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diff --git a/41264-h/41264-h.htm b/41264-h/41264-h.htm index 90894e4..21ff0c7 100644 --- a/41264-h/41264-h.htm +++ b/41264-h/41264-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XV Slice II - Jacobites to Japan (part). @@ -144,46 +144,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 15, Slice 2, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, Slice 2 - "Jacobites" to "Japan" (part) - -Author: Various - -Release Date: November 2, 2012 [EBook #41264] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 15 SLICE 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41264 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -237,8 +198,8 @@ Jacobites to Japan (part)</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">JAEN</a> (city of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">JAMES, WILLIAM</a> (English naval historian)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">JAFARABAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">JAMES, WILLIAM</a> (American philosopher)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">JAFFNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">JAMES OF HEREFORD, HENRY JAMES</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">JÄGER, GUSTAV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">JAMES, EPISTLE OF</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">JÄGERNDORF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">JAMESON, ANNA BROWNELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">JÄGER, GUSTAV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">JAMES, EPISTLE OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">JÄGERNDORF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">JAMESON, ANNA BROWNELL</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">JAGERSFONTEIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">JAMESON, GEORGE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">JAGO, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">JAMESON, LEANDER STARR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">JAGUAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">JAMESON, ROBERT</a></td></tr> @@ -265,7 +226,7 @@ Jacobites to Japan (part)</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">JALISCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">JANSENISM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">JALNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">JANSSEN, CORNELIUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">JALPAIGURI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">JANSSEN, JOHANNES</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">JAMAICA</a> (island)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CÉSAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">JAMAICA</a> (island)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CÉSAR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">JAMAICA</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">JANSSENS, VICTOR HONORIUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">JAMB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">JANSSENS VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">JAMES</a> (name)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">JANUARIUS, ST</a></td></tr> @@ -346,7 +307,7 @@ latter’s son, King Victor Emmanuel I., left no sons, and his eldest daughter, Marie Beatrice, married Francis IV., duke of Modena, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>120</span> whose son Ferdinand (d. 1849) left an only daughter, Marie -Thérèse (b. 1849). This lady, the wife of Prince Louis of Bavaria, +Thérèse (b. 1849). This lady, the wife of Prince Louis of Bavaria, was in 1910 the senior member of the Stuart family, and according to the legitimists the rightful sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland.</p> @@ -386,7 +347,7 @@ exiled House of Stuart.</p> <p><span class="bold">JACOBS, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH WILHELM<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1764-1847), German classical scholar, was born at Gotha on the 6th of October 1764. After studying philology and theology at Jena and -Göttingen, in 1785 he became teacher in the gymnasium of his +Göttingen, in 1785 he became teacher in the gymnasium of his native town, and in 1802 was appointed to an office in the public library. In 1807 he became classical tutor in the lyceum of Munich, but, disgusted at the attacks made upon him by @@ -410,14 +371,14 @@ rousing his country against Napoleon, whom he regarded as a second Philip of Macedon.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See E. F. Wüstemann, <i>Friderici Jacobsii laudatio</i> (Gotha, 1848); +<p>See E. F. Wüstemann, <i>Friderici Jacobsii laudatio</i> (Gotha, 1848); C. Bursian, <i>Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland</i>; and the appreciative article by C. Regel in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JACOBS CAVERN,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a cavern in latitude 36° 35′ N., 2 m. E. +<p><span class="bold">JACOBS CAVERN,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a cavern in latitude 36° 35′ N., 2 m. E. of Pineville, McDonald county, Missouri, named after its discoverer, E. H. Jacobs, of Bentonville, Arkansas. It was scientifically explored by him, in company with Professors @@ -487,7 +448,7 @@ As a boy he showed a remarkable turn for science, particularly for botany. In 1870, although he was secretly writing verses already, Jacobsen definitely adopted botany as a profession. He was sent by a scientific body in Copenhagen to report on the -flora of the islands of Anholt and Læsö. About this time the +flora of the islands of Anholt and Læsö. About this time the discoveries of Darwin began to exercise a fascination over him, and finding them little understood in Denmark, he translated into Danish <i>The Origin of Species</i> and <i>The Descent of Man</i>. In @@ -533,7 +494,7 @@ Jesus and the “woman of Samaria” narrated in the Fourth Gospel, is described as being in the neighbourhood of an otherwise unmentioned “city called Sychar.” From the time of Eusebius this city has been identified with Sychem or Shechem -(modern Nablus), and the well is still in existence 1½ m. E. of +(modern Nablus), and the well is still in existence 1½ m. E. of the town, at the foot of Mt Gerizim. It is beneath one of the ruined arches of a church mentioned by Jerome, and is reached by a few rough steps. When Robinson visited it in 1838 it @@ -542,11 +503,11 @@ was 105 ft. deep, but it is now much shallower and often dry.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>For a discussion of Sychar as distinct from Shechem see T. K. Cheyne, art. “Sychar,” in <i>Ency. Bibl.</i>, col. 4830. It is possible -that Sychar should be placed at Tulūl Balātā, a mound about ½ m. W. +that Sychar should be placed at Tulūl Balātā, a mound about ½ m. W. of the well (<i>Palestine Exploration Fund Statement</i>, 1907, p. 92 seq.); when that village fell into ruin the name may have migrated to -’Askar, a village on the lower slopes of Mt Ebal about 1¾ m. E.N.E. -from Nablus and ½ m. N. from Jacob’s Well. It may be noted +’Askar, a village on the lower slopes of Mt Ebal about 1¾ m. E.N.E. +from Nablus and ½ m. N. from Jacob’s Well. It may be noted that the difficulty is not with the location of the well, but with the identification of Sychar.</p> </div> @@ -666,7 +627,7 @@ known, and the Mariale was printed at Venice in 1497 and at Paris in 1503.</p> <p>For bibliography see Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca hist. med. aev.</i> (Berlin, -1896), p. 634; U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist. Bio.-bibl.</i> +1896), p. 634; U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist. Bio.-bibl.</i> (Paris, 1905), <i>s.v.</i> “Jacques de Voragine.”</p> </div> @@ -685,7 +646,7 @@ and in 1792, with the rank of captain, he set out to take part in the campaign of Belgium, where he conducted himself with bravery and distinction. After for some time filling the office of secretary of the “commission d’organisation du mouvement -des armées,” he in 1794 became deputy of the director of the +des armées,” he in 1794 became deputy of the director of the Polytechnic school, and on the institution of the central schools at Dijon he was appointed to the chair of the “method of sciences,” where he made his first experiments in that mode of @@ -719,7 +680,7 @@ July 1840.</p> <p>His system was described by him in <i>Enseignement universel, langue maternelle</i>, Louvain and Dijon, 1823—which passed through several editions—and in various other works; and he also advocated -his views in the <i>Journal de l’émancipation intellectuelle</i>. For a complete +his views in the <i>Journal de l’émancipation intellectuelle</i>. For a complete list of his works and fuller details regarding his career, see <i>Biographie de J. Jacotot</i>, by Achille Guillard (Paris, 1860).</p> </div> @@ -734,14 +695,14 @@ not, however, prosper, and was at last forced to become a lime-burner at Bresse, while his wife supported herself at Lyons by plaiting straw. In 1793 he took part in the unsuccessful defence of Lyons against the troops of the Convention; but afterwards -served in their ranks on the Rhône and Loire. After seeing +served in their ranks on the Rhône and Loire. After seeing some active service, in which his young son was shot down at his side, he again returned to Lyons. There he obtained a situation in a factory, and employed his spare time in constructing his improved loom, of which he had conceived the idea several years previously. In 1801 he exhibited his invention at the industrial exhibition at Paris; and in 1803 he was summoned -to Paris and attached to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. +to Paris and attached to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. A loom by Jacques de Vaucanson (1700-1782), deposited there, suggested various improvements in his own, which he gradually perfected to its final state. Although his invention was fiercely @@ -751,13 +712,13 @@ its advantages secured its general adoption, and by 1812 there were 11,000 Jacquard looms in use in France. The loom was declared public property in 1806, and Jacquard was rewarded with a pension and a royalty on each machine. He died at -Oullins (Rhône) on the 7th of August 1834, and six years later +Oullins (Rhône) on the 7th of August 1834, and six years later a statue was erected to him at Lyons (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Weaving</a></span>).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JACQUERIE, THE,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> an insurrection of the French peasantry -which broke out in the Île de France and about Beauvais at the +which broke out in the ÃŽle de France and about Beauvais at the end of May 1358. The hardships endured by the peasants in the Hundred Years’ War and their hatred for the nobles who oppressed them were the principal causes which led to the rising, @@ -766,8 +727,8 @@ on the 28th of May at the village of Saint-Leu between “brigands” (militia infantry armoured in brigandines) and countryfolk. The latter having got the upper hand united with the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages and placed Guillaume -Karle at their head. They destroyed numerous châteaux in the -valleys of the Oise, the Brèche and the Thérain, where they +Karle at their head. They destroyed numerous châteaux in the +valleys of the Oise, the Brèche and the Thérain, where they subjected the whole countryside to fire and sword, committing the most terrible atrocities. Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, crushed the rebellion at the battle of Mello on the 10th of June, @@ -1000,7 +961,7 @@ island are usually of serpentine. Sillimanite, or fibrolite, is a mineral which, like chloromelanite, was used by the Neolithic occupants of western Europe, and is sometimes mistaken for a pale kind of jade. It is an aluminium silicate, of specific gravity about 3.2, distinguished -by its infusibility. The <i>jade tenace</i> of J. R. Haüy, discovered by +by its infusibility. The <i>jade tenace</i> of J. R. Haüy, discovered by H. B. de Saussure in the Swiss Alps, is now known as saussurite. Among other substances sometimes taken for jade may be mentioned prehnite, a hydrous calcium-aluminium silicate, which when polished @@ -1012,7 +973,7 @@ chromiferous syenite from the jadeite mines of Burma. The mineral called bowenite, at one time supposed to be jade, is a hard and tough variety of serpentine. Some of the common Chinese ornaments imitating jade are carved in steatite or serpentine, while others are -merely glass. The <i>pâte de riz</i> is a fine white glass. The so-called +merely glass. The <i>pâte de riz</i> is a fine white glass. The so-called “pink jade” is mostly quartz, artificially coloured, and “black jade,” though sometimes mentioned, has no existence.</p> @@ -1029,7 +990,7 @@ used for the illustrations was destroyed. The second volume is a catalogue of the collection, which comprises 900 specimens arranged in three classes: mineralogical, archaeological and artistic. The important section on Chinese jade was contributed by Dr S. W. -Bushell, who also translated for the work a discourse on jade—<i>Yü-shuo</i> +Bushell, who also translated for the work a discourse on jade—<i>Yü-shuo</i> by T’ang Jung-tso, of Peking. Reference should also be made to Heinrich Fischer’s <i>Nephrit und Jadeit</i> (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1880), a work which at the date of its publication was almost @@ -1065,7 +1026,7 @@ and the parallel Sierra de Cazorla, is the source of the Guadalquivir. The loftiest summits in the province are those of the Sierra Magina (7103 ft.) farther west and south. Apart from the Guadalquivir the only large rivers are its right-hand tributaries -the Jándula and Guadalimar, its left-hand tributary the +the Jándula and Guadalimar, its left-hand tributary the Guadiana Menor, and the Segura, which flows east and south to the Mediterranean.</p> @@ -1076,20 +1037,20 @@ highlands are only available as sheep-walks, the well-watered and fertile valleys favour the cultivation of the vine, the olive and all kinds of cereals. The mineral wealth of Jaen has been known since Roman times, and mining is an important industry, with its centre -at Lináres. Over 400 lead mines were worked in 1903; small quantities +at Lináres. Over 400 lead mines were worked in 1903; small quantities of iron, copper and salt are also obtained. There is some trade in sawn timber and cloth; esparto fabrics, alcohol and oil are manufactured. The roads, partly owing to the development of mining, are more numerous and better kept than in most Spanish provinces. Railway communication is also very complete in the western districts, as the main line Madrid-Cordova-Seville passes through them -and is joined south of Lináres by two important railways—from -Algeciras and Malaga on the south-west, and from Almería on the +and is joined south of Lináres by two important railways—from +Algeciras and Malaga on the south-west, and from AlmerÃa on the south-east. The eastern half of Jaen is inaccessible by rail. In the western half are Jaen, the capital (pop. (1900), 26,434), with Andujar -(16,302), Baeza (14,379), Bailen (7420), Lináres (38,245), Martos +(16,302), Baeza (14,379), Bailen (7420), Lináres (38,245), Martos (17,078) and Ubeda (19,913). Other towns of more than 7000 -inhabitants are Alcalá la Real, Alcaudete, Arjona, La Carolina and +inhabitants are Alcalá la Real, Alcaudete, Arjona, La Carolina and Porcuna, in the west; and Cazorla, Quesada, Torredonjimeno, Villacarillo and Villanueva del Arzobispo, in the east.</p> </div> @@ -1097,7 +1058,7 @@ Villacarillo and Villanueva del Arzobispo, in the east.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JAEN,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> the capital of the Spanish province of Jaen, on the -Lináres-Puente Genil railway, 1500 ft. above the sea. Pop. +Lináres-Puente Genil railway, 1500 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1900), 26,434. Jaen is finely situated on the well-wooded northern slopes of the Jabalcuz Mountains, overlooking the picturesque valleys of the Jaen and Guadalbullon rivers, which @@ -1127,7 +1088,7 @@ severely from an earthquake.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JAFARABAD,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a state of India, in the Kathiawar agency of Bombay, forming part of the territory of the nawab of Janjira; -area, 42 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 12,097; estimated revenue, £4000. +area, 42 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 12,097; estimated revenue, £4000. The town of Jafarabad (pop. 6038), situated on the estuary of a river, carries on a large coasting trade.</p> @@ -1165,9 +1126,9 @@ Missionary Society in 1822.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JÄGER, GUSTAV<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1832-  ), German naturalist and -hygienist, was born at Bürg in Württemberg on the 23rd of June -1832. After studying medicine at Tübingen he became a teacher +<p><span class="bold">JÄGER, GUSTAV<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1832-  ), German naturalist and +hygienist, was born at Bürg in Württemberg on the 23rd of June +1832. After studying medicine at Tübingen he became a teacher of zoology at Vienna. In 1868 he was appointed professor of zoology at the academy of Hohenheim, and subsequently he became teacher of zoology and anthropology at Stuttgart polytechnic @@ -1191,18 +1152,18 @@ for clothes.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JÄGERNDORF<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Krnov</i>), a town of Austria, in Silesia, +<p><span class="bold">JÄGERNDORF<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Krnov</i>), a town of Austria, in Silesia, 18 m. N.W. of Troppau by rail. Pop. (1900), 14,675, mostly -German. It is situated on the Oppa and possesses a château +German. It is situated on the Oppa and possesses a château belonging to Prince Liechtenstein, who holds extensive estates -in the district. Jägerndorf has large manufactories of cloth, +in the district. Jägerndorf has large manufactories of cloth, woollens, linen and machines, and carries on an active trade. On the neighbouring hill of Burgberg (1420 ft.) are a church, much visited as a place of pilgrimage, and the ruins of the seat -of the former princes of Jägerndorf. The claim of Prussia to -the principality of Jägerndorf was the occasion of the first +of the former princes of Jägerndorf. The claim of Prussia to +the principality of Jägerndorf was the occasion of the first Silesian war (1740-1742), but in the partition, which followed, -Austria retained the larger portion of it. Jägerndorf suffered +Austria retained the larger portion of it. Jägerndorf suffered severely during the Thirty Years’ War, and was the scene of engagements between the Prussians and Austrians in May 1745 and in January 1779.</p> @@ -1228,7 +1189,7 @@ the property of one company, which has a working arrangement with the De Beers corporation. The mine, which is worked on the open system and has a depth of 450 ft., yields stones of very fine quality, but the annual output does not exceed in value -£500,000. In 1909 a shaft 950 ft. deep was sunk with a view to +£500,000. In 1909 a shaft 950 ft. deep was sunk with a view to working the mine on the underground system. Among the famous stones found in the mine are the “Excelsior” (weighing 971 carats, and larger than any previously discovered) and the @@ -1276,7 +1237,7 @@ Central and South America to Patagonia. In the countries which bound its northern limit it is not frequently met with, but in South America it is quite common, and Don Felix de Azara states that when the Spaniards first settled in the district between -Montevideo and Santa Fé, as many as two thousand were killed +Montevideo and Santa Fé, as many as two thousand were killed yearly. The jaguar is usually found singly (sometimes in pairs), and preys upon such quadrupeds as the horse, tapir, capybara, dogs or cattle. It often feeds on fresh-water turtles; sometimes @@ -1377,7 +1338,7 @@ vizier of the caliph Wāthiq.</p> <p>His work, the <i>Kitāb ul-Bayān wat-Tabyīn</i>, a discursive treatise on rhetoric, has been published in two volumes at Cairo (1895). The <i>Kitāb ul-Mahāsin wal-Addād</i> was edited by G. van Vloten as <i>Le -Livre des beautés et des antithèses</i> (Leiden, 1898); the <i>Kitāb ul-Bu-halā</i>. +Livre des beautés et des antithèses</i> (Leiden, 1898); the <i>Kitāb ul-Bu-halā</i>. <i>Le Livre des avares</i>, ed. by the same (Leiden, 1900); two other smaller works, the <i>Excellences of the Turks</i> and the <i>Superiority in Glory of the Blacks over the Whites</i>, also prepared by the same. The <i>Kitāb @@ -1392,7 +1353,7 @@ not a scientific, work, was published at Cairo (1906).</p> and patriot, commonly called <i>Turnvater</i> (“Father of Gymnastics”), was born in Lanz on the 11th of August 1778. He studied theology and philology from 1796 to 1802 at Halle, -Göttingen and Greifswald. After Jena he joined the Prussian +Göttingen and Greifswald. After Jena he joined the Prussian army. In 1809 he went to Berlin, where he became a teacher at the Gymnasium zum Grauen as well as at the Plamann School. Brooding upon the humiliation of his native land by Napoleon, @@ -1405,7 +1366,7 @@ to regard themselves as members of a kind of gild for the emancipation of their fatherland. This patriotic spirit was nourished in no small degree by the writings of Jahn. Early in 1813 he took an active part at Breslau in the formation of the -famous corps of Lützow, a battalion of which he commanded, +famous corps of Lützow, a battalion of which he commanded, though during the same period he was often employed in secret service. After the war he returned to Berlin, where he was appointed state teacher of gymnastics. As such he was a leader @@ -1422,7 +1383,7 @@ reversed in 1825, though he was forbidden to live within ten miles of Berlin. He therefore took up his residence at Freyburg on the Unstrut, where he remained until his death, with the exception of a short period in 1828, when he was exiled to -Cölleda on a charge of sedition. In 1840 he was decorated by +Cölleda on a charge of sedition. In 1840 he was decorated by the Prussian government with the Iron Cross for bravery in the wars against Napoleon. In the spring of 1848 he was elected by the district of Naumburg to the German National Parliament. @@ -1431,8 +1392,8 @@ monument was erected in his honour in 1859.