then ruling -Otomo, second in power to only the Satsuma chief among the feudatories -of Kiushiu. By him the Jesuit father was received with all honour. -Xavier did not now neglect the lesson he had learned in Yamaguchi. He -repaired to the Bungo chieftain's court, escorted by nearly the whole of -the Portuguese crew, gorgeously bedizened, carrying their arms and with -banners flying. Otomo, a young and ambitious ruler, was keenly anxious -to attract foreign traders with their rich cargoes and puissant weapons -of war. Witnessing the reverence paid to Xavier by the Portuguese -traders, he appreciated the importance of gaining the goodwill of the -Jesuits, and accordingly not only granted them full freedom to teach and -preach, but also enjoined upon his younger brother, who, in the sequel -of a sudden rebellion, had succeeded to the lordship of Yamaguchi, the -advisability of extending protection to Torres and Fernandez, then -sojourning there. After some four months' stay in Bungo, Xavier set sail -for Goa in February 1552. Death overtook him in the last month of the -same year. - -Xavier's departure from Japan marked the conclusion of the first epoch -of Christian propagandism. His sojourn in Japan extended to 27 months. -In that time he and his coadjutors won about 760 converts. In Satsuma -more than a year's labour produced 150 believers. There Xavier had the -assistance of Anjiro to expound his doctrines. No language lends itself -with greater difficulty than Japanese to the discussion of theological -questions. The terms necessary for such a purpose are not current among -laymen, and only by special study, which, it need scarcely be said, -must be preluded by an accurate acquaintance with the tongue itself, can -a man hope to become duly equipped for the task of exposition and -dissertation. It is open to grave doubt whether any foreigner has ever -attained the requisite proficiency. Leaving Anjiro in Kagoshima to care -for the converts made there, Xavier pushed on to Hirado, where he -baptized a hundred Japanese in a few days. Now we have it on the -authority of Xavier himself that in this Hirado campaign "none of us -knew Japanese." How then did they proceed? "By reciting a semi-Japanese -volume" (a translation made by Anjiro of a treatise from Xavier's pen) -"and by delivering sermons, we brought several over to the Christian -cult." Sermons preached in Portuguese or Latin to a Japanese audience on -the island of Hirado in the year 1550 can scarcely have attracted -intelligent interest. On his first visit to Yamaguchi, Xavier's means of -access to the understanding of his hearers was confined to the -rudimentary knowledge of Japanese which Fernandez had been able to -acquire in 14 months, a period of study which, in modern times, with all -the aids now procurable, would not suffice to carry a student beyond the -margin of the colloquial. No converts were won. The people of Yamaguchi -probably admired the splendid faith and devotion of these over-sea -philosophers, but as for their doctrine, it was unintelligible. In Kioto -the same experience was repeated, with an addition of much physical -hardship. But when the Jesuits returned to Yamaguchi in the early autumn -of 1551, they baptized 500 persons, including several members of the -military class. Still Fernandez with his broken Japanese was the only -medium for communicating the profound doctrines of Christianity. It must -be concluded that the teachings of the missionaries produced much less -effect than the attitude of the local chieftain. - - - Second Period of Christian Propagandism. - -Only two missionaries, Torres and Fernandez, remained in Japan after the -departure of Xavier, but they were soon joined by three others. These -newcomers landed at Kagoshima and found that, in spite of the official -veto against the adoption of Christianity, the feudal chief had lost -nothing of his desire to foster foreign trade. Two years later, all the -Jesuits in Japan were assembled in Bungo. Their only church stood there; -and they had also built two hospitals. Local disturbances had compelled -them to withdraw from Yamaguchi, not, however, before their violent -disputes with the Buddhist priests in that town had induced the -feudatory to proscribe the foreign religion, as had previously been done -in Kagoshima. From Funai, the chief town of Bungo, the Jesuits began in -1579 to send yearly reports to their Generals in Rome. These reports, -known as the _Annual Letters_, comprise some of the most valuable -information available about the conditions then existing in Japan. They -describe a state of abject poverty among the lower orders; poverty so -cruel that the destruction of children by their famishing parents was an -everyday occurrence, and in some instances choice had to be made between -cannibalism and starvation. Such suffering becomes easily intelligible -when the fact is recalled that Japan had been racked by civil war during -more than 200 years, each feudal chief fighting for his own hand, to -save or to extend his territorial possessions. From these _Annual -Letters_ it is possible also to gather a tolerably clear idea of the -course of events during the years immediately subsequent to Xavier's -departure. There was no break in the continuity of the newly inaugurated -foreign trade. Portuguese ships visited Hirado as well as Bungo, and in -those days their masters and crews not only attended scrupulously to -their religious duties, but also showed such profound respect for the -missionaries that the Japanese received constant object lessons in the -influence wielded over the traders by the Jesuits. Thirty years later, -this orderly and reverential demeanour was exchanged for riotous -excesses such as had already made the Portuguese sailor a byword in -China. But in the early days of intercourse with Japan the crews of the -merchant vessels seem to have preached Christianity by their exemplary -conduct. Just as Xavier had been induced to visit Bungo by the anxiety -of a ship-captain for Christian ministrations, so in 1557 two of the -fathers repaired to Hirado in obedience to the solicitations of -Portuguese sailors. There the fathers, under the guidance of Vilela, -sent brothers to parade the streets ringing bells and chaunting -litanies; they organized bands of boys for the same purpose; they caused -the converts, and even children, to flagellate themselves at a model of -Mount Calvary, and they worked miracles, healing the sick by contact -with scourges or with a booklet in which Xavier had written litanies and -prayers. It may well be imagined that such doings attracted surprised -attention in Japan. They were supplemented by even more striking -practices. For a sub-feudatory of the Hirado chief, having been -converted, showed his zeal by destroying Buddhist temples and throwing -down the idols, thus inaugurating a campaign of violence destined to -mark the progress of Christianity throughout the greater part of its -history in Japan. There followed the overthrowing of a cross in the -Christian cemetery, the burning of a temple in the town of Hirado, and a -street riot, the sequel being that the Jesuit fathers were compelled to -return once more to Bungo. It is essential to follow all these events, -for not otherwise can a clear understanding be reached as to the aspects -under which Christianity presented itself originally to the Japanese. -The Portuguese traders, reverent as was their demeanour towards -Christianity, did not allow their commerce to be interrupted by -vicissitudes of propagandism. They still repaired to Hirado, and rumours -of the wealth-begetting effects of their presence having reached the -neighbouring fief of Omura, its chief, Sumitada, made overtures to the -Jesuits in Bungo, offering a port free from all dues for ten years, a -large tract of land, a residence for the missionaries and other -privileges. The Jesuits hastened to take advantage of this proposal, and -no sooner did the news reach Hirado than the feudatory of that island -repented of having expelled the fathers and invited them to return. But -while they hesitated, a Portuguese vessel arrived at Hirado, and the -feudal chief declared publicly that no need existed to conciliate the -missionaries, since trade went on without them. When this became known -in Bungo, Torres hastened to Hirado, was received with extraordinary -honours by the crew of the vessel, and at his instance she left the -port, her master declaring that "he could not remain in a country where -they maltreated those who professed the same religion as himself." -Hirado remained a closed port for some years, but ultimately the advent -of three merchantmen, which intimated their determination not to put in -unless the anti-Christian ban was removed, induced the feudal chief to -receive the Jesuits, once more. This incident was paralleled a few years -later in the island of Amakusa, where a petty feudatory, in order to -attract foreign trade, as the missionaries themselves frankly explain, -embraced Christianity and ordered all his vassals to follow his example; -but when no Portuguese ship appeared, he apostatized, required his -subjects to revert to Buddhism arid made the missionaries withdraw. In -fact, the competition for the patronage of Portuguese traders was so -keen that the Hirado feudatory attempted to burn several of their -vessels because they frequented the territorial waters of his neighbour -and rival, Sumitada. The latter became a most stalwart Christian when -his wish was gratified. He set himself to eradicate idolatry throughout -his fief with the strong arm, and his fierce intolerance provoked -results which ended in the destruction of the Christian town at the -newly opened free port. Sumitada, however, quickly reasserted his -authority, and five years later (1567), he took a step which had -far-reaching consequences, namely, the building of a church at Nagasaki, -in order that Portuguese commerce might have a centre and the Christians -an assured asylum. Nagasaki was then a little fishing village. In five -years it grew to be a town of thirty thousand inhabitants, and Sumitada -became one of the richest of the Kiushiu feudatories. When in 1573 -successful conflicts with the neighbouring fiefs brought him an access -of territory, he declared that he owed these victories to the influence -of the Christian God, and shortly afterwards he publicly proclaimed -banishment for all who would not accept the foreign faith. There were -then no Jesuits by his side, but immediately two hastened to join him, -and "these, accompanied by a strong guard, but yet not without danger of -their lives, went round causing the churches of the Gentiles, with their -idols, to be thrown to the ground, while three Japanese Christians went -preaching the law of God everywhere. Three of us who were in the -neighbouring kingdoms all withdrew therefrom to work in this abundant -harvest, and in the space of seven months twenty thousand persons were -baptized, including the bonzes of about sixty monasteries, except a few -who quitted the State." In Bungo, however, where the Jesuits were -originally so well received, it is doubtful whether Christian -propagandism would not have ended in failure but for an event which -occurred in 1576, namely, the conversion of the chieftain's son, a youth -of some 16 years. Two years later Otomo himself came over to the -Christian faith. He rendered inestimable aid, not merely within his own -fief, but also by the influence he exercised on others. His -intervention, supported by recourse to arms, obtained for the Jesuits a -footing on the island of Amakusa, where one of the feudatories gave his -vassals the choice of conversion or exile, and announced to the Buddhist -priests that unless they accepted Christianity their property would be -confiscated and they themselves banished. Nearly the whole population of -the fief did violence to their conscience for the sake of their homes. -Christianity was then becoming established in Kiushiu by methods similar -to those of Islam and the inquisition. Another notable illustration is -furnished by the story of the Arima fief, adjoining that of Sumitada -(Omura), where such resolute means had been adopted to force -Christianity upon the vassals. Moreover, the heads of the two fiefs were -brothers. Accordingly, at the time of Sumitada's very dramatic -conversion, the Jesuits were invited to Arima and encouraged to form -settlements at the ports of Kuchinotsu and Shimabara, which thenceforth -began to be frequented by Portuguese merchantmen. The fief naturally -became involved in the turmoil resulting from Sumitada's iconoclastic -methods of propagandism; but, in 1576, the then ruling feudatory, -influenced largely by the object lesson of Sumitada's prosperity and -puissance, which that chieftain openly ascribed to the tutelary aid of -the Christian deity, accepted baptism and became the "Prince Andrew" of -missionary records. It is written in those records that "the first thing -Prince Andrew did after his baptism was to convert the chief temple of -his capital into a church, its revenues being assigned for the -maintenance of the building and the support of the missionaries. He then -took measures to have the same thing done in the other towns of his -fief, and he seconded the preachers of the gospel so well in everything -else that he could flatter himself that he soon would not have one -single idolater in his states." Thus in the two years that separated his -baptism from his death, twenty thousand converts were won in Arima. But -his successor was an enemy of the alien creed. He ordered the Jesuits to -quit his dominions, required the converts to return to their ancestral -faith, and caused "the holy places to be destroyed and the crosses to be -thrown down." Nearly one-half of the converts apostatized under this -pressure, but others had recourse to a device of proved potency. They -threatened to leave Kuchinotsu _en masse_, and as that would have -involved the loss of foreign trade, the hostile edict was materially -modified. To this same weapon the Christians owed a still more signal -victory. For just at that time the great ship from Macao, now an annual -visitor, arrived in Japanese waters carrying the visitor-general, -Valegnani. She put into Kuchinotsu, and her presence, with its suggested -eventualities, gave such satisfaction that the feudatory offered to -accept baptism and to sanction its acceptance by his vassals. This did -not satisfy Valegnani, a man of profound political sagacity. He saw that -the fief was menaced by serious dangers at the hands of its neighbours, -and seizing the psychological moment of its extreme peril, he used the -secular arm so adroitly that the fief's chance of survival seemed to be -limited to the unreserved adoption of Christianity. Thus, in 1580, the -chieftain and his wife were baptized; "all the city was made Christian; -they burned their idols and destroyed 40 temples, reserving some -materials to build churches." - -Christian propagandism had now made substantial progress. The _Annual -Letter_ of 1582 recorded that at the close of 1581, thirty-two years -after the landing of Xavier in Japan, there were about 150,000 converts, -of whom some 125,000 were in Kiushiu and the remainder in Yamaguchi, -Kioto and the neighbourhood of the latter city. The Jesuits in the -empire then numbered 75, but down to the year 1563 there had never been -more than 9, and down to 1577, not more than 18. The harvest was -certainly great in proportion to the number of sowers. But it was a -harvest mainly of artificial growth; forced by the despotic insistence -of feudal chiefs who possessed the power of life and death over their -vassals, and were influenced by a desire to attract foreign trade. To -the Buddhist priests this movement of Christian propagandism had brought -an experience hitherto unknown to them, persecution on account of creed. -They had suffered for interfering in politics, but the fierce cruelty of -the Christian fanatic now became known for the first time to men -themselves conspicuous for tolerance of heresy and receptivity of -instruction. They had had no previous experience of humanity in the garb -of an Otomo of Bungo, who, in the words of Crasset, "went to the chase -of the bonzes as to that of wild beasts, and made it his singular -pleasure to exterminate them from his states." - - - First Japanese Embassy to Europe. - -In 1582 the first Japanese envoys sailed from Nagasaki for Europe. The -embassy consisted of four youths, the oldest not more than 16, -representing the fiefs of Arima, Omura and Bungo. They visited Lisbon, -Madrid and Rome, and in all these cities they were received with -displays of magnificence such as 16th century Europe delighted to make. -That, indeed, had been the motive of Valegnani in organizing the -mission: he desired to let the Japanese see with their own eyes how -great were the riches and might of Western states. - - - Second Visit of Jesuits to Kioto. - -In the above statistics of converts at the close of 1581 mention is made -of Christians in Kioto, though we