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diff --git a/41156.txt b/41156.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1252c6c..0000000 --- a/41156.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18213 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 15, Slice 3, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, Slice 3 - "Japan" (part) to "Jeveros" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: October 23, 2012 [EBook #41156] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE JAPAN: "Moreover, Korean history mentions twenty-five raids - made by the Japanese against Silla during the first five centuries - of the Christian era, but not one of them can be identified with - Jingo's alleged expedition." 'identified' amended from - 'indentified'. - - ARTICLE JAPAN: "Where these representatives of centralized power - found themselves impotent, it may well be supposed that the - comparatively petty chieftains who fought each for his own hand in - the 15th and 16th centuries were incapable of accomplishing - anything." 'chieftains' amended from 'chieftans'. - - ARTICLE JAPAN: "The survivors fled pell-mell to Osaka, where in a - colossal fortress, built by Hideyoshi, his son, Hideyori, and the - latter's mother, Yodo, were sheltered behind ramparts held by - 80,000 men." Added 'by'. - - ARTICLE JAPAN: "Thus in the interval between 1873 and 1877 there - were two centres of disturbance in Japan: one in Satsuma, where - Saigo figured as leader; the other in Tosa, under Itagaki's - guidance." 'between' amended from 'betweeen'. - - ARTICLE JAPAN: "... legislated consistently with that theory, and - entrusted to the police large powers of control over the press and - the platform." 'control' amended from 'conrol'. - - ARTICLE JAVA: "Snipe-shooting is a favourite sport." 'favourite' - amended from 'favourtie'. - - ARTICLE JAVA: "See R. Verbeek, 'Liget der oudheden van Java,' in - Verhand. v. h. Bat. Gen., xlvi., and his Oudheidkundige kaart van - Java." 'Oudheidkundige' amended from 'Oudreidkundige'. - - ARTICLE JEFFERSON CITY: "Employment is furnished for the convicts - on the penitentiary premises by incorporated companies." - 'penitentiary' amended from 'pentitentiary'. - - ARTICLE JENGHIZ KHAN: "On examining the child he observed in its - clenched fist a clot of coagulated blood like a red stone." 'he' - amended from 'be'. - - ARTICLE JENNER, EDWARD: "In the autumn of the same year, Jenner met - with the first opposition to vaccination; and this was the more - formidable because it proceeded from J. Ingenhousz, a celebrated - physician and man of science." 'proceeded' amended from 'proceded'. - - ARTICLE JERUSALEM: "According to this theory, the part of Jerusalem - known as Jebus was situated on the western hill, and the outlying - fort of Zion on the eastern hill. The men of Judah and Benjamin did - not succeed in getting full possession of the place ..." 'this' - amended from 'his'. - - ARTICLE JESUS CHRIST: "In the light of the coming kingdom it - proclaims the blessedness of the poor, the hungry, the sad and the - maligned; and the woefulness of the rich, the full, the merry and - the popular." 'woefulness' amended from 'wofulness'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XV, SLICE III - - Japan (part) to Jeveros - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - JAPAN (part) JEHOIACHIN - JAPANNING JEHOIAKIM - JAPHETH JEHOL - JAR JEHORAM - JARGON JEHOSHAPHAT - JARGOON JEHOVAH - JARIR IBN 'ATIYYA UL-KHATFI JEHU - JARKENT JEKYLL, SIR JOSEPH - JARNAC JELLACHICH, JOSEF - JARO JELLINEK, ADOLF - JAROSITE JEMAPPES - JARRAH WOOD JENA - JARROW JENATSCH, GEORG - JARRY, NICOLAS JENGHIZ KHAN - JARVIS, JOHN WESLEY JENKIN, HENRY CHARLES FLEEMING - JASHAR, BOOK OF JENKINS, SIR LEOLINE - JASHPUR JENKINS, ROBERT - JASMIN, JACQUES JENKS, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE - JASMINE JENNE - JASON JENNER, EDWARD - JASON OF CYRENE JENNER, SIR WILLIAM - JASPER JENNET - JASSY JENOLAN CAVES - JATAKA JENSEN, WILHELM - JATH JENYNS, SOAME - JATIVA JEOPARDY - JATS JEPHSON, ROBERT - JAUBERT, PIERRE AMEDEE PROBE JEPHTHAH - JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANCOIS JERAHMEEL - JAUER JERBA - JAUHARI JERBOA - JAUNDICE JERDAN, WILLIAM - JAUNPUR JEREMIAH - JAUNTING-CAR JEREMY, EPISTLE OF - JAUREGUI, JUAN JEREZ DE LA FRONTERA - JAUREGUIBERRY, JEAN BERNARD JEREZ DE LOS CABALLEROS - JAUREGUI Y AGUILAR, JUAN MARTINEZ DE JERICHO - JAURES, JEAN LEON JERKIN - JAVA JEROBOAM - JAVELIN JEROME, ST - JAW JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA - JAWALIQI JEROME OF PRAGUE - JAWHAR JERROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM - JAWOROW JERRY - JAY, JOHN JERSEY, EARLS OF - JAY, WILLIAM JERSEY - JAY JERSEY CITY - JEALOUSY JERUSALEM - JEAN D'ARRAS JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF - JEAN DE MEUN JESI - JEANNETTE JESSE - JEANNIN, PIERRE JESSE, EDWARD - JEBB, JOHN JESSE, JOHN HENEAGE - JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JESSEL, SIR GEORGE - JEBEIL JESSORE - JEBEL JESTER - JEDBURGH JESUATI - JEEJEEBHOY, SIR JAMSETJEE JESUITS - JEFFERIES, RICHARD JESUP, MORRIS KETCHUM - JEFFERSON, JOSEPH JESUS CHRIST - JEFFERSON, THOMAS JET - JEFFERSON CITY JETHRO - JEFFERSONVILLE JETTY - JEFFREY, FRANCIS JEFFREY JEVER - JEFFREYS, GEORGE JEFFREYS JEVEROS - - - - -JAPAN, [_Continued from volume XV slice II._] - - - Japan's Claim for Judicial Autonomy. - -After the abolition of the shogunate and the resumption of -administrative functions by the Throne, one of the first acts of the -newly organized government was to invite the foreign representatives to -Kioto, where they had audience of the mikado. Subsequently a decree was -issued, announcing the emperor's resolve to establish amicable relations -with foreign countries, and "declaring that any Japanese subject -thereafter guilty of violent behaviour towards a foreigner would not -only act in opposition to the Imperial command, but would also be guilty -of impairing the dignity and good faith of the nation in the eyes of the -powers with which his majesty had pledged himself to maintain -friendship." From that time the relations between Japan and foreign -states grew yearly more amicable; the nation adopted the products of -Western civilization with notable thoroughness, and the provisions of -the treaties were carefully observed. Those treaties, however, presented -one feature which very soon became exceedingly irksome to Japan. They -exempted foreigners residing within her borders from the operation of -her criminal laws, and secured to them the privilege of being arraigned -solely before tribunals of their own nationality. That system had always -been considered necessary where the subjects of Christian states visited -or sojourned in non-Christian countries, and, for the purpose of giving -effect to it, consular courts were established. This necessitated the -confinement of foreign residents to settlements in the neighbourhood of -the consular courts, since it would have been imprudent to allow -foreigners to have free access to districts remote from the only -tribunals competent to control them. The Japanese raised no objection to -the embodiment of this system in the treaties. They recognized its -necessity and even its expediency, for if, on the one hand, it infringed -their country's sovereign rights, on the other, it prevented -complications which must have ensued had they been entrusted with -jurisdiction which they were not prepared to discharge satisfactorily. -But the consular courts were not free from defects. A few of the powers -organized competent tribunals presided over by judicial experts, but a -majority of the treaty states, not having sufficiently large interests -at stake, were content to delegate consular duties to merchants, not -only deficient in legal training, but also themselves engaged in the -very commercial transactions upon which they might at any moment be -required to adjudicate in a magisterial capacity. In any circumstances -the dual functions of consul and judge could not be discharged without -anomaly by the same official, for he was obliged to act as advocate in -the preliminary stages of complications about which, in his position as -judge, he might ultimately have to deliver an impartial verdict. In -practice, however, the system worked with tolerable smoothness, and -might have remained long in force had not the patriotism of the Japanese -rebelled bitterly against the implication that their country was unfit -to exercise one of the fundamental attributes of every sovereign state, -judicial autonomy. From the very outset they spared no effort to qualify -for the recovery of this attribute. Revision of the country's laws and -reorganization of its law courts would necessarily have been an -essential feature of the general reforms suggested by contact with the -Occident, but the question of consular jurisdiction certainly -constituted a special incentive. Expert assistance was obtained from -France and Germany; the best features of European jurisprudence were -adapted to the conditions and usages of Japan; the law courts were -remodelled, and steps were taken to educate a competent judiciary. In -criminal law the example of France was chiefly followed; in commercial -law that of Germany; and in civil law that of the Occident generally, -with due regard to the customs of the country. The jury system was not -adopted, collegiate courts being regarded as more conducive to justice, -and the order of procedure went from tribunals of first instance to -appeal courts and finally to the court of cassation. Schools of law were -quickly opened, and a well-equipped bar soon came into existence. Twelve -years after the inception of these great works, Japan made formal -application for revision of the treaties on the basis of abolishing -consular jurisdiction. She had asked for revision in 1871, sending to -Europe and America an important embassy to raise the question. But at -that time the conditions originally calling for consular jurisdiction -had not undergone any change such as would have justified its abolition, -and the Japanese government, though very anxious to recover tariff -autonomy as well as judicial, shrank from separating the two questions, -lest by prematurely solving one the solution of the other might be -unduly deferred. Thus the embassy failed, and though the problem -attracted great academical interest from the first, it did not re-enter -the field of practical politics until 1883. The negotiations were long -protracted. Never previously had an Oriental state received at the hands -of the Occident recognition such as that now demanded by Japan, and the -West naturally felt deep reluctance to try a wholly novel experiment. -The United States had set a generous example by concluding a new treaty -(1878) on the lines desired by Japan. But its operation was conditional -on a similar act of compliance by the other treaty powers. Ill-informed -European publicists ridiculed the Washington statesmen's attitude on -this occasion, claiming that what had been given with one hand was taken -back with the other. The truth is that the conditional provision was -inserted at the request of Japan herself, who appreciated her own -unpreparedness for the concession. From 1883, however, she was ready to -accept full responsibility, and she therefore asked that all foreigners -within her borders should thenceforth be subject to her laws and -judiciable by her law-courts, supplementing her application by -promising that its favourable reception should be followed by the -complete opening of the country and the removal of all restrictions -hitherto imposed on foreign trade, travel and residence in her realm. -"From the first it had been the habit of Occidental peoples to upbraid -Japan on account of the barriers opposed by her to full and free foreign -intercourse, and she was now able to claim that these barriers were no -longer maintained by her desire, but that they existed because of a -system which theoretically proclaimed her unfitness for free association -with Western nations, and practically made it impossible for her to -throw open her territories completely for the ingress of foreigners." -She had a strong case, but on the side of the European powers extreme -reluctance was manifested to try the unprecedented experiment of placing -their people under the jurisdiction of an Oriental country. Still -greater was the reluctance of those upon whom the experiment would be -tried. Foreigners residing in Japan naturally clung to consular -jurisdiction as a privilege of inestimable value. They saw, indeed, that -such a system could not be permanently imposed on a country where the -conditions justifying it had nominally disappeared. But they saw, also, -that the legal and judicial reforms effected by Japan had been crowded -into an extraordinarily brief period, and that, as tyros experimenting -with alien systems, the Japanese might be betrayed into many errors. - - - Recognition by the Powers. - -The negotiations lasted for eleven years. They were begun in 1883 and a -solution was not reached until 1894. Finally European governments -conceded the justice of Japan's case, and it was agreed that from July -1899 Japanese tribunals should assume jurisdiction over every person, of -whatever nationality, within the confines of Japan, and the whole -country should be thrown open to foreigners, all limitations upon trade, -travel and residence being removed. Great Britain took the lead in thus -releasing Japan from the fetters of the old system. The initiative came -from her with special grace, for the system and all its irksome -consequences had been originally imposed on Japan by a combination of -powers with Great Britain in the van. As a matter of historical sequence -the United States dictated the terms of the first treaty providing for -consular jurisdiction. But from a very early period the Washington -government showed its willingness to remove all limitations of Japan's -sovereignty, whereas Europe, headed by Great Britain, whose -preponderating interests entitled her to lead, resolutely refused to -make any substantial concession. In Japanese eyes, therefore, British -conservatism seemed to be the one serious obstacle, and since the -British residents in the settlements far outnumbered all other -nationalities, and since they alone had newspaper organs to ventilate -their grievances--it was certainly fortunate for the popularity of her -people in the Far East that Great Britain saw her way finally to set a -liberal example. Nearly five years were required to bring the other -Occidental powers into line with Great Britain and America. It should be -stated, however, that neither reluctance to make the necessary -concessions nor want of sympathy with Japan caused the delay. The -explanation is, first, that each set of negotiators sought to improve -either the terms or the terminology of the treaties already concluded, -and, secondly, that the tariff arrangements for the different countries -required elaborate discussion. - - - Reception given to the Revised Treaties. - -Until the last of the revised treaties was ratified, voices of protest -against revision continued to be vehemently raised by a large section of -the foreign community in the settlements. Some were honestly -apprehensive as to the issue of the experiment. Others were swayed by -racial prejudice. A few had fallen into an insuperable habit of -grumbling, or found their account in advocating conservatism under -pretence of championing foreign interests; and all were naturally -reluctant to forfeit the immunity from taxation hitherto enjoyed. It -seemed as though the inauguration of the new system would find the -foreign community in a mood which must greatly diminish the chances of a -happy result, for where a captious and aggrieved disposition exists, -opportunities to discover causes of complaint cannot be wanting. But at -the eleventh hour this unfavourable demeanour underwent a marked change. -So soon as it became evident that the old system was hopelessly doomed, -the sound common sense of the European and American business man -asserted itself. The foreign residents let it be seen that they intended -to bow cheerfully to the inevitable, and that no obstacles would be -willingly placed by them in the path of Japanese jurisdiction. The -Japanese, on their side, took some promising steps. An Imperial rescript -declared in unequivocal terms that it was the sovereign's policy and -desire to abolish all distinctions between natives and foreigners, and -that by fully carrying out the friendly purpose of the treaties his -people would best consult his wishes, maintain the character of the -nation, and promote its prestige. The premier and other ministers of -state issued instructions to the effect that the responsibility now -devolved on the government, and the duty on the people, of enabling -foreigners to reside confidently and contentedly in every part of the -country. Even the chief Buddhist prelates addressed to the priests and -parishioners in their dioceses injunctions pointing out that, freedom of -conscience being now guaranteed by the constitution, men professing -alien creeds must be treated as courteously as the followers of -Buddhism, and must enjoy the same rights and privileges. - -Thus the great change was effected in circumstances of happy augury. Its -results were successful on the whole. Foreigners residing in Japan now -enjoy immunity of domicile, personal and religious liberty, freedom from -official interference, and security of life and property as fully as -though they were living in their own countries, and they have gradually -learned to look with greatly increased respect upon Japanese law and its -administrators. - - - Anglo-Japanese Alliance. - -Next to the revision of the treaties and to the result of the great wars -waged by Japan since the resumption of foreign intercourse, the most -memorable incident in her modern career was the conclusion, first, of an -_entente_, and, secondly, of an offensive and defensive alliance with -Great Britain in January 1902 and September 1905, respectively. The -_entente_ set out by disavowing on the part of each of the contracting -parties any aggressive tendency in either China or Korea, the -independence of which two countries was explicitly recognized; and went -on to declare that Great Britain in China and Japan in China and Korea -might take indispensable means to safeguard their interests; while, if -such measures involved one of the signatories in war with a third power, -the other signatory would not only remain neutral but would also -endeavour to prevent other powers from joining in hostilities against -its ally, and would come to the assistance of the latter in the event of -its being faced by two or more powers. The _entente_ further recognized -that Japan possessed, in a peculiar degree, political, commercial and -industrial interests in Korea. This agreement, equally novel for each of -the contracting parties, evidently tended to the benefit of Japan more -than to that of Great Britain, inasmuch as the interests in question -were vital from the former power's point of view but merely local from -the latter's. The inequality was corrected by an offensive and defensive -alliance in 1905. For the scope of the agreement was then extended to -India and eastern Asia generally, and while the signatories pledged -themselves, on the one hand, to preserve the common interests of all -powers in China by insuring her integrity and independence as well as -the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce and industry of -all nations within her borders, they agreed, on the other, to maintain -their own territorial rights in eastern Asia and India, and to come to -each other's armed assistance in the event of those rights being -assailed by any other power or powers. These agreements have, of course, -a close relation to the events which accompanied or immediately preceded -them, but they also present a vivid and radical contrast between a -country which, less than half a century previously, had struggled -vehemently to remain secluded from the world, and a country which now -allied itself with one of the most liberal and progressive nations for -the purposes of a policy extending over the whole of eastern Asia and -India. This contrast was accentuated two years later (1907) when France -and Russia concluded _ententes_ with Japan, recognizing the independence -and integrity of the Chinese Empire, as well as the principle of equal -opportunity for all nations in that country, and engaging to support -each other for assuring peace and security there. Japan thus became a -world power in the most unequivocal sense. - - - War with Korea. - -_Japan's Foreign Wars and Complications._--The earliest foreign war -conducted by Japan is said to have taken place at the beginning of the -3rd century, when the empress Jingo led an army to the conquest of -Korea. But as the event is supposed to have happened more than 500 years -before the first Japanese record was written, its traditional details -cannot be seriously discussed. There is, however, no room to doubt that -from time to time in early ages Japanese troops were seen in Korea, -though they made no permanent impression on the country. It was reserved -for Hideyoshi, the taiko, to make the Korean peninsula the scene of a -great over-sea campaign. Hideyoshi, the Napoleon of Japan, having -brought the whole empire under his sway as the sequel of many years of -incomparable generalship and statecraft, conceived the project of -subjugating China. By some historians his motive has been described as a -desire to find employment for the immense mob of armed men whom four -centuries of almost continuous fighting had called into existence in -Japan: he felt that domestic peace could not be permanently restored -unless these restless spirits were occupied abroad. But although that -object may have reinforced his purpose, his ambition aimed at nothing -less than the conquest of China, and he regarded Korea merely as a -stepping-stone to that aim. Had Korea consented to be put to such a use, -she need not have fought or suffered. The Koreans, however, counted -China invincible. They considered that Japan would be shattered by the -first contact with the great empire, and therefore although, in the 13th -century, they had given the use of their harbours to the Mongol invaders -of Japan, they flatly refused in the 16th to allow their territory to be -used for a Japanese invasion of China. On the 24th of May 1592 the wave -of invasion rolled against Korea's southern coast. Hideyoshi had chosen -Nagoya in the province of Hizen as the home-base of his operations. -There the sea separating Japan from the Korean peninsula narrows to a -strait divided into two channels of almost equal width by the island of -Tsushima. To reach this island from the Japanese side was an easy and -safe task, but in the 56-mile channel that separated Tsushima from the -peninsula an invading flotilla had to run the risk of attack by Korean -war-ships. At Nagoya Hideyoshi assembled an army of over 300,000 men, of -whom some 70,000 constituted the first fighting line, 87,000 the second, -and the remainder formed a reserve to be subsequently drawn on as -occasion demanded. The question of transport presented some difficulty, -but it was solved by the simple expedient of ordering every feudatory to -furnish two ships for each 100,000 _koku_ of his fief's revenue. These -were not fighting vessels but mere transports. As for the plan of -campaign, it was precisely in accord with modern principles of strategy, -and bore witness to the daring genius of Hideyoshi. The van, consisting -of three army corps and mustering in all 51,000 men, was to cross -rapidly to Fusan, on the south coast of the peninsula, and immediately -commence a movement northward towards the capital, Seoul, one corps -moving by the eastern coast-road, one by the central route, and one by -the western coast-line. Thereafter the other four corps, which formed -the first fighting line, together with the corps under the direct orders -of the commander-in-chief, Ukida Hideiye, were to cross, for the purpose -of effectually subduing the regions through which the van had passed; -and, finally, the two remaining corps of the second line were to be -transported by sea up the west coast of the peninsula, to form a -junction with the van which, by that time, should be preparing to pass -into China over the northern boundary of Korea, namely, the Yalu River. -For the landing place of these reinforcements the town of Phyong-yang -was adopted, being easily accessible by the Taidong River from the -coast. In later ages Japanese armies were destined to move twice over -these same regions, once to the invasion of China, once to the attack of -Russia, and they adopted almost the same strategical plan as that mapped -out by Hideyoshi in the year 1592. The forecast was that the Koreans -would offer their chief resistance, first, at the capital, Seoul; next -at Phyong-yang, and finally at the Yalu, as the approaches to all these -places offered positions capable of being utilized to great advantage -for defensive purposes. - - - Landing In Korea and Advance of the Invaders. - -On the 24th of May 1592 the first army corps, under the command of -Konishi Yukinaga, crossed unmolested to the peninsula; next day the -castle of Fusan was carried by storm, which same fate befell, on the -27th, another and stronger fortress lying 3 miles inland and garrisoned -by 20,000 picked soldiers. The invaders were irresistible. From the -landing-place at Fusan to the gates of Seoul the distance is 267 miles. -Konishi's corps covered that interval in 19 days, storming two forts, -carrying two positions and fighting one pitched battle _en route_. On -the 12th of June the Korean capital was in Japanese hands, and by the -16th four army corps had assembled there, while four others had effected -a landing at Fusan. After a rest of 15 days the northward advance was -resumed, and July 15th saw Phyong-yang in Japanese possession. The -distance of 130 miles from Seoul to the Taidong had been traversed in 18 -days, 10 having been occupied in forcing the passage of a river which, -if held with moderate resolution and skill, should have stopped the -Japanese altogether. At this point, however, the invasion suffered a -check owing to a cause which in modern times has received much -attention, though in Hideyoshi's days it had been little considered; the -Japanese lost the command of the sea. - - - Fighting at Sea. - -The Japanese idea of sea-fighting in those times was to use open boats -propelled chiefly by oars. They closed as quickly as possible with the -enemy, and then fell on with the trenchant swords which they used so -skilfully. Now during the 15th century and part of the 16th the Chinese -had been so harassed by Japanese piratical raids that their inventive -genius, quickened by suffering, suggested a device for coping with these -formidable adversaries. Once allow the Japanese swordsman to come to -close quarters and he carried all before him. To keep him at a distance, -then, was the great desideratum, and the Chinese compassed this in -maritime warfare by completely covering their boats with roofs of solid -timber, so that those within were protected against missiles, while -loop-holes and ports enabled them to pour bullets and arrows on a foe. -The Koreans learned this device from the Chinese and were the first to -employ it in actual warfare. Their own history alleges that they -improved upon the Chinese model by nailing sheet iron over the roofs and -sides of the "turtle-shell" craft and studding the whole surface with -_chevaux de frise_, but Japanese annals indicate that in the great -majority of cases solid timber alone was used. It seems strange that the -Japanese should have been without any clear perception of the immense -fighting superiority possessed by such protected war-vessels over small -open boats. But certainly they were either ignorant or indifferent. The -fleet which they provided to hold the command of Korean waters did not -include one vessel of any magnitude; it consisted simply of some -hundreds of row-boats manned by 7000 men. Hideyoshi himself was perhaps -not without misgivings. Six years previously he had endeavoured to -obtain two war-galleons from the Portuguese, and had he succeeded, the -history of the Far East might have been radically different. Evidently, -however, he committed a blunder which his countrymen in modern times -have conspicuously avoided; he drew the sword without having fully -investigated his adversary's resources. Just about the time when the van -of the Japanese army was entering Seoul, the Korean admiral, Yi Sun-sin, -at the head of a fleet of 80 vessels, attacked the Japanese squadron -which lay at anchor near the entrance to Fusan harbour, set 26 of the -vessels on fire and dispersed the rest. Four other engagements ensued in -rapid succession. The last and most important took place shortly after -the Japanese troops had seized Phyong-yang. It resulted in the sinking -of over 70 Japanese vessels, transports and fighting ships combined, -which formed the main part of a flotilla carrying reinforcements by sea -to the van of the invading army. This despatch of troops and supplies by -water had been a leading feature of Hideyoshi's plan of campaign, and -the destruction of the flotilla to which the duty was entrusted may be -said to have sealed the fate of the war by isolating the army in Korea -from its home base. It is true that Konishi Yukinaga, who commanded the -first division, would have continued his northward march from -Phyong-yang without delay. He argued that China was wholly unprepared, -and that the best hope of ultimate victory lay in not giving her time to -collect her forces. But the commander-in-chief, Ukida Hideiye, refused -to endorse this plan. He took the view that since the Korean provinces -were still offering desperate resistance, supplies could not be drawn -from them, neither could the troops engaged in subjugating them be freed -for service at the front. Therefore it was essential to await the -consummation of the second phase of Hideyoshi's plan, namely, the -despatch of reinforcements and munitions by water to Phyong-yang. The -reader has seen how that second phase fared. The Japanese commander at -Phyong-yang never received any accession of strength. His force suffered -constant diminution from casualties, and the question of commissariat -became daily more difficult. It is further plain to any reader of -history--and Japanese historians themselves admit the fact--that no wise -effort was made to conciliate the Korean people. They were treated so -harshly that even the humble peasant took up arms, and thus the -peninsula, instead of serving as a basis of supplies, had to be -garrisoned perpetually by a strong army. - - - Chinese Intervention. - -The Koreans, having suffered for their loyalty to China, naturally -looked to her for succour. Again and again appeals were made to Peking, -and at length a force of 5000 men, which had been mobilized in the -Liaotung peninsula, crossed the Yalu and moved south to Phyong-yang, -where the Japanese van had been lying idle for over two months. This was -early in October 1592. Memorable as the first encounter between Japanese -and Chinese, the incident also illustrated China's supreme confidence in -her own ineffable superiority. The whole of the Korean forces had been -driven northward throughout the entire length of the peninsula by the -Japanese armies, yet Peking considered that 5000 Chinese "braves" would -suffice to roll back this tide of invasion. Three thousand of the -Chinese were killed and the remainder fled pell-mell across the Yalu. -China now began to be seriously alarmed. She collected an army variously -estimated at from 51,000 to 200,000 men, and marching it across -Manchuria in the dead of winter, hurled it against Phyong-yang during -the first week of February 1593. The Japanese garrison did not exceed -20,000, nearly one-half of its original number having been detached to -hold a line of forts which guarded the communications with Seoul. -Moreover, the Chinese, though their swords were much inferior to the -Japanese weapon, possessed great superiority in artillery and cavalry, -as well as in the fact that their troopers wore iron mail which defied -the keenest blade. Thus, after a severe fight, the Japanese had to -evacuate Phyong-yang and fall back upon Seoul. But this one victory -alone stands to China's credit. In all subsequent encounters of any -magnitude her army suffered heavy defeats, losing on one occasion some -10,000 men, on another 4000, and on a third 39,000. But the presence of -her forces and the determined resistance offered by the Koreans -effectually saved China from invasion. Indeed, after the evacuation of -Seoul, on the 9th of May 1593, Hideyoshi abandoned all idea of carrying -the war into Chinese territory, and devoted his attention to obtaining -honourable terms of peace, the Japanese troops meanwhile holding a line -of forts along the southern coast of Korea. He died before that end had -been accomplished. Had he lived a few days longer, he would have learned -of a crushing defeat inflicted on the Chinese forces (at So-chhon, -October 30, 1598), when the Satsuma men under Shimazu Yoshihiro took -38,700 Chinese heads and sent the noses and ears to Japan, where they -now lie buried under a tumulus (_mimizuka_, ear-mound) near the temple -of Daibutsu in Kioto. Thereafter the statesmen to whom the regent on his -death-bed had entrusted the duty of terminating the struggle and -recalling the troops, intimated to the enemy that the evacuation of the -peninsula might be obtained if a Korean prince repaired to Japan as -envoy, and if some tiger-skins and _ginseng_ were sent to Kioto in token -of amity. So ended one of the greatest over-sea campaigns recorded in -history. It had lasted 6(1/2) years, had seen 200,000 Japanese troops at -one time on Korean soil, and had cost something like a quarter of a -million lives. - - - Contrast between Foreign Relations in Medieval and Modern Times. - -From the recall of the Korea expedition in 1598 to the resumption of -intercourse with the Occident in modern times, Japan enjoyed -uninterrupted peace with foreign nations. Thereafter she had to engage -in four wars. It is a striking contrast. During the first eleven -centuries of her historical existence she was involved in only one -contest abroad; during the next half century she fought four times -beyond the sea and was confronted by many complications. Whatever -material or moral advantages her association with the West conferred on -her, it did not bring peace. - - - The "Maria Luz" Complication. - -The first menacing foreign complication with which the Japanese -government of the Meiji era had to deal was connected with the traffic -in Chinese labour, an abuse not yet wholly eradicated. In 1872, a -Peruvian ship, the "Maria Luz," put into port at Yokohama, carrying 200 -contract labourers. One of the unfortunate men succeeded in reaching the -shore and made a piteous appeal to the Japanese authorities, who at once -seized the vessel and released her freight of slaves, for they were -little better. The Japanese had not always been so particular. In the -days of early foreign intercourse, before England's attitude towards -slavery had established a new code of ethics, Portuguese ships had been -permitted to carry away from Hirado, as they did from Macao, cargoes of -men and women, doomed to a life of enforced toil if they survived the -horrors of the voyage. But modern Japan followed the tenets of modern -morality in such matters. Of course the Peruvian government protested, -and for a time relations were strained almost to the point of rupture; -but it was finally agreed that the question should be submitted to the -arbitration of the tsar, who decided in Japan's favour. Japan's attitude -in this affair elicited applause, not merely from the point of view of -humanity, but also because of the confidence she showed in Occidental -justice. - - - The Sakhalin Complication. - -Another complication which occupied the attention of the Tokyo -government from the beginning of the Meiji era was in truth a legacy -from the days of feudalism. In those days the island of Yezo, as well as -Sakhalin on its north-west and the Kurile group on its north, could -scarcely be said to be in effective Japanese occupation. It is true that -the feudal chief of Matsumae (now Fuku-yama), the remains of whose -castle may still be seen on the coast at the southern extremity of the -island of Yezo, exercised nominal jurisdiction; but his functions did -not greatly exceed the levying of taxes on the aboriginal inhabitants of -Yezo, the Kuriles and southern Sakhalin. Thus from the beginning of the -18th century Russian fishermen began to settle in the Kuriles and -Russian ships menaced Sakhalin. There can be no doubt that the first -explorers of Sakhalin were Japanese. As early as 1620, some vassals of -the feudal chief of Matsumae visited the place and passed a winter -there. It was then supposed to be a peninsula forming part of the -Asiatic mainland, but in 1806 a daring Japanese traveller, by name -Mamiya Rinzo, made his way to Manchuria, voyaged up and down the Amur, -and, crossing to Sakhalin, discovered that a narrow strait separated it -from the mainland. There still prevails in the minds of many Occidentals -a belief that the discovery of Sakhalin's insular character was reserved -for Captain Nevelskoy, a Russian, who visited the place in 1849, but in -Japan the fact had then been known for 43 years. Muravief, the great -Russian empire-builder in East Asia, under whose orders Nevelskoy acted, -quickly appreciated the necessity of acquiring Sakhalin, which commands -the estuary of the Amur. After the conclusion of the treaty of Aigun -(1857) he visited Japan with a squadron, and required that the strait of -La Perouse, which separates Sakhalin from Yezo, should be regarded as -the frontier between Russia and Japan. This would have given the whole -of Sakhalin to Russia. Japan refused, and Muravief immediately resorted -to the policy he had already pursued with signal success in the Usuri -region: he sent emigrants to settle in Sakhalin. Twice the shogunate -attempted to frustrate this process of gradual absorption by proposing a -division of the island along the 50th parallel of north latitude, and -finally, in 1872, the Meiji government offered to purchase the Russian -portion for 2,000,000 dollars (then equivalent to about L400,000). St -Petersburg, having by that time discovered the comparative worthlessness -of the island as a wealth-earning possession, showed some signs of -acquiescence, and possibly an agreement might have been reached had not -a leading Japanese statesman--afterwards Count Kuroda--opposed the -bargain as disadvantageous to Japan. Finally St Petersburg's -perseverance won the day. In 1875 Japan agreed to recognize Russia's -title to the whole island on condition that Russia similarly recognized -Japan's title to the Kuriles. It was a singular compact. Russia -purchased a Japanese property and paid for it with a part of Japan's -belongings. These details form a curious preface to the fact that -Sakhalin was destined, 30 years later, to be the scene of a Japanese -invasion, in the sequel of which it was divided along the 50th parallel -as the shogun's administration had originally proposed. - - - Military Expedition to Formosa. - -The first of Japan's four conflicts was an expedition to Formosa in -1874. Insignificant from a military point of view, this affair derives -vicarious interest from its effect upon the relations between China and -Japan, and upon the question of the ownership of the Riukiu islands. -These islands, which lie at a little distance south of Japan, had for -centuries been regarded as an apanage of the Satsuma fief. The language -and customs of their inhabitants showed unmistakable traces of -relationship to the Japanese, and the possibility of the islands being -included among the dominions of China had probably never occurred to any -Japanese statesman. When therefore, in 1873, the crew of a wrecked -Riukiuan junk were barbarously treated by the inhabitants of northern -Formosa, the Japanese government unhesitatingly assumed the -responsibility of seeking redress for their outrage. Formosa being a -part of the Chinese Empire, complaint was duly preferred in Peking. But -the Chinese authorities showed such resolute indifference to Japan's -representations that the latter finally took the law into her own hands, -and sent a small force to punish the Formosan murderers, who, of course, -were found quite unable to offer any serious resistance. The Chinese -government, now recognizing the fact that its territories had been -invaded, lodged a protest which, but for the intervention of the British -minister in Peking, might have involved the two empires in war. The -final terms of arrangement were that, in consideration of Japan -withdrawing her troops from Formosa, China should indemnify her to the -extent of the expenses of the expedition. In sending this expedition to -Formosa the government sought to placate the Satsuma samurai, who were -beginning to show much opposition to certain features of the -administrative reforms just inaugurated, and who claimed special -interest in the affairs of the Riukiu islands. - - - The Riukiu Complication. - -Had Japan needed any confirmation of her belief that the Riukiu islands -belonged to her, the incidents and settlement of the Formosan -complication would have constituted conclusive evidence. Thus in 1876 -she did not hesitate to extend her newly organized system of prefectural -government to Riukiu, which thenceforth became the Okinawa prefecture, -the former ruler of the islands being pensioned, according to the system -followed in the case of the feudal chiefs in Japan proper. China at once -entered an objection. She claimed that Riukiu had always been a -tributary of her empire, and she was doubtless perfectly sincere in the -contention. But China's interpretation of tribute did not seem -reducible to a working theory. So long as her own advantage could be -promoted, she regarded as a token of vassalage the presents periodically -carried to her court from neighbouring states. So soon, however, as -there arose any question of discharging a suzerain's duties, she classed -these offerings as insignificant interchanges of neighbourly courtesy. -It was true that Riukiu had followed the custom of despatching -gift-bearing envoys to China from time to time, just as Japan herself -had done, though with less regularity. But it was also true that Riukiu -had been subdued by Satsuma without China stretching out a hand to help -her; that for two centuries the islands had been included in the Satsuma -fief, and that China, in the sequel to the Formosan affair, had made a -practical acknowledgment of Japan's superior title to protect the -islanders. Each empire positively asserted its claims; but whereas Japan -put hers into practice, China confined herself to remonstrances. Things -remained in that state until 1880, when General Grant, visiting the -East, suggested the advisability of a compromise. A conference met in -Peking, and the plenipotentiaries agreed that the islands should be -divided, Japan taking the northern group, China the southern. But on the -eve of signature the Chinese plenipotentiary drew back, pleading that he -had no authority to conclude an agreement without previously referring -it to certain other dignitaries. Japan, sensible that she had been -flouted, retired from the discussion and retained the islands, China's -share in them being reduced to a grievance. - - - The Korean Complication. - -From the 16th century, when the Korean peninsula was overrun by Japanese -troops, its rulers made a habit of sending a present-bearing embassy to -Japan to felicitate the accession of each shogun. But after the fall of -the Tokugawa shogunate, the Korean court desisted from this custom, -declared a determination to have no further relations with a country -embracing Western civilization, and refused even to receive a Japanese -embassy. This conduct caused deep umbrage in Japan. Several prominent -politicians cast their votes for war, and undoubtedly the sword would -have been drawn had not the leading statesmen felt that a struggle with -Korea, involving probably a rupture with China, must fatally check the -progress of the administrative reforms then (1873) in their infancy. Two -years later, however, the Koreans crowned their defiance by firing on -the boats of a Japanese war-vessel engaged in the operation of -coast-surveying. No choice now remained except to despatch an armed -expedition against the truculent kingdom. But Japan did not want to -fight. In this matter she showed herself an apt pupil of Occidental -methods such as had been practised against herself in former years. She -assembled an imposing force of war-ships and transports, but instead of -proceeding to extremities, she employed the squadron--which was by no -means so strong as it seemed--to intimidate Korea into signing a treaty -of amity and commerce, and opening three ports to foreign trade (1876). -That was the beginning of Korea's friendly relations with the outer -world, and Japan naturally took credit for the fact that, thus early in -her new career, she had become an instrument for extending the principle -of universal intercourse opposed so strenuously by herself in the past. - - - War with China. - -From time immemorial China's policy towards the petty states on her -frontiers had been to utilize them as buffers for softening the shock of -foreign contact, while contriving, at the same time, that her relations -with them should involve no inconvenient responsibilities for herself. -The aggressive impulses of the outside world were to be checked by an -unproclaimed understanding that the territories of these states partook -of the inviolability of China, while the states, on their side, must -never expect their suzerain to bear the consequences of their acts. This -arrangement, depending largely on sentiment and prestige, retained its -validity in the atmosphere of Oriental seclusion, but quickly failed to -endure the test of modern Occidental practicality. Tongking, Annam, Siam -and Burma were withdrawn, one by one, from the fiction of dependence on -China and independence towards all other countries. But with regard to -Korea, China proved more tenacious. The possession of the peninsula by -a foreign power would have threatened the maritime route to the Chinese -capital and given easy access to Manchuria, the cradle of the dynasty -which ruled China. Therefore Peking statesmen endeavoured to preserve -the old-time relations with the little kingdom. But they could never -persuade themselves to modify the indirect methods sanctioned by -tradition. Instead of boldly declaring Korea a dependency of China, they -sought to keep up the romance of ultimate dependency and intermediate -sovereignty. Thus in 1876 Korea was suffered to conclude with Japan a -treaty of which the first article declared her "an independent state -enjoying the same rights as Japan," and subsequently to make with the -United States (1882), Great Britain (1883) and other powers, treaties in -which her independence was constructively admitted. China, however, did -not intend that Korea should exercise the independence thus -conventionally recognized. A Chinese resident was placed in Seoul, and a -system of steady though covert interference in Korea's affairs was -inaugurated. The chief sufferer from these anomalous conditions was -Japan. In all her dealings with Korea, in all complications that arose -out of her comparatively large trade with the peninsula, in all -questions connected with her numerous settlers there, she found herself -negotiating with a dependency of China, and with officials who took -their orders from the Chinese representative. China had long entertained -a rooted apprehension of Japanese aggression in Korea--an apprehension -not unwarranted by history--and that distrust tinged all the influence -exerted by her agents there. On many occasions Japan was made sensible -of the discrimination thus exercised against her. Little by little the -consciousness roused her indignation, and although no single instance -constituted a ground for strong international protest, the Japanese -people gradually acquired a sense of being perpetually baffled, thwarted -and humiliated by China's interference in Korean affairs. For thirty -years China had treated Japan as a contemptible deserter from the -Oriental standard, and had regarded her progressive efforts with openly -disdainful aversion; while Japan, on her side, had chafed more and more -to furnish some striking evidence of the wisdom of her preference for -Western civilization. Even more serious were the consequences of Chinese -interference from the point of view of Korean administration. The rulers -of the country lost all sense of national responsibility, and gave -unrestrained sway to selfish ambition. The functions of the judiciary -and of the executive alike came to be discharged by bribery only. Family -interests predominated over those of the state. Taxes were imposed in -proportion to the greed of local officials. No thought whatever was -taken for the welfare of the people or for the development of the -country's resources. Personal responsibility was unknown among -officials. To be a member of the Min family, to which the queen -belonged, was to possess a passport to office and an indemnity against -the consequences of abuse of power. From time to time the advocates of -progress or the victims of oppression rose in arms. They effected -nothing except to recall to the world's recollection the miserable -condition into which Korea had fallen. Chinese military aid was always -furnished readily for the suppression of these risings, and thus the Min -family learned to base its tenure of power on ability to conciliate -China and on readiness to obey Chinese dictation, while the people at -large fell into the apathetic condition of men who possess neither -security of property nor national ambition. - -As a matter of state policy the Korean problem caused much anxiety to -Japan. Her own security being deeply concerned in preserving Korea from -the grasp of a Western power, she could not suffer the little kingdom to -drift into a condition of such administrative incompetence and national -debility that a strong aggressor might find at any moment a pretext for -interference. On two occasions (1882 and 1884) when China's armed -intervention was employed in the interests of the Min to suppress -movements of reform, the partisans of the victors, regarding Japan as -the fountain of progressive tendencies, destroyed her legation in Seoul -and compelled its inmates to fly from the city. Japan behaved with -forbearance at these crises, but in the consequent negotiations she -acquired conventional titles that touched the core of China's alleged -suzerainty. In 1882 her right to maintain troops in Seoul for the -protection of her legation was admitted; in 1885 she concluded with -China a convention by which each power pledged itself not to send troops -to Korea without notifying the other. - - - The Rupture with China. - -In the spring of 1894 a serious insurrection broke out in Korea, and the -Min family appealed for China's aid. On the 6th of July 2500 Chinese -troops embarked at Tientsin and were transported to the peninsula, where -they went into camp at Ya-shan (Asan), on the south-west coast, notice -of the measure being given by the Chinese government to the Japanese -representative at Peking, according to treaty. During the interval -immediately preceding these events, Japan had been rendered acutely -sensible of China's arbitrary and unfriendly interference in Korea. -Twice the efforts of the Japanese government to obtain redress for -unlawful and ruinous commercial prohibitions had been thwarted by the -Chinese representative in Seoul; and an ultimatum addressed from Tokyo -to the Korean government had elicited from the viceroy Li in Tientsin a -thinly veiled threat of Chinese armed opposition. Still more provocative -of national indignation was China's procedure with regard to the murder -of Kim Ok-kyun, the leader of progress in Korea, who had been for some -years a refugee in Japan. Inveigled from Japan to China by a -fellow-countryman sent from Seoul to assassinate him, Kim was shot in a -Japanese hotel in Shanghai; and China, instead of punishing the -murderer, conveyed him in a war-ship of her own to Korea to be publicly -honoured. When, therefore, the Korean insurrection of 1894 induced the -Min family again to solicit China's armed intervention, the Tokyo -government concluded that, in the interests of Japan's security and of -civilization in the Orient, steps must be taken to put an end to the -misrule which offered incessant invitations to foreign aggression, and -checked Korea's capacity to maintain its own independence. Japan did not -claim for herself any rights or interests in the peninsula superior to -those possessed there by China. But there was not the remotest -probability that China, whose face had been contemptuously set against -all the progressive measures adopted by Japan during the preceding -twenty-five years, would join in forcing upon a neighbouring kingdom the -very reforms she herself despised, were her co-operation invited through -ordinary diplomatic channels only. It was necessary to contrive a -situation which would not only furnish clear proof of Japan's -resolution, but also enable her to pursue her programme independently of -Chinese endorsement, should the latter be finally unobtainable. She -therefore met China's notice of a despatch of troops with a -corresponding notice of her own, and the month of July 1894 found a -Chinese force assembled at Asan and a Japanese force occupying positions -in the neighbourhood of Seoul. China's motive for sending troops was -nominally to quell the Tonghak insurrection, but really to re-affirm her -own domination in the peninsula. Japan's motive was to secure such a -position as would enable her to insist upon the radically curative -treatment of Korea's malady. Up to this point the two empires were -strictly within their conventional rights. Each was entitled by treaty -to send troops to Korea, provided that notice was given to the other. -But China, in giving notice, described Korea as her "tributary state," -thus thrusting into the forefront of the discussion a contention which -Japan, from conciliatory motives, would have kept out of sight. Once -formally advanced, however, the claim had to be challenged. In the -treaty of amity and commerce concluded in 1876 between Japan and Korea, -the two high contracting parties were explicitly declared to possess the -same national status. Japan could not agree that a power which for -nearly two decades she had acknowledged and treated as her equal should -be openly classed as a tributary of China. She protested, but the -Chinese statesmen took no notice of her protest. They continued to apply -the disputed appellation to Korea, and they further asserted their -assumption of sovereignty in the peninsula by seeking to set limits to -the number of troops sent by Japan, as well as to the sphere of their -employment. Japan then proposed that the two empires should unite their -efforts for the suppression of disturbances in Korea, and for the -subsequent improvement of that kingdom's administration, the latter -purpose to be pursued by the despatch of a joint commission of -investigation. But China refused everything. Ready at all times to -interfere by force of arms between the Korean people and the dominant -political faction, she declined to interfere in any way for the -promotion of reform. She even expressed supercilious surprise that -Japan, while asserting Korea's independence, should suggest the idea of -peremptorily reforming its administration. In short, for Chinese -purposes the Peking statesmen openly declared Korea a tributary state; -but for Japanese purposes they insisted that it must be held -independent. They believed that their island neighbour aimed at the -absorption of Korea into the Japanese empire. Viewed in the light of -that suspicion, China's attitude became comprehensible, but her -procedure was inconsistent, illogical and unpractical. The Tokyo cabinet -now declared its resolve not to withdraw the Japanese troops without -"some understanding that would guarantee the future peace, order, and -good government of Korea," and since China still declined to come to -such an understanding, Japan undertook the work of reform single-handed. - - - Outbreak of Hostilities. - -The Chinese representative in Seoul threw his whole weight into the -scale against the success of these reforms. But the determining cause of -rupture was in itself a belligerent operation. China's troops had been -sent originally for the purpose of quelling the Tonghak rebellion. But -the rebellion having died of inanition before the landing of the troops, -their services were not required. Nevertheless China kept them in Korea, -her declared reason for doing so being the presence of a Japanese -military force. Throughout the subsequent negotiations the Chinese -forces lay in an entrenched camp at Asan, while the Japanese occupied -Seoul. An attempt on China's part to send reinforcements could be -construed only as an unequivocal declaration of resolve to oppose -Japan's proceedings by force of arms. Nevertheless China not only -despatched troops by sea to strengthen the camp at Asan, but also sent -an army overland across Korea's northern frontier. At this stage an act -of war occurred. Three Chinese men-of-war, convoying a transport with -1200 men encountered and fired on three Japanese cruisers. One of the -Chinese ships was taken; another was so shattered that she had to be -beached and abandoned; the third escaped in a dilapidated condition; and -the transport, refusing to surrender, was sunk. This happened on the -25th of July 1894, and an open declaration of war was made by each -empire six days later. - - - Remote Origin of the Conflict. - -From the moment when Japan applied herself to break away from Oriental -traditions, and to remove from her limbs the fetters of Eastern -conservatism, it was inevitable that a widening gulf should gradually -grow between herself and China. The war of 1894 was really a contest -between Japanese progress and Chinese stagnation. To secure Korean -immunity from foreign--especially Russian--aggression was of capital -importance to both empires. Japan believed that such security could be -attained by introducing into Korea the civilization which had -contributed so signally to the development of her own strength and -resources. China thought that she could guarantee it without any -departure from old-fashioned methods, and by the same process of -capricious protection which had failed so signally in the cases of -Annam, Tongking, Burma and Siam. The issue really at stake was whether -Japan should be suffered to act as the Eastern propagandist of Western -progress, or whether her efforts in that cause should be held in check -by Chinese conservatism. - - - Events of the War. - -The war itself was a succession of triumphs for Japan. Four days after -the first naval encounter she sent from Seoul a column of troops who -routed the Chinese entrenched at Asan. Many of the fugitives effected -their escape to Phyong-yang, a town on the Taidong River, offering -excellent facilities for defence, and historically interesting as the -place where a Japanese army of invasion had its first encounter with -Chinese troops in 1592. There the Chinese assembled a force of 17,000 -men, and made leisurely preparations for a decisive contest. Forty days -elapsed before the Japanese columns converged upon Phyong-yang, and that -interval was utilized by the Chinese to throw up parapets, mount Krupp -guns and otherwise strengthen their position. Moreover, they were armed -with repeating rifles, whereas the Japanese had only single-loaders, and -the ground offered little cover for an attacking force. In such -circumstances, the advantages possessed by the defence ought to have -been well-nigh insuperable; yet a day's fighting sufficed to carry all -the positions, the assailants' casualties amounting to less than 700 and -the defenders losing 6000 in killed and wounded. This brilliant victory -was the prelude to an equally conspicuous success at sea. For on the -17th of September, the very day after the battle at Phyong-yang, a great -naval fight took place near the mouth of the Yalu River, which forms the -northern boundary of Korea. Fourteen Chinese war-ships and six -torpedo-boats were returning to home ports after convoying a fleet of -transports to the Yalu, when they encountered eleven Japanese men-of-war -cruising in the Yellow Sea. Hitherto the Chinese had sedulously avoided -a contest at sea. Their fleet included two armoured battleships of over -7000 tons displacement, whereas the biggest vessels on the Japanese side -were belted cruisers of only 4000 tons. In the hands of an admiral -appreciating the value of sea power, China's naval force would certainly -have been led against Japan's maritime communications, for a successful -blow struck there must have put an end to the Korean campaign. The -Chinese, however, failed to read history. They employed their -war-vessels as convoys only, and, when not using them for that purpose, -hid them in port. Everything goes to show that they would have avoided -the battle off the Yalu had choice been possible, though when forced to -fight they fought bravely. Four of their ships were sunk, and the -remainder escaped to Wei-hai-wei, the vigour of the Japanese pursuit -being greatly impaired by the presence of torpedo-boats in the -retreating squadron. - -The Yalu victory opened the over-sea route to China. Japan could now -strike at Talien, Port Arthur, and Wei-hai-wei, naval stations on the -Liaotung and Shantung peninsulas, where powerful permanent -fortifications, built after plans prepared by European experts and armed -with the best modern weapons, were regarded as almost impregnable; They -fell before the assaults of the Japanese troops as easily as the -comparatively rude fortifications at Phyong-yang had fallen. The only -resistance of a stubborn character was made by the Chinese fleet at -Wei-hai-wei; but after the whole squadron of torpedo-craft had been -destroyed or captured as they attempted to escape, and after three of -the largest vessels had been sunk at their moorings by Japanese -torpedoes, and one by gun-fire, the remaining ships surrendered, and -their brave commander, Admiral Ting, committed suicide. This ended the -war. It had lasted seven and a half months, during which time Japan put -into the field five columns, aggregating about 120,000 of all arms. One -of these columns marched northward from Seoul, won the battle of -Phyong-yang, advanced to the Yalu, forced its way into Manchuria, and -moved towards Mukden by Feng-hwang, fighting several minor engagements, -and conducting the greater part of its operations amid deep snow in -midwinter. The second column diverged westwards from the Yalu, and, -marching through southern Manchuria, reached Hai-cheng, whence it -advanced to the capture of Niuchwang and Ying-tse-kow. The third landed -on the Liaotung peninsula, and, turning southwards, carried Talien and -Port Arthur by assault. The fourth moved up the Liaotung peninsula, and, -having seized Kaiping, advanced against Ying-tse-kow, where it joined -hands with the second column. The fifth crossed from Port Arthur to -Wei-hai-wei, and captured the latter. In all these operations the total -Japanese casualties were 1005 killed and 4922 wounded--figures which -sufficiently indicate the inefficiency of the Chinese fighting. The -deaths from disease totalled 16,866, and the total monetary expenditure -was L20,000,000 sterling. - - - Conclusion of Peace. - -The Chinese government sent Li Hung-chang, viceroy of Pechili and senior -grand secretary of state, and Li Ching-fong, to discuss terms of peace -with Japan, the latter being represented by Marquis (afterwards Prince) -Ito and Count Mutsu, prime minister and minister for foreign affairs, -respectively. A treaty was signed at Shimonoseki on the 17th of April -1895, and subsequently ratified by the sovereigns of the two empires. It -declared the absolute independence of Korea; ceded to Japan the part of -Manchuria lying south of a line drawn from the mouth of the river Anping -to the mouth of the Liao, through Feng-hwang, Hai-cheng and -Ying-tse-kow, as well as the islands of Formosa and the Pescadores; -pledged China to pay an indemnity of 200,000,000 taels; provided for the -occupation of Wei-hai-wei by Japan pending payment of the indemnity; -secured some additional commercial privileges, such as the opening of -four new places to foreign trade and the right of foreigners to engage -in manufacturing enterprises in China, and provided for the conclusion -of a treaty of commerce and amity between the two empires, based on the -lines of China's treaties with Occidental powers. - - - Foreign Interference. - -No sooner was this agreement ratified than Russia, Germany and France -presented a joint note to the Tokyo government, recommending that the -territories ceded to Japan on the mainland of China should not be -permanently occupied, as such a proceeding would be detrimental to -peace. The recommendation was couched in the usual terms of diplomatic -courtesy, but everything indicated that its signatories were prepared to -enforce their advice by an appeal to arms. Japan found herself compelled -to comply. Exhausted by the Chinese campaign, which had drained her -treasury, consumed her supplies of warlike material, and kept her -squadrons constantly at sea for eight months, she had no residue of -strength to oppose such a coalition. Her resolve was quickly taken. The -day that saw the publication of the ratified treaty saw also the issue -of an Imperial rescript in which the mikado, avowing his unalterable -devotion to the cause of peace, and recognizing that the counsel offered -by the European states was prompted by the same sentiment, "yielded to -the dictates of magnanimity, and accepted the advice of the three -Powers." The Japanese people were shocked by this incident. They could -understand the motives influencing Russia and France, for it was -evidently natural that the former should desire to exclude warlike and -progressive people like the Japanese from territories contiguous to her -borders, and it was also natural that France should remain true to her -alliance with Russia. But Germany, wholly uninterested in the ownership -of Manchuria, and by profession a warm friend of Japan, seemed to have -joined in robbing the latter of the fruits of her victory simply for the -sake of establishing some shadowy title to Russia's goodwill. It was not -known until a later period that the German emperor entertained profound -apprehensions about the "yellow peril," an irruption of Oriental hordes -into the Occident, and held it a sacred duty to prevent Japan from -gaining a position which might enable her to construct an immense -military machine out of the countless millions of China. - - - Chinese Crisis of 1900. - -Japan's third expedition over-sea in the Meiji era had its origin in -causes which belong to the history of China (q.v.). In the second half -of 1900 an anti-foreign and anti-dynastic rebellion, breaking out in -Shantung, spread to the metropolitan province of Pechili, and resulted -in a situation of extreme peril for the foreign communities of Tientsin -and Peking. It was impossible for any European power, or for the United -States, to organize sufficiently prompt measures of relief. Thus the -eyes of the world turned to Japan, whose proximity to the scene of -disturbance rendered intervention comparatively easy for her. But Japan -hesitated. Knowing now with what suspicion and distrust the development -of her resources and the growth of her military strength were regarded -by some European peoples, and aware that she had been admitted to the -comity of Western nations on sufferance, she shrank, on the one hand, -from seeming to grasp at an opportunity for armed display, and, on the -other, from the solecism of obtrusiveness in the society of strangers. -Not until Europe and America made it quite plain that they needed and -desired her aid did she send a division (21,000) men to Pechili. Her -troops played a fine part in the subsequent expedition for the relief of -Peking, which had to be approached in midsummer under very trying -conditions. Fighting side by side with European and American soldiers, -and under the eyes of competent military critics, the Japanese acquitted -themselves in such a manner as to establish a high military reputation. -Further, after the relief of Peking they withdrew a moiety of their -forces, and that step, as well as their unequivocal co-operation with -Western powers in the subsequent negotiations, helped to show the -injustice of the suspicions with which they had been regarded. - - - War with Russia. - -From the time (1895) when Russia, with the co-operation of Germany and -France, dictated to Japan a cardinal alteration of the Shimonoseki -treaty, Japanese statesmen seem to have concluded that their country -must one day cross swords with the great northern power. Not a few -European and American publicists shared that view. But the vast -majority, arguing that the little Eastern empire would never invite -annihilation by such an encounter, believed that sufficient forbearance -to avert serious trouble would always be forthcoming on Japan's side. -Yet when the geographical and historical situation was carefully -considered, little hope of an ultimately peaceful settlement presented -itself. - -Japan along its western shore, Korea along its southern and eastern, and -Russia along the eastern coast of its maritime province, are washed by -the Sea of Japan. The communications between the sea and the Pacific -Ocean are practically two only. One is on the north-east, namely, -Tsugaru Strait; the other is on the south, namely, the channel between -the extremity of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese island of the -nine provinces. Tsugaru Strait is entirely under Japan's control. It is -between her main island and her island of Yezo, and in case of need she -can close it with mines. The channel between the southern extremity of -Korea and Japan has a width of 102 m. and would therefore be a fine open -sea-way were it free from islands. But almost mid-way in this channel -lie the twin islands of Tsushima, and the space of 56 m. that separates -them from Japan is narrowed by another island, Iki. Tsushima and Iki -belong to the Japanese empire. The former has some exceptionally good -harbours, constituting a naval base from which the channel on either -side could easily be sealed. Thus the avenues from the Pacific Ocean to -the Sea of Japan are controlled by the Japanese empire. In other words, -access to the Pacific from Korea's eastern and