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Among his works are the following: <i>Bereicherung des hochdeutschen -Sprachschatzes</i> (Leipzig, 1806), <i>Deutsches Volksthum</i> (Lübeck, 1810), -<i>Runenblätter</i> (Frankfort, 1814), <i>Neue Runenblätter</i> (Naumburg, 1828), +Sprachschatzes</i> (Leipzig, 1806), <i>Deutsches Volksthum</i> (Lübeck, 1810), +<i>Runenblätter</i> (Frankfort, 1814), <i>Neue Runenblätter</i> (Naumburg, 1828), <i>Merke zum deutschen Volksthum</i> (Hildburghausen, 1833), and <i>Selbstvertheidigung</i> (Vindication) (Leipzig, 1863). A complete edition of his works appeared at Hof in 1884-1887. See the biography @@ -1444,12 +1405,12 @@ by Schultheiss (Berlin, 1894), and <i>Jahn als Erzieher</i>, by Friedrich <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JAHN, JOHANN<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1750-1816), German Orientalist, was born at Tasswitz, Moravia, on the 18th of June 1750. He studied philosophy -at Olmütz, and in 1772 began his theological studies at +at Olmütz, and in 1772 began his theological studies at the Premonstratensian convent of Bruck, near Znaim. Having been ordained in 1775, he for a short time held a cure at Mislitz, but was soon recalled to Bruck as professor of Oriental languages and Biblical hermeneutics. On the suppression of the convent -by Joseph II. in 1784, Jahn took up similar work at Olmütz, and +by Joseph II. in 1784, Jahn took up similar work at Olmütz, and in 1789 he was transferred to Vienna as professor of Oriental languages, biblical archaeology and dogmatics. In 1792 he published his <i>Einleitung ins Alte Testament</i> (2 vols.), which soon @@ -1476,15 +1437,15 @@ afterwards published by him, was the <i>Enchiridion Hermeneuticae</i> (1812). He died on the 16th of August 1816.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Besides the works already mentioned, he published <i>Hebräische -Sprachlehre für Anfänger</i> (1792); <i>Aramäische od. Chaldäische u. -Syrische Sprachlehre für Anfänger</i>(1793); <i>Arabische Sprachlehre</i> (1796); -<i>Elementarbuch der hebr. Sprache</i> (1799); <i>Chaldäische Chrestomathie</i> +<p>Besides the works already mentioned, he published <i>Hebräische +Sprachlehre für Anfänger</i> (1792); <i>Aramäische od. Chaldäische u. +Syrische Sprachlehre für Anfänger</i>(1793); <i>Arabische Sprachlehre</i> (1796); +<i>Elementarbuch der hebr. Sprache</i> (1799); <i>Chaldäische Chrestomathie</i> (1800); <i>Arabische Chrestomathie</i> (1802); <i>Lexicon arabico-latinum</i> <i>chrestomathiae accommodatum</i> (1802); an edition of the Hebrew Bible (1806); <i>Grammatica linguae hebraicae</i> (1809); a critical commentary on the Messianic passages of the Old Testament (<i>Vaticinia -prophetarum de Jesu Messia</i>, 1815). In 1821 a collection of <i>Nachträge</i> +prophetarum de Jesu Messia</i>, 1815). In 1821 a collection of <i>Nachträge</i> appeared, containing six dissertations on Biblical subjects. The English translation of the <i>Archaeologia</i> by T. C. Upham (1840) has passed through several editions.</p> @@ -1504,27 +1465,27 @@ having taken part in the political movements of 1848-1849. In 1855 he was appointed professor of the science of antiquity, and director of the academical art museum at Bonn, and in 1867 he was called to succeed E. Gerhard at Berlin. He died at -Göttingen, on the 9th of September 1869.</p> +Göttingen, on the 9th of September 1869.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The following are the most important of his works: 1. Archaeological: -<i>Palamedes</i> (1836); <i>Telephos u. Troilos</i> (1841); <i>Die Gemälde -des Polygnot</i> (1841); <i>Pentheus u. die Mänaden</i> (1841); <i>Paris u. -Oinone</i> (1844); <i>Die hellenische Kunst</i> (1846); <i>Peitho, die Göttin der -Überredung</i> (1847); <i>Über einige Darstellungen des Paris-Urteils</i> +<i>Palamedes</i> (1836); <i>Telephos u. Troilos</i> (1841); <i>Die Gemälde +des Polygnot</i> (1841); <i>Pentheus u. die Mänaden</i> (1841); <i>Paris u. +Oinone</i> (1844); <i>Die hellenische Kunst</i> (1846); <i>Peitho, die Göttin der +Ãœberredung</i> (1847); <i>Ãœber einige Darstellungen des Paris-Urteils</i> (1849); <i>Die Ficoronische Cista</i> (1852); <i>Pausaniae descriptio arcis Athenarum</i> (3rd ed., 1901); <i>Darstellungen griechischer Dichter auf Vasenbildern</i> (1861). 2. Philological: Critical editions of Juvenal, -Persius and Sulpicia (3rd ed. by F. Bücheler, 1893); Censorinus +Persius and Sulpicia (3rd ed. by F. Bücheler, 1893); Censorinus (1845); Florus (1852); Cicero’s <i>Brutus</i> (4th ed., 1877); and <i>Orator</i> (3rd ed., 1869); the <i>Periochae</i> of Livy (1853); the <i>Psyche et Cupido</i> of Apuleius (3rd ed., 1884; 5th ed., 1905); Longinus (1867; 3rd ed. -by J. Vahlen, 1905). 3. Biographical and aesthetic: <i>Üeber Mendelssohn’s +by J. Vahlen, 1905). 3. Biographical and aesthetic: <i>Ãœeber Mendelssohn’s Paulus</i> (1842); <i>Biographie Mozarts</i>, a work of extraordinary labour, and of great importance for the history of music (3rd ed. by H. Disters, 1889-1891; Eng. trans. by P. D. Townsend, 1891); <i>Ludwig -Uhland</i> (1863); <i>Gesammelte Aufsätze über Musik</i> (1866); <i>Biographische -Aufsätze</i> (1866). His <i>Griechische Bilderchroniken</i> was published +Uhland</i> (1863); <i>Gesammelte Aufsätze über Musik</i> (1866); <i>Biographische +Aufsätze</i> (1866). His <i>Griechische Bilderchroniken</i> was published after his death, by his nephew A. Michaelis, who has written an <span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span> exhaustive biography in <i>Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie</i>, xiii.; see @@ -1536,7 +1497,7 @@ Philologie in Deutschland</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JAHRUM<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span>, a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars, S.E. of Shiraz and S.W. of Darab. The district has -thirty-three villages and is famous for its celebrated <i>sháhán</i> +thirty-three villages and is famous for its celebrated <i>sháhán</i> dates, which are exported in great quantities; it also produces much tobacco and fruit. The water supply is scanty, and most of the irrigation is by water drawn from wells. The town of @@ -1615,7 +1576,7 @@ therefore be at least as old as the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In these passages the Nigaṇṭhas are mentioned as contemporaneous with the Buddha; and details enough are given concerning their leader Nigaṇṭha Nāta-putta (that is, the Nigaṇṭha of the -Jñātṛika clan) to enable us to identify him, without any doubt, +Jñātṛika clan) to enable us to identify him, without any doubt, as the same person as the Vaddhamāna Mahā-vīra of the Jain books. This remarkable confirmation, from the scriptures of a rival religion, of the Jain tradition is conclusive as to the date @@ -1660,9 +1621,9 @@ and then separately at Bombay, 1893. Professor Bhandarkar gave an account of the contents of many later works in his <i>Report on the Search for Sanskrit MSS.</i>, Bombay, 1883. Only a small beginning has been made in editing and translating these works. The best -<i>précis</i> of a long book can necessarily only deal with the more important +<i>précis</i> of a long book can necessarily only deal with the more important features in it. And in the choice of what should be included -the <i>précis</i>-writer will often omit the points some subsequent investigator +the <i>précis</i>-writer will often omit the points some subsequent investigator may most especially want. All the older works ought therefore to be edited and translated in full and properly indexed. The Jains themselves have now printed in Bombay a complete edition @@ -1694,7 +1655,7 @@ oldest literatures. Dr Hoernle has treated of the early history of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span> the sect in the <i>Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i> for 1898. Several scholars—notably Bhagvanlāl Indrajī, Mr Lewis Rice and -Hofrath Bühler<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a>—have treated of the remarkable archaeological +Hofrath Bühler<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a>—have treated of the remarkable archaeological discoveries lately made. These confirm the older records in many details, and show that the Jains, in the centuries before the Christian era, were a wealthy and important body in widely separated parts @@ -1789,17 +1750,17 @@ English introduction by Professor Jacobi (Leipzig, 1879); Hemacandra’s “Yoga S’āstram,” edited by Windisch, in the <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morg. Ges.</i> for 1874; “Zwei Jaina Stotra,” edited in the <i>Indische Studien</i>, vol. xv.; <i>Ein Fragment der Bhagavatī</i>, by Professor -Weber; <i>Mémoires de l’Académie de Berlin</i> (1866); <i>Nirayāvaliya +Weber; <i>Mémoires de l’Académie de Berlin</i> (1866); <i>Nirayāvaliya Sutta</i>, edited by Dr Warren, with Dutch introduction (Amsterdam, 1879); <i>Over de godsdienstige en wijsgeerige Begrippen der Jainas</i>, by -Dr Warren (his doctor-dissertation, Zwolle, 1875); <i>Beiträge zur -Grammatik des Jaina-prākrit</i>, by Dr Edward Müller (Berlin, 1876); +Dr Warren (his doctor-dissertation, Zwolle, 1875); <i>Beiträge zur +Grammatik des Jaina-prākrit</i>, by Dr Edward Müller (Berlin, 1876); Colebrooke’s <i>Essays</i>, vol. ii. Mr J. Burgess has an exhaustive account of the Jain Cave Temples (none older than the 7th century) in Fergusson and Burgess’s <i>Cave Temples in India</i> (London, 1880).</p> <p>See also Hopkins’ <i>Religions of India</i> (London, 1896), pp. 280-96, -and J. G. Bühler <i>On the Indian Sect of the Jainas</i>, edited by J. +and J. G. Bühler <i>On the Indian Sect of the Jainas</i>, edited by J. Burgess (London, 1904).</p> </div> <div class="author">(T. W. R. D.)</div> @@ -1843,7 +1804,7 @@ was Amber.</p> <p>The <span class="sc">State of Jaipur</span>, which takes its name from the city, has a total area of 15,579 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,658,666, showing a decrease of 6% in the decade. The estimated revenue is -£430,000, and the tribute £27,000. The centre of the state is a +£430,000, and the tribute £27,000. The centre of the state is a sandy and barren plain 1,600 ft. above sea-level, bounded on the E. by ranges of hills running north and south. On the N. and W. it is bounded by a broken chain of hills, an offshoot of the @@ -1889,7 +1850,7 @@ for his enlightened administration and his patronage of art. He was one of the princes who visited England at the time of King Edward’s coronation in 1902. It was he who started and endowed with a donation of 15 lakhs, afterwards increased to -20 lakhs, of rupees (£133,000) the “Indian People’s Famine +20 lakhs, of rupees (£133,000) the “Indian People’s Famine Fund.” The Jaipur imperial service transport corps saw service in the Chitral and Tirah campaigns.</p> @@ -1902,7 +1863,7 @@ palace and several ornate Jain temples. Many of the houses and temples are finely sculptured. Pop. (1901), 7137. The area of the state is 16,062 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 73,370, showing a decrease of 37% in ten years, as a consequence -of famine. The estimated revenue is about £6000; +of famine. The estimated revenue is about £6000; there is no tribute. Jaisalmer is almost entirely a sandy waste, forming a part of the great Indian desert. The general aspect of the country is that of an interminable sea of sandhills, of all @@ -1954,7 +1915,7 @@ to the chief ship in 1891.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JAJCE<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (pronounced <i>Yaïtse</i>), a town of Bosnia, situated on the +<p><span class="bold">JAJCE<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (pronounced <i>Yaïtse</i>), a town of Bosnia, situated on the Pliva and Vrbas rivers, and at the terminus of a branch railway from Serajevo, 62 m. S.E. Pop. (1895), about 4000. Jajce occupies a conical hill, overlooking one of the finest waterfalls @@ -1967,7 +1928,7 @@ town probably derives its name from the shape of the hill. The ruined church of St Luke, said by legend to be the Evangelist’s burial place, has a fine Italian belfry, and dates from the 15th century. Jezero, 5 m. W. of Jajce, contains the Turkish -fort of Djöl-Hissar, or “the Lake-Fort.” In this neighbourhood +fort of Djöl-Hissar, or “the Lake-Fort.” In this neighbourhood a line of waterfalls and meres, formed by the Pliva, stretches for several miles, enclosed by steep rocks and forest-clad mountains. The power supplied by the main fall, at Jajce, is used @@ -1996,12 +1957,12 @@ lasted, in fact, for 59 years; but, after the death of Ujlaki, in 1500 the Turks, under Bajazet II., were crushed at Jajce by the Hungarians under John Corvinus; and several other attacks were repelled between 1520 and 1526. But in 1526 the Hungarian -power was destroyed at Mohács; and in 1528 Jajce was forced +power was destroyed at Mohács; and in 1528 Jajce was forced to surrender.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Bräss, “Jajce, die alte Königstadt Bosniens,” in <i>Deutsche -geog. Blätter</i>, pp. 71-85 (Bremen, 1899).</p> +<p>See Bräss, “Jajce, die alte Königstadt Bosniens,” in <i>Deutsche +geog. Blätter</i>, pp. 71-85 (Bremen, 1899).</p> </div> @@ -2028,21 +1989,21 @@ following year he became president of the commission for the revision of criminal law, and he at the same time obtained an important office in the finance department, with the rank of counsellor of state; but in 1816 he returned to Halle to occupy -the chair of political economy. He died at Lauchstädt on the +the chair of political economy. He died at Lauchstädt on the 22nd of July 1827.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Shortly after his first appointment to a professorship in Halle Jakob had begun to turn his attention rather to the practical than the speculative side of philosophy, and in 1805 he published at -Halle <i>Lehrbuch der Nationalökonomie</i>, in which he was the first to +Halle <i>Lehrbuch der Nationalökonomie</i>, in which he was the first to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span> advocate in Germany the necessity of a distinct science dealing specially with the subject of national wealth. His principal other -works are <i>Grundriss der allgemeinen Logik</i> (Halle, 1788); <i>Grundsätze der +works are <i>Grundriss der allgemeinen Logik</i> (Halle, 1788); <i>Grundsätze der Polizeigesetzgebung und Polizeianstalten</i> (Leipzig, 1809); <i>Einleitung in das Studium der Staatswissenschaften</i> (Halle, 1819); <i>Entwurf eines -Criminalgesetzbuchs für das russische Reich</i> (Halle, 1818) and +Criminalgesetzbuchs für das russische Reich</i> (Halle, 1818) and <i>Staatsfinanzwissenschaft</i> (2 vols., Halle, 1821).</p> </div> @@ -2285,12 +2246,12 @@ had spread through all Bundelkhand, and it was not till September <p><span class="bold">JALISCO,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> <span class="sc">Xalisco</span>, or <span class="sc">Guadalajara</span>, a Pacific coast state of Mexico, of very irregular shape, bounded, beginning on the N., by the territory of Tepic and the states of Durango, Zacatecas, -Aguas Calientes, Guanajuato, Michoacán, and Colima. Pop. +Aguas Calientes, Guanajuato, Michoacán, and Colima. Pop. (1900), 1,153,891. Area, 31,846 sq. m. Jalisco is traversed from N.N.W. to S.S.E. by the Sierra Madre, locally known as the Sierra de Nayarit and Sierra de Jalisco, which divides the state into a low heavily forested coastal plain and a high plateau -region, part of the great Anáhuac table-land, with an average +region, part of the great Anáhuac table-land, with an average elevation of about 5000 ft., broken by spurs and flanking ranges of moderate height. The sierra region is largely volcanic and earthquakes are frequent; in the S. are the active volcanoes of @@ -2318,16 +2279,16 @@ contribute much to its prosperity. There is a large percentage of Indians and mestizos in the population. The capital is Guadalajara, and other important towns with their populations in 1900 (unless otherwise stated) are: Zapotlanejo (20,275), 21 m. -E. by N. of Guadalajara; Ciudad Guzmán (17,374 in 1895), +E. by N. of Guadalajara; Ciudad Guzmán (17,374 in 1895), 60 m. N.E. of Colima; Lagos (14,716 in 1895), a mining town 100 m. E.N.E. of Guadalajara on the Mexican Central railway; -Tamazula (8783 in 1895); Sayula (7883); Autlán (7715); +Tamazula (8783 in 1895); Sayula (7883); Autlán (7715); Teocaltiche (8881); Ameca (7212 in 1895), in a fertile agricultural <span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span> region on the western slopes of the sierras; Cocula (7090 in 1895); and Zacoalco (6516). Jalisco was first invaded by the Spaniards about 1526 and was soon afterwards conquered by -Nuño de Guzman. It once formed part of the reyno of Nueva +Nuño de Guzman. It once formed part of the reyno of Nueva Galicia, which also included Aguas Calientes and Zacatecas. In 1889 its area was much reduced by a subdivision of its coastal zone, which was set apart as the territory of Tepic.</p> @@ -2378,7 +2339,7 @@ Darjeeling. It is also served by the Bengal Dwars railway.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JAMAICA,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> the largest island in the British West Indies. It lies about 80 m. S. of the eastern extremity of Cuba, between -17° 43′ and 18° 32′ N. and 76° 10′ and 78° 20′ W., is 144 m. long, +17° 43′ and 18° 32′ N. and 76° 10′ and 78° 20′ W., is 144 m. long, 50 m. in extreme breadth, and has an area of 4207 sq. m. The coast-line has the form of a turtle, the mountain ridges representing the back. A mountainous backbone runs through the @@ -2459,9 +2420,9 @@ form of arsenic occur.</p> <p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate is one of the island’s chief attractions. Near the coast it is warm and humid, but that of the uplands is delightfully mild and equable. At Kingston the temperature -ranges from 70.7° to 87.8° F., and this is generally the average +ranges from 70.7° to 87.8° F., and this is generally the average of all the low-lying coast land. At Cinchona, 4907 ft. above -the sea, it varies from 57.5° to 68.5°. The vapours from the +the sea, it varies from 57.5° to 68.5°. The vapours from the rivers and the ocean produce in the upper regions clouds saturated with moisture which induce vegetation belonging to a colder climate. During the rainy seasons there is such an accumulation @@ -2529,7 +2490,7 @@ land-shells.</p> </div> <p><i>People.</i>—The population of the island was estimated in 1905 -at 806,690. Jamaica is rich in traces of its former Arawâk +at 806,690. Jamaica is rich in traces of its former Arawâk inhabitants. Aboriginal petaloid celts and other implements, flattened skulls and vessels are common, and images are sometimes found in the large limestone caverns of the island. The @@ -2565,7 +2526,7 @@ rather than diminish.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The capital, Kingston, stands on the south-east coast, and near it is the town of Port Royal. Spanish Town (pop. 5019), the former -capital, is in the parish of St Catherine, Middlesex, 11¾ m. by rail +capital, is in the parish of St Catherine, Middlesex, 11¾ m. by rail west of Kingston. Since the removal of the seat of government to Kingston, the town has gradually sunk in importance. In the cathedral many of the governors of the island are buried. A marble @@ -2601,7 +2562,7 @@ that of the parish boards, there is no direct taxation.</p> <p><i>Communications.</i>—In 1900 an Imperial Direct West India Line of steamers was started by Elder, Dempster & Co., to encourage -the fruit trade with England; it had a subsidy of £40,000, contributed +the fruit trade with England; it had a subsidy of £40,000, contributed jointly by the Imperial and Jamaican governments. Two steamers go round the island once a week, calling at the principal ports, the circuit occupying about 120 hours. A number of sailing @@ -2691,7 +2652,7 @@ the Spaniards restored their capital and were unmolested until 1635, when the island was again raided by the British under Colonel Jackson. The period of the Spanish occupation is mainly memorable for the annihilation of the gentle and peaceful -Arawâk Indian inhabitants; Don Pedro d’Esquivel was one of +Arawâk Indian inhabitants; Don Pedro d’Esquivel was one of their cruellest oppressors. The whole island was divided among eight noble Spanish families, who discouraged immigration to such an extent that when Jamaica was taken by the British the @@ -2722,7 +2683,7 @@ a yearly tribute to the Crown and to restrict the free legislature. The privileges of the legislative assembly, however, were restored in 1682; but not till 46 years later was the question of revenue settled by a compromise by which Jamaica undertook -to settle £8000 (an amount afterwards commuted to £6000) per +to settle £8000 (an amount afterwards commuted to £6000) per annum on the Crown, provided that English statute laws were made binding in Jamaica.</p> @@ -2742,7 +2703,7 @@ at invasion was made in 1806, when the French were defeated by Admiral Duckworth. When the slave trade was abolished the island was at the zenith of its prosperity; sugar, coffee, cocoa, pimento, ginger and indigo were being produced in large -quantities, and it was the dépôt of a very lucrative trade with the +quantities, and it was the dépôt of a very lucrative trade with the Spanish main. The anti-slavery agitation in Great Britain found its echo in the island, and in 1832 the negroes revolted, believing that emancipation had been granted. They killed a @@ -2751,8 +2712,8 @@ property. Two years later the Emancipation Act was passed, and, subject to a short term of apprenticeship, the slaves were free. Emancipation left the planters in a pitiable condition financially. The British government awarded them <span class="correction" title="amended from conpensation">compensation</span> -at the rate of £19 per slave, the market value of slaves at -the time being £35, but most of this compensation went into the +at the rate of £19 per slave, the market value of slaves at +the time being £35, but most of this compensation went into the hands of the planters’ creditors. They were left with over-worked estates, a poor market and a scarcity of labour. Nor was this the end of their misfortunes. During the slavery times @@ -2770,7 +2731,7 @@ was introduced to supply the scarcity and irregularity of labour and the railway was opened, the improvement was not permanent. In 1865 Edward John Eyre became governor. Financial affairs were at their lowest ebb and the colonial -treasury showed a deficit of £80,000. To meet this difficulty +treasury showed a deficit of £80,000. To meet this difficulty new taxes were imposed and discontent was rife among the negroes. Dr Underhill, the secretary of a Baptist organization known as the British Union, wrote to the colonial secretary in @@ -2907,7 +2868,7 @@ is a surname.