have already seen that the visit by -Xavier and Fernandez to that city was wholly barren of results. A second -visit, however, made by Vilela in 1559, proved more successful. He -carried letters of recommendation from the Bungo chieftain, and the -proximate cause of his journey was an invitation from a Buddhist priest -in the celebrated monastery of Hiei-zan, who sought information about -Christianity. This was before the razing of temples and the overthrow of -idols had commenced in Kiushiu. On arrival at Hiei-zan, Vilela found -that the Buddhist prior who had invited him was dead and that only a -portion of the old man's authority had descended to his successor. -Nevertheless the Jesuit obtained an opportunity to expound his doctrines -to a party of bonzes at the monastery. Subsequently, through the good -offices of a priest, described as "one of the most respected men in the -city," and with the assistance of the Bungo feudatory's letter, Vilela -enjoyed the rare honour of being received by the shogun in Kioto, who -treated him with all consideration and assigned a house for his -residence. It may be imagined that, owing such a debt of gratitude to -Buddhist priests, Vilela would have behaved towards them and their creed -with courtesy. But the Jesuit fathers were proof against all influences -calculated to impair their stern sense of duty. Speaking through the -mouth of a Japanese convert, Vilela attacked the bonzes in unmeasured -terms and denounced their faith. Soon the bonzes, on their side, were -seeking the destruction of these uncompromising assailants with -insistence inferior only to that which the Jesuits themselves would have -shown in similar circumstances. Against these perils Vilela was -protected by the goodwill of the shogun, who had already issued a decree -threatening with death any one who injured the missionaries or -obstructed their work. In spite of all difficulties and dangers these -wonderful missionaries, whose courage, zeal and devotion are beyond all -eulogy, toiled on resolutely and even recklessly, and such success -attended their efforts that by 1564 many converts had been won and -churches had been established in five walled towns within a distance of -50 miles from Kioto. Among the converts were two Buddhist priests, -notoriously hostile at the outset, who had been nominated as official -commissioners to investigate and report upon the doctrine of -Christianity. The first conversion _en masse_ was due to pressure from -above. A petty feudatory, Takayama, whose fief lay at Takatsuki in the -neighbourhood of the capital, challenged Vilela to a public controversy, -the result of which was that the Japanese acknowledged himself -vanquished, embraced Christianity and invited his vassals as well as his -family to follow his example. This man's son--Takayama Yusho--proved one -of the stanchest supporters of Christianity in all Japan, and has been -immortalized by the Jesuits under the name of Don Justo Ucondono. -Incidentally this event furnishes an index to the character of the -Japanese samurai: he accepted the consequences of defeat as frankly as -he dared it. In the same year (1564) the feudatory of Sawa, a brother of -Takayama, became a Christian and imposed the faith on all his vassals, -just as Sumitada and other feudal chiefs had done in Kiushiu. But the -Kioto record differs from that of Kiushiu in one important respect--the -former is free from any intrusion of commercial motives. - - - Nobunaga and the Jesuits. - -Kioto was at that time the scene of sanguinary tumults, which culminated -in the murder of the shogun (1565), and led to the issue of a decree by -the emperor proscribing Christianity. In Japanese medieval history this -is one of the only two instances of Imperial interference with Christian -propagandism. There is evidence that the edict was obtained at the -instance of one of the shogun's assassins and certain Buddhist priests. -The Jesuits--their number had been increased to three--were obliged to -take refuge in Sakai, now little more than a suburb of Osaka, but at -that time a great and wealthy mart, and the only town in Japan which did -not acknowledge the sway of any feudal chief. Three years later they -were summoned thence to be presented to Oda Nobunaga, one of the -greatest captains Japan has ever produced. In the very year of Xavier's -landing at Kagoshima, Nobunaga had succeeded to his father's fief, a -comparatively petty estate in the province of Owari. In 1568 he was -seated in Kioto, a maker of shoguns and acknowledged ruler of 30 among -the 66 provinces of Japan. Had Nobunaga, wielding such immense power, -adopted a hostile attitude towards Christianity, the fires lit by the -Jesuits in Japan must soon have been extinguished. Nobunaga, however, to -great breadth and liberality of view added strong animosity towards -Buddhist priests. Many of the great monasteries had become armed camps, -their inmates skilled equally in field-attacks and in the defence of -ramparts. One sect (the Nichiren), which was specially affected by the -samurai, had lent powerful aid to the murderers of the shogun three -years before Nobunaga's victories carried him to Kioto, and the armed -monasteries constituted _imperia in imperio_ which assorted ill with his -ambition of complete supremacy. He therefore welcomed Christianity for -the sake of its opposition to Buddhism, and when Takayama conducted -Froez from Sakai to Nobunaga's presence, the reception accorded to the -Jesuit was of the most cordial character. Throughout the fourteen years -of life that remained to him, Nobunaga continued to be the constant -friend of the missionaries in particular and of foreigners visiting -Japan in general. He stood between the Jesuits and the Throne when, in -reply to an appeal from the Buddhist priests, the emperor, for the -second time, issued an anti-Christian decree (1568); he granted a site -for a church and residence at Azuchi on Lake Biwa, where his new -fortress stood; he addressed to various powerful feudatories letters -signifying a desire for the spread of Christianity; he frequently made -handsome presents to the fathers, and whenever they visited him he -showed a degree of accessibility and graciousness very foreign to his -usually haughty and imperious demeanour. The Jesuits themselves said of -him: "This man seems to have been chosen by God to open and prepare the -way for our faith." Nevertheless they do not appear to have entertained -much hope at any time of converting Nobunaga. They must have understood -that their doctrines had not made any profound impression on a man who -could treat them as this potentate did in 1579, when he plainly showed -that political exigencies might at any moment induce him to sacrifice -them.[30] His last act, too, proved that sacrilege was of no account in -his eyes, for he took steps to have himself apotheosized at Azuchi with -the utmost pomp and circumstance. Still nothing can obscure the benefits -he heaped upon the propagandists of Christianity. - - - Hideyshi and the Christians. - -The terrible tumult of domestic war through which Japan passed in the -15th and 16th centuries brought to her service three of the greatest men -ever produced in Occident or Orient. They were Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi -Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Iyeyasu. Hideyoshi, as Nobunaga's lieutenant, -contributed largely to the building of the latter's fortunes, and, -succeeding him in 1582, brought the whole 66 provinces of the empire -under his own administrative sway. For the Jesuits now the absorbing -question was, what attitude Hideyoshi would assume towards their -propagandism. His power was virtually limitless. With a word he could -have overthrown the whole edifice created by them at the cost of so much -splendid effort and noble devotion. They were very quickly reassured. In -this matter Hideyoshi walked in Nobunaga's footsteps. He not only -accorded a friendly audience to Father Organtino, who waited on him as -representative of the Jesuits, but also he went in person to assign to -the company a site for a church and a residence in Osaka, where there -was presently to rise the most massive fortress ever built in the East. -At that time many Christian converts were serving in high positions, and -in 1584 the Jesuits placed it on record that "Hideyoshi was not only not -opposed to the things of God, but he even showed that he made much -account of them and preferred them to all the sects of the bonzes.... He -is entrusting to Christians his treasures, his secrets and his -fortresses of most importance, and shows himself well pleased that the -sons of the great lords about him should adopt our customs and our law." -Two years later in Osaka he received with every mark of cordiality and -favour a Jesuit mission which had come from Nagasaki seeking audience, -and on that occasion his visitor recorded that he spoke of an intention -of christianizing one half of Japan. Nor did Hideyoshi confine himself -to words. He actually signed a patent licensing the missionaries to -preach throughout all Japan, and exempting not only their houses and -churches from the billeting of soldiers but also the priests themselves -from local burdens. This was in 1586, on the eve of Hideyoshi's greatest -military enterprise, the invasion of Kiushiu and its complete reduction. -He carried that difficult campaign to completion by the middle of 1587, -and throughout its course he maintained a uniformly friendly demeanour -towards the Jesuits. But suddenly, when on the return journey he reached -Hakata in the north of the island, his policy underwent a radical -metamorphosis. Five questions were by his order propounded to the -vice-provincial of the Jesuits: "Why and by what authority he and his -fellow-propagandists had constrained Japanese subjects to become -Christians? Why they had induced their disciples and their sectaries to -overthrow temples? Why they persecuted the bonzes? Why they and other -Portuguese ate animals useful to men, such as oxen and cows? Why the -vice-provincial allowed merchants of his nation to buy Japanese to make -slaves of them in the Indies?" To these queries Coelho, the -vice-provincial, made answer that the missionaries had never themselves -resorted, or incited, to violence in their propagandism or persecuted -bonzes; that if their eating of beef were considered inadvisable, they -would give up the practice; and that they were powerless to prevent or -restrain the outrages perpetrated by their countrymen. Hideyoshi read -the vice-provincial's reply and, without comment, sent him word to -retire to Hirado, assemble all his followers there, and quit the country -within six months. On the next day (July 25, 1587) the following edict -was published:-- - - "Having learned from our faithful councillors that foreign priests - have come into our estates, where they preach a law contrary to that - of Japan, and that they even had the audacity to destroy temples - dedicated to our Kami and Hotoke; although the outrage merits the most - extreme punishment, wishing nevertheless to show them mercy, we order - them under pain of death to quit Japan within twenty days. During that - space no harm or hurt will be done to them. But at the expiration of - that term, we order that if any of them be found in our states, they - should be seized and punished as the greatest criminals. As for the - Portuguese merchants, we permit them to enter our ports, there to - continue their accustomed trade, and to remain in our states provided - our affairs need this. But we forbid them to bring any foreign priests - into the country, under the penalty of the confiscation of their ships - and goods." - -How are we to account for this apparently rapid change of mood on the -part of Hideyoshi? Some historians insist that from the very outset he -conceived the resolve of suppressing Christianity and expelling its -propagandists, but that he concealed his design pending the subjugation -of Kiushiu, lest, by premature action, he might weaken his hand for that -enterprise. This hypothesis rests mainly on conjecture. Its formulators -found it easier to believe in a hidden purpose than to attribute to a -statesman so shrewd and far-seeing a sudden change of mind. A more -reasonable theory is that, shortly before leaving Osaka for Kiushiu, -Hideyoshi began to entertain doubts as to the expediency of tolerating -Christian propagandism, and that his doubts were signally strengthened -by direct observation of the state of affairs in Kiushiu. While still in -Osaka, he one day remarked publicly that "he feared much that all the -virtue of the European priests served only to conceal pernicious designs -against the empire." There had been no demolishing of temples or -overthrowing of images at Christian instance in the metropolitan -provinces. In Kiushiu, however, very different conditions prevailed. -There Christianity may be said to have been preached at the point of the -sword. Temples and images had been destroyed wholesale; vassals in -thousands had been compelled to embrace the foreign faith; and the -missionaries themselves had come to be treated as demi-gods whose nod -was worth conciliating at any cost of self-abasement. Brought into -direct contact with these evidences of the growth of a new power, -temporal as well as spiritual, Hideyoshi may well have reached the -conclusion that a choice had to be finally made between his own -supremacy and that of the alien creed, if not between the independence -of Japan and the yoke of the great Christian states of Europe. - - - Sequel of the Edict of Banishment. - -Hideyoshi gauged the character of the medieval Christians with -sufficient accuracy to know that for the sake of their faith they would -at any time defy the laws of the island. His estimate received immediate -verification, for when the Jesuits, numbering 120, assembled at Hirado -and received his order to embark at once they decided that only those -should sail whose services were needed in China. The others remained and -went about their duties as usual, under the protection of the converted -feudatories. Hideyoshi, however, saw reason to wink at this disregard of -his authority. At first he showed uncompromising resolution. All the -churches in Kioto, Osaka and Sakai were demolished, while troops were -sent to raze the Christian places of worship in Kiushiu and seize the -port of Nagasaki. These troops were munificently dissuaded from their -purpose by the Christian feudatories. But Hideyoshi did not protest, and -in 1588 he allowed himself to be convinced by a Portuguese envoy that in -the absence of missionaries foreign trade must cease, since without the -intervention of the fathers peace and good order could not be maintained -among the merchants. Rather than suffer the trade to be interrupted -Hideyoshi agreed to the coming of priests, and thenceforth, during some -years, Christianity not only continued to flourish and grow in Kiushiu -but also found a favourable field of operations in Kioto itself. Care -was taken that Hideyoshi's attention should not be attracted by any -salient evidences of what he had called a "diabolical religion," and -thus for a time all went well. There is evidence that, like the feudal -chiefs in Kiushiu, Hideyoshi set great store by foreign trade and would -even have sacrificed to its maintenance and expansion something of the -aversion he had conceived for Christianity. He did indeed make one very -large concession. For on being assured that Portuguese traders could not -frequent Japan unless they found Christian priests there to minister to -them, he consented to sanction the presence of a limited number of -Jesuits. The statistics of 1595 show how Christianity fared under even -this partial tolerance, for there were then 137 Jesuits in Japan with -300,000 converts, among whom were 17 feudal chiefs, to say nothing of -many men of lesser though still considerable note, and even not a few -bonzes. - - - Hideyoshi's Final Attitude towards Christianity. - -For ten years after his unlooked-for order of expulsion, Hideyoshi -preserved a tolerant mien. But in 1597 his forbearance gave place to a -mood of uncompromising severity. The reasons of this second change are -very clear, though diverse accounts have been transmitted. Up to 1593 -the Portuguese had possessed a monopoly of religious propagandism and -over-sea commerce in Japan. The privilege was secured to them by -agreement between Spain and Portugal and by a papal bull. But the -Spaniards in Manila had long looked with somewhat jealous eyes on this -Jesuit reservation, and when news of the disaster of 1587 reached the -Philippines, the Dominicans and Franciscans residing there were fired -with zeal to enter an arena where the crown of martyrdom seemed to be -the least reward within reach. The papal bull, however, demanded -obedience, and to overcome that difficulty a ruse was necessary: the -governor of Manila agreed to send a party of Franciscans as ambassadors -to Hideyoshi. In that guise the friars, being neither traders nor -propagandists, considered