southern coasts and -access to the Pacific from Russia's maritime province depend upon -Japan's goodwill. So far as Korea was concerned this question mattered -little, it being her fate to depend upon the goodwill of Japan in -affairs of much greater importance. But with Russia the case was -different. Vladivostok, which until recent times was her principal port -in the Far East, lies at the southern extremity of the maritime -province; that is to say, on the north-western shore of the Japan Sea. -It was therefore necessary for Russia that freedom of passage by the -Tsushima channel should be secured, and to secure it one of two things -was essential, namely, either that she herself should possess a -fortified port on the Korean side, or that Japan should be bound neither -to acquire such a port nor to impose any restriction upon the navigation -of the strait. To put the matter briefly, Russia must either acquire a -strong foothold for herself in southern Korea, or contrive that Japan -should not acquire one. There was here a strong inducement for Russian -aggression in Korea. - -Russia's eastward movement through Asia has been strikingly illustrative -of her strong craving for free access to southern seas and of the -impediments she had experienced in gratifying that wish. An irresistible -impulse had driven her oceanward. Checked again and again in her attempts -to reach the Mediterranean, she set out on a five-thousand-miles march of -conquest right across the vast Asiatic continent towards the Pacific. -Eastward of Lake Baikal she found her line of least resistance along the -Amur, and when, owing to the restless perseverance of Muravief, she -reached the mouth of that great river, the acquisition of Nikolayevsk for -a naval basis was her immediate reward. But Nikolayevsk could not -possibly satisfy her. Situated in an inhospitable region far away from -all the main routes of the world's commerce, it offered itself only as a -stepping-stone to further acquisitions. To push southward from this new -port became an immediate object to Russia. There lay an obstacle in the -way, however; the long strip of sea-coast from the mouth of the Amur to -the Korean frontier--an area then called the Usuri region because the -Usuri forms its western boundary--belonged to China, and she, having -conceded much to Russia in the matter of the Amur, showed no disposition -to make further concessions in the matter of the Usuri. In the presence -of menaces, however, she agreed that the region should be regarded as -common property pending a convenient opportunity for clear delimitation. -That opportunity came very soon. Seizing the moment (1860) when China had -been beaten to her knees by England and France, Russia secured final -cession of the Usuri region, which now became the maritime province of -Siberia. Then Russia shifted her naval base on the Pacific from -Nikolayevsk to Vladivostok. She gained ten degrees in a southerly -direction. - -From the mouth of the Amur, where Nikolayevsk is situated, to the -southern shore of Korea there rests on the coast of eastern Asia an arch -of islands having at its northern point Sakhalin and at its southern -Tsushima, the keystone of the arch being the main island of Japan. This -arch embraces the Sea of Japan and is washed on its convex side by the -Pacific Ocean. Immediately after the transfer of Russia's naval base -from Nikolayevsk to Vladivostok, an attempt was made to obtain -possession of the southern point of the arch, namely, Tsushima. A -Russian man-of-war proceeded thither and quietly began to establish a -settlement, which would soon have constituted a title of ownership had -not Great Britain interfered. The Russians saw that Vladivostok, -acquired at the cost of so much toil, would be comparatively useless -unless from the sea on whose shore it was situated an avenue to the -Pacific could be opened, and they therefore tried to obtain command of -the Tsushima channel. Immediately after reaching the mouth of the Amur -the same instinct had led them to begin the colonization of Sakhalin. -The axis of this long narrow island is inclined at a very acute angle to -the Usuri region, which its northern extremity almost touches, while its -southern is separated from Yezo by the strait of La Perouse. But in -Sakhalin the Russians found Japanese subjects. In fact the island was a -part of the Japanese empire. Resorting, however, to the Usuri fiction of -joint occupation, they succeeded by 1875 in transferring the whole of -Sakhalin to Russia's dominion. Further encroachments upon Japanese -territory could not be lightly essayed, and the Russians held their -hands. They had been trebly checked: checked in trying to push southward -along the coast of the mainland; checked in trying to secure an avenue -from Vladivostok to the Pacific; and checked in their search for an -ice-free port, which definition Vladivostok did not fulfil. Enterprise -in the direction of Korea seemed to be the only hope of saving the -maritime results of the great Trans-Asian march. - -Was Korea within safe range of such enterprises? Everything seemed to -answer in the affirmative. Korea had all the qualifications desired by -an aggressor. Her people were unprogressive, her resources undeveloped, -her self-defensive capacities insignificant, her government corrupt. But -she was a tributary of China, and China had begun to show some tenacity -in protecting the integrity of her buffer states. Besides, Japan was -understood to have pretensions with regard to Korea. On the whole, -therefore, the problem of carrying to full fruition the work of Muravief -and his lieutenants demanded strength greater than Russia could exercise -without some line of communications supplementing the Amur waterway and -the long ocean route. Therefore she set about the construction of a -railway across Asia. - -The Amur being the boundary of Russia's east Asian territory, this -railway had to be carried along its northern bank where many -engineering and economic obstacles presented themselves. Besides, the -river, from an early stage in its course, makes a huge semicircular -sweep northward, and a railway following its bank to Vladivostok must -make the same detour. If, on the contrary, the road could be carried -over the diameter of the semicircle, it would be a straight and -therefore shorter line, technically easier and economically better. The -diameter, however, passed through Chinese territory, and an excuse for -extorting China's permission was not in sight. Russia therefore -proceeded to build each end of the road, deferring the construction of -the Amur section for the moment. She had not waited long when, in 1894, -war broke out between China and Japan, and the latter, completely -victorious, demanded as the price of peace the southern littoral of -Manchuria from the Korean boundary to the Liaotung peninsula at the -entrance to the Gulf of Pechili. This was a crisis in Russia's career. -She saw that her maritime extension could never get nearer to the -Pacific than Vladivostok were this claim of Japan's established. For the -proposed arrangement would place the littoral of Manchuria in Japan's -direct occupation and the littoral of Korea in her constructive control, -since not only had she fought to rescue Korea from Chinese suzerainty, -but also her object in demanding a slice of the Manchurian coast-line -was to protect Korea against aggression from the north; that is to say, -against aggression from Russia. Muravief's enterprise had carried his -country first to the mouth of the Amur and thence southward along the -coast to Vladivostok and to Possiet Bay at the north-eastern extremity -of Korea. But it had not given to Russia free access to the Pacific, and -now she was menaced with a perpetual barrier to that access, since the -whole remaining coast of east Asia as far as the Gulf of Pechili was -about to pass into Japan's possession or under her domination. - -Then Russia took an extraordinary step. She persuaded Germany and France -to force Japan out of Manchuria. It is not to be supposed that she -frankly exposed her own aggressive designs and asked for assistance to -prosecute them. Neither is it to be supposed that France and Germany -were so curiously deficient in perspicacity as to overlook those -designs. At all events these three great powers served on Japan a notice -to quit, and Japan, exhausted by her struggle with China, had no choice -but to obey. - -The notice was accompanied by an _expose_ of reasons. Its signatories -said that Japan's tenure of the Manchurian littoral would menace the -security of the Chinese capital, would render the independence of Korea -illusory, and would constitute an obstacle to the peace of the Orient. - -By way of saving the situation in some slight degree Japan sought from -China a guarantee that no portion of Manchuria should thereafter be -leased or ceded to a foreign state. But France warned Japan that to -press such a demand would offend Russia, and Russia declared that, for -her part, she had no intention of trespassing in Manchuria. Japan, had -she been in a position to insist on the guarantee, would also have been -in a position to disobey the mandate of the three powers. Unable to do -either the one or the other, she quietly stepped out of Manchuria, and -proceeded to double her army and treble her navy. - -As a reward for the assistance nominally rendered to China in this -matter, Russia obtained permission in Peking to divert her Trans-Asian -railway from the huge bend of the Amur to the straight line through -Manchuria. Neither Germany nor France received any immediate recompense. -Three years later, by way of indemnity for the murder of two -missionaries by a mob, Germany seized a portion of the province of -Shantung. Immediately, on the principle that two wrongs make a right, -Russia obtained a lease of the Liaotung peninsula, from which she had -driven Japan in 1895. This act she followed by extorting from China -permission to construct a branch of the Trans-Asian railway through -Manchuria from north to south. - -Russia's maritime aspirations had now assumed a radically altered phase. -Instead of pushing southward from Vladivostok and Possiet Bay along the -coast of Korea, she had suddenly leaped the Korean peninsula and found -access to the Pacific in Liaotung. Nothing was wanting to establish her -as practical mistress of Manchuria except a plausible excuse for -garrisoning the place. Such an excuse was furnished by the Boxer rising -in 1900. Its conclusion saw her in military occupation of the whole -region, and she might easily have made her occupation permanent by -prolonging it until peace and order should have been fully restored. But -here she fell into an error of judgment. Imagining that the Chinese -could be persuaded or intimidated to any concession, she proposed a -convention virtually recognizing her title to Manchuria. - -Japan watched all these things with profound anxiety. If there were any -reality in the dangers which Russia, Germany and France had declared to -be incidental to Japanese occupation of a part of Manchuria, the same -dangers must be doubly incidental to Russian occupation of the whole of -Manchuria--the security of the Chinese capital would be threatened, and -an obstacle would be created to the permanent peace of the East. The -independence of Korea was an object of supreme solicitude to Japan. -Historically she held towards the little state a relation closely -resembling that of suzerain, and though of her ancient conquests nothing -remained except a settlement at Fusan on the southern coast, her -national sentiment would have been deeply wounded by any foreign -aggression in the peninsula. It was to establish Korean independence -that she waged war with China in 1894; and her annexation of the -Manchurian littoral adjacent to the Korean frontier, after the war, was -designed to secure that independence, not to menace it as the triple -alliance professed to think. But if Russia came into possession of all -Manchuria, her subsequent absorption of Korea would be almost -inevitable. For the consideration set forth above as to Vladivostok's -maritime avenues would then acquire absolute cogency. Manchuria is -larger than France and the United Kingdom lumped together. The addition -of such an immense area to Russia's east Asiatic dominions, together -with its littoral on the Gulf of Pechili and the Yellow Sea, would -necessitate a corresponding expansion of her naval forces in the Far -East. With the one exception of Port Arthur, however, the Manchurian -coast does not offer any convenient naval base. It is only in the -splendid harbours of southern Korea that such bases can be found. -Moreover, there would be an even stronger motive impelling Russia -towards Korea. Neither the Usuri region nor the Manchurian littoral -possesses so much as one port qualified to satisfy her perennial longing -for free access to the ocean in a temperate zone. Without Korea, then, -Russia's east Asian expansion, though it added huge blocks of territory -to her dominions, would have been commercially incomplete and -strategically defective. - -If it be asked why, apart from history and national sentiment, Japan -should object to a Russian Korea, the answer is, first, because there -would thus be planted almost within cannon-shot of her shores a power of -enormous strength and insatiable ambition; secondly, because, whatever -voice in Manchuria's destiny Russia derived from her railway, the same -voice in Korea's destiny was possessed by Japan as the sole owner of -railways in the peninsula; thirdly, that whereas Russia had an -altogether insignificant share in the foreign commerce of Korea and -scarcely ten bona-fide settlers, Japan did the greater part of the -over-sea trade and had tens of thousands of settlers; fourthly, that if -Russia's dominions stretched uninterruptedly from the Sea of Okhotsk to -the Gulf of Pechili, her ultimate absorption of north China would be as -certain as sunrise; and fifthly, that such domination and such -absorption would involve the practical closure of all that immense -region to Japanese commerce and industry as well as to the commerce and -industry of every Western nation except Russia. This last proposition -did not rest solely on the fact that to oppose artificial barriers to -free competition is Russia's sole hope of utilizing to her own benefit -any commercial opportunities brought within her reach. It rested also on -the fact that Russia had objected to foreign settlements at the marts -recently opened by treaty with China to American and Japanese subjects. -Without settlements, trade at those marts would be impossible, and thus -Russia had constructively announced that there should be no trade but -Russian, if she could prevent it. - -Against such dangers Japan would have been justified in adopting any -measure of self-protection. She had foreseen them for six years, and had -been strengthening herself to avert them. But she wanted peace. She -wanted to develop her material resources and to accumulate some measure -of wealth, without which she must remain insignificant among the -nations. Two pacific devices offered, and she adopted them both. Russia, -instead of trusting time to consolidate her tenure of Manchuria, had -made the mistake of pragmatically importuning China for a conventional -title. If then Peking could be strengthened to resist this demand, some -arrangement of a distinctly terminable nature might be made. The United -States, Great Britain and Japan, joining hands for that purpose, did -succeed in so far stiffening China's backbone that her show of -resolution finally induced Russia to sign a treaty pledging herself to -withdraw her troops from Manchuria in three instalments, each step of -evacuation to be accomplished by a fixed date. That was one of the -pacific devices. The other suggested itself in connexion with the new -commercial treaties which China had promised to negotiate in the sequel -of the Boxer troubles. In these documents clauses provided for the -opening of three places in Manchuria to foreign trade. It seemed a -reasonable hope that, having secured commercial access to Manchuria by -covenant with its sovereign, China, the powers would not allow Russia -arbitrarily to restrict their privileges. It seemed also a reasonable -hope that Russia, having solemnly promised to evacuate Manchuria at -fixed dates, would fulfil her engagement. - -The latter hope was signally disappointed. When the time came for -evacuation, Russia behaved as though no promise had ever been given. She -proposed wholly new conditions, which would have strengthened her grasp -of Manchuria instead of loosening it. China being powerless to offer any -practical protest, and Japan's interests ranking next in order of -importance, the Tokyo government approached Russia direct. They did not -ask for anything that could hurt her pride or injure her position. -Appreciating fully the economical status she had acquired in Manchuria -by large outlays of capital, they offered to recognize that status, -provided that Russia would extend similar recognition to Japan's status -in Korea, would promise, in common with Japan, to respect the -sovereignty and the territorial integrity of China and Korea, and would -be a party to a mutual engagement that all nations should have equal -industrial and commercial opportunities in Manchuria and the Korean -peninsula. In a word, they invited Russia to subscribe the policy -enunciated by the United States and Great Britain, the policy of the -open door and of the integrity of the Chinese and Korean empires. - -Thus commenced a negotiation which lasted five and a half months. Japan -gradually reduced her demands to a minimum. Russia never made the -smallest appreciable concession. She refused to listen to Japan for one -moment about Manchuria. Eight years previously Japan had been in -military possession of Manchuria, and Russia with the assistance of -Germany and France had expelled her for reasons which concerned Japan -incomparably more than they concerned any of the three powers--the -security of the Chinese capital, the independence of Korea, the peace of -the East. Now, Russia had the splendid assurance to declare by -implication that none of these things concerned Japan at all. The utmost -she would admit was Japan's partial right to be heard about Korea. And -at the same time she herself commenced in northern Korea a series of -aggressions, partly perhaps to show her potentialities, partly by way of -counter-irritant. That was not all. Whilst she studiously deferred her -answers to Japan's proposals and protracted the negotiations to an -extent which was actually contumelious, she hastened to send eastward a -big fleet of war-ships and a new army of soldiers. It was impossible for -the dullest politician to mistake her purpose. She intended to yield -nothing, but to prepare such a parade of force that her obduracy would -command submission. The only alternatives for Japan were war or total -and permanent effacement in Asia. She chose war, and in fighting it she -fought the battle of free and equal opportunities for all without undue -encroachment upon the sovereign rights or territorial integrity of China -or Korea, against a military dictatorship, a programme of ruthless -territorial aggrandizement and a policy of selfish restrictions. - - - The Results of the War. - -The details of the great struggle that ensued are given elsewhere (see -RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR). After the battle of Mukden the belligerents found -themselves in a position which must either prelude another stupendous -effort on both sides or be utilized for the purpose of peace -negotiations. At this point the president of the United States of -America intervened in the interests of humanity, and on the 9th of June -1905 instructed the United States' representative in Tokyo to urge that -the Japanese government should open direct negotiations with Russia, an -exactly corresponding note being simultaneously sent to the Russian -government through the United States' representative in St Petersburg. -Japan's reply was made on the 10th of June. It intimated frank -acquiescence, and Russia lost no time in taking a similar step. -Nevertheless two months elapsed before the plenipotentiaries of the -belligerents met, on the 10th of August, at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, -U.S.A. Russia sent M. (afterwards Count) de Witte and Baron Rosen; -Japan, Baron (afterwards Count) Komura, who had held the portfolio of -foreign affairs throughout the war, and Mr. (afterwards Baron) Takahira. -In entering this conference, Japanese statesmen, as was subsequently -known, saw clearly that a great part of the credit accruing to them for -their successful conduct of the war would be forfeited in the sequel of -the negotiations. For the people of Japan had accustomed themselves to -expect that Russia would assuredly recoup the expenses incurred by their -country in the contest, whereas the cabinet in Tokyo understood well -that to look for payment of indemnity by a great state whose territory -had not been invaded effectively nor its existence menaced must be -futile. Nevertheless, diplomacy required that this conviction should be -concealed, and thus Russia carried to the conference a belief that the -financial phase of the discussion would be crucial, while, at the same -time, the Japanese nation reckoned fully on an indemnity of 150 millions -sterling. Baron Komura's mandate was, however, that the only radically -essential terms were those formulated by Japan prior to the war. She -must insist on securing the ends for which she had fought, since she -believed them to be indispensable to the peace of the Far East, but she -would not demand anything more. The Japanese plenipotentiary, therefore, -judged it wise to marshal his terms in the order of their importance, -leaving his Russian colleague to imagine, as he probably would, that the -converse method had been adopted, and that everything preliminary to the -questions of finance and territory was of minor consequence. The -negotiations, commencing on the 10th of August, were not concluded until -the 5th of September, when a treaty of peace was signed. There had been -a moment when the onlooking world believed that unless Russia agreed to -ransom the island of Sakhalin by paying to Japan a sum of 120 millions -sterling, the conference would be broken off; nor did such an exchange -seem unreasonable, for were Russia expelled from the northern part of -Sakhalin, which commands the estuary of the Amur River, her position in -Siberia would have been compromised. But the statesmen who directed -Japan's affairs were not disposed to make any display of earth-hunger. -The southern half of Sakhalin had originally belonged to Japan and had -passed into Russia's possession by an arrangement which the Japanese -nation strongly resented. To recover that portion of the island seemed, -therefore, a legitimate ambition. Japan did not contemplate any larger -demand, nor did she seriously insist on an indemnity. Therefore the -negotiations were never in real danger of failure. The treaty of -Portsmouth recognized Japan's "paramount political, military and -economic interests" in Korea; provided for the simultaneous evacuation -of Manchuria by the contracting parties; transferred to Japan the lease -of the Liaotung peninsula held by Russia from China together with the -Russian railways south of Kwang-Cheng-tsze and all collateral mining or -other privileges; ceded to Japan the southern half of Sakhalin, the 50th -parallel of latitude to be the boundary between the two parts; secured -fishing rights for Japanese subjects along the coasts of the seas of -Japan, Okhotsk and Bering; laid down that the expenses incurred by the -Japanese for the maintenance of the Russian prisoners during the war -should be reimbursed by Russia, less the outlays made by the latter on -account of Japanese prisoners--by which arrangement Japan obtained a -payment of some 4 millions sterling--and provided that the contracting -parties, while withdrawing their military forces from Manchuria, might -maintain guards to protect their respective railways, the number of such -guards not to exceed 15 per kilometre of line. There were other -important restrictions: first, the contracting parties were to abstain -from taking, on the Russo-Korean frontier, any military measures which -might menace the security of Russian or Korean territory; secondly, the -two powers pledged themselves not to exploit the Manchurian railways for -strategic purposes; and thirdly, they promised not to build on Sakhalin -or its adjacent islands any fortifications or other similar military -works, or to take any military measures which might impede the free -navigation of the straits of La Perouse and the Gulf of Tartary. The -above provisions concerned the two contracting parties only. But China's -interests also were considered. Thus it was agreed to "restore entirely -and completely to her exclusive administration" all portions of -Manchuria then in the occupation, or under the control, of Japanese or -Russian troops, except the leased territory; that her consent must be -obtained for the transfer to Japan of the leases and concessions held by -the Russians in Manchuria; that the Russian government would disavow the -possession of "any territorial advantages or preferential or exclusive -concessions in impairment of Chinese sovereignty or inconsistent with -the principle of equal opportunity in Manchuria"; and that Japan and -Russia "engaged reciprocally not to obstruct any general measures common -to all countries which China might take for the development of the -commerce and industry of Manchuria." This distinction between the -special interests of the contracting parties and the interests of China -herself as well as of foreign nations generally is essential to clear -understanding of a situation which subsequently attracted much -attention. From the time of the opium war (1857) to the Boxer rising -(1900) each of the great Western powers struggled for its own hand in -China, and each sought to gain for itself exclusive concessions and -privileges with comparatively little regard for the interests of others, -and with no regard whatever for China's sovereign rights. The fruits of -this period were: permanently ceded territories (Hong-Kong and Macao); -leases temporarily establishing foreign sovereignty in various districts -(Kiaochow, Wei-hai-wei and Kwang-chow); railway and mining concessions; -and the establishment of settlements at open ports where foreign -jurisdiction was supreme. But when, in 1900, the Boxer rising forced all -the powers into a common camp, they awoke to full appreciation of a -principle which had been growing current for the past two or three -years, namely, that concerted action on the lines of maintaining China's -integrity and securing to all alike equality of opportunity and a -similarly open door, was the only feasible method of preventing the -partition of the Chinese Empire and averting a clash of rival interests -which might have disastrous results. This, of course, did not mean that -there was to be any abandonment of special privileges already acquired -or any surrender of existing concessions. The arrangement was not to be -retrospective in any sense. Vested interests were to be strictly guarded -until the lapse of the periods for which they had been granted, or until -the maturity of China's competence to be really autonomous. A curious -situation was thus created. International professions of respect for -China's sovereignty, for the integrity of her empire and for the -enforcement of the open door and equal opportunity, coexisted with -legacies from an entirely different past. Russia endorsed this new -policy, but not unnaturally declined to abate any of the advantages -previously enjoyed by her in Manchuria. Those advantages were very -substantial. They included a twenty-five years' lease--with provision -for renewal--of the Liaotung peninsula, within which area of 1220 sq. m. -Chinese troops might not penetrate, whereas Russia would not only -exercise full administrative authority, but also take military and naval -action of any kind; they included the creation of a neutral territory in -the immediate north of the former and still more extensive, which should -remain under Chinese administration, but where neither Chinese nor -Russian troops might enter, nor might China, without Russia's consent, -cede land, open trading marts or grant concessions to any third -nationality; and they included the right to build some 1600 m. of -railway (which China would have the opportunity of purchasing at cost -price in the year 1938 and would be entitled to receive gratis in 1982), -as well as the right to hold extensive zones on either side of the -railway, to administer these zones in the fullest sense, and to work all -mines lying along the lines. Under the Portsmouth treaty these -advantages were transferred to Japan by Russia, the railway, however, -being divided so that only the portion (521(1/2) m.) to the south of -Kwang-Cheng-tsze fell to Japan's share, while the portion (1077 m.) to -the north of that place remained in Russia's hands. China's consent to -the above transfers and assignments was obtained in a treaty signed at -Peking on the 22nd of December 1905. Thus Japan came to hold in -Manchuria a position somewhat contradictory. On the one hand, she -figured as the champion of the Chinese Empire's integrity and as an -exponent of the new principle of equal opportunity and the open door. On -the other, she appeared as the legatee of many privileges more or less -inconsistent with that principle. But, at the same time, nearly all the -great powers of Europe were similarly circumstanced. In their cases also -the same incongruity was observable between the newly professed policy -and the aftermath of the old practice. It was scarcely to be expected -that Japan alone should make a large sacrifice on the altar of a theory -to which no other state thought of yielding any retrospective obedience -whatever. She did, indeed, furnish a clear proof of deference to the -open-door doctrine, for instead of reserving the railway zones to her -own exclusive use, as she was fully entitled to do, she sought and -obtained from China a pledge to open to foreign trade 16 places within -those zones. For the rest, however, the inconsistency between the past -and the present, though existing throughout the whole of China, was -nowhere so conspicuous as in the three eastern provinces (Manchuria); -not because there was any real difference of degree, but because -Manchuria had been the scene of the greatest war of modern times; -because that war had been fought by Japan in the cause of the new -policy, and because the principles of the equally open door and of -China's integrity had been the main bases of the Portsmouth treaty, of -the Anglo-Japanese alliance, and of the subsequently concluded -_ententes_ with France and Russia. In short, the world's eyes were fixed -on Manchuria and diverted from China proper, so that every act of Japan -was subjected to an exceptionally rigorous scrutiny, and the nations -behaved as though they expected her to live up to a standard of almost -ideal altitude. China's mood, too, greatly complicated the situation. -She had the choice between two moderate and natural courses: either to -wait quietly until the various concessions granted by her to foreign -powers in the evil past should lapse by maturity, or to qualify herself -by earnest reforms and industrious development for their earlier -recovery. Nominally she adopted the latter course, but in reality she -fell into a mood of much impatience. Under the name of a -"rights-recovery campaign" her people began to protest vehemently -against the continuance of any conditions which impaired her -sovereignty, and as this temper coloured her attitude towards the -various questions which inevitably grew out of the situation in -Manchuria, her relations with Japan became somewhat strained in the -early part of 1909. - - - Japan in Korea after the War with Russia. - -Having waged two wars on account of Korea, Japan emerged from the second -conflict with the conviction that the policy of maintaining the -independence of Korea must be modified, and that since the identity of -Korean and Japanese interests in the Far East and the paramount -character of Japanese interests in Korea would not permit Japan to leave -Korea to the care of any third power, she must assume the charge -herself. Europe and America also recognized that view of the situation, -and consented to withdraw their legations from Seoul, thus leaving the -control of Korean foreign affairs entirely in the hands of Japan, who -further undertook to assume military direction in the event of -aggression from without or disturbance from within. But in the matter of -internal administration she continued to limit herself to advisory -supervision. Thus, though a Japanese resident-general in Seoul, with -subordinate residents throughout the provinces, assumed the functions -hitherto discharged by foreign representatives and consuls, the Korean -government was merely asked to employ Japanese experts in the position -of counsellors, the right to accept or reject their counsels being left -to their employers. Once again, however, the futility of looking for any -real reforms under this optional system was demonstrated. Japan sent her -most renowned statesman, Prince Ito, to discharge the duties of -resident-general; but even he, in spite of profound patience and tact, -found that some less optional methods must be resorted to. Hence on the -24th of July 1907 a new agreement was signed, by which the -resident-general acquired initiative as well as consultative competence -to enact and enforce laws and ordinances, to appoint and remove Korean -officials, and to place capable Japanese subjects in the ranks of the -administration. That this constituted a heavy blow to Korea's -independence could not be gainsaid. That it was inevitable seemed to be -equally obvious. For there existed in Korea nearly all the worst abuses -of medieval systems. The administration of justice depended solely on -favour or interest. The police contributed by corruption and -incompetence to the insecurity of life and property. The troops were a -body of useless mercenaries. Offices being allotted by sale, thousands -of incapables thronged the ranks of the executive. The emperor's court -was crowded by diviners and plotters of all kinds, male and female. The -finances of the throne and those of the state were hopelessly confused. -There was nothing like an organized judiciary. A witness was in many -cases considered _particeps criminis_; torture was commonly employed to -obtain evidence, and defendants in civil cases were placed under arrest. -Imprisonment meant death or permanent disablement for a man of small -means. Flogging so severe as to cripple, if not to kill, was a common -punishment; every major offence from robbery upward was capital, and -female criminals were frequently executed by administering shockingly -painful poisons. The currency was in a state of the utmost confusion. -Extreme corruption and extortion were practised in connexion with -taxation. Finally, while nothing showed that the average Korean lacked -the elementary virtue of patriotism, there had been repeated proofs that -the safety and independence of the empire counted for little in the -estimates of political intriguers. Japan must either step out of Korea -altogether or effect drastic reforms there. She necessarily chose the -latter alternative, and the things which she accomplished between the -beginning of 1906 and the close of 1908 may be briefly described as the -elaboration of a proper system of taxation; the organization of a staff -to administer annual budgets; the re-assessment of taxable property; the -floating of public loans for productive enterprises; the reform of the -currency; the establishment of banks of various kinds, including -agricultural and commercial; the creation of associations for putting -bank-notes into circulation; the introduction of a warehousing system to -supply capital to farmers; the lighting and buoying of the coasts; the -provision of posts, telegraphs, roads and railways; the erection of -public buildings; the starting of various industrial enterprises (such -as printing, brick-making, forestry and coal-mining); the laying out of -model farms; the beginning of cotton cultivation; the building and -equipping of an industrial training school; the inauguration of sanitary -works; the opening of hospitals and medical schools; the organization of -an excellent educational system; the construction of waterworks in -several towns; the complete remodelling of the central government; the -differentiation of the court and the executive, as well as of the -administration and the judiciary; the formation of an efficient body of -police; the organization of law courts with a majority of Japanese -jurists on the bench; the enactment of a new penal code; drastic reforms -in the taxation system. In the summer of 1907 the resident-general -advised the Throne to disband the standing army as an unserviceable and -expensive force. The measure was doubtless desirable, but the docility -of the troops had been over-rated. Some of them resisted vehemently, and -many became the nucleus of an insurrection which lasted in a desultory -manner for nearly two years; cost the lives of 21,000 insurgents and -1300 Japanese; and entailed upon Japan an outlay of nearly a million -sterling. Altogether Japan was 15 millions sterling out of pocket on -Korea's account by the end of 1909. She had also lost the veteran -statesman Prince Ito, who was assassinated at Harbin by a Korean fanatic -on the 26th of October 1909. Finally an end was put to an anomalous -situation by the annexation of Korea to Japan on the 29th of August -1910. (See further KOREA.) - - -IX.--DOMESTIC HISTORY - -_Cosmography._--Japanese annals represent the first inhabitant of earth -as a direct descendant of the gods. Two books describe the events of the -"Divine age." One, compiled in 712, is called the _Kojiki (Records of -Ancient Matters)_; the other, compiled in 720, is called the _Nihongi -(Chronicles of Japan)_. Both describe the processes of creation, but the -author of the _Chronicles_ drew largely upon Chinese traditions, whereas -the compilers of the _Records_ appear to have limited themselves to -materials which they believed to be native. The _Records_, therefore, -have always been regarded as the more trustworthy guide to pure Japanese -conceptions. They deal with the creation of Japan only, other countries -having been apparently judged unworthy of attention. At the beginning of -all things a primordial trinity is represented as existing on the "plain -of high heaven." Thereafter, during an indefinite time and by an -indefinite process, other deities come into existence, their titles -indicating a vague connexion with constructive and fertilizing forces. -They are not immortal: it is explicitly stated that they ultimately pass -away, and the idea of the cosmographers seems to be that each deity -marks a gradual approach to human methods of procreation. Meanwhile the -earth is "young and, like floating oil, drifts about after the manner of -a jelly-fish." At last there are born two deities, the creator and the -creatress, and these receive the mandate of all the heavenly beings to -"make, consolidate and give birth to the drifting land." For use in that -work a jewelled spear is given to them, and, standing upon the bridge -that connects heaven and earth, they thrust downwards with the weapon, -stir the brine below and draw up the spear, when from its point fall -drops which, accumulating, form the first dry land. Upon this land the -two deities descend, and, by ordinary processes, beget the islands of -Japan as well as numerous gods representing the forces of nature. But in -giving birth to the god of fire the creatress (Izanami) perishes, and -the creator (Izanagi) makes his way to the under-world in search of -her--an obvious parallel to the tales of Ishtar and Orpheus. With -difficulty he returns to earth, and, as he washes himself from the -pollution of Hades, there are born from the turbid water a number of -evil deities succeeded by a number of good, just as in the Babylonian -cosmogony the primordial ocean, Tiamat, brings forth simultaneously gods -and imps. Finally, as Izanagi washes his left eye the Goddess of the Sun -comes into existence; as he washes his right, the God of the Moon; and -as he washes his nose, the God of Force. To these three he assigns, -respectively, the dominion of the sun, the dominion of the moon, and the -dominion of the ocean. But the god of force (Sosanoo), like Lucifer, -rebels against this decree, creates a commotion in heaven, and after -having been the cause of the temporary seclusion of the sun goddess and -the consequent wrapping of the world in darkness, kills the goddess of -food and is permanently banished from heaven by the host of deities. He -descends to Izumo on the west of the main island of Japan, and there -saves a maiden from an eight-headed serpent. Sosanoo himself passes to -the under-world and becomes the deity of Hades, but he invests one of -his descendants with the sovereignty of Japan, and the title is -established after many curious adventures. To the sun goddess also, -whose feud with her fierce brother survives the latter's banishment from -heaven, the idea of making her grandson ruler of Japan presents itself. -She despatches three embassies to impose her will upon the descendants -of Sosanoo, and finally her grandson descends, not, however, in Izumo, -where the demi-gods of Sosanoo's race hold sway, but in Hiuga in the -southern island of Kiushiu. This grandson of Amaterasu (the goddess of -the sun) is called Ninigi, whose great-grandson figures in Japanese -history as the first human sovereign of the country, known during life -as Kamu-Yamato-Iware-Biko, and given the name of Jimmu tenno (Jimmu, son -of heaven) fourteen centuries after his death. Japanese annalists -attribute the accession of Jimmu to the year 660 B.C. Why that date was -chosen must remain a matter of conjecture. The _Records of Ancient -Matters_ has no chronology, but the more pretentious writers of the -_Chronicles of Japan_, doubtless in imitation of their Chinese models, -considered it necessary to assign a year, a month, and even a day for -each event of importance. There is abundant reason, however, to question -the accuracy of all Japanese chronology prior to the 5th century. The -first date corroborated by external evidence is 461, and Aston, who has -made a special study of the subject, concludes that the year 500 may be -taken as the time when the chronology of the _Chronicles_ begins to be -trustworthy. Many Japanese, however, are firm believers in the -_Chronicles_, and when assigning the year of the empire they invariably -take 660 B.C. for starting-point, so that 1909 of the Gregorian calendar -becomes for them 2569. - -_Prehistoric Period._--Thus, if the most rigid estimate be accepted, the -space of 1160 years, from 660 B.C. to A.D. 500, may be called the -prehistoric period. During that long interval the annals include 24 -sovereigns, the first 17 of whom lived for over a hundred years on the -average. It seems reasonable to conclude that the so-called assignment -of the sovereignty of Japan to Sosanoo's descendants and the -establishment of their kingdom in Izumo represent an invasion of -Mongolian immigrants coming from the direction of the Korean -peninsula--indeed one of the _Nihongi's_ versions of the event actually -indicates Korea as the point of departure--and that the subsequent -descent of Ninigi on Mount Takachiho in Hiuga indicates the advent of a -body of Malayan settlers from the south sea. Jimmu, according to the -_Chronicles_, set out from Hiuga in 667 B.C. and was not crowned at his -new palace in Yamato until 660. This campaign of seven years is -described in some detail, but no satisfactory information is given as to -the nature of the craft in which the invader and his troops voyaged, or -as to the number of men under his command. The weapons said to have been -carried were bows, spears and swords. A supernatural element is imported -into the narrative in the form of the three-legged crow of the sun, -which Amaterasu sends down to act as guide and messenger for her -descendants. Jimmu died at his palace of Kashiwa-bara in 585 B.C., his -age being 127 according to the _Chronicles_, and 137 according to the -_Records_. He was buried in a kind of tomb called _misasagi_, which -seems to have been in use in Japan for some centuries before the -Christian era--"a highly specialized form of tumulus, consisting of two -mounds, one having a circular, the other a triangular base, which merged -into each other, the whole being surrounded by a moat, or sometimes by -two concentric moats with a narrow strip of land between. In some, -perhaps in most, cases the misasagi contains a large vault of great -unhewn stones without mortar. The walls of this vault converge gradually -towards the top, which is roofed in by enormous slabs of stone weighing -many tons each. The entrance is by means of a gallery roofed with -similar stones." Several of these ancient sepulchral mounds have been -examined during recent years, and their contents have furnished -information of much antiquarian interest, though there is a complete -absence of inscriptions. The reigns of the eight sovereigns who -succeeded Jimmu were absolutely uneventful. Nothing is set down except -the genealogy of each ruler, the place of his residence and his burial, -his age and the date of his death. It was then the custom--and it -remained so until the 8th century of the Christian era--to change the -capital on the accession of each emperor; a habit which effectually -prevented the growth of any great metropolis. The reign of the 10th -emperor, Sujin, lasted from 98 to 30 B.C. During his era the land was -troubled by pestilence and the people broke out in rebellion; calamities -which were supposed to be caused by the spirit of the ancient ruler of -Izumo to avenge a want of consideration shown to his descendants by -their supplanters. Divination--by a Chinese process--and visions -revealed the source of trouble; rites of worship were performed in -honour of the ancient ruler, his descendant being entrusted with the -duty, and the pestilence ceased. We now hear for the first time of -vigorous measures to quell the aboriginal savages, doubtless the Ainu. -Four generals are sent out against them in different directions. But the -expedition is interrupted by an armed attempt on the part of the -emperor's half-brother, who, utilizing the opportunity of the troops' -absence from Yamato, marches from Yamashiro at the head of a powerful -army to win the crown for himself. In connexion with these incidents, -curious evidence is furnished of the place then assigned to woman by the -writers of the _Chronicles_. It is a girl who warns one of the emperor's -generals of the plot; it is the sovereign's aunt who interprets the -warning; and it is Ata, the wife of the rebellious prince, who leads the -left wing of his army. Four other noteworthy facts are recorded of this -reign: the taking of a census; the imposition of a tax on animals' skins -and game to be paid by men, and on textile fabrics by women; the -building of boats for coastwise transport, and the digging of dikes and -reservoirs for agricultural purposes. All these things rest solely on -the testimony of annalists writing eight centuries later than the era -they discuss and compiling their narrative mostly from tradition. -Careful investigations have been made to ascertain whether the histories -of China and Korea corroborate or contradict those of Japan. Without -entering into detailed evidence, the inference may be at once stated -that the dates given in Japanese early history are just 120 years too -remote; an error very likely to occur when using the sexagenary cycle, -which constituted the first method of reckoning time in Japan. But -although this correction suffices to reconcile some contradictory -features of Far-Eastern history, it does not constitute any explanation -of the incredible longevity assigned by the _Chronicles_ to several -Japanese sovereigns, and the conclusion is that when a consecutive -record of reigns came to be compiled in the 8th century, many lacunae -were found which had to be filled up from the imagination of the -compilers. With this parenthesis we may pass rapidly over the events of -the next two centuries (29 B.C. to A.D. 200). They are remarkable for -vigorous measures to subdue the aboriginal Ainu, who in the southern -island of Kiushiu are called Kuma-so (the names of two tribes) and -sometimes earth-spiders (i.e. cave-dwellers), while in the north-eastern -regions of the main island they are designated Yemishi. Expeditions are -led against them in both regions by Prince Yamato-dake, a hero revered -by all succeeding generations of Japanese as the type of valour and -loyalty. Dying from the effects of hardship and exposure, but declaring -with his last breath that loss of life was as nothing compared with the -sorrow of seeing his father's face no more, his spirit ascends to heaven -as a white bird, and when his son, Chuai, comes to the throne, he causes -cranes to be placed in the moat surrounding his palace in memory of his -illustrious sire. - -The sovereign had partly ceased to follow the example of Jimmu, who led -his armies in person. The emperors did not, however, pass a sedentary -life. They frequently made progresses throughout their dominions, and -on these occasions a not uncommon incident was the addition of some -local beauty to the Imperial harem. This licence had a far-reaching -effect, since to provide for the sovereign's numerous offspring--the -emperor Keiko (71-130) had 80 children--no better way offered than to -make grants of land, and thus were laid the foundations of a territorial -nobility destined profoundly to influence the course of Japanese -history. Woman continues to figure conspicuously in the story. The image -of the sun goddess, enshrined in Ise (5 B.C.), is entrusted to the -keeping of a princess, as are the mirror, sword and jewel inherited from -the sun goddess; a woman (Tachibana) accompanies Prince Yamato-dake in -his campaign against the Yemishi, and sacrifices her life to quell a -tempest at sea; Saho, consort of Suinin, is the heroine of a most tragic -tale in which the conflict between filial piety and conjugal loyalty -leads to her self-destruction; and a woman is found ruling over a large -district in Kiushu when the Emperor Keiko is engaged in his campaign -against the aborigines. The reign of Suinin saw the beginning of an art -destined to assume extraordinary importance in Japan--the art of -wrestling--and the first champion, Nomi no Sukune, is honoured for -having suggested that clay figures should take the place of the human -sacrifices hitherto offered at the sepulture of Imperial personages. The -irrigation works commenced in the time of Sujin were zealously continued -under his two immediate successors, Suinin and Keiko. More than 800 -ponds and channels are described as having been constructed under the -former's rule. We find evidence also that the sway of the throne had -been by this time widely extended, for in 125 a governor-general of 15 -provinces is nominated, and two years later, governors (_miyakko_) are -appointed in every province and mayors (_inaki_) in every village. The -number or names of these local divisions are not given, but it is -explained that mountains and rivers were taken as boundaries of -provinces, the limits of towns and villages being marked by roads -running respectively east and west, north and south. - - - Invasion of Korea. - -An incident is now reached which the Japanese count a landmark in their -history, though foreign critics are disposed to regard it as apocryphal. -It is the invasion of Korea by a Japanese army under the command of the -empress Jingo, in 200. The emperor Chuai, having proceeded to Kiushiu -for the purpose of conducting a campaign against the Kuma-so, is there -joined by the empress, who, at the inspiration of a deity, seeks to -divert the Imperial arms against Korea. But the emperor refuses to -believe in the existence of any such country, and heaven punishes his -incredulity with death at the hands of the Kuma-so, according to one -account; from the effects of disease, according to another. The calamity -is concealed; the Kuma-so are subdued, and the empress, having collected -a fleet and raised an army, crosses to the state of Silla (in Korea), -where, at the spectacle of her overwhelming strength, the Korean monarch -submits without fighting, and swears that until the sun rises in the -west, until rivers run towards their sources, and until pebbles ascend -to the sky and become stars, he will do homage and send tribute to -Japan. His example is followed by the kings of the two other states -constituting the Korean peninsula, and the warlike empress returns -triumphant. Many supernatural elements embellish the tale, but the -features which chiefly discredit it are that it abounds in anachronisms, -and that the event, despite its signal importance, is not mentioned in -either Chinese or Korean history. It is certain that China then -possessed in Korea territory administered by Chinese governors. She must -therefore have had cognisance of such an invasion, had it occurred. -Moreover, Korean history mentions twenty-five raids made by the Japanese -against Silla during the first five centuries of the Christian era, but -not one of them can be identified with Jingo's alleged expedition. There -can be no doubt that the early Japanese were an aggressive, enterprising -people, and that their nearest over-sea neighbour suffered much from -their activity. Nor can there be any reasonable doubt that the Jingo -tale contains a large germ of truth, and is at least an echo of the -relations that existed between Japan and Korea in the 3rd and 4th -centuries. The records of the 69 years comprising Jingo's reign are in -the main an account of intercourse, sometimes peaceful, sometimes -stormy, between the neighbouring countries. Only one other episode -occupies a prominent place: it is an attempt on the part of Jingo's -step-brothers to oppose her return to Yamato and to prevent the -accession of her son to the throne. It should be noted here that all -such names as Jimmu, Sujin, Chuai, &c., are posthumous, and were -invented in the reign of Kwammu (782-806), the fashion being taken from -China and the names themselves being purely Chinese translations of the -qualities assigned to the respective monarchs. Thus Jimmu signifies -"divine valour"; Sujin, "deity-honouring"; and Chuai, "sad middle son." -The names of these rulers during life were wholly different from their -posthumous appellations. - - - Earliest Notices in Chinese History. - -Chinese history, which is incomparably older and more precise than -Korean, is by no means silent about Japan. Long notices occur in the -later Han and Wei records (25 to 265). The Japanese are spoken of as -dwarfs (_Wa_), and their islands, frequently called the queen country, -are said to be mountainous, with soil suitable for growing grain, hemp, -and the silkworm mulberry. The climate is so mild that vegetables can be -grown in winter and summer; there are neither oxen, horses, tigers, nor -leopards; the people understand the art of weaving; the men tattoo their -faces and bodies in patterns indicating differences of rank; male attire -consists of a single piece of cloth; females wear a gown passed over the -head, and tie their hair in a bow; soldiers are armed with spears and -shields, and also with bows, from which they discharge arrows tipped -with bone or iron; the sovereign resides in Yamato; there are stockaded -forts and houses; food is taken with the fingers but is served on bamboo -trays and wooden trenchers; foot-gear is not worn; when men of the lower -classes meet a man of rank, they leave the road and retire to the grass, -squatting or kneeling with both hands on the ground when they address -him; intoxicating liquor is much used; the people are long-lived, many -reaching the age of 100; women are more numerous than men; there is no -theft, and litigation is infrequent; the women are faithful and not -jealous; all men of high rank have four or five wives, others two or -three; wives and children of law-breakers are confiscated, and for grave -crimes the offender's family is extirpated; divination is practised by -burning bones; mourning lasts for some ten days and the rites are -performed by a "mourning-keeper"; after a funeral the whole family -perform ablutions; fishing is much practised, and the fishermen are -skilled divers; there are distinctions of rank and some are vassals to -others; each province has a market where goods are exchanged; the -country is divided into more than 100 provinces, and among its products -are white pearls, green jade and cinnabar. These annals go on to say -that between 147 and 190 civil war prevailed for several years, and -order was finally restored by a female sovereign, who is described as -having been old and unmarried; much addicted to magic arts; attended by -a thousand females; dwelling in a palace with lofty pavilions surrounded -by a stockade and guarded by soldiers; but leading such a secluded life -that few saw her face except one man who served her meals and acted as a -medium of communication. There can be little question that this queen -was the empress Jingo who, according to Japanese annals, came to the -throne in the year A.D. 200, and whose every public act had its -inception or promotion in some alleged divine interposition. In one -point, however, the Chinese historians are certainly incorrect. They -represent tattooing as universal in ancient Japan, whereas it was -confined to criminals, in whose case it played the part that branding -does elsewhere. Centuries later, in feudal days, the habit came to be -practised by men of the lower orders whose avocations involved baring -the body, but it never acquired vogue among educated people. In other -respects these ancient Chinese annals must be credited with remarkable -accuracy in their description of Japan and the Japanese. Their account -may be advantageously compared with Professor Chamberlain's analysis of -the manners and customs of the early Japanese, in the preface to his -translation of the _Kojiki_. - - "The Japanese of the mythical period, as pictured in the legends - preserved by the compiler of the _Records of Ancient Matters_, were a - race who had long emerged from the savage stage and had attained to a - high level of barbaric skill. The Stone Age was forgotten by them--or - nearly so--and the evidence points to their never having passed - through a genuine Bronze Age, though the knowledge of bronze was at a - later period introduced from the neighbouring continent. They used - iron for manufacturing spears, swords and knives of various shapes, - and likewise for the more peaceful purpose of making hooks wherewith - to angle or to fasten the doors of their huts. Their other warlike and - hunting implements (besides traps and gins, which appear to have been - used equally for catching beasts and birds and for destroying human - enemies) were bows and arrows, spears and elbow-pads--the latter - seemingly of skin, while special allusion is made to the fact that the - arrows were feathered. Perhaps clubs should be added to the list. Of - the bows and arrows, swords and knives, there is perpetual mention, - but nowhere do we hear of the tools with which they were manufactured, - and there is the same remarkable silence regarding such widely spread - domestic implements as the saw and the axe. We hear, however, of the - pestle and mortar, of the fire-drill, of the wedge, of the sickle, and - of the shuttle used in weaving. Navigation seems to have been in a - very elementary state. Indeed the art of sailing was but little - practised in Japan even so late as the middle of the 10th century of - our era, subsequent to the general diffusion of Chinese civilization, - though rowing and punting are often mentioned by the early poets. To - what we should call towns or villages very little reference is made - anywhere in the _Records_ or in that part of the _Chronicles_ which - contain the account of the so-called Divine Age. But from what we - learn incidentally it would seem that the scanty population was - chiefly distributed in small hamlets and isolated dwellings along the - coast and up the course of the larger streams. Of house-building there - is frequent mention. Fences were in use. Rugs of skins and - rush-matting were occasionally brought in to sit on, and we even hear - once or twice of silk rugs being used for the same purpose by the - noble and wealthy. The habits of personal cleanliness which so - pleasantly distinguish the modern Japanese from their neighbours, in - continental Asia, though less fully developed than at present would - seem to have existed in the germ in early times, as we read more than - once of bathing in rivers, and are told of bathing women being - specially attached to the person of a certain Imperial infant. - Lustrations, too, formed part of the religious practices of the race. - Latrines are mentioned several times. They would appear to have been - situated away from the houses and to have been generally placed over a - running stream, whence doubtless the name for latrine in the archaic - dialect--_kawaya_ (river-house). A peculiar sort of dwelling-place - which the two old histories bring prominently under our notice is the - so-called parturition house--a one-roomed hut without windows, which a - woman was expected to build and retire into for the purpose Of being - delivered unseen. Castles are not distinctly spoken of until a time - which coincides, according to the received chronology, with the first - century B.C. We then first meet with the curious term rice-castle, - whose precise signification is a matter of dispute among the native - commentators, but which, on comparison with Chinese descriptions of - the early Japanese, should probably be understood to mean a kind of - palisade serving the purpose of a redoubt, behind which the warriors - could ensconce themselves. The food of the early Japanese consisted of - fish and of the flesh of the wild creatures which fell by the hunter's - arrow or were taken in the trapper's snare. Rice is the only cereal of - which there is such mention made as to place it beyond a doubt that - its cultivation dates back to time immemorial. Beans, millet and - barley are indeed named once, together with silkworms, in the account - of the Divine Age. But the passage has every aspect of an - interpolation in the legend, perhaps not dating back long before the - time of the eighth-century compiler. A few unimportant vegetables and - fruits, of most of which there is but a single mention, are found. The - intoxicating liquor called _sake_ was known in Japan during the - mythical period, and so were chopsticks for eating food with. Cooking - pots and cups and dishes--the latter both of earthenware and of leaves - of trees--are also mentioned; but of the use of fire for warming - purposes we hear nothing. Tables are named several times, but never in - connexion with food: they would seem to have been used exclusively for - the purpose of presenting offerings on, and were probably quite small - and low--in fact, rather trays than tables, according to European - ideas. In the use of clothing and the specialization of garments the - early Japanese had reached a high level. We read in the most ancient - legends of upper garments, skirts, trowsers, girdles, veils and hats, - while both sexes adorned themselves with necklaces, bracelets and head - ornaments of stones considered precious--in this respect offering a - striking contrast to their descendants in modern times, of whose - attire jewelry forms no part. The material of their clothes was hempen - cloth and paper--mulberry bark, coloured by being rubbed with madder, - and probably with woad and other tinctorial plants. All the garments, - so far as we may judge, were woven, sewing being nowhere mentioned. - From the great place which the chase occupied in daily life, we are - led to suppose that skins also were used to make garments of. There is - in the _Records_ at least one passage which favours this supposition, - and the _Chronicles_ in one place mention the straw rain-coat and - broad-brimmed hat, which still form the Japanese peasant's effectual - protection against the inclemencies of the weather. The tendrils of - creeping plants served the purposes of strings, and bound the - warrior's sword round his waist. Combs are mentioned, and it is - evident that much attention was devoted to the dressing of the hair. - The men seem to have bound up their hair in two bunches, one on each - side of the head, while the young boys tied theirs in a top-knot, the - unmarried girls let their locks hang down over their necks, and the - married women dressed theirs after a fashion which apparently combined - the two last-named methods. There is no mention in any of the old - books of cutting the hair or beard except in token of disgrace; - neither do we gather that the sexes, but for the matter of the - head-dress, were distinguished by a diversity of apparel and - ornamentation. With regard to the precious stones mentioned above as - having been used as ornaments for the head, neck and arms, we know - from the specimens which have rewarded the labours of archaeological - research in Japan that agate, crystal, glass, jade, serpentine and - steatite were the most used materials, and carved and pierced - cylindrical shapes the commonest forms. The horse--which was ridden, - but not driven--the barn-door fowl and the cormorant used for fishing, - are the only domesticated creatures mentioned in the earlier - traditions, with the doubtful exception of the silkworm. In the later - portions of the _Records_ and _Chronicles_ dogs and cattle are alluded - to, but sheep, swine and even cats were apparently not yet - introduced." - -As the prehistoric era draws to its end the above analyses of Japanese -civilization have to be modified. Thus, towards the close of the 3rd -century, ship-building made great progress, and instead of the small -boats hitherto in use, a vessel 100 ft. long was constructed. Notable -above all is the fact that Japan's turbulent relations with Korea were -replaced by friendly intercourse, so that she began to receive from her -neighbour instruction in the art of writing. The date assigned by the -_Chronicles_ for this important event is A.D. 285, but it has been -proved almost conclusively that Japanese annals relating to this period -are in error to the extent of 120 years. Hence the introduction of -calligraphy must be placed in 405. Chinese history shows that between 57 -and 247 Japan sent four embassies to the courts of the Han and the Wei, -and this intercourse cannot have failed to disclose the ideograph. But -the knowledge appears to have been confined to a few interpreters, and -not until the year 405 were steps taken to extend it, with the aid of a -learned Korean, Wang-in. Korea herself began to study Chinese learning -only a few years before she undertook to impart it to Japan. We now find -a numerous colony of Koreans passing to Japan and settling there; a -large number are also carried over as prisoners of war, and the Japanese -obtain seamstresses from both of their continental neighbours. One fact, -related with much precision, shows that the refinements of life were in -an advanced condition: an ice-house is described, and we read that from -374 (? 494) it became the fashion to store ice in this manner for use in -the hot months by placing it in water or _sake_. The emperor, Nintoku, -to whose time this innovation is attributed, is one of the romantic -figures of Japanese history. He commenced his career by refusing to -accept the sovereignty from his younger brother, who pressed him -earnestly to do so on the ground that the proper order of succession had -been disturbed by their father's partiality--though the rights attaching -to primogeniture did not receive imperative recognition in early Japan. -After three years of this mutual self-effacement, during which the -throne remained vacant, the younger brother committed suicide, and -Nintoku reluctantly became sovereign. He chose Naniwa (the modern Osaka) -for his capital, but he would not take the farmers from their work to -finish the building of a palace, and subsequently, inferring from the -absence of smoke over the houses of the people that the country was -impoverished, he remitted all taxes and suspended forced labour for a -term of three years, during which his palace fell into a state of ruin -and he himself fared in the coarsest manner. Digging canals, damming -rivers, constructing roads and bridges, and establishing granaries -occupied his attention when love did not distract it. But in affairs of -the heart he was most unhappy. He figures as the sole wearer of the -Japanese crown who was defied by his consort; for when he took a -concubine in despite of the empress, her jealousy was so bitter that, -refusing to be placated by any of his majesty's verses or other -overtures, she left the palace altogether; and when he sought to -introduce another beauty into the inner chamber, his own half-brother, -who carried his proposals, won the girl for himself. One other fact -deserves to be remembered in connexion with Nintoku's reign: -Ki-no-tsuno, representative of a great family which had filled the -highest administrative and military posts under several sovereigns, is -mentioned as "the first to commit to writing in detail the productions -of the soil in each locality." This was in 353 (probably 473). We shall -err little if we date the commencement of Japanese written annals from -this time, though no compilation earlier than the _Kojiki_ has survived. - -_Early Historical Period._--With the emperor Richu, who came to the -throne A.D. 400, the historical period may be said to commence; for -though the chronology of the records is still questionable, the facts -are generally accepted as credible. Conspicuous loyalty towards the -sovereign was not an attribute of the Japanese Imperial family in early -times. Attempts to usurp the throne were not uncommon, though there are -very few instances of such essays on the part of a subject. Love or lust -played no insignificant part in the drama, and a common method of -placating an irate sovereign was to present a beautiful damsel for his -delectation. The veto of consanguinity did not receive very strict -respect in these matters. Children of the same father might intermarry, -but not those of the same mother; a canon which becomes explicable on -observing that as wives usually lived apart from their husbands and had -the sole custody of their offspring, two or more families often remained -to the end unconscious of the fact that they had a common sire. There -was a remarkable tendency to organize the nation into groups of persons -following the same pursuit or charged with the same functions. A group -thus composed was called _be_. The heads of the great families had -titles--as _omi_, _muraji_, _miakko_, _wake_, &c.