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JAMES<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Iakôbos">Ἰάκωβος</span>, the Heb. <i>Ya‘akob</i> or Jacob), the name of +<p><span class="bold">JAMES<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Iakôbos">Ἰάκωβος</span>, the Heb. <i>Ya‘akob</i> or Jacob), the name of several persons mentioned in the New Testament.</p> <p>1. <span class="sc">James</span>, the son of Zebedee. He was among the first who @@ -3038,7 +2999,7 @@ Josephus is also cited by Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> ii. 23) to the effect that the miseries of the siege were due to divine vengeance for the murder of James. Later writers describe James as an <span class="grk" title="episkopos">ἐπίσκοπος</span> (Clem. Al. <i>apud</i> Eus. <i>Hist. Ecc.</i> ii. 1) and even as an -<span class="grk" title="episkopos episkopôn">ἐπίσκοπος ἐπισκόπων</span> (Clem. <i>Hom., ad init.</i>). According to +<span class="grk" title="episkopos episkopôn">ἐπίσκοπος ἐπισκόπων</span> (Clem. <i>Hom., ad init.</i>). According to Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> vii. 19) his episcopal chair was still shown at Jerusalem at the time when Eusebius wrote.</p> @@ -3048,7 +3009,7 @@ see the articles under the heading “James” in Hastings’s <i>Di of the Bible</i> (Mayor) and <i>Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels</i> (Fulford), and in the <i>Encycl. Biblica</i> (O. Cone); also the introductions to the Commentaries on the Epistle of James by Mayor and Knowling. -Zahn has an elaborate essay on <i>Brüder und Vettern Jesu</i> (“The +Zahn has an elaborate essay on <i>Brüder und Vettern Jesu</i> (“The Brothers and Cousins of Jesus”) in the <i>Forschungen zur Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons</i>, vi. 2 (Leipzig, 1900).</p> </div> @@ -3275,7 +3236,7 @@ by James Montagu, bishop of Winchester, and were translated into Latin by the same hand in a companion folio, in 1619 (also Frankfort, 1689). A tract, entitled “The True Law of Free Monarchies,” appeared in 1603; “An Apology for the Oath of -Allegiance” in 1607; and a “<i>Déclaration du Roy Jacques I. ... +Allegiance” in 1607; and a “<i>Déclaration du Roy Jacques I. ... pour le droit des Rois</i>” in 1615. In 1588 and 1589 James issued two small volumes of <i>Meditations</i> on some verses of (<i>a</i>) Revelations and (<i>b</i>) 1 Chronicles. Other two “meditations” were @@ -3311,7 +3272,7 @@ at St James’s on the 15th of October 1633, and created duke of York in January 1643. During the Civil War James was taken prisoner by Fairfax (1646), but contrived to escape to Holland in 1648. Subsequently he served in the French army under -Turenne, and in the Spanish under Condé, and was applauded +Turenne, and in the Spanish under Condé, and was applauded by both commanders for his brilliant personal courage. Returning to England with Charles II. in 1660 he was appointed lord high admiral and warden of the Cinque Ports. Pepys, who @@ -3593,7 +3554,7 @@ by the Scottish Text Society (1884). An attempt has been made to dispute James’s authorship of the poem, but the arguments elaborated by J. T. T. Brown (<i>The Authorship of the Kingis Quair</i>, Glasgow, 1896) have been convincingly answered by Jusserand in his <i>Jacques -I<span class="sp">er</span> d’Écosse fut-il poète? Étude sur l’authenticité du cahier du roi</i> (Paris, +I<span class="sp">er</span> d’Écosse fut-il poète? Étude sur l’authenticité du cahier du roi</i> (Paris, 1897, reprinted from the <i>Revue historique</i>, vol. lxiv.). See also the full correspondence in the <i>Athenaeum</i> (July-Aug. 1896 and Dec. 1899); W. A. Neilson, <i>Origins and Sources of the Court of Love</i> (Boston, 1899) @@ -4064,7 +4025,7 @@ so that the political adherents of the Stuarts were gradually led to fix their hopes upon the two young princes rather than upon their father. Travellers to Rome at this period note that James appeared seldom in public, and that much of his time was given -up to religious exercises; he was <i>dévot à l’excès</i>, so Charles de +up to religious exercises; he was <i>dévot à l’excès</i>, so Charles de Brosses, an unprejudiced Frenchman, informs us. It was with great reluctance that James allowed his elder son to leave Italy for France in 1744; nevertheless in the following year, he permitted @@ -4094,7 +4055,7 @@ testify.</p> Stuarts</i> (1853); <i>Calendar of the Stuart Papers at Windsor Castle</i>; J. H. Jesse, <i>Memories of the Pretenders and their Adherents</i> (1845); Dr John Doran, <i>”Mann” and Manners at the Court of Florence</i> -(1876); <i>Relazione della morte di Giacomo III., Rè d’Inghilterra</i>; +(1876); <i>Relazione della morte di Giacomo III., Rè d’Inghilterra</i>; and Charles de Brosses, <i>Lettres sur l’Italie</i> (1885).</p> </div> <div class="author">(H. M. V.)</div> @@ -4148,7 +4109,7 @@ being three-volume novels of the usual length. Sixty-seven are catalogued in the British Museum. The best examples of his style are perhaps <i>Richelieu</i> (1829); <i>Philip Augustus</i> (1831); <i>Henry Masterton</i>, probably the best of all (1832); <i>Mary of -Burgundy</i> (1833); <i>Darnley</i> (1839); <i>Corse de Léon</i> (1841); <i>The +Burgundy</i> (1833); <i>Darnley</i> (1839); <i>Corse de Léon</i> (1841); <i>The Smuggler</i> (1845). His poetry does not require special mention, nor does his history, though for a short time during the reign of William IV. he held the office of historiographer royal. After @@ -4267,7 +4228,7 @@ unrivalled as an interpreter of the world of to-day.</p> them in volume form, and other works, see bibliographies by F. A. King, in <i>The Novels of Henry James</i>, by Elisabeth L. Cary (New York and London, 1905), and by Le Roy Phillips, <i>A Bibliography of the -Writings of Henry James</i> (Boston, Mass., 1906). In 1909 an <i>édition +Writings of Henry James</i> (Boston, Mass., 1906). In 1909 an <i>édition de luxe</i> of Henry James’s novels was published in 24 volumes.</p> </div> @@ -4344,7 +4305,7 @@ accuracy in all such matters as dates, names, tonnage, armament and movements of ships, though no attempt is ever made to show the connexion between the various movements. James died on the 28th of May 1827 in London, leaving a widow -who received a civil list pension of £100.</p> +who received a civil list pension of £100.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>An edition of the <i>Naval History</i> in six volumes, with additions and @@ -4471,7 +4432,7 @@ to treat the whole writing as not only late but pseudonymous. If prefixed by conjecture, to secure recognition and authority for the book, even this was at first a failure. The earliest trace of any recognition of it is in Origen (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 230) who refers to it -as “said to be from James” (<span class="grk" title="pheromegê hê Iakôbou Epistolê">φερομέγη ἡ Ἰακώβου Ἐπιστολή</span>), +as “said to be from James” (<span class="grk" title="pheromegê hê Iakôbou Epistolê">φερομέγη ἡ Ἰακώβου Ἐπιστολή</span>), seeming thus to regard ver. 1 as superscription rather than part of the text. Eusebius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 325) classifies it among the disputed books, declaring that it is regarded as spurious, and that not @@ -4509,7 +4470,7 @@ He has nothing whatever to say of the incarnation, life, example, suffering or resurrection of Jesus, and does not interest himself in the doctrines of Christ’s person, which were hotly debated up to this time. The absence of all mention of Christ (with the single exception -of ii. 1, where there is reason to think the words <span class="grk" title="hêmôu Iêsou Xristou">ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ</span> +of ii. 1, where there is reason to think the words <span class="grk" title="hêmôu Iêsou Xristou">ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ</span> interpolated) has even led to the theory, ably but unconvincingly maintained by Spitta, that the writing is a mere recast of a Jewish moralistic writing like the <i>Two Ways</i>. The thoughts are loosely @@ -4724,8 +4685,8 @@ showed the priority of Paul, with many others. A. Hilgenfeld (<i>Einl.</i>) <span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span> and A. C. McGiffert (<i>Ap. Age</i>) place it in the period of Domitian; Baur (<i>Ch. History</i>), Schwegler (<i>Nachap. Zeitalt.</i>), Zeller, Volkmar (<i>Z. w. -Th.</i>), Hausrath (<i>Ap. Age</i>), H. J. Holtzmann (<i>Einl.</i>), Jülicher (<i>Einl.</i>), -Usteri (St. <i>u. Kr.</i>, 1889), W. Brückner (<i>Chron.</i>), H. v. Soden (<i>Handcomm.</i>) +Th.</i>), Hausrath (<i>Ap. Age</i>), H. J. Holtzmann (<i>Einl.</i>), Jülicher (<i>Einl.</i>), +Usteri (St. <i>u. Kr.</i>, 1889), W. Brückner (<i>Chron.</i>), H. v. Soden (<i>Handcomm.</i>) and A. Harnack (<i>Chron.</i>) under Hadrian. A convenient synopsis of results will be found in J. Moffat, <i>Historical New Test.</i><span class="sp">2</span> (pp. 576-581), and in the articles <i>s.v.</i> “James” in <i>Encycl. Bibl.</i> and @@ -4771,7 +4732,7 @@ was broken off, and Anna Murphy accompanied a young pupil to Italy, writing in a fictitious character a narrative of what she saw and did. This diary she gave to a bookseller on condition of receiving a guitar if he secured any profits. Colburn ultimately -published it as <i>The Diary of an Ennuyée</i> (1826), which +published it as <i>The Diary of an Ennuyée</i> (1826), which attracted much attention. The author was governess to the children of Mr Littleton, afterwards Lord Hatherton, from 1821 to 1825, when she married Robert Jameson. The marriage @@ -4910,7 +4871,7 @@ as administrator of Rhodesia. The events connected with his <span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span> vigorous administration and the wars with the Matabele are narrated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rhodesia</a></span>. At the end of 1894 “Dr Jim” -(as he was familiarly called) came to England and was fêted on +(as he was familiarly called) came to England and was fêted on all sides; he was made a C.B., and returned to Africa in the spring of 1895 with enhanced prestige. On the last day of that year the world was startled to learn that Jameson, with a force @@ -5116,11 +5077,11 @@ wife).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>On Jāmī’s life and works see V. von Rosenzweig, <i>Biographische -Notizen über Mewlana Abdurrahman Dschami</i> (Vienna, 1840); Gore +Notizen über Mewlana Abdurrahman Dschami</i> (Vienna, 1840); Gore Ouseley, <i>Biographical Notices of Persian Poets</i> (1846); W. N. Lees, <i>A Biographical Sketch of the Mystic Philosopher and Poet Jami</i> (Calcutta, 1859); E. Beauvois <i>s.v.</i> Djami in <i>Nouvelle Biographie -générale</i>; and H. Ethé in Geiger and Kuhn’s <i>Grundriss der iranischen +générale</i>; and H. Ethé in Geiger and Kuhn’s <i>Grundriss der iranischen Philologie</i>, ii. There are English translations of the <i>Bahāristān</i> by E. Rehatsek (Benares, 1887) and Sorabji Fardunji (Bombay, 1899); of <i>Salāmān wa Absāl</i> by Edward FitzGerald (1856, with a notice @@ -5181,7 +5142,7 @@ Northern Antiquities</i> (1814). He died on the 24th of September <p><span class="bold">JAMKHANDI,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay, ranking as one of the southern Mahratta Jagirs. Area, 524 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 105,357; estimated revenue, -£37,000; tribute, £1300. The chief is a Brahman of the +£37,000; tribute, £1300. The chief is a Brahman of the Patwardhan family. Cotton, wheat and millet are produced, and cotton and silk cloth are manufactured, though not exported. The town of <span class="sc">Jamkhandi</span>, the capital, is situated 68 m. E. of @@ -5230,7 +5191,7 @@ xii. 8 seq. is untrustworthy). Alexander Jannaeus subdued it, and under Pompey it became Roman. It changed hands several times, is mentioned by Strabo (xvi. 2) as being once very populous, and in the Jewish war was taken by Vespasian. The -population was mainly Jewish (Philo, <i>Leg. ad Gaium</i>, § 30), and +population was mainly Jewish (Philo, <i>Leg. ad Gaium</i>, § 30), and the town is principally famous as having been the seat of the Sanhedrin and the religious centre of Judaism from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70 to 135. It sent a bishop to Nicaea in 325. In 1144 a crusaders’ @@ -5246,7 +5207,7 @@ success.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JAMRUD,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a fort and cantonment in India, just beyond the border of Peshawar district, North-West Frontier Province, -situated at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, 10½ m. W. of Peshawar +situated at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, 10½ m. W. of Peshawar city, with which it is connected by a branch railway. It was occupied by Hari Singh, Ranjit Singh’s commander in 1836; but in April 1837 Dost Mahommed sent a body of Afghans to @@ -5358,17 +5319,17 @@ as a city in 1853.</p> <p><span class="bold">JANET, PAUL<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1823-1899), French philosophical writer, was born in Paris on the 30th of April 1823. He was professor of moral philosophy at Bourges (1845-1848) and Strassburg (1848-1857), -and of logic at the lycée Louis-le-Grand, Paris (1857-1864). +and of logic at the lycée Louis-le-Grand, Paris (1857-1864). In 1864 he was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Sorbonne, and elected a member of the academy of the moral and political sciences. He wrote a large number of books and articles upon philosophy, politics and ethics, on idealistic lines: <i>La -Famille, Histoire de la philosophie dans l’antiquité et dans le +Famille, Histoire de la philosophie dans l’antiquité et dans le temps moderne, Histoire de la science politique, Philosophie de la -Révolution Française</i>, &c. They are not characterized by much +Révolution Française</i>, &c. They are not characterized by much originality of thought. In philosophy he was a follower of Victor Cousin, and through him of Hegel. His principal work -in this line, <i>Théorie de la morale</i>, is little more than a somewhat +in this line, <i>Théorie de la morale</i>, is little more than a somewhat patronizing reproduction of Kant. He died in October 1899.</p> @@ -5386,19 +5347,19 @@ annually is about 10,000.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JANIN, JULES GABRIEL<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1804-1874), French critic, was born -at St Étienne (Loire) on the 16th of February 1804, and died +at St Étienne (Loire) on the 16th of February 1804, and died near Paris on the 19th of June 1874. His father was a lawyer, -and he was well educated, first at St Étienne, and then at the -lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. He betook himself to journalism +and he was well educated, first at St Étienne, and then at the +lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. He betook himself to journalism very early, and worked on the <i>Figaro</i>, the <i>Quotidienne</i>, &c., until -in 1830 he became dramatic critic of the <i>Journal des Débats</i>. +in 1830 he became dramatic critic of the <i>Journal des Débats</i>. Long before this, however, he had made a considerable literary -reputation, for which indeed his strange novel <i>L’Âne mort et la -femme guillotinée</i> (1829) would have sufficed. <i>La Confession</i> +reputation, for which indeed his strange novel <i>L’Âne mort et la +femme guillotinée</i> (1829) would have sufficed. <i>La Confession</i> (1830), which followed, was less remarkable in substance but even more so in style; and in <i>Barnave</i> (1831) he attacked the Orleans family. From the day, however, when Janin became -the theatrical critic of the <i>Débats</i>, though he continued to write +the theatrical critic of the <i>Débats</i>, though he continued to write books indefatigably, he was to most Frenchmen a dramatic critic and nothing more. He was outrageously inconsistent, and judged things from no general point of view whatsoever, though @@ -5406,7 +5367,7 @@ his judgment was usually good-natured. Few journalists have ever been masters of a more attractive fashion of saying the first thing that came into their heads. After many years of <i>feuilleton</i> writing he collected some of his articles in the work called -<i>Histoire de la littérature dramatique en France</i> (1853-1858), which +<i>Histoire de la littérature dramatique en France</i> (1853-1858), which by no means deserves its title. In 1865 he made his first attempt upon the Academy, but was not successful till five years later. Meanwhile he had not been content with his <i>feuilletons</i>, written @@ -5422,21 +5383,21 @@ by far the best is the <i>Fin d’un monde et du neveu de Rameau</i> he showed his great familiarity with the late 18th century. He married in 1841; his wife had money, and he was always in easy circumstances. In the early part of his career he had -many quarrels, notably one with Félix Pyat (1810-1889), whom +many quarrels, notably one with Félix Pyat (1810-1889), whom he prosecuted successfully for defamation of character. For the most part his work is mere improvisation, and has few elements of vitality except a light and vivid style. His <i>Œuvres -choisies</i> (12 vols., 1875-1878) were edited by A. de la Fitzelière.</p> +choisies</i> (12 vols., 1875-1878) were edited by A. de la Fitzelière.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>A study on Janin with a bibliography was published by A. Piédagnel +<p>A study on Janin with a bibliography was published by A. Piédagnel in 1874. See also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, ii. and v., -and Gustave Planche, <i>Portraits littéraires</i>.</p> +and Gustave Planche, <i>Portraits littéraires</i>.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JANISSARIES<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (corrupted from Turkish <i>yeni chéri</i>, new +<p><span class="bold">JANISSARIES<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (corrupted from Turkish <i>yeni chéri</i>, new troops), an organized military force constituting until 1826 the standing army of the Ottoman empire. At the outset of her history Turkey possessed no standing army. All Moslems @@ -5444,14 +5405,14 @@ capable of bearing arms served as a kind of volunteer yeomanry known as <i>akinjis</i>; they were summoned by public criers, or, if the occasion required it, by secret messengers. It was under Orkhan that a regular paid army was first organized: the soldiers -were known as <i>yaya</i> or <i>piyadé</i>. The result was unsatisfactory, +were known as <i>yaya</i> or <i>piyadé</i>. The result was unsatisfactory, as the Turcomans, from whom these troops were recruited, were unaccustomed to fight on foot or to submit to military discipline. -Accordingly in 1330, on the advice of Chendéréli Kara Khalil, -the system known as <i>devshurmé</i> or forced levy, was adopted, +Accordingly in 1330, on the advice of Chendéréli Kara Khalil, +the system known as <i>devshurmé</i> or forced levy, was adopted, whereby a certain number of Christian youths (at first 1000) were every year taken from their parents and, after undergoing -a period of apprenticeship, were enrolled as <i>yeni chéri</i> or new +a period of apprenticeship, were enrolled as <i>yeni chéri</i> or new troops. The venerable saint Haji Bektash, founder of the Bektashi dervishes, blessed the corps and promised them victory; he remained ever after the patron saint of the janissaries.</p> @@ -5672,15 +5633,15 @@ for ever from the page of her history.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See M. d’Ohsson, <i>Tableaux de l’empire ottoman</i> (Paris, 1787-1820); -Ahmed Vefyk, <i>Lehjé-i-osmanié</i> (Constantinople, 1290-1874); -A. Djévad Bey, <i>État militaire ottoman</i> (Constantinople, 1885).</p> +Ahmed Vefyk, <i>Lehjé-i-osmanié</i> (Constantinople, 1290-1874); +A. Djévad Bey, <i>État militaire ottoman</i> (Constantinople, 1885).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JANIUAY,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Islands, on the Suague river, about 20 m. W.N.W. of Iloilo, the -capital. Pop. (1903), 27,399, including Lambúnao (6661) +capital. Pop. (1903), 27,399, including Lambúnao (6661) annexed to Janiuay in 1903. The town commands delightful views of mountain and valley scenery. An excellent road connects it with Pototan, about 10 m. E. The surrounding @@ -5697,7 +5658,7 @@ mountains and was subsequently removed to its present site.</p> Bombay, situated along the coast among the spurs of the Western Ghats, 40 m. S. of Bombay city. Area, 324 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 85,414, showing an increase of 4% in the decade. -The estimated revenue is about £37,000; there is no tribute. +The estimated revenue is about £37,000; there is no tribute. The chief, whose title is Nawab Sahib, is by descent a Sidi or Abyssinian Mahommedan; and his ancestors were for many generations admirals of the Mahommedan rulers of the Deccan. @@ -5712,7 +5673,7 @@ with which it is in regular communication by steamer.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JAN MAYEN,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> an arctic island between Greenland and the -north of Norway, about 71° N. 8° W. It is 34 m. long and 9 in +north of Norway, about 71° N. 8° W. It is 34 m. long and 9 in greatest breadth, and is divided into two parts by a narrow isthmus. The island is of volcanic formation and mountainous, the highest summit being Beerenberg in the north (8350 ft.). @@ -5722,7 +5683,7 @@ called it Hudson’s Tutches or Touches. Thereafter it was several times observed by navigators who successively claimed its discovery and renamed it. Thus, in 1611 or the following year whalers from Hull named it Trinity Island; in 1612 Jean -Vrolicq, a French whaler, called it Île de Richelieu; and in 1614 +Vrolicq, a French whaler, called it ÃŽle de Richelieu; and in 1614 Joris Carolus named one of its promontories Jan Meys Hoek after the captain of one of his ships. The present name of the island is derived from this, the claim of its discovery by a Dutch @@ -5731,7 +5692,7 @@ island is not permanently inhabited, but has been frequently visited by explorers, sealers and whalers; and an Austrian station for scientific observations was maintained here for a year in 1882-1883. During this period a mean temperature of -27.8° F. was recorded.</p> +27.8° F. was recorded.