that they did not violate either the treaty or -the bull. It was a technical subterfuge very unworthy of the object -contemplated, and the friars supplemented it by swearing to Hideyoshi -that the Philippines would submit to his sway. Thus they obtained -permission to visit Kioto, Osaka and Fushimi, but with the explicit -proviso that they must not preach. Very soon they had built a church in -Kioto, consecrated it with the utmost pomp, and were preaching sermons -and chaunting litanies there in flagrant defiance of Hideyoshi's veto. -Presently their number received an access of three friars who came -bearing gifts from the governor at Manila, and now they not only -established a convent in Osaka, but also seized a Jesuit church in -Nagasaki and converted the circumspect worship hitherto conducted there -by the fathers into services of the most public character. Officially -checked in Nagasaki, they charged the Jesuits in Kioto with having -intrigued to impede them, and they further vaunted the courageous -openness of their own ministrations as compared with the clandestine -timidity of the methods which wise prudence had induced the Jesuits to -adopt. Retribution would have followed quickly had not Hideyoshi's -attention been engrossed by an attempt to invade China through Korea. At -this stage, however, a memorable incident occurred. Driven out of her -course by a storm, a great and richly laden Spanish galleon, bound for -Acapulco from Manila, drifted to the coast of Tosa province, and -running--or being purposely run--on a sand-bank as she was being towed -into port by Japanese boats, broke her back. She carried goods to the -value of some 600,000 crowns, and certain officials urged Hideyoshi to -confiscate her as derelict, conveying to him at the same time a detailed -account of the doings of the Franciscans and their open flouting of his -orders. Hideyoshi, much incensed, commanded the arrest of the -Franciscans and despatched officers to Tosa to confiscate the "San -Felipe." The pilot of the galleon sought to intimidate these officers by -showing them on a map of the world the vast extent of Spain's dominions, -and being asked how one country had acquired such extended sway, -replied: "Our kings begin by sending into the countries they wish to -conquer missionaries who induce the people to embrace our religion, and -when they have made considerable progress, troops are sent who combine -with the new Christians, and then our kings have not much trouble in -accomplishing the rest." - - - The First Execution of Christians. - -On learning of this speech Hideyoshi was overcome with fury. He -condemned the Franciscans to have their noses and ears cut off, to be -promenaded through Kioto, Osaka and Sakai, and to be crucified at -Nagasaki. "I have ordered these foreigners to be treated thus, because -they have come from the Philippines to Japan, calling themselves -ambassadors, although they were not so; because they have remained here -far too long without my permission; because, in defiance of my -prohibition, they have built churches, preached their religion and -caused disorders." Twenty-six suffered under this sentence--six -Franciscans, three Japanese Jesuits and seventeen native Christians, -chiefly domestic servants of the Franciscans.[31] They met their fate -with noble fortitude. Hideyoshi further issued a special injunction -against the adoption of Christianity by a feudal chief, and took steps -to give practical effect to his expulsion edict of 1587. The governor of -Nagasaki received instructions to send away all the Jesuits, permitting -only two or three to remain for the service of the Portuguese merchants. -But the Jesuits were not the kind of men who, to escape personal peril, -turn their back upon an unaccomplished work of grace. There were 125 of -them in Japan at that time. In October 1597 a junk sailed out of -Nagasaki harbour, her decks crowded with seeming Jesuits. In reality she -carried 11 of the company, the apparent Jesuits being disguised sailors. -It is not to be supposed that such a manoeuvre could be hidden from the -local authorities. They winked at it, until rumour became insistent that -Hideyoshi was about to visit Kiushiu in person, and all Japanese in -administrative posts knew how Hideyoshi visited disobedience and how -hopeless was any attempt to deceive him. Therefore, early in 1598, -really drastic steps were taken. Churches to the number of 137 were -demolished in Kiushiu, seminaries and residences fell, and the governor -of Nagasaki assembled there all the fathers of the company for -deportation to Macao by the great ship in the following year. But while -they waited, Hideyoshi died. It is not on record that the Jesuits openly -declared his removal from the earth to have been a special dispensation -in their favour. But they pronounced him an execrable tyrant and -consigned his "soul to hell for all eternity." Yet no impartial reader -of history can pretend to think that a 16th-century Jesuit general in -Hideyoshi's place would have shown towards an alien creed and its -propagandists even a small measure of the tolerance exercised by the -Japanese statesman towards Christianity and the Jesuits. - - - Foreign Policy of the Tokugawa Rulers. - -Hideyoshi's death occurred in 1598. Two years later, his authority as -administrative ruler of all Japan had passed into the hands of Iyeyasu, -the Tokugawa chief, and thirty-nine years later the Tokugawa potentates -had not only exterminated Christianity in Japan but had also condemned -their country to a period of international isolation which continued -unbroken until 1853, an interval of 214 years. It has been shown that -even when they were most incensed against Christianity, Japanese -administrators sought to foster and preserve foreign trade. Why then did -they close the country's doors to the outside world and suspend a -commerce once so much esteemed? To answer that question some retrospect -is needed. Certain historians allege that from the outset Iyeyasu shared -Hideyoshi's misgivings about the real designs of Christian potentates -and Christian propagandists. But that verdict is not supported by facts. -The first occasion of the Tokugawa chief's recorded contact with a -Christian propagandist was less than three months after Hideyoshi's -death. There was then led into his presence a Franciscan, by name Jerome -de Jesus, originally a member of the fictitious embassy from Manila. -This man's conduct constitutes an example of the invincible zeal and -courage inspiring a Christian priest in those days. Barely escaping the -doom of crucifixion which overtook his companions, he had been deported -from Japan to Manila at a time when death seemed to be the certain -penalty of remaining. But no sooner had he been landed at Manila than he -took passage in a Chinese junk, and, returning to Nagasaki, made his way -secretly from the far south of Japan to the province of Kii. There -arrested, he was brought into the presence of Iyeyasu, and his own -record of what ensued is given in a letter subsequently sent to -Manila:-- - - "When the Prince saw me he asked how I had managed to escape the - previous persecution. I answered him that at that date God had - delivered me in order that I might go to Manila and bring back new - colleagues from there--preachers of the divine law--and that I had - returned from Manila to encourage the Christians, cherishing the - desire to die on the cross in order to go to enjoy eternal glory like - my former colleagues. On hearing these words the Emperor began to - smile, whether in his quality of a pagan of the sect of Shaka, which - teaches that there is no future life, or whether from the thought that - I was frightened at having to be put to death. Then, looking at me - kindly, he said, 'Be no longer afraid and no longer conceal yourself, - and no longer change your habit, for I wish you well; and as for the - Christians who every year pass within sight of the Kwanto where my - domains are, when they go to Mexico with their ships, I have a keen - desire for them to visit the harbours of this island, to refresh - themselves there, and to take what they wish, to trade with my vassals - and to teach them how to develop silver mines; and that my intentions - may be accomplished before my death, I wish you to indicate to me the - means to take to realize them.' I answered that it was necessary that - Spanish pilots should take the soundings of his harbours, so that - ships might not be lost in future as the 'San Felipe' had been, and - that he should solicit this service from the governor of the - Philippines. The Prince approved of my advice, and accordingly he has - sent a Japanese gentleman, a native of Sakai, the bearer of this - message.... It is essential to oppose no obstacle to the complete - liberty offered by the Emperor to the Spaniards and to our holy order, - for the preaching of the holy gospel.... The same Prince (who is about - to visit the Kwanto) invites me to accompany him to make choice of a - house, and to visit the harbour which he promises to open to us; his - desires in this respect are keener than I can express." - -The above version of the Tokugawa chief's mood is confirmed by events, -for not only did he allow the contumelious Franciscan to build a -church--the first--in Yedo and to celebrate Mass there, but also he sent -three embassies to the Philippines, proposing reciprocal freedom of -commerce, offering to open ports in the Kwanto and asking for competent -naval architects. He never obtained the architects, and though the trade -came, its volume was small in comparison with the abundance of friars -that accompanied it. There is just a possibility that Iyeyasu saw in -these Spanish monks an instrument of counteracting the influence of the -Jesuits, for he must have known that the Franciscans opened their -mission in Yedo by "declaiming with violence against the fathers of the -company of Jesus." In short, the Spanish monks assumed towards the -Jesuits in Japan the same intolerant and abusive tone that the Jesuits -themselves had previously assumed towards Buddhism. - -At that time there appeared upon the scene another factor destined -greatly to complicate events. It was a Dutch merchant ship, the -"Liefde." Until the Netherlands revolted from Spain, the Dutch had been -the principal distributors of all goods arriving at Lisbon from the Far -East; but in 1594 Philip II. closed the port of Lisbon to these rebels, -and the Dutch met the situation by turning their prows to the Orient to -invade the sources of Portuguese commerce. One of the first expeditions -despatched for that purpose set out in 1598, and of the five vessels -composing it one only was ever heard of again. This was the "Liefde." -She reached Japan during the spring of 1600, with only four-and-twenty -alive out of her original crew of 110. Towed into the harbour at Funai, -the "Liefde" was visited by Jesuits, who, on discovering her -nationality, denounced her to the local authorities as a pirate and -endeavoured to incense the Japanese against them. The "Liefde" had on -board in the capacity of "pilot major" an Englishman, Will Adams of -Gillingham in Kent, whom Iyeyasu summoned to Osaka, where there -commenced between the rough British sailor and the Tokugawa chief a -curiously friendly intercourse which was not interrupted until the death -of Adams twenty years later. The Englishman became master ship-builder -to the Yedo government; was employed as diplomatic agent when other -traders from his own country and from Holland arrived in Japan, -received in perpetual gift a substantial estate, and from first to last -possessed the implicit confidence of the shogun. Iyeyasu quickly -discerned the man's honesty, perceived that whatever benefits foreign -commerce might confer would be increased by encouraging competition -among the foreigners, and realized that English and Dutch trade -presented the wholesome feature of complete dissociation from religious -propagandism. On the other hand, he showed no intolerance to either -Spaniards or Portuguese. He issued (1601) two official patents -sanctioning the residence of the fathers in Kioto, Osaka and Nagasaki; -he employed Father Rodriguez as interpreter to the court at Yedo; and in -1603 he gave munificent succour to the Jesuits who were reduced to dire -straits owing to the capture of the great ship from Macao by the Dutch -and the consequent loss of several years' supplies for the mission in -Japan. - -It is thus seen that each of the great trio of Japan's 16th-century -statesmen--Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu--adopted at the outset a most -tolerant demeanour towards Christianity. The reasons of Hideyoshi's -change of mood have been set forth. We have now to examine the reasons -that produced a similar metamorphosis in the case of Iyeyasu. Two causes -present themselves immediately. The first is that, while tolerating -Christianity, Iyeyasu did not approve of it as a creed; the second, that -he himself, whether from state policy or genuine piety, strongly -encouraged Buddhism. Proof of the former proposition is found in an -order issued by him in 1602 to insure the safety of foreign merchantmen -entering Japanese ports: it concluded with the reservation, "but we -rigorously forbid them" (foreigners coming in such ships) "to promulgate -their faith." Proof of the latter is furnished by the facts that he -invariably carried about with him a miniature Buddhist image which he -regarded as his tutelary deity, and that he fostered the creed of Shaka -as zealously as Oda Nobunaga had suppressed it. There is much difficulty -in tracing the exact sequence of events which gradually educated a -strong antipathy to the Christian faith in the mind of the Tokugawa -chief. He must have been influenced in some degree by the views of his -great predecessor, Hideyoshi. But he did not accept those views -implicitly. At the end of the 16th century he sent a trusted emissary to -Europe for the purpose of directly observing the conditions in the home -of Christianity, and this man, the better to achieve his aim, embraced -the foreign faith, and studied it from within as well as from without. -The story that he had to tell on his return could not fail to shock the -ruler of a country where freedom of conscience had existed from time -immemorial. It was a story of the inquisition and of the stake; of -unlimited aggression in the name of the cross; of the pope's -overlordship which entitled him to confiscate the realm of heretical -sovereigns; of religious wars and of well-nigh incredible fanaticism. -Iyeyasu must have received an evil impression while he listened to his -emissary's statements. Under his own eyes, too, were abundant evidences -of the spirit of strife that Christian dogma engendered in those times. -From the moment when the Franciscans and Dominicans arrived in Japan, a -fierce quarrel began between them and the Jesuits; a quarrel which even -community of suffering could not compose. Not less repellent was an -attempt on the part of the Spaniards to dictate to Iyeyasu the expulsion -of all Hollanders from Japan, and on the part of the Jesuits to dictate -the expulsion of the Spaniards. The former proposal, couched almost in -the form of a demand, was twice formulated, and accompanied on the -second occasion by a scarcely less insulting offer, namely, that Spanish -men-of-war would be sent to Japan to burn all Dutch ships found in the -ports of the empire. If in the face of proposals so contumelious of his -sovereign authority Iyeyasu preserved a calm and dignified mien, merely -replying that his country was open to all comers, and that, if other -nations had quarrels among themselves, they must not take Japan for -battle-ground, it is nevertheless unimaginable that he did not strongly -resent such interference with his own independent foreign policy, and -that he did not interpret it as foreshadowing a disturbance of the -realm's peace by sectarian quarrels among Christians. These -experiences, predisposing Iyeyasu to dislike Christianity as a creed and -to distrust it as a political influence, were soon supplemented by -incidents of an immediately determinative character. The first was an -act of fraud and forgery committed in the interests of a Christian -feudatory by a trusted official, himself a Christian. Thereupon Iyeyasu, -conceiving it unsafe that Christians should fill offices at his court, -dismissed all those so employed, banished them from Yedo and forbade any -feudal chief to harbour them. The second incident was an attempted -survey of the coast of Japan by a Spanish mariner and a Franciscan -friar. Permission to take this step had been obtained by an envoy from -New Spain, but no deep consideration of reasons seems to have preluded -the permission on Japan's side, and when the mariner (Sebastian) and the -friar (Sotelo) hastened to carry out the project, Iyeyasu asked Will -Adams to explain this display of industry. The Englishman replied that -such a proceeding would be regarded in Europe as an act of hostility, -especially on