--and affairs of state -were administered by the most renowned of these nobles, wholly subject -to the sovereign's ultimate will. The provincial districts were ruled by -scions of the Imperial family, who appear to have been, on the whole, -entirely subservient to the Throne. There were no tribunals of justice: -the ordeal of boiling water or heated metal was the sole test of guilt -or innocence, apart, of course, from confession, which was often exacted -under menace of torture. A celebrated instance of the ordeal of boiling -water is recorded in 415, when this device was employed to correct the -genealogies of families suspected of falsely claiming descent from -emperors or divine beings. The test proved efficacious, for men -conscious of forgery refused to undergo the ordeal. Deprivation of rank -was the lightest form of punishment; death the commonest, and -occasionally the whole family of an offender became serfs of the house -against which the offence had been committed or which had been -instrumental in disclosing a crime. There are, however, frequent -examples of wrong-doing expiated by the voluntary surrender of lands or -other property. We find several instances of that extreme type of -loyalty which became habitual in later ages--suicide in preference to -surviving a deceased lord. On the whole the successive sovereigns of -these early times appear to have ruled with clemency and consideration -for the people's welfare. But there were two notable exceptions--Yuriaku -(457-479) and Muretsu (499-506). The former slew men ruthlessly in fits -of passion or resentment, and the latter was the Nero of Japanese -history, a man who loved to witness the agony of his fellows and knew no -sentiment of mercy or remorse. Yet even Yuriaku did not fail to promote -industrial pursuits. Skilled artisans were obtained from Korea, and it -is related that, in 462, this monarch induced the empress and the ladies -of the palace to plant mulberry trees with their own hands in order to -encourage sericulture. Throughout the 5th and 6th centuries many -instances are recorded of the acquisition of landed estates by the -Throne, and their occasional bestowal upon princes or Imperial consorts, -such gifts being frequently accompanied by the assignment of bodies of -agriculturists who seem to have accepted the position of serfs. -Meanwhile Chinese civilization was gradually becoming known, either by -direct contact or through Korea. Several immigrations of Chinese or -Korean settlers are on record. No less than 7053 householders of Chinese -subjects came, through Korea, in 540, and one of their number received -high rank together with the post of director of the Imperial treasury. -From these facts, and from a national register showing the derivation of -all the principal families in Japan, it is clearly established that a -considerable strain of Chinese and Korean blood runs in the veins of -many Japanese subjects. - - - Introduction of Buddhism. - -The most signal and far-reaching event of this epoch was the importation -of the Buddhist creed, which took place in 552. A Korean monarch acted -as propagandist, sending a special envoy with a bronze image of the -Buddha and with several volumes of the Sutras. Unfortunately the coming -of the foreign faith happened to synchronize with an epidemic of plague, -and conservatives at the Imperial court were easily able to attribute -this visitation to resentment on the part of the ancestral deities -against the invasion of Japan by an alien creed. Thus the spread of -Buddhism was checked; but only for a time. Thirty-five years after the -coming of the Sutras, the first temple was erected to enshrine a wooden -image of the Buddha 16 ft. high. It has often been alleged that the -question between the imported and the indigenous cults had to be decided -by the sword. The statement is misleading. That the final adoption of -Buddhism resulted from a war is true, but its adoption or rejection did -not constitute the motive of the combat. A contest for the succession to -the throne at the opening of Sujun's reign (588-592) found the partisans -of the Indian faith ranged on one side, its opponents on the other, and -in a moment of stress the leaders of the former, Soma and Prince -Umayado, vowed to erect Buddhist temples should victory rest on their -arms. From that time the future of Buddhism was assured. In 588 Korea -sent Buddhist relics, Buddhist priests, Buddhist ascetics, architects of -Buddhist temples, and casters of Buddhist images. She had already sent -men learned in divination, in medicine, and in the calendar. The -building of temples began to be fashionable in the closing years of the -6th century, as did also abdication of the world by people of both -sexes; and a census taken in 623, during the reign of the empress Suiko -(583-628), showed that there were then 46 temples, 816 priests and 569 -nuns in the empire. This rapid growth of the alien faith was due mainly -to two causes: first, that the empress Suiko, being of the Soga family, -naturally favoured a creed which had found its earliest Japanese patron -in the great statesman and general, Soga no Umako; secondly, that one of -the most illustrious scholars and philosophers ever possessed by Japan, -Prince Shotoku, devoted all his energies to fostering Buddhism. - -The adoption of Buddhism meant to the Japanese much more than the -acquisition of a practical religion with a code of clearly defined -morality in place of the amorphous and jejune cult of Shinto. It meant -the introduction of Chinese civilization. Priests and scholars crossed -in numbers from China, and men passed over from Japan to study the -Sutras at what was then regarded as the fountain-head of Buddhism. There -was also a constant stream of immigrants from China and Korea, and the -result may be gathered from the fact that a census taken of the Japanese -nobility in 814 indicated 382 Korean and Chinese families against only -796 of pure Japanese origin. The records show that in costume and -customs a signal advance was made towards refinement. Hair-ornaments of -gold or silver chiselled in the form of flowers; caps of sarcenet in -twelve special tints, each indicating a different grade; garments of -brocade and embroidery with figured thin silks of various colours--all -these were worn on ceremonial occasions; the art of painting was -introduced; a recorder's office was established; perfumes were largely -employed; court picnics to gather medicinal herbs were instituted, -princes and princesses attending in brilliant raiment; Chinese music and -dancing were introduced; cross bows and catapults were added to the -weapons of war; domestic architecture made signal strides in obedience -to the examples of Buddhist sacred edifices, which, from the first, -showed magnificence of dimension and decoration hitherto unconceived in -Japan; the arts of metal-casting and sculpture underwent great -improvement; Prince Shotoku compiled a code, commonly spoken of as the -first written laws of Japan, but in reality a collection of maxims -evincing a moral spirit of the highest type. In some respects, however, -there was no improvement. The succession to the throne still tended to -provoke disputes among the Imperial princes; the sword constituted the -principal weapon of punishment, and torture the chief judicial device. -Now, too, for the first time, a noble family is found seeking to usurp -the Imperial authority. The head of the Soga house, Umako, having -compassed the murder of the emperor Sujun and placed on the throne his -own niece (Suiko), swept away all opposition to the latter's successor, -Jomei, and controlled the administration of state affairs throughout two -reigns. In all this he was strongly seconded by his son, Iruka, who even -surpassed him in contumelious assumption of power and parade of dignity. -Iruka was slain in the presence of the empress Kogyoku by Prince Naka -with the assistance of the minister of the interior, Kamako, and it is -not surprising to find the empress (Kogyoku) abdicating immediately -afterwards in favour of Kamako's protege, Prince Karu, who is known in -history as Kotoku. This Kamako, planner and leader of the conspiracy -which overthrew the Soga, is remembered by posterity under the name of -Kamatari and as the founder of the most illustrious of Japan's noble -houses, the Fujiwara. At this time (645), a habit which afterwards -contributed materially to the effacement of the Throne's practical -authority was inaugurated. Prince Furubito, pressed by his brother, -Prince Karu, to assume the sceptre in accordance with his right of -primogeniture, made his refusal peremptory by abandoning the world and -taking the tonsure. This retirement to a monastery was afterwards -dictated to several sovereigns by ministers who found that an active -occupant of the throne impeded their own exercise of administrative -autocracy. Furubito's recourse to the tonsure proved, however, to be -merely a cloak for ambitious designs. Before a year had passed he -conspired to usurp the throne and was put to death with his children, -his consorts strangling themselves. Suicide to escape the disgrace of -defeat had now become a common practice. Another prominent feature of -this epoch was the prevalence of superstition. The smallest -incidents--the growing of two lotus flowers on one stem; a popular -ballad; the reputed song of a sleeping monkey; the condition of the -water in a pond; rain without clouds--all these and cognate trifles were -regarded as omens; wizards and witches deluded the common people; a -strange form of caterpillar was worshipped as the god of the everlasting -world, and the peasants impoverished themselves by making sacrifices to -it. - - - First Legislative Epoch. - -An interesting epoch is now reached, the first legislative era of early -Japanese history. It commenced with the reign of the emperor Kotoku -(645), of whom the _Chronicles_ say that he "honoured the religion of -Buddha and despised Shinto"; that "he was of gentle disposition; loved -men of learning; made no distinction of noble and mean, and continually -dispensed beneficent edicts." The customs calling most loudly for reform -in his time were abuse of the system of forced labour; corrupt -administration of justice; spoliation of the peasant class; assumption -of spurious titles to justify oppression; indiscriminate distribution of -the families of slaves and serfs; diversion of taxes to the pockets of -collectors; formation of great estates, and a general lack of -administrative centralization. The first step of reform consisted in -ordering the governors of provinces to prepare registers showing the -numbers of freemen and serfs within their jurisdiction as well as the -area of cultivated land. It was further ordained that the advantages of -irrigation should be shared equally with the common people; that no -local governor might try and decide criminal cases while in his -province; that any one convicted of accepting bribes should be liable to -a fine of double the amount as well as to other punishment; that in the -Imperial court a box should be placed for receiving petitions and a bell -hung to be sounded in the event of delay in answering them or unfairness -in dealing with them; that all absorption of land into great estates -should cease; that barriers, outposts, guards and post-horses should be -provided; that high officials should be dowered with hereditary estates -by way of emolument, the largest of such grants being 3000 homesteads; -that men of unblemished character and proved capacity should be -appointed aldermen for adjudicating criminal matters; that there should -be chosen as clerks for governors and vice-governors of provinces men of -solid competence "skilled in writing and arithmetic"; that the land -should be parcelled out in fixed proportions to every adult unit of the -population with right of tenure for a term of six years; that forced -labour should be commuted for taxes of silk and cloth; and that for -fiscal and administrative purposes households should be organized in -groups of five, each group under an elder, and ten groups forming a -township, which, again, should be governed by an elder. Incidentally to -these reforms many of the evil customs of the time are exposed. Thus -provincial governors when they visited the capital were accustomed to -travel with great retinues who appear to have constituted a charge on -the regions through which they passed. The law now limited the number of -a chief governor's attendants to nine, and forbade him to use official -houses or to fare at public cost unless journeying on public business. -Again, men who had acquired some local distinction, though they did not -belong to noble families, took advantage of the absence of historical -records or official registers, and, representing themselves as -descendants of magnates to whom the charge of public granaries had been -entrusted, succeeded in usurping valuable privileges. The office of -provincial governor had in many cases become hereditary, and not only -were governors largely independent of Imperial control, but also, since -every free man carried arms, there had grown up about these officials a -population relying largely on the law of force. Kotoku's reforms sought -to institute a system of temporary governors, and directed that all arms -and armour should be stored in arsenals built in waste places, except in -the case of provinces adjoining lands where unsubdued aborigines -(Yemishi) dwelt. Punishments were drastic, and in the case of a man -convicted of treason, all his children were executed with him, his wives -and consorts committing suicide. From a much earlier age suicide had -been freely resorted to as the most honourable exit from pending -disgrace, but as yet the samurai's method of disembowelment was not -employed, strangulation or cutting the throat being the regular -practice. Torture was freely employed and men often died under it. -Signal abuses prevailed in regions beyond the immediate range of the -central government's observation. It has been shown that from early days -the numerous scions of the Imperial family had generally been provided -for by grants of provincial estates. Gradually the descendants of these -men, and the representatives of great families who held hereditary rank, -extended their domains unscrupulously, employing forced labour to -reclaim lands, which they let to the peasants, not hesitating to -appropriate large slices of public property, and remitting to the -central treasury only such fractions of the taxes as they found -convenient. So prevalent had the exaction of forced labour become that -country-folk, repairing to the capital to seek redress of grievances, -were often compelled to remain there for the purpose of carrying out -some work in which dignitaries of state were interested. The removal of -the capital to a new site on each change of sovereign involved a vast -quantity of unproductive toil. It is recorded that in 656, when the -empress Saimei occupied the throne, a canal was dug which required the -work of 30,000 men and a wall was built which had employed 70,000 men -before its completion. The construction of tombs for grandees was -another heavy drain on the people's labour. Some of these sepulchres -attained enormous dimensions--that of the emperor Ojin (270-310) -measures 2312 yds. round the outer moat and is some 60 ft. high; the -emperor Nintoku's (313-399) is still larger, and there is a tumulus in -Kawachi on the flank of which a good-sized village has been built. -Kotoku's laws provided that the tomb of a prince should not be so large -as to require the work of more than 1000 men for seven days, and that -the grave of a petty official must be completed by 50 men in one day. -Moreover, it was forbidden to bury with the body gold, silver, copper, -iron, jewelled shirts, jade armour or silk brocade. It appears that the -custom of suicide or sacrifice at the tomb of grandees still survived, -and that people sometimes cut off their hair or stabbed their thighs -preparatory to declaiming a threnody. All these practices were vetoed. -Abuses had grown up even in connexion with the Shinto rite of purgation. -This rite required not only the reading of rituals but also the offering -of food and fruits. For the sake of these edibles the rite was often -harshly enforced, especially in connexion with pollution from contact -with corpses; and thus it fell out that when of two brothers, returning -from a scene of forced labour, one lay down upon the road and died, the -other, dreading the cost of compulsory purgation, refused to take up the -body. Many other evil customs came into existence in connexion with this -rite, and all were dealt with in the new laws. Not the least important -of the reforms then introduced was the organization of the ministry -after the model of the Tang dynasty of China. Eight departments of state -were created, and several of them received names which are similarly -used to this day. Not only the institutions of China were borrowed but -also her official costumes. During Kotoku's reign 19 grades of head-gear -were instituted, and in the time of Tenchi (668-671) the number was -increased to 26, with corresponding robes. Throughout this era -intercourse was frequent with China, and the spread of Buddhism -continued steadily. The empress Saimei (655-661), who succeeded Kotoku, -was an earnest patron of the faith. By her command several public -expositions of the Sutras were given, and the building of temples went -on in many districts, estates being liberally granted for the -maintenance of these places of worship. - -_The Fujiwara Era._--In the _Chronicles of Japan_ the year 672 is -treated as a kind of interregnum. It was in truth a year of something -like anarchy, a great part of it being occupied by a conflict of -unparalleled magnitude between Prince Otomo (called in history Emperor -Kobun) and Prince Oama, who emerged victorious and is historically -entitled Temmu (673-686). The four centuries that followed are -conveniently designated the Fujiwara era, because throughout that long -interval affairs of state were controlled by the Fujiwara family, whose -daughters were given as consorts to successive sovereigns and whose sons -filled all the high administrative posts. It has been related above that -Kamako, chief of the Shinto officials, inspired the assassination of the -Soga chief, Iruka, and thus defeated the latter's designs upon the -throne in the days of the empress Kogyoku. Kamako, better known to -subsequent generations as Kamatari, was thenceforth regarded with -unlimited favour by successive sovereigns, and just before his death in -670, the family name of Fujiwara was bestowed on him by the emperor -Tenchi. Kamatari himself deserved all the honour he received, but his -descendants abused the high trust reposed in them, reduced the sovereign -to a mere puppet, and exercised Imperial authority without openly -usurping it. Much of this was due to the adoption of Chinese -administrative systems, a process which may be said to have commenced -during the reign of Kotoku (645-654) and to have continued almost -uninterruptedly until the 11th century. Under these systems the emperor -ceased directly to exercise supreme civil or military power: he became -merely the source of authority, not its wielder, the civil functions -being delegated to a bureaucracy and the military to a soldier class. -Possibly had the custom held of transferring the capital to a new site -on each change of sovereign, and had the growth of luxurious habits been -thus checked, the comparatively simple life of early times might have -held the throne and the people in closer contact. But from the beginning -of the 8th century a strong tendency to avoid these costly migrations -developed itself. In 709 the court took up its residence at Nara, -remaining there until 784; ten years after the latter date Kioto became -the permanent metropolis. The capital at Nara--established during the -reign of the empress Gemmyo (708-715)--was built on the plan of the -Chinese metropolis. It had nine gates and nine avenues, the palace being -situated in the northern section and approached by a broad, straight -avenue, which divided the city into two perfectly equal halves, all the -other streets running parallel to this main avenue or at right angles -to it. Seven sovereigns reigned at Heijo (castle of peace), as Nara is -historically called, and, during this period of 75 years, seven of the -grandest temples ever seen in Japan were erected; a multitude of idols -were cast, among them a colossal bronze Daibutsu 53(1/2) ft. high; large -temple-bells were founded, and all the best artists and artisans of the -era devoted their services to these works. This religious mania reached -its acme in the reign of the emperor Shomu (724-748), a man equally -superstitious and addicted to display. In Temmu's time the custom had -been introduced of compelling large numbers of persons to enter the -Buddhist priesthood with the object of propitiating heaven's aid to heal -the illness of an illustrious personage. In Shomu's day every natural -calamity or abnormal phenomenon was regarded as calling for religious -services on a large scale, and the great expense involved in all these -buildings and ceremonials, supplemented by lavish outlays on court -pageants, was severely felt by the nation. The condition of the -agricultural class, who were the chief tax-payers, was further -aggravated by the operation of the emperor Kotoku's land system, which -rendered tenure so uncertain as to deter improvements. Therefore, in the -Nara epoch, the principle of private ownership of land began to be -recognized. Attention was also paid to road-making, bridge-building, -river control and house construction, a special feature of this last -being the use of tiles for roofing purposes in place of the shingles or -thatch hitherto employed. In all these steps of progress Buddhist -priests took an active part. Costumes were now governed by purely -Chinese fashions. This change had been gradually introduced from the -time of Kotoku's legislative measures--generally called the Taikwa -reforms after the name of the era (645-650) of their adoption--and was -rendered more thorough by supplementary enactments in the period 701-703 -while Mommu occupied the throne. Ladies seem by this time to have -abandoned the strings of beads worn in early eras round the neck, wrists -and ankles. They used ornaments of gold, silver or jade in their hair, -but in other respects their habiliments closely resembled those of men, -and to make the difference still less conspicuous they straddled their -horses when riding. Attempts were made to facilitate travel by -establishing stores of grain along the principal highways, but as yet -there were no hostelries, and if a wayfarer did not find shelter in the -house of a friend, he had to bivouac as best he could. Such a state of -affairs in the provinces offered a marked contrast to the luxurious -indulgence which had now begun to prevail in the capital. There -festivals of various kinds, dancing, verse-composing, flower picnics, -archery, polo, football--of a very refined nature--hawking, hunting and -gambling absorbed the attention of the aristocracy. Nothing disturbed -the serenity of the epoch except a revolt of the northern Yemishi, which -was temporarily subdued by a Fujiwara general, for the Fujiwara had not -yet laid aside the martial habits of their ancestors. In 794 the -Imperial capital was transferred from Nara to Kioto by order of the -emperor Kwammu, one of the greatest of Japanese sovereigns. Education, -the organization of the civil service, riparian works, irrigation -improvements, the separation of religion from politics, the abolition of -sinecure offices, devices for encouraging and assisting agriculture, all -received attention from him. But a twenty-two years' campaign against -the northern Yemishi; the building of numerous temples; the indulgence -of such a passionate love of the chase that he organized 140 hunting -excursions during his reign of 25 years; profuse extravagance on the -part of the aristocracy in Kioto and the exactions of provincial nobles, -conspired to sink the working classes into greater depths of hardship -than ever. Farmers had to borrow money and seed-rice from local -officials or Buddhist temples, hypothecating their land as security; -thus the temples and the nobles extended their already great estates, -whilst the agricultural population gradually fell into a position of -practical serfdom. - - - Rise of the Fujiwara. - -Meanwhile the Fujiwara family were steadily developing their influence -in Kioto. Their methods were simple but thoroughly effective. "By -progressive exercises of arbitrariness they gradually contrived that the -choice of a consort for the sovereign should be legally limited to a -daughter of their family, five branches of which were specially -designated to that honour through all ages. When a son was born to an -emperor, the Fujiwara took the child into one of their palaces, and on -his accession to the throne, the particular Fujiwara noble that happened -to be his maternal grandfather became regent of the empire. This office -of regent, created towards the close of the 9th century, was part of the -scheme; for the Fujiwara did not allow the purple to be worn by a -sovereign after he had attained his majority, or, if they suffered him -to wield the sceptre during a few years of manhood, they compelled him -to abdicate so soon as any independent aspirations began to impair his -docility; and since for the purposes of administration in these -constantly recurring minorities an office more powerful than that of -prime minister (dajo daijin) was needed, they created that of regent -(kwambaku), making it hereditary in their own family. In fact the -history of Japan from the 9th to the 19th century may be described as -the history of four families, the Fujiwara, the Taira, the Minamoto and -the Tokugawa. The Fujiwara governed through the emperor; the Taira, the -Minamoto and the Tokugawa governed in spite of the emperor. The Fujiwara -based their power on matrimonial alliances with the Throne; the Taira, -the Minamoto and the Tokugawa based theirs on the possession of armed -strength which the throne had no competence to control. There another -broad line of cleavage is seen. Throughout the Fujiwara era the centre -of political gravity remained always in the court. Throughout the era of -the Taira, the Minamoto and the Tokugawa the centre of political gravity -was transferred to a point outside the court, the headquarters of a -military feudalism." The process of transfer was of course gradual. It -commenced with the granting of large tracts of tax-free lands to -noblemen who had wrested them from the aborigines (Yemishi) or had -reclaimed them by means of serf-labour. These tracts lay for the most -part in the northern and eastern parts of the main island, at such a -distance from the Capital that the writ of the central government did -not run there; and since such lands could be rented at rates -considerably less than the tax levied on farms belonging to the state, -the peasants by degrees abandoned the latter and settled on the former, -with the result that the revenues of the Throne steadily diminished, -while those of the provincial magnates correspondingly increased. -Moreover, in the 7th century, at the time of the adoption of Chinese -models of administration and organization, the court began to rely for -military protection on the services of guards temporarily drafted from -the provincial troops, and, during the protracted struggle against the -Yemishi in the north and east in the 8th century, the fact that the -power of the sword lay with the provinces began to be noted. - - - The Taira and the Minamoto. - -Kioto remained the source of authority. But with the growth of luxury -and effeminacy in the capital the Fujiwara became more and more averse -from the hardships of campaigning, and in the 9th and 10th centuries, -respectively, the Taira and the Minamoto[1] families came into -prominence as military leaders, the field of the Taira operations being -the south and west, that of the Minamoto the north and east. Had the -court reserved to itself and munificently exercised the privilege of -rewarding these services, it might still have retained power and wealth. -But by a niggardly and contemptuous policy on the part of Kioto not only -were the Minamoto leaders estranged but also they assumed the right of -recompensing their followers with tax-free estates, an example which the -Taira leaders quickly followed. By the early years of the 12th century -these estates had attracted the great majority of the farming class, -whereas the public land was left wild and uncultivated. In a word, the -court and the Fujiwara found themselves without revenue, while the -coffers of the Taira and the Minamoto were full: the power of the purse -and the power of the sword had passed effectually to the two military -families. Prominent features of the moral condition of the capital at -this era (12th century) were superstition, refinement and effeminacy. A -belief was widely held that calamity could not be averted or success -insured without recourse to Buddhist priests. Thus, during a reign of -only 13 years at the close of the 11th century, the emperor Shirakawa -caused 5420 religious pictures to be painted, ordered the casting of 127 -statues of Buddha, each 11 ft. high, of 3150 life-sized images and of -2930 smaller idols, and constructed 21 large temples as well as 446,630 -religious edifices of various kinds. Side by side with this faith in the -supernatural, sexual immorality prevailed widely, never accompanied, -however, by immodesty. Literary proficiency ranked as the be-all and -end-all of existence. "A man estimated the conjugal qualities of a young -lady by her skill in finding scholarly similes and by her perception of -the cadence of words. If a woman was so fortunate as to acquire a -reputation for learning, she possessed a certificate of universal virtue -and amiability." All the pastimes of the Nara epoch were pursued with -increased fervour and elaboration in the Heian (Kioto) era. The building -of fine dwelling-houses and the laying out of landscape gardens took -place on a considerable scale, though in these respects the ideals of -later ages were not yet reached. As to costume, the close-fitting, -business-like and comparatively simple dress of the 8th century was -exchanged for a much more elaborate style. During the Nara epoch the -many-hued hats of China had been abandoned for a sober head-gear of silk -gauze covered with black lacquer, but in the Heian era this was replaced -by an imposing structure glistening with jewels: the sleeves of the -tunic grew so long that they hung to the knees when a man's arms were -crossed, and the trowsers were made so full and baggy that they -resembled a divided skirt. From this era may be said to have commenced -the manufacture of the tasteful and gorgeous textile fabrics for which -Japan afterwards became famous. "A fop's ideal was to wear several -suits, one above the other, disposing them so that their various colours -showed in harmoniously contrasting lines at the folds on the bosom and -at the edges of the long sleeves. A successful costume created a -sensation in court circles. Its wearer became the hero of the hour, and -under the pernicious influence of such ambition men began even to powder -their faces and rouge their cheeks like women. As for the fair sex, -their costume reached the acme of unpracticality and extravagance in -this epoch. Long flowing hair was essential, and what with developing -the volume and multiplying the number of her robes, and wearing above -her trowsers a many-plied train, a grand lady of the time always seemed -to be struggling to emerge from a cataract of habiliments." It was -fortunate for Japan that circumstances favoured the growth of a military -class in this age of her career, for had the conditions existing in -Kioto during the Heian epoch spread throughout the whole country, the -penalty never escaped by a demoralized nation must have overtaken her. -But by the middle of the 12th century the pernicious influence of the -Fujiwara had paled before that of the Taira and the Minamoto, and a -question of succession to the throne marshalled the latter two families -in opposite camps, thus inaugurating an era of civil war which held the -country in the throes of almost continuous battle for 450 years, placed -it under the administration of a military feudalism, and educated a -nation of warriors. At first the Minamoto were vanquished and driven -from the capital, Kiyomori, the Taira chief, being left complete master -of the situation. He established his headquarters at Rokuharu, in Kioto, -appropriated the revenues of 30 out of the 66 provinces forming the -empire, and filled all the high offices of state with his own relatives -or connexions. But he made no radical change in the administrative -system, preferring to follow the example of the Fujiwara by keeping the -throne in the hands of minors. And he committed the blunder of sparing -the lives of two youthful sons of his defeated rival, the Minamoto -chief. They were Yoritomo and Yoshitsune; the latter the greatest -strategist Japan ever produced, with perhaps one exception; the former, -one of her three greatest statesmen, the founder of military feudalism. -By these two men the Taira were so completely overthrown that they never -raised their heads again, a sea-fight at Dan-no-ura (1155) giving them -the _coup de grace_. Their supremacy had lasted 22 years. - -_The Feudal Era._--Yoritomo, acting largely under the advice of an -astute counsellor, Oye no Hiromoto, established his seat of power at -Kamakura, 300 m. from Kioto. He saw that, effectively to utilize the -strength of the military class, propinquity to the military centres in -the provinces was essential. At Kamakura he organized an administrative -body similar in mechanism to that of the metropolitan government but -studiously differentiated in the matter of nomenclature. As to the -country at large, he brought it effectually under the sway of Kamakura -by placing the provinces under the direct control of military governors, -chosen and appointed by himself. No attempt was made, however, to -interfere in any way with the polity in Kioto: it was left intact, and -the nobles about the Throne--_kuge_ (courtly houses), as they came to be -called in contradistinction to the _buke_ (military houses)--were -placated by renewal of their property titles. The Buddhist priests, -also, who had been treated most harshly during the Taira tenure of -power, found their fortunes restored under Kamakura's sway. Subsequently -Yoritomo obtained for himself the title of _sei-itai-shogun_ -(barbarian-subduing generalissimo), and just as the office of regent -(kwambaku) had long been hereditary in the Fujiwara family, so the -office of shogun became thenceforth hereditary in that of the Minamoto. -These changes were radical. They signified a complete shifting of the -centre of power. During eighteen centuries from the time of Jimmu's -invasion--as Japanese historians reckon--the country had been ruled from -the south; now the north became supreme, and for a civilian -administration a purely military was substituted. But there was no -contumely towards the court in Kioto. Kamakura made a show of seeking -Imperial sanction for every one of its acts, and the whole of the -military administration was carried on in the name of the emperor by a -shogun who called himself the Imperial deputy. In this respect things -changed materially after the death of Yoritomo (1198). Kamakura then -became the scene of a drama analogous to that acted in Kioto from the -10th century. - - - Rule of the Hojo. - -The Hojo family, to which belonged Masa, Yoritomo's consort, assumed -towards the Kamakura shogun an attitude similar to that previously -assumed by the Fujiwara family towards the emperor in Kioto. A child, -who on state occasions was carried to the council chamber in Masa's -arms, served as the nominal repository of the shogun's power, the -functions of administration being discharged in reality by the Hojo -family, whose successive heads took the name of _shikken_ (constable). -At first care was taken to have the shogun's office filled by a near -relative of Yoritomo; but after the death of that great statesman's two -sons and his nephew, the puppet shoguns were taken from the ranks of the -Fujiwara or of the Imperial princes, and were deposed so soon as they -attempted to assert themselves. What this meant becomes apparent when we -note that in the interval of 83 years between 1220 and 1308, there were -six shoguns whose ages at the time of appointment ranged from 3 to 16. -Whether, if events had not forced their hands, the Hojo constables would -have maintained towards the Throne the reverent demeanour adopted by -Yoritomo must remain a matter of conjecture. What actually happened was -that the ex-emperor, Go-Toba, made an ill-judged attempt (1221) to break -the power of Kamakura. He issued a call to arms which was responded to -by some thousands of cenobites and as many soldiers of Taira extraction. -In the brief struggle that ensued the Imperial partisans were wholly -shattered, and the direct consequences were the dethronement and exile -of the reigning emperor, the banishment of his predecessor together with -two princes of the blood, and the compulsory adoption of the tonsure by -Go-Toba; while the indirect consequence was that the succession to the -throne and the tenure of Imperial power fell under the dictation of the -Hojo as they had formerly fallen under the direction of the Fujiwara. -Yoshitoki, then head of the Hojo family, installed his brother, -Tokifusa, as military governor of Kioto, and confiscating about 3000 -estates, the property of those who had espoused the Imperial cause, -distributed these lands among the adherents of his own family, thus -greatly strengthening the basis of the feudal system. "It fared with -the Hojo as it had fared with all the great families that preceded them: -their own misrule ultimately wrought their ruin. Their first eight -representatives were talented and upright administrators. They took -justice, simplicity and truth for guiding principles; they despised -luxury and pomp; they never aspired to high official rank; they were -content with two provinces for estates, and they sternly repelled the -effeminate, depraved customs of Kioto." Thus the greater part of the -13th century was, on the whole, a golden era for Japan, and the lower -orders learned to welcome feudalism. Nevertheless no century furnished -more conspicuous illustrations of the peculiarly Japanese system of -vicarious government. Children occupied the position of shogun in -Kamakura under authority emanating from children on the throne in Kioto; -and members of the Hojo family as shikken administered affairs at the -mandate of the child shoguns. Through all three stages in the dignities -of mikado, shogun and shikken, the strictly regulated principle of -heredity was maintained, according to which no Hojo shikken could ever -become shogun; no Minamoto or Fujiwara could occupy the throne. At the -beginning of the 14th century, however, several causes combined to shake -the supremacy of the Hojo. Under the sway of the ninth shikken -(Takatoki), the austere simplicity of life and earnest discharge of -executive duties which had distinguished the early chiefs of the family -were exchanged for luxury, debauchery and perfunctory government. Thus -the management of fiscal affairs fell into the hands of Takasuke, a man -of usurious instincts. It had been the wise custom of the Hojo -constables to store grain in seasons of plenty, and distribute it at low -prices in times of dearth. There occurred at this epoch a succession of -bad harvests, but instead of opening the state granaries with benevolent -liberality, Takasuke sold their contents at the highest obtainable -rates; and, by way of contrast to the prevailing indigence, the people -saw the constable in Kamakura affecting the pomp and extravagance of a -sovereign waited upon by 37 mistresses, supporting a band of 2000 -dancers, and keeping a pack of 5000 fighting dogs. The throne happened -to be then occupied (1310-1338) by an emperor, Go-Daigo, who had reached -full maturity before his accession, and was correspondingly averse from -acting the puppet part assigned to the sovereigns of his time. Female -influence contributed to his impatience. One of his concubines bore a -son for whom he sought to obtain nomination as prince imperial, in -defiance of an arrangement made by the Hojo that the succession should -pass alternately to the senior and junior branches of the Imperial -family. Kamakura refused to entertain Go-Daigo's project, and -thenceforth the child's mother importuned her sovereign and lover to -overthrow the Hojo. The _entourage_ of the throne in Kioto at this time -was a counterpart of former eras. The Fujiwara, indeed, wielded nothing -of their ancient influence. They had been divided by the Hojo into five -branches, each endowed with an equal right to the office of regent, and -their strength was thus dissipated in struggling among themselves for -the possession of the prize. But what the Fujiwara had done in their -days of greatness, what the Taira had done during their brief tenure of -power, the Saionji were now doing, namely, aspiring to furnish prime -ministers and empresses from their own family solely. They had already -given consorts to five emperors in succession, and jealous rivals were -watching keenly to attack this clan which threatened to usurp the place -long held by the most illustrious family in the land. A petty incident -disturbed this state of very tender equilibrium before the plan of the -Hojo's enemies had fully matured, and the emperor presently found -himself an exile on the island of Oki. But there now appeared upon the -scene three men of great prowess: Kusunoki Masashige, Nitta Yoshisada -and Ashikaga Takauji. The first espoused from the outset the cause of -the Throne and, though commanding only a small force, held the Hojo -troops in check. The last two were both of Minamoto descent. Their -common ancestor was Minamoto Yoshiiye, whose exploits against the -northern Yemishi in the second half of the 11th century had so impressed -his countrymen that they gave him the title of Hachiman Taro -(first-born of the god of war). Both men took the field originally in -the cause of the Hojo, but at heart they desired to be avenged upon the -latter for disloyalty to the Minamoto. Nitta Yoshisada marched suddenly -against Kamakura, carried it by storm and committed the city to the -flames. Ashikaga Takauji occupied Kioto, and with the suicide of -Takatoki the Hojo fell finally from rule after 115 years of supremacy -(1219-1334). The emperor now returned from exile, and his son, Prince -Moriyoshi, having been appointed to the office of shogun at Kamakura, -the restoration of the administrative power to the Throne seemed an -accomplished fact. - - - The Ashikaga Shoguns. - -Go-Daigo, however, was not in any sense a wise sovereign. The -extermination of the Hojo placed wide estates at his disposal, but -instead of rewarding those who had deserved well of him, he used a great -part of them to enrich his favourites, the companions of his -dissipation. Ashikaga Takauji sought just such an opportunity. The -following year (1335) saw him proclaiming himself shogun at Kamakura, -and after a complicated pageant of incidents, the emperor Go-Daigo was -obliged once more to fly from Kioto. He carried the regalia with him, -refused to submit to Takauji, and declined to recognize his usurped -title of shogun. The Ashikaga chief solved the situation by deposing -Go-Daigo and placing upon the throne another scion of the imperial -family who is known in history as Komyo (1336-1348), and who, of course, -confirmed Takauji in the office of shogun. Thus commenced the Ashikaga -line of shoguns, and thus commenced also a fifty-six-year period of -divided sovereignty, the emperor Go-Daigo and his descendants reigning -in Yoshino as the southern court (_nancho_), and the emperor Komyo and -his descendants reigning in Kioto as the northern court (_hokucho_). It -was by the efforts of the shogun Yoshimitsu, one of the greatest of the -Ashikaga potentates, that this quarrel was finally composed, but during -its progress the country had fallen into a deplorable condition. "The -constitutional powers had become completely disorganized, especially in -regions at a distance from the chief towns. The peasant was -impoverished, his spirit broken, his hope of better things completely -gone. He dreamed away his miserable existence and left the fields -untilled. Bands of robbers followed the armies through the interior of -the country, and increased the feeling of lawlessness and insecurity. -The coast population, especially that of the island of Kiushiu, had -given itself up in a great measure to piracy. Even on the shores of -Korea and China these enterprising Japanese corsairs made their -appearance." The shogun Yoshimitsu checked piracy, and there ensued -between Japan and China a renewal of cordial intercourse which, upon the -part of the shogun, developed phases plainly suggesting an admission of -Chinese suzerainty. - -For a brief moment during the sway of Yoshimitsu the country had rest -from internecine war, but immediately after his death (1394) the -struggle began afresh. Many of the great territorial lords had now grown -too puissant to concern themselves about either mikado or shogun. Each -fought for his own hand, thinking only of extending his sway and his -territories. By the middle of the 16th century Kioto was in ruins, and -little vitality remained in any trade or industry except those that -ministered to the wants of the warrior. Again in the case of the -Ashikaga shoguns the political tendency to exercise power vicariously -was shown, as it had been shown in the case of the mikados in Kioto and -in the case of the Minamoto in Kamakura. What the regents had been to -the emperors and the constables to the Minamoto shoguns, that the -wardens (_kwanryo_) were to the Ashikaga shoguns. Therefore, for -possession of this office of kwanryo vehement conflicts were waged, and -at one time five rival shoguns were used as figure-heads by contending -factions. Yoshimitsu had apportioned an ample allowance for the support -of the Imperial court, but in the continuous warfare following his death -the estates charged with the duty of paying this allowance ceased to -return any revenue; the court nobles had to seek shelter and sustenance -with one or other of the feudal chiefs in the provinces, and the court -itself was reduced to such a state of indigence that when the emperor -Go-Tsuchi died (1500), his corpse lay for forty days awaiting burial, -no funds being available for purposes of sepulture. - -Alone among the vicissitudes of these troublous times the strength and -influence of Buddhism grew steadily. The great monasteries were military -strongholds as well as places of worship. When the emperor Kwammu chose -Kioto for his capital, he established on the hill of Hiyei-zan, which -lay north-east of the city, a magnificent temple to ward off the evil -influences supposed to emanate from that quarter. Twenty years later, -Kobo, the most famous of all Japanese Buddhist saints, founded on -Koyasan in Yamato a monastery not less important than that of Hiyei-zan. -These and many other temples had large tax-free estates, and for the -protection of their property they found it expedient to train and arm -the cenobites as soldiers. From that to taking active part in the -political struggles of the time was but a short step, especially as the -great temples often became refuges of sovereigns and princes who, though -nominally forsaking the world, retained all their interest, and even -continued to take an active part, in its vicissitudes. It is recorded of -the emperor Shirakawa (1073-1086) that the three things which he -declared his total inability to control were the waters of the river -Kamo, the fall of the dice, and the monks of Buddha. His successors -might have confessed equal inability. Kiyomori, the puissant chief of -the Taira family, had fruitlessly essayed to defy the Buddhists; -Yoritomo, in the hour of his most signal triumph, thought it wise to -placate them. Where these representatives of centralized power found -themselves impotent, it may well be supposed that the comparatively -petty chieftains who fought each for his own hand in the 15th and 16th -centuries were incapable of accomplishing anything. In fact, the task of -centralizing the administrative power, and thus restoring peace and -order to the distracted empire, seemed, at the middle of the 16th -century, a task beyond achievement by human capacity. - - - Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu. - -But if ever events create the men to deal with them, such was the case -in the second half of that century. Three of the greatest captains and -statesmen in Japanese history appeared upon the stage simultaneously, -and moreover worked in union, an event altogether inconsistent with the -nature of the age. They were Oda Nobunaga, Hideyoshi (the _taiko_) and -Tokugawa Iyeyasu. Nobunaga belonged to the Taira family and was -originally ruler of a small fief in the province of Owari. Iyeyasu, a -sub-feudatory of Nobunaga's enemy, the powerful daimyo[2] of Mikawa and -two other provinces, was a scion of the Minamoto and therefore eligible -for the shogunate. Hideyoshi was a peasant's son, equally lacking in -patrons and in personal attractions. No chance seemed more remote than -that such men, above all Hideyoshi, could possibly rise to supreme -power. On the other hand, one outcome of the commotion with which the -country had seethed for more than four centuries was to give special -effect to the principle of natural selection. The fittest alone -surviving, the qualities that made for fitness came to take precedence -of rank or station, and those qualities were prowess in the battlefield -and wisdom in the statesman's closet. "Any plebeian that would prove -himself a first-class fighting man was willingly received into the armed -_comitatus_ which every feudal potentate was eager to attach to himself -and his flag." It was thus that Hideyoshi was originally enrolled in the -ranks of Nobunaga's retainers. - -Nobunaga, succeeding to his small fief in Owari in 1542, added to it six -whole provinces within 25 years of continuous endeavour. Being finally -invited by the emperor to undertake the pacification of the country, and -appealed to by Yoshiaki, the last of the Ashikaga chiefs, to secure for -him the shogunate, he marched into Kioto at the head of a powerful army -(1568), and, having accomplished the latter purpose, was preparing to -complete the former when he fell under the sword of a traitor. -Throughout his brilliant career he had the invaluable assistance of -Hideyoshi, who would have attained immortal fame on any stage in any -era. Hideyoshi entered Nobunaga's service as a groom and ended by -administering the whole empire. When he accompanied Nobunaga to Kioto -in obedience to the invitation of the mikado, Okimachi, order and -tranquillity were quickly restored in the capital and its vicinity. But -to extend this blessing to the whole country, four powerful daimyos as -well as the militant monks had still to be dealt with. The monks had -from the outset sheltered and succoured Nobunaga's enemies, and one -great prelate, Kenryo, hierarch of the Monto sect, whose headquarters -were at Osaka, was believed to aspire to the throne itself. In 1571 -Nobunaga attacked and gave to the flames the celebrated monastery of -Hiyei-zan, established nearly eight centuries previously; and in 1580 he -would have similarly served the splendid temple Hongwan-ji in Osaka, had -not the mikado sought and obtained grace for it. The task then remained -of subduing four powerful daimyos, three in the south and one in the -north-east, who continued to follow the bent of their own warlike -ambitions without paying the least attention to either sovereign or -shogun. The task was commenced by sending an army under Hideyoshi -against Mori of Choshu, whose fief lay on the northern shore of the -Shimonoseki strait. This proved to be the last enterprise planned by -Nobunaga. On a morning in June 1582 one of the corps intended to -reinforce Hideyoshi's army marched out of Kameyama under the command of -Akechi Mitsuhide, who either harboured a personal grudge against -Nobunaga or was swayed by blind ambition. Mitsuhide suddenly changed the -route of his troops, led them to Kioto, and attacked the temple Honno-ji -where Nobunaga was sojourning all unsuspicious of treachery. Rescue and -resistance being alike hopeless, the great soldier committed suicide. -Thirteen days later, Hideyoshi, having concluded peace with Mori of -Choshu, fell upon Mitsuhide's forces and shattered them, Mitsuhide -himself being killed by a peasant as he fled from the field. - - - Hideyoshi. - -Nobunaga's removal at once made Hideyoshi the most conspicuous figure in -the empire, the only man with any claim to dispute that title being -Tokugawa Iyeyasu. These two had hitherto worked in concert. But the -question of the succession to Nobunaga's estates threw the country once -more into tumult. He left two grown-up sons and a baby grandson, whose -father, Nobunaga's first-born, had perished in the holocaust at -Honno-ji. Hideyoshi, not unmindful, it may be assumed, of the privileges -of a guardian, espoused the cause of the infant, and wrested from -Nobunaga's three other great captains a reluctant endorsement of his -choice. Nobutaka, third son of Nobunaga, at once drew the sword, which -he presently had to turn against his own person; two years later (1584), -his elder brother, Nobuo, took the field under the aegis of Tokugawa -Iyeyasu. Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu, now pitted against each other for the -first time, were found to be of equal prowess, and being too wise to -prolong a useless war, they reverted to their old alliance, subsequently -confirming it by a family union, the son of Iyeyasu being adopted by -Hideyoshi and the latter's daughter being given in marriage to Iyeyasu. -Hideyoshi had now been invested by the mikado with the post of regent, -and his position in the capital was omnipotent. He organized in Kioto a -magnificent pageant, in which the principal figures were himself, -Iyeyasu, Nobuo and twenty-seven daimyos. The emperor was present. -Hideyoshi sat on the right of the throne, and all the nobles did -obeisance to the sovereign. Prior to this event Hideyoshi had conducted -against the still defiant daimyos of Kiushiu, especially Shimazu of -Satsuma, the greatest army ever massed by any Japanese general, and had -reduced the island of the nine provinces, not by weight of armament -only, but also by a signal exercise of the wise clemency which -distinguished him from all the statesmen of his era. - -The whole of Japan was now under Hideyoshi's sway except the fiefs in -the extreme north and those in the region known as the Kwanto, namely, -the eight provinces forming the eastern elbow of the main island. Seven -of these provinces were virtually under the sway of Hojo Ujimasa, fourth -representative of a family established in 1476 by a brilliant adventurer -of Ise, not related in any way to the great but then extinct house of -Kamakura Hojos. The daimyos in the north were comparatively powerless to -resist Hideyoshi, but to reach them the Kwanto had to be reduced, and -not only was its chief, Ujimasa, a formidable foe, but also the -topographical features of the district represented fortifications of -immense strength. After various unsuccessful overtures, having for their -purpose to induce Ujimasa to visit the capital and pay homage to the -emperor, Hideyoshi marched from Kioto in the spring of 1590 at the head -of 170,000 men, his colleagues Nobuo and Iyeyasu having under their -orders 80,000 more. The campaign ended as did all Hideyoshi's -enterprises, except that he treated his vanquished enemies with unusual -severity. During the three months spent investing Odawara, the northern -daimyos surrendered, and thus the autumn of 1590 saw Hideyoshi master of -Japan from end to end, and saw Tokugawa Iyeyasu established at Yedo as -recognized ruler of the eight provinces of the Kwanto. These two facts -should be bracketed together, because Japan's emergence from the deep -gloom of long-continued civil strife was due not more to the brilliant -qualities of Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu individually than to the fortunate -synchronism of their careers, so that the one was able to carry the -other's work to completion and permanence. The last eight years of -Hideyoshi's life--he died in 1598--were chiefly remarkable for his -attempt to invade China through Korea, and for his attitude towards -Christianity (see S VIII.: FOREIGN INTERCOURSE). - -_The Tokugawa Era._--When Hideyoshi died he left a son, Hideyori, then -only six years of age, and the problem of this child's future had -naturally caused supreme solicitude to the peasant statesman. He finally -entrusted the care of the boy and the management of state affairs to -five regents, five ministers, and three intermediary councillors. But he -placed chief reliance upon Iyeyasu, whom he appointed president of the -board of regents. Among the latter was one, Ishida Mitsunari, who to -insatiable ambition added an extraordinary faculty for intrigue and -great personal magnetism. These qualities he utilized with such success -that the dissensions among the daimyos, which had been temporarily -composed by Hideyoshi, broke out again, and the year 1600 saw Japan -divided into two camps, one composed of Tokugawa Iyeyasu and his allies, -the other of Ishida Mitsunari and his partisans. - - - Iyeyasu. - -The situation of Iyeyasu was eminently perilous. From his position in -the east of the country, he found himself menaced by two powerful -enemies on the north and on the south, respectively, the former barely -contained by a greatly weaker force of his friends, and the latter -moving up in seemingly overwhelming strength from Kioto. He decided to -hurl himself upon the southern army without awaiting the result of the -conflict in the north. The encounter took place at Sekigahara in the -province of Mino on the 21st of October 1600. The army of Iyeyasu had to -move to the attack in such a manner that its left flank and its left -rear were threatened by divisions of the enemy posted on commanding -eminences. But with the leaders of these divisions Iyeyasu had come to -an understanding by which they could be trusted to abide so long as -victory did not declare against him. Such incidents were naturally -common in an era when every man fought for his own hand. The southerners -suffered a crushing defeat. The survivors fled pell-mell to Osaka, where -in a colossal fortress, built by Hideyoshi, his son, Hideyori, and the -latter's mother, Yodo, were sheltered behind ramparts held by 80,000 -men. Hideyori's cause had been openly put forward by Ishida Mitsunari -and his partisans, but Iyeyasu made no immediate attempt to visit the -sin upon the head of his deceased benefactor's child. On the contrary, -he sent word to the lady Yodo and her little boy that he absolved them -of all complicity. The battle of Sekigahara is commonly spoken of as -having terminated the civil war which had devastated Japan, with brief -intervals, from the latter half of the 12th century to the beginning of -the 17th. That is incorrect in view of the fact that Sekigahara was -followed by other fighting, especially by the terrible conflict at Osaka -in 1615 when Yodo and her son perished. But Sekigahara's importance -cannot be over-rated. For had Iyeyasu been finally crushed there, the -wave of internecine strife must have rolled again over the empire until -providence provided another Hideyoshi and another Iyeyasu to stem it. -Sekigahara, therefore, may be truly described as a turning-point in -Japan's career and as one of the decisive battles of the world. As for -the fact that the Tokugawa leader did not at once proceed to extremities -in the case of the boy Hideyori, though the events of the Sekigahara -campaign had made it quite plain that such a course would ultimately be -inevitable, we have to remember that only two years had elapsed since -Hideyoshi was laid in his grave. His memory was still green and the -glory of his achievements still enveloped his family. Iyeyasu foresaw -that to carry the tragedy to its bitter end at once must have forced -into Hideyori's camp many puissant daimyos whose sense of allegiance -would grow less cogent with the lapse of time. When he did lay siege to -the Osaka castle in 1615, the power of the Tokugawa was well-nigh -shattered against its ramparts; had not the onset been aided by -treachery, the stronghold would probably have proved impregnable. - -But signal as were the triumphs of the Tokugawa chieftain in the field, -what distinguishes him from all his predecessors is the ability he -displayed in consolidating his conquests. The immense estates that fell -into his hands he parcelled out in such a manner that all important -strategical positions were held by daimyos whose fidelity could be -confidently trusted, and every feudatory of doubtful loyalty found his -fief within touch of a Tokugawa partisan. This arrangement, supplemented -by a system which required all the great daimyos to have mansions in the -shogun's capital. Yedo, to keep their families there always and to -reside there themselves in alternate years, proved so potent a check to -disaffection that from 1615, when the castle of Osaka fell, until 1864, -when the Choshu ronin attacked Kioto, Japan remained entirely free from -civil war. - -It is possible to form a clear idea of the ethical and administrative -principles by which Iyeyasu and the early Tokugawa chiefs were guided in -elaborating the system which gave to Japan an unprecedented era of peace -and prosperity. Evidence is furnished not only by the system itself but -also by the contents of a document generally called the _Testament of -Iyeyasu_, though probably it was not fully compiled until the time of -his grandson, Iyemitsu (1623-1650). The great Tokugawa chief, though he -munificently patronized Buddhism and though he carried constantly in his -bosom a miniature Buddhist image to which he ascribed all his success in -the field and his safety in battle, took his ethical code from -Confucius. He held that the basis of all legislation and administration -should be the five relations of sovereign and subject, parent and child, -husband and wife, brother and sister, friend and friend. The family was, -in his eyes, the essential foundation of society, to be maintained at -all sacrifices. Beyond these broad outlines of moral duty it was not -deemed necessary to instruct the people. Therefore out of the hundred -chapters forming the _Testament_ only 22 contain what can be called -legal enactments, while 55 relate to administration and politics; 16 set -forth moral maxims and reflections, and the remainder record -illustrative episodes in the career of the author. No distinct line is -drawn between law and morals, between the duty of a citizen and the -virtues of a member of a family. Substantive law is entirely wanting, -just as it was wanting in the so-called constitution of Prince Shotoku. -Custom, as sanctioned by public observance, must be complied with in the -civil affairs of life. What required minute exposition was criminal law, -the relations of social classes, etiquette, rank, precedence, -administration and government. - - - Social distinctions in the Tokugawa Era. - -Society under feudalism had been moulded into three sharply defined -groups, namely, first, the Throne and the court nobles (_kuge_); -secondly, the military class (_buke_ or _samurai_); and thirdly, the -common people (_heimin_). These lines of cleavage were emphasized as -much as possible by the Tokugawa rulers. The divine origin of the mikado -was held to separate him from contact with mundane affairs, and he was -therefore strictly secluded in the palace at Kioto, his main function -being to mediate between his heavenly ancestors and his subjects, -entrusting to the shogun and the samurai the duty of transacting all -worldly business on behalf of the state. In obedience to this principle -the mikado became a kind of sacrosanct abstraction. No one except his -consorts and his chief ministers ever saw his face. In the rare cases -when he gave audience to a privileged subject, he sat behind a curtain, -and when he went abroad, he rode in a closely shut car drawn by oxen. A -revenue of ten thousand _koku_ of rice--the equivalent of about as many -guineas--was apportioned for his support, and the right was reserved to -him of conferring empty titles upon the living and rank upon the dead. -His majesty had one wife, the empress (_kogo_), necessarily taken from -one of the five chosen families (_go-sekke_) of the Fujiwara, but he -might also have twelve consorts, and if direct issue failed, the -succession passed to one of the two princely families of Arisugawa and -Fushimi, adoption, however, being possible in the last resort. The -_kuge_ constituted the court nobility, consisting of 155 families all of -whom traced their lineage to ancient mikados; they ranked far above the -feudal chiefs, not excepting even the shogun; filled by right of -heredity nearly all the offices at the court, the emoluments attached -being, however, a mere pittance; were entirely without the great estates -which had belonged to them in ante-feudal times, and lived lives of -proud poverty, occupying themselves with the study of literature and the -practice of music and art. After the kuge and at a long distance below -them in theoretical rank came the military families, who, as a class, -were called _buke_ or _samurai_. They had hereditary revenues, and they -filled the administrative posts, these, too, being often hereditary. The -third, and by far the most numerous, section of the nation were the -commoners (_heimin_). They had no social status; were not allowed to -carry swords, and possessed no income except what they could earn with -their hands. About 55 in every 1000 units of the nation were samurai, -the latter's wives and children being included in this estimate. - - - Daimyos. - -Under the Hojo and the Ashikaga shoguns the holders of the great estates -changed frequently according to the vicissitudes of those troublesome -times, but under the Tokugawa no change took place, and there thus grew -up a landed nobility of the most permanent character. Every one of these -estates was a feudal kingdom, large or small, with its own usages and -its own laws, based on the general principles above indicated and liable -to be judged according to those principles by the shogun's government -(_baku-fu_) in Yedo. A daimyo or feudal chief drew from the peasants on -his estate the means of subsistence for himself and his retainers. For -this purpose the produce of his estate was assessed by the shogun's -officials in _koku_ (one _koku_ = 180.39 litres, worth about L1), and -about one-half of the assessed amount went to the feudatory, the other -half to the tillers of the soil. The richest daimyo was Mayeda of Kaga, -whose fief was assessed at a little over a million _koku_, his revenue -thus being about half a million sterling. Just as an empress had to be -taken from one of five families designated to that distinction for all -time, so a successor to the shogunate, failing direct heir, had to be -selected from three families (_sanke_), namely, those of the daimyos of -Owari, Kii and Mito, whose first representatives were three sons of -Iyeyasu. Out of the total body of 255 daimyos existing in the year 1862, -141 were specially distinguished as _fudai_, or hereditary vassals of -the Tokugawa house, and to 18 of these was strictly limited the -perpetual privilege of filling all the high offices in the Yedo -administration, while to 4 of them was reserved the special honour of -supplying a regent (_go-tairo_) during the minority of the shogun. -Moreover, a _fudai_ daimyo was of necessity appointed to the command of -the fortress of Nijo in Kioto as well as of the great castles of Osaka -and Fushimi, which Iyeyasu designated the keys of the country. No -intermarriage might take place between members of the court nobility and -the feudal houses without the consent of Yedo; no daimyo might apply -direct to the emperor for an official title, or might put foot within -the imperial district of Kioto without the shogun's permit, and at all -entrances to the region known as the Kwanto there were established -guardhouses, where every one, of whatever rank, must submit to be -examined, in order to prevent the wives and children of the daimyos -from secretly leaving Yedo for their own provinces. In their journeys to -and from Yedo every second year the feudal chiefs had to travel by one -of two great highways, the Tokaido or the Nakasendo, and as they moved -with great retinues, these roads were provided with a number of inns and -tea-houses equipped in a sumptuous manner, and having an abundance of -female servants. A puissant daimyo's procession often numbered as many -as 1000 retainers, and nothing illustrates more forcibly the wide -interval that separated the soldier and the plebeian than the fact that -at the appearance of the heralds who preceded these progresses all -commoners who happened to be abroad had to kneel on the ground with -bowed and uncovered heads; all wayside houses had to close the shutters -of windows giving on the road, and none might venture to look down from -a height on the passing magnate. Any violation of these rules of -etiquette exposed the violator to instant death at the hands of the -daimyo's retinue. Moreover, the samurai and the heimin lived strictly -apart. A feudal chief had a castle which generally occupied a commanding -position. It was surrounded by from one to three broad moats, the -innermost crowned with a high wall of huge cut stones, its trace -arranged so as to give flank defence, which was further provided by -pagoda-like towers placed at the salient angles. Inside this wall stood -the houses of the high officials on the outskirts of a park surrounding -the residence of the daimyo himself, and from the scarps of the moats or -in the intervals between them rose houses for the military retainers, -barrack-like structures, provided, whenever possible, with small but -artistically arranged and carefully tended gardens. All this domain of -the military was called _yashiki_ in distinction to the _machi_ -(streets) where the despised commoners had their habitat. - - - Samurai. - -The general body of the samurai received stipends and lived frugally. -Their pay was not reckoned in money: it took the form of so many rations -of rice delivered from their