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -5794,8 +5755,8 @@ was cut off by a sudden illness on the 6th of May 1638; the <div class="condensed"> <p>Full details as to Jansen’s career will be found in Reuchlin’s -<i>Geschichte von Port Royal</i> (Hamburg, 1839), vol. i. See also <i>Jansénius</i> -by the Abbés Callawaert and Nols (Louvain, 1893).</p> +<i>Geschichte von Port Royal</i> (Hamburg, 1839), vol. i. See also <i>Jansénius</i> +by the Abbés Callawaert and Nols (Louvain, 1893).</p> </div> <div class="author">(St C.)</div> @@ -5905,13 +5866,13 @@ of his life in hiding, was forced to leave France for good.</p> <p>Six years later he was joined in exile by Pasquier Quesnel who succeeded him as leader of the party. Long before his -flight from France Quesnel had published a devotional commentary—<i>Réflexions +flight from France Quesnel had published a devotional commentary—<i>Réflexions morales sur le Nouveau Testament</i>—which had gone through many editions without exciting official suspicion. -But in 1695 Louis Antoine de Noailles, bishop of Châlons, was +But in 1695 Louis Antoine de Noailles, bishop of Châlons, was made archbishop of Paris. He was known to be very hostile to -the Jesuits, and at Châlons had more than once expressed -official approval of Quesnel’s <i>Réflexions</i>. So the Jesuit party +the Jesuits, and at Châlons had more than once expressed +official approval of Quesnel’s <i>Réflexions</i>. So the Jesuit party determined to wreck archbishop and book at the same time. The Jansenists played into their hands by suddenly raising (1701) in the Paris divinity school the question whether it was necessary @@ -5927,7 +5888,7 @@ worse; he became frenziedly anxious to propitiate the wrath of his maker by making war on the enemies of the Church. In 1711 he asked the pope for a second, and still stronger bull, that would tear up Jansenism by the roots. The pope’s choice of a -book to condemn fell on Quesnel’s <i>Réflexions</i>; in 1713 appeared +book to condemn fell on Quesnel’s <i>Réflexions</i>; in 1713 appeared the bull <i>Unigenitus</i>, anathematizing no less than one-hundred-and-one of its propositions. Indeed, in his zeal against the Jansenists the pope condemned various practices in no way @@ -5963,15 +5924,15 @@ had meanwhile fallen on evil days. Persecution usually begets hysteria in its victims; and the more extravagant members of the party were far advanced on the road which leads to apocalyptic prophecy and “speaking with tongues.” About 1728 the -“miracles of St Médard” became the talk of Paris. This was -the cemetery where was buried François de Pâris, a young +“miracles of St Médard” became the talk of Paris. This was +the cemetery where was buried François de Pâris, a young Jansenist deacon of singularly holy life, and a perfervid opponent of the <i>Unigenitus</i>. All sorts of miraculous cures were believed to have been worked at his tomb, until the government closed the cemetery in 1732. This gave rise to the famous epigram:</p> <table class="reg" summary="poem f90"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p><i>De par le roi, défense à Dieu</i></p> +<p><i>De par le roi, défense à Dieu</i></p> <p><i>De faire miracle en ce lieu.</i></p> </div> </td></tr></table> @@ -5985,7 +5946,7 @@ Diderot to enter the field against them. Meanwhile genuine Jansenism survived in many country parsonages and convents, and led to frequent quarrels with the authorities. Only one of its latter-day disciples, however, rose to real eminence; this was -the Abbé Henri Grégoire, who played a considerable part in the +the Abbé Henri Grégoire, who played a considerable part in the French Revolution. A few small Jansenist congregations still survive in France; and others have been started in connexion with the Old Catholic Church in Holland.</p> @@ -5996,14 +5957,14 @@ Sainte-Beuve (5th ed., Paris, 1888) in six volumes. See also H. Reuchlin, <i>Geschichte von Port Royal</i> (2 vols., Hamburg, 1839-1844), and C. Beard, <i>Port Royal</i> (2 vols., London, 1861). No satisfactory Roman Catholic history of the subject exists, though reference may -be made to Count Joseph de Maistre’s <i>De l’église gallicane</i> (last ed., +be made to Count Joseph de Maistre’s <i>De l’église gallicane</i> (last ed., Lyons, 1881). On the Jansenism of the 18th century no single work exists, though much information will be found in the <i>Gallican Church</i> of Canon Jervis (2 vols., London, 1872). For a series of -excellent sketches see also Seche, <i>Les Derniers Jansénistes</i> (3 vols., +excellent sketches see also Seche, <i>Les Derniers Jansénistes</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1891). A more detailed list of books bearing on the subject will be found in the 5th volume of the <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>; -and J. Paquier’s <i>Le Jansénisme</i> (Paris, 1909) may also be consulted.</p> +and J. Paquier’s <i>Le Jansénisme</i> (Paris, 1909) may also be consulted.</p> </div> <div class="author">(St C.)</div> @@ -6032,7 +5993,7 @@ was that of John Milton as a boy of ten.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JANSSEN, JOHANNES<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1820-1891), German historian, was born at Xanten on the 10th of April 1829, and was educated -as a Roman Catholic at Münster, Louvain, Bonn and Berlin, +as a Roman Catholic at Münster, Louvain, Bonn and Berlin, afterwards becoming a teacher of history at Frankfort-on-the-Main. He was ordained priest in 1860; became a member of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies in 1875; and in 1880 was made @@ -6058,7 +6019,7 @@ of it has been translated into English by M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie (London, 1896, fol.). Of his other works perhaps the most important are: the editing of <i>Frankfurts Reichskorrespondenz, 1376-1519</i> (Freiburg, 1863-1872); and of the <i>Leben, Briefe und kleinere -Schriften</i> of his friend J. F. Böhmer (Leipzig, 1868); a monograph, +Schriften</i> of his friend J. F. Böhmer (Leipzig, 1868); a monograph, <i>Schiller als Historiker</i> (Freiburg, 1863); and <i>Zeit- und Lebensbilder</i> (Freiburg, 1875).</p> @@ -6069,10 +6030,10 @@ Janssen und die Geschichte der deutschen Reformation</i> (Munich, 1892).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CÉSAR<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1824-1907), French +<p><span class="bold">JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CÉSAR<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1824-1907), French astronomer, was born in Paris on the 22nd of February 1824, and studied mathematics and physics at the faculty of sciences. -He taught at the lycée Charlemagne in 1853, and in the school +He taught at the lycée Charlemagne in 1853, and in the school of architecture 1865-1871, but his energies were mainly devoted to various scientific missions entrusted to him. Thus in 1857 he went to Peru in order to determine the magnetic equator; @@ -6198,8 +6159,8 @@ martyrs is celebrated on the 13th of October.</p> <i>Esame di un codice greco pubblicato nel tomo secondo della bibliotheca casinensis</i> (Naples, 1876); G. Taglialatela, <i>Memorie storico-critiche del culto del sangue di S. Gennaro</i> (Naples, 1893), which contains -many facts, but little criticism; G. Albini, <i>Sulla mobilità dei liquidi -viscosi non omogenei</i> (<i>Società reale di Napoli, Rendiconti</i>, 2nd series, +many facts, but little criticism; G. Albini, <i>Sulla mobilità dei liquidi +viscosi non omogenei</i> (<i>Società reale di Napoli, Rendiconti</i>, 2nd series, vol. iv., 1890); <i>Acta sanctorum</i>, October, vi. 187-193.</p> </div> <div class="author">(H. De.)</div> @@ -6307,13 +6268,13 @@ were considered to be the fons et origo of all things.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See S. Linde, <i>De Jano summo romanorum deo</i> (Lund, 1891); -J. S. Speÿer, “Le Dieu romain Janus,” in <i>Revue de l’histoire des -religions</i> (xxvi., 1892); G. Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus der Römer</i> +J. S. Speÿer, “Le Dieu romain Janus,” in <i>Revue de l’histoire des +religions</i> (xxvi., 1892); G. Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus der Römer</i> (1902); W. Deecke, <i>Etruskische Forschungen</i>, vol. ii.; W. Warde Fowler, <i>The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic</i> (1899), pp. 282-290; articles in W. H. Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i> and -Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des Antiquités</i>; J. Toutain, -<i>Études de Mythologie</i> (1909). On other jani (arched passages) in +Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des Antiquités</i>; J. Toutain, +<i>Études de Mythologie</i> (1909). On other jani (arched passages) in Rome, frequented by business men and money changers, see O. Richter, <i>Topographie der Stadt Rom</i> (1901).</p> </div> @@ -6325,7 +6286,7 @@ O. Richter, <i>Topographie der Stadt Rom</i> (1901).</p> It consists of two isolated tracts, between Ratlam and Neemuch Area, with the dependencies of Piplauda and Pant Piplauda, 568 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 84,202. The estimated revenue is -£57,000; tribute, £9000. The chief, whose title is nawab, is +£57,000; tribute, £9000. The chief, whose title is nawab, is a Mahommedan of Afghan descent. The state was confirmed by the British government in 1818 by the Treaty of Mandsaur. Nawab Mahommed Ismail, who died in 1895, was an honorary @@ -6358,11 +6319,11 @@ Ocean, Kamchatka in the north and Malacca in the south, between which lies a long cluster of islands constituting the Japanese empire, which covers <span class="sidenote">Position and Extent.</span> -37° 14′ of longitude and 29° 11′ of latitude. On the +37° 14′ of longitude and 29° 11′ of latitude. On the extreme north are the Kuriles (called by the Japanese <i>Chishima</i>, -or the “myriad isles”), which extend to 156° 32′ E. and to -50° 56′ N.; on the extreme south is Formosa (called by the -Japanese <i>Taiwan</i>), which extends to 122° 6′ E., and to 21° 45′ +or the “myriad isles”), which extend to 156° 32′ E. and to +50° 56′ N.; on the extreme south is Formosa (called by the +Japanese <i>Taiwan</i>), which extends to 122° 6′ E., and to 21° 45′ N. There are six large islands, namely Sakhalin (called by the Japanese <i>Karafuto</i>); Yezo or Ezo (which with the Kuriles is designated <i>Hokkaidō</i>, or the north-sea district); Nippon (the @@ -6372,14 +6333,14 @@ or Kyushu (the “nine provinces”), which lies on the south of Nippon, and Formosa, which forms the most southerly link of the chain. Formosa and the Pescadores were ceded to Japan by China after the war of 1894-1895, and the southern half of -Sakhalin—the part south of 50° N.—was added to Japan by +Sakhalin—the part south of 50° N.—was added to Japan by cession from Russia in 1905. Korea, annexed in August 1910, is separately noticed.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>Coast-line.</i>—The following table shows the numbers, the lengths of coast-line, and the areas of the various groups of islands, only -those being indicated that have a coast-line of at least 1 <i>ri</i> (2½ m.), +those being indicated that have a coast-line of at least 1 <i>ri</i> (2½ m.), or that, though smaller, are inhabited; except in the case of Formosa and the Pescadores, where the whole numbers are given:—</p> @@ -6551,7 +6512,7 @@ described by Mr Percival Lowell in <i>Occult Japan</i> (1895).</p> are the Nikko mountains, enclosing the mausolea of the two greatest <span class="sidenote">The Nikko Mountains.</span> of the Tokugawa <i>shōguns</i>. The highest of these are -Shirane-san (7422 ft.), Nantai-san (8169 ft.), Nyohô-zan +Shirane-san (7422 ft.), Nantai-san (8169 ft.), Nyohô-zan (8100 ft.), and Omanago (7546 ft.). They are clothed with magnificent vegetation, and everywhere they echo the voices of waterfalls and rivulets.</p> @@ -6795,7 +6756,7 @@ Among still active volcanoes the following are the best known:—</p> modern cone to a height of 500 ft. above<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span> the surrounding floor, is about 2 m.; while the present crater, which displays incessant - activity, has itself a diameter of ¼ m.</p></td></tr> + activity, has itself a diameter of ¼ m.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Asama (Ise) 8136.</td> <td class="tcl"><p>The largest active volcano in Japan. An eruption in 1783, with a deluge of @@ -6805,7 +6766,7 @@ Among still active volcanoes the following are the best known:—</p> crater rings remaining. The present crater is remarkable for the absolute perpendicularity of its walls, and has an immense depth—from - 600 to 800 ft. It is circular, ¾ m. + 600 to 800 ft. It is circular, ¾ m. in circumference, with sides honeycombed and burned to a red hue.</p></td></tr> </table> @@ -6824,7 +6785,7 @@ But of earthquakes proper, large or small, she has an exceptional abundance. Thus in the thirteen years ending in 1897—that is to say, the first period when really scientific apparatus for recording purposes was available—she was visited by no fewer than 17,750 -shocks, being an average of something over 3½ daily. The frequency +shocks, being an average of something over 3½ daily. The frequency of these phenomena is in some degree a source of security, for the minor vibrations are believed to exercise a binding effect by removing weak cleavages. Nevertheless the annals show that during the @@ -6915,10 +6876,10 @@ following table:—</p> town of Yokohama. It supports about 6 millions of people.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Mino-Owari</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Has 1½ million inhabitants.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mino-Owari</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Has 1½ million inhabitants.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Kinai</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Has the cities of Osaka, Kiōto and Kobe, - and 2½ million people.</p></td></tr> + and 2½ million people.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Tsukushi</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">Kiūshiū.</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>The chief coalfield of Japan.</p></td></tr> </table> @@ -7155,7 +7116,7 @@ accessible and highly efficacious, are largely visited by the Japanese. The most noteworthy are as follows:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc bb">Name of Spa.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Prefecture.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quality.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Temp., F°.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb">Name of Spa.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Prefecture.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quality.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Temp., F°.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Arima</td> <td class="tcl">Hiogo</td> <td class="tcl">Salt</td> <td class="tcr">100</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Asama</td> <td class="tcl">Nagano</td> <td class="tcl">Pure</td> <td class="tcr">111—127</td></tr> @@ -7201,12 +7162,12 @@ to great depths. Whereas in Tōkyō the number of frosty nights during a year does not average much over 60, the corresponding number in Sapporo on the north-west of Yezo is 145. But the variation of the thermometer in winter and summer being considerable—as -much as 72° F. in Tōkyō—the climate proves somewhat +much as 72° F. in Tōkyō—the climate proves somewhat trying to persons of weak constitution. On the other hand, the mean daily variation is in general less than that in other countries having the same latitude: it is greatest in January, when it reaches -18° F., and least in July, when it barely exceeds 9° F. The monthly -variation is very great in March, when it usually reaches 43° F.</p> +18° F., and least in July, when it barely exceeds 9° F. The monthly +variation is very great in March, when it usually reaches 43° F.</p> <p>During the first 40 years of the <i>Meiji</i> era numerous meteorological stations were established. Reports are constantly forwarded by @@ -7222,7 +7183,7 @@ least important, three observations. From the record of three decades the following yearly averages of temperature are obtained:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">F°.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">F°.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Taihoku (in Formosa)</td> <td class="tcc">71</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Nagasaki (Kiūshiū)</td> <td class="tcc">60</td></tr> @@ -7243,13 +7204,13 @@ the following yearly averages of temperature are obtained:—</p> Shanghai, Hakodate, Tōkyō and San Francisco:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tccm bb"> </td> <td class="tccm bb">Longitude.</td> <td class="tccm bb">Latitude.</td> <td class="tccm bb">Mean<br />Temp., F°.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm bb"> </td> <td class="tccm bb">Longitude.</td> <td class="tccm bb">Latitude.</td> <td class="tccm bb">Mean<br />Temp., F°.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Peking</td> <td class="tcc">116° 29′ E.</td> <td class="tcc">39° 57′ N.</td> <td class="tcc">53</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Shanghai</td> <td class="tcc">121° 20′ E.</td> <td class="tcc">31° 12′ N.</td> <td class="tcc">59</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Hakodate</td> <td class="tcc">140° 45′ E.</td> <td class="tcc">41° 46′ N.</td> <td class="tcc">47</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Tōkyō</td> <td class="tcc">138° 47′ E.</td> <td class="tcc">35° 41′ N.</td> <td class="tcc">57</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">San Francisco</td> <td class="tcc">122° 25′ E.</td> <td class="tcc">37° 48′ N.</td> <td class="tcc">56</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Peking</td> <td class="tcc">116° 29′ E.</td> <td class="tcc">39° 57′ N.</td> <td class="tcc">53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Shanghai</td> <td class="tcc">121° 20′ E.</td> <td class="tcc">31° 12′ N.</td> <td class="tcc">59</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hakodate</td> <td class="tcc">140° 45′ E.</td> <td class="tcc">41° 46′ N.</td> <td class="tcc">47</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tōkyō</td> <td class="tcc">138° 47′ E.</td> <td class="tcc">35° 41′ N.</td> <td class="tcc">57</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">San Francisco</td> <td class="tcc">122° 25′ E.</td> <td class="tcc">37° 48′ N.</td> <td class="tcc">56</td></tr> </table> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> @@ -7433,7 +7394,7 @@ only by inches after their age has reached scores, even hundreds, of years, and the proportions of leaf, branch and stem are preserved with fidelity. The pots in which these wonders of patient skill are grown have to be themselves fine specimens of the <span class="correction" title="amended from keramist's">ceramist’s</span> craft, -and as much as £200 is sometimes paid for a notably well trained tree.</p> +and as much as £200 is sometimes paid for a notably well trained tree.</p> <p>There exists among many foreign observers an impression that Japan is comparatively poor in wild-flowers; an impression probably @@ -7728,7 +7689,7 @@ shore and emerge in the daytime, often moving to considerable distances from their homes. Shrimps (<i>kawa-ebi</i>) also are found in the rivers and rice-fields. These shrimps as well as a large species of crab—<i>mokuzō-gani</i>—serve the people as an article of food, but -the small crabs which live in holes have no recognized <i>raison d’être</i>. +the small crabs which live in holes have no recognized <i>raison d’être</i>. In Japan, as elsewhere, the principal crustacea are found in the sea. Flocks of <i>lupa</i> and other species swim in the wake of the tropical fishes which move towards Japan at certain seasons. Naturally @@ -7737,7 +7698,7 @@ Edwards has identified ten species which occur in Australian seas also, and Rein mentions, as belonging to the same category, the “helmet-crab” or “horse-shoe crab” (<i>kabuto-gani</i>; <i>Limulus longispina</i> Hoeven). Very remarkable is the giant <i>Taka-ashi</i>—long -legs (<i>Macrocheirus Kaempferi</i>), which has legs 1½ metres long +legs (<i>Macrocheirus Kaempferi</i>), which has legs 1½ metres long and is found in the seas of Japan and the Malay archipelago. There is no lobster on the coasts of Japan, but there are various species of crayfish (<i>Palinurus</i> and <i>Scyllarus</i>) the principal of which, under @@ -7775,7 +7736,7 @@ and the <i>tako-fune</i> (Argonauta).