the part of the Spaniards or Portuguese, whose aggressions -were notorious. He added, in reply to further questions, that "the Roman -priesthood had been expelled from many parts of Germany, from Sweden, -Norway, Denmark, Holland and England, and that although his own country -preserved the pure form of the Christian faith from which Spain and -Portugal had deviated, yet neither English nor Dutch considered that -that fact afforded them any reason to war with, or to annex, States -which were not Christian solely for the reason that they were -non-Christian." Iyeyasu reposed entire confidence in Adams. Hearing the -Englishman's testimony, he is said to have exclaimed, "If the sovereigns -of Europe do not tolerate these priests, I do them no wrong if I refuse -to tolerate them." Japanese historians add that Iyeyasu discovered a -conspiracy on the part of some Japanese Christians to overthrow his -government by the aid of foreign troops. It was not a widely ramified -plot, but it lent additional importance to the fact that the sympathy of -the fathers and their converts was plainly with the only magnate in the -empire who continued to dispute the Tokugawa supremacy, Hideyori, the -son of Hideyoshi. Nevertheless Iyeyasu shrank from proceeding to -extremities in the case of any foreign priest, and this attitude he -maintained until his death (1616). Possibly he might have been not less -tolerant towards native Christians also had not the Tokugawa authority -been openly defied by a Franciscan father--the Sotelo mentioned -above--in Yedo itself. Then (1613) the first execution of Japanese -converts took place, though the monk himself was released after a short -incarceration. At that time, as is still the case even in these more -enlightened days, insignificant differences of custom sometimes induced -serious misconceptions. A Christian who had violated the secular law was -crucified in Nagasaki. Many of his fellow-believers kneeled around his -cross and prayed for the peace of his soul. A party of converts were -afterwards burned to death in the same place for refusing to apostatize, -and their Christian friends crowded to carry off portions of their -bodies as holy relics. When these things were reported to Iyeyasu, he -said, "Without doubt that must be a diabolic faith which persuades -people not only to worship criminals condemned to death for their -crimes, but also to honour those who have been burned or cut in pieces -by the order of their lord" (feudal chief). - - - Suppression of Christianity. - -The fateful edict ordering that all foreign priests should be collected -in Nagasaki preparatory to removal from Japan, that all churches should -be demolished, and that the converts should be compelled to abjure -Christianity, was issued on the 27th of January 1614. There were then in -Japan 122 Jesuits, 14 Franciscans, 9 Dominicans, 4 Augustins and 7 -secular priests. Had these men obeyed the orders of the Japanese -authorities by leaving the country finally, not one foreigner would have -suffered for his faith in Japan, except the 6 Franciscans executed at -Nagasaki by order of Hideyoshi in 1597. But suffering and death counted -for nothing with the missionaries as against the possibility of winning -or keeping even one convert. Forty-seven of them evaded the edict, some -by concealing themselves at the time of its issue, the rest by leaving -their ships when the latter had passed out of sight of the shore of -Japan, and returning by boats to the scene of their former labours. -Moreover, in a few months, those that had actually crossed the sea -re-crossed it in various disguises, and soon the Japanese government had -to consider whether it would suffer its authority to be thus flouted or -resort to extreme measures. - -During two years immediately following the issue of the anti-Christian -decree, the attention of the Tokugawa chief and indeed of all Japan was -concentrated on the closing episode of the great struggle which assured -to Iyeyasu final supremacy as administrative ruler of the empire. That -episode was a terrible battle under the walls of Osaka castle between -the adherents of the Tokugawa and the supporters of Hideyori. In this -struggle fresh fuel was added to the fire of anti-Christian resentment, -for many Christian converts threw in their lot with Hideyori, and in one -part of the field the Tokugawa troops found themselves fighting against -a foe whose banners were emblazoned with the cross and with images of -the Saviour and St James, the patron saint of Spain. But the Christians -had protectors. Many of the feudatories showed themselves strongly -averse from inflicting the extreme penalty on men and women whose -adoption of an alien religion had been partly forced by the feudatories -themselves. As for the people at large, their liberal spirit is attested -by the fact that five fathers who were in Osaka castle at the time of -its capture made their way to distant refuges without encountering any -risk of betrayal. During these events the death of Iyeyasu took place -(June 1, 1616), and pending the dedication of his mausoleum the -anti-Christian crusade was virtually suspended. - -In September 1616 a new anti-Christian edict was promulgated by -Hidetada, son and successor of Iyeyasu. It pronounced sentence of exile -against all Christian priests, including even those whose presence had -been sanctioned for ministering to the Portuguese merchants: it forbade -the Japanese, under the penalty of being burned alive and of having all -their property confiscated, to have any connexion with the ministers of -religion or to give them hospitality. It was forbidden to any prince or -lord to keep Christians in his service or even on his estates, and the -edict was promulgated with more than usual solemnity, though its -enforcement was deferred until the next year on account of the obsequies -of Iyeyasu. This edict of 1616 differed from that issued by Iyeyasu in -1614, since the latter did not prescribe the death penalty for converts -refusing to apostatize. But both agreed in indicating expulsion as the -sole manner of dealing with the foreign priests. As for the shogun and -his advisers, it is reasonable to assume that they did not anticipate -much necessity for recourse to violence. They must have known that a -great majority of the converts had joined the Christian church at the -instance or by the command of their local rulers, and nothing can have -seemed less likely than that a creed thus lightly embraced would be -adhered to in defiance of torture and death. It is moreover morally -certain that had the foreign propagandists obeyed the Government's edict -and left the country, not one would have been put to death. They -suffered because they defied the laws of the land. Some fifty -missionaries happened to be in Nagasaki when Hidetada's edict was -issued. A number of these were apprehended and deported, but several of -them returned almost immediately. This happened under the jurisdiction -of Omura, who had been specially charged with the duty of sending away -the _bateren_ (_padres_). He appears to have concluded that a striking -example must be furnished, and he therefore ordered the seizure and -decapitation of two fathers, De l'Assumpcion and Machado. The result -completely falsified his calculations, and presaged the cruel struggle -now destined to begin. - - The bodies, placed in different coffins, were interred in the same - grave. Guards were placed over it, but the concourse was immense. The - sick were carried to the sepulchre to be restored to health. The - Christians found new strength in this martyrdom; the pagans themselves - were full of admiration for it. Numerous conversions and numerous - returns of apostates took place everywhere. - - -In the midst of all this, Navarette, the vice-provincial of the -Dominicans, and Ayala, the vice-provincial of the Augustins, came out of -their retreat, and in full priestly garb started upon an open -propaganda. The two fanatics--for so even Charlevoix considers them to -have been--were secretly conveyed to the island Takashima and there -decapitated, while their coffins were weighted with big stones and sunk -in the sea. Even more directly defiant was the attitude of the next -martyred priest, an old Franciscan monk, Juan de Santa Martha. He had -for three years suffered all the horrors of a medieval Japanese prison, -when it was proposed to release him and deport him to New Spain. His -answer was that, if released, he would stay in Japan and preach there. -He laid his head on the block in August 1618. But from that time until -1622 no other foreign missionary suffered capital punishment in Japan, -though many of them arrived in the country and continued their -propagandism there. During that interval, also, there occurred another -incident eminently calculated to fix upon the Christians still deeper -suspicion of political designs. In a Portuguese ship captured by the -Dutch a letter was found instigating the Japanese converts to revolt, -and promising that, when the number of these disaffected Christians was -sufficient, men-of-war would be sent to aid them. Not the least potent -of the influences operating against the Christians was that pamphlets -were written by apostates attributing the zeal of the foreign -propagandists solely to political motives. Yet another indictment of -Spanish and Portuguese propagandists was contained in a despatch -addressed to Hidetada in 1620 by the admiral in command of the British -and Dutch fleet then cruising in Far-Eastern waters. In that document -the friars were flatly accused of treacherous practices, and the -Japanese ruler was warned against the aggressive designs of Philip of -Spain. In the face of all this evidence the Japanese ceased to hesitate, -and a time of terror ensued for the fathers and their converts. The -measures adopted towards the missionaries gradually increased in -severity. In 1617 the first two fathers put to death (De l'Assumpcion -and Machado) were beheaded, "not by the common executioner, but by one -of the first officers of the prince." Subsequently Navarette and Ayala -were decapitated by the executioner. Then, in 1618, Juan de Santa Martha -was executed like a common criminal, his body being dismembered and his -head exposed. Finally, in 1622, Zuniga and Flores were burnt alive. The -same year was marked by the "great martyrdom" at Nagasaki when 9 foreign -priests went to the stake with 19 Japanese converts. The shogun seems to -have been now labouring under vivid fear of a foreign invasion. An -emissary sent by him to Europe had returned on the eve of the "great -martyrdom" after seven years abroad, and had made a report more than -ever unfavourable to Christianity. Therefore Hidetada deemed it -necessary to refuse audience to a Philippine embassy in 1624 and to -deport all Spaniards from Japan. Further, it was decreed that no -Japanese Christian should thenceforth be suffered to go abroad for -commerce, and that though non-Christians or men who had apostatized -might travel freely, they must not visit the Philippines. Thus ended all -intercourse between Japan and Spain. It had continued for 32 years and -had engendered a widespread conviction that Christianity was an -instrument of Spanish aggression. - -Iyemitsu, son of Hidetada, now ruled in Yedo, though Hidetada himself -remained the power behind the throne. The year (1623) of the former's -accession to power had been marked by the re-issue of anti-Christian -decrees, and by the martyrdom of some 500 Christians within the Tokugawa -domains, whither the tide of persecution now flowed for the first time. -Thenceforth the campaign was continuous. The men most active and most -relentless in carrying on the persecution were Mizuno and Takenaka, -governors of Nagasaki, and Matsukura, feudatory of Shimabara. By the -latter were invented the punishment of throwing converts into the -solfataras at Unzen and the torture of the _fosse_, which consisted in -suspension by the feet, head downwards, in a pit until blood oozed from -the mouth, nose and ears. Many endured this latter torture for days, -until death came to their relief, but a few--notably the Jesuit -provincial Ferreyra--apostatized. Matsukura and Takenaka were so -strongly obsessed by the Spanish menace that they contemplated the -conquest of the Philippines in order to deprive the Spaniards of a -Far-Eastern base. But timid counsels then prevailed in Yedo, where the -spirit of a Nobunaga, a Hideyoshi or an Iyeyasu no longer presided. Of -course the measures of repression grew in severity as the fortitude of -the Christians became more obdurate. It is not possible to state the -exact number of victims. Some historians say that, down to 1635, no -fewer than 280,000 were punished, but that figure is probably -exaggerated, for the most trustworthy records indicate that the converts -never aggregated more than 300,000, and many of these, if not a great -majority, having accepted the foreign faith very lightly, doubtless -discarded it readily under menace of destruction. Every opportunity was -given for apostatizing and for escaping death. Immunity could be secured -by pointing out a fellow-convert, and when it is observed that among the -seven or eight feudatories who embraced Christianity only two or three -died in that faith, we must conclude that not a few cases of recanting -occurred among the commoners. Remarkable fortitude, however, is said to -have been displayed. If the converts were intrepid their teachers showed -no less courage. Again and again the latter defied the Japanese -authorities by coming to the country or returning thither after having -been deported. Ignoring the orders of the governors of Macao and Manila -and even of the king of Spain himself, they arrived, year after year, to -be certainly apprehended and sent to the stake after brief periods of -propagandism. In 1626 they actually baptized over 3000 converts. Large -rewards were paid to anyone denouncing a propagandist, and as for the -people, they had to trample upon a picture of Christ in order to prove -that they were not Christians. - -Meanwhile the feuds between the Dutch, the Spaniards and the Portuguese -never ceased. In 1636, the Dutch found on a captured Portuguese vessel a -report of the governor of Macao describing a two days' festival which -had been held there in honour of Vieyra, the vice-provincial whose -martyrdom had just taken place in Japan. This report the Dutch handed to -the Japanese authorities "in order that his majesty may see more clearly -what great honour the Portuguese pay to those he has forbidden his realm -as traitors to the state and to his crown." Probably the accusation -added little to the resentment and distrust already harboured by the -Japanese against the Portuguese. At all events the Yedo government took -no step distinctly hostile to Portuguese laymen until 1637, when an -edict was issued forbidding any foreigners to travel in the empire, lest -Portuguese with passports bearing Dutch names might enter it. This was -the beginning of the end. In the last month of 1637 a rebellion broke -out, commonly called the "Christian revolt of Shimabara," which sealed -the fate of Japan's foreign intercourse for over 200 years. - - - The Shimabara Revolt. - -The promontory of Shimabara and the island of Amakusa enclose the gulf -of Nagasaki on the west. Among all the fiefs in Japan, Shimabara and -Amakusa had been the two most thoroughly christianized in the early -years of Jesuit propagandism. Hence in later days they were naturally -the scene of the severest persecutions. Still the people would probably -have suffered in silence had they not been taxed beyond all endurance to -supply funds for an extravagant chief who employed savage methods of -extortion. Japanese annals, however, relegate the taxation grievance to -an altogether secondary place, and attribute the revolt solely to the -instigation of five samurai who led a roving life to avoid persecution -for their adherence to Christianity. Whichever version be correct, it is -certain that the outbreak ultimately attracted all the Christians from -the surrounding regions, and was regarded by the authorities as in -effect a Christian rising. The Amakusa insurgents passed over to -Shimabara, and on the 27th of January 1638 the whole body--numbering, -according to some authorities, 20,000 fighting men with 17,000 women and -children; according to others, little more than one-half of these -figures--took possession of the dilapidated castle of Hara, which stood -on a plateau with three sides descending perpendicularly to the sea, a -hundred feet beneath, and with a swamp on its fourth front. There the -insurgents, who fought under flags with red crosses and whose battle -cries were "Jesus," "Maria" and "St Iago," successfully maintained -themselves against the repeated assaults of strong forces until the 12th -of April, when, their ammunition and their provisions alike exhausted, -they were overwhelmed and put to the sword, with the exception of 105 -prisoners. During the siege the Dutch were enabled to furnish a vivid -proof of enmity to the Christianity of the Spaniards and the Portuguese. -For the guns in possession of the besiegers being too light to -accomplish anything, Koeckebacker, the factor at Hirado, was invited to -send ships carrying heavier metal. He replied with the "de Ryp" of 20 -guns, which threw 426 shot into the castle in 15 days. Probably the -great bulk of the remaining Japanese Christians perished at the massacre -of Hara. Thenceforth there were few martyrs.