chief's granaries. A few had landed -estates, usually bestowed in recognition of conspicuous merit. They were -probably the finest type of hereditary soldiers the world ever produced. -Money and all devices for earning it they profoundly despised. The right -of wearing a sword was to them the highest conceivable privilege. They -counted themselves the guardians of their fiefs' honour and of their -country's welfare. At any moment they were prepared cheerfully to -sacrifice their lives on the altar of loyalty. Their word, once given, -must never be violated. The slightest insult to their honour might not -be condoned. Stoicism was a quality which they esteemed next to courage: -all outward display of emotion must be suppressed. The sword might never -be drawn for a petty cause, but, if once drawn, must never be returned -to its scabbard until it had done its duty. Martial exercises occupied -much of their attention, but book learning also they esteemed highly. -They were profoundly courteous towards each other, profoundly -contemptuous towards the commoner, whatever his wealth. Filial piety -ranked next to loyalty in their code of ethics. Thus the Confucian -maxim, endorsed explicitly in the _Testament of Iyeyasu_, that a man -must not live under the same sky with his father's murderer or his -brother's slayer, received most literal obedience, and many instances -occurred of vendettas pursued in the face of apparently insuperable -difficulties and consummated after years of effort. By the standard of -modern morality the Japanese samurai would be counted cruel. Holding -that death was the natural sequel of defeat and the only certain way of -avoiding disgrace, he did not seek quarter himself or think of extending -it to an enemy. Yet in his treatment of the latter he loved to display -courtesy until the supreme moment when all considerations of mercy were -laid aside. It cannot be doubted that the practice of employing torture -judicially tended to educate a mood of callousness towards suffering, or -that the many idle hours of a military man's life in time of peace -encouraged a measure of dissipation. But there does not seem to be any -valid ground for concluding that either of these defects was conspicuous -in the character of the Japanese samurai. Faithlessness towards women -was the greatest fault that can be laid to his door. The samurai lady -claimed no privilege of timidity on account of her sex. She knew how to -die in the cause of honour just as readily as her husband, her father or -her brother died, and conjugal fidelity did not rank as a virtue in her -eyes, being regarded as a simple duty. But her husband held marital -faith in small esteem and ranked his wife far below his sword. It has to -be remembered that when we speak of a samurai's suicide, there is no -question of poison, the bullet, drowning or any comparatively painless -manner of exit from the world. The invariable method was to cut open the -abdomen (_hara-kiri_ or _seppuku_) and afterwards, if strength remained, -the sword was turned against the throat. To such endurance had the -samurai trained himself that he went through this cruel ordeal without -flinching in the smallest degree. - - - Heimin. - -The heimin or commoners were divided into three classes--husbandmen, -artisans and traders. The farmer, as the nation lived by his labour, was -counted the most respectable among the bread-winners, and a cultivator -of his own estate might even carry one sword but never two, that -privilege being strictly reserved to a samurai. The artisan, too, -received much consideration, as is easily understood when we remember -that included in his ranks were artists, sword-smiths, armourers, -sculptors of sacred images or sword-furniture, ceramists and lacquerers. -Many artisans were in the permanent service of feudal chiefs from whom -they received fixed salaries. Tradesmen, however, were regarded with -disdain and stood lowest of all in the social organization. Too much -despised to be even included in that organization were the _eta_ -(defiled folks) and the _hinin_ (outcasts). The exact origin of these -latter pariahs is uncertain, but the ancestors of the eta would seem to -have been prisoners of war or the enslaved families of criminals. To -such people were assigned the defiling duties of tending tombs, -disposing of the bodies of the dead, slaughtering animals or tanning -hides. The hinin were mendicants. On them devolved the task of removing -and burying the corpses of executed criminals. Living in segregated -hamlets, forbidden to marry with heimin, still less with samurai, not -allowed to eat, drink or associate with persons above their own class, -the eta remained under the ban of ostracism from generation to -generation, though many of them contrived to amass much wealth. They -were governed by their own headmen, and they had three chiefs, one -residing in each of the cities of Yedo, Osaka and Kioto. All these -members of the submerged classes were relieved from proscription and -admitted to the ranks of the commoners under the enlightened system of -Meiji. The 12th of October 1871 saw their enfranchisement, and at that -date the census showed 287,111 eta and 695,689 hinin. - - - Decline and Fall of the Shogunate. - -Naturally, as the unbroken peace of the Tokugawa regime became habitual, -the mood of the nation underwent a change. The samurai, no longer -required to lead the frugal life of camp or barracks, began to live -beyond their incomes. "They found difficulty in meeting the pecuniary -engagements of everyday existence, so that money acquired new importance -in their eyes, and they gradually forfeited the respect which their -traditional disinterestedness had won for them in the past." At the same -time the abuses of feudalism were thrown into increased salience. A -large body of hereditary soldiers become an anomaly when fighting has -passed even out of memory. On the other hand, the agricultural and -commercial classes acquired new importance. The enormous sums disbursed -every year in Yedo, for the maintenance of the great establishments -which the feudal chiefs vied with each other in keeping there, enriched -the merchants and traders so greatly that their scale of living -underwent radical change. Buddhism was a potent influence, but its -ethical restraints were weakened by the conduct of its priests, who -themselves often yielded to the temptation of the time. The aristocracy -adhered to its refined pastimes--performances of the _No_; tea reunions; -poem composing; polo; football; equestrian archery; fencing and -gambling--but the commoner, being excluded from all this realm and, at -the same time, emerging rapidly from his old position of penury and -degradation, began to develop luxurious proclivities and to demand -corresponding amusements. Thus the theatre came into existence; the -dancing girl and the jester found lucrative employment; a popular school -of art was founded and quickly carried to perfection; the _lupanar_ -assumed unprecedented dimensions; rich and costly costumes acquired wide -vogue in despite of sumptuary laws enacted from time to time; wrestling -became an important institution, and plutocracy asserted itself in the -face of caste distinctions. - -Simultaneously with the change of social conditions thus taking place, -history repeated itself at the shogun's court. The substance of -administrative power passed into the hands of a minister, its shadow -alone remaining to the shogun. During only two generations were the -successors of Iyeyasu able to resist this traditional tendency. The -representative of the third--Iyetsuna (1661-1680)--succumbed to the -machinations of an ambitious minister, Sakai Takakiyo, and it may be -said that from that time the nominal repository of administrative -authority in Yedo was generally a species of magnificent recluse, -secluded from contact with the outer world and seeing and hearing only -through the eyes and ears of the ladies of his household. In this -respect the descendants of the great Tokugawa statesman found themselves -reduced to a position precisely analogous to that of the emperor in -Kioto. Sovereign and shogun were alike mere abstractions so far as the -practical work of government was concerned. With the great mass of the -feudal chiefs things fared similarly. These men who, in the days of -Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu, had directed the policies of their -fiefs and led their armies in the field, were gradually transformed, -during the long peace of the Tokugawa era, into voluptuous _faineants_ -or, at best, thoughtless dilettanti, willing to abandon the direction of -their affairs to seneschals and mayors, who, while on the whole their -administration was able and loyal, found their account in contriving and -perpetuating the effacement of their chiefs. Thus, in effect, the -government of the country, taken out of the hands of the shogun and the -feudatories, fell into those of their vassals. There were exceptions, of -course, but so rare as to be merely accidental. - -Another important factor has to be noted. It has been shown above that -Iyeyasu bestowed upon his three sons the rich fiefs of Owari, Kii -(Kishu) and Mito, and that these three families exclusively enjoyed the -privilege of furnishing an heir to the shogun should the latter be -without direct issue. Mito ought therefore to have been a most unlikely -place for the conception and propagation of principles subversive of the -shogun's administrative autocracy. Nevertheless, in the days of the -second of the Mito chiefs at the close of the 17th century, there arose -in that province a school of thinkers who, revolting against the -ascendancy of Chinese literature and of Buddhism, devoted themselves to -compiling a history such as should recall the attention of the nation to -its own annals and revive its allegiance to Shinto. It would seem that -in patronizing the compilation of this great work the Mito chief was -swayed by the spirit of pure patriotism and studentship, and that he -discerned nothing of the goal to which the new researches must lead the -litterati of his fief. "He and they, for the sake of history and without -any thought of politics, undertook a retrospect of their country's -annals, and their frank analysis furnished conclusive proof that the -emperor was the prime source of administrative authority and that its -independent exercise by a shogun must be regarded as a usurpation. They -did not attempt to give practical effect to their discoveries; the era -was essentially academical. But this galaxy of scholars projected into -the future a light which burned with growing force in each succeeding -generation and ultimately burst into a flame which consumed feudalism -and the shogunate," fused the nation into one, and restored the -governing authority to the emperor. Of course the Mito men were not -alone in this matter: many students subsequently trod in their footsteps -and many others sought to stem the tendency; but the net result was -fatal to faith in the dual system of government. Possibly had nothing -occurred to furnish signal proof of the system's practical defects, it -might have long survived this theoretical disapproval. But the crisis -caused by the advent of foreign ships and by the forceful renewal of -foreign intercourse in the 19th century afforded convincing evidence of -the shogunate's incapacity to protect the state's supposed interests and -to enforce the traditional policy of isolation which the nation had -learned to consider essential to the empire's integrity. - -Another important factor made for the fall of the shogunate. That factor -was the traditional disaffection of the two great southern fiefs, -Satsuma and Choshu. When Iyeyasu parcelled out the empire, he deemed it -the wisest policy to leave these chieftains in full possession of their -large estates. But this measure, construed as an evidence of weakness -rather than a token of liberality, neither won the allegiance of the big -feudatories nor cooled their ambition. Thus no sooner did the nation -divide into two camps over the question of renewed foreign intercourse -than men of the above clans, in concert with representatives of certain -of the old court nobles, placed themselves at the head of a movement -animated by two loudly proclaimed purposes: restoration of the -administration to the emperor, and expulsion of aliens. This latter -aspiration underwent a radical change when the bombardment of the -Satsuma capital, Kagoshima, and the destruction of the Choshu forts and -ships at Shimonoseki proved conclusively to the Satsuma and Choshu clans -that Japan in her unequipped and backward condition could not hope to -stand for a moment against the Occident in arms. But the unwelcome -discovery was accompanied by a conviction that only a thoroughly united -nation might aspire to preserve its independence, and thus the abolition -of the dual form of government became more than ever an article of -public faith. It is unnecessary to recount the successive incidents -which conspired to undermine the shogun's authority, and to destroy the -prestige of the Yedo administration. Both had been reduced to vanishing -quantities by the year 1866 when Keiki succeeded to the shogunate. - -Keiki, known historically as Yoshinobu, the last of the shoguns, was a -man of matured intellect and high capacities. He had been put forward by -the anti-foreign Conservatives for the succession to the shogunate in -1857 when the complications of foreign intercourse were in their first -stage of acuteness. But, like many other intelligent Japanese, he had -learned, in the interval between 1857 and 1866, that to keep her doors -closed was an impossible task for Japan, and very quickly after taking -the reins of office he recognized that national union could never be -achieved while power was divided between Kioto and Yedo. At this -juncture there was addressed to him by Yodo, chief of the great Tosa -fief, a memorial setting forth the hopelessness of the position in which -the Yedo court now found itself, and urging that, in the interests of -good government and in order that the nation's united strength might be -available to meet the exigencies of its new career, the administration -should be restored to the emperor. Keiki received this memorial in -Kioto. He immediately summoned a council of all the feudatories and high -officials then in the Imperial city, announced to them his intention to -lay down his office, and, the next day, presented his resignation to the -sovereign. This happened on the 14th of October 1867. It must be ranked -among the signal events of the world's history, for it signified the -voluntary surrender of kingly authority wielded uninterruptedly for -nearly three centuries. That the shogun's resignation was tendered in -good faith there can be no doubt, and had it been accepted in the same -spirit, the great danger it involved might have been consummated without -bloodshed or disorder. But the clansmen of Satsuma and Choshu were -distrustful. One of the shogun's first acts after assuming office had -been to obtain from the throne an edict for imposing penalties on -Choshu, and there was a precedent for suspecting that the renunciation -of power by the shogun might merely prelude its resumption on a firmer -basis. Therefore steps were taken to induce the emperor, then a youth of -fifteen, to issue a secret rescript to Satsuma and Choshu, denouncing -the shogun as the nation's enemy and enjoining his destruction. At the -same time all officials connected with the Tokugawa or suspected of -sympathy with them were expelled from office in Kioto, and the shogun's -troops were deprived of the custody of the palace gates by methods which -verged upon the use of armed force. In the face of such provocation -Keiki's earnest efforts to restrain the indignation of his vassals and -adherents failed. They marched against Kioto and were defeated, -whereupon Keiki left his castle at Osaka and retired to Yedo, where he -subsequently made unconditional surrender to the Imperial army. There is -little more to be set down on this page of the history. The Yedo court -consented to lay aside its dignities and be stripped of its -administrative authority, but all the Tokugawa vassals and adherents did -not prove equally placable. There was resistance in the northern -provinces, where the Aizu feudatory refused to abandon the Tokugawa -cause; there was an attempt to set up a rival candidate for the throne -in the person of an Imperial prince who presided over the Uyeno -Monastery in Yedo; and there was a wild essay on the part of the admiral -of the shogun's fleet to establish a republic in the island of Yezo. But -these were mere ripples on the surface of the broad stream which set -towards the peaceful overthrow of the dual system of government and -ultimately towards the fall of feudalism itself. That this system, the -outcome of five centuries of nearly continuous warfare, was swept away -in almost as many weeks with little loss of life or destruction of -property constitutes, perhaps, the most striking incident, certainly the -most momentous, in the history of the Japanese nation. - -_The Meiji Era._--It must be remembered that when reference is made to -the Japanese nation in connexion with these radical changes, only the -nobles and the samurai are indicated--in other words, a section of the -population representing about one-sixteenth of the whole. The bulk of -the people--the agricultural, the industrial and the mercantile -classes--remained outside the sphere of politics, not sharing the -anti-foreign prejudice, or taking any serious interest in the great -questions of the time. Foreigners often noted with surprise the contrast -between the fierce antipathy displayed towards them by certain samurai -on the one hand, and the genial, hospitable reception given to them by -the common people on the other. History teaches that the latter was the -natural disposition of the Japanese, the former a mood educated by -special experiences. Further, even the comparatively narrow statement -that the restoration of the administrative power to the emperor was the -work of the nobles and the samurai must be taken with limitations. A -majority of the nobles entertained no idea of any necessity for change. -They were either held fast in the vice of Tokugawa authority, or -paralyzed by the sensuous seductions of the lives provided for them by -the machinations of their retainers, who transferred the administrative -authority of the fiefs to their own hands, leaving its shadow only to -their lords. It was among the retainers that longings for a new order of -things were generated. Some of these men were sincere disciples of -progress--a small band of students and deep thinkers who, looking -through the narrow Dutch window at Deshima, had caught a glimmering -perception of the realities that lay beyond the horizon of their -country's prejudices. But the influence of such Liberals was -comparatively insignificant. Though they showed remarkable moral courage -and tenacity of purpose, the age did not furnish any strong object -lesson to enforce their propaganda of progress. The factors chiefly -making for change were, first, the ambition of the southern clans to -oust the Tokugawa, and, secondly, the samurai's loyal instinct, -reinforced by the teachings of his country's history, by the revival of -the Shinto cult, by the promptings of national enterprise, and by the -object-lessons of foreign intercourse. - - - Character of the Revolution. - -But though essentially imperialistic in its prime purposes, the -revolution which involved the fall of the shogunate, and ultimately of -feudalism, may be called democratic with regard to the personnel of -those who planned and directed it. They were, for the most part, men -without either official rank or social standing. That is a point -essential to a clear understanding of the issue. Fifty-five individuals -may be said to have planned and carried out the overthrow of the Yedo -administration, and only five of them were territorial nobles. Eight, -belonging to the court nobility, laboured under the traditional -disadvantages of their class, poverty and political insignificance; and -the remaining forty-two, the hearts and hands of the movement, may be -described as ambitious youths, who sought to make a career for -themselves in the first place, and for their country in the second. The -average age of the whole did not exceed thirty. There was another -element for which any student of Japanese history might have been -prepared: the Satsuma samurai aimed originally not merely at -overthrowing the Tokugawa but also at obtaining the shogunate for their -own chief. Possibly it would be unjust to say that all the leaders of -the great southern clan harboured that idea. But some of them certainly -did, and not until they had consented to abandon the project did their -union with Choshu, the other great southern clan, become possible--a -union without which the revolution could scarcely have been -accomplished. This ambition of the Satsuma clansmen deserves special -mention, because it bore remarkable fruit; it may be said to have laid -the foundation of constitutional government in Japan. For, in -consequence of the distrust engendered by such aspirations, the authors -of the Restoration agreed that when the emperor assumed the reins of -power, he should solemnly pledge himself to convene a deliberative -assembly, to appoint to administrative posts men of intellect and -erudition wherever they might be found, and to decide all measures in -accordance with public opinion. This promise, referred to frequently in -later times as the Imperial oath at the Restoration, came to be -accounted the basis of representative institutions, though in reality it -was intended solely as a guarantee against the political ascendancy of -any one clan. - - - The Anti-feudal Idea. - -At the outset the necessity of abolishing feudalism did not present -itself clearly to the leaders of the revolution. Their sole idea was the -unification of the nation. But when they came to consider closely the -practical side of the problem, they understood how far it would lead -them. Evidently that one homogeneous system of law should replace the -more or less heterogeneous systems operative in the various fiefs was -essential, and such a substitution meant that the feudatories must be -deprived of their local autonomy and, incidentally, of their control of -local finances. That was a stupendous change. Hitherto each feudal chief -had collected the revenues of his fief and had employed them at will, -subject to the sole condition of maintaining a body of troops -proportionate to his income. He had been, and was still, an autocrat -within the limits of his territory. On the other hand, the active -authors of the revolution were a small band of men mainly without -prestige or territorial influence. It was impossible that they should -dictate any measure sensibly impairing the local and fiscal autonomy of -the feudatories. No power capable of enforcing such a measure existed at -the time. All the great political changes in Japan had formerly been -preceded by wars culminating in the accession of some strong clan to -supreme authority, whereas in this case there had been a displacement -without a substitution--the Tokugawa had been overthrown and no new -administrators had been set up in their stead. It was, moreover, certain -that an attempt on the part of any one clan to constitute itself -executor of the sovereign's mandates would have stirred the other clans -to vehement resistance. In short, the leaders of the revolution found -themselves pledged to a new theory of government without any machinery -for carrying it into effect, or any means of abolishing the old -practice. An ingenious exit from this curious dilemma was devised by the -young reformers. They induced the feudal chiefs of Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa -and Hizen, the four most powerful clans in the south, publicly to -surrender their fiefs to the emperor, praying his majesty to reorganize -them and to bring them all under the same system of law. In the case of -Shimazu, chief of Satsuma, and Yodo, chief of Tosa, this act must stand -to their credit as a noble sacrifice. To them the exercise of power had -been a reality and the effort of surrendering it must have been -correspondingly costly. But the chiefs of Choshu and Hizen obeyed the -suggestions of their principal vassals with little, if any, sense of the -probable cost of obedience. The same remark applies to all the other -feudatories, with exceptions so rare as to emphasize the rule. They had -long been accustomed to abandon the management of their affairs to their -leading clansmen, and they allowed themselves to follow the same -guidance at this crisis. Out of more than 250 feudatories, only 17 -hesitated to imitate the example of the four southern fiefs. - - - Motives of the Reformers. - -An explanation of this remarkable incident has been sought by supposing -that the samurai of the various clans, when they advised a course so -inconsistent with fidelity to the interests of their feudal chiefs, were -influenced by motives of personal ambition, imagining that they -themselves might find great opportunities under the new regime. Some -hope of that kind may fairly be assumed, and was certainly realized, in -the case of the leading samurai of the four southern clans which headed -the movement. But it is plain that no such expectations can have been -generally entertained. The simplest explanation seems to be the true -one: a certain course, indicated by the action of the four southern -clans, was conceived to be in accord with the spirit of the Restoration, -and not to adopt it would have been to shrink publicly from a sacrifice -dictated by the principle of loyalty to the Throne--a principle which -had acquired supreme sanctity in the eyes of the men of that era. There -might have been some uncertainty about the initial step; but so soon as -that was taken by the southern clans their example acquired compelling -force. History shows that in political crises the Japanese samurai is -generally ready to pay deference to certain canons of almost romantic -morality. There was a fever of loyalty and of patriotism in the air of -the year 1869. Any one hesitating, for obviously selfish reasons, to -adopt a precedent such as that offered by the procedure of the great -southern clans, would have seemed to forfeit the right of calling -himself a samurai. But although the leaders of this remarkable movement -now understood that they must contrive the total abolition of feudalism -and build up a new administrative edifice on foundations of -constitutional monarchy, they appreciated the necessity of advancing -slowly towards a goal which still lay beyond the range of their -followers' vision. Thus the first steps taken after the surrender of the -fiefs were to appoint the feudatories to the position of governors in -the districts over which they had previously ruled; to confirm the -samurai in the possession of their incomes and official positions; to -put an end to the distinction between court nobles and territorial -nobles, and to organize in Kioto a cabinet consisting of the leaders of -the restoration. Each new governor received one-tenth of the income of -the fief by way of emoluments; the pay of the officials and the samurai, -as well as the administrative expenses of the district, was defrayed -from the same source, and the residue, if any, was to pass into the -treasury of the central government. - - - Defects of the First Measures. - -The defects of this system from a monarchical point of view soon became -evident. It did not give the power of either the purse or the sword to -the sovereign. The revenues of the administrative districts continued to -be collected and disbursed by the former feudatories, who also retained -the control of the troops, the right of appointing and dismissing -officials, and almost complete local autonomy. A further radical step -had to be taken, and the leaders of reform, seeing nothing better than -to continue the method of procedure which had thus far proved so -successful, contrived, first, that several of the administrative -districts should send in petitions offering to surrender their local -autonomy and be brought under the direct rule of the central government; -secondly, that a number of samurai should apply for permission to lay -aside their swords. While the nation was digesting the principles -embodied in these petitions, the government made preparations for -further measures of reform. The ex-chief of Satsuma, who showed some -umbrage because the services of his clan in promoting the restoration -had not been more fully recognized, was induced to take high ministerial -office, as were also the ex-chiefs of Choshu and Tosa. Each of the four -great clans had now three representatives in the ministry. These clans -were further persuaded to send to Tokyo--whither the emperor had moved -his court--contingents of troops to form the nucleus of a national army. -Importance attaches to these details because the principle of clan -representation, illustrated in the organization of the cabinet of 1871, -continued to be approximately observed for many years in forming -ministries, and ultimately became a target for the attacks of party -politicians. - - - Adoption of Radical Measures. - -On the 29th of August 1871 an Imperial decree announced the abolition of -the system of local autonomy, and the removal of the territorial nobles -from the posts of governor. The taxes of the former fiefs were to be -paid thenceforth into the central treasury; all officials were to be -appointed by the Imperial government, and the feudatories, retaining -permanently an income of one-tenth of their original revenues, were to -make Tokyo their place of residence. As for the samurai, they remained -for the moment in possession of their hereditary pensions. Radical as -these changes seem, the disturbance caused by them was not great, since -they left the incomes of the military class untouched. Some of the -incomes were for life only, but the majority were hereditary, and all -had been granted in consideration of their holders devoting themselves -to military service. Four hundred thousand men approximately were in -receipt of such emoluments, and the total amount annually taken from the -tax-payers for this purpose was about L2,000,000. Plainly the nation -would have to be relieved of this burden sooner or later. The samurai -were essentially an element of the feudal system, and that they should -survive the latter's fall would have been incongruous. On the other -hand, suddenly and wholly to deprive these men and their families--a -total of some two million persons--of the means of subsistence on which -they had hitherto relied with absolute confidence, and in return for -which they and their forefathers had rendered faithful service, would -have been an act of inhumanity. It may easily be conceived that this -problem caused extreme perplexity to the administrators of the new -Japan. They left it unsolved for the moment, trusting that time and the -loyalty of the samurai themselves would suggest some solution. As for -the feudal chiefs, who had now been deprived of all official status and -reduced to the position of private gentlemen, without even a patent of -nobility to distinguish them from ordinary individuals, they did not -find anything specially irksome or regrettable in their altered -position. No scrutiny had been made into the contents of their -treasuries. They were allowed to retain unquestioned possession of all -the accumulated funds of their former fiefs, and they also became public -creditors for annual allowances equal to one-tenth of their feudal -revenues. They had never previously been so pleasantly circumstanced. It -is true that they were entirely stripped of all administrative and -military authority; but since their possession of such authority had -been in most cases merely nominal, they only felt the change as a relief -from responsibility. - - - Treatment of the Samurai. - -By degrees public opinion began to declare itself with regard to the -samurai. If they were to be absorbed into the bulk of the people and to -lose their fixed revenues, some capital must be placed at their disposal -to begin the world again. The samurai themselves showed a noble faculty -of resignation. They had been a privileged class, but they had purchased -their privileges with their blood and by serving as patterns of all the -qualities most prized among Japanese national characteristics. The -record of their acts and the recognition of the people entitled them to -look for munificent treatment at the hands of the government which they -had been the means of setting up. Yet none of these considerations -blinded them to the painful fact that the time had passed them by; that -no place existed for them in the new polity. Many of them voluntarily -stepped down into the company of the peasant or the tradesman, and many -others signified their willingness to join the ranks of common -bread-winners if some aid was given to equip them for such a career. -After two years' consideration the government took action. A decree -announced, in 1873, that the treasury was prepared to commute the -pensions of the samurai at the rate of six years' purchase for -hereditary pensions and four years for life pensions--one-half of the -commutation to be paid in cash, and one-half in bonds bearing interest -at the rate of 8%. It will be seen that a perpetual pension of L10 would -be exchanged for a payment of L30 in cash, together with securities -giving an income of L2, 8s.; and that a L10 life pensioner received L20 -in cash and securities yielding L1, 12s. annually. It is scarcely -credible that the samurai should have accepted such an arrangement. -Something, perhaps, must be ascribed to their want of business -knowledge, but the general explanation is that they made a large -sacrifice in the interests of their country. Nothing in all their career -as soldiers became them better than their manner of abandoning it. They -were told that they might lay aside their swords, and many of them did -so, though from time immemorial they had cherished the sword as the mark -of a gentleman, the most precious possession of a warrior, and the one -outward evidence that distinguished men of their order from common -toilers after gain. They saw themselves deprived of their military -employment, were invited to surrender more than one-half of the income -it brought, and knew that they were unprepared alike by education and by -tradition to earn bread in any calling save that of arms. Yet, at the -invitation of a government which they had helped to establish, many of -them bowed their heads quietly to this sharp reverse of fortune. It was -certainly a striking instance of the fortitude and resignation which the -creed of the samurai required him to display in the presence of -adversity. As yet, however, the government's measures with regard to the -samurai were not compulsory. Men laid aside their swords and commuted -their pensions at their own option. - - - Saigo Takamori. - -Meanwhile differences of opinion began to occur among the leaders of -progress themselves. Coalitions formed for destructive purposes are -often found unable to endure the strain of constructive efforts. Such -lack of cohesion might easily have been foreseen in the case of the -Japanese reformers. Young men without experience of public affairs, or -special education to fit them for responsible posts, found the duty -suddenly imposed on them not only of devising administrative and fiscal -systems universally applicable to a nation hitherto divided into a -congeries of semi-independent principalities, but also of shaping the -country's demeanour towards novel problems of foreign intercourse and -alien civilization. So long as the heat of their assault upon the -shogunate fused them into a homogeneous party they worked together -successfully. But when they had to build a brand-new edifice on the -ruins of a still vivid past, it was inevitable that their opinions -should vary as to the nature of the materials to be employed. In this -divergence of views many of the capital incidents of Japan's modern -history had their origin. Of the fifty-five men whose united efforts had -compassed the fall of the shogunate, five stood conspicuous above their -colleagues. They were Iwakura and Sanjo, court nobles; Saigo and Okubo, -samurai of Satsuma, and Kido, a samurai of Choshu. In the second rank -came many men of great gifts, whose youth alone disqualified them for -prominence--Ito, the constructive statesman of the Meiji era, who -inspired nearly all the important measures of the time, though he did -not openly figure as their originator; Inouye, who never lacked a -resource or swerved from the dictates of loyalty; Okuma, a politician of -subtle, versatile and vigorous intellect; Itagaki, the Rousseau of his -era; and a score of others created by the extraordinary circumstances -with which they had to deal. But the five first mentioned were the -captains, the rest only lieutenants. Among the five, four were sincere -reformers--not free, of course, from selfish motives, but truthfully -bent upon promoting the interests of their country before all other -aims. The fifth, Saigo Takamori, was a man in whom boundless ambition -lay concealed under qualities of the noblest and most enduring type. His -absolute freedom from every trace of sordidness gave currency to a -belief that his aims were of the simplest; the story of his career -satisfied the highest canons of the samurai; his massive physique, -commanding presence and sunny aspect impressed and attracted even those -who had no opportunity of admiring his life of self-sacrificing effort -or appreciating the remarkable military talent he possessed. In the -first part of his career, the elevation of his clan to supreme power -seems to have been his sole motive, but subsequently personal ambition -appears to have swayed him. To the consummation of either object the -preservation of the military class was essential. By the swords of the -samurai alone could a new _imperium in imperio_ be carved out. On the -other hand, Saigo's colleagues in the ministry saw clearly not only that -the samurai were an unwarrantable burden on the nation, but also that -their continued existence after the fall of feudalism would be a menace -to public peace as well as an anomaly. Therefore they took the steps -already described, and followed them by a conscription law, making every -adult male liable for military service without regard to his social -standing. It is easy to conceive how painfully unwelcome this -conscription law proved to the samurai. Many of them were not unwilling -to commute their pensions, since their creed had always forbidden them -to care for money. Many of them were not unwilling to abandon the habit -of carrying swords, since the adoption of foreign costume rendered such -a custom incongruous and inconvenient. But very few of them could -readily consent to step down from their cherished position as the -military class, and relinquish their traditional title to bear the whole -responsibility and enjoy the whole honour of fighting their country's -battles. They had supposed, not unreasonably, that service in the army -and navy would be reserved exclusively for them and their sons, whereas -now the commonest rustic, mechanic or tradesman would be equally -eligible. - - - Split among the Reformers. - -While the pain of this blow was still fresh there occurred a trouble -with Korea. The little state had behaved with insulting contumely, and -when Japan's course came to be debated in Tokyo, a disruption resulted -in the ranks of the reformers. Saigo saw in a foreign war the sole -remaining chance of achieving his ambition by lawful means. The -government's conscription scheme, yet in its infancy, had not produced -even the skeleton of an army. If Korea had to be conquered, the samurai -must be employed; and their employment would mean, if not their -rehabilitation, at least their organization into a force which, under -Saigo's leadership, might dictate a new policy. Other members of the -cabinet believed that the nation would be disgraced if it tamely endured -Korea's insults. Thus several influential voices swelled the clamour for -war. But a peace party offered strenuous opposition. Its members saw the -collateral issues of the problem, and declared that the country must not -think of taking up arms during a period of radical transition. The final -discussion took place in the emperor's presence. The advocates of peace -understood the national significance of the issue and perceived that -they were debating, not merely whether there should be peace or war, but -whether the country should halt or advance on its newly adopted path of -progress. They prevailed, and four members of the cabinet, including -Saigo, resigned. This rupture was destined to have far-reaching -consequences. One of the seceders immediately raised the standard of -revolt. Among the devices employed by him to win adherents was an -attempt to fan into flame the dying embers of the anti-foreign -sentiment. The government easily crushed the insurrection. Another -seceder was Itagaki Taisuke. The third and most prominent was Saigo, who -seems to have concluded from that moment that he must abandon his aims -or achieve them by force. He retired to his native province of Satsuma, -and applied his whole resources, his great reputation and the devoted -loyalty of a number of able followers to organizing and equipping a -strong body of samurai. Matters were facilitated for him by the -conservatism of the celebrated Shimazu Saburo, former chief of Satsuma, -who, though not opposed to foreign intercourse, had been revolted by the -wholesale iconoclasm of the time, and by the indiscriminate rejection of -Japanese customs in favour of foreign. He protested vehemently against -what seemed to him a slavish abandonment of the nation's individuality, -and finding his protest fruitless, he set himself to preserve in his own -distant province, where the writ of the Yedo government had never run, -the fashions, institutions and customs which his former colleagues in -the administration were ruthlessly rejecting. Satsuma thus became a -centre of conservative influences, among which Saigo and his constantly -augmenting band of samurai found a congenial environment. During four -years this breach between the central government and the southern clan -grew constantly. - - - Final Abolition of Sword-wearing and Pensions. - -In the meanwhile (1876) two extreme measures were adopted by the -government: a veto on the wearing of swords, and an edict ordering the -compulsory commutation of the pensions and allowances received by the -nobles and the samurai. Three years previously the discarding of swords -had been declared optional, and a scheme of voluntary commutation had -been announced. Many had bowed quietly to the spirit of these -enactments. But many still retained their swords and drew their pensions -as of old, obstructing, in the former respect, the government's projects -for the reorganization of society, and imposing, in the latter, an -intolerable burden on the resources of the treasury. The government -thought that the time had come, and that its own strength sufficed, to -substitute compulsion for persuasion. The financial measure--which was -contrived so as to affect the smallest pension-holders least -injuriously--evoked no complaint. The samurai remained faithful to the -creed which forbade them to be concerned about money. But the veto -against sword-wearing overtaxed the patience of the extreme -Conservatives. It seemed to them that all the most honoured traditions -of their country were being ruthlessly sacrificed on the altar of alien -innovations. Armed protests ensued. A few score of samurai, equipping -themselves with the hauberks and weapons of old times, fell upon the -garrison of a castle, killed or wounded some 300, and then, retiring to -an adjacent mountain, died by their own hands. Their example found -imitators in two other places, and finally the Satsuma samurai rose in -arms under Saigo. - - - Satsuma Insurrection. - -This was an insurrection very different in dimensions and motives from -the outbreaks that had preceded it. During four years the preparations -of the Satsuma men had been unremitting. They were equipped with rifles -and cannon; they numbered some 30,000; they were all of the military -class, and in addition to high training in western tactics and in the -use of modern arms of precision, they knew how to wield that formidable -weapon, the Japanese sword, of which their opponents were for the most -part ignorant. Ostensibly their object was to restore the samurai to -their old supremacy, and to secure for them all the posts in the army, -the navy and the administration. But although they doubtless entertained -that intention, it was put forward mainly with the hope of winning the -co-operation of the military class throughout the empire. The real -purpose of the revolt was to secure the governing power for Satsuma. A -bitter struggle ensued. Beginning on the 29th of January 1877, it was -brought to a close on the 24th of September by the death, voluntary or -in battle, of all the rebel leaders. During that period the number of -men engaged on the government's side had been 66,000 and the number on -the side of the rebels 40,000, out of which total the killed and wounded -aggregated 35,000, or 33% of the whole. Had the government's troops been -finally defeated, there can be no doubt that the samurai's exclusive -title to man and direct the army and navy would have been -re-established, and Japan would have found herself permanently saddled -with a military class, heavily burdening her finances, seriously -impeding her progress towards constitutional government, and -perpetuating all the abuses incidental to a policy in which the power of -the sword rests entirely in the hands of one section of the people. The -nation scarcely appreciated the great issues that were at stake. It -found more interest in the struggle as furnishing a conclusive test of -the efficiency of the new military system compared with the old. The -army sent to quell the insurrection consisted of recruits drawn -indiscriminately from every class of the people. Viewed in the light of -history, it was an army of commoners, deficient in the fighting -instinct, and traditionally demoralized for all purposes of resistance -to the military class. The Satsuma insurgents, on the contrary, -represented the flower of the samurai, long trained for this very -struggle, and led by men whom the nation regarded as its bravest -captains. The result dispelled all doubts about the fighting quality of -the people at large. - - - Steps of Progress. - -Concurrently with these events the government diligently endeavoured to -equip the country with all the paraphernalia of Occidental civilization. -It is easy to understand that the master-minds of the era, who had -planned and carried out the Restoration, continued to take the lead in -all paths of progress. Their intellectual superiority entitled them to -act as guides; they had enjoyed exceptional opportunities of acquiring -enlightenment by visits to Europe and America, and the Japanese people -had not yet lost the habit of looking to officialdom for every -initiative. But the spectacle thus presented to foreign onlookers was -not altogether without disquieting suggestions. The government's reforms -seemed to outstrip the nation's readiness for them, and the results wore -an air of some artificiality and confusion. Englishmen were employed to -superintend the building of railways, the erection of telegraphs, the -construction of lighthouses and the organization of a navy. To Frenchmen -was entrusted the work of recasting the laws and training the army in -strategy and tactics. Educational affairs, the organization of a postal -service, the improvement of agriculture and the work of colonization -were supervised by Americans. The teaching of medical science, the -compilation of a commercial code, the elaboration of a system of local -government, and ultimately the training of military officers were -assigned to Germans. For instruction in sculpture and painting Italians -were engaged. Was it possible that so many novelties should be -successfully assimilated, or that the nation should adapt itself to -systems planned by a motley band of aliens who knew nothing of its -character and customs? These questions did not trouble the Japanese -nearly so much as they troubled strangers. The truth is that -conservatism was not really required to make the great sacrifices -suggested by appearances. Among all the innovations of the era the only -one that a Japanese could not lay aside at will was the new fashion of -dressing the hair. He abandoned the _queue_ irrevocably. But for the -rest he lived a dual life. During hours of duty he wore a fine uniform, -shaped and decorated in foreign style. But so soon as he stepped out of -office or off parade, he reverted to his own comfortable and picturesque -costume. Handsome houses were built and furnished according to Western -models. But each had an annex where alcoves, verandas, matted floors and -paper sliding doors continued to do traditional duty. Beefsteaks, beer, -"grape-wine," knives and forks came into use on occasion. But rice-bowls -and chopsticks held their everyday place as of old. In a word, though -the Japanese adopted every convenient and serviceable attribute of -foreign civilization, such as railways, steamships, telegraphs, -post-offices, banks and machinery of all kinds; though they accepted -Occidental sciences, and, to a large extent, Occidental philosophies; -though they recognized the superiority of European jurisprudence and set -themselves to bring their laws into accord with it, they nevertheless -preserved the essentials of their own mode of life and never lost their -individuality. A remarkable spirit of liberalism and a fine eclectic -instinct were needed for the part they acted, but they did no radical -violence to their own traditions, creeds and conventions. There was -indeed a certain element of incongruity and even grotesqueness in the -nation's doings. Old people cannot fit their feet to new roads without -some clumsiness. The Japanese had grown very old in their special paths, -and their novel departure was occasionally disfigured by solecisms. The -refined taste that guided them unerringly in all the affairs of life as -they had been accustomed to live it, seemed to fail them signally when -they emerged into an alien atmosphere. They have given their proofs, -however. It is now seen that the apparently excessive rapidity of their -progress did not overtax their capacities; that they have emerged safely -from their destructive era and carried their constructive career within -reach of certain success, and that while they have still to develop some -of the traits of their new civilization, there is no prospect whatever -of its proving ultimately unsuited to them. - - - Development of Representative Government. - -After the Satsuma rebellion, nothing disturbed the even tenor of Japan's -domestic politics except an attempt on the part of some of her people to -force the growth of parliamentary government. It is evident that the -united effort made by the fiefs to overthrow the system of dual -government and wrest the administrative power from the shogun could have -only one logical outcome: the combined exercise of the recovered power -by those who had been instrumental in recovering it. That was the -meaning of the oath taken by the emperor at the Restoration, when the -youthful sovereign was made to say that wise counsels should be widely -sought, and all things determined by public discussion. But the framers -of the oath had the samurai alone in view. Into their consideration the -common people--farmers, mechanics, tradesmen--did not enter at all, nor -had the common people themselves any idea of advancing a claim to be -considered. A voice in the administration would have been to them an -embarrassing rather than a pleasing privilege. Thus the first -deliberative assembly was composed of nobles and samurai only. A mere -debating club without any legislative authority, it was permanently -dissolved after two sessions. Possibly the problem of a parliament might -have been long postponed after that fiasco, had it not found an ardent -advocate in Itagaki Taisuke (afterwards Count Itagaki). A Tosa samurai -conspicuous as a leader of the restoration movement, Itagaki was among -the advocates of recourse to strong measures against Korea in 1873, and -his failure to carry his point, supplemented by a belief that a large -section of public opinion would have supported him had there been any -machinery for appealing to it, gave fresh impetus to his faith in -constitutional government. Resigning office on account of the Korean -question, he became the nucleus of agitation in favour of a -parliamentary system, and under his banner were enrolled not only -discontented samurai but also many of the young men who, returning from -direct observation of the working of constitutional systems in Europe or -America, and failing to obtain official posts in Japan, attributed their -failure to the oligarchical form of their country's polity. Thus in the -interval between 1873 and 1877 there were two centres of disturbance in -Japan: one in Satsuma, where Saigo figured as leader; the other in Tosa, -under Itagaki's guidance. When the Satsuma men appealed to arms in 1877, -a widespread apprehension prevailed lest the Tosa politicians should -throw in their lot with the insurgents. Such a fear had its origin in -failure to understand the object of the one side or to appreciate the -sincerity of the other. Saigo and his adherents fought to substitute a -Satsuma clique for the oligarchy already in power. Itagaki and his -followers struggled for constitutional institutions. The two could not -have anything in common. There was consequently no coalition. But the -Tosa agitators did not neglect to make capital out of the embarrassment -caused by the Satsuma rebellion. While the struggle was at its height, -they addressed to the government a memorial, charging the administration -with oppressive measures to restrain the voice of public opinion, with -usurpation of power to the exclusion of the nation at large, and with -levelling downwards instead of upwards, since the samurai had been -reduced to the rank of commoners, whereas the commoners should have been -educated up to the standard of the samurai. This memorial asked for a -representative assembly and talked of popular rights. But since the -document admitted that the people were uneducated, it is plain that -there cannot have been any serious idea of giving them a share in the -administration. In fact, the Tosa Liberals were not really contending -for popular representation in the full sense of the term. What they -wanted was the creation of some machinery for securing to the samurai at -large a voice in the management of state affairs. They chafed against -the fact that, whereas the efforts and sacrifices demanded by the -Restoration had fallen equally on the whole military class, the -official prizes under the new system were monopolized by a small coterie -of men belonging to the four principal clans. It is on record that -Itagaki would have been content originally with an assembly consisting -half of officials, half of non-official samurai, and not including any -popular element whatever. - -But the government did not believe that the time had come even for a -measure such as the Tosa Liberals advocated. The statesmen in power -conceived that the nation must be educated up to constitutional -standards, and that the first step should be to provide an official -model. Accordingly, in 1874, arrangements were made for periodically -convening an assembly of prefectural governors, in order that they might -act as channels of communication between the central authorities and the -provincial population, and mutually exchange ideas as to the safest and -most effective methods of encouraging progress within the limits of -their jurisdictions. This was intended to be the embryo of -representative institutions. But the governors, being officials -appointed by the cabinet, did not bear in any sense the character of -popular nominees, nor could it even be said that they reflected the -public feeling of the districts they administered, for their habitual -and natural tendency was to try, by means of heroic object lessons, to -win the people's allegiance to the government's progressive policy, -rather than to convince the government of the danger of overstepping the -people's capacities. - -These conventions of local officials had no legislative power whatever. -The foundations of a body for discharging that function were laid in -1875, when a senate (_genro-in_) was organized. It consisted of official -nominees, and its duty was to discuss and revise all laws and ordinances -prior to their promulgation. It is to be noted, however, that expediency -not less than a spirit of progress presided at the creation of the -senate. Into its ranks were drafted a number of men for whom no places -could be found in the executive, and who, without some official -employment, would have been drawn into the current of disaffection. From -that point of view the senate soon came to be regarded as a kind of -hospital for administrative invalids, but undoubtedly its discharge of -quasi-legislative functions proved suggestive, useful and instructive. - - - Assassination of Okubo. - -The second meeting of the provincial governors had just been prorogued -when, in the spring of 1878, the great minister, Okubo Toshimitsu, was -assassinated. Okubo, uniformly ready to bear the heaviest burden of -responsibility in every political complication, had stood prominently -before the nation as Saigo's opponent. He fell under the swords of -Saigo's sympathizers. They immediately surrendered themselves to -justice, having taken previous care to circulate a statement of motives, -which showed that they ranked the government's failure to establish -representative institutions as a sin scarcely less heinous than its -alleged abuses of power. Well-informed followers of Saigo could never -have been sincere believers in representative institutions. These men -belonged to a province far removed from the scene of Saigo's desperate -struggle. But the broad fact that they had sealed with their life-blood -an appeal for a political change indicated the existence of a strong -public conviction which would derive further strength from their act. -The Japanese are essentially a brave people. Throughout the troublous -events that preceded and followed the Restoration, it is not possible to -point to one man whose obedience to duty or conviction was visibly -weakened by prospects of personal peril. Okubo's assassination did not -alarm any of his colleagues; but they understood its suggestiveness, and -hastened to give effect to a previously formed resolve. - - - Local Government. - -Two months after Okubo's death, an edict announced that elective -assemblies should forthwith be established in various prefectures and -cities. These assemblies were to consist of members having a high -property qualification, elected by voters having one-half of that -qualification; the voting to be by signed ballot, and the session to -last for one month in the spring of each year. As to their functions, -they were to determine the method of levying and spending local taxes, -subject to approval by the minister of state for home affairs; to -scrutinize the accounts for the previous year, and, if necessary, to -present petitions to the central government. Thus the foundations of -genuine representative institutions were laid. It is true that -legislative power was not vested in the local assemblies, but in all -other important respects they discharged parliamentary duties. Their -history need not be related at any length. Sometimes they came into -violent collision with the governor of the prefecture, and unsightly -struggles resulted. The governors were disposed to advocate public works -which the people considered extravagant; and further, as years went by, -and as political organizations grew stronger, there was found in each -assembly a group of men ready to oppose the governor simply because of -his official status. But on the whole the system worked well. The local -assemblies served as training schools for the future parliament, and -their members showed devotion to public duty as well as considerable -aptitude for debate. - - - The Liberal Party. - -This was not what Itagaki and his followers wanted. Their purpose was to -overthrow the clique of clansmen who, holding the reins of -administrative power, monopolized the prizes of officialdom. Towards the -consummation of such an aim the local assemblies helped little. Itagaki -redoubled his agitation. He organized his fellow-thinkers into an -association called _jiyuto_ (Liberals), the first political party in -Japan, to whose ranks there very soon gravitated several men who had -been in office and resented the loss of it; many that had never been in -office and desired to be; and a still greater number who sincerely -believed in the principles of political liberty, but had not yet -considered the possibility of immediately adapting such principles to -Japan's case. It was in the nature of things that an association of this -kind, professing such doctrines, should present a picturesque aspect to -the public, and that its collisions with the authorities should invite -popular sympathy. Nor were collisions infrequent. For the government, -arguing that if the nation was not ready for representative -institutions, neither was it ready for full freedom of speech or of -public meeting, legislated consistently with that theory, and entrusted -to the police large powers of control over the press and the platform. -The exercise of these powers often created situations in which the -Liberals were able to pose as victims of official tyranny, so that they -grew in popularity and the contagion of political agitation spread. - - - The Progressist Party. - -Three years later (1881) another split occurred in the ranks of the -ruling oligarchy. Okuma Shigenobu (afterwards Count Okuma) seceded from -the administration, and was followed by a number of able men who had -owed their appointments to his patronage, or who, during his tenure of -office as minister of finance, had passed under the influence of his -powerful personality. If Itagaki be called the Rousseau of Japan, Okuma -may be regarded as the Peel. To remarkable financial ability and a -lucid, vigorous judgment he added the faculty of placing himself on the -crest of any wave which a genuine _aura popularis_ had begun to swell. -He, too, inscribed on his banner of revolt against the oligarchy the -motto "constitutional government," and it might have been expected that -his followers would join hands with those of Itagaki, since the avowed -political purpose of both was identical. They did nothing of the kind. -Okuma organized an independent party, calling themselves Progressists -(_shimpoto_), who not only stood aloof from the Liberals but even -assumed an attitude hostile to them. This fact is eloquent. It shows -that Japan's first political parties were grouped, not about principles, -but about persons. Hence an inevitable lack of cohesion among their -elements and a constant tendency to break up into caves and coteries. -These are the characteristics that render the story of political -evolution in Japan so perplexing to a foreign student. He looks for -differences of platform and finds none. Just as a true Liberal must be a -Progressist, and a true Progressist a Liberal, so, though each may cast -his profession of faith in a mould of different phrases, the ultimate -shape must be the same. The mainsprings of early political agitation in -Japan were personal grievances and a desire to wrest the administrative -power from the hands of the statesmen who had held it so long as to -overtax the patience of their rivals. He that searches for profound -moral or ethical bases will be disappointed. There were no -Conservatives. Society was permeated with the spirit of progress. In a -comparative sense the epithet "Conservative" might have been applied to -the statesmen who proposed to defer parliamentary institutions until the -people, as distinguished from the former samurai, had been in some -measure prepared for such an innovation. But since these very statesmen -were the guiding spirits of the whole Meiji revolution, it was plain -that their convictions must be radical, and that, unless they did -violence to their record, they must finally lead the country to -representative institutions, the logical sequel of their own reforms. - -Okubo's assassination had been followed, in 1878, by an edict announcing -the establishment of local assemblies. Okuma's secession in 1881 was -followed by an edict announcing that a national assembly would be -convened in 1891. - - - Anti-Government Agitation. - -The political parties, having now virtually attained their object, might -have been expected to desist from further agitation. But they had -another task to perform--that of disseminating anti-official prejudices -among the future electors. They worked diligently, and they had an -undisputed field, for no one was put forward to champion the -government's cause. The campaign was not always conducted on lawful -lines. There were plots to assassinate ministers; there was an attempt -to employ dynamite, and there was a scheme to foment an insurrection in -Korea. On the other hand, dispersals of political meetings by order of -police inspectors, and suspension or suppression of newspapers by the -unchallengeable verdict of a minister for home affairs, were common -occurrences. The breach widened steadily. It is true that Okuma rejoined -the cabinet for a time in 1887, but he retired again in circumstances -that aggravated his party's hostility to officialdom. In short, during -the ten years immediately prior to the opening of the first parliament, -an anti-government propaganda was incessantly preached from the platform -and in the press. - -Meanwhile the statesmen in power resolutely pursued their path of -progressive reform. They codified the civil and penal laws, remodelling -them on Western bases; they brought a vast number of affairs within the -scope of minute regulations; they rescued the finances from confusion -and restored them to a sound condition; they recast the whole framework -of local government; they organized a great national bank, and -established a network of subordinate institutions throughout the -country; they pushed on the work of railway construction, and -successfully enlisted private enterprise in its cause; they steadily -extended the postal and telegraphic services; they economized public -expenditures so that the state's income always exceeded its outlays; -they laid the foundations of a strong mercantile marine; they instituted -a system of postal savings-banks; they undertook large schemes of -harbour improvement and road-making; they planned and put into operation -an extensive programme of riparian improvement; they made civil service -appointments depend on competitive examination; they sent numbers of -students to Europe and America to complete their studies; and by -tactful, persevering diplomacy they gradually introduced a new tone into -the empire's relations with foreign powers. Japan's affairs were never -better administered. - - - The Constitution of 1890. - -In 1890 the Constitution was promulgated. Imposing ceremonies marked the -event. All the nation's notables were summoned to the palace to witness -the delivery of the important document by the sovereign to the prime -minister; salvos of artillery were fired; the cities were illuminated, -and the people kept holiday. Marquis (afterwards Prince) Ito directed -the framing of the Constitution. He had visited the Occident for the -purpose of investigating the development of parliamentary institutions -and studying their practical working. His name is connected with nearly -every great work of constructive statesmanship in the history of new -Japan, and perhaps the crown of his legislative career was the drafting -of the Constitution, to which the Japanese people point proudly as the -only charter of the kind voluntarily given by a sovereign to his -subjects. In other countries such concessions were always the outcome of -long struggles between ruler and ruled. In Japan the emperor freely -divested himself of a portion of his prerogatives and transferred them -to the people. That view of the case, as may be seen from the story told -above, is not untinged with romance; but in a general sense it is true. - - - Working of the System. - -No incident in Japan's modern career seemed more hazardous than this -sudden plunge into parliamentary institutions. There had been some -preparation. Provincial assemblies had partially familiarized the people -with the methods of deliberative bodies. But provincial assemblies were -at best petty arenas--places where the making or mending of roads, and -the policing and sanitation of villages came up for discussion, and -where political parties exercised no legislative function nor found any -opportunity to attack the government or to debate problems of national -interest. Thus the convening of a diet and the sudden transfer of -financial and legislative authority from the throne and its entourage of -tried statesmen to the hands of men whose qualifications for public life -rested on the verdict of electors, themselves apparently devoid of all -light to guide their choice--this sweeping innovation seemed likely to -tax severely, if not to overtax completely, the progressive capacities -of the nation. What enhanced the interest of the situation was that the -oligarchs who held the administrative power had taken no pains to win a -following in the political field. Knowing that the opening of the diet -would be a veritable letting loose of the dogs of war, an unmuzzling of -the agitators whose mouths had hitherto been partly closed by legal -restrictions upon free speech, but who would now enjoy complete immunity -within the walls of the assembly whatever the nature of their -utterances--foreseeing all this, the statesmen of the day nevertheless -stood severely aloof from alliances of every kind, and discharged their -administrative functions with apparent indifference to the changes that -popular representation could not fail to induce. This somewhat -inexplicable display of unconcern became partially intelligible when the -constitution was promulgated, for it then appeared that the cabinet's -tenure of office was to depend solely on the emperor's will; that -ministers were to take their mandate from the Throne, not from -parliament. This fact was merely an outcome of the theory underlying -every part of the Japanese polity. Laws might be redrafted, institutions -remodelled, systems recast, but amid all changes and mutations one -steady