</p> These, like the mollusca, indicate the influence of the Kuro Shiwo and the south-west monsoon, for they have close affinity with species found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. For edible purposes the -most valuable of the Japanese echinoderms is the sea-slug or <i>bêche +most valuable of the Japanese echinoderms is the sea-slug or <i>bêche de mer</i> (<i>namako</i>), which is greatly appreciated and forms an important staple of export to China. Rein writes: “Very remarkable in connexion with the starfishes is the occurrence of <i>Asterias rubens</i> on @@ -7857,7 +7818,7 @@ grew steadily, its increment between 1872 and 1898 inclusive, a period of 27 years, being 10,649,990. Such a rate of increase invests the question of subsistence with great importance. In former times the area of land under cultivation increased in a marked degree. Returns -prepared at the beginning of the 10th century showed 2½ million acres +prepared at the beginning of the 10th century showed 2½ million acres under crops, whereas the figure in 1834 was over 8 million acres. But the development of means of subsistence has been outstripped by the growth of population in recent years. Thus, during the period @@ -7930,9 +7891,9 @@ and Chinese neighbours as much as the inhabitants of northern Europe differ from those of southern Europe. It is true that the Japanese are shorter in stature than either the Chinese or the Koreans. Thus the average height of the Japanese male is -only 5 ft. 3½ in., and that of the female 4 ft. 10½ in., whereas in +only 5 ft. 3½ in., and that of the female 4 ft. 10½ in., whereas in the case of the Koreans and the northern Chinese the corresponding -figures for males are 5 ft. 5¾ in. and 5 ft. 7 in. respectively. +figures for males are 5 ft. 5¾ in. and 5 ft. 7 in. respectively. Yet in other physical characteristics the Japanese, the Koreans <span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span> and the Chinese resemble each other so closely that, under @@ -8454,11 +8415,11 @@ Matters</i>). It has been accurately translated by Professor B. H. Chamberlain (<i>Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan</i>, vol. x.), who, in a preface justly regarded by students of Japan as an exegetical classic, makes the pertinent comment: “Taking the -word Altaïc in its usual acceptation, viz. as the generic name of +word Altaïc in its usual acceptation, viz. as the generic name of all the languages belonging to the Manchu, Mongolian, Turkish and Finnish groups, not only the archaic, but the classical, literature of Japan carries us back several centuries beyond the -earliest extant documents of any other Altaïc tongue.” By the +earliest extant documents of any other Altaïc tongue.” By the term “archaic” is to be understood the pure Japanese language of earliest times, and by the term “classical” the quasi-Chinese language which came into use for literary purposes when Japan @@ -8638,7 +8599,7 @@ when a game called <i>uta-awase</i> became a fashionable pastime, and aristocratic men and women tried to string together versicles of 31 syllables, careful of the form and careless of the thought. The <i>uta-awase</i>, in its later developments, may not unjustly be compared -to the Occidental game of <i>bouts-rimés</i>. The poetry of the nation +to the Occidental game of <i>bouts-rimés</i>. The poetry of the nation remained immovable in the ancient groove until very modern times, when, either by direct access to the originals or through the medium of very defective translations, the nation became acquainted with @@ -8984,7 +8945,7 @@ had wide vogue. Meanwhile the business of translating went on apace. Great numbers of European and American authors were rendered into Japanese—Calderon, Lytton, Disraeli, Byron, Shakespeare, Milton, Turgueniev, Carlyle, Daudet, Emerson, Hugo, Heine, -De Quincey, Dickens, Körner, Goethe—their name is legion and their +De Quincey, Dickens, Körner, Goethe—their name is legion and their influence upon Japanese literature is conspicuous. In 1888 a special course of German literature was inaugurated at the Imperial University, and with it is associated the name of Mori Ogai, Japan’s @@ -9168,7 +9129,7 @@ opinion that to grant a larger measure of liberty would certainly encourage licence. Not until 1897 was this opposition fully overcome. A new law, passed by both houses and confirmed by the emperor, took from the executive all power over journals, -except in cases of lèse majesté, and nothing now remains of the +except in cases of lèse majesté, and nothing now remains of the former arbitrary system except that any periodical having a political complexion is required to deposit security varying from 175 to 1000 <i>yen</i>. The result has falsified all sinister forebodings. A much more @@ -9306,7 +9267,7 @@ all points shall be exactly alike.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:382px; height:760px" src="images/img172c.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="figcenter"><img style="width:319px; height:869px" src="images/img172b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—MANJUSRI, DEITY OF WISDOM. Kosé +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—MANJUSRI, DEITY OF WISDOM. Kosé School (13th century).</td> <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—WATERFALL OF NACHI. Attributed to Kanaoka (9th century).</td></tr></table> @@ -9391,7 +9352,7 @@ the following six periods, each signalized by a wave of progress. <span class="sidenote">Division into Periods.</span> art. (2) From the middle of the 9th to the middle of the 15th century: the establishment of great -native schools under Kosé no Kanaoka and his descendants and +native schools under Kosé no Kanaoka and his descendants and followers, the pure Chinese school gradually falling into neglect. (3) From the middle of the 15th to the latter part of the 17th century: the revival of the Chinese style. (4) From the latter @@ -9421,7 +9382,7 @@ to representations of Buddhist masters of the Tang dynasty (618-905), notably Wu Tao-zu (8th century), of whose genius romantic stories are related. The oldest existing work of this period is a mural decoration in the hall of the temple of Horyū-ji, Nara, -attributed to a Korean priest named Donchô, who lived in Japan +attributed to a Korean priest named Donchô, who lived in Japan in the 6th century; and this painting, in spite of the destructive effects of time and exposure, shows traces of the same power of line, colour and composition that stamps the best of the later examples @@ -9429,7 +9390,7 @@ of Buddhist art.</p> </div> <p>The native artist who crested the first great wave of -Japanese painting was a court noble named Kosé no Kanaoka, +Japanese painting was a court noble named Kosé no Kanaoka, living under the patronage of the emperor Seiwa (850-859) and his successors down to about the end of <span class="sidenote">Second Period.</span> @@ -9514,9 +9475,9 @@ as the traditional forms and attributes of the Brahmanic and Buddhist divinities were mutable only within narrow limits, the subjects seldom afforded scope for originality of design or observation of nature. The principal Buddhist painters down to -the 14th century were members of the Kosé, Takuma and Kasuga +the 14th century were members of the Kosé, Takuma and Kasuga lines, the first descended from Kanaoka, the second from Takuma -Taméuji (ending 10th century), and the third from Fujiwara no +Taméuji (ending 10th century), and the third from Fujiwara no Motomitsu (11th century). The last and greatest master of the school was a priest named Meicho, better known as Chō Densu, the Japanese Fra Angelico. It is to him that Japan owes the possession @@ -9570,7 +9531,7 @@ native and Buddhist schools, and the long-neglected <span class="sidenote">Third Period.</span> Chinese school was destined to undergo a vigorous revival. The initiation of the new movement is attributed to a -priest named Jôsetsu, who lived in the early part of the 15th +priest named Jôsetsu, who lived in the early part of the 15th century, and of whom little else is known. It is not even certain whether he was of Chinese or Japanese birth; he is, however, believed by some authorities to have been the teacher of three @@ -10172,7 +10133,7 @@ ended, but the militant spirit was still strong, and brought work for the artists who made and ornamented arms and armour. The Miyōchins, a line that claimed ancestry from the 7th century, were at the head of their calling, and their work in iron breastplates -and helmets, chiefly in <i>repoussé</i>, is still unrivalled. +and helmets, chiefly in <i>repoussé</i>, is still unrivalled. It was not until the latter half of the 15th century that there came into vogue the elaborate decoration of the sword, a fashion that was to last four hundred years.</p> @@ -10195,7 +10156,7 @@ labours reached a level of technical mastery and refined artistic judgment almost without parallel in the art industries of Europe. Buddhist sculpture was by no means neglected during this period, but there are few works that call for special notice. The most -noteworthy effort was the casting by Ono Goroyémon in 1252 of the +noteworthy effort was the casting by Ono Goroyémon in 1252 of the well-known bronze image, the Kamakura Daibutsu.</p> </div> @@ -10405,7 +10366,7 @@ made with the point of a needle; the <i>gama-ishime</i>, which is intended to imitate the skin of a toad; the <i>tsuya-ishime</i>, produced with a chisel sharpened so that its traces have a lustrous appearance; the <i>ore-kuchi</i> (broken-tool), a peculiar kind obtained with a jagged tool; -and the <i>gozamé</i>, which resembles the plaited surface of a fine straw +and the <i>gozamé</i>, which resembles the plaited surface of a fine straw mat.</p> <p>Great importance has always been attached by Japanese experts @@ -10469,7 +10430,7 @@ the design, or by enclosing the latter in a scarped frame. Yet another and very favourite method, giving beautiful results, is to model the design on both faces of the metal so as to give a sculpture in the round. The fashion is always accompanied by chiselling -<i>à jour</i> (<i>sukashi-bori</i>), so that the sculptured portions stand out in +<i>à jour</i> (<i>sukashi-bori</i>), so that the sculptured portions stand out in their entirety.</p> <p>Inlaying with gold or silver was among the early forms of @@ -10481,7 +10442,7 @@ are two principal kinds of inlaying: the first called <i>hon-zōgan</i> (tru inlaying), the second <i>nunome-zōgan</i> (linen-mesh inlaying). As to the former, the Japanese method does not differ from that seen in the beautiful iron censers and vases inlaid with gold which the -Chinese produced from the <i>Süen-tē</i> era (1426-1436). In the surface +Chinese produced from the <i>Süen-tē</i> era (1426-1436). In the surface of the metal the workman cuts grooves wider at the base than at the top, and then hammers into them gold or silver wire. Such a process presents no remarkable features, except that it has been carried by @@ -10606,7 +10567,7 @@ of the most delicate character. It had been made by means of the hammer only. Suzuki’s kiribame process is not to be confounded with the <i>kiribame-zōgan</i> (inserted inlaying) of Tōyoda Kokō, also a modern artist. The gist of the latter method is that a design -chiselled <i>à jour</i> has its outlines veneered with other metal which +chiselled <i>à jour</i> has its outlines veneered with other metal which serves to emphasize them. Thus, having pierced a spray of flowers in a thin sheet of shibuichi, the artist fits a slender rim of gold, silver or shakudo to the petals, leaves and stalks, so that an effect is @@ -10622,7 +10583,7 @@ the basis of a pictorial design to which final character is given by inlaying with gold and silver, and by katā-kiri sculpture. Such pictures partake largely of the impressionist character, but they attain much beauty in the hands of the Japanese artist with his -extensive <i>répertoire</i> of suggestive symbols. A process resembling +extensive <i>répertoire</i> of suggestive symbols. A process resembling maze-gane, but less fortuitous, is <i>shibuichi-dōshi</i> (combined shibuichi), which involves beating together two kinds of shibuichi and then adding a third variety, after which the details of the picture are @@ -10636,7 +10597,7 @@ called <i>togi-dashi-zōgan</i> (ground-out inlaying). In this exquisite and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span> ingenious kind of work the design appears to be growing up from the depths of the metal, and a delightful impression of atmosphere and -water is obtained. All these processes, as well as that of <i>repoussé</i>, in +water is obtained. All these processes, as well as that of <i>repoussé</i>, in which the Japanese have excelled from a remote period, are now practised with the greatest skill in Tokyo, Kiōto, Osaka and Kanazawa. At the art exhibitions held twice a year in the principal @@ -11063,7 +11024,7 @@ deep system of bracketing, corbelled out from the feet of the main pillars. Within this raised gallery, which is sheltered by the over-sailing eaves, there is, in the larger temples, a columned loggia passing round the two sides and the front of the building, or, in some cases, -placed on the façade only. The ceilings of the loggias are generally +placed on the façade only. The ceilings of the loggias are generally sloping, with richly carved roof-timbers showing below at intervals; and quaintly carved braces connect the outer pillars with the main posts of the building. Some temples are to be seen in which the @@ -11079,7 +11040,7 @@ cases mortises and other joints are such as very materially to weaken the timbers at their points of connexion. It would seem that only the immense weight of the roofs and their heavy projections prevent a collapse of some of these structures in high winds. -The principal façade of the temple is filled in one, two or three compartments +The principal façade of the temple is filled in one, two or three compartments with hinged doors, variously ornamented and folding outwards, sometimes in double folds. From these doorways, generally left open, the interior light is principally obtained, windows, as @@ -11088,7 +11049,7 @@ of wooden bracketing crowns the walls, forming one of the principal ornaments of the building. The whole disposition of pillars, posts, brackets and rafters is harmonically arranged according to some measure of the standard of length. A very important feature of -the façade is the portico or porch-way, which covers the principal +the façade is the portico or porch-way, which covers the principal steps and is generally formed by producing the central portion of the main roof over the steps and supporting such projection upon isolated wooden pillars braced together near the top with horizontal @@ -11204,7 +11165,7 @@ labour with relays of artisans working steadily throughout the twenty-four hours were required to finish this piece. Naturally <span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span> such specimens are not produced in large numbers. Next in decorative -importance to tsuzure-ori stands <i>yūzen birôdo</i>, commonly +importance to tsuzure-ori stands <i>yūzen birôdo</i>, commonly known among English-speaking people as cut velvet. Dyeing by the <i>yūzen</i> process is an innovation of modern times. The design is painted on the fabric, after which the latter is steamed, and the @@ -11409,7 +11370,7 @@ he thenceforth stamped his productions. Thirteen generations of the same family carried on the work, each using a stamp with the same ideograph, its calligraphy, however, differing sufficiently to be identified by connoisseurs. The faience is thick and clumsy, having soft, -brittle and very light <i>pâte</i>. The staple type has black glaze showing +brittle and very light <i>pâte</i>. The staple type has black glaze showing little lustre, and in choice varieties this is curiously speckled and pitted with red. Salmon-coloured, red, yellow and white glazes are also found, and in late specimens gilding was added. The raku @@ -11426,7 +11387,7 @@ the middle of the 17th century. Just at that time there flourished in the Western capital a potter of remarkable ability, called Nomura Seisuke. He immediately utilized the new method, and produced many beautiful examples of jewelled faience, having -close, hard <i>pâte</i>, yellowish-white, or brownish-white, glaze covered +close, hard <i>pâte</i>, yellowish-white, or brownish-white, glaze covered with a network of fine crackle, and sparse decoration in pure full-bodied colours—red, green, gold and silver. He worked chiefly at Awata, and thus brought that factory into prominence. Nomura @@ -11498,7 +11459,7 @@ by order of the feudal chief of that province. It is known as <i>Kaira-ku-yen-ya <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:587px; height:306px" src="images/img184e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—LACQUERED BOXES. By Kôami (1598-1651).</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—LACQUERED BOXES. By Kôami (1598-1651).</td></tr></table> <p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate VIII.</p> @@ -11575,11 +11536,11 @@ said to have commenced then, and to have come to an end about <p>The ceramic art in Satsuma owed much to the aid of a number of Korean experts who settled there after the return of the Japanese forces from Korea. One of these men, Boku Heii, discovered -(1603) clay fitted for the manufacture of white <i>craquelé</i> faience. +(1603) clay fitted for the manufacture of white <i>craquelé</i> faience. This was the subsequently celebrated <i>Satsuma-yaki</i>. But in Boku’s time, and indeed as long as the factories flourished, many other kinds of faience were produced, the principal having rich black or -<i>flambé</i> glazes, while a few were green or yellow monochromes. +<i>flambé</i> glazes, while a few were green or yellow monochromes. One curious variety, called <i>same-yaki</i>, had glaze chagrined like the skin of a shark. Most of the finest pieces of enamelled faience were the work of artists at the Tadeno factory, while the best specimens @@ -11593,7 +11554,7 @@ century, when the feudal chief of Kaga took the industry under his patronage. There were two principal varieties of the ware: <i>ao-Kutani</i>, so called because of a green (<i>ao</i>) enamel of great brilliancy and beauty which was largely used in its decoration, and Kutani -with painted and enamelled <i>pâte</i> varying from hard porcelain to +with painted and enamelled <i>pâte</i> varying from hard porcelain to pottery. Many of the pieces are distinguished by a peculiar creamy whiteness of glaze, suggesting the idea that they were intended to imitate the soft-paste wares of China. The enamels are used to @@ -11642,7 +11603,7 @@ produced dainty little tea-jars, ewers and other <i>cha-no-yu</i> utensils. These, being no longer stoved in an inverted position, as had been the habit before Shirozaemon’s time, were not disfigured by the bare, blistered lips of their predecessors. Their -<i>pâte</i> was close and well-manufactured pottery, varying in colour +<i>pâte</i> was close and well-manufactured pottery, varying in colour from dark brown to russet, and covered with thick, lustrous glazes—black, amber-brown, chocolate and yellowish grey. These glazes were not monochromatic: they showed differences of tint, and @@ -11707,7 +11668,7 @@ delicate miniatures of birds, flowers, insects, fishes and so forth, everything indicates the death of the old severe aestheticism. To such a depth of debasement had the ceramic art fallen in Owari, that before the happy renaissance of the past ten years, Nagoya discredited -itself by employing porcelain as a base for cloisonné enamelling. +itself by employing porcelain as a base for cloisonné enamelling. Many products of this vitiated industry have found their way into the collections of foreigners.</p> @@ -11723,7 +11684,7 @@ stoving for more than three weeks, and was consequently remarkable for its hardness and metallic timbre. Some fifty years later, the character of the choicest Bizen-yaki underwent a marked change. It became slate-coloured or bluish-brown faience, with -<i>pâte</i> as fine as pipe-clay, but very hard. In the <i>ao-Bizen</i> (blue +<i>pâte</i> as fine as pipe-clay, but very hard. In the <i>ao-Bizen</i> (blue Bizen), as well as in the red variety, figures of mythical beings and animals, birds, fishes and other natural objects, were modelled with a degree of plastic ability that can scarcely be spoken of in too high @@ -11753,9 +11714,9 @@ or “transmutation ware” of China as a model, the Takatori potters endeavoured, by skilful mixing of colouring materials, to reproduce the wonderful effects of oxidization seen in the Chinese ware. They did not, indeed, achieve their ideal, but they did succeed -in producing some exquisitely lustrous glazes of the <i>flambé</i> type, +in producing some exquisitely lustrous glazes of the <i>flambé</i> type, rich transparent brown passing into claret colour, with flecks or -streaks of white and clouds of “iron dust.” The <i>pâte</i> of this +streaks of white and clouds of “iron dust.” The <i>pâte</i> of this faience was of the finest description, and the technique in every respect faultless. Unfortunately, the best experts confined themselves to working for the tea clubs, and consequently produced only @@ -11823,7 +11784,7 @@ banko-yaki now so popular.</p> <p>Among a multitude of other Japanese wares, space allows us to mention only two, those of Izumo and Yatsushiro. The chief of the former is faience, having light grey, close -<i>pâte</i> and yellow or straw-coloured glaze, with or without crackle, +<i>pâte</i> and yellow or straw-coloured glaze, with or without crackle, <span class="sidenote">Izumo.</span> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span> to which is applied decoration in gold and green enamel. Another @@ -11839,7 +11800,7 @@ characteristics of a Korean original are unmistakably preserved. <span class="sidenote">Yatsushiro.</span> Its diaphanous, pearl-grey glaze, uniform, lustrous and finely crackled, overlying encaustic decoration in white slip, the fineness -of its warm reddish <i>pâte</i>, and the general excellence of its technique, +of its warm reddish <i>pâte</i>, and the general excellence of its technique, have always commanded admiration. It is produced now in considerable quantities, but the modern ware falls far short of its predecessor.</p> @@ -11861,14 +11822,14 @@ with one notable exception, the <i>yi-hsing-yao</i>, known in the Occident as <i>boccaro</i>. Even the <i>yi-hsing-yao</i>, too, owed much of its popularity to special utility. It was essentially the ware of the tea-drinker. If in the best specimens exquisite modelling, -wonderful accuracy of finish and <i>pâtes</i> of interesting tints are +wonderful accuracy of finish and <i>pâtes</i> of interesting tints are found, such pieces are, none the less, stamped prominently with the character of utensils rather than with that of works of art. In short, the artistic output of Chinese kilns in their palmiest days was, not faience or pottery, but porcelain, whether of soft or hard paste. Japan, on the contrary, owes her ceramic distinction in the main to her faience. A great deal has been said by -enthusiastic writers about the <i>famille chrysanthemo-péonienne</i> of +enthusiastic writers about the <i>famille chrysanthemo-péonienne</i> of Imari and the <i>genre Kakiemon</i> of Nabeshima, but these porcelains, beautiful as they undoubtedly are, cannot be placed on the same level with the <i>kwan-yao</i> and <i>famille rose</i> of the Chinese @@ -11878,7 +11839,7 @@ no enamels that can rival the exquisitely soft, broken tints of the <i>famille rose</i>; and the <i>Kakiemon</i> porcelain, for all its rich though chaste contrasts, lacks the delicate transmitted tints of the shell-like <i>kwan-yao</i>. So, too, the blue-and-white porcelain -of Hirado, though assisted by exceptional tenderness of sous-pâte +of Hirado, though assisted by exceptional tenderness of sous-pâte colour, by milk-white glaze, by great beauty of decorative design, and often by an admirable use of the modelling or graving tool, represents a ceramic achievement palpably below the soft @@ -11887,7 +11848,7 @@ fact that this last product of Chinese skill remained unknown in Japan down to very recent days. In the eyes of a Chinese connoisseur, no blue-and-white porcelain worthy of consideration exists, or ever has existed, except the <i>kai-pien-yao</i>, -with its imponderable <i>pâte</i>, its wax-like surface, and its rich, +with its imponderable <i>pâte</i>, its wax-like surface, and its rich, glowing blue, entirely free from superficiality or garishness and broken into a thousand tints by the microscopic crackle of the glaze. The Japanese, although they obtained from their neighbour @@ -11898,7 +11859,7 @@ domain in which the Chinese developed high skill, whereas the Japanese can scarcely be said to have entered it at all; namely, the domain of monochromes and polychromes, striking every note of colour from the richest to the most delicate; the domain -of <i>truité</i> and <i>flambé</i> glazes, of <i>yō-pien-yao</i> (transmutation ware), +of <i>truité</i> and <i>flambé</i> glazes, of <i>yō-pien-yao</i> (transmutation ware), and of egg-shell with incised or translucid decoration. In all that region of achievement the Chinese potters stood alone and seemingly unapproachable. The Japanese, on the contrary, @@ -11909,7 +11870,7 @@ palm with really representative specimens of Satsuma ware. Not without full reason have Western connoisseurs lavished panegyrics upon that exquisite production. The faience of the Kiōto artists never reached quite to the level of the Satsuma in -quality of <i>pâte</i> and glowing mellowness of decoration; their +quality of <i>pâte</i> and glowing mellowness of decoration; their materials were slightly inferior. But their skill as decorators was as great as its range was wide, and they produced a multitude of masterpieces on which alone Japan’s ceramic fame might @@ -11999,7 +11960,7 @@ of Japan was manufactured formerly in Kiōto. Nomura <span class="sidenote">Seifū of Kiōto.