[32] - - - Foreign Trade in the 17th Century. - -It has been clearly shown that Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu were all -in favour of foreign intercourse and trade, and that the Tokugawa chief, -even more than his predecessor Hideyoshi, made strenuous efforts to -differentiate between Christianity and commerce, so that the latter -might not be involved in the former's fate. In fact the three objects -which Iyeyasu desired most earnestly to compass were the development of -foreign commerce, the acquisition of a mercantile marine and the -exploitation of Japan's mines. He offered the Spaniards, Portuguese, -English and Dutch a site for a settlement in Yedo, and had they accepted -the offer the country might never have been closed. In his time Japan -was virtually a free-trade country. Importers had not to pay any duties. -It was expected, however, that they should make presents to the -feudatory into whose port they carried their goods, and these presents -were often very valuable. Naturally the Tokugawa chief desired to -attract such a source of wealth to his own domains. He sent more than -one envoy to Manila to urge the opening of commerce direct with the -regions about Yedo, and to ask the Spaniards for competent naval -architects. Perhaps the truest exposition of his attitude is given in a -law enacted in 1602:-- - - "If any foreign vessel by stress of weather is obliged to touch at any - principality or to put into any harbour of Japan, we order that, - whoever these foreigners may be, absolutely nothing whatever that - belongs to them or that they may have brought in their ship, shall be - taken from them. Likewise we rigorously prohibit the use of any - violence in the purchase or the sale of any of the commodities brought - by their ship, and if it is not convenient for the merchants of the - ship to remain in the port they have entered, they may pass to any - other port that may suit them, and therein buy and sell in full - freedom. Likewise we order in a general manner that foreigners may - freely reside in any part of Japan they choose, but we rigorously - forbid them to promulgate their faith." - -It was in that mood that he granted (1605) a licence to the Dutch to -trade in Japan, his expectation doubtless being that the ships which -they promised to send every year would make their depot at Uraga or in -some other place near Yedo. But things were ordered differently. The -first Hollanders that set foot in Japan were the survivors of the -wrecked "Liefde." Thrown into prison for a time, they were approached by -emissaries from the feudatory of Hirado, who engaged some of them to -teach the art of casting guns and the science of gunnery to his vassals, -and when two of them were allowed to leave Japan, he furnished them with -the means of doing so, at the same time making promises which invested -Hirado with attractions as a port of trade, though it was then and -always remained an insignificant fishing village. The Dutch possessed -precisely the qualifications suited to the situation then existing in -Japan: they had commercial potentialities without any religious -associations. Fully appreciating that fact, the shrewd feudatory of -Hirado laid himself out to entice the Dutchmen to his fief, and he -succeeded. Shortly afterwards, an incident occurred which clearly -betrayed the strength of the Tokugawa chief's desire to exploit Japan's -mines. The governor-general of the Philippines (Don Rodrigo Vivero y -Velasco), his ship being cast away on the Japanese coast on a voyage to -Acapulco, was received by Iyeyasu, and in response to the latter's -request for fifty miners, the Spaniard formulated terms to which Iyeyasu -actually agreed: that half the produce of the mines should go to the -miners; that the other half should be divided between Iyeyasu and the -king of Spain; that the latter might send commissioners to Japan to look -after his mining interests, and that these commissioners might be -accompanied by priests who would be entitled to have public churches for -holding services. This was in 1609, when the Tokugawa chief had again -and again imposed the strictest veto on Christian propagandism. There -can be little doubt that he understood the concession made to Don -Rodrigo in the sense of Hideyoshi's mandate to the Jesuits in Nagasaki, -namely, that a sufficient number might remain to minister to the -Portuguese traders frequenting the port. Iyeyasu had confidence in -himself and in his countrymen. He knew that emergencies could be dealt -with when they arose and he sacrificed nothing to timidity. But his -courageous policy died with him and the miners did not come. Neither did -the Spaniards ever devote any successful efforts to establishing trade -with Japan. Their vessels paid fitful visits to Uraga, but the -Portuguese continued to monopolize the commerce. - - - Opening of Dutch and English Trade. - -In 1611 a Dutch merchantman (the "Brach") reached Hirado with a cargo of -pepper, cloth, ivory, silk and lead. She carried two envoys, Spex and -Segerszoon, and in the very face of a Spanish embassy which had just -arrived from Manila expressly for the purpose of "settling the matter -regarding the Hollanders," the Dutchmen obtained a liberal patent from -Iyeyasu. Twelve years previously, the merchants of London, stimulated -generally by the success of the Dutch in trade with the East, and -specially by the fact that "these Hollanders had raised the price of -pepper against us from 3 shillings per pound to 6 shillings and 8 -shillings," organized the East India Company which immediately began to -send ships eastward. Of course the news that the Dutch were about to -establish a trading station in Japan reached London speedily, and the -East India Company lost no time in ordering one of their vessels, the -"Clove," under Captain Saris, to proceed to the Far-Eastern islands. She -carried a quantity of pepper, and on the voyage she endeavoured to -procure some spices at the Moluccas. But the Dutch would not suffer any -poaching on their valuable monopoly. The "Clove" entered Hirado on the -11th of June 1613. Saris seems to have been a man self-opinionated, of -shallow judgment and suspicious. Though strongly urged by Will Adams to -make Uraga the seat of the new trade, though convinced of the excellence -of the harbour there, and though instructed as to the great advantage of -proximity to the shogun's capital, he appears to have conceived some -distrust of Adams, for he chose Hirado. From Iyeyasu Captain Saris -received a most liberal charter, which plainly displayed the mood of the -Tokugawa shogun towards foreign trade:-- - - 1. The ship that has now come for the first time from England over the - sea to Japan may carry on trade of all kinds without hindrance. With - regard to future visits (of English ships) permission will be given in - regard to all matters. - - 2. With regard to the cargoes of ships, requisition will be made by - list according to the requirements of the shogunate. - - 3. English ships are free to visit any port in Japan. If disabled by - storms they may put into any harbour. - - 4. Ground in Yedo in the place which they may desire shall be given to - the English, and they may erect houses and reside and trade there. - They shall be at liberty to return to their country whenever they wish - to do so, and to dispose as they like of the houses they have erected. - - 5. If an Englishman dies in Japan of disease, or any other cause, his - effects shall be handed over without fail. - - 6. Forced sales of cargo, and violence, shall not take place. - - 7. If one of the English should commit an offence, he should be - sentenced by the English General according to the gravity of his - offence. - - (Translated by Professor Riess.) - -The terms of the 4th article show that the shogun expected the English -to make Yedo their headquarters. Had Saris done so, he would have been -free from all competition, would have had an immense market at his very -doors, would have economized the expense of numerous overland journeys -to the Tokugawa court, and would have saved the payment of many -"considerations." The result of his mistaken choice and subsequent bad -management was that, ten years later (1623), the English factory at -Hirado had to be closed, having incurred a total loss of about L2000. In -condonation of this failure it must be noted that a few months after the -death of Iyeyasu, the charter he had granted to Saris underwent serious -modification. The original document threw open to the English every port -in Japan; the revised document limited them to Hirado. But this -restriction may be indirectly traced to the blunder of not accepting a -settlement in Yedo and a port at Uraga. For the Tokugawa's foreign -policy was largely swayed by an apprehension lest the Kiushiu -feudatories, over whom the authority of Yedo had never been fully -established, might, by the presence of foreign traders, come into -possession of such a fleet and such an armament as would ultimately -enable them to wrest the administration of the empire from Tokugawa -hands. Hence the precaution of confining the English and the Dutch to -Hirado, the fief of a _daimyo_ too petty to become formidable, and to -Nagasaki which was an imperial city.[33] But evidently an English -factory in Yedo and English ships at Uraga would have strengthened the -Tokugawa ruler's hand instead of supplying engines of war to his -political foes. It must also be noted that the question of locality had -another injurious outcome. It exposed the English--and the Dutch -also--to crippling competition at the hands of a company of rich Osaka -monopolists, who, as representing an Imperial city and therefore being -pledged to the Tokugawa interests, enjoyed Yedo's favour and took full -advantage of it. These shrewd traders not only drew a ring round Hirado, -but also sent vessels on their own account to Cochin China, Siam, -Tonkin, Cambodia and other places, where they obtained many of the -staples in which the English and the Dutch dealt. Still the closure of -the English factory at Hirado was purely voluntary. From first to last -there had been no serious friction between the English and the Japanese. -The company's houses and godowns were not sold. These as well as the -charter were left in the hands of the daimyo of Hirado, who promised to -restore them should the English re-open business in Japan. The company -did think of doing so on more than one occasion, but no practical step -was taken until the year 1673, when a merchantman, aptly named the -"Return," was sent to seek permission. The Japanese, after mature -reflection, made answer that as the king of England was married to a -Portuguese princess, British subjects could not be permitted to visit -Japan. That this reply was suggested by the Dutch is very probable; that -it truly reflected the feeling of the Japanese government towards Roman -Catholics is certain. - - - The Last Days of the Portuguese in Japan. - -The Spaniards were expelled from Japan in 1624, the Portuguese in 1638. -Two years before the latter event, the Yedo government took a signally -retrogressive step. They ordained that no Japanese vessel should go -abroad; that no Japanese subject should leave the country, and that, if -detected attempting to do so, he should be put to death, the vessel that -carried him and her crew being seized "to await our pleasure"; that any -Japanese resident abroad should be executed if he returned; that the -children and descendants of Spaniards together with those who had -adopted such children should not be allowed to remain on pain of death; -and that no ship of ocean-going dimensions should be built in Japan. -Thus not only were the very children of the Christian propagandists -driven completely from the land, but the Japanese people also were -sentenced to imprisonment within the limits of their islands, and the -country was deprived of all hope of acquiring a mercantile marine. The -descendants of the Spaniards, banished by the edict, were taken to Macao -in two Portuguese galleons. They numbered 287 and the property they -carried with them aggregated 6,697,500 florins. But if the Portuguese -derived any gratification from this sweeping out of their much-abused -rivals, the feeling was destined to be short-lived. Already they were -subjected to humiliating restrictions. - - "From 1623 the galleons and their cargoes were liable to be burnt and - their crews executed if any foreign priest was found on board of them. - An official of the Japanese government was stationed in Macao for the - purpose of inspecting all intending passengers, and of preventing any - one that looked at all suspicious from proceeding to Japan. A complete - list and personal description of every one on board was drawn up by - this officer, a copy of it was handed to the captain and by him it had - to be delivered to the authorities who met him at Nagasaki before he - was allowed to anchor. If in the subsequent inspection any discrepancy - between the list and the persons actually carried by the vessel - appeared, it would prove very awkward for the captain. Then in the - inspection of the vessel letters were opened, trunks and boxes - ransacked, and all crosses, rosaries or objects of religion of any - kind had to be thrown overboard. In 1635 Portuguese were forbidden to - employ Japanese to carry their umbrellas or their shoes, and only - their chief men were allowed to bear arms, while they had to hire - fresh servants every year. It was in the following year (1636) that - the artificial islet of Deshima was constructed for their special - reception, or rather imprisonment. It lay in front of the former - Portuguese factory, with which it was connected by a bridge, and - henceforth the Portuguese were to be allowed to cross this bridge only - twice a year--at their arrival and at their departure. Furthermore, - all their cargoes had to be sold at a fixed price during their fifty - days' stay to a ring of licensed merchants from the imperial - towns."[34] - -The imposition of such irksome conditions did not deter the Portuguese, -who continued to send merchandise-laden galleons to Nagasaki. But in -1638 the bolt fell. The Shimabara rebellion was directly responsible. -Probably the fact of a revolt of Christian converts, in such numbers and -fighting with such resolution, would alone have sufficed to induce the -weak government in Yedo to get rid of the Portuguese altogether. But the -Portuguese were suspected of having instigated the Shimabara -insurrection, and the Japanese authorities believed that they had proof -of the fact. Hence, in 1638, an edict was issued proclaiming that as, in -defiance of the government's order, the Portuguese had continued to -bring missionaries to Japan; as they had supplied these missionaries -with provisions and other necessaries, and as they had fomented the -Shimabara rebellion, thenceforth any Portuguese ship coming to Japan -should be burned, together with her cargo, and every one on board of her -should be executed. Ample time was allowed before enforcing this edict. -Not only were the Portuguese ships then at Nagasaki permitted to close -up their commercial transactions and leave the port, but also in the -following year when two galleons arrived from Macao, they were merely -sent away with a copy of the edict and a stern warning. But the -Portuguese could not easily become reconciled to abandon a commerce from -which they had derived splendid profits prior to the intrusion of the -Spaniards, the Dutch and the English, and from which they might now hope -further gains, since, although the Dutch continued to be formidable -rivals, the Spaniards had been excluded, the English had withdrawn, and -the Japanese, by the suicidal policy of their own rulers, were no longer -able to send ships to China. Therefore they took a step which resulted -in one of the saddest episodes of the whole story. Four aged men, the -most respected citizens of Macao, were despatched (1640) to Nagasaki as -ambassadors in a ship carrying no cargo but only rich presents. They -bore a petition declaring that for a long time no missionaries had -entered Japan from Macao, that the Portuguese had not been in any way -connected with the Shimabara revolt, and that interruption of trade -would injure Japan as much as Portugal. These envoys arrived at Nagasaki -on the 1st of July 1640, and 24 days sufficed to bring from Yedo, -whither their petition had been sent, peremptory orders for their -execution as well as executioners to carry out the orders. There was no -possibility of resistance. The Japanese had removed the ship's