point must be carefully preserved, the Throne. The makers of new -Japan understood that so long as the sanctity and inviolability of the -imperial prerogatives could be preserved, the nation would be held by a -strong anchor from drifting into dangerous waters. They laboured under -no misapprehension about the inevitable issue of their work in framing -the constitution. They knew very well that party cabinets are an -essential outcome of representative institutions, and that to some kind -of party cabinet Japan must come. But they regarded the Imperial mandate -as a conservative safeguard, pending the organization and education of -parties competent to form cabinets. Such parties did not yet exist, and -until they came into unequivocal existence, the Restoration statesmen, -who had so successfully managed the affairs of the nation during a -quarter of a century, resolved that the steady point furnished by the -throne must not be abandoned. - -On the other hand, the agitators found here a new platform. They had -obtained a constitution and a diet, but they had not obtained an -instrument for pulling down the "clan" administrators, since these stood -secure from attack under the aegis of the sovereign's mandate. They -dared not raise their voices against the unfettered exercise of the -mikado's prerogative. The nation, loyal to the core, would not have -suffered such a protest, nor could the agitators themselves have found -heart to formulate it. But they could read their own interpretation into -the text of the Constitution, and they could demonstrate practically -that a cabinet not acknowledging responsibility to the legislature was -virtually impotent for law-making purposes. - - - The Diet and the Government. - -These are the broad outlines of the contest that began in the first -session of the Diet and continued for several years. It is unnecessary -to speak of the special points of controversy. Just as the political -parties had been formed on the lines of persons, not principles, so the -opposition in the Diet was directed against men, not measures. The -struggle presented varying aspects at different times, but the -fundamental question at issue never changed. Obstruction was the weapon -of the political parties. They sought to render legislation and finance -impossible for any ministry that refused to take its mandate from the -majority in the lower house, and they imparted an air of respectability -and even patriotism to their destructive campaign by making -"anti-clannism" their war-cry, and industriously fostering the idea that -the struggle lay between administration guided by public opinion and -administration controlled by a clique of clansmen who separated the -throne from the nation. Had not the House of Peers stood stanchly by the -government throughout this contest, it is possible that the nation might -have suffered severely from the rashness of the political parties. - -There was something melancholy in the spectacle. The Restoration -statesmen were the men who had made Modern Japan; the men who had raised -her, in the face of immense obstacles, from the position of an -insignificant Oriental state to that of a formidable unit in the comity -of nations; the men, finally, who had given to her a constitution and -representative institutions. Yet these same men were now fiercely -attacked by the arms which they had themselves nerved; were held up to -public obloquy as self-seeking usurpers, and were declared to be -impeding the people's constitutional route to administrative privileges, -when in reality they were only holding the breach until the people -should be able to march into the citadel with some show of orderly and -competent organization. That there was no corruption, no abuse of -position, is not to be pretended; but on the whole the conservatism of -the clan statesmen had only one object--to provide that the newly -constructed representative machine should not be set working until its -parts were duly adjusted and brought into proper gear. On both sides the -leaders understood the situation accurately. The heads of the parties, -while publicly clamouring for parliamentary cabinets, privately -confessed that they were not yet prepared to assume administrative -responsibilities;[3] and the so-called "clan statesmen," while refusing -before the world to accept the Diet's mandates, admitted within official -circles that the question was one of time only. The situation did not -undergo any marked change until, the country becoming engaged in war -with China (1894-95), domestic squabbles were forgotten in the presence -of foreign danger. From that time an era of coalition commenced. Both -the political parties joined hands to vote funds for the prosecution of -the campaign, and one of them, the Liberals, subsequently gave support -to a cabinet under the presidency of Marquis Ito, the purpose of the -union being to carry through the diet an extensive scheme of enlarged -armaments and public works planned in the sequel of the war. The -Progressists, however, remained implacable, continuing their opposition -to the thing called bureaucracy quite irrespective of its measures. - - - Fusion of the Two Parties. - -The next phase (1898) was a fusion of the two parties into one large -organization which adopted the name "Constitutional Party" -(_kensei-to_). By this union the chief obstacles to parliamentary -cabinets were removed. Not only did the Constitutionalists command a -large majority in the lower house, but also they possessed a sufficiency -of men who, although lacking ministerial experience, might still advance -a reasonable title to be entrusted with portfolios. Immediately the -emperor, acting on the advice of Marquis Ito, invited Counts Okuma and -Itagaki to form a cabinet. It was essentially a trial. The party -politicians were required to demonstrate in practice the justice of the -claim they had been so long asserting in theory. They had worked in -combination for the destructive purpose of pulling down the so-called -"clan statesmen"; they had now to show whether they could work in -combination for the constructive purposes of administration. Their -heads, Counts Okuma and Itagaki, accepted the Imperial mandate, and the -nation watched the result. There was no need to wait long. In less than -six months these new links snapped under the tension of old enmities, -and the coalition split up once more into its original elements. It had -demonstrated that the sweets of power, which the "clan statesmen" had -been so vehemently accused of coveting, possessed even greater -attractions for their accusers. The issue of the experiment was such a -palpable fiasco that it effectually rehabilitated the "clan statesmen," -and finally proved, what had indeed been long evident to every close -observer, that without the assistance of those statesmen no political -party could hold office successfully. - - - Enrolment of the Clan Statesmen in Political Associations. - -Thenceforth it became the unique aim of Liberals and Progressists alike -to join hands permanently with the men towards whom they had once -displayed such implacable hostility. Prince Ito, the leader of the -so-called "elder statesmen," received special solicitations, for it was -plain that he would bring to any political party an overwhelming access -of strength alike in his own person and in the number of friends and -disciples certain to follow him. But Prince Ito declined to be absorbed -into any existing party, or to adopt the principle of parliamentary -cabinets. He would consent to form a new association, but it must -consist of men sufficiently disciplined to obey him implicitly, and -sufficiently docile to accept their programme from his hand. The -Liberals agreed to these terms. They dissolved their party (August 1900) -and enrolled themselves in the ranks of a new organization, which did -not even call itself a party, its designation being _rikken seiyu-kai_ -(association of friends of the constitution), and which had for the -cardinal plank in its platform a declaration of ministerial -irresponsibility to the Diet. A singular page was thus added to the -story of Japanese political development; for not merely did the Liberals -enlist under the banner of the statesmen whom for twenty years they had -fought to overthrow, but they also tacitly consented to erase from their -profession of faith its essential article, parliamentary cabinets, and, -by resigning that article to the Progressists, created for the first -time an opposition with a solid and intelligible platform. Nevertheless -the seiyu-kai grew steadily in strength whereas the number of its -opponents declined correspondingly. At the general elections in May 1908 -the former secured 195 seats, the four sections of the opposition -winning only 184. Thus for the first time in Japanese parliamentary -history a majority of the lower chamber found themselves marching under -the same banner. Moreover, the four sections of the opposition were -independently organized and differed nearly as much from one another as -they all differed from the seiyu-kai. Their impotence to make head -against the solid phalanx of the latter was thus conspicuous, especially -during the 1908-1909 session of the Diet. Much talk then began to be -heard about the necessity of coalition, and that this talk will -materialize eventually cannot be doubted. Reduction of armaments, -abolition of taxes specially imposed for belligerent purposes, and the -substitution of a strictly constitutional system for the existing -bureaucracy--these objects constitute a sufficiently solid platform, and -nothing is wanted except that a body of proved administrators should -join the opposition in occupying it. There were in 1909 no signs, -however, that any such defection from the ranks of officialdom would -take place. Deference is paid to public opinions inasmuch as even a -seiyu-kai ministry will not remain in office after its popularity has -begun to show signs of waning. But no deference is paid to the doctrine -of party cabinets. Prince Ito did not continue to lead the seiyu-kai for -more than three years. In July 1903 he delegated that function to -Marquis Saionji, representative of one of the very oldest families of -the court nobility and a personal friend of the emperor, as also was -Prince Ito. The Imperial stamp is thus vicariously set upon the -principle of political combinations for the better practical conduct of -parliamentary business, but that the seiyu-kai, founded by Prince Ito -and led by Marquis Saionji, should ever hold office in defiance of the -sovereign's mandate is unthinkable. Constitutional institutions in Japan -are therefore developing along lines entirely without precedent. The -storm and stress of early parliamentary days have given place to -comparative calm. During the first twelve sessions of the Diet, -extending over 8 years, there were five dissolutions of the lower house. -During the next thirteen sessions, extending over 11 years, there were -two dissolutions. During the first 8 years of the Diet's existence there -were six changes of cabinet; during the next 11 years there were five -changes. Another healthy sign was that men of affairs were beginning to -realize the importance of parliamentary representation. At first the -constituencies were contested almost entirely by professional -politicians, barristers and journalists. In 1909 there was a solid body -(the _boshin_ club) of business men commanding nearly 50 votes in the -lower house; and as the upper chamber included 45 representatives of the -highest tax-payers, the interests of commerce and industry were -intelligently debated. (F. By.) - - -X.--THE CLAIM OF JAPAN: BY A JAPANESE STATESMAN[4] - -It has been said that it is impossible for an Occidental to understand -the Oriental, and vice versa; but, admitting that the mutual -understanding of two different races or peoples is a difficult matter, -why should Occidentals and Orientals be thus set in opposition? No -doubt, different peoples of Europe understand each other better than -they do the Asiatic; but can Asiatic peoples understand each other -better than they can Europeans or than the Europeans can understand any -of them? Do Japanese understand Persians or even Indians better than -English or French? It is true perhaps that Japanese can and do -understand the Chinese better than Europeans; but that is due not only -to centuries of mutual intercourse, but to the wonderful and peculiar -fact that they have adopted the old classical Chinese literature as -their own, somewhat in the way, but in a much greater degree, in which -the European nations have adopted the old Greek and Latin literatures. -What is here contended for is that the mutual understanding of two -peoples is not so much a matter of race, but of the knowledge of each -other's history, traditions, literature, &c. - -The Japanese have, they think, suffered much from the misunderstanding -of their motives, feelings and ideas; what they want is to be understood -fully and to be known for what they really are, be it good or bad. They -desire, above all, not to be lumped as Oriental, but to be known and -judged on their own account. In the latter half of the 19th century, in -fact up to the Chinese War, it irritated Japanese travelling abroad more -than anything else to be taken for Chinese. Then, after the Chinese War, -the alarm about Japan leading Eastern Asia to make a general attack upon -Europe--the so-called Yellow Peril--seemed so ridiculous to the Japanese -that the bad effects of such wild talk were not quite appreciated by -them. The aim of the Japanese nation, ever since, at the time of the -Restoration (1868), they laid aside definitively all ideas of seclusion -and entered into the comity of nations, has been that they should rise -above the level of the Eastern peoples to an equality with the Western -and should be in the foremost rank of the brotherhood of nations; it was -not their ambition at all to be the champion of the East against the -West, but rather to beat down the barriers between themselves and the -West. - -The intense pride of the Japanese in their nationality, their patriotism -and loyalty, arise from their history, for what other nation can point -to an Imperial family of one unbroken lineage reigning over the land for -twenty-five centuries? Is it not a glorious tradition for a nation, that -its emperor should be descended directly from that grandson of "the -great heaven-illuminating goddess," to whom she said, "This land -(Japan) is the region over which my descendants shall be the lords. Do -thou, my august child, proceed thither and govern it. Go! _The -prosperity of thy dynasty shall be coeval with heaven and earth._" Thus -they call their country the land of _kami_ (ancient gods of tradition). -With this spirit, in the old days when China held the hegemony of the -East, and all neighbouring peoples were regarded as its tributaries, -Japan alone, largely no doubt on account of its insular position, held -itself quite aloof; it set at defiance the power of Kublai and routed -utterly the combined Chinese and Korean fleets with vast forces sent by -him to conquer Japan, this being the only occasion that Japan was -threatened with a foreign invasion. - -With this spirit, as soon as they perceived the superiority of the -Western civilization, they set to work to introduce it into their -country, just as in the 7th and 8th centuries they had adopted and -adapted the Chinese civilization. In 1868, the first year of the era of -Meiji, the emperor swore solemnly the memorable oath of five articles, -setting forth the policy that was to be and has been followed thereafter -by the government. These five articles were:-- - - 1. Deliberative assemblies shall be established and all measures of - government shall be decided by public opinion. - - 2. All classes, high and low, shall unite in vigorously carrying out - the plan of government. - - 3. Officials, civil and military, and all common people shall as far - as possible be allowed to fulfil their just desires so that there may - not be any discontent among them. - - 4. _Uncivilized customs of former times shall be broken through_, and - everything shall be based upon just and equitable principles of heaven - and earth (nature). - - 5. _Knowledge shall be sought for throughout the world_, so that the - welfare of the empire may be promoted. - - (Translation due to Prof. N. Hozumi of Tokyo Imp. Univ.) - -It is interesting, as showing the continuity of the policy of the -empire, to place side by side with these articles the words of the -Imperial rescript issued in 1908, which are as follows:-- - - "We are convinced that with the rapid and unceasing advance of - civilization, the East and West, mutually dependent and helping each - other, are bound by common interests. It is our sincere wish to - continue to enjoy for ever its benefits in common with other powers by - entering into closer and closer relations and strengthening our - friendship with them. Now in order to be able to move onward along - with the constant progress of the world and to share in the blessings - of civilization, it is obvious that we must develop our internal - resources; our nation, but recently emerged from an exhausting war, - must put forth increased activity in every branch of administration. - It therefore behoves our people to endeavour with one mind, from the - highest to the lowest, to pursue their callings honestly and - earnestly, to be industrious and thrifty, to abide in faith and - righteousness, to be simple and warm-hearted, to put away ostentation - and vanity and strive after the useful and solid, to avoid idleness - and indulgence, and to apply themselves incessantly to strenuous and - arduous tasks...." - -The ambition of the Japanese people has been, as already stated, to be -recognized as an equal by the Great Powers. With this object in view, -they have spared no efforts to introduce what they considered superior -in the Western civilization, although it may perhaps be doubted whether -in their eagerness they have always been wise. _They have always -resented any discrimination against them as an Asiatic people_, not -merely protesting against it, knowing that such would not avail much, -but making every endeavour to remove reasons or excuses for it. Formerly -there were troops stationed to guard several legations; foreign postal -service was not entirely in the hands of the Japanese government for a -long time; these and other indignities against the sovereignty of the -nation were gradually removed by proving that they were not necessary. -Then there was the question of the extra-territorial jurisdiction; an -embassy was sent to Europe and America as early as 1871 with a view to -the revision of treaties in order to do away with this _imperium in -imperio_, that being the date originally fixed for the revision; the -embassy, however, failed in its object but was not altogether fruitless, -for it was then clearly seen that it would be necessary to revise -thoroughly the system of laws and entirely to reorganize the law courts -before Occidental nations could be induced to forgo this privilege. -These measures were necessary in any case as a consequence of the -introduction of the Western methods and ideas, but they were hastened by -the fact of their being a necessary preliminary to the revision of -treaties. When the new code of laws was brought before the Diet at its -first session, and there was a great opposition against it in the House -of Peers on account of its many defects and especially of its ignoring -many established usages, the chief argument in its favour, or at least -one that had a great influence with many who were unacquainted with -technical points, was that it was necessary for the revision of treaties -and that the defects, if any, could be afterwards amended at leisure. -These preparations on the part of the government, however, took a long -time, and in the meantime the whole nation, or at least the more -intelligent part of it, was chafing impatiently under what was -considered a national indignity. The United States, by being the first -to agree to its abandonment, although this agreement was rendered -nugatory by a conditional clause, added to the stock of goodwill with -which the Japanese have always regarded the Americans on account of -their attitude towards them. When at last the consummation so long and -ardently desired was attained, great was the joy with which it was -greeted, for now it was felt that Japan was indeed on terms of equality -with Occidental nations. Great Britain, by being the first to conclude -the revised treaty--an act due to the remarkable foresight of her -statesmen in spite of the opposition of their countrymen in Japan--did -much to bring about the cordial feeling of the Japanese towards the -British, which made them welcome with such enthusiasm the Anglo-Japanese -alliance. The importance of this last as a powerful instrument for the -preservation of peace in the extreme East has been, and always will be, -appreciated at its full value by the more intelligent and thoughtful -among the Japanese; but by the mass of the people it was received with -great acclamation, owing partly to the already existing good feeling -towards the British, but also in a large measure because it was felt -that the fact that Great Britain should leave its "splendid isolation" -to enter into this alliance proclaimed in the clearest possible way that -Japan had entered on terms of full equality among the brotherhood of -nations, and that thenceforth there could be no ground for that -discrimination against them as an Asiatic nation which had been so -galling to the Japanese people. - -There have been, and there still are being made, many charges against -the Japanese government and people. While admitting that some of them -may be founded on facts, it is permissible to point out that traits and -acts of a few individuals have often been generalized to be the national -characteristic or the result of a fixed policy, while in many cases such -charges are due to misunderstandings arising from want of thorough -knowledge of each other's language, customs, usages, ideas, &c. Take the -principle of "the open door," for instance; the Japanese government has -been charged in several instances with acting contrary to it. It is -natural that where (as in China) competition is very keen between men of -different nationalities, individuals should sometimes feel aggrieved and -make complaints of unfairness against the government of their -competitors; it is also natural that people at home should listen to and -believe in those charges made against the Japanese by their countrymen -in the East, while unfortunately the Japanese, being so far away and -often unaware of them, have not a ready means of vindicating themselves; -but subsequent investigations have always shown those charges to be -either groundless or due to misunderstandings, and it may be asserted -that in no case has the charge been substantiated that the Japanese -government has knowingly, deliberately, of _malice prepense_ been guilty -of breach of faith in violating the principle of "the open door" to -which it has solemnly pledged itself. That it has often been accused by -the Japanese subjects of weakness _vis-a-vis_ foreign powers to the -detriment of their interests, is perhaps a good proof of its fairness. - -The Japanese have often been charged with looseness of commercial -morality. This charge is harder to answer than the last, for it cannot -be denied that there have been many instances of dishonesty on the part -of Japanese tradesmen or employees; _tu quoque_ is never a valid -argument, but there are black sheep everywhere, and there were special -reasons why foreigners should have come in contact with many such in -their dealings with the Japanese. In days before the Restoration, -merchants and tradesmen were officially classed as the lowest of four -classes, the samurai, the farmers, the artisans and the merchants; -practically, however, rich merchants serving as bankers and employers of -others were held in high esteem, even by the samurai. Yet it cannot be -denied that the position of the last three was low compared with that of -the samurai; their education was not so high, and although of course -there was the same code of morality for them all, there was no such high -standard of honour as was enjoined upon the samurai by the bushido or -"the way of samurai." Now, when foreign trade was first opened, it was -naturally not firms with long-established credit and methods that first -ventured upon the new field of business--some few that did failed owing -to their want of experience--it was rather enterprising and adventurous -spirits with little capital or credit who eagerly flocked to the newly -opened ports to try their fortune. It was not to be expected that all or -most of those should be very scrupulous in their dealings with the -foreigners; the majority of those adventurers failed, while a few of the -abler men, generally those who believed in and practised honesty as the -best policy, succeeded and came to occupy an honourable position as -business men. It is also asserted that foreigners, or at least some of -them, did not scruple to take unfair advantage of the want of experience -on the part of their Japanese customers to impose upon them methods -which they would not have followed except in the East; it may be that -such methods were necessary or were deemed so in dealing with those -adventurers, but it is a fact that it afterwards took a long time and -great effort on the part of Japanese traders to break through some -usages and customs which were established in earlier days and which they -deemed derogatory to their credit or injurious to their interests. -Infringement of patent rights and fraudulent imitation of trade-marks -have with some truth also been charged against the Japanese; about this -it is to be remarked that although the principles of morality cannot -change, their applications may be new; patents and trade-marks are -something new to the Japanese, and it takes time to teach that their -infringement should be regarded with the same moral censure as stealing. -The government has done everything to prevent such practices by enacting -and enforcing laws against them, and nowadays they are not so common. Be -that as it may, such a state of affairs as that mentioned above is now -passing away almost entirely; commerce and trade are now regarded as -highly honourable professions, merchants and business men occupy the -highest social positions, several of them having been lately raised to -the peerage, and are as honourable a set of men as can be met anywhere. -It is however to be regretted that in introducing Western business -methods, it has not been quite possible to exclude some of their evils, -such as promotion of swindling companies, tampering with members of -legislature, and so forth. - -The Japanese have also been considered in some quarters to be a -bellicose nation. No sooner was the war with Russia over than they were -said to be ready and eager to fight with the United States. This is -another misrepresentation arising from want of proper knowledge of -Japanese character and feelings. Although it is true that within the -quarter of a century preceding 1909 Japan was engaged in two sanguinary -wars, not to mention the Boxer affair, in which owing to her proximity -to the scene of the disturbances she had to take a prominent part, yet -neither of these was of her own seeking; in both cases she had to fight -or else submit to become a mere cipher in the world, if indeed she could -have preserved her existence as an independent state. The Japanese, far -from being a bellicose people, deliberately cut off all intercourse with -the outside world in order to avoid international troubles, and remained -absolutely secluded from the world and at profound peace within their -own territory for two centuries and a half. Besides, the Japanese have -always regarded the Americans with a special goodwill, due no doubt to -the steady liberal attitude of the American government and people -towards Japan and Japanese, and they look upon the idea of war between -Japan and the United States as ridiculous. - -Restrictions upon Japanese emigrants to the United States and to -Australia are irritating to the Japanese, because it is a discrimination -against them as belonging to the "yellow" race, whereas it has been -their ambition to raise themselves above the level of the Eastern -nations to an equality with the Western nations, although they cannot -change the colour of their skin. When a Japanese even of the highest -rank and standing has to obtain a permit from an American immigrant -officer before he can enter American territory, is it not natural that -he and his countrymen should resent this discrimination as an indignity? -But they have too much good sense to think or even dream of going to war -upon such a matter; on the contrary, the Japanese government agreed in -1908 to limit the number of emigrants in order to avoid complications. - -It may be repeated that it has ever been the ambition of the Japanese -people to take rank with the Great Powers of the world, and to have a -voice in the council of nations; they demand that they shall not be -discriminated against because of the colour of their skin, but that they -shall rather be judged by their deeds. With this aim, they have made -great efforts: where charges brought against them have any foundation in -fact, they have endeavoured to make reforms; where they are false or due -to misunderstandings they have tried to live them down, trusting to time -for their vindication. They are willing to be judged by the intelligent -and impartial world: a fair field and no favour is what they claim, and -think they have a right to claim, from the world. (K.) - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The latest edition of von Wemckstern's _Bibliography of - the Japanese Empire_ contains the names of all important books and - publications relating to Japan, which have now become very numerous. A - general reference must suffice here to Captain F. Brinkley's _Japan_ - (12 vols., 1904); the works of B. H. Chamberlain, _Things Japanese_ - (5th ed., 1905, &c.); W. G. Aston, _Hist. of Jap. Literature, &c._, - and Lafcadio Hearn, _Japan: an Interpretation_ (1904), &c., as the - European authors with intimate knowledge of the country who have done - most to give accurate and illuminating expression to its development. - See also _Fifty Years of New Japan_, an encyclopaedic account of the - national development in all its aspects, compiled by Count Shigenobu - Okuma (2 vols., 1907, 1908; Eng. ed. by Marcus B. Huish, 1909). - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The Taira and the Minamoto both traced their descent from - imperial princes; the Tokugawa were a branch of the Minamoto. - - [2] Daimyo ("great name") was the title given to a feudal chief. - - [3] Neither the Liberals nor the Progressists had a working majority - in the house of representatives, nor could the ranks of either have - furnished men qualified to fill all the administrative posts. - - [4] The following expression of the Japanese point of view, by a - statesman of the writer's authority and experience, may well - supplement the general account of the progress of Japan and its - inclusion among the great civilized powers of the world.--(ED. - _E. B._) - - - - -JAPANNING, the art of coating surfaces of metal, wood, &c., with a -variety of varnishes, which are dried and hardened on in stoves or hot -chambers. These drying processes constitute the main distinguishing -features of the art. The trade owes its name to the fact that it is an -imitation of the famous lacquering of Japan (see JAPAN: _Art_), which, -however, is prepared with entirely different materials and processes, -and is in all respects much more brilliant, durable and beautiful than -any ordinary japan work. Japanning is done in clear transparent -varnishes, in black and in body colours; but black japan is the most -characteristic and common style of work. The varnish for black japan -consists essentially of pure natural asphaltum with a proportion of gum -anime dissolved in linseed oil and thinned with turpentine. In thin -layers such a japan has a rich dark brown colour; it only shows a -brilliant black in thicker coatings. For fine work, which has to be -smoothed and polished, several coats of black are applied in succession, -each being separately dried in the stove at a heat which may rise to -about 300 deg. F. Body colours consist of a basis of transparent varnish -mixed with the special mineral paints of the desired colours or with -bronze powders. The transparent varnish used by japanners is a copal -varnish which contains less drying oil and more turpentine than is -contained in ordinary painters' oil varnish. Japanning produces a -brilliant polished surface which is much more durable and less easily -affected by heat, moisture or other influences than any ordinary painted -and varnished work. It may be regarded as a process intermediate between -ordinary painting and enamelling. It is very extensively applied in the -finishing of ordinary iron-mongery goods and domestic iron-work, deed -boxes, clock dials and papier-mache articles. The process is also -applied to blocks of slate for making imitation of black and other -marbles for chimneypieces, &c., and in a modified form is employed for -preparing enamelled, japan or patent leather. - - - - -JAPHETH ([Hebrew: Yefeth]), in the Bible, the youngest son of Noah[1] -according to the Priestly Code (c. 450 B.C.); but in the earlier -tradition[2] the second son, also the "father" of one of the three -groups into which the nations of the world are divided.[3] In Gen. ix. -27, Noah pronounces the following blessing on Japheth-- - - "God enlarge (Heb. _yapht_) Japheth (Heb. _yepheth_), - And let him dwell in the tents of Shem; - And let Canaan be his servant." - -This is probably an ancient oracle independent alike of the flood story -and the genealogical scheme in Gen. x. Shem is probably Israel; Canaan, -of course, the Canaanites; by analogy, Japheth should be some third -element of the population of Palestine--the Philistines or the -Phoenicians have been suggested. The sense of the second line is -doubtful, it may be "let God dwell" or "let Japheth dwell"; on the -latter view Japheth appears to be in friendly alliance with Shem. The -words might mean that Japheth was an intruding invader, but this is not -consonant with the tone of the oracle. Possibly Japheth is only present -in Gen. ix. 20-27 through corruption of the text, Japheth may be an -accidental repetition of yapht "may he enlarge," misread as a proper -name. - -In Gen. x. Japheth is the northern and western division of the nations; -being perhaps used as a convenient title under which to group the more -remote peoples who were not thought of as standing in ethnic or -political connexion with Israel or Egypt. Thus of his descendants, -Gomer, Magog,[4] Tubal, Meshech, Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah are -peoples who are located with more or less certainty in N.E. Asia Minor, -Armenia and the lands to the N.E. of the Black Sea; Javan is the -Ionians, used loosely for the seafaring peoples of the West, including -Tarshish (Tartessus in Spain), Kittim (Cyprus), Rodanim[5] (Rhodes). -There is no certain identification of Tiras and Elishah. - - The similarity of the name Japheth to the Titan Iapetos of Greek - mythology is probably a mere accident. A place Japheth is mentioned in - Judith ii. 25, but it is quite unknown. - - In addition to commentaries and dictionary articles, see E. Meyer, - _Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme_, pp. 219 sqq. (W. H. Be.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. 13, x. 1; cf. 1 Chron. i. 4. - - [2] Gen. ix. 27, x. 2, J. c. 850-750 B.C. In ix. 18 Ham is an - editorial addition. - - [3] Gen. x. 1-5; cf. I Chron. i. 5-7. For the significance of the - genealogies in Gen. x. see HAM. - - [4] See GOMER, GOG. - - [5] So we should read with 1 Chron. i. 7 (LXX.) for Dodanim. - - - - -JAR, a vessel of simple form, made of earthenware, glass, &c., with a -spoutless mouth, and usually without handles. The word came into English -through Fr. _jarre_ or Span, _jarra_, from Arab, _jarrah_, the -earthenware vessel of Eastern countries, used to contain water, oil, -wine, &c. The simple electrical condenser known as a _Leyden Jar_ (q.v.) -was so called because of the early experiments made in the science of -electricity at Leiden. In the sense of a harsh vibrating sound, a sudden -shock or vibrating movement, hence dissension, quarrel or petty strife, -"jar" is onomatopoeic in origin; it is also seen in the name of the bird -night-jar (also known as the goat-sucker). In the expression "on the -jar" or "ajar," of a door or window partly open, the word is another -form of _chare_ or _char_, meaning turn or turning, which survives in -charwoman, one who works at a turn, a job and _chore_, a job, spell of -work. - - - - -JARGON, in its earliest use a term applied to the chirping and -twittering of birds, but since the 15th century mainly confined to any -language, spoken or written, which is either unintelligible to the user -or to the hearer. It is particularly applied by uninstructed hearers or -readers to the language full of technical terminology used by -scientific, philosophic and other writers. The word is O. Fr., and -Cotgrave defines it as "gibridge (gibberish), fustian language." It is -cognate with Span. _gerigonza_, and Ital. _gergo_, _gergone_, and -probably related to the onomatopoeic O. Fr. _jargouiller_, to chatter. -The root is probably seen in Lat. _garrire_, to chatter. - - - - -JARGOON, or Jargon (occasionally in old writings _jargounce_ and -_jacounce_), a name applied by modern mineralogists to those zircons -which are fine enough to be cut as gem-stones, but are not of the red -colour which characterizes the hyacinth or jacinth. The word is related -to Arab _zargun_ (zircon). Some of the finest jargoons are green, others -brown and yellow, whilst some are colourless. The colourless jargoon may -be obtained by heating certain coloured stones. When zircon is heated it -sometimes changes in colour, or altogether loses it, and at the same -time usually increases in density and brilliancy. The so-called Matura -diamonds, formerly sent from Matara (or Matura), in Ceylon, were -decolorized zircons. The zircon has strong refractive power, and its -lustre is almost adamantine, but it lacks the fire of the diamond. The -specific gravity of zircon is subject to considerable variation in -different varieties; thus Sir A. H. Church found the sp. gr. of a fine -leaf-green jargoon to be as low as 3.982, and that of a pure white -jargoon as high as 4.705. Jargoon and tourmaline, when cut as gems, are -sometimes mistaken for each other, but the sp. gr. is distinctive, since -that of tourmaline is only 3 to 3.2. Moreover, in tourmaline the -dichroism is strongly marked, whereas in jargoon it is remarkably -feeble. The refractive indices of jargoon are much higher than those of -tourmaline (see ZIRCON). (F. W. R.*) - - - - -JARIR IBN 'ATIYYA UL-KHATFI (d. 728), Arabian poet, was born in the -reign of the caliph 'Ali, was a member of the tribe Kulaib, a part of -the Tamim, and lived in Irak. Of his early life little is known, but he -succeeded in winning the favour of Hajjaj, the governor of Irak (see -CALIPHATE). Already famous for his verse, he became more widely known by -his feud with Farazdaq and Akhtal. Later he went to Damascus and visited -the court of Abdalmalik ('Abd ul-Malik) and that of his successor, -Walid. From neither of these did he receive a warm welcome. He was, -however, more successful with Omar II., and was the only poet received -by the pious caliph. - - His verse, which, like that of his contemporaries, is largely satire - and eulogy, was published in 2 vols. (Cairo, 1896). (G. W. T.) - - - - -JARKENT, a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of -Semiryechensk, 70 m. W.N.W. of Kulja and near to the Ili river. Pop. -(1897), 16,372. - - - - -JARNAC, a town of western France in the department of Charente, on the -right bank of the river Charente, and on the railway 23 m. W. of -Angouleme, between that city and Cognac. Pop. (1906), 4493. The town is -well built; and an avenue, planted with poplar trees, leads to a -handsome suspension bridge. The church contains an interesting ogival -crypt. There are communal colleges for both sexes. Brandy, wine and -wine-casks are made in the town. Jarnac was in 1569 the scene of a -battle in which the Catholics defeated the Protestants. A pyramid marks -the spot where Louis, Prince de Conde, one of the Protestant generals, -was slain. Jarnac gave its name to an old French family, of which the -best known member is Gui Chabot, comte de Jarnac (d. c. 1575), whose -lucky backstroke in his famous duel with Chateigneraie gave rise to the -proverbial phrase _coup de jarnac_, signifying an unexpected blow. - - - - -JARO, a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Islands, on -the Jaro river, 2 m. N.W. of the town of Iloilo, the capital. Pop. -(1903), 10,681. It lies on a plain in the midst of a rich agricultural -district, has several fine residences, a cathedral, a curious -three-tiered tower, a semi-weekly paper and a monthly periodical. Jaro -was founded by the Spanish in 1584. From 1903 until February 1908 it was -part of the town or municipality of Iloilo. - - - - -JAROSITE, a rare mineral species consisting of hydrous potassium and -aluminium sulphate, and belonging to the group of isomorphous -rhombohedral minerals enumerated below:-- - - Alunite K2 [Al(OH)2]6 (SO4)4 - Jarosite K2 [Fe(OH)2]6 (SO4)4 - Natrojarosite Na2 [Fe(OH)2]6 (SO4)4 - Plumbojarosite Pb [Fe(OH)2]8 (SO4)4 - -Jarosite usually occurs as drusy incrustations of minute indistinct -crystals with a yellowish-brown colour and brilliant lustre. Hardness 3; -sp. gr. 3.15. The best specimens, consisting of crystalline crusts on -limonite, are from the Jaroso ravine in the Sierra Almagrera, province -of Almeria, Spain, from which locality the mineral receives its name. It -has been also found, often in association with iron ores, at a few other -localities. A variety occurring as concretionary or mulberry-like forms -is known as moronolite (from Gr. [Greek: moron], "mulberry," and [Greek: -lithos], "stone"); it is found at Monroe in Orange county, New York. The -recently discovered species natrojarosite and plumbojarosite occur as -yellowish-brown glistening powders consisting wholly of minute crystals, -and are from Nevada and New Mexico respectively. (L. J. S.) - - - - -JARRAH WOOD (an adaptation of the native name _Jerryhl_), the product of -a large tree (_Eucalyptus marginata_) found in south-western Australia, -where it is said to cover an area of 14,000 sq. m. The trees grow -straight in the stem to a great size, and yield squared timber up to 40 -ft. length and 24 in. diameter. The wood is very hard, heavy (sp. gr. -1.010) and close-grained, with a mahogany-red colour, and sometimes -sufficient "figure" to render it suitable for cabinet-makers' use. The -timber possesses several useful characteristics; and great expectations -were at first formed as to its value for ship-building and general -constructive purposes. These expectations have not, however, been -realized, and the exclusive possession of the tree has not proved that -source of wealth to western Australia which was at one time expected. -Its greatest merit for ship-building and marine purposes is due to the -fact that it resists, better than any other timber, the attacks of the -_Teredo navalis_ and other marine borers, and on land it is equally -exempt, in tropical countries, from the ravages of white ants. When -felled with the sap at its lowest point and well seasoned, the wood -stands exposure in the air, earth or sea remarkably well, on which -account it is in request for railway sleepers, telegraph poles and piles -in the British colonies and India. The wood, however, frequently shows -longitudinal blisters, or lacunae, filled with resin, the same as may be -observed in spruce fir timber; and it is deficient in fibre, breaking -with a short fracture under comparatively moderate pressure. It has been -classed at Lloyds for ship-building purposes in line three, table A, of -the registry rules. - - - - -JARROW, a port and municipal borough in the Jarrow parliamentary -division of Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne, 6(1/2) m. -below Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. -(1901), 34,295. The parish church of St Paul was founded in 685, and -retains portions of pre-Norman work. The central tower is Norman, and -there are good Decorated and Perpendicular details in the body of the -church. Close by are the scattered ruins of the monastery begun by the -pious Biscop in 681, and consecrated with the church by Ceolfrid in 685. -Within the walls of this monastery the Venerable Bede spent his life -from childhood; and his body was at first buried within the church, -whither, until it was removed under Edward the Confessor to Durham, it -attracted many pilgrims. The town is wholly industrial, devoted to -ship-building, chemical works, paper mills and the neighbouring -collieries. It owes its development from a mere pit village very largely -to the enterprise of Sir Charles Mark Palmer (q.v.). Jarrow Slake, a -river bay, 1 m. long by 1/2 m. broad, contains the Tyne docks of the -North-Eastern railway company. A great quantity of coal is shipped. -Jarrow was incorporated in 1875, and the corporation consists of a -mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 783 acres. - - - - -JARRY, NICOLAS, one of the best-known 17th century French calligraphers. -He was born at Paris about 1620, and was officially employed by Louis -XIV. His most famous work is the _Guirlande de Julie_ (1641). He died -some time before 1674. - - - - -JARVIS, JOHN WESLEY (1780-1840), American artist, nephew of the great -John Wesley, was born at South Shields, England, and was taken to the -United States at the age of five. He was one of the earliest American -painters to give serious attention to the study of anatomy. He lived at -first in Philadelphia, afterwards establishing himself in New York, -where he enjoyed great popularity, though his conviviality and eccentric -mode of life affected his work. He visited Baltimore, Charleston and New -Orleans, entertaining much and painting portraits of prominent people, -particularly in New Orleans, where General Andrew Jackson was one of his -sitters. He had for assistants at different times both Sully and Inman. -He affected singularity in dress and manners, and his _mots_ were the -talk of the day. But his work deteriorated, and he died in great poverty -in New York City. Examples of his painting are in the collection of the -New York Historical Society. - - - - -JASHAR, BOOK OF, in Hebrew _Sepher ha-yashar_, a Hebrew composition -mentioned as though well-known in Josh. x. 13 and 2 Sam. i. 18. From -these two passages it seems to have been a book of songs relating to -important events, but no early collection of the kind is now extant, nor -is anything known of it. Various speculations have been put forward as -to the name: (1) that it means the book of the upright, i.e. Israel or -distinguished Israelites, the root being the same as in Jeshurun; (2) -that Jashar ([Hebrew: yashar]) is a transposition of shir ([Hebrew: -shir], song); (3) that it should be pointed Yashir ([Hebrew: yashir], -sing; cf. Exod. xv. 1) and was so called after its first word. None of -these is very convincing, though support may be found for them all in -the versions. The Septuagint favours (1) by its rendering [Greek: epi -bibliou tou euthous] in Samuel (it omits the words in Joshua); the -Vulgate has _in libro justorum_ in both places; the Syriac in Samuel has -_Ashir_, which suggests a Hebrew reading _ha-shir_ (the song), and in -Joshua it translates "book of praises." The Targum on both passages has -"book of the law," an explanation which is followed by the chief Jewish -commentators, making the incidents the fulfilment of passages in the -Pentateuch. Since it contained the lament of David (2 Sam. i. 18) it -cannot have been completed till after his time. If Wellhausen's -restoration of 1 Kings viii. 12 be accepted (from Septuagint 1 Kings -viii. 53, [Greek: en biblio tes odes]) where the reference is to the -building of the Temple, the book must have been growing in the time of -Solomon. The attempt of Donaldson[1] to reconstruct it is largely -subjective and uncritical. - - In later times when it became customary to compose midrashic works - under well-known names, a book of Jashar naturally made its - appearance. It need hardly be remarked that this has nothing whatever - to do with the older book. It is an anonymous elaboration in Hebrew of - the early part of the biblical narrative, probably composed in the - 12th century. The fact that its legendary material is drawn from - Arabic sources, as well as from Talmud, Midrash and later Jewish - works, would seem to show that the writer lived in Spain, or, - according to others, in south Italy. The first edition appeared at - Venice in 1625, and it has been frequently printed since. It was - translated into English by (or for) M. M. Noah (New York, 1840). A - work called _The Book of ... Jasher, translated ... by Alcuin_ (1751; - 2nd ed., Bristol, 1829), has nothing to do with this or with any - Hebrew original, but is a mere fabrication by the printer, Jacob Hive, - who put it forward as the book "mentioned in Holy Scripture." - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--M. Heilprin, _Historical Poetry of the Ancient Hebrews_ - (New York, 1879), i. 128-131; Mercati, "Una congettura sopra il libro - del Giusto," in _Studi e Testi_ (5, Roma, 1901). On the medieval work - see Zunz, _Gottesdienstliche Vortrage der Juden_ (Frankfurt a. M., - 1892), 2nd ed., p. 162. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] _Jashar: fragmenta archetypa carminum Hebraicorum_ (Berlin, - 1854). Cf. Perowne's _Remarks_ on it (Lond. 1855). - - - - -JASHPUR, a tributary state of India, in the Central Provinces, having -been transferred from Bengal in 1905. The country is divided almost -equally into high and low lands. The Uparghat plateau on the east rises -2200 ft. above sea-level, and the hills above it reach their highest -point in Ranijula (3527 ft.). The only river of importance is the Ib, in -the bed of which diamonds are found, while from time immemorial its -sands have been washed for gold. Jashpur iron, smelted by the Kols, is -highly prized. Jungles of _sal_ forests abound, harbouring elephant, -bison and other wild beasts. Jungle products include lac, silk cocoons -and beeswax, which are exported. Area 1948 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 132,114; -estimated revenue L8000. - - - - -JASMIN, JACQUES (1798-1864), Provencal poet, was born at Agen on the 6th -of March 1798, his family name being Boe. His father, who was a tailor, -had a certain facility for making doggerel verses, which he sang or -recited at fairs and such-like popular gatherings; and Jacques, who used -generally to accompany him, was thus early familiarized with the part -which he afterwards so successfully filled himself. When sixteen years -of age he found employment at a hairdresser's shop, and subsequently -started a similar business of his own on the Gravier at Agen. In 1825 he -published his first volume of _Papillotos_ ("Curl Papers"), containing -poems in French (a language he used with a certain sense of restraint), -and in the familiar Agen _patois_--the popular speech of the working -classes--in which he was to achieve all his literary triumphs. Jasmin -was the most famous forerunner in Provencal literature (q.v.) of Mistral -and the _Felibrige_. His influence in rehabilitating, for literary -purposes, his native dialect, was particularly exercised in the public -recitals of his poems to which he devoted himself. His poetic gift, and -his flexible voice and action, fitted him admirably for this double role -of troubadour and jongleur. In 1835 he recited his "Blind Girl of -Castel-Cuille" at Bordeaux, in 1836 at Toulouse; and he met with an -enthusiastic reception in both those important cities. Most of his -public recitations were given for benevolent purposes, the proceeds -being contributed by him to the restoration of the church of Vergt and -other good works. Four successive volumes of _Papillotos_ were published -during his lifetime, and contained amongst others the following -remarkable poems, quoted in order: "The Charivari," "My Recollections" -(supplemented after an interval of many years), "The Blind Girl," -"Francounetto," "Martha the Simple," and "The Twin Brothers." With the -exception of "The Charivari," these are all touching pictures of humble -life--in most cases real episodes--carefully elaborated by the poet till -the graphic descriptions, full of light and colour, and the admirably -varied and melodious verse, seem too spontaneous and easy to have cost -an effort. Jasmin was not a prolific writer, and, in spite of his -impetuous nature, would work a long time at one poem, striving to -realize every feeling he wished to describe, and give it its most lucid -and natural expression. A verse from his spirited poem, "The Third of -May," written in honour of Henry IV., and published in the first volume -of _Papillotos_, is engraved on the base of the statue erected to that -king at Nerac. In 1852 Jasmin's works were crowned by the Academie -Francaise, and a pension was awarded him. The medal struck on the -occasion bore the inscription: _Au poete moral et populaire_. His title -of "Maistre es Jeux" is a distinction only conferred by the academy of -Toulouse on illustrious writers. Pius IX. sent him the insignia of a -knight of St Gregory the Great, and he was made chevalier of the Legion -of Honour. He spent the latter years of his life on a small estate which -he had bought near Agen and named "Papillotos," and which he describes -in _Ma Bigno_ ("My Vine"). Though invited to represent his native city, -he refused to do so, preferring the pleasures and leisure of a country -life, and wisely judging that he was no really eligible candidate for -electoral honours. He died on the 4th of October 1864. His last poem, an -answer to Renan, was placed between his folded hands in his coffin. - - - - -JASMINE, or JESSAMINE, botanically _Jasminum_, a genus of shrubs or -climbers constituting the principal part of the tribe Jasminoideae of -the natural order Oleaceae, and comprising about 150 species, of which -40 or more occur in the gardens of Britain. The plants of the genus are -mostly natives of the warmer regions of the Old World; there is one -South American species. The leaves are pinnate or ternate, or sometimes -apparently simple, consisting of one leaflet, articulated to the -petiole. The flowers, usually white or yellow, are arranged in terminal -or axillary panicles, and have a tubular 5- or 8-cleft calyx, a -cylindrical corolla-tube, with a spreading limb, two included stamens -and a two-celled ovary. - -The name is derived from the Persian _yasmin_. Linnaeus obtained a -fancied etymology from [Greek: ia], violets, and [Greek: osme], smell, -but the odour of its flowers bears no resemblance to that of the violet. -The common white jasmine, _Jasminum officinale_, one of the best known -and most highly esteemed of British hardy ligneous climbers, is a native -of northern India and Persia, introduced about the middle of the 16th -century. In the centre and south of Europe it is thoroughly -acclimatized. Although it grows to the height of 12 and sometimes 20 -ft., its stem is feeble and requires support; its leaves are opposite, -pinnate and dark green, the leaflets are in three pairs, with an odd -one, and are pointed, the terminal one larger and with a tapering point. -The fragrant white flowers bloom from June to October; and, as they are -found chiefly on the young shoots, the plant should only be pruned in -the autumn. Varieties with golden and silver-edged leaves and one with -double flowers are known. - -[Illustration: _Jasminum grandiflorum_; flower, natural size.] - - The zambak or Arabian jasmine, _J. Sambac_, is an evergreen - white-flowered climber, 6 or 8 ft. high, introduced into Britain in - the latter part of the 17th century. Two varieties introduced somewhat - later are respectively 3-leaved and double-flowered, and these, as - well as that with normal flowers, bloom throughout the greater part of - the year. On account of their exquisite fragrance the flowers are - highly esteemed in the East, and are frequently referred to by the - Persian and Arabian poets. An oil obtained by boiling the leaves is - used to anoint the head for complaints of the eye, and an oil obtained - from the roots is used medicinally to arrest the secretion of milk. - The flowers of one of the double varieties are held sacred to Vishnu, - and used as votive offerings in Hindu religious ceremonies. The - Spanish, or Catalonian jasmine, _J. grandiflorum_, a native of the - north-west Himalaya, and cultivated both in the old and new world, is - very like _J. officinale_, but differs in the size of the leaflets; - the branches are shorter and stouter, and the flowers very much - larger, and reddish underneath. By grafting it on two-year-old plants - of _J. officinale_, an erect bush about 3 ft. high is obtained, - requiring no supports. In this way it is very extensively cultivated - at Cannes and Grasse, in the south of France; the plants are set in - rows, fully exposed to the sun; they come into full bearing the second - year after grafting; the blossoms, which are very large and intensely - fragrant, are produced from July till the end of October, but those of - August and September are the most odoriferous. - - The aroma is extracted by the process known as _enfleurage_, i.e. - absorption by a fatty body, such as purified lard or olive oil. Square - glass trays framed with wood about 3 in. deep are spread over with - grease about half an inch thick, in which ridges are made to - facilitate absorption, and sprinkled with freshly gathered flowers, - which are renewed every morning during the whole time the plant - remains in blossom; the trays are piled up in stacks to prevent the - evaporation of the aroma; and finally the pomade is scraped off the - glass, melted at as low a temperature as possible, and strained. When - oil is employed as the absorbent, coarse cotton cloths previously - saturated with the finest olive oil are laid on wire-gauze frames, and - repeatedly covered in the same manner with fresh flowers; they are - then squeezed under a press, yielding what is termed _huile antique au - jasmin_. Three pounds of flowers will perfume 1 lb. of grease--this is - exhausted by maceration in 1 pt. of rectified spirit to form the - "extract." An essential oil is distilled from jasmine in Tunis and - Algeria, but its high price prevents its being used to any extent. The - East Indian oil of jasmine is a compound largely contaminated with - sandalwood-oil. - - The distinguishing characters of _J. odoratissimum_, a native of the - Canary Islands and Madeira, consist principally in the alternate, - obtuse, ternate and pinnate leaves, the 3-flowered terminal peduncles - and the 5-cleft yellow corolla with obtuse segments. The flowers have - the advantage of retaining when dry their natural perfume, which is - suggestive of a mixture of jasmine, jonquil and orange-blossom. In - China _J. paniculatum_ is cultivated as an erect shrub, known as - _sieu-hing-hwa_; it is valued for its flowers, which are used with - those of _J. Sambac_, in the proportion of 10 lb. of the former to 30 - lb. of the latter, for scenting tea--40 lb. of the mixture being - required for 100 lb. of tea. _J. angustifolium_ is a beautiful - evergreen climber 10 to 12 ft. high, found in the Coromandel forests, - and introduced into Britain during the present century. Its leaves are - of a bright shining green; its large terminal flowers are white with a - faint tinge of red, fragrant and blooming throughout the year. - - In Cochin China a decoction of the leaves and branches of _J. - nervosum_ is taken as a blood-purifier; and the bitter leaves of _J. - floribundum_ (called in Abyssinia _habbez-zelim_) mixed with kousso is - considered a powerful anthelmintic, especially for tapeworm; the - leaves and branches are added to some fermented liquors to increase - their intoxicating quality. In Catalonia and in Turkey the wood of the - jasmine is made into long, slender pipe-stems, highly prized by the - Moors and Turks. Syrup of jasmine is made by placing in a jar - alternate layers of the flowers and sugar, covering the whole with wet - cloths and standing it in a cool place; the perfume is absorbed by the - sugar, which is converted into a very palatable syrup. The important - medicinal plant known in America as the "Carolina jasmine" is not a - true jasmine (see GELSEMIUM). - - Other hardy species commonly cultivated in gardens are the low or - Italian yellow-flowered jasmine, _J. humile_, an East Indian species - introduced and now found wild in the south of Europe, an erect shrub 3 - or 4 ft. high, with angular branches, alternate and mostly ternate - leaves, blossoming from June to September; the common yellow jasmine, - _J. fruticans_, a native of southern Europe and the Mediterranean - region, a hardy evergreen shrub, 10 to 12 ft. high, with weak, slender - stems requiring support, and bearing yellow, odourless flowers from - spring to autumn; and _J. nudiflorum_ (China), which bears its bright - yellow flowers in winter before the leaves appear. It thrives in - almost any situation and grows rapidly. - - - - -JASON ([Greek: Iason]), in Greek legend, son of Aeson, king of Iolcus in -Thessaly. He was the leader of the Argonautic expedition (see -ARGONAUTS). After he returned from it he lived at Corinth with his wife -Medea (q.v.) for many years. At last he put away Medea, in order to -marry Glauce (or Creusa), daughter of the Corinthian king Creon. To -avenge herself, Medea presented the new bride with a robe and -head-dress, by whose magic properties the wearer was burnt to death, and -slew her children by Jason with her own hand. A later story represents -Jason as reconciled to Medea (Justin, xlii. 2). His death was said to -have been due to suicide through grief, caused by Medea's vengeance -(Diod. Sic. iv. 55); or he was crushed by the fall of the poop of the -ship "Argo," under which, on the advice of Medea, he had laid himself -down to sleep (argument of Euripides' _Medea_). The name (more correctly -Iason) means "healer," and Jason is possibly a local hero of Iolcus to -whom healing powers were attributed. The ancients regarded him as the -oldest navigator, and the patron of navigation. By the moderns he has -been variously explained as a solar deity; a god of summer; a god of -storm; a god of rain, who carries off the rain-giving cloud (the golden -fleece) to refresh the earth after a long period of drought. Some regard -the legend as a chthonian myth, Aea (Colchis) being the under-world in -the Aeolic religious system from which Jason liberates himself and his -betrothed; others, in view of certain resemblances between the story of -Jason and that of Cadmus (the ploughing of the field, the sowing of the -dragon's teeth, the fight with the Sparti, who are finally set fighting -with one another by a stone hurled into their midst), associate both -with Demeter the corn-goddess, and refer certain episodes to practices -in use at country festivals, e.g. the stone throwing, which, like the -[Greek: balletys] at the Eleusinia and the [Greek: lithobolia] at -Troezen (Pausanias ii. 30, 4 with Frazer's note) was probably intended -to secure a good harvest by driving away the evil spirits of -unfruitfulness. - - See articles by C. Seeliger in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and - by F. Durrbach in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des - antiquites_; H. D. Muller, _Mythologie der griechischen Stamme_ - (1861), ii. 328, who explains the name Jason as "wanderer"; W. - Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (1884), pp. 75, 130; O. - Crusius, _Beitrage zur griechischen Mythologie una - Religionsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1886). - -_Later Versions of the Legend._--_Les fais et prouesses du noble et -vaillant chevalier Jason_ was composed in the middle of the 15th century -by Raoul Lefevre on the basis of Benoit's _Roman de Troie_, and -presented to Philip of Burgundy, founder of the order of the Golden -Fleece. The manners and sentiments of the 15th century are made to -harmonize with the classical legends after the fashion of the Italian -pre-Raphaelite painters, who equipped Jewish warriors with knightly -lance and armour. The story is well told; the digressions are few; and -there are many touches of domestic life and natural sympathy. The first -edition is believed to have been printed at Bruges in 1474. - - Caxton translated the book under the title of _A Boke of the hoole Lyf - of Jason_, at the command of the duchess of Burgundy. A Flemish - translation appeared at Haarlem in 1495. The Benedictine Bernard de - Montfaucon (1655-1741) refers to a MS. by Guido delle Colonne, - _Historia Medeae et Jasonis_ (unpublished). - - The _Histoire de la Thoison d'Or_ (Paris, 1516) by Guillaume Fillastre - (1400-1473), written about 1440-1450, is an historical compilation - dealing with the exploits of the _tres chretiennes maisons_ of France, - Burgundy and Flanders. - - - - -JASON OF CYRENE, a Hellenistic Jew, who lived about 100 B.C. and wrote a -history of the times of the Maccabees down to the victory over Nicanor -(175-161 B.C.). This work is said to have been in five books and formed -the basis of the present 2 Macc. (see ch. ii. 19-32). - - - - -JASPER, an opaque compact variety of quartz, variously coloured and -often containing argillaceous matter. The colours are usually red, -brown, yellow or green, and are due to admixture with compounds of iron, -either oxides or silicates. Although the term jasper is now restricted -to opaque quartz it is certain that the ancient _jaspis_ or [Greek: -iaspis] was a stone of considerable translucency. The jasper of -antiquity was in many cases distinctly green, for it is often compared -with the emerald and other green objects. Jasper is referred to in the -_Niebelungenlied_ as being clear and green. Probably the jasper of the -ancients included stones which would now be classed as chalcedony, and -the emerald-like jasper may have been akin to our chrysoprase. The -Hebrew word _yashefeh_ may have designated a green jasper (cf. Assyrian -_yashpu_). Professor Flinders Petrie has suggested that the _odem_, the -first stone on the High Priest's breastplate, translated "sard," was a -red jasper, whilst _tarshish_, the tenth stone, may have been a yellow -jasper (Hastings's _Dict. Bible_, 1902). - - Many varieties of jasper are recognized. Riband jasper is a form in - which the colours are disposed in bands, as in the well-known - ornamental stone from Siberia, which shows a regular alternation of - dark red and green stripes. Egyptian jasper is a brown jasper, - occurring as nodules in the Lybian desert and in the Nile valley, and - characterized by a zonal arrangement of light and dark shades of - colour. Agate-jasper is a variety intermediate between true jasper and - chalcedony. Basanite, lydite, or Lydian stone, is a velvet-black - flinty jasper, used as a touchstone for testing the purity of precious - metals by their streak. Porcelain jasper is a clay indurated by - natural calcination. (F. W. R.*) - - - - -JASSY (_Iasii_), also written JASII, JASCHI and YASSY, the capital of -the department of Jassy, Rumania; situated on the left bank of the river -Bahlui, an affluent of the Jijia, about 10 m. W. of the Pruth and the -Russian frontier. Pop. (1900), 78,067. Jassy communicates by rail with -Galatz on the Danube, Kishinev in Bessarabia, and Czernowitz in -Bukowina. The surrounding country is one of uplands and woods, among -which rise the monasteries of Cetatuia, Frumoasa, and Galata with its -mineral springs, the water-cure establishment of Rapide and the great -seminary of Socola. Jassy itself stands pleasantly amid vineyards and -gardens, partly on two hills, partly in the hollow between. Its -primitive houses of timber and plaster were mostly swept away after -1860, when brick or stone came into general use, and good streets were -cut among the network of narrow, insanitary lanes. Jassy is the seat of -the metropolitan of Moldavia, and of a Roman Catholic archbishop. -Synagogues and churches abound. The two oldest churches date from the -reign of Stephen the Great (1458-1504); perhaps the finest, however, are -the 17th-century metropolitan, St Spiridion and Trei Erarchi, the last a -curious example of Byzantine art, erected in 1639 or 1640 by Basil the -Wolf, and adorned with countless gilded carvings on its outer walls and -twin towers. The St Spiridion Foundation (due to the liberality of -Prince Gregory Ghika in 1727, and available for the sick of all -countries and creeds) has an annual income of over L80,000, and -maintains hospitals and churches in several towns of Moldavia, besides -the baths at Slanic in Walachia. The main hospital in Jassy is a large -building, and possesses a maternity institution, a midwifery school, a -chemical institute, an inoculating establishment, &c. A society of -physicians and naturalists has existed in Jassy since the early part of -the 19th century, and a number of periodicals are published. Besides the -university, founded by Prince Cuza in 1864, with faculties of -literature, philosophy, law, science and medicine, there are a military -academy and schools of art, music and commerce; a museum, a fine hall -and a theatre; the state library, where the chief records of Rumanian -history are preserved; an appeal court, a chamber of commerce and -several banks. The city is the headquarters of the 4th army corps. It -has an active trade in petroleum, salt, metals, timber, cereals, fruit, -wine, spirits, preserved meat, textiles, clothing, leather, cardboard -and cigarette paper. - -The inscription by which the existence of a _Jassiorum municipium_ in -the time of the Roman Empire is sought to be proved, lies open to grave -suspicion; but the city is mentioned as early as the 14th century, and -probably does derive its name from the Jassians, or Jazygians, who -accompanied the Cumanian invaders. It was often visited by the Moldavian -court. About 1564, Prince Alexander Lapusneanu, after whom one of the -chief streets is named, chose Jassy for the Moldavian capital, instead -of Suceava (now Suczawa, in Bukowina). It was already famous as a centre -of culture. Between 1561 and 1563 an excellent school and a Lutheran -church were founded by the Greek adventurer, Jacob Basilicus (see -RUMANIA: _History_). In 1643 the first printed book published in -Moldavia was issued from a press established by Basil the Wolf. He also -founded a school, the first in which the mother-tongue took the place of -Greek. Jassy was burned by the Tatars in 1513, by the Turks in 1538, and -by the Russians in 1686. By the Peace of Jassy the second Russo-Turkish -War was brought to a close in 1792. A Greek insurrection under Ypsilanti -in 1821 led to the storming of the city by the Turks in 1822. In 1844 -there was a severe conflagration. For the loss caused to the city in -1861 by the removal of the seat of government to Bucharest the -constituent assembly voted L148,150, to be paid in ten annual -instalments, but no payment was ever made. - - - - -JATAKA, the technical name, in Buddhist literature, for a story of one -or other of the previous births of the Buddha. The word is also used for -the name of a collection of 547 of such stories included, by a most -fortunate conjuncture of circumstances, in the Buddhist canon. This is -the most ancient and the most complete collection of folk-lore now -extant in any literature in the world. As it was made at latest in the -3rd century B.C., it can be trusted not to give any of that modern or -European colouring which renders suspect much of the folk-lore collected -by modern travellers. - -Already in the oldest documents, drawn up by the disciples soon after -the Buddha's death, he is identified with certain ancient sages of -renown. That a religious teacher should claim to be successor of the -prophets of old is not uncommon in the history of religions. But the -current belief in metempsychosis led, or enabled, the early Buddhists to -make a much wider claim. It was not very long before they gradually -identified their master with the hero of each of the popular fables and -stories of which they were so fond. The process must have been complete -by the middle of the 3rd century B.C.; for we find at that date -illustrations of the Jatakas in the bas-reliefs on the railing round the -Bharahat tope with the titles of the Jataka stories inscribed above them -in the characters of that period.