</span> Ninsei, in the middle of the 17th century, inaugurated a long era of beautiful productions with his cream-like “fish-roe” -<i>craquelé</i> glazes, carrying rich decoration of clear and brilliant +<i>craquelé</i> glazes, carrying rich decoration of clear and brilliant vitrifiable enamels. It was he who gave their first really artistic impulse to the kilns of Awata, Mizoro and Iwakura, whence so many delightful specimens of faience issued almost without interruption @@ -12008,11 +11969,11 @@ issue to-day. The three Kenzan, of whom the third died in 1820; Ebisei; the four Dōhachi, of whom the fourth was still alive in 1909; the Kagiya family, manufacturers of the celebrated Kinkōzan ware; Hōzan, whose imitations of Delft faience and his -<i>pâte-sur-pâte</i> pieces with fern-scroll decoration remain incomparable; +<i>pâte-sur-pâte</i> pieces with fern-scroll decoration remain incomparable; Taizan Yōhei, whose ninth descendant of the same name now produces fine specimens of Awata ware for foreign markets; Tanzan Yōshitaro and his son Rokuro, to whose credit stands a new departure -in the form of faience having <i>pâte-sur-pâte</i> decoration of lace patterns, +in the form of faience having <i>pâte-sur-pâte</i> decoration of lace patterns, diapers and archaic designs executed in low relief with admirable skill and minuteness; the two Bizan, renowned for their representations of richly apparelled figures as decorative motives; Rokubei, @@ -12048,18 +12009,18 @@ glaze. The Kiōto artist’s process is much easier than that of his rivals, and although his monochromes are often of most pleasing delicacy and fine tone, they do not belong to the same category of technical excellence as the wares they imitate. From this judgment -must be excepted, however, his ivory-white and <i>céladon</i> wares, +must be excepted, however, his ivory-white and <i>céladon</i> wares, as well as his porcelains decorated with blue, or blue and red <i>sous couverte</i>, and with vitrifiable enamels over the glaze. In these five varieties he is emphatically great. It cannot be said, indeed, that -his <i>céladon</i> shows the velvety richness of surface and tenderness of +his <i>céladon</i> shows the velvety richness of surface and tenderness of colour that distinguished the old <i>Kuang-yao</i> and <i>Lungchuan-yao</i> of China, or that he has ever essayed the moss-edged crackle of the -beautiful <i>Ko-yao</i>. But his <i>céladon</i> certainly equals the more modern +beautiful <i>Ko-yao</i>. But his <i>céladon</i> certainly equals the more modern Chinese examples from the <i>Kang-hsi</i> and <i>Yung-cheng</i> kilns. As for his ivory-white, it distinctly surpasses the Chinese Ming <i>Chen-yao</i> in every quality except an indescribable intimacy of glaze and -<i>pâte</i> which probably can never be obtained by either Japanese or +<i>pâte</i> which probably can never be obtained by either Japanese or European methods.</p> <p>Miyagawa Shōzan, or Makuzu, as he is generally called, has never @@ -12069,7 +12030,7 @@ process of painted biscuit. This comment does not <span class="sidenote">Miyagawa Shōzan.</span> refer to the use of blue and red <i>sous couverte</i>. In that class of beautiful ware the application of pigment to the unglazed -<i>pâte</i> is inevitable, and both Seifū and Miyagawa, working on +<i>pâte</i> is inevitable, and both Seifū and Miyagawa, working on the same lines as their Chinese predecessors, produce porcelains that almost rank with choice Kang-hsi specimens, though they have not yet mastered the processes sufficiently to employ @@ -12141,7 +12102,7 @@ whom may be mentioned Obanawa and Shimauchi. The porcelains of Owari and Arita naturally received most attention at the hands of the Hyōchi-en decorators, but there was scarcely one of the principal wares of Japan upon which they did not try their skill, and if a piece -of monochromatic Minton or Sèvres came in their way, they undertook +of monochromatic Minton or Sèvres came in their way, they undertook to improve it by the addition of designs copied from old masters or suggested by modern taste. The cachet of the Fukagawa atelier was indiscriminately applied to all such pieces, and has @@ -12201,11 +12162,11 @@ though brown and black were used in very exceptional instances. The difficulty of obtaining clear, rich tints was nearly prohibitive, and though success, when achieved, seemed to justify the effort, this class of ware never received much attention in Japan. By -careful selection and preparation of <i>pâte</i>, glaze and pigments, Dr +careful selection and preparation of <i>pâte</i>, glaze and pigments, Dr Wagener proved not only that the manufacture was reasonably feasible, but also that decoration thus applied to pottery possesses unique delicacy and softness. Ware manufactured by his direction -at the Tōkyō school of technique (<i>shokkô gakkô</i>), under the name of +at the Tōkyō school of technique (<i>shokkô gakkô</i>), under the name of <i>asahi-yaki</i>, ranks among the interesting productions of modern Japan. The decorative colour chiefly employed is chocolate brown, which harmonizes excellently with the glaze. But the ware has @@ -12244,14 +12205,14 @@ especially since it had never previously been essayed outside China. The Hirado expert has not yet attained technical skill equal to that of the Chinese. He cannot, like them, cover the greater part of a specimen’s surface with a lacework of -transparent decoration, exciting wonder that <i>pâte</i> deprived so greatly +transparent decoration, exciting wonder that <i>pâte</i> deprived so greatly of continuity could have been manipulated without accident. But his artistic instincts are higher than those of the Chinese, and there is reasonable hope that in time he may excel their best works. In other respects the Hirado factories do not produce wares nearly so beautiful as those manufactured there between 1759 and 1840, when the <i>Hirado-yaki</i> stood at the head of all Japanese porcelain -on account of its pure, close-grained <i>pâte</i>, its lustrous milk-white +on account of its pure, close-grained <i>pâte</i>, its lustrous milk-white glaze, and the soft clear blue of its carefully executed decoration.</p> <p>The Owari potters were slow to follow the lead of Miyagawa @@ -12263,7 +12224,7 @@ was celebrated for faience glazes of various colours, much affected by the tea-clubs, but its staple manufacture from the beginning of the 19th century was porcelain decorated with blue under the glaze, the best specimens of which did not approach their -Chinese prototypes in fineness of <i>pâte</i>, purity of glaze or richness of +Chinese prototypes in fineness of <i>pâte</i>, purity of glaze or richness of colour. During the first twenty-five years of the Meiji era the Owari potters sought to compensate the technical and artistic defects of their pieces by giving them magnificent dimensions; but @@ -12271,9 +12232,9 @@ at the Tōkyō industrial exhibition (1891) they were able to contribute some specimens showing decorative, plastic and graving skill of no mean order. Previously to that time, one of the Seto experts, Katō Gosuke, had developed remarkable ability in the manufacture -of <i>céladon</i>, though in that field he was subsequently distanced by +of <i>céladon</i>, though in that field he was subsequently distanced by Seifū of Kiōto. Only lately did Owari feel the influence of the new -movement towards Chinese types. Its potters took <i>flambé</i> glazes +movement towards Chinese types. Its potters took <i>flambé</i> glazes for models, and their pieces possessed an air of novelty that attracted connoisseurs. But the style was not calculated to win general popularity, and the manufacturing processes were too easy to @@ -12282,7 +12243,7 @@ egg-shell porcelain, remarkable examples of which were sent from Seto to the Kiōto industrial exhibition of 1895. Chinese potters of the Yung-lo era (1403-1414) enriched their country with a quantity of ware to which the name of <i>totai-ki</i> (bodiless utensil) was given on -account of its wonderfully attenuated <i>pâte</i>. The finest specimens of +account of its wonderfully attenuated <i>pâte</i>. The finest specimens of this porcelain had incised decoration, sparingly employed but adding much to the beauty of the piece. In subsequent eras the potters of King-te-chen did not fail to continue this remarkable manufacture, @@ -12293,7 +12254,7 @@ to protect their extreme fragility. The Seto experts, however, are now making bowls, cups and vases that rank nearly as high as the celebrated Yung-lo totai-ki. In purity of tone and velvet-like gloss of surface there is distinct inferiority on the side of the -Japanese ware, but in thinness of <i>pâte</i> it supports comparison, and +Japanese ware, but in thinness of <i>pâte</i> it supports comparison, and in profusion and beauty of incised decoration it excels its Chinese original.</p> @@ -12512,15 +12473,15 @@ great number of names have been thus handed down during the past two centuries.</p> </div> -<p><i>Cloisonné Enamel.</i>—Cloisonné enamel is essentially of modern +<p><i>Cloisonné Enamel.</i>—Cloisonné enamel is essentially of modern development in Japan. The process was known at an early period, and was employed for the purpose of subsidiary decoration from the close of the 16th century, but not until the 19th century did Japanese experts begin to manufacture the objects known in Europe as “enamels;” that is to say, vases, plaques, censers, bowls, and so forth, having their surface -covered with vitrified pastes applied either in the <i>champlevé</i> or the -<i>cloisonné</i> style. It is necessary to insist upon this fact, because +covered with vitrified pastes applied either in the <i>champlevé</i> or the +<i>cloisonné</i> style. It is necessary to insist upon this fact, because it has been stated with apparent authority that numerous specimens which began to be exported from 1865 were the outcome of industry commencing in the 16th century and reaching its @@ -12529,7 +12490,7 @@ not the slenderest ground for such a theory. The work began in 1838, and Kaji Tsunekichi of Owari was its originator. During 20 years previously to the reopening of the country in 1858, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span> -cloisonné enamelling was practised in the manner now understood +cloisonné enamelling was practised in the manner now understood by the term; when foreign merchants began to settle in Yokohama, several experts were working skilfully in Owari after the methods of Kaji Tsunekichi. Up to that time there had been @@ -12583,7 +12544,7 @@ is plain that such a method as the latter implies great command of coloured pastes, and, indeed, no feature of the manufacture is more conspicuous than the progress made during the period 1880-1900 in compounding and firing vitrifiable enamels. Many excellent -examples of cloisonné enamel have been produced by each branch +examples of cloisonné enamel have been produced by each branch of this school. There has been nothing like them in any other country, and they stand at an immeasurable distance above the works of the early Owari school represented by Kaji Tsunekichi @@ -12600,7 +12561,7 @@ of concealing the mechanics of the art in order to enhance the pictorial effect. Thus arose the so-called “cloisonless enamels” (<i>musenjippō</i>). They are not always without cloisons. The design is generally framed at the outset with a ribbon of thin metal, -precisely after the manner of ordinary cloisonné ware. But as +precisely after the manner of ordinary cloisonné ware. But as the work proceeds the cloisons are hidden—unless their presence is necessary to give emphasis to the design—and the final result is a picture in vitrified enamels.</p> @@ -12614,10 +12575,10 @@ colour is in the glaze, not under it. The ceramist finds no difficulty in applying a uniform coat of pigment to porcelain biscuit, and covering the whole with a diaphanous glaze. The colour is fixed and the glaze set by secondary firing at a -lower temperature than that necessary for hardening the <i>pâte</i>. +lower temperature than that necessary for hardening the <i>pâte</i>. Such porcelains, however, lack the velvet-like softness and depth of tone so justly prized in the genuine monochrome, where the glaze -itself contains the colouring matter, <i>pâte</i> and glaze being fired +itself contains the colouring matter, <i>pâte</i> and glaze being fired simultaneously at the same high temperature. It is apparent that a vitrified enamel may be made to perform, in part at any rate, the function of a porcelain glaze. Acting upon that theory, the experts @@ -12652,7 +12613,7 @@ or brilliantly plumaged birds seem to soar among fleecy clouds. The artists of this school show also much skill in using enamels for the purposes of subordinate decoration—suspending enamelled butterflies, birds or floral sprays, among the reticulations of a silver -vase chiselled à jour; or filling with translucid enamels parts of a +vase chiselled à jour; or filling with translucid enamels parts of a decorative scheme sculptured in iron, silver, gold or shakudo.</p> </div> @@ -12945,7 +12906,7 @@ Kobe. A period of interruption now ensued, owing to domestic troubles and foreign complications, and when, in 1878, the government was able to devote attention once again to railway problems, it found the treasury empty. Then for the first time a public works -loan was floated in the home market, and about £300,000 of the +loan was floated in the home market, and about £300,000 of the total thus obtained passed into the hands of the railway bureau, which at once undertook the building of a road from Kiōto to the shore of Lake Biwa, a work memorable as the first line built in Japan @@ -12974,8 +12935,8 @@ Shimonoseki on the south, a distance of 1153 m.; and a continuation of the same line throughout the length of the southern island of Kiūshiū, from Moji on the north—which lies on the opposite side of the strait from Shimonoseki—to Kagoshima on the south, a distance -of 232¾ m.; as well as a line from Moji to Nagasaki, a distance -of 163½ m. Of this main road the state undertook to build the +of 232¾ m.; as well as a line from Moji to Nagasaki, a distance +of 163½ m. Of this main road the state undertook to build the central section (376 m.), between Tōkyō and Kōbe (via Kiōto); the Japan railway company undertook the portion (457 m.) northward of Tōkyō to Aomori; the Sanyō railway company undertook @@ -13014,8 +12975,8 @@ to manufacture steel rails.</p> was 4746 m., 1470 m. having been built by the state and 3276 by private companies; the former at a cost of 16 millions sterling for construction and equipment, and the latter at a cost of 25 millions. -Thus the expenditure by the state averaged £10,884 per mile, and -that by private companies, £7631. This difference is explained by +Thus the expenditure by the state averaged £10,884 per mile, and +that by private companies, £7631. This difference is explained by the facts that the state lines having been the pioneers, portions of them were built before experience had indicated cheap methods; that a very large and costly foreign staff was employed on these @@ -13027,9 +12988,9 @@ districts presenting exceptional engineering difficulties, such districts being naturally avoided by private companies. The gross earnings of all the lines during the fiscal year 1905-1906 were 7 millions sterling, approximately, and the gross expenses (including the -payment of interest on loans and debentures) were under 3½ millions, -so that there remained a net profit of 3½ millions, being at the rate -of a little over 8½% on the invested capital. The facts that the +payment of interest on loans and debentures) were under 3½ millions, +so that there remained a net profit of 3½ millions, being at the rate +of a little over 8½% on the invested capital. The facts that the outlays averaged less than 47% of the gross income, and that accidents and irregularities are not numerous, prove that Japanese management in this kind of enterprise is efficient.</p> @@ -13049,7 +13010,7 @@ induced to give its consent. On March 31 of that year, a railway nationalization law was promulgated. It enacted that, within a period of 10 years from 1906 to 1915, the state should purchase the 17 principal private roads, which had a length of 2812 m., and whose -cost of construction and equipment had been 23½ millions sterling. +cost of construction and equipment had been 23½ millions sterling. The original scheme included 15 other railways, with an aggregate mileage of only 353 m.; but these were eliminated as being lines of local interest only. The actual purchase price of the 17 lines was @@ -13068,7 +13029,7 @@ interest calculated at their face value; the bonds to be redeemed out of the net profits accruing from the purchased railways. It was calculated that this redemption would be effected in a period of 32 years, after which the annual profit accruing to the state from -the lines would be 5½ millions sterling. But the nationalization +the lines would be 5½ millions sterling. But the nationalization scheme, though apparently the only effective method of linking together and co-ordinating an excessively subdivided system of lines, has proved a source of considerable financial embarrassment. For @@ -13077,8 +13038,8 @@ it necessarily assumed responsibility for extending them so that they should suffice to meet the wants of a nation numbering some 50 millions. Such extension could be effected only by borrowing money. Now the government was pledged by the diet in 1907 to an expenditure -of 11½ millions (spread over 8 years) for extending the old state -system of roads, and an expenditure of 6¼ millions (spread over 12 +of 11½ millions (spread over 8 years) for extending the old state +system of roads, and an expenditure of 6¼ millions (spread over 12 years) for improving them. But from the beginning of that year, a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span> period of extreme commercial and financial depression set in, and @@ -13129,9 +13090,9 @@ aggregate capital of 8 millions sterling, having 165 m. open to traffic and 77 m. under construction. Fifteen other companies with an aggregate capital of 3 millions had also obtained charters. The principal of these is the Tōkyō railway company, with a subscribed -capital of 6 millions (3½ paid up), 90½ m. of line open and 149 m. +capital of 6 millions (3½ paid up), 90½ m. of line open and 149 m. under construction. In 1907 it carried 153 million passengers, and -its net earnings were £300,000.</p> +its net earnings were £300,000.</p> </div> <p>The traditional story of prehistoric Japan indicates that the @@ -13225,7 +13186,7 @@ had to purchase 63 foreign steamers for transport purposes, and these were subsequently transferred to the mitsubishi company together with all the vessels (17) hitherto in the possession of the Mail SS. Company, the Treasury further granting to the -mitsubishi a subsidy of £50,000 annually. Shortly afterwards +mitsubishi a subsidy of £50,000 annually. Shortly afterwards it was decided to purchase a service maintained by the Pacific Mail SS. Company with 4 steamers between Yokohama and Shanghai, and money for the purpose having been lent by the @@ -13262,7 +13223,7 @@ two companies (the Mitsubishi and the Union Transport) competing in the same waters and both subsidized by the treasury. After this had gone on for four years, the two companies were amalgamated (1885) into the <i>Nippon yusen kaisha</i> (Japan Mail SS. Company) -with a capital of £1,100,000 and an annual subsidy of £88,000, +with a capital of £1,100,000 and an annual subsidy of £88,000, fixed on the basis of 8% of the capital. Another company had come into existence a few months earlier. Its fleet consisted of 100 small steamers, totalling 10,000 tons, which had hitherto been @@ -13432,11 +13393,11 @@ into 18 sections, each having an office of marine affairs <p>Competition between Japanese and foreign ships in the carriage of the country’s over-sea trade soon began to assume appreciable dimensions. Thus, whereas in 1891 the portion carried -in Japanese bottoms was only 1½ millions sterling +in Japanese bottoms was only 1½ millions sterling <span class="sidenote">Competition between Japanese and Foreign Ships.</span> -against 12½ millions carried by foreign vessels, the -corresponding figures in 1902 were 20½ millions against -32¼ millions. In other words, Japanese steamers carried +against 12½ millions carried by foreign vessels, the +corresponding figures in 1902 were 20½ millions against +32¼ millions. In other words, Japanese steamers carried only 11% of the total trade in 1891, but their share rose to 39% in 1902. The prospect suggested by this record caused some uneasiness, which was not allayed by observing that while @@ -13569,7 +13530,7 @@ Swiss, Italians, Danes, Swedes, Austrians, Hungarians, &c. This slow growth of the foreign residents is remarkable when contrasted with the fact that the volume of the country’s foreign trade, which constitutes their main business, grew in the same -period from 13½ millions sterling to 92 millions.</p> +period from 13½ millions sterling to 92 millions.</p> <p><i>Posts and Telegraphs.