rudder, -sails, guns and ammunition, and had placed the envoys, their suite and -the crews under guard in Deshima. On the 2nd of August they were all -summoned to the governor's hall of audience, where, after their protest -had been heard that ambassadors should be under the protection of -international law, the sentence written in Yedo 13 days previously was -read to them. The following morning the Portuguese were offered their -lives if they would apostatize. Every one rejected the offer, and being -then led out to the martyrs' mount, the heads of the envoys and of 57 of -their companions fell. Thirteen were saved to carry the news to Macao. -These thirteen, after witnessing the burning of the galleon, were -conducted to the governor's residence who gave them this message:-- - - "Do not fail to inform the inhabitants of Macao that the Japanese wish - to receive from them neither gold nor silver, nor any kind of presents - or merchandise; in a word, absolutely nothing which comes from them. - You are witnesses that I have caused even the clothes of those who - were executed yesterday to be burned. Let them do the same with - respect to us if they find occasion to do so; we consent to it without - difficulty. Let them think no more of us, just as if we were no longer - in the world." - -Finally the thirteen were taken to the martyrs' mount where, set up -above the heads of the victims, a tablet recounted the story of the -embassy and the reasons for the execution, and concluded with the -words:-- - - "So long as the sun warms the earth, let no Christian be so bold as to - come to Japan, and let all know that if King Philip himself, or even - the very God of the Christians, or the great Shaka contravene this - prohibition, they shall pay for it with their heads." - -Had the ministers of the shogun in Yedo desired to make clear to future -ages that to Christianity alone was due the expulsion of Spaniards and -Portuguese from Japan and her adoption of the policy of seclusion they -could not have placed on record more conclusive testimony. Macao -received the news with rejoicing in that its "earthly ambassadors had -been made ambassadors of heaven," but it did not abandon all hope of -overcoming Japan's obduracy. When Portugal recovered her independence in -1640, the people of Macao requested Lisbon to send an ambassador to -Japan, and on the 16th of July 1647 Don Gonzalo de Siqueira arrived in -Nagasaki with two vessels. He carried a letter from King John IV., -setting forth the severance of all connexion between Portugal and Spain, -which countries were now actually at war, and urging that commercial -relations should be re-established. The Portuguese, having refused to -give up their rudders and arms, soon found themselves menaced by a force -of fifty thousand samurai, and were glad to put out of port quietly on -the 4th of September. This was the last episode in the medieval history -of Portugal's intercourse with Japan. - - - The Dutch at Deshima. - -When (1609) the Dutch contemplated forming a settlement in Japan, -Iyeyasu gave them a written promise that "no man should do them any -wrong and that he would maintain and defend them as his own subjects." -Moreover, the charter granted to them contained a clause providing that, -into whatever ports their ships put, they were not to be molested or -hindered in any way, but, "on the contrary, must be shown all manner of -help, favour and assistance." They might then have chosen any port in -Japan for their headquarters, but they had the misfortune to choose -Hirado. For many years they had no cause to regret the choice. Their -exclusive possession of the Spice Islands and their own enterprise and -command of capital gave them the leading place in Japan's over-sea -trade. Even when things had changed greatly for the worse and when the -English closed their books with a large loss, it is on record that the -Dutch were reaping a profit of 76% annually. Their doings at Hirado were -not of a purely commercial character. The Anglo-Dutch "fleet of defence" -made that port its basis of operations against the Spaniards and the -Portuguese. It brought its prizes into Hirado, the profits to be equally -divided between the fleet and the factories, Dutch and English, which -arrangement involved a sum of a hundred thousand pounds in 1622. But -after the death of Iyeyasu there grew up at the Tokugawa court a party -which advocated the expulsion of all foreigners on the ground that, -though some professed a different form of Christianity from that of the -Castilians and Portuguese, it was nevertheless one and the same creed. -This policy was not definitely adopted, but it made itself felt in a -discourteous reception accorded to the commandant of Fort Zelandia when -he visited Tokyo in 1627. He attempted to retaliate upon the Japanese -vessels which put into Zelandia in the following year, but the Japanese -managed to seize his person, exact reparation for loss of time and -obtain five hostages whom they carried to prison in Japan. The Japanese -government of that time was wholly intolerant of any injury done to its -subjects by foreigners. When news of the Zelandia affair reached Yedo, -orders were immediately issued for the sequestration of certain Dutch -vessels and for the suspension of the Hirado factory, which veto was not -removed for four years. Commercial arrangements, also, became less -favourable. The Dutch, instead of selling their silk--which generally -formed the principal staple of import--in the open market, were required -to send it to the Osaka gild of licensed merchants at Nagasaki, by which -means, Nagasaki and Osaka being Imperial cities, the Yedo government -derived advantage from the transaction. An attempt to evade this onerous -system provoked a very stern rebuke from Yedo, and shortly afterwards -all Japanese subjects were forbidden to act as servants to the Dutch -outside the latter's dwellings. The co-operation of the Hollanders in -bombarding the castle of Hara during the Shimabara rebellion (1638) gave -them some claim on the shogun's government, but in the same year the -Dutch received an imperious warning that the severest penalties would be -inflicted if their ships carried priests or any religious objects or -books. So profound was the dislike of everything relating to -Christianity that the Dutch nearly caused the ruin of their factory and -probably their own destruction by inscribing on some newly erected -warehouses the date according to the Christian era. The factory happened -to be then presided over by Caron, a man of extraordinary penetration. -Without a moment's hesitation he set 400 men to pull down the -warehouses, thus depriving the Japanese of all pretext for recourse to -violence. He was compelled, however, to promise that there should be no -observance of the Sabbath hereafter and that time should no longer be -reckoned by the Christian era. In a few months, further evidence of -Yedo's ill will was furnished. An edict appeared ordering the Dutch to -dispose of all their imports during the year of their arrival, without -any option of carrying them away should prices be low. They were thus -placed at the mercy of the Osaka gild. Further, they were forbidden to -slaughter cattle or carry arms, and altogether it seemed as though the -situation was to be rendered impossible for them. An envoy despatched -from Batavia to remonstrate could not obtain audience of the shogun, and -though he presented, by way of remonstrance, the charter originally -granted by Iyeyasu, the reply he received was:-- - - "His Majesty charges us to inform you that it is of but slight - importance to the Empire of Japan whether foreigners come or do not - come to trade. But in consideration of the charter granted to them by - Iyeyasu, he is pleased to allow the Hollanders to continue their - operations, and to leave them their commercial and other privileges, - on the condition that they evacuate Hirado and establish themselves - with their vessels in the port of Nagasaki." - -The Dutch did not at first regard this as a calamity. During their -residence of 31 years at Hirado they had enjoyed full freedom, had been -on excellent terms with the feudatory and his samurai, and had prospered -in their business. But the pettiness of the place and the inconvenience -of the anchorage having always been recognized, transfer to Nagasaki -promised a splendid harbour and much larger custom. Bitter, therefore, -was their disappointment when they found that they were to be imprisoned -in Deshima, a quadrangular island whose longest face did not measure 300 -yds., and that, so far from living in the town of Nagasaki, they would -not be allowed even to enter it. Siebold writes:-- - - "A guard at the gate prevented all communications with the city of - Nagasaki; no Dutchman without weighty reasons and without the - permission of the governor might pass the gate; no Japanese (unless - public women) might live in a Dutchman's house. As if this were not - enough, even within Deshima itself our state prisoners were keenly - watched. No Japanese might speak with them in his own language unless - in the presence of a witness (a government spy) or visit them in their - houses. The creatures of the governor had the warehouses under key and - the Dutch traders ceased to be masters of their property." - -There were worse indignities to be endured. No Dutchman might be buried -in Japanese soil: the dead had to be committed to the deep. Every Dutch -ship, her rudder, guns and ammunition removed and her sails sealed, was -subjected to the strictest search. No religious service could be held. -No one was suffered to pass from one Dutch ship to another without the -governor's permit. Sometimes the officers and men were wantonly -cudgelled by petty Japanese officials. They led, in short, a life of -extreme abasement. Some relaxation of this extreme severity was -afterwards obtained, but at no time of their sojourn in Deshima, a -period of 217 years, were the Dutch relieved from irksome and -humiliating restraints. Eleven years after their removal thither, the -expediency of consulting the national honour by finally abandoning an -enterprise so derogatory was gravely discussed, but hopes of improvement -supplementing natural reluctance to surrender a monopoly which still -brought large gains, induced them to persevere. At that time this -Nagasaki over-sea trade was considerable. From 7 to 10 Dutch ships used -to enter the port annually, carrying cargo valued at some 80,000 lb. of -silver, the chief staples of import being silk and piece-goods, and the -government levying 5% by way of customs dues. But this did not represent -the whole of the charges imposed. A rent of 459 lb. of silver had to be -paid each year for the little island of Deshima and the houses standing -on it; and, further, every spring, the Hollanders were required to send -to Yedo a mission bearing for the shogun, the heir-apparent and the -court officials presents representing an aggregate value of about 550 -lb. of silver. They found their account, nevertheless, in buying gold -and copper--especially the latter--for exportation, until the Japanese -authorities, becoming alarmed at the great quantity of copper thus -carried away, adopted the policy of limiting the number of vessels, as -well as their inward and outward cargoes, so that, in 1790, only one -ship might enter annually, nor could she carry away more than 350 tons -of copper. On the other hand, the formal visits of the captain of the -factory to Yedo were reduced to one every fifth year, and the value of -the presents carried by him was cut down to one half. - - - Loss to Japan by adopting the Policy of Exclusion. - -Well-informed historians have contended that, by thus segregating -herself from contact with the West, Japan's direct losses were small. -Certainly it is true that she could not have learned much from European -nations in the 17th century. They had little to teach her in the way of -religious tolerance; in the way of international morality; in the way of -social amenities and etiquette; in the way of artistic conception and -execution; or in the way of that notable shibboleth of modern -civilization, the open door and equal opportunities. Yet when all this -is admitted, there remains the vital fact that Japan was thus shut off -from the atmosphere of competition, and that for nearly two centuries -and a half she never had an opportunity of warming her intelligence at -the fire of international rivalry or deriving inspiration from an -exchange of ideas. She stood comparatively still while the world went -on, and the interval between her and the leading peoples of the Occident -in matters of material civilization had become very wide before she -awoke to a sense of its existence. The sequel of this page of her -history has been faithfully summarized by a modern writer:-- - - "A more complete metamorphosis of a nation's policy could scarcely be - conceived. In 1541 we find the Japanese celebrated, or notorious, - throughout the whole of the Far East for exploits abroad; we find them - known as the 'kings of the sea'; we find them welcoming foreigners - with cordiality and opposing no obstacles to foreign commerce or even - to the propagandism of foreign creeds; we find them so quick to - recognize the benefits of foreign trade and so apt to pursue them - that, in the space of a few years, they establish commercial relations - with no less than twenty over-sea markets; we find them authorizing - the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English to trade at every port in - the empire; we find, in short, all the elements requisite for a career - of commercial enterprise, ocean-going adventure and industrial - liberality. In 1641 everything is reversed. Trade is interdicted to - all Western peoples except the Dutch, and they are confined to a - little island 200 yards in length by 80 in width; the least symptom of - predilection for any alien creed exposes a Japanese subject to be - punished with awful rigour; any attempt to leave the limits of the - realm involves decapitation; not a ship large enough to pass beyond - the shadow of the coast may be built. However unwelcome the admission, - it is apparent that for all these changes Christian propagandism was - responsible. The policy of seclusion adopted by Japan in the early - part of the 17th century and resolutely pursued until the middle of - the 19th, was anti-Christian, not anti-foreign. The fact cannot be too - clearly recognized. It is the chief lesson taught by the events - outlined above. Throughout the whole of that period of isolation, - Occidentals were not known to the Japanese by any of the terms now in - common use, as _gwaikoku-jin_, _seiyo-jin_, or _i-jin_, which embody - the simple meanings 'foreigner,' 'Westerner' or 'alien': they were - popularly called _bateren_ (_padres_). Thus completely had foreign - intercourse and Christian propagandism become identified in the eyes - of the people. And when it is remembered that foreign intercourse, - associated with Christianity, had come to be synonymous in Japanese - ears with foreign aggression, with the subversal of the mikado's - ancient dynasty, and with the loss of the independence of the 'country - of the gods,' there is no difficulty in understanding the attitude of - the nation's mind towards this question." - - - Dutch and Russian Influence. - -_Foreign Intercourse in Modern Times._--From the middle of the 17th -century to the beginning of the 19th, Japan succeeded in rigorously -enforcing her policy of seclusion. But in the concluding days of this -epoch two influences began to disturb her self-sufficiency. One was the -gradual infiltration of light from the outer world through the narrow -window of the Dutch prison at Deshima; the other, frequent apparitions -of Russian vessels on her northern coasts. The former was a slow -process. It materialized first in the study of anatomy by a little group -of youths who had acquired accidental knowledge of the radical -difference between Dutch and Japanese conceptions as to the structure of -the human body. The work of these students reads like a page of romance. -Without any appreciable knowledge of the Dutch language, they set -themselves to decipher a Dutch medical book, obtained at enormous cost, -and from this small beginning they passed to a vague but firm conviction -that their country had fallen far behind the material and intellectual -progress of the Occident. They laboured in secret, for the study of -foreign books was then a criminal offence; yet the patriotism of one of -their number outweighed his prudence, and he boldly published a brochure -advocating the construction of a navy and predicting a descent by the -Russians on the northern borders of the empire. Before this prescient -man had lain five months in prison, his foresight was verified by -events. The Russians simulated at the outset a desire to establish -commercial relations by peaceful means. Had the Japanese been better -acquainted with the history of nations, they would have known how to -interpret the idea of a