[1] The hero of each story is made into -a Bodhisatta; that is, a being who is destined, after a number of -subsequent births, to become a Buddha. This rapid development of the -Bodhisatta theory is the distinguishing feature in the early history of -Buddhism, and was both cause and effect of the simultaneous growth of -the Jataka book. In adopting the folk-lore and fables already current in -India, the Buddhists did not change them very much. The stories as -preserved to us, are for the most part Indian rather than Buddhist. The -ethics they inculcate or suggest are milk for babes; very simple in -character and referring almost exclusively to matters common to all -schools of thought in India, and indeed elsewhere. Kindness, purity, -honesty, generosity, worldly wisdom, perseverance, are the usual virtues -praised; the higher ethics of the Path are scarcely mentioned. These -stories, popular with all, were especially appreciated by that school of -Buddhists that laid stress on the Bodhisatta theory--a school that -obtained its chief support, and probably had its origin, in the extreme -north-west of India and in the highlands of Asia. That school adopted, -from the early centuries of our era, the use of Sanskrit, instead of -Pali, as the means of literary expression. It is almost impossible, -therefore, that they would have carried the canonical Pali book, -voluminous as it is, into Central Asia. Shorter collections of the -original stories, written in Sanskrit, were in vogue among them. One -such collection, the Jataka-mala, by Arya Sura (6th century), is still -extant. Of the existence of another collection, though the Sanskrit -original has not yet been found, we have curious evidence. In the 6th -century a book of Sanskrit fables was translated into Pahlavi, that is, -old Persian (see Bidpai). In succeeding centuries this work was -retranslated into Arabic and Hebrew, thence into Latin and Greek and all -the modern languages of Europe. The book bears a close resemblance to -the earlier chapters of a late Sanskrit fable book called, from its -having five chapters, the _Pancha tantra_, or Pentateuch. - -The introduction to the old Jataka book gives the life of the historical -Buddha. That introduction must also have reached Persia by the same -route. For in the 8th century St John of Damascus put the story into -Greek under the title of _Barlaam and Josaphat_. This story became very -popular in the West. It was translated into Latin, into seven European -languages, and even into Icelandic and the dialect of the Philippine -Islands. Its hero, that is the Buddha, was canonized as a Christian -saint; and the 27th of November was officially fixed as the date for his -adoration as such. - - The book popularly known in Europe as _Aesop's Fables_ was not written - by Aesop. It was put together in the 14th century at Constantinople by - a monk named Planudes, and he drew largely for his stories upon those - in the Jataka book that had reached Europe along various channels. The - fables of Babrius and Phaedrus, written respectively in the 1st - century before, and in the 1st century after, the Christian era, also - contain Jataka stories known in India in the 4th century B.C. A great - deal has been written on this curious question of the migration of - fables. But we are still very far from being able to trace the - complete history of each story in the Jataka book, or in any one of - the later collections. For India itself the record is most incomplete. - We have the original Jataka book in text and translation. The history - of the text of the Pancha tantra, about a thousand years later, has - been fairly well traced out. But for the intervening centuries - scarcely anything has been done. There are illustrations, in the - bas-reliefs of the 3rd century B.C., of Jatakas not contained in the - Jataka book. Another collection, the _Cariya pitaka_, of about the - same date, has been edited, but not translated. Other collections both - in Pali and Sanskrit are known to be extant in MS; and a large number - of Jataka stories, not included in any formal collection, are - mentioned, or told in full, in other works. - - AUTHORITIES.--V. Fausboll, _The Jataka_, Pali text (7 vols., London, - 1877-1897), (Eng. trans., edited by E. B. Cowell, 6 vols., Cambridge, - 1895-1907); _Cariya pitaka_, edited by R. Morris for the Pali Text - Society (London, 1882); H. Kern, _Jataka-mala_, Sanskrit text - (Cambridge, Mass., 1891), (Eng. trans. by J. S. Speyer, Oxford, 1895); - Rhys Davids, _Buddhist Birth Stories_ (with full bibliographical - tables) (London, 1880); _Buddhist India_ (chap. xi. on the Jataka - Book) (London, 1903); E. Kuhn, _Barlaam und Joasaph_ (Munich, 1893); - A. Cunningham, _The Stupa of Bharhut_ (London, 1879). (T. W. R. D.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] A complete list of these inscriptions will be found in Rhys - Davids's _Buddhist India_, p. 209. - - - - -JATH, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay, ranking -as one of the southern Mahratta jagirs. With the small state of -Daphlapur, which is an integral part of it, it forms the Bijapur Agency, -under the collector of Bijapur district. Area, including Daphlapur, 980 -sq. m. Pop. (1901), 68,665, showing a decline of 14% in the decade. -Estimated revenue L24,000; tribute L700. Agriculture and cattle-breeding -are carried on; there are no important manufactures. The chief, whose -title is deshmukh, is a Mahratta of the Daphle family. The town of JATH -is 92 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. (1901), 5404. - - - - -JATIVA (formerly written XATIVA), or SAN FELIPE DE JATIVA, a town of -eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia, on the right bank of the -river Albaida, a tributary of the Jucar, and at the junction of the -Valencia-Murcia and Valencia-Albacete railways. Pop. (1900), 12,600. -Jativa is built on the margin of a fertile and beautiful plain, and on -the southern slopes of the Monte Bernisa, a hill with two peaks, each -surmounted by a castle. With its numerous fountains, and spacious -avenues shaded with elms or cypresses, the town has a clean and -attractive appearance. Its collegiate church, dating from 1414, but -rebuilt about a century later in the Renaissance style, was formerly a -cathedral, and is the chief among many churches and convents. The -town-hall and a church on the castle hill are partly constructed of -inscribed Roman masonry, and several houses date from the Moorish -occupation. There is a brisk local trade in grain, fruit, wine, oil and -rice. - -Jativa was the Roman Saetabis, afterwards Valeria Augusta, of -Carthaginian or Iberian origin. Pliny (23-79) and Martial (c. 40-102) -mention the excellence of its linen cloth. Under the Visigoths (c. -483-711) it became an episcopal see; but early in the 8th century it was -captured by the Moors, under whom it attained great prosperity, and -received its present name. It was reconquered by James I. of Aragon -(1213-1276). During the 15th and 16th centuries, Jativa was the home of -many members of the princely house of Borgia or Borja, who migrated -hither from the town of Borja in the province of Saragossa. Alphonso -Borgia, afterwards Pope Calixtus III., and Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards -Pope Alexander VI., were natives of Jativa, born respectively in 1378 -and 1431. The painter Jusepe Ribera was also born here in 1588. Owing to -its gallant defence against the troops of the Archduke Charles in the -war of the Spanish succession, Jativa received the additional name of -San Felipe from Philip V. (1700-1746). - - - - -JATS, or JUTS, a people of north-western India, who numbered altogether -more than 7 millions in 1901. They form a considerable proportion of the -population in the Punjab, Rajputana and the adjoining districts of the -United Provinces, and are also widely scattered through Sind and -Baluchistan. Some writers have identified the Juts with the ancient -Getae, and there is strong reason to believe them a degraded tribe of -Rajputs, whose Scythic origin has also been maintained. Hindu legends -point to a prehistoric occupation of the Indus valley by this people, -and at the time of the Mahommedan conquest of Sind (712) they, with a -cognate tribe called Meds, constituted the bulk of the population. They -enlisted under the banner of Mahommed bin Kasim, but at a later date -offered a vigorous resistance to the Arab invaders. In 836 they were -overthrown by Amran, who imposed on them a tribute of dogs, and used -their arms to vanquish the Meds. In 1025, however, they had gathered -audacity, not only to invade Mansura, and compel the abjuration of the -Mussulman amir, but to attack the victorious army of Mahmud, laden with -the spoil of Somnath. Chastisement duly ensued: a formidable flotilla, -collected at Multan, shattered in thousands the comparatively -defenceless Jat boats on the Indus, and annihilated their national -pretensions. It is not until the decay of the Mogul Empire that the Jats -again appear in history. One branch of them, settled south of Agra, -mainly by bold plundering raids founded two dynasties which still exist -at Bharatpur (q.v.) and Dholpur (q.v.). Another branch, settled -north-west of Delhi, who adopted the Sikh religion, ultimately made -themselves dominant throughout the Punjab (q.v.) under Ranjit Singh, and -are now represented in their original home by the Phulkian houses of -Patiala (q.v.), Jind (q.v.) and Nabha (q.v.). It is from this latter -branch that the Sikh regiments of the Indian army are recruited. The -Jats are mainly agriculturists and cattle breeders. In their settlements -on the Ganges and Jumna, extending as far east as Bareilly, they are -divided into two great clans, the Dhe and the Hele; while in the Punjab -there are said to be one hundred different sections. Their religion -varies with locality. In the Punjab they have largely embraced Sikh -tenets, while in Sind and Baluchistan they are Mahommedans. In -appearance they are not ill-favoured though extremely dark; they have -good teeth, and large beards, sometimes stained with indigo. Their -inferiority of social position, however, to some extent betrays itself -in their aspect, and tends to be perpetuated by their intellectual -apathy. - - - - -JAUBERT, PIERRE AMEDEE EMILIEN PROBE (1779-1847), French Orientalist, -was born at Aix in Provence on the 3rd of June 1779. He was one of the -most distinguished pupils of Silvestre de Sacy, whose funeral _Discours_ -he pronounced in 1838. Jaubert acted as interpreter to Napoleon in Egypt -in 1798-1799, and on his return to Paris held various posts under -government. In 1802 he accompanied Sebastiani on his Eastern mission; -and in 1804 he was at Constantinople. Next year he was despatched to -Persia to arrange an alliance with the shah; but on the way he was -seized and imprisoned in a dry cistern for four months by the pasha of -Bayazid. The pasha's death freed Jaubert, who successfully accomplished -his mission, and rejoined Napoleon at Warsaw in 1807. On the eve of -Napoleon's downfall he was appointed charge d'affaires at -Constantinople. The restoration ended his diplomatic career, but in 1818 -he undertook a journey with government aid to Tibet, whence he succeeded -in introducing into France 400 Kashmir goats. The rest of his life -Jaubert spent in study, in writing and in teaching. He became professor -of Persian in the college de France, and director of the ecole des -langues orientales, and in 1830 was elected member of the Academie des -Inscriptions. In 1841 he was made a peer of France and councillor of -state. He died in Paris on the 28th of January, 1847. - - Besides articles in the _Journal asiatique_, he published _Voyage en - Armenie et en Perse_ (1821; the edition of 1860 has a notice of - Jaubert, by M. Sedillot) and _Elements de la grammaire turque_ - (1823-1834). See notices in the _Journal asiatique_, Jan. 1847, and - the _Journal des debats_, Jan. 30, 1847. - - - - -JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1757-1852), French politician, -was born on the 14th of November 1757 at Tournon (Seine-et-Marne) of a -Protestant family, protected by the prince de Conde, whose regiment he -entered. He adopted revolutionary ideas and became colonel of his -regiment. In the Assembly, to which he was returned in 1791 by the -department of Seine-et-Marne, he voted generally with the minority, and -his views being obviously too moderate for his colleagues he resigned in -1792 and was soon after arrested on suspicion of being a reactionary. -Mme de Stael procured his release from P. L. Manuel just before the -September massacres. He accompanied Talleyrand on his mission to -England, returning to France after the execution of Louis XVI. He lived -in retirement until the establishment of the Consulate, when he entered -the tribunate, of which he was for some time president. In 1803 he -entered the senate, and next year became attached to the household of -Joseph Bonaparte. Presently his imperialist views cooled, and at the -Restoration he became minister of state and a peer of France. At the -second Restoration he was for a brief period minister of marine, but -held no further office. He devoted himself to the support of the -Protestant interest in France. A member of the upper house throughout -the reign of Louis Philippe, he was driven into private life by the -establishment of the Second Republic, but lived to see the _Coup d'etat_ -and to rally to the government of Louis Napoleon, dying in Paris on the -5th of February 1852. - - - - -JAUER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 13 m. by -rail S. of Leignitz, on the Wuthende Neisse. Pop. (1900), 13,024. St -Martin's (Roman Catholic) church dates from 1267-1290, and the -Evangelical church from 1655. A new town-hall was erected in 1895-1898. -Jauer manufactures leather, carpets, cigars, carriages and gloves, and -is specially famous for its sausages. The town was first mentioned in -1242, and was formerly the capital of a principality embracing about -1200 sq. m., now occupied by the circles of Jauer, Bunzlau, Loweberg, -Hirschberg and Schonau. From 1392 to 1741 it belonged to the kings of -Bohemia, being taken from Maria Theresa by Frederick the Great. Jauer -was formerly the prosperous seat of the Silesian linen trade, but the -troubles of the Thirty Years' War, in the course of which it was burned -down three times, permanently injured this. - - See Schonaich, _Die alte Furstentumshauptstadt Jauer_ (Jauer, 1903). - - - - -JAUHARI (ABU NASR ISMA^EIL IBN HAMMAD UL-JAUHARI) (d. 1002 or 1010), -Arabian lexicographer, was born at Farab on the borders of Turkestan. He -studied language in Farab and Bagdad, and later among the Arabs of the -desert. He then settled in Damghan and afterwards at Nishapur, where he -died by a fall from the roof of a house. His great work is the _Kitab -us-Sahah fil-Lugha_, an Arabic dictionary, in which the words are -arranged alphabetically according to the last letter of the root. He -himself had only partially finished the last recension, but the work was -completed by his pupil, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Salih ul-Warraq. - - An edition was begun by E. Scheidius with a Latin translation, but one - part only appeared at Harderwijk (1776). The whole has been published - at Tebriz (1854) and at Cairo (1865), and many abridgments and Persian - translations have appeared; cf. C. Brockelmann, _Geschichte der - arabischen Literatur_ (Weimar, 1898), i. 128 seq. (G. W. T.) - - - - -JAUNDICE (Fr. _jaunisse_, from _jaune_, yellow), or ICTERUS (from its -resemblance to the colour of the golden oriole, of which Pliny relates -that if a jaundiced person looks upon it he recovers but the bird dies), -a term in medicine applied to a yellow coloration of the skin and other -parts of the body, depending in most instances on some derangement -affecting the liver. This yellow colour is due to the presence in the -blood of bile or of some of the elements of that secretion. Jaundice, -however, must be regarded more as a symptom of some morbid condition -previously existing than as a disease _per se_. - -Cases with jaundice may be divided into three groups. - -1. _Obstructive Jaundice._--Any obstruction of the passage of bile from -the liver into the intestinal canal is sooner or later followed by the -appearance of jaundice, which in such circumstances is due to the -absorption of bile into the blood. The obstruction is due to one of the -following causes: (1) Obstruction by foreign bodies within the bile -duct, e.g. gallstones or parasites; (2) inflammation of the duodenum or -the lining membrane of the duct; (3) stricture or obliteration of the -duct; (4) a tumour growing from the duct; (5) pressure on the duct from -without, from the liver or other organ, or tumours arising from them. -Obstructions from these causes may be partial or complete, and the -degree of jaundice will vary accordingly, but it is to be noted that -extensive organic disease of the liver may exist without the evidence of -obstructive jaundice. - -The effect upon the liver of impediments to the outflow of bile such as -those above indicated is in the first place an increase in its size, the -whole biliary passages and the liver cells being distended with retained -bile. This enlargement, however, speedily subsides when the obstruction -is removed, but should it persist the liver ultimately shrinks and -undergoes atrophy in its whole texture. The bile thus retained is -absorbed into the system, and shows itself by the yellow staining seen -to a greater or less extent in all the tissues and many of the fluids of -the body. The kidneys, which in such circumstances act in some measure -vicariously to the liver and excrete a portion of the retained bile, -are apt to become affected in their structure by the long continuance of -jaundice. - -The symptoms of obstructive jaundice necessarily vary according to the -nature of the exciting cause, but there generally exists evidence of -some morbid condition before the yellow coloration appears. Thus, if the -obstruction be due to an impacted gallstone in the common or hepatic -duct, there will probably be the symptoms of intense suffering -characterizing hepatic colic (see COLIC). In the cases most frequently -seen--those, namely, arising from simple catarrh of the bile ducts due -to gastro-duodenal irritation spreading through the common duct--the -first sign to attract attention is the yellow appearance of the white of -the eye, which is speedily followed by a similar colour on the skin over -the body generally. The yellow tinge is most distinct where the skin is -thin, as on the forehead, breast, elbows, &c. It may be also well seen -in the roof of the mouth, but in the lips and gums the colour is not -observed till the blood is first pressed from them. The tint varies, -being in the milder cases faint, in the more severe a deep saffron -yellow, while in extreme degrees of obstruction it may be of dark brown -or greenish hue. The colour can scarcely, if at all, be observed in -artificial light. - -The urine exhibits well marked and characteristic changes in jaundice -which exist even before any evidence can be detected on the skin or -elsewhere. It is always of dark brown colour resembling porter, but -after standing in the air it acquires a greenish tint. Its froth is -greenish-yellow, and it stains with this colour any white substance. It -contains not only the bile colouring matter but also the bile acids. The -former is detected by the play of colours yielded on the addition of -nitric acid, the latter by the purple colour, produced by placing a -piece of lump sugar in the urine tested, and adding thereto a few drops -of strong sulphuric acid. - -The contents of the bowels also undergo changes, being characterized -chiefly by their pale clay colour, which is in proportion to the amount -of hepatic obstruction, and to their consequent want of admixture with -bile. For the same reason they contain a large amount of unabsorbed -fatty matter, and have an extremely offensive odour. - -Constitutional symptoms always attend jaundice with obstruction. The -patient becomes languid, drowsy and irritable, and has generally a slow -pulse. The appetite is usually but not always diminished, a bitter taste -in the mouth is complained of, while flatulent eructations arise from -the stomach. Intolerable itching of the skin is a common accompaniment -of jaundice, and cutaneous eruptions or boils are occasionally seen. -Yellow vision appears to be present in some very rare cases. Should the -jaundice depend on advancing organic disease of the liver, such as -cancer, the tinge becomes gradually deeper, and the emaciation and -debility more marked towards the fatal termination, which in such cases -is seldom long postponed. Apart from this, however, jaundice from -obstruction may exist for many years, as in those instances where the -walls of the bile ducts are thickened from chronic catarrh, but where -they are only partially occluded. In the common cases of acute catarrhal -jaundice recovery usually takes place in two or three weeks. - -The treatment of this form of jaundice bears reference to the cause -giving rise to the obstruction. In the ordinary cases of simple -catarrhal jaundice, or that following the passing of gallstones, a light -nutritious diet (milk, soups, &c., avoiding saccharine and farinaceous -substances and alcoholic stimulants), along with counter-irritation -applied over the right side and the use of laxatives and cholagogues, -will be found to be advantageous. Diaphoretics and diuretics to promote -the action of the skin and kidneys are useful in jaundice. In the more -chronic forms, besides the remedies above named, the waters of Carlsbad -are of special efficacy. In cases other than acute catarrhal, operative -interference is often called for, to remove the gallstones, tumour, &c., -causing the obstruction. - -2. _Toxaemic Jaundice_ is observed to occur as a symptom in certain -fevers, e.g. yellow fever, ague, and in pyaemia also as the effect of -certain poisons, such as phosphorus, and the venom of snake-bites. -Jaundice of this kind is almost always slight, and neither the urine nor -the discharges from the bowels exhibit changes in appearance to such a -degree as in the obstructive variety. Grave constitutional symptoms are -often present, but they are less to be ascribed to the jaundice than to -the disease with which it is associated. - -3. _Hereditary Jaundice._--Under this group there are the jaundice of -new-born infants, which varies enormously in severity; the cases in -which a slight form of jaundice obtains in several members of the same -family, without other symptoms, and which may persist for years; and -lastly the group of cases with hypertrophic cirrhosis. - - The name _malignant jaundice_ is sometimes applied to that very fatal - form of disease otherwise termed acute yellow atrophy of the liver - (see ATROPHY). - - - - -JAUNPUR, a city and district of British India, in the Benares division -of the United Provinces. The city is on the left bank of the river -Gumti, 34 m. N.W. from Benares by rail. Pop. (1901), 42,771. Jaunpur is -a very ancient city, the former capital of a Mahommedan kingdom which -once extended from Budaun and Etawah to Behar. It abounds in splendid -architectural monuments, most of which belong to the period when the -rulers of Jaunpur were independent of Delhi. The fort of Feroz Shah is -in great part completely ruined, but there remain a fine gateway of the -16th century, a mosque dating from 1376, and the _hammams_ or baths of -Ibrahim Shah. Among other buildings may be mentioned the Atala Masjid -(1408) and the ruined Jinjiri Masjid, mosques built by Ibrahim, the -first of which has a great cloistered court and a magnificent facade; -the Dariba mosque constructed by two of Ibrahim's governors; the Lal -Darwaza erected by the queen of Mahmud; the Jama Masjid (1438-1478) or -great mosque of Husain, with court and cloisters, standing on a raised -terrace, and in part restored in modern times; and finally the splendid -bridge over the Gumti, erected by Munim Khan, Mogul governor in -1569-1573. During the Mutiny of 1857 Jaunpur formed a centre of -disaffection. The city has now lost its importance, the only industries -surviving being the manufacture of perfumes and papier-mache articles. - -The DISTRICT OF JAUNPUR has an area of 1551 sq. m. It forms part of the -wide Gangetic plain, and its surface is accordingly composed of a thick -alluvial deposit. The whole country is closely tilled, and no waste -lands break the continuous prospect of cultivated fields. It is divided -into two unequal parts by the sinuous channel of the Gumti, a tributary -of the Ganges, which flows past the city of Jaunpur. Its total course -within the district is about 90 m., and it is nowhere fordable. It is -crossed by two bridges, one at Jaunpur and the other 2 m. lower down. -The Gumti is liable to sudden inundations during the rainy season, owing -to the high banks it has piled up at its entrance into the Ganges, which -act as dams to prevent the prompt outflow of its flooded waters. These -inundations extend to its tributary the Sai. Much damage was thus -effected in 1774; but the greatest recorded flood took place in -September 1871, when 4000 houses in the city were swept away, besides -9000 more in villages along its banks. The other rivers are the Sai, -Barna, Pili and Basohi. Lakes are numerous in the north and south; the -largest has a length of 8 m. Pop. (1901), 1,202,920, showing a decrease -of 5% in the decade. Sugar-refining is the principal industry. The -district is served by the line of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway from -Benares to Fyzabad, and by branches of this and of the Bengal & -North-Western systems. - -In prehistoric times Jaunpur seems to have formed a portion of the -Ajodhya principality, and when it first makes an appearance in authentic -history it was subject to the rulers of Benares. With the rest of their -dominions it fell under the yoke of the Mussulman invaders in 1194. From -that time the district appears to have been ruled by a prince of the -Kanauj dynasty, as a tributary of the Mahommedan suzerain. In 1388 Malik -Sarwar Khwaja was sent by Mahommed Tughlak to govern the eastern -province. He fixed his residence at Jaunpur, made himself independent of -the Delhi court, and assumed the title of Sultan-us-Shark, or "eastern -emperor." For nearly a century the Sharki dynasty ruled at Jaunpur, and -proved formidable rivals to the sovereigns of Delhi. The last of the -dynasty was Sultan Husain, who passed his life in a fierce and chequered -struggle for supremacy with Bahlol Lodi, then actual emperor at Delhi. -At length, in 1478, Bahlol succeeded in defeating his rival in a series -of decisive engagements. He took the city of Jaunpur, but permitted the -conquered Husain to reside there, and to complete the building of his -great mosque, the Jama Masjid, which now forms the chief ornament of the -town. Many other architectural works in the district still bear witness -to its greatness under its independent Mussulman rulers. In 1775 the -district was made over to the British by the Treaty of Lucknow. From -that time nothing occurred which calls for notice till the Mutiny. On -the 5th of June 1857, when the news of the Benares revolt reached -Jaunpur, the sepoys mutinied. The district continued in a state of -complete anarchy till the arrival of the Gurkha force from Azamgarh in -September. In November the surrounding country was lost again, and it -was not till May 1858 that the last smouldering embers of disaffection -were stifled by the repulse of the insurgent leader at the hands of the -people themselves. - - See A. Fuhrer, _The Shargi Architecture of Jaunpur_ (1889). - - - - -JAUNTING-CAR, a light two-wheeled carriage for a single horse, in its -commonest form with seats for four persons placed back to back, with the -foot-boards projecting over the wheels. It is the typical conveyance for -persons in Ireland (see CAR). The first part of the word is generally -taken to be identical with the verb "to jaunt," now only used in the -sense of to go on a short pleasure excursion, but in its earliest uses -meaning to make a horse caracole or prance, hence to jolt or bump up and -down. It would apparently be a variant of "jaunce," of the same meaning, -which is supposed to be taken from O. Fr. _jancer_. Skeat takes the -origin of jaunt and jaunce to be Scandinavian, and connects them with -the Swedish dialect word _ganta_, to romp; and he finds cognate bases in -such words as "jump," "high jinks." The word "jaunty," sprightly, -especially used of anything done with an easy nonchalant air, is a -corruption of "janty," due to confusion with "jaunt." "Janty," often -spelt in the 17th and 18th centuries "jante" or "jantee," represents the -English pronunciation of Fr. _gentil_, well-bred, neat, spruce. - - - - -JAUREGUI, JUAN (1562-1582), a Biscayan by birth, was in 1582 in the -service of a Spanish merchant, Gaspar d'Anastro, who was resident at -Antwerp. Tempted by the reward of 80,000 ducats offered by Philip II. of -Spain for the assassination of William the Silent, prince of Orange, but -being himself without courage to undertake the task, d'Anastro, with the -help of his cashier Venero, persuaded Jauregui to attempt the murder for -the sum of 2877 crowns. On Sunday the 18th of March 1582, as the prince -came out of his dining-room Jauregui offered him a petition, and William -had no sooner taken it into his hand than Jauregui fired a pistol at his -head. The ball pierced the neck below the right ear and passed out at -the left jaw-bone; but William ultimately recovered. The assassin was -killed on the spot. - - - - -JAUREGUIBERRY, JEAN BERNARD (1815-1887), French admiral, was born at -Bayonne on the 26th of August 1815. He entered the navy in 1831, was -made a lieutenant in 1845, commander in 1856, and captain in 1860. After -serving in the Crimea and in China, and being governor of Senegal, he -was promoted to rear-admiral in 1869. He served on land during the -second part of the Franco-German War of 1870-71, in the rank of -auxiliary general of division. He was present at Coulmiers, Villepion -and Loigny-Poupry, in command of a division, and in Chanzy's retreat -upon Le Mans and the battle at that place in command of a corps. He was -the most distinguished of the many naval officers who did good service -in the military operations. On the 9th of December he had been made -vice-admiral, and in 1871 he commanded the fleet at Toulon; in 1875 he -was a member of the council of admiralty; and in October 1876 he was -appointed to command the evolutionary squadron in the Mediterranean. In -February 1879 he became minister of the navy in the Waddington cabinet, -and on the 27th of May following was elected a senator for life. He was -again minister of the navy in the Freycinet cabinet in 1880. A fine -example of the fighting French seaman of his time, Jaureguiberry died at -Paris on the 21st of October 1887. - - - - -JAUREGUI Y AGUILAR, JUAN MARTINEZ DE (1583-1641), Spanish poet, was -baptized at Seville on the 24th of November 1583. In due course he -studied at Rome, returning to Spain shortly before 1610 with a double -reputation as a painter and a poet. A reference in the preface to the -_Novelas exemplares_ has been taken to mean that he painted the portrait -of Cervantes, who, in the second part of _Don Quixote_, praises the -translation of Tasso's _Aminta_ published at Rome in 1607. Jauregui's -_Rimas_ (1618), a collection of graceful lyrics, is preceded by a -controversial preface which attracted much attention on account of its -outspoken declaration against _culteranismo_. Through the influence of -Olivares, he was appointed groom of the chamber to Philip IV., and gave -an elaborate exposition of his artistic doctrines in the _Discurso -poetico contra el hablar culto y oscuro_ (1624), a skilful attack on the -new theories, which procured for its author the order of Calatrava. It -is plain, however, that the shock of controversy had shaken Jauregui's -convictions, and his poem _Orfeo_ (1624) is visibly influenced by -Gongora. Jauregui died at Madrid on the 11th of January 1641, leaving -behind him a translation of the _Pharsalia_ which was not published till -1684. This rendering reveals Jauregui as a complete convert to the new -school, and it has been argued that, exaggerating the affinities between -Lucan and Gongora--both of Cordovan descent--he deliberately translated -the thought of the earlier poet into the vocabulary of the later master. -This is possible; but it is at least as likely that Jauregui -unconsciously yielded to the current of popular taste, with no other -intention than that of conciliating the public of his own day. - - - - -JAURES, JEAN LEON (1859- ), French Socialist leader, was born at -Castres (Tarn) on the 3rd of September 1859. He was educated at the -lycee Louis-le-Grand and the ecole normale superieure, and took his -degree as associate in philosophy in 1881. After teaching philosophy for -two years at the lycee of Albi (Tarn), he lectured at the university of -Toulouse. He was elected republican deputy for the department of Tarn in -1885. In 1889, after unsuccessfully contesting Castres, he returned to -his professional duties at Toulouse, where he took an active interest in -municipal affairs, and helped to found the medical faculty of the -university. He also prepared two theses for his doctorate in philosophy, -_De primis socialismi germanici lineamentis apud Lutherum, Kant, Fichte -et Hegel_ (1891), and _De la realite du monde sensible_. In 1902 he gave -energetic support to the miners of Carmaux who went out on strike in -consequence of the dismissal of a socialist workman, Calvignac; and in -the next year he was re-elected to the chamber as deputy for Albi. -Although he was defeated at the elections of 1898 and was for four years -outside the chamber, his eloquent speeches made him a force in politics -as an intellectual champion of socialism. He edited the _Petite -Republique_, and was one of the most energetic defenders of Captain -Alfred Dreyfus. He approved of the inclusion of M. Millerand, the -socialist, in the Waldeck-Rousseau ministry, though this led to a split -with the more revolutionary section led by M. Guesde. In 1902 he was -again returned as deputy for Albi, and during the Combes administration -his influence secured the coherence of the radical-socialist coalition -known as the _bloc_. In 1904 he founded the socialist paper, -_L'Humanite_. The French socialist groups held a congress at Rouen in -March 1905, which resulted in a new consolidation; the new party, headed -by MM. Jaures and Guesde, ceased to co-operate with the radicals and -radical-socialists, and became known as the unified socialists, pledged -to advance a collectivist programme. At the general elections of 1906 M. -Jaures was again elected for the Tarn. His ability and vigour were now -generally recognized; but the strength of the socialist party, and the -practical activity of its leader, still had to reckon with the equally -practical and vigorous liberalism of M. Clemenceau. The latter was able -to appeal to his countrymen (in a notable speech in the spring of 1906) -to rally to a radical programme which had no socialist Utopia in view; -and the appearance in him of a strong and practical radical leader had -the result of considerably diminishing the effect of the socialist -propaganda. M. Jaures, in addition to his daily journalistic activity, -published _Les preuves; affaire Dreyfus_ (1900); _Action socialiste_ -(1899); _Etudes socialistes_ (1902), and, with other collaborators, -_Histoire socialiste_ (1901), &c. - - - - -JAVA, one of the larger islands of that portion of the Malay Archipelago -which is distinguished as the Sunda Islands. It lies between 105 deg. -12' 40'' (St Nicholas Point) and 114 deg. 35' 38'' E. (Cape Seloko) and -between 5 deg. 52' 34'' and 8 deg. 46' 46'' S. It has a total length of -622 m. from Pepper Bay in the west to Banyuwangi in the east, and an -extreme breadth of 121 m. from Cape Bugel in Japara to the coast of -Jokjakarta, narrowing towards the middle to about 55 m. Politically and -commercially it is important as the seat of the colonial government of -the Dutch East Indies, all other parts of the Dutch territory being -distinguished as the Outer Possessions (_Buitenbezittungens_). According -to the triangulation survey (report published in 1901) the area of Java -proper is 48,504 sq. m.; of Madura, the large adjacent and associated -island, 1732; and of the smaller islands administratively included with -Java and Madura 1416, thus making a total of 50,970 sq. m. The more -important of these islands are the following: Pulau Panaitan or Princes -Island (_Prinseneiland_), 47 sq. m., lies in the Sunda Strait, off the -south-western peninsula of the main island, from which it is separated -by the Behouden Passage. The Thousand Islands are situated almost due N. -of Batavia. Of these five were inhabited in 1906 by about 1280 seafarers -from all parts and their descendants. The Karimon Java archipelago, to -the north of Semarang, numbers twenty-seven islands with an area of 16 -sq. m. and a population of about 800 (having one considerable village on -the main island). Bavian[1] (Bawian), 100 m. N. of Surabaya, is a ruined -volcano with an area of 73 sq. m. and a population of about 44,000. -About a third of the men are generally absent as traders or coolies. In -Singapore and Sumatra they are known as Boyans. They are devout -Mahommedans and many of them make the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Sapudi -and Kangean archipelagoes are eastward continuations of Madura. The -former, thirteen in all, with an area of 58 sq. m. and 53,000 -inhabitants, export cattle, dried fish and trepang; and many of the male -population work as day labourers in Java or as lumbermen in Sumbawa, -Flores, &c. The main island of the Kangians has an area of 19 sq. m.; -the whole group 23 sq. m. It is best known for its limestone caves and -its buffaloes. Along the south coast the islands are few and -small--Klapper or Deli, Trouwers or Tingal, Nusa Kembangan, Sempu and -Nusa Barung. - -[Illustration: Map of Java.] - -From Sumatra on the W., Java is separated by the Sunda Strait, which at -the narrowest is only 14 m. broad, but widens elsewhere to about 50 m. -On the E. the strait of Bali, which parts it from the island of that -name, is at the northern end not more than 1(1/2) m. across. Through the -former strong currents run for the greater part of the day throughout -the year, outwards from the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean. In the strait -of Bali the currents are perhaps even stronger and are extremely -irregular. Pilots with local knowledge are absolutely necessary for -vessels attempting either passage. In spite of the strength of the -currents the Sunda Strait is steadily being diminished in width, and the -process if continued must result in a restoration of that junction of -Sumatra and Java which according to some authorities formerly -existed.[2] - -In general terms Java may be described as one of the breakwater islands -of the Indian Ocean--part of the mountainous rim (continuous more or -less completely with Sumatra) of the partially submerged plateau which -lies between the ocean on the S. and the Chinese Sea on the N., and has -the massive island of Borneo as its chief subaerial portion. While the -waves and currents of the ocean sweep away most of the products of -denudation along the south coast or throw a small percentage back in the -shape of sandy downs, the Java Sea on the north--not more than 50 -fathoms deep--allows them to settle and to form sometimes with -extraordinary rapidity broad alluvial tracts.[3] - - It is customary and obvious to divide Java into three divisions, the - middle part of the island narrowing into a kind of isthmus, and each - of the divisions thus indicated having certain structural - characteristics of its own. West Java, which consists of Bantam, - Krawang and the Preanger Regencies, has an area of upwards of 18,000 - sq. m. In this division the highlands lie for the most part in a - compact mass to the south and the lowlands form a continuous tract to - the north. The main portion of the uplands consists of the Preanger - Mountains, with the plateaus of Bandong, Pekalongan, Tegal, Badung and - Gurut, encircled with volcanic summits. On the borders of the - Preanger, Batavia and Bantam are the Halimon Mountains (the Blue - Mountains of the older travellers), reaching their greatest altitudes - in the volcanic summits of Gedeh and Salak. To the west lie the - highlands of Bantam, which extending northward cut off the northern - lowlands from the Sunda Strait. Middle Java is the smallest of the - three divisions, having an area of not much more than 13,200 sq. m. It - comprises Tegal, Pekalongan, Banyumas, Bagelen, Kedu, Jokjakarta, - Surakarta, and thus not only takes in the whole of the isthmus but - encroaches on the broad eastern portion of the island. In the isthmus - mountains are not so closely massed in the south nor the plains so - continuous on the north. The watershed culminating in Slamet lies - almost midway between the ocean and the Java Sea, and there are - somewhat extensive lowlands in the south. In that part of middle Java - which physically belongs to eastern Java there is a remarkable series - of lowlands stretching almost right across the island from Semarang in - the north to Jokjakarta in the south. Eastern Java comprises Rembang, - Madiun, Kediri, Surabaya, Pasuruan and Besuki, and has an area of - about 17,500 sq. m. In this division lowlands and highlands are - intermingled in endless variety except along the south coast, where - the watershed-range forms a continuous breakwater from Jokjakarta to - Besuki. The volcanic eminences, instead of rising in lines or groups, - are isolated. - - For its area Java is one of the most distinctly volcanic regions of - the world. Volcanic forces made it, and volcanic forces have continued - to devastate and fertilize it. According to R. D. M. Verbeek about 125 - volcanic centres can be distinguished, a number which may be increased - or diminished by different methods of classification. It is usual to - arrange the volcanoes in the following groups: westernmost Java 11 - (all extinct); Preanger 50 (5 active); Cheribon 2 (both extinct); - Slamet 2 (1 active); middle Java 16 (2 active); Murio 2 (both - extinct); Lavu 2 (extinct); Wilis 2 (extinct); east Java 21 (5 - active). The active volcanoes of the present time are Gedeh, - Tangkuban, Prahu, Gutar, Papandayan, Galung-gung, Slamet, Sendor, - Merapi,[4] Kalut (or Klut), Bromo, Semeru, Lamongan, Raung, but the - activity of many of these is trifling, consisting of slight ejections - of steam and scoriae. - - The plains differ in surface and fertility, according to their - geological formation. Built up of alluvium and diluvium, the plains of - the north coast-lands in western and middle Java are at their lowest - levels, near the mouths of rivers and the sea, in many cases marshy - and abounding in lakes and coral remains, but for the rest they are - fertile and available for culture. The plains, too, along the south - coast of middle Java--of Banyumas and Bagelen--contain many morasses - as well as sandy stretches and dunes impeding the outlet of the - rivers. They are, nevertheless, available for the cultivation more - particularly of rice, and are thickly peopled. In eastern Java, again, - the narrow coast plains are to be distinguished from the wider plains - lying between the parallel chains of limestone and between the - volcanoes. The narrow plains of the north coast are constituted of - yellow clay and tuffs containing chalk, washed down by the rivers from - the mountain chains and volcanoes. Like the western plains, they, too, - are in many cases low and marshy, and fringed with sand and dunes. The - plains, on the other hand, at some distance from the sea, or lying in - the interior of eastern Java, such as Surakarta, Madiun, Kediri, - Pasuruan, Probolinggo and Besuki, owe their formation to the volcanoes - at whose bases they lie, occupying levels as high as 1640 ft. down to - 328 ft. above the sea, whence they decline to the lower plains of the - coast. Lastly, the plains of Lusi, Solo and Brantas, lying between the - parallel chains in Japara, Rembang and Surabaya, are in part the - product of rivers formerly flowing at a higher level of 30 to 60 or 70 - ft., in part the product of the sea, dating from a time when the - northern part of the above-named residencies was an island, such as - Madura, the mountains of which are the continuation of the north - parallel chain, is still. - - The considerable rivers of western Java all have their outlets on the - north coast, the chief among them being the Chi (Dutch Tji) Tarum and - the Chi Manuk. They are navigable for native boats and rafts, and are - used for the transport of coffee and salt. On the south coast the Chi - Tanduwi, on the east of the Preanger, is the only stream available as - a waterway, and this only for a few miles above its mouth. In middle - Java, also, the rivers discharging at the north coast--the Pamali, - Chomal, &c.--are serviceable for the purposes of irrigation and - cultivation, but are navigable only near their mouths. The rivers of - the south coast--Progo, Serayu, Bogowonto, and Upak, enriched by rills - from the volcanoes--serve abundantly to irrigate the plains of - Bagelen, Banyumas, &c. Their stony beds, shallows and rapids, and the - condition of their mouths lessen, however, their value as waterways. - More navigable are the larger rivers of eastern Java. The Solo is - navigable for large praus, or native boats, as far up as Surakarta, - and above that town for lighter boats, as is also its affluent the - Gentung. The canal constructed in 1893 at the lower part of this - river, and alterations effected at its mouth, have proved of important - service both in irrigating the plain and facilitating the river's - outlet into the sea. The Brantas is also navigable in several parts. - The smaller rivers of eastern Java are, however, much in the condition - of those of western Java. They serve less as waterways than as - reservoirs for the irrigation of the fertile plains through which they - flow. - - The north coast of Java presents everywhere a low strand covered with - nipa or mangrove, morasses and fishponds, sandy stretches and low - dunes, shifting river-mouths and coast-lines, ports and roads, - demanding continual attention and regulation. The south coast is of a - different make. The dunes of Banyumas, Bagelen, and Jokjakarta, ranged - in three ridges, rising to 50 ft. high, and varying in breadth from - 300 to over 1600 ft., liable, moreover, to transformation from tides - and the east monsoon, oppose everywhere, also in Preanger and Besuki, - a barrier to the discharge of the rivers and the drainage of the - coast-lands. They assist the formation of lagoons and morasses. At - intervals in the dune coast, running in the direction of the limestone - mountains, there tower up steep inaccessible masses of land, showing - neither ports nor bays, hollowed out by the sea, rising in - perpendicular walls to a height of 160 ft. above sea-level. Sometimes - two branches project at right angles from the chain on to the coast, - forming a low bay between the capes or ends of the projecting - branches, from 1000 to 1600 ft. high. Such a formation occurs - frequently along the coast of Besuki, presenting a very irregular - coast-line. Of course the north coast is of much greater commercial - importance than the south coast. - - _Geology._--With the exception of a few small patches of schist, - supposed to be Cretaceous, the whole island, so far as is known, is - covered by deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary age. The ancient - "schist formation," which occurs in Sumatra, Borneo, &c., does not - rise to the surface anywhere in Java itself, but it is visible in the - island of Karimon Java off the north coast. The Cretaceous schists - have yielded fossils only at Banjarnegara, where a limestone with - Orbitolina is interstratified with them. They are succeeded - unconformably by Eocene deposits, consisting of sandstones with - coal-seams and limestones containing Nummulites, Alveolina and - Orthophragmina; and these beds are as limited in extent as the - Cretaceous schists themselves. Sedimentary deposits of Upper Tertiary - age are widely spread, covering about 38% of the surface. They consist - of breccias, marls and limestones containing numerous fossils, and are - for the most part Miocene but probably include a part of the Pliocene - also. They were laid down beneath the sea, but have since been folded - and elevated to considerable heights. Fluviatile deposits of late - Pliocene age have been found in the east of Java, and it was in these - that the remarkable anthropoid ape or ape-like man, _Pithecanthropus - erectus_ of Dubois, was discovered. The Quaternary deposits lie - horizontally upon the upturned edges of the Tertiary beds. They are - partly marine and partly fluviatile, the marine deposits reaching to a - height of some 350 ft. above the sea and thus indicating a - considerable elevation of the island in recent times. - - The volcanic rocks of Java are of great importance and cover about 28% - of the island. The eruptions began in the middle of the Tertiary - period, but did not attain their maximum until Quaternary times, and - many of the volcanoes are still active. Most of the cones seem to lie - along faults parallel to the axis of the island, or on short cross - fractures. The lavas and ashes are almost everywhere andesites and - basalts, with a little obsidian. Some of the volcanoes, however, have - erupted leucite rocks. Similar rocks, together with phonolite, occur - in the island of Bavian.[5] - - _Climate._--Our knowledge of the climate of Batavia, and thus of that - of the lowlands of western Java, is almost perfect; but, rainfall - excepted, our information as to the climate of Java as a whole is - extremely defective. The dominant meteorological facts are simple and - obvious: Java lies in the tropics, under an almost vertical sun, and - thus has a day of almost uniform length throughout the year.[6] It is - also within the perpetual influence of the great atmospheric movements - passing between Asia and Australia; and is affected by the - neighbourhood of vast expanses of sea and land (Borneo and Sumatra). - There are no such maxima of temperature as are recorded from the - continents. The highest known at Batavia was 96 deg. F. in 1877 and - the lowest 66 deg. in the same year. The mean annual temperature is 79 - deg. The warmest months are May and October, registering 79.5 deg. and - 79.46 deg. respectively; the coldest January and February with 77.63 - deg. and 77.7 deg. respectively. The daily range is much greater; at - one o'clock the thermometer has a mean height of 84 deg.; after two - o'clock it declines to about 73 deg. at six o'clock; the greatest - daily amplitude is in August and the least in January and February. - Eastern Java and the inland plains of middle Java are said to be - hotter, but scientific data are few. A very slight degree of elevation - above the seaboard plains produces a remarkable difference in the - climate, not so much in its mere temperature as in its influence on - health. The dwellers in the coast towns are surprised at the - invigorating effects of a change to health resorts from 300 to 1200 - ft. above sea-level; and at greater elevations it may be uncomfortably - cold at night, with chilly mists and occasional frosts. The year is - divided into two seasons by the prevailing winds: the rainy season, - that of the west monsoon, lasting from November to March, and the dry - season, that of the east monsoon, during the rest of the year; the - transition from one monsoon to another--the "canting" of the - monsoons--being marked by irregularities. On the whole, the east - monsoon blows steadily for a longer period than the west. The velocity - of the wind is much less than in Europe--not more in the annual mean - at Batavia than 3 ft. per second, against 12 to 18 ft. in Europe. The - highest velocity ever observed at Batavia was 25 ft. Wind-storms are - rare and hardly ever cyclonic. There are as a matter of course a large - number of purely local winds, some of them of a very peculiar kind, - but few of these have been scientifically dealt with. Thunder-storms - are extremely frequent; but the loss of life from lightning is - probably diminished by the fact that the palm-trees are excellent - conductors. At night the air is almost invariably still. The average - rainfall at Batavia is 72.28 in. per annum, of which 51.49 in. are - contributed by the west monsoon. The amount varies considerably from - year to year: in 1889, 1891 and 1897 there were about 47.24 in.; in - 1868 and 1877 nearly 51.17, and in 1872 and 1882 no less than 94.8. - There are no long tracts of unbroken rainfall and no long periods of - continuous drought. The rainfall is heaviest in January, but it rains - only for about one-seventh of the time. Next in order come February, - March and December. August, the driest month, has from three to five - days of rain, though the amount is usually less than an inch and not - more than one and a half inches. The popular description of the rain - falling not in drops but streams was proved erroneous by J. Wiesner's - careful observations (see _Kais. Akad. d. Wiss. Math. Naturw. Cl._ Bd. - xiv., Vienna, 1895), which have been confirmed by A. Woeikof - ("Regensintensitat und Regendauer in Batavia" in _Z. fur Met._, 1907). - The greatest rainfall recorded in an hour (4.5 in.) is enormously - exceeded by records even in Europe. From observations taken for the - meteorological authorities at a very considerable number of stations, - J. H. Boeseken constructed a map in 1900 (_Tijdschr. v. h. Kon. Ned. - Aardr. Gen._, 1900; reproduced in Veth, _Java_, iii. 1903). Among the - outstanding facts are the following. The south coasts of both eastern - and middle Java have a much heavier rainfall than the north. Majalenka - has an annual fall of 175 in. In western Java the maximal district - consists of a great ring of mountains from Salak and Gedeh in the west - to Galung-gung in the east, while the enclosed plateau-region of - Chanjur Bandung and Garut are not much different from the seaboard. - The whole of middle Java, with the exception of the north coast, has a - heavy rainfall. At Chilachap the annual rainfall is 151.43 in., 87.8 - in. of which is brought by the south-east monsoon. The great belt - which includes the Slamet and the Dieng, and the country on the south - coast between Chilachap and Parigi, are maximal. In comparison the - whole of eastern Java, with the exception of the mountains from Wilis - eastward to Ijen, has a low record which reaches its lowest along the - north coast.[7] - - _Fauna._--In respect of its fauna Java differs from Borneo, Sumatra - and the Malay Peninsula far more than these differ among themselves; - and, at the same time, it shows a close resemblance to the Malay - Peninsula, on the one hand, and to the Himalayas on the other. Of the - 176 mammals of the whole Indo-Malayan region the greater number occur - in Java. Of these 41 are found on the continent of Asia, 8 are common - to Java and Borneo, and 6 are common to Java and Sumatra (see M. - Weber, _Das Indo-Malay Archipelago und die Geschichte seiner - Thierwelt_, Jena, 1902). No genus and only a few species are confined - to the island. Of the land-birds only a small proportion are peculiar. - The elephant, the tapir, the bear, and various other genera found in - the rest of the region are altogether absent. The Javanese rhinoceros - (_Rhinoceros sundaicus_; _sarak_ in Javanese, _badak_ in Sundanese), - the largest of the mammals on the island, differs from that of Sumatra - in having one horn instead of two. It ranges over the highest - mountains, and its regular paths, worn into deep channels, may be - traced up the steepest slopes and round the rims of even active - volcanoes. Two species of wild swine, _Sus vittatus_ and _Sus - verrucosus_, are exceedingly abundant, the former in the hot, the - latter in the temperate, region; and their depredations are the cause - of much loss to the natives, who, however, being Mahommedans, to whom - pork is abhorrent, do not hunt them for the sake of their flesh. Not - much less than the rhinoceros is the banteng (_Bibos banteng_ or - _sundaicus_) found in all the uninhabited districts between 2000 and - 7000 ft. of elevation. The kidang or muntjak (_Cervulus muntjac_) and - the rusa or russa (_Rusa hippelaphus_ or _Russa russa_) are the - representatives of the deer kind. The former is a delicate little - creature occurring singly or in pairs both in the mountains and in the - coast districts; the latter lives in herds of fifty to a hundred in - the grassy opens, giving excellent sport to the native hunters. - Another species (_Russa kuhlii_) exists in Bavian. The kantjil - (_Tragulus javanicus_) is a small creature allied to the musk-deer but - forming a genus by itself. It lives in the high woods, for the most - part singly, seldom in pairs. It is one of the most peculiar of the - Javanese mammals. The royal tiger, the same species as that of India, - is still common enough to make a tiger-hunt a characteristic Javanese - scene. The leopard (_Felis pardus_) is frequent in the warm regions - and often ascends to considerable altitudes. Black specimens - occasionally occur, but the spots are visible on inspection; and the - fact that in the Amsterdam zoological gardens a black leopard had one - of its cubs black and the other normally spotted shows that this is - only a case of melanism. In the tree-tops the birds find a dangerous - enemy in the matjan rembak, or wild cat (_Felis minuta_), about the - size of a common cat. The dog tribe is represented by the fox-like - adjag (_Cuon_ or _Canis sutilans_) which hunts in ferocious packs; and - by a wild dog, _Canis tenggeranus_, if this is not now exterminated. - The Cheiroptera hold a prominent place in the fauna, the principal - genera being _Pteropus_, _Cynonycteris_, _Cynopterus_ and - _Macroglossus_. Remarkable especially for size is the kalong, or - flying fox, _Pteropus edulis_, a fruit-eating bat, which may be seen - hanging during the day in black clusters asleep on the trees, and in - the evening hastening in long lines to the favourite feeding grounds - in the forest. The damage these do to the young coco-nut trees, the - maize and the sugar-palms leads the natives to snare and shoot them; - and their flesh is a favourite food with Europeans, who prefer to - shoot them by night as, if shot by day, they often cling after death - to the branches. Smaller kinds of bats are most abundant, perhaps the - commonest being _Scotophilus Temminckii_. In certain places they - congregate in myriads, like sea-fowl on the cliffs, and their - excrement produces extensive guano deposits utilized by the people of - Surakarta and Madiun. The creature known to the Europeans as the - flying-cat and to the natives as the kubin is the _Galeopithecus - volans_ or _variagatus_--a sort of transition from the bats to the - lemuroids. Of these last Java has several species held in awe by the - natives for their supposed power of fascination. The apes are - represented by the wou-wou (_Hylobates leuciscus_), the lutung, and - kowi (_Semnopithecus maurus_ and _pyrrhus_), the surili - (_Semnopithecus mitratus_), and the munyuk (_Cercocebus_, or _Macacus, - cynamolgos_), the most generally distributed of all. From sunrise to - sunset the wou-wou makes its presence known, especially in the second - zone where it congregates in the trees, by its strange cry, at times - harsh and cacophonous, at times weird and pathetic. The lutung or - black ape also prefers the temperate region, though it is met with as - high as 7000 ft. above the sea and as low as 2000. The _Cercocebus_ or - grey ape keeps for the most part to the warm coast lands. Rats - (including the brown Norway rat, often called _Mus javanicus_, as if - it were a native; a great plague); mice in great variety; porcupines - (_Acanthion javanicum_); squirrels (five species) and flying squirrels - (four species) represent the rodents. A hare, _Lepus nigricollis_, - originally from Ceylon, has a very limited habitat; the Insectivora - comprise a shrew-mouse (_Rachyura indica_), two species of tupaya and - _Hylomys suillus_ peculiar to Java and Sumatra. The nearest relation - to the bears is _Arctictis binturong_. _Mydaus meliceps_ and _Helictis - orientalis_ represent the badgers. In the upper part of the mountains - occurs _Mustela Henrici_, and an otter (_Aonyx leptonyx_) in the - streams of the hot zone. The coffee rat (_Paradoxurus - hermaphroditus_), a civet cat (_Viverricida indica_), the Javanese - ichneumon (_Herpestes javanicus_), and _Priodon gracilis_ may also be - mentioned. - - In 1820, 176 species of birds were known in Java; by 1900 Vorderman - and O. Finsch knew 410. Many of these are, of course, rare and occupy - a limited habitat far from the haunts of man. Others exist in myriads - and are characteristic features in the landscape. Water-fowl of many - kinds, ducks, geese, storks, pelicans, &c., give life to sea-shore and - lake, river and marsh. Snipe-shooting is a favourite sport. Common - night-birds are the owl (_Strix flammea_) and the goat-sucker - (_Caprimulgus affinis_). Three species of hornbill, the year-bird of - the older travellers (_Buceros plicatus_, _lunatus_ and _albirostris_) - live in the tall trees of the forest zone. The Javanese peacock is a - distinct species (_Pavo muticus_ or _spiciferus_), and even exceeds - the well-known Indian species in the splendour of its plumage. _Gallus - Bankiva_ is famous as the reputed parent of all barn-door fowls; - _Gallus furcatus_ is an exquisitely beautiful bird and can be trained - for cock-fighting. Of parrots two species only are known: _Palaeornis - Alexandri_ or _javanicus_ and the pretty little grass-green _Curyllis - pusilla_, peculiar to Java. As talkers and mimics they are beaten by - the _Gracula javanensis_, a favourite cage-bird with the natives. A - cuckoo, _Chrysococcyx basalis_, may be heard in the second zone. The - grass-fields are the foraging-grounds of swarms of weaver-birds - (_Plocula javanensis_ and _Ploccus baya_). They lay nearly as heavy a - toll on the rice-fields as the gelatiks (_Munia oryzivora_), which are - everywhere the rice-growers' principal foe. Hawks and falcons make - both an easy prey. The _Nictuarinas_ or honey-birds (eight species) - take the place of the humming-bird, which they rival in beauty and - diminutiveness, ranging from the lowlands to an altitude of 4000 ft. - In the upper regions the birds, like the plants, are more like those - of Europe, and some of them--notably the kanchilan (_Hyloterpe - Philomela_)--are remarkable for their song. The edible-nest swallow - (_Collocalia fuciphaga_) builds in caves in many parts of the - island.[8] - - As far back as 1859 P. Bleeker credited Java with eleven hundred - species of fish; and naturalists are perpetually adding to the - number.[9] In splendour and grotesqueness of colouring many kinds, as - is well known, look rather like birds than fish. In the neighbourhood - of Batavia about three hundred and eighty species are used as food by - the natives and the Chinese, who have added to the number by the - introduction of the goldfish, which reaches a great size. The sea fish - most prized by Europeans is _Lates calcarifer_ (a perch). Of more than - one hundred species of snakes about twenty-four species (including - the cobra di capella) are poisonous and these are responsible for the - deaths of between one hundred and two hundred persons per annum. - Adders and lizards are abundant. Geckos are familiar visitants in the - houses of the natives. There are two species of crocodiles. - - As in other tropical-rain forest lands the variety and abundance of - insects are amazing. At sundown the air becomes resonant for hours - with their myriad voices. The _Coleoptera_ and the _Lepidoptera_ form - the glory of all great collections for their size and magnificence. Of - butterflies proper five hundred species are known. Of the beetles one - of the largest and handsomest is _Chalcosoma atlas_. Among the spiders - (a numerously represented order) the most notable is a bird-killing - species, _Selene scomia javanensis_. In many parts the island is - plagued with ants, termites and mosquitoes. Crops of all kinds are - subject to disastrous attacks of creeping and winged foes--many still - unidentified (see especially Snellen van Hollenhoven, _Essai d'une - faune entomologique de l'Archipel Indo-neerlandais_). Of still lower - forms of life the profusion is no less perplexing. Among the worms the - _Perichaeta musica_ reaches a length of about twenty inches and - produces musical sounds. The shell of the _Tridacna gigas_ is the - largest anywhere known. - - _Flora._--For the botanist Java is a natural paradise, affording him - the means of studying the effects of moisture and heat, of - air-currents and altitudes, without the interference of superincumbent - arctic conditions. The botanic gardens of Buitenzorg have long been - famous for their wealth of material, the ability with which their - treasures have been accumulated and displayed, their value in - connexion with the economic development of the island and the - extensive scientific literature published by their directors.