</i>—The government of the Restoration did not wait for the complete abolition of feudalism before @@ -13599,8 +13560,8 @@ postal service. It need scarcely be added that the system of postal money-orders was developed <i>pari passu</i> with that of ordinary correspondence, but in this context one interesting fact may be noted, namely, that while Japan sends abroad only some -£25,000 annually to foreign countries through the post, she -receives over £450,000 from her over-sea emigrants.</p> +£25,000 annually to foreign countries through the post, she +receives over £450,000 from her over-sea emigrants.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Japan at the time of the Restoration (1867) was not entirely without @@ -13626,9 +13587,9 @@ institution which came into existence in the same year. It was altogether a novel idea that the public at large, especially the lower sections of it, should entrust their savings to the government for safe keeping, especially as the minimum and maximum deposited -at one time were fixed at such petty sums as 10 <i>sen</i> (2¼d.) and 50 <i>sen</i> +at one time were fixed at such petty sums as 10 <i>sen</i> (2¼d.) and 50 <i>sen</i> (1s.), respectively. Indeed, in the circumstances, the fact that -£1500 was deposited in the first year must be regarded as notable. +£1500 was deposited in the first year must be regarded as notable. Subsequently deposits were taken in postage stamps, and arrangements were effected for enabling depositors to pay money to distant creditors through the bank by merely stating the destination and @@ -13691,7 +13652,7 @@ covered was from Tōkyō to Osaka (348 m.). In 1907 Japan had 140,440 m. of telephone wires, 262 exchanges, 159 automatic telephones, and the approximate number of messages sent was 160 millions. The telephone service pays a net revenue of about -£100,000 annually.</p> +£100,000 annually.</p> </div> <p><i>Agriculture.</i>—The gross area of land in Japan—excluding @@ -13701,7 +13662,7 @@ communes, the rest (35,680,868 acres) being owned by private persons. Of the grand total the arable lands represent 15,301,297 acres. With regard to the immense expanse remaining unproductive, experts calculate that if all lands inclined at less -than 15° be considered cultivable, an area of 10,684,517 acres +than 15° be considered cultivable, an area of 10,684,517 acres remains to be reclaimed, though whether the result would repay the cost is a question hitherto unanswered. The cultivated lands are thus classified, namely, wet fields (called also paddy @@ -13951,12 +13912,12 @@ widened until Japanese fishing boats of improved types came to be seen in Australasia, in Canada, in the seas of Sakhalin, the Maritime Province, Korea and China; in the waters of Kamchatka and in the Sea of Okhotsk. No less than 9000 fishermen with 2000 -boats capture yearly about £300,000 worth of fish in Korean waters; +boats capture yearly about £300,000 worth of fish in Korean waters; at least 8000 find a plentiful livelihood off the coasts of Sakhalin and Siberia, and 200 Japanese boats engage in the salmon-fishing of the Fraser River. In 1893, the total value of Japanese marine -products and fish captured did not exceed 1¼ millions sterling, -whereas in 1906 the figure had grown to 5½ millions, to which must +products and fish captured did not exceed 1¼ millions sterling, +whereas in 1906 the figure had grown to 5½ millions, to which must be added 3<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> millions of manufactured marine products. Fourteen kinds of fish represent more than 50% of the whole catch, namely, (in the order of their importance) bonito (<i>katsuo</i>), sardines (<i>iwashi</i>), @@ -13968,12 +13929,12 @@ Japan, and 400 of them constitute articles of diet. Among manufactured aquatic products the chief are (in the order of their importance) dried bonito, fish guano, dried cuttle-fish, dried and boiled sardines, dried herring and dried prawns. The export of marine -products amounted to £900,000 in 1906 against £400,000 ten years +products amounted to £900,000 in 1906 against £400,000 ten years previously; China is the chief market. As for imports, they were insignificant at the beginning of the Meiji era, but by degrees a demand was created for salted fish, dried sardines (for fertilizing), edible sea-weed, canned fish and turtle-shell, so that whereas the -total imports were only £1600 in 1868, they grew to over £400,000 +total imports were only £1600 in 1868, they grew to over £400,000 in 1906.</p> <p><i>Minerals.</i>—Crystalline schists form the axis of Japan. They @@ -14039,7 +14000,7 @@ obtained in 1906 was 55 millions.</p> <p>Japanese mining enterprise was more than trebled during the decade 1897 to 1906, for the value of the minerals taken out in the -former year was only 3½ millions sterling, whereas the corresponding +former year was only 3½ millions sterling, whereas the corresponding figure for 1906 was 11 millions. The earliest mention of gold-mining in Japan takes us back to the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 696, and by the 16th century the country had acquired the reputation of being rich in @@ -14072,7 +14033,7 @@ mining industry in Japan:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">Gold</td> <td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">Silver</td> <td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">Copper</td> <td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">Lead</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />oz.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />oz.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />oz.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />oz.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">1897</td> <td class="tcc">34,553</td> <td class="tcc">136,834</td> <td class="tcc">1,809,805</td> <td class="tcc">208,200</td> <td class="tcc">19,722</td> <td class="tcr">869,266</td> <td class="tcr">746</td> <td class="tcc">10,343</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">1901</td> <td class="tcc">82,517</td> <td class="tcc">330,076</td> <td class="tcc">1,824,842</td> <td class="tcc">211,682</td> <td class="tcc">26,495</td> <td class="tcr">1,625,244</td> <td class="tcr">1,744</td> <td class="tcc">24,640</td></tr> @@ -14082,7 +14043,7 @@ mining industry in Japan:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">Iron</td> <td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">Coal</td> <td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">Petroleum</td> <td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">Sulphur</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Gallons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Gallons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">1897</td> <td class="tcc">35,178</td> <td class="tcc">103,559</td> <td class="tcr">5,229,662</td> <td class="tcc">1,899,592</td> <td class="tcc"> 9,248,800</td> <td class="tcc"> 44,389</td> <td class="tcc">13,138</td> <td class="tcc">33,588</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">1901</td> <td class="tcc">46,456</td> <td class="tcc">123,701</td> <td class="tcr">9,025,325</td> <td class="tcc">3,060,931</td> <td class="tcc">39,351,960</td> <td class="tcc">227,841</td> <td class="tcc">16,007</td> <td class="tcc">38,612</td></tr> @@ -14092,7 +14053,7 @@ mining industry in Japan:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">Antimony</td> <td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">Manganese</td> <td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">Others</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Total Values.<br />£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Quantity.<br />Tons.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Value.<br />£</td> <td class="tcc bb">Total Values.<br />£</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">1897</td> <td class="tcr">1,133</td> <td class="tcc">27,362</td> <td class="tcc">13,175</td> <td class="tcc"> 8,758</td> <td class="tcc"> 3,863</td> <td class="tcc"> 3,345,662</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">1901</td> <td class="tcr">529</td> <td class="tcc">13,481</td> <td class="tcc">15,738</td> <td class="tcc">10,846</td> <td class="tcc"> 3,450</td> <td class="tcc"> 5,670,508</td></tr> @@ -14255,7 +14216,7 @@ in which foreign markets are interested:—</p> <tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Families<br />engaged.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Operatives.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Quantity<br />produced.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Value.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Remarks</td></tr> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Male.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Female.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Gross.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcl rb bb" rowspan="4"> This is an altogether new<br />industry. Japanese matches<br />now hold the leading place<br />in all Far-Eastern markets.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Gross.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcl rb bb" rowspan="4"> This is an altogether new<br />industry. Japanese matches<br />now hold the leading place<br />in all Far-Eastern markets.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">269</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,447</td> <td class="tcc rb">26,277</td> <td class="tcc rb">24,038,960</td> <td class="tcr rb">654,849</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">261</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,656</td> <td class="tcc rb">16,50</td> <td class="tcc rb">32,901,319</td> <td class="tcr rb">926,689</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">250</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,468</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18,721</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">54,802,293</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,551,698</td></tr> @@ -14267,7 +14228,7 @@ in which foreign markets are interested:—</p> <tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Factories.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Operatives.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Quantity<br />produced.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Value.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Remarks.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Male.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Female.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcl rb bb" rowspan="4"> Had not Japanese factories<br />been established all this paper<br />must have been imported.<br /> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcl rb bb" rowspan="4"> Had not Japanese factories<br />been established all this paper<br />must have been imported.<br /> </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9</td> <td class="tcr rb">164</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,256,649</td> <td class="tcr rb">300,662</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,635</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,397</td> <td class="tcr rb">113,348,340</td> <td class="tcr rb">714,094</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,774</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,778</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">218,022,434</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,415,778</td></tr> @@ -14275,8 +14236,8 @@ in which foreign markets are interested:—</p> <p>In the field of what may be called minor manufactures—as ceramic wares, lacquers, straw-plaits, &c.—there has been corresponding -growth, for the value of these productions increased from 1¼ millions -sterling in 1897 to 3½ millions in 1906. But as these manufactures +growth, for the value of these productions increased from 1¼ millions +sterling in 1897 to 3½ millions in 1906. But as these manufactures do not enter into competition with foreign goods in either Eastern or Western markets, they are interesting only as showing the development of Japan’s producing power. They contribute @@ -14302,7 +14263,7 @@ taken on a large scale to utilize the many excellent opportunities which the country offers for developing electricity by water-power.</p> <p>The fact that Japan’s exports of raw silk amount to more than -12 millions sterling, while she sends over-sea only 3½ millions’ +12 millions sterling, while she sends over-sea only 3½ millions’ worth of silk fabrics, suggests some marked inferiority on the part of her weavers. But the true explanation <span class="sidenote">Silk-weaving</span> @@ -14478,14 +14439,14 @@ business as well as to adhere to fixed rates. The idea was extended to nearly every trade, 10 monster confederations being organized in Yedo and 24 in Osaka. These received official recognition, and contributed a sum to the exchequer under the euphonious -name of “benefit money,” amounting to nearly £20,000 annually. +name of “benefit money,” amounting to nearly £20,000 annually. They attained a high state of prosperity, the whole of the cities’ supplies passing through their hands.<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> No member of a confederation was permitted to dispose of his licence except to a near relative, and if anyone not on the roll of a confederation engaged in the same business he became liable to punishment at the hands of the officials. In spite of the limits thus imposed on the transfer of licences, one -of these documents commanded from £80 to £6,400, and in the +of these documents commanded from £80 to £6,400, and in the beginning of the 19th century the confederations, or gilds, had increased to 68 in Yedo, comprising 1195 merchants. The gild system extended to maritime enterprise also. In the beginning of @@ -14604,7 +14565,7 @@ for any failure to implement the pledges they embodied. The merchants of Yedo and Osaka, working on the system of trusts here described, gradually acquired great wealth and fell into habits of marked luxury. It is recorded that they did not hesitate to pay -£5 for the first bonito of the season and £11 for the first egg-fruit. +£5 for the first bonito of the season and £11 for the first egg-fruit. Naturally the spectacle of such extravagance excited popular discontent. Men began to grumble against the so-called “official merchants” who, under government auspices, monopolized every @@ -14711,8 +14672,8 @@ qualities entitling it to the highest rank, a keen demand sprang up. Japanese green tea also, differing radically in flavour and bouquet from the black tea of China, appealed quickly to American taste, so that by the year 1907 Japan found herself -selling to foreign countries tea to the extent of 1¼ millions sterling, -and raw silk to the extent of 12¼ millions. This remarkable +selling to foreign countries tea to the extent of 1¼ millions sterling, +and raw silk to the extent of 12¼ millions. This remarkable development is typical of the general history of Japan’s foreign trade in modern times. Omitting the first decade and a half, the statistics for which are imperfect, the volume of the trade @@ -14828,7 +14789,7 @@ engaged in it may be seen from the following table:—</p> <table class="ws" style="clear: both;" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">Exports to<br />£ (millions).</td> <td class="tcc bb">Imports from<br />£ (millions).</td> <td class="tcc bb">Total<br />£ (millions).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">Exports to<br />£ (millions).</td> <td class="tcc bb">Imports from<br />£ (millions).</td> <td class="tcc bb">Total<br />£ (millions).</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">United States</td> <td class="tcc">13<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span></td> <td class="tcc"> 8<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">22</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">China</td> <td class="tcc"> 8<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span></td> <td class="tcc"> 6<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span></td> <td class="tcc">15</td></tr> @@ -14901,13 +14862,13 @@ completely differentiated from the administration of state affairs. It includes bureaux of treasury, forests, peerage and hunting, as well as boards of ceremonies and chamberlains, officials of the empress’s household and officials of the crown prince’s household. -The annual allowance made to the throne is £300,000, and the +The annual allowance made to the throne is £300,000, and the Imperial estate comprises some 12,000 acres of building land, 3,850,000 acres of forests, and 300,000 acres of miscellaneous lands, the whole valued at some 19 millions sterling, but probably not -yielding an income of more than £200,000 yearly. Further, the +yielding an income of more than £200,000 yearly. Further, the household owns about 3 millions sterling (face value) of bonds and -shares, from which a revenue of some £250,000 is derived, so that +shares, from which a revenue of some £250,000 is derived, so that the whole income amounts to three-quarters of a million sterling, approximately. Out of this the households of the crown prince and all the Imperial princes are supported; allowances are granted at the @@ -14944,15 +14905,15 @@ in 1906. It had been only 68,876 in 1898, from which time it grew regularly year by year. The salaries and allowances paid out of the treasury every year on account of the civil service are 4 millions sterling, approximately, and the annual emoluments of the principal -officials are as follow:—Prime minister, £960; minister of a department, -£600; ambassador, £500, with allowances varying from -£2200 to £3000; president of privy council, £500; resident-general -in Seoul, £600; governor-general of Formosa, £600; vice-minister, -£400; minister plenipotentiary, £400, with allowances from £1000 -to £1700; governor of prefecture, £300 to £360; judge of the court -of cassation, £200 to £500; other judges, £60 to £400; professor of -imperial university, from £80 to £160, with allowances from £40 to -£120; privy councillor, £400; director of a bureau, £300; &c.</p> +officials are as follow:—Prime minister, £960; minister of a department, +£600; ambassador, £500, with allowances varying from +£2200 to £3000; president of privy council, £500; resident-general +in Seoul, £600; governor-general of Formosa, £600; vice-minister, +£400; minister plenipotentiary, £400, with allowances from £1000 +to £1700; governor of prefecture, £300 to £360; judge of the court +of cassation, £200 to £500; other judges, £60 to £400; professor of +imperial university, from £80 to £160, with allowances from £40 to +£120; privy councillor, £400; director of a bureau, £300; &c.</p> </div> <p><i>Legislature.</i>—The first Japanese Diet was convoked the 29th @@ -14981,7 +14942,7 @@ non-titled.</p> the property qualification was fixed at a minimum annual payment of 30s. in direct taxes (<i>i.e.</i> taxes imposed by the central government), but in 1900 the law of election was amended, and -the property qualification for electors is now a payment of £1 +the property qualification for electors is now a payment of £1 in direct taxes, while for candidates no qualification is required either as to property or as to locality. Members are of two kinds, namely, those returned by incorporated cities and those @@ -14998,8 +14959,8 @@ election must be held within 5 months from the date of dissolution, whereas the house of peers is not liable to any such treatment. Otherwise the two houses enjoy equal rights and privileges, except that the budget must first be submitted to the -representatives. Each member receives a salary of £200; the -president receives £500, and the vice-president £300. The +representatives. Each member receives a salary of £200; the +president receives £500, and the vice-president £300. The presidents are nominated by the sovereign from three names submitted by each house, but the appointment of a vice-president is within the independent right of each chamber. The @@ -15118,7 +15079,7 @@ fifteen provinces, viz.:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl"><i>Iga</i></td> <td class="tcc">or</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ishū</td> <td class="tcl">Kai</td> <td class="tcc">or</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Kōshyū</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Isé</i></td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>Seishū</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>Sagami</i></td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Sōshyū</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Isé</i></td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>Seishū</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>Sagami</i></td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Sōshyū</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><i>Shima</i></td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl rb">Shinshū</td> <td class="tcl">Musashi</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Bushyū</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><i>Owari</i></td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>Bishū</i></td> <td class="tcl">Awa</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Bōshū</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Mikawa</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>Sanshū</i></td> <td class="tcl">Kazusa</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Sōshū</td></tr> @@ -15405,7 +15366,7 @@ he summons a prefectural assembly, opens it and closes it, and has competence to suspend its session should such a course seem necessary. Many of the functions performed by the governor with regard to prefectural assemblies are discharged by a head-man -(<i>gun-chô</i>) in the case of sub-prefectural assemblies. This head-man +(<i>gun-chô</i>) in the case of sub-prefectural assemblies. This head-man is a salaried official appointed by the central administration. He convenes, opens and closes the sub-prefectural assembly; he may require it to reconsider any of its financial decisions that seem @@ -15544,8 +15505,8 @@ lengths of the bow and arrow were determined with reference to the capacity of the archer. In the case of the bow, the unit of measurement was the distance between the tips of the thumb and the little finger with the hand fully stretched. Fifteen of these units gave the -length of the bow—the maximum being about 7½ ft. The unit for -the arrow was from 12 to 15 hand-breadths, or from 3 ft. to 3¾ ft. +length of the bow—the maximum being about 7½ ft. The unit for +the arrow was from 12 to 15 hand-breadths, or from 3 ft. to 3¾ ft. Originally the bow was of unvarnished boxwood or <i>zelkowa</i>; but subsequently bamboo alone came to be employed. Binding with cord or rattan served to strengthen the bow, and for precision of @@ -15663,7 +15624,7 @@ materials, and as the laminae were strung together with a vast number of coloured cords—silk or leather—an appearance of considerable brilliancy was produced. Ornamentation did not stop there. Plating and inlaying with gold and silver, and finely wrought -decoration in chiselled, inlaid and <i>repoussé</i> work were freely applied. +decoration in chiselled, inlaid and <i>repoussé</i> work were freely applied. On the whole, however, despite the highly artistic character of its ornamentation, the loose, pendulous nature of Japanese armour detracted greatly from its workmanlike aspect, especially when the @@ -15868,7 +15829,7 @@ a phalanx of complicated organization, difficult to manœuvre and liable to be easily thrown into confusion. Yet when Yamaga in the 17th century interpreted these ancient Chinese treatises, he detected in them suggestions for a very shrewd use of -the principle of échelon, and applied it to devise formations +the principle of échelon, and applied it to devise formations which combined much of the frontal expansion of the line with the solidity of the column. More than that cannot be said for Japanese tactical genius. The samurai was the best fighting @@ -16171,7 +16132,7 @@ cavalry, 4 batteries of field and 2 of mountain artillery, 2 companies of sappers and train, totalling 18,492 of all arms with 5633 horses. The guards had only 8 battalions and 4 batteries (field). The field army aggregated over 120,000, with 168 field and 72 mountain -guns, and the total of all forces, field, garrison and dépôt, was 220,580 +guns, and the total of all forces, field, garrison and dépôt, was 220,580 of all arms, with 47,220 horses and 294 guns. Owing, however, to various modifications necessitated by circumstances, the numbers actually on duty were over 240,000, with 6495 non-combatant @@ -16285,8 +16246,8 @@ officer. A volunteer has to contribute to his maintenance and equipment, although youths who cannot afford the full expense, if otherwise qualified, are assisted by the state. At the conclusion of a year’s training the volunteer is drafted into the first reserve for -6¼ years, and then into the second reserve for 5 years, so that his -total period (12¼ years) of service before passing into the territorial +6¼ years, and then into the second reserve for 5 years, so that his +total period (12¼ years) of service before passing into the territorial army is the same as that of an ordinary conscript. The main purpose of the one-year voluntariat, as in Germany, is to provide officers for the reserves to territorial troops. Qualified teachers in the public @@ -16338,12 +16299,12 @@ who wish to make soldiering a profession, as in European armies. The grades are corporal (<i>gochō</i>), sergeant (<i>gunsō</i>), sergeant-major (<i>sōchō</i>) and special sergeant-major (<i>tokumu-sōchō</i>).