Russian quest for commercial connexions in the -Far East a hundred years ago. But they dealt with the question on its -superficial merits, and, after imposing on the tsar's envoys a wearisome -delay of several months at Nagasaki, addressed to them a peremptory -refusal together with an order to leave that port forthwith. Incensed by -such treatment, and by the subsequent imprisonment of a number of their -fellow countrymen who had landed on the island of Etorofu in the -Kuriles, the Russians resorted to armed reprisals. The Japanese -settlements in Sakhalin and Etorofu were raided and burned, other places -were menaced and several Japanese vessels were destroyed. The lesson -sank deep into the minds of the Yedo officials. They withdrew their veto -against the study of foreign books, and they arrived in part at the -reluctant conclusion that to offer armed opposition to the coming of -foreign ships was a task somewhat beyond Japan's capacity. Japan ceased, -however, to attract European attention amid the absorbing interest of -the Napoleonic era, and the shogun's government, misinterpreting this -respite, reverted to their old policy of stalwart resistance to foreign -intercourse. - - - American Enterprise. - -Meanwhile another power was beginning to establish close contact with -Japan. The whaling industry in Russian waters off the coast of Alaska -and in the seas of China and Japan had attracted large investments of -American capital and was pursued yearly by thousands of American -citizens. In one season 86 of these whaling vessels passed within easy -sight of Japan's northern island, Yezo, so that the aspect of foreign -ships became quite familiar. From time to time American schooners were -cast away on Japan's shores. Generally the survivors were treated with -tolerable consideration and ultimately sent to Deshima for shipment to -Batavia. Japanese sailors, too, driven out of their route by hurricanes -and caught in the stream of the "Black Current," were occasionally -carried to the Aleutian Islands, to Oregon or California, and in several -instances these shipwrecked mariners were taken back to Japan with all -kindness by American vessels. On such an errand of mercy the "Morrison" -entered Yedo Bay in 1837, proceeding thence to Kagoshima, only to be -driven away by cannon shot; and on such an errand the "Manhattan" in -1845 lay for four days at Uraga while her master (Mercater Cooper) -collected books and charts. It would seem that his experience induced -the Washington government to attempt the opening of Japan. A ninety-gun -ship and a sloop were sent on the errand. They anchored off Uraga (July -1846) and Commodore Biddle made due application for trade. But he -received a positive refusal, and having been instructed by his -government to abstain from any act calculated to excite hostility or -distrust, he quietly weighed anchor and sailed away. - - - Great Britain reappears upon the scene. - -In this same year (1846) a French ship touched at the Riukiu (Luchu) -archipelago and sought to persuade the islanders that their only -security against British aggression was to place themselves under the -protection of France. In fact Great Britain was now beginning to -interest herself in south China, and more than one warning reached Yedo -from Deshima that English war-ships might at any moment visit Japanese -waters. The Dutch have been much blamed for thus attempting to prejudice -Japan against the Occident, but if the dictates of commercial rivalry, -as it was then practised, do not constitute an ample explanation, it -should be remembered that England and Holland had recently been enemies, -and that the last British vessel,[35] seen at Nagasaki had gone there -hoping to capture the annual Dutch trading-ship from Batavia. Deshima's -warnings, however, remained unfulfilled, though they doubtless -contributed to Japan's feeling of uneasiness. Then, in 1847, the king of -Holland himself intervened. He sent to Yedo various books, together with -a map of the world and a despatch advising Japan to abandon her policy -of isolation. Within a few months (1849) of the receipt of his Dutch -majesty's recommendation, an American brig, the "Preble," under -Commander J. Glynn, anchored in Nagasaki harbour and threatened to -bombard the town unless immediate delivery were made of 18 seamen who, -having been wrecked in northern waters, were held by the Japanese -preparatory to shipment for Batavia. In 1849 another despatch reached -Yedo from the king of Holland announcing that an American fleet might be -expected in Japanese waters a year later, and that, unless Japan agreed -to enter into friendly commercial relations, war must ensue. Appended to -this despatch was an approximate draft of the treaty which would be -presented for signature, together with a copy of a memorandum addressed -by the Washington government to European nations, justifying the -contemplated expedition on the ground that it would inure to the -advantage of Japan as well as to that of the Occident. - - - Commodore Perry. - -In 1853, Commodore Perry, with a squadron of four ships-of-war and 560 -men, entered Uraga Bay. So formidable a foreign force had not been seen -in Japanese waters since the coming of the Mongol Armada. A panic ensued -among the people--the same people who, in the days of Hideyoshi or -Iyeyasu, would have gone out to encounter these ships with assured -confidence of victory. The contrast did not stop there. The shogun, -whose ancestors had administered the country's affairs with absolutely -autocratic authority, now summoned a council of the feudatories to -consider the situation; and the Imperial court in Kioto, which never -appealed for heaven's aid except in a national emergency such as had -never been witnessed since the creation of the shogunate, now directed -that at the seven principal shrines and at all the great temples special -prayers should be offered for the safety of the land and for the -destruction of the aliens. Thus the appearance of the American squadron -awoke in the cause of the country as a whole a spirit of patriotism -hitherto confined to feudal interests. The shogun does not seem to have -had any thought of invoking that spirit: his part in raising it was -involuntary and his ministers behaved with perplexed vacillation. The -infirmity of the Yedo Administration's purpose presented such a strong -contrast to the single-minded resolution of the Imperial court that the -prestige of the one was largely impaired and that of the other -correspondingly enhanced. Perry, however, was without authority to -support his proposals by any recourse to violence. The United States -government had relied solely on the moral effect of his display of -force, and his countrymen had supplied him with a large collection of -the products of peaceful progress, from sewing machines to miniature -railways. He did not unduly press for a treaty, but after lying at -anchor off Uraga during a period of ten days and after transmitting the -president's letter to the sovereign of Japan, he steamed away on the -17th of July, announcing his return in the ensuing spring. The conduct -of the Japanese subsequently to his departure showed how fully and -rapidly they had acquired the conviction that the appliances of their -old civilization were powerless to resist the resources of the new. -Orders were issued rescinding the long-enforced veto against the -construction of sea-going ships; the feudal chiefs were invited to build -and arm large vessels; the Dutch were commissioned to furnish a ship of -war and to procure from Europe all the best works on modern military -science; every one who had acquired any expert knowledge through the -medium of Deshima was taken into official favour; forts were built; -cannon were cast and troops were drilled. But from all this effort there -resulted only fresh evidence of the country's inability to defy foreign -insistence, and on the 2nd of December 1853, instructions were issued -that if the Americans returned, they were to be dealt with peacefully. -The sight of Perry's steam-propelled ships, their powerful guns and all -the specimens they carried of western wonders, had practically broken -down the barriers of Japan's isolation without any need of treaties or -conventions. Perry returned in the following February, and after an -interchange of courtesies and formalities extending over six weeks, -obtained a treaty pledging Japan to accord kind treatment to shipwrecked -sailors; to permit foreign vessels to obtain stores and provisions -within her territory, and to allow American ships to anchor in the ports -at Shimoda and Hakodate. On this second occasion Perry had 10 ships with -crews numbering two thousand, and when he landed to sign the treaty, he -was escorted by a guard of honour mustering 500 strong in 27 boats. Much -has been written about his judicious display of force and his sagacious -tact in dealing with the Japanese, but it may be doubted whether the -consequences of his exploit have not invested its methods with -extravagant lustre. Standing on the threshold of modern Japan's -wonderful career, his figure shines by the reflected light of its -surroundings. - - - First Treaty of Commerce. - -Russia, Holland and England speedily secured for themselves treaties -similar to that concluded by Commodore Perry in 1854. But Japan's doors -still remained closed to foreign commerce, and it was reserved for -another citizen of the great republic to open them. This was Townsend -Harris (1803-1878), the first U.S. consul-general in Japan. Arriving in -August 1856, he concluded, in June of the following year, a treaty -securing to American citizens the privilege of permanent residence at -Shimoda and Hakodate, the opening of Nagasaki, the right of consular -jurisdiction and certain minor concessions. Still, however, permission -for commercial intercourse was withheld, and Harris, convinced that this -great goal could not be reached unless he made his way to Yedo and -conferred direct with the shogun's ministers, pressed persistently for -leave to do so. Ten months elapsed before he succeeded, and such a -display of reluctance on the Japanese side was very unfavourably -criticized in the years immediately subsequent. Ignorance of the -country's domestic politics inspired the critics. The Yedo -administration, already weakened by the growth of a strong public -sentiment in favour of abolishing the dual system of government--that of -the mikado in Kioto and that of the shogun in Yedo--had been still -further discredited by its own timid policy as compared with the -stalwart mien of the throne towards the question of foreign intercourse. -Openly to sanction commercial relations at such a time would have been -little short of reckless. The Perry convention and the first Harris -convention could be construed, and were purposely construed, as mere -acts of benevolence towards strangers; but a commercial treaty would not -have lent itself to any such construction, and naturally the shogun's -ministers hesitated to agree to an apparently suicidal step. Harris -carried his point, however. He was received by the shogun in Yedo in -November 1857, and on the 29th of July 1858 a treaty was signed in Yedo, -engaging that Yokohama should be opened on the 4th of July 1859 and that -commerce between the United States and Japan should thereafter be freely -carried on there. This treaty was actually concluded by the shogun's -Ministers in defiance of their failure to obtain the sanction of the -sovereign in Kioto. Foreign historians have found much to say about -Japanese duplicity in concealing the subordinate position occupied by -the Yedo administration towards the Kioto court. Such condemnation is -not consistent with fuller knowledge. The Yedo authorities had power to -solve all problems of foreign intercourse without reference to Kioto. -Iyeyasu had not seen any occasion to seek imperial assent when he -granted unrestricted liberty of trade to the representatives of the East -India Company, nor had Iyemitsu asked for Kioto's sanction when he -issued his decree for the expulsion of all foreigners. If, in the 19th -century, Yedo shrank from a responsibility which it had unhesitatingly -assumed in the 17th, the cause was to be found, not in the shogun's -simulation of autonomy, but in his desire to associate the throne with a -policy which, while recognizing it to be unavoidable, he distrusted his -own ability to make the nation accept. But his ministers had promised -Harris that the treaty should be signed, and they kept their word, at a -risk of which the United States' consul-general had no conception. -Throughout these negotiations Harris spared no pains to create in the -minds of the Japanese an intelligent conviction that the world could no -longer be kept at arm's length, and though it is extremely problematical -whether he would have succeeded had not the Japanese themselves already -arrived at that very conviction, his patient and lucid expositions -coupled with a winning personality undoubtedly produced much impression. -He was largely assisted, too, by recent events in China, where the Peiho -forts had been captured and the Chinese forced to sign a treaty at -Tientsin. Harris warned the Japanese that the British fleet might be -expected at any moment in Yedo Bay, and that the best way to avert -irksome demands at the hands of the English was to establish a -comparatively moderate precedent by yielding to America's proposals. - - - Effects of the Treaty. - -This treaty could not be represented, as previous conventions had been, -in the light of a purely benevolent concession. It definitely provided -for the trade and residence of foreign merchants, and thus finally -terminated Japan's traditional isolation. Moreover, it had been -concluded in defiance of the Throne's refusal to sanction anything of -the kind. Much excitement resulted. The nation ranged itself into three -parties. One comprised the advocates of free intercourse and progressive -liberality; another, while insisting that only the most limited -privileges should be accorded to aliens, was of two minds as to the -advisability of offering armed resistance at once or temporizing so as -to gain time for preparation; the third advocated uncompromising -seclusion. Once again the shogun convoked a meeting of the feudal -barons, hoping to secure their co-operation. But with hardly an -exception they pronounced against yielding. Thus the shogunate saw -itself compelled to adopt a resolutely liberal policy: it issued a -decree in that sense, and thenceforth the administrative court at Yedo -and the Imperial court in Kioto stood in unequivocal opposition to each -other, the Conservatives ranging themselves on the side of the latter, -the Liberals on that of the former. It was a situation full of -perplexity to outsiders, and the foreign representatives misinterpreted -it. They imagined that the shogun's ministers sought only to evade their -treaty obligations and to render the situation intolerable for foreign -residents, whereas in truth the situation threatened to become -intolerable for the shogunate itself. Nevertheless the Yedo officials -cannot be entirely acquitted of duplicity. Under pressure of the -necessity of self-preservation they effected with Kioto a compromise -which assigned to foreign intercourse a temporary character. The -threatened political crisis was thus averted, but the enemies of the -dual system of government gained strength daily. One of their devices -was to assassinate foreigners in the hope of embroiling the shogunate -with Western powers and thus either forcing its hand or precipitating -its downfall. It is not wonderful, perhaps, that foreigners were -deceived, especially as they approached the solution of Japanese -problems with all the Occidental's habitual suspicion of everything -Oriental. Thus when the Yedo government, cognisant that serious dangers -menaced the Yokohama settlement, took precautions to guard it, the -foreign ministers convinced themselves that a deliberate piece of -chicanery was being practised at their expense; that statecraft rather -than truth had dictated the representations made to them by the Japanese -authorities; and that the alarm of the latter was simulated for the -purpose of finding a pretext to curtail the liberty enjoyed by -foreigners. Therefore a suggestion that the inmates of the legations -should show themselves as little as possible in the streets of the -capital, where at any moment a desperado might cut them down, was -treated almost as an insult. Then the Japanese authorities saw no -recourse except to attach an armed escort to the person of every -foreigner when he moved about the city. But even this precaution, which -certainly was not adopted out of mere caprice or with any sinister -design, excited fresh suspicions. The British representative, in -reporting the event to his government, said that the Japanese had taken -the opportunity to graft upon the establishment of spies, watchmen and -police-officers at the several legations, a mounted escort to accompany -the members whenever