[10] - There is a special establishment at Chibodas open to students of all - nations for the investigation on the spot of the conditions of the - primeval forest. Hardly any similar area in the world has a flora of - richer variety than Java. It is estimated that the total number of the - species of plants is about 5000; but this is probably under the mark - (De Candolle knew of 2605 phanerogamous species), and new genera and - species of an unexpected character are from time to time discovered. - The lower parts of the island are always in the height of summer. The - villages and even the smaller towns are in great measure concealed by - the abundant and abiding verdure; and their position in the landscape - is to be recognized mainly by their groves, orchards and cultivated - fields. The amount and distribution of heat and moisture at the - various seasons of the year form the dominant factors in determining - the character of the vegetation. Thus trees which are evergreen in - west Java are deciduous in the east of the island, some dropping their - leaves (e.g. _Tetrameles nudiflora_) at the very time they are in - bloom or ripening their fruit. This and other contrasts are - graphically described from personal observation by A. F. W. Schimper - in his _Pflanzen-Geographie auf physiologischer Grundlage_ (Jena, - 1898). The abundance of epiphytes, orchids, pitcher-plants, mosses and - fungi is a striking result of the prevalent humidity; and many trees - and plants indeed, which in drier climates root in the soil, derive - sufficient moisture from their stronger neighbours. Of orchids J. J. - Smith records 562 species (100 genera), but the flowers of all except - about a score are inconspicuous. This last fact is the more remarkable - because, taken generally, the Javanese vegetation differs from that of - many other tropical countries by being abundantly and often gorgeously - floriferous. Many of the loftiest trees crown themselves with blossoms - and require no assistance from the climbing plants that seek, as it - were, to rival them in their display of colour. Shrubs, too, and - herbaceous plants often give brilliant effects in the savannahs, the - deserted clearings, the edges of the forest and the sides of the - highways. The _lantana_, a verbenaceous alien introduced, it is said, - from Jamaica by Lady Raffles, has made itself aggressively conspicuous - in many parts of the island, more especially in the Preanger and - middle Java, where it occupies areas of hundreds of acres. - - The effect of mere altitude in the distribution of the flora was long - ago emphasized by Friedrich Junghuhn, the Humboldt of Java, who - divided the island into four vertical botanical zones--a division - which has generally been accepted by his successors, though, like all - such divisions, it is subject to many modifications and exceptions. - The forest, or hot zone, extends to a height of 2000 ft. above the - sea; the second, that of moderate heat, has its upper limit at about - 4500; the third, or cool, zone reaches 7500; and the fourth, or - coldest, comprises all that lies beyond. The lowest zone has, of - course, the most extensive area; the second is only a fiftieth and the - third a five-thousandth of the first; and the fourth is an - insignificant remainder. The lowest is the region of the true tropical - forest, of rice-fields and sugar-plantations, of coco-nut palms, - cotton, sesamum, cinnamon and tobacco (though this last has a wide - altitudinal range). Many parts of the coast (especially on the north) - are fringed with mangrove (_Rhizophora mucronata_), &c., and species - of _Bruguiera_; the downs have their characteristic flora--convolvulus - and _Spinifex squarrosus_ catching the eye for very different - reasons. Farther inland along the seaboard appear the nipa dwarf palm - (_Nipa fruticans_), the _Alsbonia scholaris_ (the wood of which is - lighter than cork), Cycadacea, tree-ferns, screw pines (_Pandanus_), - &c. In west Java the gebang palm (_Corypha gebanga_) grows in clumps - and belts not far from but never quite close to the coast; and in east - Java a similar position is occupied by the lontar (_Borassus - flabelliformis_), valuable for its timber, its sago and its sugar, and - in former times for its leaves, which were used as a writing-material. - The fresh-water lakes and ponds of this region are richly covered with - Utricularia and various kinds of lotus (_Nymphaea lotus_, _N. - stellata_, _Nelumbium speciosum_, &c.) interspersed with _Pista - stratiotes_ and other floating plants. Vast prairies are covered with - the silvery alang-alang grass broken by bamboo thickets, clusters of - trees and shrubs (_Butea frondosa_, _Emblica officinalis_, &c.) and - islands of the taller erigedeh or glagah (_Saccharum spontaneum_). - Alang-alang (_Imperata arundinacea_, Cyr. var. Bentham) grows from 1 - to 4 ft. in height. It springs up wherever the ground is cleared of - trees and is a perfect plague to the cultivator. It cannot hold its - own, however, with the ananas, the kratok (_Phaseolus lunatus_) or the - lantana; and, in the natural progress of events, the forest resumes - its sway except where the natives encourage the young growth of the - grass by annually setting the prairies on fire. The true forest, which - occupies a great part of this region, changes its character as we - proceed from west to east. In west Java it is a dense rain-forest in - which the struggle of existence is maintained at high pressure by a - host of lofty trees and parasitic plants in bewildering profusion. The - preponderance of certain types is remarkable. Thus of the Moraceae - there are in Java (and mostly here) seven genera with ninety-five - species, eighty-three of which are _Ficus_ (see S. H. Koorders and T. - Valeton, "Boomsoorten op Java" in _Bijdr. Mede. Dep. Landbower_ - (1906). These include the so-called waringin, several kinds of figs - planted as shade-trees in the parks of the nobles and officials. The - Magnoliaceae and Anonaceae are both numerously represented. In middle - Java the variety of trees is less, a large area being occupied by - teak. In eastern Java the character of the forest is mainly determined - by the abundance of the Casuarina or Chimoro (_C. montana_ and _C. - Junghuhniana_). Another species, _C. equisetifolia_, is planted in - west Java as an ornamental tree. These trees are not crowded together - and encumbered with the heavy parasitic growths of the rain-forest; - but their tall stems are often covered with multitudes of small - vermilion fungi. Wherever the local climate has sufficient humidity, - the true rain-forest claims its own. The second of Junghuhn's zones is - the region of, more especially, tea, cinchona and coffee plantations, - of maize and the sugar palm (areng). In the forest the trees are - richly clad with ferns and enormous fungi; there is a profusion of - underwood (_Pavetta macrophylla Javanica_ and _salicifolia_; several - species of _Lasianthus_, _Boehmarias_, _Strobilanthus_, &c.), of woody - lianas and ratans, of tree ferns (especially Alsophila). Between the - bushes the ground is covered with ferns, lycopods, tradescantias, - Bignoniaceae, species of _Aeschynanthus_. Of the lianas the largest is - _Plectocomia elongata_; one specimen of which was found to have a - length of nearly 790 ft. One of the fungi, _Telephora princeps_, is - more than a yard in diameter. The trees are of different species from - those of the hot zone even when belonging to the same genus; and new - types appear mostly in limited areas. The third zone, which consists - mainly of the upper slopes of volcanic mountains, but also comprises - several plateaus (the Dieng, parts of the Tengger, the Ijen) is a - region of clouds and mists. There are a considerable number of lakes - and swamps in several parts of the region, and these have a luxuriant - environment of grasses, Cyperaceae, Characeae and similar forms. The - taller trees of the region--oaks, chestnuts, various Lauraceae, and - four or five species of _Podocarpus_--with some striking exceptions, - _Astronia spectabilis_, &c., are less floriferous than those of the - lower zones; but the shrubs (_Rhododendron javanicum_, _Ardisia - javanica_, &c.), herbs and parasites more than make up for this - defect. There is little cultivation, except in the Tengger, where the - natives grow maize, rye and tobacco, and various European vegetables - (cabbage, potatoes, &c.), with which they supply the lowland markets. - In western Java one of the most striking features of the upper parts - of this temperate region is what Schimper calls the "absolute dominion - of mosses," associated with the "elfin forest," as he quaintly calls - it, a perfect tangle of "low, thick, oblique or even horizontal - stems," almost choked to leaflessness by their grey and ghostly - burden. Much of the lower vegetation begins to have a European aspect; - violets, primulas, thalictrums, ranunculus, vacciniums, equisetums, - rhododendrons (_Rhod. retusum_). The _Primula imperialis_, found only - on the Pangerango, is a handsome species, prized by specialists. In - the fourth or alpine zone occur such distinctly European forms as - _Artemisia vulgaris_, _Plantago major_, _Solanum nigrum_, _Stellaria - media_; and altogether the alpine flora contains representatives of no - fewer than thirty-three families. A characteristic shrub is _Anaphalis - javanica_, popularly called the Javanese edelweiss, which "often - entirely excludes all other woody plants."[11] The tallest and noblest - of all the trees in the island is the rasamala or liquid-ambar - (_Altingia excelsa_), which, rising with a straight clean trunk, - sometimes 6 ft. in diameter at the base, to a height of 100 to 130 - ft., spreads out into a magnificent crown of branches and foliage. - When by chance a climbing plant has joined partnership with it, the - combination of blossoms at the top is one of the finest colour effects - of the forest. The rasamala, however, occurs only in the Preanger and - in the neighbouring parts of Bantam and Buitenzorg. Of the other trees - that may be classified as timber--from 300 to 400 species--many attain - noble proportions. It is sufficient to mention _Calophyllum - inophyllum_, which forms fine woods in the south of Bantam, _Mimusops - acuminata_, _Irna glabra_, _Dalbergia latifolia_ (sun wood, English - black-wood) in middle and east Java; the rare but splendid - _Pithecolobium Junghuhnianum_; _Schima Noronhae_, _Bischofia - javanica_, _Pterospermum javanicum_ (greatly prized for - ship-building), and the upas-tree. From the economic point of view all - these hundreds of trees are of less importance than _Tectona grandis_, - the jati or teak, which, almost to the exclusion of all others, - occupies about a third of the government forest-lands. It grows best - in middle and eastern Java, preferring the comparatively dry and hot - climate of the plains and lower hills to a height of about 2000 ft. - above the sea, and thriving best in more or less calciferous soils. In - June it sheds its leaves and begins to bud again in October. - Full-grown trees reach a height of 100 to 150 ft. In 1895 teak (with a - very limited quantity of other timber) was felled to the value of - about L101,800, and in 1904 the corresponding figure was about - L119,935. - - That an island which has for so long maintained a dense and growing - population in its more cultivable regions should have such extensive - tracts of primeval or quasi-primeval forest as have been above - indicated would be matter of surprise to one who did not consider the - simplicity of the life of the Javanese. They require but little fuel; - and both their dwellings and their furniture are mostly constructed of - bamboo supplemented with a palm or two. They destroy the forest mainly - to get room for their rice-fields and pasture for their cattle. In - doing this, however, they are often extremely reckless and wasteful; - and if it had not been for the unusual humidity of the climate their - annual fires would have resulted in widespread conflagrations. As it - is, many mountains are now bare which within historic times were - forested to the top; but the Dutch government has proved fully alive - to the danger of denudation. The state has control of all the woods - and forests of the island with the exception of those of the Preanger, - the "particular lands," and Madura; and it has long been engaged in - replanting with native trees and experimenting with aliens from other - parts of the world--_Eucalyptus globulus_, the juar, _Cassia florida_ - from Sumatra, the surian (_Cedrela febrifuga_), &c. The greatest - success has been with cinchona. - - Left to itself Java would soon clothe itself again with even a richer - natural vegetation than it had when it was first occupied by man. The - open space left by the demolition of the fortifications on Nusa - Kambangan was in twenty-eight years densely covered by thousands of - shrubs and trees of about twenty varieties, many of the latter 80 ft. - high. Resident Snijthoff succeeded about the close of the 19th century - in re-afforesting a large part of Mount Muria by the simple expedient - of protecting the territory he had to deal with from all encroachments - by natives.[12] - -_Population._--The population of Java (including Madura, &c.) was -30,098,008 in 1905. In 1900 it was 28,746,688; in 1890, 23,912,564; and -in 1880, 19,794,505. The natives consist of the Javanese proper, the -Sundanese and the Madurese. All three belong to the Malay stock. Between -Javanese and Sundanese the distinction is mainly due to the influence of -the Hindus on the former and the absence of this on the latter. Between -Javanese and Madurese the distinction is rather to be ascribed to -difference of natural environment. The Sundanese have best retained the -Malay type, both in physique and fashion of life. They occupy the west -of the island. The Madurese area, besides the island of Madura and -neighbouring isles, includes the eastern part of Java itself. The -residencies of Tegal, Pekalongan, Banyumas, Bagelen, Kedu, Semarang, -Japara, Surakarta, Jokjakarta, Rembang, Madiun, Kediri and Surabaya have -an almost purely Javanese population. The Javanese are the most numerous -and civilized of the three peoples. - -The colour of the skin in all three cases presents various shades of -yellowish-brown; and it is observed that, owing perhaps to the Hindu -strain, the Javanese are generally darker than the Sundanese. The eyes -are always brown or black, the hair of the head black, long, lank and -coarse. Neither breast nor limbs are provided with hair, and there is -hardly even the suggestion of a beard. In stature the Sundanese is less -than the Javanese proper, being little over 5 ft. in average height, -whereas the Javanese is nearly 5(1/2) ft.; at the same time the -Sundanese is more stoutly built. The Madurese is as tall as the -Javanese, and as stout as the Sundanese. The eye is usually set straight -in the head in the Javanese and Madurese; among the Sundanese it is -often oblique. The nose is generally flat and small, with wide nostrils, -although among the Javanese it not infrequently becomes aquiline. The -lips are thick, yet well formed; the teeth are naturally white, but -often filed and stained. The cheek-bones are well developed, more -particularly with the Madurese. In expressiveness of countenance the -Javanese and Madurese are far in advance of the Sundanese. The women are -not so well made as the men, and among the lower classes especially soon -grow absolutely ugly. In the eyes of the Javanese a golden yellow -complexion is the perfection of female beauty. To judge by their early -history, the Javanese must have been a warlike and vigorous people, but -now they are peaceable, docile, sober, simple and industrious. - -One million only out of the twenty-six millions of natives are -concentrated in towns, a fact readily explained by their sources of -livelihood. The great bulk of the population is distributed over the -country in villages usually called by Europeans dessas, from the Low -Javanese word _desa_ (High Javanese _dusun_). Every dessa, however small -(and those containing from 100 to 1000 families are exceptionally -large), forms an independent community; and no sooner does it attain to -any considerable size than it sends off a score of families or so to -form a new dessa. Each lies in the midst of its own area of cultivation. -The general enceinte is formed by an impervious hedge of bamboos 40 to -70 ft. high. Within this lie the houses, each with its own enclosure, -which, even when the fields are the communal property, belongs to the -individual householder. The capital of a district is only a larger -dessa, and that of a regency has the same general type, but includes -several kampongs or villages. The bamboo houses in the strictly Javanese -districts are always built on the ground; in the Sunda lands they are -raised on piles. Some of the well-to-do, however, have stone houses. The -principal article of food is rice; a considerable quantity of fish is -eaten, but little meat. Family life is usually well ordered. The upper -class practise polygamy, but among the common people a man has generally -only one wife. The Javanese are nominally Mahommedans, as in former -times they were Buddhists and Brahmins; but in reality, not only such -exceptional groups as the Kalangs of Surakarta and Jokjakarta and the -Baduwis or nomad tribes of Bantam, but the great mass of the people must -be considered as believers rather in the primitive animism of their -ancestors, for their belief in Islam is overlaid with superstition. As -we ascend in the social scale, however, we find the name of Mahommedan -more and more applicable; and consequently in spite of the paganism of -the populace the influence of the Mahommedan "priests" (this is their -official title in Dutch) is widespread and real. Great prestige attaches -to the pilgrimage to Mecca, which was made by 5068 persons from Java in -1900. In every considerable town there is a mosque. Christian missionary -work is not very widely spread. - - _Languages._--In spite of Sundanese, Madurese and the intrusive Malay, - Javanese has a right to the name. It is a rich and cultivated language - which has passed through many stages of development and, under - peculiar influences, has become a linguistic complex of an almost - unique kind. Though it is customary and convenient to distinguish New - Javanese from Kavi or Old Javanese, just as it was customary to - distinguish English from Anglo-Saxon, there is no break of historical - continuity. Kavi (Basa Kavi, i.e. the language of poetry) may be - defined as the form spoken and written before the founding of - Majapahit; and middle Javanese, still represented by the dialect of - Banyumas, north Cheribon, north Krawang and north Bantam, as the form - the language assumed under the Majapahit court influence; while New - Javanese is the language as it has developed since the fall of that - kingdom. Kavi continued to be a literary language long after it had - become archaic. It contains more Sanskrit than any other language of - the archipelago. New Javanese breaks up into two great varieties, so - different that sometimes they are regarded as two distinct languages. - The nobility use one form, Krama; the common people another, Ngoko, - the "thouing" language (cf. Fr. _tutoyant_, Ger. _dutzend_); but each - class understands the language of the other class. The aristocrat - speaks to the commonalty in the language of the commoner; the - commoner speaks to the aristocracy in the language of the aristocrat; - and, according to clearly recognized etiquette, every Javanese plays - the part of aristocrat or commoner towards those whom he addresses. To - speak Ngoko to a superior is to insult him; to speak Krama to an equal - or inferior is a mark of respect. In this way Dipa Negara showed his - contempt for the Dutch General de Kock. The ordinary Javanese thinks - in Ngoko; the children use it to each other, and so on. Between the - two forms there is a kind of compromise, the Madya, or middle form of - speech, employed by those who stand to each other on equal or friendly - footing or by those who feel little constraint of etiquette. For every - idea expressed in the language Krama has one vocable, the Ngoko - another, the two words being sometimes completely different and - sometimes differing only in the termination, the beginning or the - middle. Thus every Javanese uses, as it were, two or even three - languages delicately differentiated from each other. How this state of - affairs came about is matter of speculation. Almost certainly the - existence side by side of two peoples, speaking each its own tongue, - and occupying towards each other the position intellectually and - politically of superior and inferior, had much to do with it. But - Professor Kern thinks that some influence must also be assigned to - _pamela_ or _pantang_, word-taboo--certain words being in certain - circumstances regarded as of evil omen--a superstition still - lingering, e.g. even among the Shetland fishermen (see G. A. F. Hazeu, - _De taal pantangs_). It has sometimes been asserted that Krama - contains more Sanskrit words than Ngoko does; but the total number in - Krama does not exceed 20; and sometimes there is a Sanskrit word in - Ngoko which is not in Krama. There is a village Krama which is not - recognized by the educated classes: Krama inggil, with a vocabulary of - about 300 words, is used in addressing the deity or persons of exalted - rank. The Basa Kedaton or court language is a dialect used by all - living at court except royalties, who use Ngoko. Among themselves the - women of the court employ Krama or Madya, but they address the men in - Basa Kedaton.[13] - - _Literature._--Though a considerable body of Kavi literature is still - extant, nothing like a history of it is possible. The date and - authorship of most of the works are totally unknown. The first place - may be assigned to the _Brata Yuda_ (Sansk., _Bharata Yudha_, the - conflict of the Bharatas), an epic poem dealing with the struggle - between the Pandawas and the Korawas for the throne of Ngastina - celebrated in parwas 5-10 of the _Mahabharata_. To the conception, - however, of the modern Javanese it is a purely native poem; its kings - and heroes find their place in the native history and serve as - ancestors to their noble families. (Cohen Stuart published the modern - Javanese version with a Dutch translation and notes, _Brata-Joeda_, - &c., Samarang, 1877. The Kavi text was lithographed at the Hague by S. - Lankhout.) Of greater antiquity probably is the _Ardjuna Wiwaha_ (or - marriage festival of Ardjuna), which Professor Kern thinks may be - assigned to the first half of the 11th century of the Christian era. - The name indicates its _Mahabharata_ origin. (Friederich published the - Kavi text from a Bali MS., and _Wiwaha Djarwa en Brata Joedo Kawi_, - lithographed facsimiles of two palm-leaf MSS., Batavia, 1878. Djarwa - is the name of the poetic diction of modern Javanese.) The oldest poem - of which any trace is preserved is probably the mythological _Kanda_ - (i.e. tradition); the contents are to some extent known from the - modern Javanese version. In the literature of modern Javanese there - exists a great variety of so-called _babads_ or chronicles. It is - sufficient to mention the "history" of Baron Sakender, which appears - to give an account--often hardly recognizable--of the settlement of - Europeans in Java (Cohen Stuart published text and translation, - Batavia, 1851; J. Veth gives an analysis of the contents), and the - _Babad Tanah Djawi_ (the Hague, 1874, 1877), giving the history of the - island to 1647 of the Javanese era. Even more numerous are the - _wayangs_ or puppet-plays which usually take their subjects from the - Hindu legends or from those relating to the kingdoms of Majapahit and - Pajajaram (see e.g. H. C. Humme, _Abiasa, een Javaansche toneelstuk_, - the Hague, 1878). In these plays grotesque figures of gilded leather - are moved by the performer, who recites the appropriate speeches and, - as occasion demands, plays the part of chorus. - - Several Javanese specimens are also known of the beast fable, which - plays so important a part in Sanskrit literature (W. Palmer van den - Broek, _Javaansche Vertellingen, bevattende de lotgevallen van een - kantjil, een reebok_, &c., the Hague, 1878). To the Hindu-Javanese - literature there naturally succeeded a Mahommedan-Javanese literature - consisting largely of translations or imitations of Arabic originals; - it comprises religious romances, moral exhortations and mystical - treatises in great variety.[14] - - _Arts._--In mechanic arts the Javanese are in advance of the other - peoples of the archipelago. Of thirty different crafts practised among - them, the most important are those of the blacksmith or cutler, the - carpenter, the kris-sheath maker, the coppersmith, the goldsmith and - the potter. Their skill in the working of the metals is the more - noteworthy as they have to import the raw materials. The most esteemed - product of the blacksmith's skill is the kris; every man and boy above - the age of fourteen wears one at least as part of his ordinary dress, - and men of rank two and sometimes four. In the finishing and adornment - of the finer weapons no expense is spared; and ancient krises of good - workmanship sometimes fetch enormous prices. The Javanese gold and - silver work possesses considerable beauty, but there is nothing equal - to the filigree of Sumatra; the brass musical instruments are of - exceptional excellence. Both bricks and tiles are largely made, as - well as a coarse unglazed pottery similar to that of Hindustan; but - all the finer wares are imported from China. Cotton spinning, weaving - and dyeing are carried on for the most part as purely domestic - operations by the women. The usual mode of giving variety of colour is - by weaving in stripes with a succession of different coloured yarns, - but another mode is to cover with melted wax or damar the part of the - cloth not intended to receive the dye. This process is naturally a - slow one, and has to be repeated according to the number of colours - required. As a consequence the _battiks_, as the cloths thus treated - are called, are in request by the wealthier classes. For the most part - quiet colours are preferred. To the Javanese of the present day the - ancient buildings of the Hindu periods are the work of supernatural - power. Except when employed by his European master he seldom builds - anything more substantial than a bamboo or timber framework; but in - the details of such erections he exhibits both skill and taste. When - Europeans first came to the island they found native vessels of large - size well entitled to the name of ships; and, though ship-building - proper is now carried on only under the direction of Europeans, - boat-building is a very extensive native industry along the whole of - the north coast--the boats sometimes reaching a burden of 50 tons. The - only one of the higher arts which the Javanese have carried to any - degree of perfection is music; and in regard to the value of their - efforts in this direction Europeans differ greatly. The orchestra - (_gamelan_) consists of wind, string and percussion instruments, the - latter being in preponderancy to the other two. (Details of the - instruments will be found in Raffles' _Java_, and a description of a - performance in the _Tour du monde_, 1880.) - - _Chief Towns and Places of Note._--The capital of Java and of the - Dutch East India possessions is Batavia (q.v.), pop. 115,567. At - Meester Cornelis (pop. 33,119), between 6 and 7 m. from Batavia on the - railway to Buitenzorg, the battle was fought in 1811 which placed Java - in the hands of the British. In the vicinity lies Depok, originally a - Christian settlement of freed slaves, but now with about 3000 - Mahommedan inhabitants and only 500 Christians. The other chief towns, - from west to east through the island, are as follows: Serang (pop. - 5600) bears the same relation to Bantam, about 6 m. distant, which New - Batavia bears to Old Batavia, its slight elevation of 100 ft. above - the sea making it fitter for European occupation. Anjer (Angerlor, - Anger) lies 96 m. from Batavia by rail on the coast at the narrowest - part of the Sunda Strait; formerly European vessels were wont to call - there for fresh provisions and water. Pandeglang (pop. 3644), 787 ft. - above sea-level, is known for its hot and cold sulphur springs. About - 17 m. west of Batavia lies Tangerang (pop. 13,535), a busy place with - about 2800 or 3000 Chinese among its inhabitants. Buitenzorg (q.v.) is - the country-seat of the governor-general, and its botanic gardens are - famous. Krawang, formerly chief town of the residency of that - name--the least populous of all--has lost its importance since - Purwakerta (pop. 6862) was made the administrative centre. At Wanyasa - in the neighbourhood the first tea plantations were attempted on a - large scale. - - The Preanger regencies--Bandung, Chanjur, Sukabumi, Sumedang, Garut - and Tasikmalaya--constitute the most important of all the residencies, - though owing to their lack of harbour on the south and the intractable - nature of much of their soil they have not shared in the prosperity - enjoyed by many other parts of the island. Bandung, the chief town - since 1864, lies 2300 ft. above sea-level, 109 m. south of Batavia by - rail; it is a well-built and flourishing place (pop. 28,965; Europeans - 1522, Chinese 2650) with a handsome resident's house (1867), a large - mosque (1867), a school for the sons of native men of rank, the most - important quinine factory in the island, and a race-course where in - July a good opportunity is afforded of seeing both the life of - fashionable and official Java and the customs and costumes of the - common people. The district is famous for its waterfalls, one of the - most remarkable of which is where the Chi Tarum rushes through a - narrow gully to leap down from the Bandung plateau. In the - neighbourhood is the great military camp of Chimahi. Chanjur, formerly - the chief town, in spite of its loss of administrative position still - has a population of 13,599. From Sukabumi (pop. 12,112; 569 - Europeans), a pleasant health resort among the hills at an altitude of - 1965 ft., tourists are accustomed to visit Wijnkoopers Bay for the - sake of the picturesque shore scenery. Chichalengka became after 1870 - one of the centres of the coffee industry. Sumedang has only 8013 - inhabitants, having declined since the railway took away the highway - traffic: it is exceeded both by Garut (10,647) and by Tasikmalaya - (9196), but it is a beautiful place well known to sportsmen for its - proximity to the Rancha Ekek swamp, where great snipe-shooting matches - are held every year. For natural beauty few parts of Java can compare - with the plain of Tasikmalaya, itself remarkable, in a country of - trees, for its magnificent avenues. N.E. of the Preanger lies the - residency of Cheribon[15] (properly Chi Rebon, the shrimp river). The - chief town (pop. 24,564) is one of the most important places on the - north coast, though the unhealthiness of the site has caused Europeans - to settle at Tangkil, 2 m. distant. The church (1842), the regent's - residence, and the great prison are among the principal buildings; - there are also extensive salt warehouses. The native part of the town - is laid out more regularly than is usual, and the Chinese quarter - (pop. 3352) has the finest Chinese temple in Java. The palaces of the - old sultans of Cheribon are less extensive than those of Surakarta and - Jokjakarta. Though the harbour has to be kept open by constant - dredging the roadstead is good all the year round. A strange pleasure - palace of Sultan Supeh, often described by travellers, lies about 2 m. - off near Sunya Raja. Mundu, a village 4 m. south-east of Cheribon, is - remarkable as the only spot on the north coast of the island visited - by the ikan prut or belly-fish, a species about as large as a cod, - caught in thousands and salted by the local fishermen. Indramayu, - which lies on both banks of the Chi Manuk about 8 m. from the coast, - is mentioned under the name of Dermayo as a port for the rice of the - district and the coffee of the Preanger. The coffee trade is extinct - but the rice trade is more flourishing than ever, and the town has - 13,400 inhabitants, of whom 2200 are Chinese. It might have a great - commercial future if money could be found for the works necessary to - overcome the disadvantage of its position--the roads being safe only - during the east monsoon and the river requiring to be deepened and - regulated. Tegal has long been one of the chief towns of Java: - commerce, native trade and industry, and fisheries are all well - represented and the sugar factories give abundant employment to the - inhabitants. The harbour has been the object of various improvements - since 1871. The whole district is densely populated (3100 to the sq. - m.) and the town proper with its 16,665 inhabitants is surrounded by - extensive kampongs (Balapulang, Lebaksiu, &c.). In Pekalongan (pop. - 38,211) and Batang (21,286) the most important industry is the - production of battiks and stamped cloths; there are also iron-works - and sugar factories. The two towns are only some 5 m. apart. The - former has a large mosque, a Protestant church, an old fort and a - large number of European houses. The Chinese quarters consist of neat - stone or brick buildings. Pekalongan smoked ducks are well known. - Brebes (13,474) on the Pamali is an important trade centre. Banyumas - (5000) is the seat of a resident; it is exceeded by Purwokerto - (12,610), Purbalinggo (12,094) and Chilachap (12,000). This last - possesses the best harbour on the south coast, and but for malaria - would have been an important place. It was chosen as the seat of a - great military establishment but had to be abandoned, the fort being - blown up in 1893. Semarang (pop. 89,286, of whom 4800 are Europeans - and 12,372 Chinese) lies on the Kali Ngaran near the centre of the - north coast. Up to 1824 the old European town was surrounded by a wall - and ditch. It was almost the exact reproduction of a Dutch town - without the slightest accommodation to the exigencies of the climate, - the streets narrow and irregular. The modern town is well laid out. - Among the more noteworthy buildings of Semarang are the old Prince of - Orange fort, the resident's house, the Roman Catholic church, the - Protestant church, the mosque, the military hospital. A new impulse to - the growth of the town was given by the opening of the railway to - Surakarta and Jokjakarta in 1875. As a seaport the place is - unfortunately situated. The river has long been silted up; the - roadstead is insecure in the west monsoon. After many delays an - artificial canal, begun in 1858, became available as a substitute for - the river; but further works are necessary. A second great canal to - the east, begun in 1896, helps to prevent inundations and thus improve - the healthiness of the town. Demak, 13 m. N.E. of Semarang, though - situated in a wretched region of swamps and having only 5000 - inhabitants, is famous in ancient Javanese history. The mosque, - erected by the first sultan of Demak, was rebuilt in 1845; only a - small part of the old structure has been preserved, but as a sanctuary - it attracts 6000 or 7000 pilgrims annually. To visit Demak seven times - has the same ceremonial value as the pilgrimage to Mecca. The tombs of - several of the sultans are still extant. Salatiga ("three stones," - with allusion to three temples now destroyed) was in early times one - of the resting places of ambassadors proceeding to the court of - Mataram, and in the European history of Java its name is associated - with the peace of 1755 and the capitulation of 1811. It is the seat of - a cavalry and artillery camp. Its population, about 10,000, seems to - be declining. Ambarawa with its railway station is, on the other hand, - rapidly increasing. Its population of 14,745 includes 459 Europeans. - About a mile to the N. lies the fortress of Willem I. which Van den - Bosch meant to make the centre of the Javanese system of defensive - works; the Banyubiru military camp is in the neighbourhood. Kendal - (15,000) is a centre of the sugar industry. Kudus (31,000; 4300 - Chinese) has grown to be one of the most important inland towns. Its - cloth and battik pedlars are known throughout the island and the - success of their enterprise is evident in the style of their houses. A - good trade is also carried on in cattle, kapok, copra, pottery and all - sorts of small wares. The mosque in the old town has interesting - remains of Majapahit architecture; and the tomb of Pangeran Kudus is a - noted Mahommedan sanctuary. A steam tramway leads northward towards, - but does not reach Japara, which in the 17th century was the chief - port of the kingdom of Mataram and retained its commercial importance - till the Dutch Company removed its establishment to Semarang. In 1818 - Daendels transferred its resident to Pati. Ungaran, 1026 ft. above the - sea, was a place of importance as early as the 17th century, and in - modern times has become known as a sanatorium. Rembang, a well-built - coast town and the seat of a resident, has grown rapidly to have a - population of 29,538 with 210 Europeans. Very similar to each other - are Surakarta or Solo and Jokjakarta, the chief towns of the - quasi-independent states or Vorstenlanden. Surakarta (pop. 109,459; - Chinese 5159, Europeans 1913) contains the palace (Kraton, locally - called the Bata bumi) of the susuhunan (which the Dutch translated as - emperor), the dalem of Prince Mangku Negara, the residences of the - Solo nobles, a small Dutch fort (Vastenburg), a great mosque, an old - Dutch settlement, and a Protestant church. Here the susuhunan lives in - Oriental pomp and state. To visitors there are few more interesting - entertainments than those afforded by the celebration of the 31st of - August (the birthday of the queen of the Netherlands) or of the New - Year and the Puasa festivals, with their wayungs, ballet-dancers, and - so on. Jokjakarta (35 m. S.) has been a great city since Mangku Bumi - settled there in 1755. The Kraton has a circuit of 3(1/2) m., and is a - little town in itself with the palace proper, the residences of the - ladies of the court and kampongs for the hereditary smiths, - carpenters, sculptors, masons, payong-makers, musical instrument - makers, &c., &c., of his highness. The independent Prince Paku Alam - has a palace of his own. As in Surakarta there are an old Dutch town - and a fort. The Jogka market is one of the most important of all Java, - especially for jewelry. The total population is 72,235 with 1424 - Europeans. To the south-east lies Pasar Gedeh, a former capital of - Mataram, with tombs of the ancient princes in the Kraton, a favourite - residence of wealthy Javanese traders. Surabaya (q.v.), on the strait - of Madura, is the largest commercial town in Java. Its population - increased from 118,000 in 1890 to 146,944 in 1900 (8906 Europeans). To - the north lies Grissee or Gresih (25,688 inhabitants) with a fairly - good harbour and of special interest in the early European history of - Java. Inland is the considerable town of Lamongan (12,485 - inhabitants). Fifteen m. S. by rail lies Sidoarjo (10,207; 185 - Europeans), the centre of one of the most densely populated districts - and important as a railway junction. In the neighbourhood is the - populous village of Mojosari. Pasuruan was until modern times one of - the chief commercial towns in Java, the staple being sugar. Since the - opening of the railway to Surabaya it has greatly declined, and its - warehouses and dwelling-houses are largely deserted. The population is - 27,152 with 663 Europeans. Probolinggo (called by the natives Banger) - is a place of 13,240 inhabitants. The swampy tracts in the vicinity - are full of fishponds. The baths of Banyubiru (blue water) to the - south have Hindu remains much visited by devotees. Pasirian in the far - south of the residency is a considerable market town and the terminus - of a branch railway. Besuki, the easternmost of all the residencies, - contains several places of some importance; the chief town Bondowoso - (8289); Besuki, about the same size, but with no foreign trade; - Jember, a small but rapidly increasing place, and Banyuwangi (17,559). - This last was at one time the seat of the resident, now the eastern - terminus of the railway system, and is a seaport on the Bali Strait - with an important office of the telegraph company controlling - communication with Port Darwin and Singapore. It has a very mingled - population, besides Javanese and Madurese, Chinese and Arabs, - Balinese, Buginese and Europeans. The chief town of Kediri (10,489) is - the only residency town in the interior traversed by a navigable - river, and is exceeded by Tulungagung; and the residency of Madiun has - two considerable centres of population: Madiun (21,168) and Ponorogo - (16,765). - - _Agriculture._--About 40% of the soil of Java is under cultivation. - Bantam and Besuki have each 16% of land under cultivation; Krawang, - 21%; Preanger, 23%; Rembang, 30%; Japara, 62%; Surabaya, 65%; Kedu, - 66%; Samarang, 67%. Proceeding along the south coast from its west - end, we find that in Bantam all the land cultivated on its south shore - amounts to at most but 5% of that regency; in Preanger and Banyumas, - as far as Chilachap, the land under cultivation amounts at a maximum - to 20%. East of Surakarta the percentages of land on the south coast - under cultivation decline from 30 to 20 and 10. East of the residency - of Probolinggo the percentage of land cultivated on the south coast - sinks to as low as 2. On the north coast, in Krawang and Rembang, with - their morasses and double chains of chalk, there are districts with - only 20% and 10% of the soil under cultivation. In the residencies, on - the other hand, of Batavia, Cheribon, Tegal, Samarang, Japara, - Surabaya and Pasuruan, there are districts having 80% to 90% of soil, - and even more, under cultivation. - - The agricultural products of Java must be distinguished into those - raised by the natives for their own use and those raised for the - government and private proprietors. The land assigned to the natives - for their own culture and use amounts to about 9,625,000 acres. In - western Java the prevailing crop is rice, less prominently cultivated - in middle Java, while in eastern Java and Madura other articles of - food take the first rank. The Javanese tell strange legends concerning - the introduction of rice, and observe various ceremonies in connexion - with its planting, paying more regard to them than to the proper - cultivation of the cereal. The agricultural produce grown on the lands - of the government and private proprietors, comprising an area of about - 3(1/2) million acres, consists of sugar, cinchona, coffee, tobacco, - tea, indigo, &c. The Javanese possess buffaloes, ordinary cattle, - horses, dogs and cats. The buffalo was probably introduced by the - Hindus. As in agricultural products, so also in cattle-rearing, - western Java is distinguished from middle and eastern Java. The - average distribution of buffaloes is 106 per 1000 inhabitants, but it - varies considerably in different districts, being greatest in western - Java. The fact that rice is the prevailing culture in the west, while - in eastern Java other plants constitute the chief produce, explains - the larger number of buffaloes found in western Java, these animals - being more in requisition in the culture of rice. The ordinary cattle - are of mixed race; the Indian zebu having been crossed with the - banting and with European cattle of miscellaneous origin. The horses, - though small, are of excellent character, and their masters, according - to their own ideas, are extremely particular in regard to purity of - race. Riding comes naturally to the Javanese; horse-races and tournays - have been in vogue among them from early times. - - Coffee is an alien in Java. Specimens brought in 1696 from Cannanore - on the Malabar coast perished in an earthquake and floods in 1699; the - effective introduction of the precious shrub was due to Hendrik - Zwaardekron (see N. P. van den Berg, "Voortbrenging en verbruck van - koffie," _Tijdschrift v. Nijverh. en Landb._ 1879; and the article - "Koffie" in _Encyc. Ned. Ind._ Wiji kawih is mentioned in a Kavi - inscription of A.D. 856, and the bean-broth in David Tappen's list of - Javanese beverages, 1667-1682, may have been coffee). The first - consignment of coffee (894 lb.) to the Netherlands was made in - 1711-1712, but it was not till after 1721 that the yearly exports - reached any considerable amount. The aggregate quantity sold in the - home market from 1711 to 1791 was 2,036,437 piculs, or on an average - about 143 tons per annum; and this probably represented nearly the - whole production of the island. By the beginning of the 19th century - the annual production was about 7143 tons and after the introduction - of the Van den Bosch system of forced culture a further augmentation - was effected. The forced culture system was, in 1909, however, of - little importance. Official reports show that from 1840 to 1873 the - amount ranged from 5226 tons to 7354. During the ten years 1869 to - 1878 the average crop of the plantations under state control was 5226 - tons, that of the private planters about 810. The government has shown - a strange reluctance to surrender the old-fashioned monopoly, but the - spirit of private enterprise has slowly gained the day. Though the - appearance of the coffee blight (_Hemileia vastatrix_) almost ruined - the industry the planters did not give in. An immune variety was - introduced from Liberia, and scientific methods of treatment have been - adopted in dealing with the plantations. In 1887, a record year, the - value of the coffee crop reached L3,083,333, and at its average it was - about L1,750,000 between 1886 and 1895. The value was only L1,166,666 - in 1896. The greatest difficulties are the uncertainties both of the - crop and of its marketable value. The former is well shown in the - figures for 1903 to 1905; government 17,900, 3949 and 3511 tons, and - private planters 22,395, 15,311 and 21,395 tons. Liberia coffee is - still produced in much smaller quantity than Java coffee; the latter - on an average of these three years 21,360 tons; the former 7409. - - The cultivation of sugar has been long carried on in Java, and since - the decline of the coffee plantations it has developed into the - leading industry of the island. There are experimental stations at - Pasuruan, Pekalongan and elsewhere, where attempts are made to - overcome the many diseases to which the cane is subject. Many of the - mills are equipped with high-class machinery and produce sugar of - excellent colour and grain. In 1853-1857 the average crop was 98,094 - tons; in 1869-1873, 170,831, and in 1875-1880, 204,678. By 1899-1900 - the average had risen to 787,673 tons; and the crops for 1904 and 1905 - were respectively 1,064,935 and 1,028,357 tons. Prices fluctuate, but - the value of the harvest of 1905 was estimated at about L15,000,000. - - The cultivation of indigo shows a strange vitality. Under the culture - system the natives found this the most oppressive of all the state - crops. The modern chemist at one time seemed to have killed the - industry by his synthetic substitute, but in every year between 1899 - and 1904 Java exported between one million and one and a half million - pounds of the natural product. Japan and Russia were the largest - buyers. As blue is a favourite colour with the Javanese proper a large - quantity is used at home. - - Tea was first introduced to Java by the Japanese scholar von Siebold - in 1826. The culture was undertaken by the state in 1829 with plants - from China, but in 1842 they handed it over to contractors, whose - attempts to increase their profits by delivering an inferior article - ultimately led to the abandonment of the contract system in 1860. In - the meantime the basis of a better state of the industry had been laid - by the Dutch tea-taster J. J. L. L. Jacobsen of the Nederlandsch - Handel Maatschappij, who introduced not only fresh stock, but expert - growers from China in 1852-1853. The tea-planters (often taking - possession of the abandoned coffee-plantations) have greatly improved - the quality of their products. Assam tea was introduced in 1878, and - this has rapidly extended its area. The exports increased from - 12,110,724 lb. in 1898 to 25,772,564 in 1905. More than half the total - goes to the Netherlands; the United Kingdom ranks next, and, far - behind both, Russia. - - In 1854 the government introduced the culture of cinchona with free - labour, and it had considerable success under F. Junghuhn and his - successors, though the varieties grown were of inferior quality. Later - seed of the best cinchona was obtained, and under skilful management - Java has become the chief producer of quinine in the world. Cacao is - produced in the Preanger regencies, Pekalongan, Semarang, Pasuruan, - Besuki, Kediri and Surakarta. In 1903, a record year, 1,101,835 piculs - (about 6540 tons) were produced. _Broussonetia papyrifera_ is grown - for the sake of its bark, so well known in Japan (Jap. _kodsu_) as a - paper material. The ground-nut (the widely spread _Arachis hypogaea_ - from South America), locally known as kachang china or tanah, is - somewhat extensively grown. The oil is exported to Holland, where it - is sold as Delft salad oil. Tapioca has long been cultivated, - especially in the Preanger. The industry is mainly in the hands of the - Chinese, and the principal foreign purchasers are English biscuit - manufacturers. The kapok is a tree from tropical America which, - growing freely in any soil, is extensively used throughout Java along - the highways as a support for telegraph and telephone wires, and - planted as a prop in pepper and cubeb plantations. The silky fibre - contained in its long capsuloid fruits is known as cotton wool; and - among other uses it serves almost as well as cork for filling - life-belts; and the oil from its seed is employed to adulterate - ground-nut oil. The quantity of wool exported nearly trebled between - 1890 and 1896, in the latter year the total sent to Holland, - Australia, Singapore, &c., amounting to 38,586 bales. The rapid - exhaustion of the natural supply of india-rubber and gutta-percha - began to attract the attention of government in the latter decades of - the 19th century. Extensive experiments have been made in the - cultivation of _Ficus elastica_ (the karet of the natives), _Castilloa - elastica_, and _Hevea brasiliensis_. The planting of gutta-percha - trees was begun about 1886, and a regular system introduced in the - Preanger in 1901. The _Palaquium oblongifolium_ plantations at Blavan, - Kemutuk and Sewang in Banyumas have also been brought under official - control. Java tobacco, amounting to about 35,200,000 lb. a year, is - cultivated almost exclusively in eastern Java. Among other products - which are of some importance as articles of export may be mentioned - nutmegs, mace, pepper, hides, arrack and copra. - - _Particular Lands._--At different times down to 1830 the government - disposed of its lands in full property to individuals who, acquiring - complete control of the inhabitants as well as of the soil, continued - down to the 19th century to act as if they were independent of all - superior authority. In this way more than 1(1/2) millions of the people - were subject not to the state but to "stock companies, absentee - landlords and Chinese." According to the _Regeerings Almanak_ (1906) - these "particular lands," as they are called, were distributed as - follows: Bantam 21, Batavia 36, Meester Cornelis 163, Tangerang 80, - Buitenzorg 61, Semarang 32, Surabaya 46, Krawang and Demak 3 each, - Cheribon 2, and Pekalongan, Kendal and Pasuruan 1 each. In Meester - Cornelis no fewer than 297,912 persons were returned in 1905 as living - on these lands. Of the 168 estates there are not 20 that grow anything - but grass, rice and coconuts. In Buitenzorg (thanks probably to the - Botanic Gardens) matters are better: tea, coffee, cinchona and - india-rubber appearing amongst the objects of cultivation; and, in - general, it must be noted that these estates have often natural - difficulties to contend against far beyond their financial strength. - - _Minerals._--Of all the great islands of the archipelago Java is the - poorest in metallic ores. Gold and silver are practically nonexistent. - Manganese is found in Jokjakarta and various other parts. A concession - for working the magnetic iron sands in the neighbourhood of Chilachap - was granted in 1904. Coal occurs in thin strata and small pockets in - many parts (Bantam, Rembang, Jokjakarta, &c.); and in 1905 a - concession was granted to a company to work the coal-beds at Bajah - close to the harbour of Wijnkoopers Bay, a port of call of the - Koninklijk Paketvaart Maatschappij. The discovery by De Groot in 1863 - of petroleum added a most important industry to the list of the - resources of Java. The great Dort Petroleum Company, now centred at - Amsterdam, was founded in 1887. The production of this company alone - rose from 79,179 _kisten_ or cases (each 8.14 gall.) in 1891 to - 1,642,780 in 1890, and to 1,967,124 in 1905. In 1904 there were no - fewer than 36 concessions for petroleum. At the same time there is a - larger importation of oil from Sumatra as well as from America and - Russia. Sulphur is regularly worked in the Gunong Slamet, G. Sindoro, - G. Sumbing, and in the crater of the Tangkuban Prahu as well as in - other places in the Preanger regencies and in Pasuruan. Brine-wells - exist in various parts. The bledegs (salt-mud wells) of Grobogan in - the Solo Valley, Semarang, are best known. They rise from Miocene - strata and yield iodine and bromine products as well as common salt. - The natives of the district are allowed to extract the salt for their - own use, but elsewhere (except in Jokjakarta) the manufacture of salt - is a government monopoly and confined to the districts of Sumenep, - Panekasan and Sampang in Madura, where from 3000 to 4000 people are - hereditarily engaged in extracting salt from sea water, delivering it - to the government at the rate of 10 fl. (nearly 17s.) per koyang (3700 - lb.). The distribution of this salt (rough-grained, greyish and highly - hygroscopic) is extremely unsatisfactory. The waste was so great that - in 1901 the government paid a prize of about L835 (10,000 fl.) to Karl - Boltz von Bolzberg for an improved method of packing. Between 1888 and - 1892 the annual amount delivered was 71,405 tons; in the next five - years it rose to 89,932; and between 1898 and 1902 sank again to - 88,856. The evil effects of this monopoly have been investigated by J. - E. de Meyer, "Zout als middel van belasting," _De Ind. Gids._ (1905). - The scarcity of salt has led to a great importation of salted fish - from Siam (upwards of 6600 tons in 1902). - - _Communications._--Roads and railways for the most part follow the - fertile plains and table-lands along the coast and between the - volcanic areas. The principal railways are the Semarang-Jokjakarta and - Batavia-Buitenzorg lines of the Netherlands-Indian railway company, - and the Surabaya-Pasuruan, Bangil-Mulang, Sidoarjo-Paron, - Kertosono-Tulung Agung, Buitenzorg-Chianjur, Surakarta-Madiun, - Pasuruan-Probolinggo, Jokjakarta-Chilachap and other lines of the - government. The earliest lines, between Batavia and Buitenzorg and - between Semarang and the capitals of the sultanates, were built about - 1870 by a private company with a state guarantee. Since 1875, when Dr - van Goltstein, then a cabinet minister and afterwards Dutch minister - in London, had an act passed for the construction of state railways in - Java, their progress has become much more rapid. In addition, several - private companies have built either light railways or tramways, such - as that between Semarang and Joana, and the total length of all lines - was 2460 in 1905. There are some 3500 miles of telegraph line, and - cables connect Java with Madura, Bali and Sumatra, and Port Darwin in - Australia. Material welfare was promoted by the establishment of lines - of steamships between Java and the other islands, all belonging to a - Royal Packet Company, established in 1888 under a special statute, and - virtually possessing a monopoly on account of the government mail - contracts. - - _Administration._--Each village (dessa) forms an independent - community, a group of dessas forms a district, a group of districts a - department and a group of departments a residency, of which there are - seventeen. At the head of each residency is a resident, with an - assistant resident and a controller, all Dutch officials. The - officials of the departments and districts are natives appointed by - the government; those of the dessa are also natives, elected by the - inhabitants and approved by the resident. In the two sultanates of - Surakarta and Jokjakarta the native sultans govern under the - supervision of the residents. (For the colonial administration of - Netherlands India see MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.) - -_History._--The origin of the name Java is very doubtful. It is not -improbable that it was first applied either to Sumatra or to what was -known of the Indian Archipelago--the insular character of the several -parts not being at once recognized. Jawa Dwipa, or "land of millet," may -have been the original form and have given rise both to the Jaba diu of -Ptolemy and to the Je-pho-thi of Fahien, the Chinese pilgrim of the -4th-5th century. The oldest form of the name in Arabic is apparently -Zabej. The first epigraphic occurrence of Jawa is in an inscription of -1343. In Marco Polo the name is the common appellation of all the Sunda -islands. The Jawa of Ibn Batuta is Sumatra; Java is his Mul Jawa (i.e. -possibly "original Java"). Jawa is the modern Javanese name (in the -court speech Jawi), sometimes with Nusa, "island," or Tanah, "country," -prefixed. - -It is impossible to extract a rational historical narrative from the -earlier _babads_ or native chronicles, and even the later are destitute -of any satisfactory chronology. The first great era in the history is -the ascendancy of the Hindus, and that breaks up into three periods--a -period of Buddhism, a period of aggressive Sivaism, and a period of -apparent compromise. Of the various Hindu states that were established -in the island, that of Majapahit was the most widely dominant down to -the end of the 15th century; its tributaries were many, and it even -extended its sway into other parts of the archipelago. The second era of -Javanese history is the invasion of Islam in the beginning of the 15th -century; and the third is the establishment of European and more -particularly of Dutch influence and authority in the island. About 1520 -the Portuguese entered into commercial relationship with the natives, -but at the close of the same century the Dutch began to establish -themselves. At the time when the Dutch East India company began to fix -its trading factories on the coast towns, the chief native state was -Mataram, which had in the 16th century succeeded to the overlordship -possessed by the house of Demak--one of the states that rose after the -fall of Majapahit. The emperors of Java, as the princes of Mataram are -called in the early accounts, had their capital at Kartasura, now an -almost deserted place, 6 m. west of Surakarta. At first and for long the -company had only forts and little fragments of territory at Jakatra -(Batavia), &c.; but in 1705 it obtained definite possession of the -Preanger by treaty with Mataram; and in 1745 its authority was extended -over the whole north-east coast, from Cheribon to Banyuwangi. In 1755 -the kingdom of Mataram was divided into the two states of Surakarta and -Jokjakarta, which still retain a shadow of independence. The kingdom of -Bantam was finally subjugated in 1808. By the English occupation of the -island (1811-1818) the European ascendancy was rather strengthened than -weakened; the great Java war (1825-1830), in which Dipa Negara, the last -Javanese prince, a clever, bold and unscrupulous leader, struggled to -maintain his claim to the whole island, resulted in the complete success -of the Dutch. To subdue him and his following, however, taxed all the -resources of the Dutch Indian army for a period of five years, and cost -it the loss of 15,000 officers and soldiers, besides millions of -guilders. Nor did his great influence die with him when his adventurous -career came to a close in 1855 at Macassar. Many Javanese, who dream of -a restoration of their ancient empire, do not believe even yet that Dipa -Negara is dead. They are readily persuaded by fanatical hadjis that -their hero will suddenly appear to drive away the Dutch and claim his -rightful heritage. Several times there have been political troubles in -the native states of central Java, in which Dipa Negara's name was used, -notably in 1883, when many rebellious chieftains were exiled. Similar -attempts at revolt had been made before, mainly in 1865 and 1870, but -none so serious perhaps as that in 1849, in which a son and a brother of -Dipa Negara were implicated, aiming to deliver and reinstate him. All -such attempts proved as futile there as others in different parts of -Java, especially in Bantam, where the trouble of 1850 and 1888 had a -religious origin, and in the end they directly contributed to the -consolidation of Dutch sway. Being the principal Dutch colony in the -Malay Archipelago, Java was the first to benefit from the material -change which resulted from the introduction of the Grondwet or -Fundamental Law of 1848 in Holland. The main changes were of an -economical character, but the political developments were also -important. Since 1850 Dutch authority has steadily advanced, principally -at the expense of the semi-independent sultanates in central Java, which -had been allowed to remain after the capture and exile of Dipa Negara. -The power of the sultans of Jokjakarta and Surakarta has diminished; in -1863 Dutch authority was strengthened in the neighbouring island of -Madura, and Bantam has lost every vestige of independence. The -strengthening of the Dutch power has largely resulted from a more -statesmanlike and more generous treatment of the natives, who have been -educated to regard the _orang blanda_, or white man, as their protector -against the native rulers. Thus, in 1866, passports for natives -travelling in Java were abolished by the then governor-general, Dr Sloet -van de Beele, who also introduced many reforms, reducing the _corvee_ in -the government plantations to a minimum, and doing away with the -monopoly of fisheries. Six years later a primary education system for -the natives, and a penal code, whose liberal provisions seemed framed -for Europeans, were introduced. - - _Antiquities._--Ordinary traces of early human occupation are few in - Java. The native bamboo buildings speedily perish. Stone weapons are - occasionally found. But remains of the temples and monastic buildings - of the Hindu period are numerous and splendid, and are remarkable as - representing architecture which reached a high standard without the - use of mortar, supporting columns or arches. Chandis (i.e. temples, - though the word originally meant a depository for the ashes of a - saint) are not found in western Java. They exist in two great zones: - one in middle Java, one in eastern Java, each with its own - distinguishing characteristics, both architectural and religious. The - former begins in the Dyeng plateau, in the east of Banyumas, and - extends into the east of Bagelen, Kedu and the neighbouring districts - of Semarang, northern Jokjakarta, and the western corner of Surakarta. - The latter lies mainly in Surabaya, Kediri and Pasuruan. A - considerable number of ruins also exist in Probolinggo. Farther east - they grow scarce. There is none in Madura. The remains of Macham Putih - in Banyuwangi are possibly of non-Hindu origin. In the regency of - Kendal (Semarang), to the north of Kedu, the place-names show that - temples once existed.[16] Some of them are Sivaite, some Buddhist, - some astoundingly composite. None of the Buddhist buildings shows - traces of the older Himaryana form of the creed. The greatest of all - is a perfect sculptural exposition of the Mahayana doctrine. As to the - period during which these temples were erected, authorities are not - agreed. Ijzerman assigns the central Java groups to between the 8th - and the 10th centuries. The seven-storeyed vihara (monastery) - mentioned in the famous Menang-Kabu inscription (Sumatra) as founded - by Maharaja Dhiraya Adityadharma in A.D. 656 is by some supposed to be - Boro-Budur. A copper plate of 840 refers to Dyeng (Dehyang) as one of - the sacred mountains of Java. One thing seems certain, that the - temples of the eastern zone are of much more recent origin than most, - at least, of the central zone. They are generally distinguished by the - characteristics of a decadent and more voluptuous age, and show that - the art of the time had become less Indian and more Javanese, with - traces of influences derived from the more eastern East. At the same - time it must be noted that even in Boro Budur there are non-Indian - elements in the decoration, indicating that the Hindu architect - employed native artists and to some extent left them a free hand. - - In his standard work on _Indian and Eastern Architecture_ (London, - 1876), James Fergusson asserted that the Javanese temples are in the - Chalukyan style. But J. W. Ijzerman in an elaborate paper in the - _Album-Kern_ contends that the learned historian of architecture was - misled by basing his opinion mainly on inaccurate drawings reproduced - by Raffles. The Javanese temples, with the solitary exception of - Chandi Bima in the Dyeng, are Dravidian and not Chalukyan. The very - temples quoted by Fergusson, when more carefully examined, disprove - his statement: a fact not without its bearing on the history of the - Hindu immigration. - - The wonderful scenery of the Dyeng plateau was already, in all - probability, an object of superstitious awe to the aboriginal - inhabitants of Java; and thus it would catch the attention of the - earliest Hindu settlers. The old crater floor is full of traces of - human occupation; though, in spite of the tradition of the existence - of a considerable town, no sepulchral relics of the inhabitants have - been discovered. There still remain five groups of temples--some well - preserved, some mere heaps of stone--to prove the devotion their - builders bore to Siva, his consort Durga, and Ganesha their son. The - Arjuno group, in the middle of the plateau, consists of Chandi Arjuno - (with its chapel or priests' residence, Ch. Semar), Ch. Srikahdi, Ch. - Puntadeva and Ch. Sembadro, each a simple square chamber with a - portico reached by a flight of steps. The second group, Ch. Daravati - and Ch. Parakesit, lies to the north-east. The third, now a ruined - mound, lies to the east. The fourth, to the north-west, is a group of - seven small temples of which Ch. Sanchaki is the most important, with - a square ground plan and an octagon roof with a second circular - storey. Of the fifth group, in the south, only one temple remains--the - Chandi Bima--a small, beautiful and exceptionally interesting - building, in "the form of a pyramid, the ribs of which stand out much - more prominently than the horizontal lines of the niche-shaped - ornaments which rest each on its lotus cushion." How this happens to - be the one Chalukyan temple amid hundreds is a problem to be solved. - The plateau lies 6500 ft. above the sea, and roads and stairways, - locally known as Buddha roads, lead up from the lowlands of Bagelen - and Pekalongan. The stairway between Lake Menjur and Lake Chebong - alone consisted of 4700 steps. The width of the roadway, however, is - only some three or four feet. A remarkable subterranean tunnel still - exists, which served to drain the plateau. - - Of all the Hindu temples of Java the largest and most magnificent is - Boro-Budur, which ranks among the architectural marvels of the world. - It lies in the residency of Kedu, a little to the west of the Progo, a - considerable stream flowing south to the Indian Ocean. The place is - best reached by taking the steam-tram from Magelang or Jokjakarta to - the village of Muntilam Passar, where a conveyance may be hired. - Strictly speaking, Boro-Budur is not a temple but a hill, rising about - 150 ft. above the plain, encased with imposing terraces constructed of - hewn lava-blocks and crowded with sculptures. The lowest terrace now - above ground forms a square, each side 497 ft. long. About 50 ft. - higher there is another terrace of similar shape. Then follow four - other terraces of more irregular contour. The structure is crowned by - a dome or cupola 52 ft. in diameter surrounded by sixteen smaller - bell-shaped cupolas. Regarded as a whole, the main design, to quote Mr - Sewell, may be described as "an archaic Indian temple, considerably - flattened and consisting of a series of terraces, surmounted by a - quasi-stupa capped by a dagoba." It was discovered by the engineer J. - W. Ijzerman in 1885 that the basement of the structure had been - earthed up before the building was finished, and that the lowest - retaining wall was completely concealed by the embankment. The - architects had evidently found that their temple was threatened with a - destructive subsidence; and, while the sculptors were still busy with - the decoration of the lower facades, they had to abandon their work. - But the unfinished bas-reliefs were carefully protected by clay and - blocks of stone and left in position; and since 1896 they are - gradually but systematically being exhumed and photographed by the - Dutch archaeologists, who, however, have to proceed with caution, - filling up one portion of the embankment before they go on to deal - with another. The subjects treated in this lowest enceinte are of the - most varied description, forming a picture-gallery of landscapes, - scenes of outdoor and domestic life, mingled with mythological and - religious designs. Among the genre class appear men shooting birds - with blow-pipe or bow and arrow, fishermen with rod or net, a man - playing a bagpipe, and so on. It would seem as if the architect had - intended gradually to wean the devotees from the things of this world. - When once they began to ascend from stage to stage of the temple-hill - they were introduced to the realities of religion; and by the time - they reached the dagoba they had passed through a process of - instruction and were ready, with enlightened eyes, to enter and behold - the image of Buddha, symbolically left imperfect, as beyond the power - of human art to realize or portray. From basement to summit the whole - hill is a great picture bible of the Mahayana creed. - - If the statues and bas-reliefs of Boro-Budur were placed side by side - they would extend for 3 m. The eye of the spectator, looking up from - the present ground-level, is caught, says Mr Sewell, by the rows of - life-size Buddhas that adorn the retaining walls of the several - terraces and the cage-like shrines on the circular platforms. All the - great figures on the east side represent Akshobhya, the Dhyani Buddha - of the East. His right hand is in the Chumisparsa mudra (pose) - touching the earth in front of the right knee--"I swear by the earth." - All the statues on the south side are Ratnasam Chavu in the varada - mudra--the right hand displayed upwards--"I give you all." On the west - side the statues represent Amitabha in the dhyana or padinasama mudra, - the right hand resting palm upwards on the left, both being on the - lap--the attitude of meditation. Those on the north represent - Amogasiddhi in the abhaya mudra, the right hand being raised and - displayed, palm outwards--"Fear not, all is well." - - Other remarkable groups of Hindu temples exist near the village of - Prambanan[17] (less correctly Brambanan) in Surakarta, but not far - from the borders of Jokjakarta, with a station on the railway between - the two chief towns. The village has been named after the temples, - Prambanan signifying the place of teachers. The whole ecclesiastical - settlement was surrounded by three lines of wall, of which only the - inmost is now visible above ground. Between the second and third walls - are 157 small temples, and in the central enclosure are the ruins of - six larger temples in a double row with two smaller ones at the side. - The middle temple of the western row is the main building, full of - statues of purely Sivaite character--Siva as Guru or teacher, Siva as - Kala or Time the Destroyer, Durga, Ganesha, and so on. But, just as - many churches in Christendom are called not after the Christ but after - the Virgin, so this is known as Lara (i.e. Virgin) Janggrang from the - popular name of Durga. In the southern temple of the row is a very - fine figure of a four-armed Brahma; in the northern there was a Vishnu - with attendant figures. Of the other row the middle temple is again - the largest, with Siva, his nandi or bull, and other symbolic - sculptures. To the north lies the extraordinary cluster of temples - which, though it does not deserve its popular name of Chandi Sewu, the - thousand shrines, consists of at least 240 small buildings gathered - round a great central temple, richly adorned, though roofless and - partially ruined since the earthquake of 1867. Among the more - noteworthy figures are those of the huge and ungainly guardians of the - temple kneeling at the four main gateways of each of the principal - buildings. Colonel Yule pointed out that there are distinct traces of - a fine coat of stucco on the exterior and the interior of the - buildings, and he compared in this respect "the cave walls of Ellora, - the great idols at Bamian, and the Doric order at Selinus." Other - temples in the same neighbourhood as Chandi Sewu are Ch. Lumbung, Ch. - Kali Bening (Baneng), with a monstrous Kala head as the centre of the - design on the southern side, Ch. Kalong and Ch. Plaosan. Tradition - assigns these temples to 1266-1296. - - Of the temples of the eastern zone the best known is Chandi Jago (or - Tumpang), elaborately described in the Archaeological Commission's - monograph. According to the _Pararaton_, a native chronicle (published - in the _Verhand. v. h. Bat. Gen. v. K. en W._, 1896), it belongs to - the 13th century, containing the tomb of Rangavuni or Vishnuvardhana, - who died in 1272-1273. The shrine proper occupies the third of three - platforms, the lowest of which forms a square of 45 to 46 ft. each - side. The building fronts the west, and is constructed of an andesitic - tuff of inferior quality and dark colour. Of distinctly Buddhistic - influence there is no trace. The makara (elephant-fish head) is - notably absent. The sculptures which run round the base and along the - sides of the platforms or terraces are of the most elaborate and - varied description--kings on thrones, dwarfs, elephants, supernatural - beings, diabolical and grotesque, tree-monsters, palaces, temples, - courtyards, lakes, gardens, forests--all are represented. In one place - appears a Chinese--or Burmese-looking seven-roofed pagoda; in another, - a tall temple strangely split down the centre, with a flight of steps - running up the fissure. The inscriptions are in the Devanagari - character. In the same neighbourhood are Ch. Singossari, Ch. Kidal, - &c. Another of the most beautiful of the eastern temples is Ch. - Jabung, mentioned in 1330. It is built of red brick; and its - distinctly Javanese origin is suggested by the frequency of the - snake-motif still characteristic of modern Javanese art. It may be - added that a comparison of the several buildings of the zone affords - an interesting study in the development of the pilaster as a - decorative rather than structural element. - - At Panabaram, near Blitar, Kediri, is another group of stone temples - and other buildings. The chief temple is remarkable for the richness - of its sculptures, which are peculiarly delicate and spirited in their - details. The decoration of the mere robes of one of the free-standing - stairway-guardians consists of scroll-work, interspersed with birds - and animals rendered in a non-Indian style, reminiscent of Chinese or - Japanese work. It has been described as one of the most beautiful - pieces of sculpture in all the East. - - Sculptures from the temples are scattered far and wide throughout - Java, and it is one of the greatest difficulties of the archaeologist - to determine the origin of many of the most interesting specimens. - This, too, is often the case with those that have found their way to - the museums of Java and Europe (Batavia, Leiden, Haarlem, Berlin, - &c.). Minor relics of the past are to be found alike in the palaces of - the nobles and the huts of the highland peasants. Zodiac cups of - copper or bronze dating from the 12th or 13th century are in daily use - among the Tenggerese. The musical instruments used by the musicians of - the native courts are often prized on account of their great - antiquity. - - As many of the Chinese came from China centuries ago and have not - ceased to hold intercourse with their native country, the houses of - the wealthier men among them are often rich in ancient specimens of - Chinese art. The special exhibition organized by Henri Borel and other - enthusiasts showed how much of value in this matter might be brought - together in spite of the reluctance of the owners to commit the - sacrilege of exposing to public gaze the images of their ancestral - gods and heroes. Borel has given exquisite examples of images of - Kwan-yin (the Chinese Virgin-Goddess), of Buddhas, of the ghoulish god - of literature, of Lie-tai-Peh (the Chinese poet who has gone to live - in the planet Venus), &c., in illustration of his papers in _L'Art - flamand et hollandais_, pt. v. (1900), a translation of his monograph - published at Batavia. - - AUTHORITIES.