</p> -<p>The pay of the conscript is, as it is everywhere, a trifle (1s. 10d.-3s. 0½d. +<p>The pay of the conscript is, as it is everywhere, a trifle (1s. 10d.-3s. 0½d. per month). The professional non-commissioned officers are better paid, the lowest grade receiving three times as much as an upper soldier. Officers’ pay is roughly at about three-quarters of the rates prevailing in Germany, sub-lieutenants receiving about -£34, captains £71, colonels £238 per annum, &c. Pensions for officers +£34, captains £71, colonels £238 per annum, &c. Pensions for officers and non-commissioned officers, according to scale, can be claimed after 11 years’ colour service.</p> @@ -16484,17 +16445,17 @@ But not until 1871, when the troops of the fiefs were finally disbanded, did the government find itself in a position to include in the annual budgets an adequate appropriation on account of armaments. Thenceforth, from 1872 to 1896, the ordinary expenditures of the -army varied from three-quarters of a million sterling to 1½ millions, +army varied from three-quarters of a million sterling to 1½ millions, and the extraordinary outlays ranged from a few thousands of pounds to a quarter of a million. Not once in the whole period of 25 years—if 1877 (the year of the Satsuma rebellion) be excepted—did the -state’s total expenditures on account of the army exceed 1½ millions +state’s total expenditures on account of the army exceed 1½ millions sterling, and it redounds to the credit of Japan’s financial management that she was able to organize, equip and maintain such a force at such a small cost. In 1896, as shown above, she virtually doubled her army, and a proportionate increase of expenditure ensued, the outlays for maintenance jumping at once from an average -of about 1¼ millions sterling to 2¼ millions, and growing thenceforth +of about 1¼ millions sterling to 2¼ millions, and growing thenceforth with the organization of the new army, until in the year (1903) preceding the outbreak of war with Russia, they reached the figure of 4 millions. Then again, in 1906, six divisions were added, and @@ -16802,7 +16763,7 @@ kinds of produce being levied partly in money and partly in manufactured goods. Forced labour also was exacted, and artisans and tradesmen were subjected to pecuniary levies. The yield of rice in 1867 was about 154 million bushels,<a name="fa21e" id="fa21e" href="#ft21e"><span class="sp">21</span></a> of which -the market value at prices then ruling was £24,000,000, or +the market value at prices then ruling was £24,000,000, or <span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span> 240,000,000 <i>yen</i>.<a name="fa22e" id="fa22e" href="#ft22e"><span class="sp">22</span></a> Hence the grain tax represented, at the lowest calculation, 96,000,000 <i>yen</i>. When the administration reverted @@ -16814,7 +16775,7 @@ administration, the central treasury receiving only whatever might remain after these various outlays.</p> <p>The shōgun himself, whose income amounted to about -£3,500,000, did not, on abdicating, hand over to the sovereign +£3,500,000, did not, on abdicating, hand over to the sovereign either the contents of his treasury or the lands from which he derived his revenues. He contended that funds for the government of the nation as a whole should be levied from the people @@ -16866,7 +16827,7 @@ of the land, which was about one-half of the real market value. Moreover, the government contemplated a gradual reduction of this already low impost until it should ultimately fall to 1%. Circumstances prevented the consummation of that purpose. -The rate underwent only one reduction of ½%, and thereafter +The rate underwent only one reduction of ½%, and thereafter had to be raised on account of war expenditures. On the whole, however, no class benefited more conspicuously from the change of administration than the peasants, since not only was their @@ -17169,7 +17130,7 @@ banks into ordinary joint-stock concerns and for the redemption of all their note-issues. Each national bank was required to deposit with the treasury the government paper kept in its strong room as security for its own notes, and further to take from its annual -profits and hand to the treasury a sum equal to 2½% of its notes +profits and hand to the treasury a sum equal to 2½% of its notes in circulation. With these funds the central bank was to purchase state bonds, devoting the interest to redeeming the notes of the national banks. Formed with the object of disturbing the money @@ -17211,7 +17172,7 @@ hypothec bank had its head office in Tōkyō and was authorized to obtain funds by issuing premium-bearing bonds, while an agricultural and industrial bank was established in each prefecture and received assistance from the hypothec bank. Two years later -(1900), an industrial bank—sometimes spoken of as the <i>crédit +(1900), an industrial bank—sometimes spoken of as the <i>crédit mobilier</i> of Japan—was brought into existence under official auspices, its purpose being to lend money against bonds, debentures and shares as well as to public corporations. These various institutions, @@ -17225,10 +17186,10 @@ that whereas, at the beginning of the Meiji era (1867), the nation did not possess so much as one banking institution worthy of the name, forty years later it <span class="sidenote">Review of Banking Development.</span> -had 2211 banks, with a paid-up capital of £40,000,000, -reserves of £12,000,000, and deposits of £147,000,000; and whereas +had 2211 banks, with a paid-up capital of £40,000,000, +reserves of £12,000,000, and deposits of £147,000,000; and whereas there was not one savings bank in 1867, there were 487 in -1906 with deposits of over £50,000,000. The average yearly +1906 with deposits of over £50,000,000. The average yearly dividends of these banks in the ten years ending 1906 varied between 9.1 and 9.9%.</p> @@ -17440,7 +17401,7 @@ increased fourfold. But a correction has to be applied, first, on account of the tax on alcoholic liquors and, secondly, on account of customs dues, neither of which can properly be called general imposts. The former grew from 16 millions in 1894-1895 to 72 millions in -1908-1909, and the latter from 5¼ millions to 41½ millions. If these +1908-1909, and the latter from 5¼ millions to 41½ millions. If these increases be deducted, it is found that taxes, properly so called, grew from 70.5 millions in 1894-1895 to 207.86 millions in 1908-1909, an increase of somewhat less than three-fold. Otherwise stated, @@ -17451,7 +17412,7 @@ place, it is necessary to glance briefly at the chief taxes separately.</p> <p>The land tax is the principal source of revenue. It was originally fixed at 3% of the assessed value of the land, but in 1877 this ratio -was reduced to 2½%, on which basis the tax yielded +was reduced to 2½%, on which basis the tax yielded from 37 to 38 million <i>yen</i> annually. After the war with <span class="sidenote">Land Tax.</span> China (1894-1895) the government proposed to increase this impost @@ -17468,7 +17429,7 @@ condition that the change should not be operative for more than urban building sites. Thus altered, the tax produced 46,000,000 <i>yen</i>, but at the end of the five-year period it would have reverted to its old figure, had not war with Russia broken out. An increase -was then made so that the impost varied from 3% to 17½% according +was then made so that the impost varied from 3% to 17½% according to the class of land, and under this new system the tax yielded 85 millions. Thus the exigencies of two wars had augmented it from 38 millions in 1889 to 85 millions in 1907.</p> @@ -17482,7 +17443,7 @@ rates the tax yielded an insignificant revenue of about the first <i>post bellum</i> programme. This revision increased the number of classes from five to ten, incomes of 300 <i>yen</i> standing at the bottom and incomes of 100,000<i>yen</i> or upwards at the top, the minimum and -maximum rates being 1% and 5½%. The tax now produced +maximum rates being 1% and 5½%. The tax now produced approximately 8,000,000 <i>yen</i>. Finally in 1904, when war broke out with Russia, these rates were again revised, the minimum now becoming 2%, and the maximum 8.2%. Thus revised, the tax @@ -17538,11 +17499,11 @@ bellum</i> programme.</p> <tr><td class="tccm bb">Name.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Yield<br />(millions of <i>yen</i>).</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Tax on soy</td> <td class="tcc">4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Tax on sugar</td> <td class="tcc">16¼</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tax on sugar</td> <td class="tcc">16¼</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Mining tax</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Tax on bourses</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Tax on issue of bank-notes</td> <td class="tcc">1</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Tonnage dues</td> <td class="tcc"> ½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tonnage dues</td> <td class="tcc"> ½</td></tr> </table> <p>Taxes created on account of the war (1904-5) or in its immediate @@ -17551,11 +17512,11 @@ sequel:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents" style="clear: both;"> <tr><td class="tccm bb">Name.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Yield<br />(millions of <i>yen</i>).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Consumption tax on textile fabrics</td> <td class="tcc">19½</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Tax on dealers in patent medicines</td> <td class="tcc"> ¼</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Consumption tax on textile fabrics</td> <td class="tcc">19½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tax on dealers in patent medicines</td> <td class="tcc"> ¼</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Tax on communications</td> <td class="tcc"> 2<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Consumption tax on kerosene</td> <td class="tcc"> 1½</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Succession tax</td> <td class="tcc"> 1½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Consumption tax on kerosene</td> <td class="tcc"> 1½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Succession tax</td> <td class="tcc"> 1½</td></tr> </table> <p class="noind">Also, as shown above, the land tax was increased by 39 millions; @@ -17728,7 +17689,7 @@ completely into operation—with trifling exceptions—by the year 1905. In practice, however, it was found impossible to obtain money at home without paying a high rate of interest. The government, therefore, had recourse to the London market in 1899, raising a -loan of £10,000,000 at 4%, and selling the £100 bonds at 90. In +loan of £10,000,000 at 4%, and selling the £100 bonds at 90. In 1902, it was not expected that Japan would need any further immediate recourse to foreign borrowing. According to her financiers’ forecast at that time, her national indebtedness would reach @@ -17801,7 +17762,7 @@ were as follow:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tccm bb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm bb">Debts<br />(millions of <i>yen</i>).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcc"> ¾</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcc"> ¾</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">1894</td> <td class="tcc">10</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">1899</td> <td class="tcc">32</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">1904</td> <td class="tcc">65</td></tr> @@ -17834,7 +17795,7 @@ Formosa, Sakhalin and some rights in Manchuria, amounts to about 19,896,000,000 <i>yen</i>, the items of which are as follow:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tccm bb"> </td> <td class="tccm bb"><i>Yen</i> (10 <i>yen</i> = £1).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm bb"> </td> <td class="tccm bb"><i>Yen</i> (10 <i>yen</i> = £1).</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Lands</td> <td class="tcr">12,301,000,000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Buildings</td> <td class="tcr">2,331,000,000</td></tr> @@ -18189,7 +18150,7 @@ blind and the dumb.</p> <p>Normal schools are maintained for the purpose of training teachers, a class of persons not plentiful in Japan, doubtless because of an exceptionally low scale of emoluments, the yearly pay not exceeding -£60 and often falling as low as £15.</p> +£60 and often falling as low as £15.</p> <p>There are two Imperial universities, one in Tōkyō and one in Kiōto. In 1909 the former had about 220 professors and instructors @@ -18223,12 +18184,12 @@ library is the Imperial, in Tōkyō. It had about half a million volumes in 1909, and the daily average of visitors was about 430.</p> <p>Apart from the universities, the public educational institutions -in Japan involve an annual expenditure of 3½ millions sterling, out +in Japan involve an annual expenditure of 3½ millions sterling, out of which total a little more than half a million is met by students’ -fees; 2¾ millions are paid by the communes, and the remainder is +fees; 2¾ millions are paid by the communes, and the remainder is <span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span> defrayed from various sources, the central government contributing -only some £28,000. It is estimated that public school property—in +only some £28,000. It is estimated that public school property—in land, buildings, books, furniture, &c., aggregates 11 millions sterling.</p> </div> @@ -18383,7 +18344,7 @@ eclecticism. There is not in the world any literary production <span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span> of such magnitude as the Chinese scriptures of the Mahayana. “The canon is seven hundred times the amount of the New -Testament. Hsüan Tsang’s translation of the <i>Prajna paramita</i> +Testament. Hsüan Tsang’s translation of the <i>Prajna paramita</i> is twenty-five times as large as the whole Christian Bible.”</p> <p>It is natural that out of such a mass of doctrine different @@ -18482,7 +18443,7 @@ secular as well as religious causes.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The story of the first Christian missionaries to Japan is told elsewhere -(see § VIII. <span class="sc">Foreign Intercourse</span>). Their work suffered an +(see § VIII. <span class="sc">Foreign Intercourse</span>). Their work suffered an interruption for more than 200 years until, in 1858, almost simultaneously with the conclusion of the <span class="sidenote">Christianity in Modern Japan.</span> @@ -19871,7 +19832,7 @@ of the first officers of the prince.” Subsequently Navarette and Ayala were decapitated by the executioner. Then, in 1618, Juan de Santa Martha was executed like a common criminal, his body being dismembered and his head exposed. Finally, -in 1622, Zuñiga and Flores were burnt alive. The same year +in 1622, Zuñiga and Flores were burnt alive. The same year was marked by the “great martyrdom” at Nagasaki when 9 foreign priests went to the stake with 19 Japanese converts. The shōgun seems to have been now labouring under vivid fear @@ -20040,7 +20001,7 @@ forbid them to promulgate their faith.”</p> <p>It was in that mood that he granted (1605) a licence to the Dutch to trade in Japan, his expectation doubtless being that the ships which they promised to send every year would make -their dépôt at Uraga or in some other place near Yedo. But +their dépôt at Uraga or in some other place near Yedo. But things were ordered differently. The first Hollanders that set foot in Japan were the survivors of the wrecked “Liefde.” Thrown into prison for a time, they were approached by emissaries @@ -20154,7 +20115,7 @@ court, and would have saved the payment of many “considerations.” The result of his mistaken choice and subsequent bad management was that, ten years later (1623), the English factory at Hirado had to be closed, having incurred a total loss of about -£2000. In condonation of this failure it must be noted that a +£2000. In condonation of this failure it must be noted that a few months after the death of Iyeyasu, the charter he had granted to Saris underwent serious modification. The original document threw open to the English every port in Japan; the revised @@ -20900,7 +20861,7 @@ enemies, who interpreted the marriage as the beginning of a plot to dethrone the mikado. Murderous attacks upon foreigners became more frequent. Two of these assaults had momentous consequences. Three British subjects attempted to force their -way through the <i>cortège</i> of the Satsuma feudal chief on the +way through the <i>cortège</i> of the Satsuma feudal chief on the highway between Yokohama and Yedo. One of them was killed and the other two wounded. This outrage was not inspired by the “barbarian-expelling” sentiment: to any Japanese @@ -20975,7 +20936,7 @@ opened at once, instead of at the expiration of two years as originally fixed. It was not proposed that these concessions should be entirely gratuitous. When the four-power flotilla destroyed the Shimonoseki batteries and sank the vessels -lying there, a fine of three million dollars (some £750,000) had +lying there, a fine of three million dollars (some £750,000) had been imposed upon the daimyō of Chōshū by way of ransom for his capital, which lay at the mercy of the invaders. The daimyō of Chōshū, however, was in open rebellion against the shōgun, @@ -21139,7 +21100,7 @@ only, war-ships being distinguished as <i>kan</i>.</p> <p><a name="ft21e" id="ft21e" href="#fa21e"><span class="fn">21</span></a> The reader should be warned that absolute accuracy cannot be claimed for statistics compiled before the Meiji era.</p> -<p><a name="ft22e" id="ft22e" href="#fa22e"><span class="fn">22</span></a> The <i>yen</i> is a silver coin worth about 2s.: 10 <i>yen</i> = £1.</p> +<p><a name="ft22e" id="ft22e" href="#fa22e"><span class="fn">22</span></a> The <i>yen</i> is a silver coin worth about 2s.: 10 <i>yen</i> = £1.</p> <p><a name="ft23e" id="ft23e" href="#fa23e"><span class="fn">23</span></a> In addition to the above grant, the feudatories were allowed to retain the reserves in their treasuries; thus many of the feudal @@ -21158,7 +21119,7 @@ subject to a tax of 5% per annum.</p> <p><a name="ft25e" id="ft25e" href="#fa25e"><span class="fn">25</span></a> The amounts include the payments made in connexion with what may be called the disestablishment of the Church. There were 29,805 endowed temples and shrines throughout the empire, and their -estates aggregated 354,481 acres, together with 1¾ million bushels +estates aggregated 354,481 acres, together with 1¾ million bushels of rice (representing 2,500,000 <i>yen</i>). The government resumed possession of all these lands and revenues at a total cost to the state of a little less than 2,500,000 <i>yen</i>, paid out in pensions spread over a @@ -21182,7 +21143,7 @@ totalled 158,000,000 <i>yen</i> in 1903-1904, they fell to 122,000,000 and 126,000,000 in 1904-1905 and 1905-1906 respectively. Thereafter however, they expanded once more.</p> -<p><a name="ft29e" id="ft29e" href="#fa29e"><span class="fn">29</span></a> This includes 22¼ millions of loans raised abroad.</p> +<p><a name="ft29e" id="ft29e" href="#fa29e"><span class="fn">29</span></a> This includes 22¼ millions of loans raised abroad.</p> <p><a name="ft30e" id="ft30e" href="#fa30e"><span class="fn">30</span></a> The problem was to induce the co-operation of a feudatory whose castle served for frontier guard to the fief of a powerful chief, @@ -21211,382 +21172,7 @@ established a factory at Kagoshima.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 15, Slice 2, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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