they moved about. - - - Attacks upon Foreigners and their Consequences. - -Just at this time (1861) the Yedo statesmen, in order to reconcile the -divergent views of the two courts, negotiated a marriage between the -emperor's sister and the shogun. But in order to bring the union about, -they had to placate the Kioto Conservatives by a promise to expel -foreigners from the country within ten years. When this became known, it -strengthened the hands of the reactionaries, and furnished a new weapon -to Yedo's enemies, who interpreted the marriage as the beginning of a -plot to dethrone the mikado. Murderous attacks upon foreigners became -more frequent. Two of these assaults had momentous consequences. Three -British subjects attempted to force their way through the _cortege_ of -the Satsuma feudal chief on the highway between Yokohama and Yedo. One -of them was killed and the other two wounded. This outrage was not -inspired by the "barbarian-expelling" sentiment: to any Japanese subject -violating the rules of etiquette as these Englishmen had violated them, -the same fate would have been meted out. Nevertheless, as the Satsuma -daimyo refused to surrender his implicated vassals, and as the shogun's -arm was not long enough to reach the most powerful feudatory in Japan, -the British government sent a squadron to bombard his capital, -Kagoshima. It was not a brilliant exploit in any sense, but its results -were invaluable; for the operations of the British ships finally -convinced the Satsuma men of their impotence in the face of Western -armaments, and converted them into advocates of liberal progress. Three -months previously to this bombardment of Kagoshima another puissant -feudatory had thrown down the gauntlet. The Choshu chief, whose -batteries commanded the entrance to the inland sea at Shimonoseki, -opened fire upon ships flying the flags of the United States, of France -and of Holland. In thus acting he obeyed an edict obtained by the -extremists from the mikado without the knowledge of the shogun, which -edict fixed the 11th of May 1863 as the date for practically -inaugurating the foreigners-expulsion policy. Again the shogun's -administrative competence proved inadequate to exact reparation, and a -squadron, composed chiefly of British men-of-war, proceeding to -Shimonoseki, demolished Choshu's forts, destroyed his ships and -scattered his samurai. In the face of the Kagoshima bombardment and the -Shimonoseki expedition, no Japanese subject could retain any faith in -his country's ability to oppose Occidentals by force. Thus the year 1863 -was memorable in Japan's history. It saw the "barbarian-expelling" -agitation deprived of the emperor's sanction; it saw the two principal -clans, Satsuma and Choshu, convinced of their country's impotence to -defy the Occident; it saw the nation almost fully roused to the -disintegrating and weakening effects of the feudal system; and it saw -the traditional antipathy to foreigners beginning to be exchanged for a -desire to study their civilization and to adopt its best features. - - - Ratification of the Treaties. - -The treaty concluded between the shogun's government and the United -States in 1858 was of course followed by similar compacts with the -principal European powers. From the outset these states agreed to -co-operate for the assertion of their conventional privileges, and they -naturally took Great Britain for leader, though such a relation was -never openly announced. The treaties, however, continued during several -years to lack imperial ratification, and, as time went by, that defect -obtruded itself more and more upon the attention of their foreign -signatories. The year 1865 saw British interests entrusted to the charge -of Sir Harry Parkes, a man of keen insight, indomitable courage and -somewhat peremptory methods, learned during a long period of service in -China. It happened that the post of Japanese secretary at the British -legation in Yedo was then held by a remarkably gifted young Englishman, -who, in a comparatively brief interval, had acquired a good working -knowledge of the Japanese language, and it happened also that the -British legation in Yedo was already--as it has always been ever -since--the best equipped institution of its class in Japan. Aided by -these facilities and by the researches of Mr Satow (afterwards Sir -Ernest Satow) Parkes arrived at the conclusions that the Yedo government -was tottering to its fall; that the resumption of administrative -authority by the Kioto court would make for the interests not only of -the West but also of Japan; and that the ratification of the treaties by -the mikado would elucidate the situation for foreigners while being, at -the same time, essential to the validity of the documents. Two other -objects also presented themselves, namely, that the import duties fixed -by the conventions should be reduced from 15 to 5% _ad valorem_, and -that the ports of Hiogo and Osaka should be opened at once, instead of -at the expiration of two years as originally fixed. It was not proposed -that these concessions should be entirely gratuitous. When the -four-power flotilla destroyed the Shimonoseki batteries and sank the -vessels lying there, a fine of three million dollars (some L750,000) had -been imposed upon the daimyo of Choshu by way of ransom for his capital, -which lay at the mercy of the invaders. The daimyo of Choshu, however, -was in open rebellion against the shogun, and as the latter could not -collect the debt from the recalcitrant clansmen, while the four powers -insisted on being paid by some one, the Yedo treasury was finally -compelled to shoulder the obligation. Two out of the three millions were -still due, and Parkes conceived the idea of remitting this debt in -exchange for the ratification of the treaties, the reduction of the -customs tariff from 15 to 5% _ad valorem_ and the immediate opening of -Hiogo and Osaka. He took with him to the place of negotiation (Hiogo) a -fleet of British, French and Dutch war-ships, for, while announcing -peaceful intentions, he had accustomed himself to think that a display -of force should occupy the foreground in all negotiations with Oriental -states. This coup may be said to have sealed the fate of the shogunate. -For here again was produced in a highly aggravated form the drama which -had so greatly startled the nation eight years previously. Perry had -come with his war-ships to the portals of Yedo, and now a foreign fleet, -twice as strong as Perry's, had anchored at the vestibule of the -Imperial city itself. No rational Japanese could suppose that this -parade of force was for purely peaceful purposes, or that rejection of -the amicable bargain proposed by Great Britain's representative would be -followed by the quiet withdrawal of the menacing fleet, whose terrible -potentialities had been demonstrated at Kagoshima and Shimonoseki. The -seclusionists, whose voices had been nearly silenced, raised them in -renewed denunciation of the shogun's incompetence to guarantee the -sacred city of Kioto against such trespasses, and the emperor, brought -once more under the influence of the anti-foreign party, inflicted a -heavy disgrace on the shogun by dismissing and punishing the officials -to whom the latter had entrusted the conduct of negotiations at Hiogo. -Such procedure on the part of the throne amounted to withdrawing the -administrative commission held by the Tokugawa family since the days of -Iyeyasu. The shogun resigned. But his adversaries not being yet ready to -replace him, he was induced to resume office, with, however, fatally -damaged prestige. As for the three-power squadron, it steamed away -successful. Parkes had come prepared to write off the indemnity in -exchange for three concessions. He obtained two of the concessions -without remitting a dollar of the debt. - - - Final Adoption of Western Civilization. - -The shogun did not long survive the humiliation thus inflicted on him. -He died in the following year (1866), and was succeeded by Keiki, -destined to be the last of the Tokugawa rulers. Nine years previously -this same Keiki had been put forward by the seclusionists as candidate -for the shogunate. Yet no sooner did he attain that distinction in 1866 -than he remodelled the army on French lines, engaged English officers to -organize a navy, sent his brother to the Paris Exhibition, and altered -many of the forms and ceremonies of his court so as to bring them into -accord with Occidental fashions. The contrast between the politics he -represented when a candidate for office in 1857 and the practice he -adopted on succeeding to power in 1866 furnished an apt illustration of -the change that had come over the spirit of the time. The most bigoted -of the exclusionists were now beginning to abandon all idea of expelling -foreigners and to think mainly of acquiring the best elements of their -civilization. The Japanese are slow to reach a decision but very quick -to act upon it when reached. From 1866 onwards the new spirit rapidly -permeated the whole nation; progress became the aim of all classes, and -the country entered upon a career of intelligent assimilation which, in -forty years, won for Japan a universally accorded place in the ranks of -the great Occidental powers. - - [Continued in volume XV slice III.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The highest rate of subscription to a daily journal is twelve - shillings per annum, and the usual charge for advertisement is from - 7d. to one shilling per line of 22 ideographs (about nine words). - - [2] It is first boiled in a lye obtained by lixiviating wood ashes; - it is next polished with charcoal powder; then immersed in plum - vinegar and salt; then washed with weak lye and placed in a tub of - water to remove all traces of alkali, the final step being to digest - in a boiling solution of copper sulphate, verdigris and water. - - [3] This method is some 300 years old. It is by no means a modern - invention, as some writers have asserted. - - [4] Obtained from the shell of the _Halictis_. - - [5] In 1877 there were 120 English engineers, drivers and foremen in - the service of the railway bureau. Three years later only three - advisers remained. - - [6] The largest is the mitsubishi at Nagasaki. It has a length of 722 - ft. Next stands the kawasaki at Kobe, and in the third place is the - uraga. - - [7] They were called _fuda-sashi_ (ticket-holders), a term derived - from the fact that rice-vouchers were usually held in a split bamboo - which was thrust into a pile of rice-bags to indicate their buyer. - - [8] In 1725, when the population of Yedo was about three-quarters of - a million, the merchandise that entered the city was 861,893 bags of - rice; 795,856 casks of sake; 132,892 casks of soy (fish-sauce); - 18,209,987 bundles of fire-wood; 809,790 bags of charcoal; 90,811 - tubs of oil; 1,670,850 bags of salt and 3,613,500 pieces of cotton - cloth. - - [9] Some derive this term from _mika_, an ancient Japanese term for - "great," and _to_, "place." - - [10] The names given in italics are those more commonly used. Those - in the first column are generally of pure native derivation; those in - the second column are composed of the Chinese word _shu_, a - "province," added to the Chinese pronunciation of one of the - characters with which the native name is written. In a few cases both - names are used. - - [11] The mayor of a town (_shicho_) is nominated by the minister for - home affairs from three men chosen by the town assembly. - - [12] The term _hyaku-sho_, here translated "working man," means - literally "one engaged in any of the various callings" apart from - military service. In a later age a further distinction was - established between the agriculturist, the artisan, and the trader, - and the word _hyaku-sho_ then came to carry the signification of - "husbandman" only. - - [13] A tent was simply a space enclosed with strips of cloth or silk, - on which was emblazoned the crest of the commander. It had no - covering. - - [14] The Japanese never at any time of their history used poisoned - arrows; they despised them as depraved and inhuman weapons. - - [15] The general term for commoners as distinguished from samurai. - - [16] The privilege at first led to great abuses. It became a common - thing to employ some aged and indigent person, set him up as the head - of a "branch family," and give him for adopted son a youth liable to - conscription. - - [17] Conscription without lot is thus the punishment for all failures - to comply with and attempts to evade the military laws. - - [18] Sons of officers' widows, or of officers in reduced - circumstances, are educated at these schools either free or at - reduced charges, but are required to complete the course and to - graduate. - - [19] Uniform does not vary according to regiments or divisions. There - is only one type for the whole of the infantry, one for the cavalry, - and so on (see UNIFORMS, NAVAL AND MILITARY). Officers largely obtain - their uniforms and equipment, as well as their books and technical - literature through the _Kai-ko-sha_, which is a combined officers' - club, benefit society and co-operative trading association to which - nearly all belong. - - [20] The term _maru_ subsequently became applicable to merchantmen - only, war-ships being distinguished as _kan_. - - [21] The reader should be warned that absolute accuracy cannot be - claimed for statistics compiled before the Meiji era. - - [22] The _yen_ is a silver coin worth about 2s.: 10 _yen_ = L1. - - [23] In addition to the above grant, the feudatories were allowed to - retain the reserves in their treasuries; thus many of the feudal - nobles found themselves possessed of substantial fortunes, a - considerable part of which they generally devoted to the support of - their former vassals. - - [24] The Bank of Japan was established as a joint-stock company in - 1882. The capital in 1909 was 30,000,000 _yen_. In it alone is vested - note-issuing power. There is no limit to its issues against gold or - silver coins and bullion, but on other securities (state bonds, - treasury bills and other negotiable bonds or commercial paper) its - issues are limited to 120 millions, any excess over that figure being - subject to a tax of 5% per annum. - - [25] The amounts include the payments made in connexion with what may - be called the disestablishment of the Church. There were 29,805 - endowed temples and shrines throughout the empire, and their estates - aggregated 354,481 acres, together with 1(3/4) million bushels of rice - (representing 2,500,000 _yen_). The government resumed possession of - all these lands and revenues at a total cost to the state of a little - less than 2,500,000 _yen_, paid out in pensions spread over a period - of fourteen years. The measure sounds like wholesale confiscation. - But some extenuation is found in the fact that the temples and - shrines held their lands and revenues under titles which, being - derived from the feudal chiefs, depended for their validity on the - maintenance of feudalism. - - [26] This sum represents interest-bearing bonds issued in exchange - for fiat notes, with the idea of reducing the volume of the latter. - It was a tentative measure, and proved of no value. - - [27] In this is included a sum of 110,000,000 _yen_ distributed in - the form of loan-bonds among the officers and men of the army and - navy by way of reward for their services during the war of 1904-5. - - [28] When war broke out in 1904 the local administrative districts - took steps to reduce their outlays, so that whereas the expenditures - totalled 158,000,000 _yen_ in 1903-1904, they fell to 122,000,000 and - 126,000,000 in 1904-1905 and 1905-1906 respectively. Thereafter - however, they expanded once more. - - [29] This includes 22(1/4) millions of loans raised abroad. - - [30] The problem was to induce the co-operation of a feudatory whose - castle served for frontier guard to the fief of a powerful chief, his - suzerain. The feudatory was a Christian. Nobunaga seized the Jesuits - in Kioto, and threatened to suppress their religion altogether unless - they persuaded the feudatory to abandon the cause of his suzerain. - - [31] The mutilation was confined to the lobe of one ear. Crucifixion, - according to the Japanese method, consisted in tying to a cross and - piercing the heart with two sharp spears driven from either side. - Death was always instantaneous. - - [32] See _A History of Christianity in Japan_ (1910), by Otis Cary. - - [33] The Imperial cities were Yedo, Kioto, Osaka and Nagasaki. To - this last the English were subsequently admitted. They were also - invited to Kagoshima by the Shimazu chieftain, and, had not their - experience at Hirado proved so deterrent, they might have established - a factory at Kagoshima. - - [34] _A History of Japan_ (Murdoch and Yamagata). - - [35] H.M.S. "Phaeton," which entered that port in 1808. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 15, Slice 2, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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