--Besides the special works quoted _passim_, see Sir - Stamford Raffles, _History of Java_ (London, 1830); F. Junghuhn, - _Java: seine Gestalt, Pflanzendecke, und innere Bauart_ (Ger. trans. - by J. K. Hasskarl, Leipzig, 1854-1857); P. J. Veth, _Java, - Geographisch, ethnologisch, historisch_ (2nd ed., Haarlem, 1896-1903), - a masterly compendium originally based largely on Junghuhn's - descriptions; L. van Deventer, _Geschiedenis der Nederlanders op Java_ - (2nd ed., Haarlem, 1895); L. W. C. van den Berg, _Le Hadhramout et les - colonies arabes dans l'archipel indien_ (Batavia, 1886); E. R. - Scidmore, _Java, the Garden of the East_ (New York, 1898); J. - Chailley-Bert, _Java et ses habitants_ (Paris, 1900); C. Day, _The - Policy and Administration of the Dutch in Java_ (London, 1904); E. S. - de Klerck, _De Java-Oorlog van_ 1825-1830 (Batavia, 1905); - _Encyclopaedie v. N. Indie_, art. "Java;" _Guide a travers - l'Exposition de Paris_ (The Hague, 1900), with articles by specialists - on each department of the Dutch colonies, more particularly Java; - _Koloniale Verslagen en Regeerings-almanak van N. Indie_, being - official publications of the Dutch and Dutch East-Indian Government - (see also MALAY ARCHIPELAGO). (H. A. W.; O. J. R. H.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] It must be observed that Bavian, &c., are mere conventional - appendices to Java. - - [2] H. B. Guppy (_R. S. G. Soc. Magazine_, 1889) holds that there is - no sufficient proof of this connexion but gives interesting details - of the present movement. - - [3] See G. F. Tijdeman's map of the depths of the sea in the eastern - part of the Indian archipelago in M. Weber's _Siboga Expedition_, - 1903. The details of the coast forms of the island have been studied - by J. F. Snelleman and J. F. Niermeyer in a paper in the Veth - _Feestbundel_, utilizing _inter alia_ Guppy's observations. - - [4] This Merapi must be carefully distinguished from Merapi the Fire - Mountain of Sumatra. - - [5] R. D. M. Verbeek and R. Fennema, _Description geologique de Java - et Madoura_ (2 vols. and atlas, Amsterdam, 1896; also published in - Dutch)--a summary with map was published by Verbeek in _Peterm. - Mitt._ xliv. (1898), 24-33, pl. 3. Also K. Martin, _Die Eintheilung - der versteinerungsfuhrenden Sedimente von Java_, Samml. Geol. - Reichsmus. Leiden, ser. i., vol. vi. (1899-1902), 135-245. - - [6] On the 16th of November the sun rises at 5.32 and sets at 5.57; - on the 16th of July it rises at 6.12 and sets at 5.57. The longest - day is in December and the shortest in June, while on the other hand - the sun is highest in February and October and lowest in June and - December. - - [7] S. Figei. _Regenwaarnemingen in Nederlandsch Indie_ (1902). - - [8] See J. C. Konigsberger, "De vogels Java en hunne oeconomische - betukenis," _Med. int. s. Lands Plantentuin_. - - [9] See especially M. Weber, _Siboga Expedition_. - - [10] The _Annales de Buitenzorg_, with their _Icones bogorienses_, - are universally known; the _Teysmannia_ is named after a former - director. A history of the gardens was published by Dr Treub, - _Festboek van's Lands Plantentuin_ (1891). - - [11] Bertha Hoola van Nooten published _Fleurs, fruits et feuillages - de la flore et de la pomone de l'ile de Java_ in 1863, but the book - is difficult of access. Excellent views of characteristic aspects of - the vegetation will be found in Karsten and Schenck, - _Vegetationsbilder_ (1903). - - [12] It is interesting to compare this with the natural - "reflorization" of Krakatoa. See Penzig, _Ann. jard. de Buitenzorg_, - vol. viii. (1902); and W. Botting in _Nature_ (1903). - - [13] See Walbreken, _De Taalsvorten in het Javaansh_; and G. A. - Wilken, _Handboek voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch - Indie_, edited by C. M. Pleyte (1893). - - [14] See Van den Berg's account of the MSS. of the Batavian Society - (the Hague, 1877); and a series of papers by C. Poensen in _Meded. - van wege het Ned. Zendelinggenootschap_ (1880). - - [15] Cheribon is the form employed by the Dutch: an exception to - their usual system, in which Tj- takes the place of the Ch- used in - this article. - - [16] See R. Verbeek, "Liget der oudheden van Java," in _Verhand. v. - h. Bat. Gen._, xlvi., and his _Oudheidkundige kaart van Java_. R. - Sewell's "Antiquarian notes in Java," in _Journal of the Royal - Asiatic Society_ (1906), give the best conspectus available for - English readers. W. B. Worsfold, _A Visit to Java_ (London, 1893), - has a good sketch of what was then known, revised by Professor W. - Rhys Davids; but whoever wishes full information must refer to Dutch - authorities. These are numerous but difficult of access. - - [17] The chief authorities on Prambanan are J. W. Ijzerman, - _Beschrijving der oudheden nabij de Grens der residenties Soerakarta - en Djogjakarta_ (Batavia, 1891, with photographs and atlas); and J. - Groneman, _Tjandi Parambanan op Midden Java_; see also _Guide a - travers l'exposition des Pays-Bas_ (The Hague, 1900), No. 174, sqq. - - - - -JAVELIN, a spear, particularly one light enough to be thrown, a dart. -The javelin was often provided with a thong to help in casting (see -SPEAR). Javelin-throwing is one of the contests in the athletic section -at the international Olympic games. Formerly the sheriff of a county or -borough had a body of men armed with javelins, and known as javelin-men, -who acted as a bodyguard for the judges when they went on assize. Their -duties are now performed by the ordinary police. The word itself is an -adaptation of Fr. _javeline_. There are several words in Celtic and -Scandinavian languages and in Old English, meaning a spear or dart, that -seem to be connected with _javel_, the base form in French; thus Welsh -_gaflach_, Irish _gabhla_, O. Norwegian _gaflok_, O. E. _gafeluc_, later -in the form _gavelock_, cf. O. Norman-Fr. _gavelot_, _javelot_, Ital. -_giavelotto_. The origin seems to be Celtic, and the word is cognate -with Ir. _gafa_, a hook, fork, gaff; the root is seen in "gable" (q.v.), -and in the German _Gabel_, fork. The change in meaning from fork, forked -end of a spear, to the spear itself is obscure. - - - - -JAW (Mid. Eng. _jawe_, _jowe_ and _geowe_, O. Eng. _cheowan_, connected -with "chaw" and "chew," and in form with "jowl"), in anatomy, the term -for the upper maxillary bone, and the mandible or lower maxillary bone -of the skull; it is sometimes loosely applied to all the lower front -parts of the skull (q.v.). - - - - -JAWALIQI, ABU MANSUR MAUHUB UL-JAWALIQI (1073-1145), Arabian grammarian, -was born at Bagdad, where he studied philology under Tibrizi and became -famous for his handwriting. In his later years he acted as imam to the -caliph Moqtafi. His chief work is the _Kitab ul-Mu'arrab_, or -"Explanation of Foreign Words used in Arabic." - - The text was edited from an incomplete manuscript by E. Sachau - (Leipzig, 1867). Many of the lacunae in this have been supplied from - another manuscript by W. Spitta in the _Journal of the German Oriental - Society_, xxxiii. 208 sqq. Another work, written as a supplement to - the _Durrat ul-Ghawwas_ of Hariri (q.v.), has been published as "Le - Livre des locutions vicieuses," by H. Derenbourg in _Morgenlandische - Forschungen_ (Leipzig, 1875), pp. 107-166. (G. W. T.) - - - - -JAWHAR, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of Bombay, -situated among the lower ranges of the western Ghats. Area 310 sq. m. -Pop. (1901), 47,538. The estimated revenue is L11,000; there is no -tribute. The chief, who is a Koli by caste, traces back his descent to -1343. The leading exports are teak and rice. The principal village is -that of Jawhar (pop. 3567). - - - - -JAWOROW, a town in Galicia, Austria, 30 m. W. of Lemberg. Pop. (1900), -10,090. It has a pottery, a brewery, a distillery and some trade in -agricultural produce. Not far from it is the watering-place of Szkto -with sulphur springs. The town was a favourite residence of John -Sobieski, who there received the congratulations of the pope and the -Venetian republic on his success against the Turks at Vienna (1683). At -Jaworow Peter the Great was betrothed to Catherine I. - - - - -JAY, JOHN (1745-1829), American statesman, the descendant of a Huguenot -family, and son of Peter Jay, a successful New York merchant, was born -in New York City on the 12th of December 1745. On graduating at King's -College (now Columbia University) in 1764, Jay entered the office of -Benjamin Kissam, an eminent New York lawyer. In 1768 he was admitted to -the bar, and rapidly acquired a lucrative practice. In 1774 he married -Sarah, youngest daughter of William Livingston, and was thus brought -into close relations with one of the most influential families in New -York. Like many other able young lawyers, Jay took an active part in the -proceedings that resulted in the independence of the United States, -identifying himself with the conservative element in the Whig or patriot -party. He was sent as a delegate from New York City to the Continental -Congress at Philadelphia in September 1774, and though almost the -youngest member, was entrusted with drawing up the address to the people -of Great Britain. Of the second congress, also, which met at -Philadelphia on the 10th of May 1775, Jay was a member; and on its -behalf he prepared an address to the people of Canada and an address to -the people of Jamaica and Ireland. In April 1776, while still retaining -his seat in the Continental Congress, Jay was chosen as a member of the -third provincial congress of New York; and his consequent absence from -Philadelphia deprived him of the honour of affixing his signature to the -Declaration of Independence. As a member of the fourth provincial -congress he drafted a resolution by which the delegates of New York in -the Continental Congress were authorized to sign the Declaration of -Independence. In 1777 he was chairman of the committee of the convention -which drafted the first New York state constitution. After acting for -some time as one of the council of safety (which administered the state -government until the new constitution came into effect), he was made -chief justice of New York state, in September 1777. A clause in the -state constitution prohibited any justice of the Supreme Court from -holding any other post save that of delegate to Congress on a "special -occasion," but in November 1778 the legislature pronounced the -secession of what is now the state of Vermont from the jurisdiction of -New Hampshire and New York to be such an occasion, and sent Jay to -Congress charged with the duty of securing a settlement of the -territorial claims of his state. He took his seat in congress on the 7th -of December, and on the 10th was chosen president in succession to Henry -Laurens. - -On the 27th of September 1779 Jay was appointed minister plenipotentiary -to negotiate a treaty between Spain and the United States. He was -instructed to endeavour to bring Spain into the treaty already existing -between France and the United States by a guarantee that Spain should -have the Floridas in case of a successful issue of the war against Great -Britain, reserving, however, to the United States the free navigation of -the Mississippi. He was also to solicit a subsidy in consideration of -the guarantee, and a loan of five million dollars. His task was one of -extreme difficulty. Although Spain had joined France in the war against -Great Britain, she feared to imperil her own colonial interests by -directly encouraging and aiding the former British colonies in their -revolt against their mother country, and she had refused to recognize -the United States as an independent power. Jay landed at Cadiz on the -22nd of January 1780, but was told that he could not be received in a -formally diplomatic character. In May the king's minister, Count de -Florida Bianca, intimated to him that the one obstacle to a treaty was -the question of the free navigation of the Mississippi, and for months -following this interview the policy of the court was clearly one of -delay. In February 1781 Congress instructed Jay that he might make -concessions regarding the navigation of the Mississippi, if necessary; -but further delays were interposed, the news of the surrender of -Yorktown arrived, and Jay decided that any sacrifice to obtain a treaty -was no longer advisable. His efforts to procure a loan were not much -more successful, and he was seriously embarrassed by the action of -Congress in drawing bills upon him for large sums. Although by -importuning the Spanish minister, and by pledging his personal -responsibility, Jay was able to meet some of the bills, he was at last -forced to protest others; and the credit of the United States was saved -only by a timely subsidy from France. - -In 1781 Jay was commissioned to act with Franklin, John Adams, Jefferson -and Henry Laurens in negotiating a peace with Great Britain. He arrived -in Paris on the 23rd of June 1782, and jointly with Franklin had -proceeded far with the negotiations when Adams arrived late in October. -The instructions of the American negotiators were as follows:-- - - "You are to make the most candid and confidential communications upon - all subjects to the ministers of our generous ally, the king of - France; to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce - without their knowledge and concurrence; and ultimately to govern - yourselves by their advice and opinion, endeavouring in your whole - conduct to make them sensible how much we rely on his majesty's - influence for effectual support in every thing that may be necessary - to the present security, or future prosperity, of the United States of - America." - -Jay, however, in a letter written to the president of Congress from -Spain, had expressed in strong terms his disapproval of such dependence -upon France, and, on arriving in Paris, he demanded that Great Britain -should treat with his country on an equal footing by first recognizing -its independence, although the French minister, Count de Vergennes, -contended that an acknowledgment of independence as an effect of the -treaty was as much as could reasonably be expected. Finally, owing -largely to Jay, who suspected the good faith of France, the American -negotiators decided to treat independently with Great Britain. The -provisional articles, which were so favourable to the United States as -to be a great surprise to the courts of France and Spain, were signed on -the 30th of November 1782, and were adopted with no important change as -the final treaty on the 3rd of September 1783. - -On the 24th of July 1784 Jay landed in New York, where he was presented -with the freedom of the city and elected a delegate to Congress. On the -7th of May Congress had already chosen him to be secretary for foreign -affairs, and in December Jay resigned his seat in Congress and accepted -the secretaryship. He continued to act in this capacity until 1790, when -Jefferson became secretary of state under the new constitution. In the -question of this constitution Jay had taken a keen interest, and as an -advocate of its ratification he wrote over the name "Publius," five -(Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 64) of the famous series of papers known -collectively as the _Federalist_ (see HAMILTON, ALEXANDER). He published -anonymously (though without succeeding in concealing the authorship) _An -Address to the People of New York_, in vindication of the constitution; -and in the state convention at Poughkeepsie he ably seconded Hamilton in -securing its ratification by New York. In making his first appointments -to federal offices President Washington asked Jay to take his choice; -Jay chose that of chief justice of the Supreme Court, and held this -position from September 1789 to June 1795. The most famous case that -came before him was that of _Chisolm_ v. _Georgia_, in which the -question was, Can a state be sued by a citizen of another state? Georgia -argued that it could not be so sued, on the ground that it was a -sovereign state, but Jay decided against Georgia, on the ground that -sovereignty in America resided with the people. This decision led to the -adoption of the eleventh amendment to the federal constitution, which -provides that no suit may be brought in the federal courts against any -state by a citizen of another state or by a citizen or subject of any -foreign state. In 1792 Jay consented to stand for the governorship of -New York State, but a partisan returning-board found the returns of -three counties technically defective, and though Jay had received an -actual majority of votes, his opponent, George Clinton, was declared -elected. - -Ever since the War of Independence there had been friction between Great -Britain and the United States. To the grievances of the United States, -consisting principally of Great Britain's refusal to withdraw its troops -from the forts on the north-western frontier, as was required by the -peace treaty of 1783, her refusal to make compensation for negroes -carried away by the British army at the close of the War of Independence, -her restrictions on American commerce, and her refusal to enter into any -commercial treaty with the United States, were added, after war broke out -between France and Great Britain in 1793, the anti-neutral naval policy -according to which British naval vessels were authorized to search -American merchantmen and impress American seamen, provisions were treated -as contraband of war, and American vessels were seized for no other -reason than that they had on board goods which were the property of the -enemy or were bound for a port which though not actually blockaded was -declared to be blockaded. The anti-British feeling in the House of -Representatives became so strong that on the 7th of April 1794 a -resolution was introduced to prohibit commercial intercourse between the -United States and Great Britain until the north-western posts should be -evacuated and Great Britain's anti-neutral naval policy should be -abandoned. Thereupon Washington, fearing that war might result, appointed -Jay minister extraordinary to Great Britain to negotiate a new treaty, -and the Senate confirmed the appointment by a vote of 18 to 8, although -the non-intercourse resolution which came from the house a few days later -was defeated in the senate only by the casting vote of Vice-President -John Adams. Jay landed at Falmouth in June 1794, signed a treaty with -Lord Grenville on the 19th of November, and disembarked again at New York -on the 28th of May 1795. The treaty, known in history as Jay's Treaty, -provided that the north-western posts should be evacuated by the 1st of -June 1796, that commissioners should be appointed to settle the -north-east and the north-west boundaries, and that the British claims for -British debts as well as the American claims for compensation for illegal -seizures should be referred to commissioners. More than one-half of the -clauses in the treaty related to commerce, and although they contained -rather small concessions to the United States, they were about as much as -could reasonably have been expected in the circumstances. One clause, the -operation of which was limited to two years from the close of the -existing war, provided that American vessels not exceeding 70 tons burden -might trade with the West Indies, but should carry only American -products there and take away to American ports only West Indian products; -moreover, the United States was to export in American vessels no -molasses, sugar, coffee, cocoa or cotton to any part of the world. Jay -consented to this prohibition under the impression that the articles -named were peculiarly the products of the West Indies, not being aware -that cotton was rapidly becoming an important export from the southern -states. The operation of the other commercial clauses was limited to -twelve years. By them the United States was granted limited privileges of -trade with the British East Indies; some provisions were made for -reciprocal freedom of trade between the United States and the British -dominions in Europe; some articles were specified under the head of -"contraband of war"; it was agreed that whenever provisions were seized -as contraband they should be paid for, and that in cases of the capture -of a vessel carrying contraband goods such goods only and not the whole -cargo should be seized; it was also agreed that no vessel should be -seized merely because it was bound for a blockaded port, unless it -attempted to enter the port after receiving notice of the blockade. The -treaty was laid before the Senate on the 8th of June 1795, and, with the -exception of the clause relating to trade with the West Indies, was -ratified on the 24th by a vote of 20 to 10. As yet the public was -ignorant of its contents, and although the Senate had enjoined secrecy on -its members even after the treaty had been ratified, Senator Mason of -Virginia gave out a copy for publication only a few days later. The -Republican party, strongly sympathizing with France and strongly -disliking Great Britain, had been opposed to Jay's mission, and had -denounced Jay as a traitor and guillotined him in effigy when they heard -that he was actually negotiating. The publication of the treaty only -added to their fury. They filled newspapers with articles denouncing it, -wrote virulent pamphlets against it, and burned Jay in effigy. The -British flag was insulted. Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting in New -York while speaking in defence of the treaty, and Washington was grossly -abused for signing it. In the House of Representatives the Republicans -endeavoured to prevent the execution of the treaty by refusing the -necessary appropriations, and a vote (29th of April, 1795) on a -resolution that it ought to be carried into effect stood 49 to 49; but on -the next day the opposition was defeated by a vote of 51 to 48. Once in -operation, the treaty grew in favour. Two days before landing on his -return from the English mission, Jay had been elected governor of New -York state; notwithstanding his temporary unpopularity, he was re-elected -in April 1798. With the close of this second term of office in 1801, he -ended his public career. Although not yet fifty-seven years old, he -refused all offers of office and retiring to his estate near Bedford in -Westchester county, N.Y., spent the rest of his life in rarely -interrupted seclusion. In politics he was throughout inclined toward -Conservatism, and after the rise of parties under the federal government -he stood with Alexander Hamilton and John Adams as one of the foremost -leaders of the Federalist party, as opposed to the Republicans or -Democratic-Republicans. From 1821 until 1828 he was president of the -American Bible Society. He died on the 17th of May 1829. The purity and -integrity of his life are commemorated in a sentence by Daniel Webster: -"When the spotless ermine of the judicial robe fell on John Jay, it -touched nothing less spotless than itself." - - See _The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay_ (4 vols., New - York, 1890-1893), edited by H. P. Johnston; William Jay, _Life of John - Jay with Selections from his Correspondence and Miscellaneous Papers_ - (2 vols., New York, 1833); William Whitelocke, _Life and Times of John - Jay_ (New York, 1887); and George Pellew, _John Jay_ (Boston, 1890), - in the "American Statesmen Series." - -John Jay's son, WILLIAM JAY (1789-1858), was born in New York City on -the 16th of June 1789, graduated from Yale in 1807, and soon afterwards -assumed the management of his father's large estate in Westchester -county, N.Y. He was actively interested in peace, temperance and -anti-slavery movements. He took a prominent part in 1816 in founding -the American Bible Society; was a judge of Westchester county from 1818 -to 1843, when he was removed from office by the party in power in New -York, which hoped, by sacrificing an anti-slavery judge, to gain -additional strength in the southern states; joined the American -anti-slavery society in 1834, and held several important offices in this -organization. In 1840, however, when it began to advocate measures which -he deemed too radical, he withdrew his membership, but with his pen he -continued his labours on behalf of the slave, urging emancipation in the -district of Columbia and the exclusion of slavery from the Territories, -though deprecating any attempt to interfere with slavery in the states. -He was a member of the American peace society and was its president for -several years. His pamphlet, _War and Peace: the Evils of the First with -a Plan for Securing the Last_, advocating international arbitration, was -published by the English Peace Society in 1842, and is said to have -contributed to the promulgation, by the powers signing the Treaty of -Paris in 1856, of a protocol expressing the wish that nations, before -resorting to arms, should have recourse to the good offices of a -friendly power. Among William Jay's other writings, the most important -are _The Life of John Jay_ (2 vols., 1833) and a _Review of the Causes -and Consequences of the Mexican War_ (1849). He died at Bedford on the -14th of October 1858. - - See Bayard Tuckerman, _William Jay and the Constitutional Movement for - the Abolition of Slavery_ (New York, 1893). - -William Jay's son, JOHN JAY (1817-1894), also took an active part in the -anti-slavery movement. He was a prominent member of the free soil party, -and was one of the organizers of the Republican party in New York. He -was United States minister to Austria-Hungary in 1869-1875, and was a -member, and for a time president, of the New York civil service -commission appointed by Governor Cleveland in 1883. - - - - -JAY, WILLIAM (1769-1853), English Nonconformist divine, was born at -Tisbury in Wiltshire on the 6th of May 1769. He adopted his father's -trade of stone-mason, but gave it up in 1785 in order to enter the Rev. -Cornelius Winter's school at Marlborough. During the three years that -Jay spent there, his preaching powers were rapidly developed. Before he -was twenty-one he had preached nearly a thousand times, and in 1788 he -had for a while occupied Rowland Hill's pulpit in London. Wishing to -continue his reading he accepted the humble pastorate of Christian -Malford, near Chippenham, where he remained about two years. After one -year at Hope chapel, Clifton, he was called to the ministry of Argyle -Independent chapel in Bath; and on the 30th of January 1791 he began the -work of his life there, attracting hearers of every religious -denomination and of every rank, and winning for himself a wide -reputation as a brilliant pulpit orator, an earnest religious author, -and a friendly counsellor. Sheridan declared him to be the most manly -orator he had ever heard. A long and honourable connexion of sixty-two -years came to an end in January 1853, and he died on the 27th of -December following. - - The best-known of Jay's works are his _Morning and Evening Exercises_: - _The Christian contemplated_: _The Domestic Minister's Assistant_; and - his _Discourses_. He also wrote a _Life of Rev. Cornelius Winter_, and - _Memoirs of Rev. John Clarke_. An edition of Jay's _Works_ in 12 - vols., 8vo, revised by himself, was issued in 1842-1844, and again in - 1856. A new edition, in 8 vols., 8vo, was published in 1876. See - _Autobiography_ (1854); S. Wilson's _Memoir of Jay_ (1854); S. Newth - in _Pulpit Memorials_ (1878). - - - - -JAY (Fr. _geai_), a well-known and very beautiful European bird, the -_Corvus glandarius_ of Linnaeus, the _Garrulus glandarius_ of modern -ornithologists. To this species are more or less closely allied numerous -birds inhabiting the Palaearctic and Indian regions, as well as the -greater part of America, but not occurring in the Antilles, in the -southern portion of the Neotropical Region, or in the Ethiopian or -Australian. All these birds are commonly called jays, and form a group -of the crows or _Corvidae_, which may fairly be considered a sub-family, -_Garrulinae_. Indeed there are, or have been, systematists who would -elevate the jays to the rank of a family _Garrulidae_--a proceeding -which seems unnecessary. Some of them have an unquestionable -resemblance to the pies, if the group now known by that name can be -satisfactorily severed from the true _Corvinae_. In structure the jays -are not readily differentiated from the pies; but in habit they are much -more arboreal, delighting in thick coverts, seldom appearing in the -open, and seeking their food on or under trees. They seem also never to -walk or run when on the ground, but always to hop. The body-feathers are -commonly loose and soft; and, gaily coloured as are most of the species, -in few of them has the plumage the metallic glossiness it generally -presents in the pies, while the proverbial beauty of the "jay's wing" is -due to the vivid tints of blue--turquoise and cobalt, heightened by bars -of jet-black, an indication of the same style of ornament being -observable in the greater number of the other forms of the group, and in -some predominating over nearly the whole surface. Of the many genera -that have been proposed by ornithologists, perhaps about nine may be -deemed sufficiently well established. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1--European Jay.] - -The ordinary European jay, _Garrulus glandarius_ (fig. 1), has suffered -so much persecution in the British Islands as to have become in many -districts a rare bird. In Ireland it seems now to be indigenous to the -southern half of the island only; in England generally, it is far less -numerous than formerly; and in Scotland its numbers have decreased with -still greater rapidity. There is little doubt that it would have been -exterminated but for its stock being supplied in autumn by immigration, -and for its shy and wary behaviour, especially at the breeding-season, -when it becomes almost wholly mute, and thereby often escapes detection. -No truthful man, however much he may love the bird, will gainsay the -depredations on fruit and eggs that it at times commits; but the -gardeners and gamekeepers of Britain, instead of taking a few simple -steps to guard their charge from injury, deliberately adopt methods of -wholesale destruction--methods that in the case of this species are only -too easy and too effectual--by proffering temptation to trespass which -it is not in jay-nature to resist, and accordingly the bird runs great -chance of total extirpation. Notwithstanding the war carried on against -the jay, its varied cries and active gesticulations show it to be a -sprightly bird, and at a distance that renders its beauty-spots -invisible, it is yet rendered conspicuous by its cinnamon-coloured body -and pure white tail-coverts, which contrast with the deep black and rich -chestnut that otherwise mark its plumage, and even the young at once -assume a dress closely resembling that of the adult. The nest, generally -concealed in a leafy tree or bush, is carefully built, with a lining -formed of fine roots neatly interwoven. Herein from four to seven eggs, -of a greenish-white closely freckled, so as to seem suffused with light -olive, are laid in March or April, and the young on quitting it -accompany their parents for some weeks. - -Though the common jay of Europe inhabits nearly the whole of this -quarter of the globe south of 64 deg. N. lat., its territory in the east -of Russia is also occupied by _G. brandti_, a kindred form, which -replaces it on the other side of the Ural, and ranges thence across -Siberia to Japan; and again on the lower Danube and thence to -Constantinople the nearly allied _G. krynicki_ (which alone is found in -southern Russia, Caucasia and Asia Minor) shares its haunts with it.[1] -It also crosses the Mediterranean to Algeria and Morocco; but there, as -in southern Spain, it is probably but a winter immigrant. The three -forms just named have the widest range of any of the genus. Next to them -come _G. atricapillus_, reaching from Syria to Baluchistan, _G. -japonicus_, the ordinary jay of southern Japan, and _G. sinensis_, the -Chinese bird. Other forms have a much more limited area, as _G. -cervicalis_, the local and resident jay of Algeria, _G. hyrcanus_, found -on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, and _G. taevanus_, confined -to the island of Formosa. The most aberrant of the true jays is _G. -lidthi_, a very rare species, which seems to come from some part of -Japan (_vide_ Salvadori, _Atti Accad. Torino_, vii. 474), though its -exact locality is not known. - -Leaving the true jays of the genus _Garrulus_, it is expedient next to -consider those of a group named, in 1831, _Perisoreus_ by Prince C. L. -Bonaparte (_Saggio_, &c., _Anim. Vertebrati_, p. 43) and _Dysornithia_ -by Swainson (_F. B.-Americana_, ii. 495).[2] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--American Blue Jay.] - -This group contains two species--one the Lanius infaustus of Linnaeus -and the Siberian jay of English writers, which ranges throughout the -pine-forests of the north of Europe and Asia, and the second the _Corvus -canadensis_ of the same author, or Canada jay, occupying a similar -station in America. The so-called Siberian jay is one of the most -entertaining birds in the world. Its versatile cries and actions, as -seen and heard by those who penetrate the solitude of the northern -forests it inhabits, can never be forgotten by one who has had -experience of them, any more than the pleasing sight of its -rust-coloured tail, which an occasional gleam of sunshine will light up -into a brilliancy quite unexpected by those who have only surveyed the -bird's otherwise gloomy appearance in the glass-case of a museum. It -seems scarcely to know fear, obtruding itself on the notice of any -traveller who invades its haunts, and, should he halt, making itself at -once a denizen of his bivouac. In confinement it speedily becomes -friendly, but suitable food for it is not easily found. Linnaeus seems -to have been under a misapprehension when he applied to it the trivial -epithet it bears; for by none of his countrymen is it deemed an unlucky -bird, but rather the reverse. In fact, no one can listen to the cheery -sound of its ordinary calls with any but a hopeful feeling. The Canada -jay, or "whisky-jack" (the corruption probably of a Cree name), seems to -be of a similar nature, but it presents a still more sombre coloration, -its nestling plumage,[3] indeed, being thoroughly corvine in appearance -and suggestive of its being a pristine form. - -As though to make amends for the dull plumage of the species last -mentioned, North America offers some of the most brilliantly coloured -of the sub-family, and the common blue jay[4] of Canada and the eastern -states of the Union, _Cyanurus cristatus_ (fig. 2), is one of the most -conspicuous birds of the Transatlantic woods. The account of its habits -by Alexander Wilson is known to every student of ornithology, and -Wilson's followers have had little to do but supplement his history with -unimportant details. In this bird and its many allied forms, coloration, -though almost confined to various tints of blue, seems to reach its -climax, but want of space forbids more particular notice of them, or of -the members of the other genera _Cyanocitta_, _Cyanocorax_, _Xanthura_, -_Psilorhinus_, and more, which inhabit various parts of the Western -continent. It remains, however, to mention the genus Cissa, including -many beautiful forms belonging to the Indian region, and among them the -_C. speciosa_ and _C. sinensis_, so often represented in Oriental -drawings, though doubts may be expressed whether these birds are not -more nearly related to the pies than to the jays. (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Further information will possibly show that these districts are - not occupied at the same season of the year by the two forms. - - [2] Recent writers have preferred the former name, though it was only - used sub-generically by its author, who assigned to it no characters, - which the inventor of the latter was careful to do, regarding it at - the same time as a genus. - - [3] In this it was described and figured (_F. B. Americana_, ii. 296, - pl. 55) as a distinct species, _G. brachyrhynchus_. - - [4] The birds known as blue jays in India and Africa are rollers - (q.v.). - - - - -JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. _jalousie_, formed from _jaloux_, jealous, -Low Lat. _zelosus_, Gr. [Greek: zelos], ardour, zeal, from the root seen -in [Greek: zeein], to boil, ferment; cf. "yeast"), originally a -condition of zealous emulation, and hence, in the usual modern sense, of -resentment at being (or believing that one is or may be) supplanted or -preferred in the love or affection of another, or in the enjoyment of -some good regarded as properly one's own. Jealousy is really a form of -envy, but implies a feeling of personal claim which in envy or -covetousness is wanting. The jealousy of God, as in Exod. xx. 5, "For I, -the Lord thy God, am a jealous God," has been defined by Pusey (_Minor -Prophets_, 1860) as the attribute "whereby he does not endure the love -of his creatures to be transferred from him." "Jealous," by etymology, -is however, only another form of "zealous," and the identity is -exemplified by such expressions as "I have been very jealous for the -Lord God of Hosts" (1 Kings xix. 10). A kind of glass, thick, ribbed and -non-transparent, was formerly known as "jealous-glass," and this -application is seen in the borrowed French word _jalousie_, a blind or -shutter, made of slats of wood, which slope in such a way as to admit -air and a certain amount of light, while excluding rain and sun and -inspection from without. - - - - -JEAN D'ARRAS, a 15th-century _trouvere_, about whose personal history -nothing is known, was the collaborator with Antoine du Val and Fouquart -de Cambrai in the authorship of a collection of stories entitled -_Evangiles de quenouille_. They purport to record the narratives of a -group of ladies at their spinning, who relate the current theories on a -great variety of subjects. The work dates from the middle of the 15th -century and is of considerable value for the light it throws on medieval -manners. - - There were many editions of this book in the 15th and 16th centuries, - one of which was printed by Wynkyn de Worde in English, as _The - Gospelles of Dystaves_. A modern edition (Collection Jannet) has a - preface by Anatole France. - -Another _trouvere_, JEAN D'ARRAS who flourished in the second half of -the 14th century, wrote, at the request of John, duke of Berry, a long -prose romance entitled _Chronique de la princesse_. It relates with many -digressions the antecedents and life of the fairy Melusine (q.v.). - - - - -JEAN DE MEUN, or DE MEUNG (c. 1250-c. 1305), whose original name was -Jean Clopinel or Chopinel, was born at Meun-sur-Loire. Tradition asserts -that he studied at the university of Paris. At any rate he was, like his -contemporary, Rutebeuf, a defender of Guillaume de Saint-Amour and a -bitter critic of the mendicant orders. Most of his life seems to have -been spent in Paris, where he possessed, in the Rue Saint-Jacques, a -house with a tower, court and garden, which was described in 1305 as the -house of the late Jean de Meung, and was then bestowed by a certain Adam -d'Andely on the Dominicans. Jean de Meun says that in his youth he -composed songs that were sung in every public place and school in -France. In the enumeration of his own works he places first his -continuation of the _Roman de la rose_ of Guillaume de Lorris (q.v.). -The date of this second part is generally fixed between 1268 and 1285 -by a reference in the poem to the death of Manfred and Conradin, -executed (1268) by order of Charles of Anjou (d. 1285) who is described -as the present king of Sicily. M. F. Guillon (_Jean Clopinel_, 1903), -however, considering the poem primarily as a political satire, places it -in the last five years of the 13th century. Jean de Meun doubtless -edited the work of his predecessor, Guillaume de Lorris, before using it -as the starting-point of his own vast poem, running to 19,000 lines. The -continuation of Jean de Meun is a satire on the monastic orders, on -celibacy, on the nobility, the papal see, the excessive pretensions of -royalty, and especially on women and marriage. Guillaume had been the -servant of love, and the exponent of the laws of "courtoisie"; Jean de -Meun added an "art of love," exposing with brutality the vices of women, -their arts of deception, and the means by which men may outwit them. -Jean de Meun embodied the mocking, sceptical spirit of the _fabliaux_. -He did not share in current superstitions, he had no respect for -established institutions, and he scorned the conventions of feudalism -and romance. His poem shows in the highest degree, in spite of the -looseness of its plan, the faculty of keen observation, of lucid -reasoning and exposition, and it entitles him to be considered the -greatest of French medieval poets. He handled the French language with -an ease and precision unknown to his predecessors, and the length of his -poem was no bar to its popularity in the 13th and 14th centuries. Part -of its vogue was no doubt due to the fact that the author, who had -mastered practically all the scientific and literary knowledge of his -contemporaries in France, had found room in his poem for a great amount -of useful information and for numerous citations from classical authors. -The book was attacked by Guillaume de Degulleville in his _Pelerinage de -la vie humaine_ (c. 1330), long a favourite work both in England and -France; by John Gerson, and by Christine de Pisan in her _Epitre au dieu -d'amour_; but it also found energetic defenders. - - Jean de Meun translated in 1284 the treatise, _De re militari_, of - Vegetius into French as _Le livre de Vegece de l'art de chevalerie_[1] - (ed. Ulysse Robert, _Soc. des anciens textes fr._, 1897). He also - produced a spirited version, the first in French, of the letters of - Abelard and Heloise. A 14th-century MS. of this translation in the - Bibliotheque Nationale has annotations by Petrarch. His translation of - the _De consolatione philosophiae_ of Boetius is preceded by a letter - to Philip IV. in which he enumerates his earlier works, two of which - are lost--_De spirituelle amitie_ from the _De spirituali amicitia_ of - Aelred of Rievaulx (d. 1166), and the _Livre des merveilles - d'Hirlande_ from the _Topographia Hibernica_, or _De Mirabilibus - Hiberniae_ of Giraldus Cambrensis (Giraud de Barry). His last poems - are doubtless his _Testament_ and _Codicille_. The _Testament_ is - written in quatrains in monorime, and contains advice to the different - classes of the community. - - See also Paulin Paris in _Hist. lit. de la France_, xxviii. 391-439, - and E. Langlois in _Hist. de la langue et de la lit. francaise_, ed. - L. Petit de Julleville, ii. 125-161 (1896); and editions of the _Roman - de la rose_ (q.v.). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Jean de Meun's translation formed the basis of a rhymed version - (1290) by Jean Priorat of Besancon, _Li abreyance de l'ordre de - chevalerie_. - - - - -JEANNETTE, a borough of Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about -27 m. E. by S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 3296; (1900), 5865 (1340 -foreign-born); (1910), 8077. It is served by the Pennsylvania railroad, -and is connected with Pittsburg and Uniontown by electric railway. It is -supplied with natural gas and is primarily a manufacturing centre, its -principal manufactures being glass, table-ware and rubber goods. -Jeannette was founded in 1888, and was incorporated as a borough in -1889. - - - - -JEANNIN, PIERRE (1540-1622), French statesman, was born at Autun. A -pupil of the great jurist Jacques Cujas at Bourges, he was an advocate -at Dijon in 1569 and became councillor and then president of the -_parlement_ of Burgundy. He opposed in vain the massacre of St -Bartholomew in his province. As councillor to the duke of Mayenne he -sought to reconcile him with Henry IV. After the victory of -Fontaine-Francaise (1595), Henry took Jeannin into his council and in -1602 named him intendant of finances. He took part in the principal -events of the reign, negotiated the treaty of Lyons with the duke of -Savoy (see HENRY IV.), and the defensive alliance between France and -the United Netherlands in 1608. As superintendent of finances under -Louis XIII., he tried to establish harmony between the king and the -queen-mother. - - See Berger de Xivrey, _Lettres missives de Henri IV._ (in the - _Collection inedite pour l'histoire de France_), t. v. (1850); - P(ierre) S(aumaise), _Eloge sur la vie de Pierre Janin_ (Dijon, 1623); - Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, t. x. (May 1854). - - - - -JEBB, JOHN (1736-1786), English divine, was educated at Cambridge, where -he was elected fellow of Peterhouse in 1761, having previously been -second wrangler. He was a man of independent judgment and warmly -supported the movement of 1771 for abolishing university and clerical -subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles. In his lectures on the Greek -Testament he is said to have expressed Socinian views. In 1775 he -resigned his Suffolk church livings, and two years afterwards graduated -M.D. at St Andrews. He practised medicine in London and was elected -F.R.S. in 1779. - -Another JOHN JEBB (1775-1833), bishop of Limerick, is best known as the -author of _Sacred Literature_ (London, 1820). - - - - -JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE (1841-1905), English classical scholar, -was born at Dundee on the 27th of August 1841. His father was a -well-known barrister, and his grandfather a judge. He was educated at -Charterhouse and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He won the Porson and -Craven scholarships, was senior classic in 1862, and became fellow and -tutor of his college in 1863. From 1869 to 1875 he was public orator of -the university; professor of Greek at Glasgow from 1875 to 1889, and at -Cambridge from 1889 till his death on the 9th of December 1905. In 1891 -he was elected member of parliament for Cambridge University; he was -knighted in 1900. Jebb was acknowledged to be one of the most brilliant -classical scholars of his time, a humanist in the best sense, and his -powers of translation from and into the classical languages were -unrivalled. A collected volume, _Translations into Greek and Latin_, -appeared in 1873 (ed. 1909). He was the recipient of many honorary -degrees from European and American universities, and in 1905 was made a -member of the Order of Merit. He married in 1874 the widow of General A. -J. Slemmer, of the United States army, who survived him. - - Jebb was the author of numerous publications, of which the following - are the most important: The _Characters_ of Theophrastus (1870), text, - introduction, English translation and commentary (re-edited by J. E. - Sandys, 1909); _The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeus_ (2nd ed., - 1893), with companion volume, _Selections from the Attic Orators_ (2nd - ed., 1888); _Bentley_ (1882); _Sophocles_ (3rd ed., 1893) the seven - plays, text, English translation and notes, the promised edition of - the fragments being prevented by his death; _Bacchylides_ (1905), - text, translation, and notes; _Homer_ (3rd ed., 1888), an introduction - to the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_; _Modern Greece_ (1901); _The Growth and - Influence of Classical Greek Poetry_ (1893). His translation of the - _Rhetoric_ of Aristotle was published posthumously under the - editorship of J. E. Sandys (1909). A selection from his _Essays and - Addresses_, and a subsequent volume, _Life and Letters of Sir Richard - Claverhouse Jebb_ (with critical introduction by A. W. Verrall) were - published by his widow in 1907; see also an appreciative notice by J. - E. Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. (1908). - - - - -JEBEIL (anc. _Gebal-Byblus_), a town of Syria pleasantly situated on a -slight eminence near the sea, about 20 m. N. of Beirut. It is surrounded -by a wall 1(1/2) m. in circumference, with square towers at the angles, -and a castle at the south-east corner. Numerous broken granite columns -in the gardens and vineyards that surround the town, with the number of -ruined houses within the walls, testify to its former importance. The -stele of Jehawmelek, king of Gebal, found here, is one of the most -important of Phoenician monuments. The small port is almost choked up -with sand and ruins. Pop. 3000, all Moslems. - -The inhabitants of the Phoenician Gebal and Greek Byblus were renowned -as stonecutters and ship-builders. Arrian (ii. 20. 1) represents Enylus, -king of Byblus, as joining Alexander with a fleet, after that monarch -had captured the city. Philo of Byblus makes it the most ancient city of -Phoenicia, founded by Cronus, i.e. the Moloch who appears from the stele -of Jehawmelek to have been with Baalit the chief deity of the city. -According to Plutarch (_Mor._ 357), the ark with the corpse of Osiris -was cast ashore at Byblus, and there found by Isis. The orgies of -Adonis in the temple of Baalit (Aphrodite Byblia) are described by -Lucian, _De Dea Syr._, cap. vi. The river Adonis is the Nahr al-Ibrahim, -which flows near the town. The crusaders, after failing before it in -1099, captured "Giblet" in 1103, but lost it again to Saladin in 1189. -Under Mahommedan rule it has gradually decayed. (D. G. H.) - - - - -JEBEL (plur. _jibal_), also written GEBEL with hard _g_ (plur. _gibal_), -an Arabic word meaning a mountain or a mountain chain. It is frequently -used in place-names. The French transliteration of the word is _djebel_. -_Jebeli_ signifies a mountaineer. The pronunciation with a hard _g_ -sound is that used in the Egyptian dialect of Arabic. - - - - -JEDBURGH, a royal and police burgh and county-town of Roxburghshire, -Scotland. Pop. of police burgh (1901), 3136. It is situated on Jed -Water, a tributary of the Teviot, 56(1/4) m. S.E. of Edinburgh by the -North British railway, via Roxburgh and St Boswells (49 m. by road), and -10 m. from the border at Catcleuch Shin, a peak of the Cheviots, 1742 -ft. high. Of the name Jedburgh there have been many variants, the -earliest being Gedwearde (800), Jedwarth (1251), and Geddart (1586), -while locally the word is sometimes pronounced Jethart. The town is -situated on the left bank of the Jed, the main streets running at right -angles from each side of the central market-place. Of the renowned group -of Border abbeys--Jedburgh, Melrose, Dryburgh and Kelso--that of -Jedburgh is the stateliest. In 1118, according to tradition, but more -probably as late as 1138, David, prince of Cumbria, here founded a -priory for Augustinian monks from the abbey of St Quentin at Beauvais in -France, and in 1147, after he had become king, erected it into an abbey -dedicated to the Virgin. Repeatedly damaged in Border warfare, it was -ruined in 1544-45 during the English invasion led by Sir Ralph Evers (or -Eure). The establishment was suppressed in 1559, the revenues being -temporarily annexed to the Crown. After changing owners more than once, -the lands were purchased in 1637 by the 3rd earl of Lothian. Latterly -five of the bays at the west end had been utilized as the parish church, -but in 1873-1875 the 9th marquess of Lothian built a church for the -service of the parish, and presented it to the heritors in exchange for -the ruined abbey in order to prevent the latter from being injured by -modern additions and alterations. - - The abbey was built of Old Red sandstone, and belongs mostly to the - end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries. The - architecture is mixed, and the abbey is a beautiful example of the - Norman and Transition styles. The total length is 235 ft., the nave - being 133(1/2) ft. long and 59(1/2) ft. wide. The west front contains - a great Norman porch and a fine wheel window. The nave, on each side, - has nine pointed arches in the basement storey, nine round arches in - the triforium, and thirty-six pointed arches in the clerestory, - through which an arcade is carried on both sides. The tower, at the - intersection of the nave and transepts, is of unusually massive - proportions, being 30 ft. square and fully 100 ft. high; the network - baluster round the top is modern. With the exception of the north - piers and a small portion of the wall above, which are Norman, the - tower dates from the end of the 15th century. The whole of the south - transept has perished. The north transept, with early Decorated - windows, has been covered in and walled off, and is the burial-ground - of the Kerrs of Fernihirst, ancestors of the marquess of Lothian. The - earliest tombstone is dated 1524; one of the latest is the recumbent - effigy, by G. F. Watts, R.A., of the 8th marquess of Lothian - (1832-1870). All that is left of the choir, which contains some very - early Norman work, is two bays with three tiers on each side, - corresponding to the design of the nave. It is supposed that the - aisle, with Decorated window and groined roof, south of the chancel, - formed the grammar school (removed from the abbey in 1751) in which - Samuel Rutherford (1600-1661), principal of St Mary's College, St - Andrews, and James Thomson, author of The _Seasons_, were educated. - The door leading from the south aisle into a herbaceous garden, - formerly the cloister, is an exquisite copy of one which had become - greatly decayed. It was designed by Sir Rowand Anderson, under whose - superintendence restoration in the abbey was carried out. - -The castle stood on high ground at the south end of the burgh, or -"town-head." Erected by David I., it was one of the strongholds ceded to -England in 1174, under the treaty of Falaise, for the ransom of William -the Lion. It was, however, so often captured by the English that it -became a menace rather than a protection, and the townsfolk demolished -it in 1409. It had occasionally been used as a royal residence, and was -the scene, in November 1285, of the revels held in celebration of the -marriage (solemnized in the abbey) of Alexander III. to Joleta, or -Yolande, daughter of the count of Dreux. The site was occupied in 1823 -by the county prison, now known as the castle, a castellated structure -which gradually fell into disuse and was acquired by the corporation in -1890. A house exists in Backgate in which Mary Queen of Scots resided in -1566, and one in Castlegate which Prince Charles Edward occupied in -1745. - -The public buildings include the grammar school (built in 1883 to -replace the successor of the school in the abbey), founded by William -Turnbull, bishop of Glasgow (d. 1454), the county buildings, the free -library and the public hall, which succeeded to the corn exchange -destroyed by fire in 1898, a loss that involved the museum and its -contents, including the banners captured by the Jethart weavers at -Bannockburn and Killiecrankie. The old market cross still exists, and -there are two public parks. The chief industry is the manufacture of -woollens (blankets, hosiery), but brewing, tanning and iron-founding are -carried on, and fruit (especially pears) and garden produce are in -repute. Jedburgh was made a royal burgh in the reign of David I., and -received a charter from Robert I. and another, in 1566, from Mary Queen -of Scots. Sacked and burned time after time during the Border strife, it -was inevitable that the townsmen should become keen fighters. Their cry -of "Jethart's here!" was heard wherever the fray waxed most fiercely, -and the Jethart axe of their invention--a steel axe on a 4-ft. -pole--wrought havoc in their hands. - -"Jethart or Jeddart justice," according to which a man was hanged first -and tried afterwards, seems to have been a hasty generalization from a -solitary fact--the summary execution in James VI.'s reign of a gang of -rogues at the instance of Sir George Home, but has nevertheless passed -into a proverb. - -Old Jeddart, 4 m. S. of the present town, the first site of the burgh, -is now marked by a few grassy mounds, and of the great Jedburgh forest, -only the venerable oaks, the "Capon Tree" and the "King of the Woods" -remain. Dunion Hill (1095 ft.), about 2 m. south-west of Jedburgh, -commands a fine view of the capital of the county. - - - - -JEEJEEBHOY (JIJIBHAI), SIR JAMSETJEE (JAMSETJI), Bart. (1783-1859), -Indian merchant and philanthropist, was born in Bombay in 1783, of poor -but respectable parents, and was left an orphan in early life. At the -age of sixteen, with a smattering of mercantile education and a bare -pittance, he commenced a series of business travels destined to lead him -to fortune and fame. After a preliminary visit to Calcutta, he undertook -a voyage to China, then fraught with so much difficulty and risk that it -was regarded as a venture betokening considerable enterprise and -courage; and he subsequently initiated a systematic trade with that -country, being himself the carrier of his merchant wares on his passages -to and fro between Bombay and Canton and Shanghai. His second return -voyage from China was made in one of the East India Company's fleet, -which, under the command of Sir Nathaniel Dance, defeated the French -squadron under Admiral Linois (Feb. 15, 1804). On his fourth return -voyage from China, the Indiaman in which he sailed was forced to -surrender to the French, by whom he was carried as a prisoner to the -Cape of Good Hope, then a neutral Dutch possession; and it was only -after much delay, and with great difficulty, that he made his way to -Calcutta in a Danish ship. Nothing daunted, he undertook yet another -voyage to China, which was more successful than any of the previous -ones. By this time he had fairly established his reputation as a -merchant possessed of the highest spirit of enterprise and considerable -wealth, and thenceforward he settled down in Bombay, where he directed -his commercial operations on a widely extended scale. By 1836 his firm -was large enough to engross the energies of his three sons and other -relatives; and he had amassed what at that period of Indian mercantile -history was regarded as fabulous wealth. An essentially self-made man, -having experienced in early life the miseries of poverty and want, in -his days of affluence Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy developed an active instinct -of sympathy with his poorer countrymen, and commenced that career of -private and public philanthropy which is his chief title to the -admiration of mankind. His liberality was unbounded, and the absorbing -occupation of his later life was the alleviation of human distress. To -his own community he gave lavishly, but his benevolence was mainly -cosmopolitan. Hospitals, schools, homes of charity, pension funds, were -founded or endowed by him, while numerous public works in the shape of -wells, reservoirs, bridges, causeways, and the like, not only in Bombay, -but in other parts of India, were the creation of his bounty. The total -of his known benefactions amounted at the time of his death, which took -place in 1859, to over L230,000. It was not, however, the amount of his -charities so much as the period and circumstances in which they were -performed that made his benevolent career worthy of the fame he won. In -the first half of the 19th century the various communities of India were -much more isolated in their habits and their sympathies than they are -now. Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy's unsectarian philanthropy awakened a common -understanding and created a bond between them which has proved not only -of domestic value but has had a national and political significance. His -services were recognized first in 1842 by the bestowal of a knighthood -upon him, and in 1858 by that of a baronetcy. These were the very first -distinctions of their kind conferred by Queen Victoria upon a British -subject in India. - -His title devolved in 1859 on his eldest son CURSETJEE, who, by a -special Act of the Viceroy's Council in pursuance of a provision in the -letters-patent, took the name of Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy as second -baronet. At his death in 1877 his eldest son, MENEKJEE, became Sir -Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, the third baronet. Both had the advantage of a -good English education, and continued the career of benevolent activity -and devoted loyalty to British rule which had signalized the life-work -of the founder of the family. They both visited England to do homage to -their sovereign; and their public services were recognized by their -nomination to the order of the Star of India, as well as by appointment -to the Legislative Councils of Calcutta and Bombay. - -On the death of the third baronet, the title devolved upon his brother, -COWSAJEE (1853-1908), who became Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, fourth -baronet, and the recognized leader of the Parsee community all over the -world. He was succeeded by his son RUSTOMJEE (b. 1878), who became Sir -Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, fifth baronet. - -Since their emigration from Persia, the Parsee community had never had a -titular chief or head, its communal funds and affairs being managed by a -public body, more or less democratic in its constitution, termed the -Parsee panchayat. The first Sir Jamsetjee, by the hold that he -established on the community, by his charities and public spirit, -gradually came to be regarded in the light of its chief; and the -recognition which he was the first in India to receive at the hands of -the British sovereign finally fixed him and his successors in the -baronetcy in the position and title of the official Parsee leader. - (M. M. Bh.) - - - - -JEFFERIES, RICHARD (1848-1887), English naturalist and author, was born -on the 6th of November 1848, at the farmhouse of Coate about 2(1/2) m. -from Swindon, on the road to Marlborough. He was sent to school, first -at Sydenham and then at Swindon, till the age of fifteen or so, but his -actual education was at the hands of his father, who gave him his love -for Nature and taught him how to observe. For the faculty of -observation, as Jefferies, Gilbert White, and H. D. Thoreau have -remarked, several gifts are necessary, including the possession of long -sight and quick sight, two things which do not always go together. To -them must be joined trained sight and the knowledge of what to expect. -The boy's father first showed him what there was to look for in the -hedge, in the field, in the trees, and in the sky. This kind of training -would in many cases be wasted: to one who can understand it, the book of -Nature will by-and-by offer pages which are blurred and illegible to the -city-bred lad, and even to the country lad the power of reading them -must be maintained by constant practice. To live amid streets or in the -working world destroys it. The observer must live alone and always in -the country; he must not worry himself about the ways of the world; he -must be always, from day to day, watching the infinite changes and -variations of Nature. Perhaps, even when the observer can actually read -this book of Nature, his power of articulate speech may prove inadequate -for the expression of what he sees. But Jefferies, as a boy, was more -than an observer of the fields; he was bookish, and read all the books -that he could borrow or buy. And presently, as is apt to be the fate of -a bookish boy who cannot enter a learned profession, he became a -journalist and obtained a post on the local paper. He developed literary -ambitions, but for a long time to come was as one beating the air. He -tried local history and novels; but his early novels, which were -published at his own risk and expense, were, deservedly, failures. In -1872, however, he published a remarkable letter in _The Times_, on "The -Wiltshire Labourer," full of original ideas and of facts new to most -readers. This was in reality the turning-point in his career. In 1873, -after more false starts, Jefferies returned to his true field of work, -the life of the country, and began to write for _Fraser's Magazine_ on -"Farming and Farmers." He had now found himself. The rest of his history -is that of continual advance, from close observation becoming daily more -and more close, to that intimate communion with Nature with which his -later pages are filled. The developments of the later period are -throughout touched with the melancholy that belongs to ill-health. For, -though in his prose poem called "The Pageant of Summer" the writer seems -absolutely revelling in the strength of manhood that belongs to that -pageant, yet, in the _Story of My Heart_, written about the same time, -we detect the mind that is continually turned to death. He died at -Goring, worn out with many ailments, on the 14th of August 1887. The -best-known books of Richard Jefferies are: _The Gamekeeper at Home_ -(1878); _The Story of My Heart_ (1883); _Life of the Fields_ (1884), -containing the best paper he ever wrote, "The Pageant of Summer"; -_Amaryllis at the Fair_ (1884), in which may be found the portraits of -his own people; and _The Open Air_. He stands among the scanty company -of men who address a small audience, for whom he read aloud these pages -of Nature spoken of above, which only he, and the few like unto him, can -decipher. - - See Sir Walter Besant, _Eulogy of Richard Jefferies_ (1888); H. S. - Salt, _Richard Jefferies: a Study_ (1894); Edward Thomas, _Richard - Jefferies, his Life and Work_ (1909). (W. Be.) - - - - -JEFFERSON, JOSEPH (1820-1905), American actor, was born in Philadelphia -on the 20th of February 1829. He was the third actor of this name in a -family of actors and managers, and the most famous of all American -comedians. At the age of three he appeared as the boy in Kotzebue's -_Pizarro_, and throughout his youth he underwent all the hardships -connected with theatrical touring in those early days. After a -miscellaneous experience, partly as actor, partly as manager, he won his -first pronounced success in 1858 as Asa Trenchard in Tom Taylor's _Our -American Cousin_ at Laura Keene's theatre in New York. This play was the -turning-point of his career, as it was of Sothern's. The naturalness and -spontaneity of humour with which he acted the love scenes revealed a -spirit in comedy new to his contemporaries, long used to a more -artificial convention; and the touch of pathos which the part required -revealed no less to the actor an unexpected power in himself. Other -early parts were Newman Noggs in _Nicholas Nickleby_, Caleb Plummer in -_The Cricket on the Hearth_, Dr Pangloss in _The Heir at Law_, Salem -Scudder in _The Octoroon_, and Bob Acres in _The Rivals_, the last being -not so much an interpretation of the character as Sheridan sketched it -as a creation of the actor's. In 1859 Jefferson made a dramatic version -of the story of _Rip Van Winkle_ on the basis of older plays, and acted -it with success at Washington. The play was given its permanent form by -Dion Boucicault in London, where (1865) it ran 170 nights, with -Jefferson in the leading part. Jefferson continued to act with -undiminished popularity in a limited number of parts in nearly every -town in the United States, his Rip Van Winkle, Bob Acres, and Caleb -Plummer being the most popular. He was one of the first to establish the -travelling combinations which superseded the old system of local stock -companies. With the exception of minor parts, such as the First -Gravedigger in _Hamlet_, which he played in an "all star combination" -headed by Edwin Booth, Jefferson created no new character after 1865; -and the success of Rip Van Winkle was so pronounced that he has often -been called a one-part actor. If this was a fault, it was the public's, -who never wearied of his one masterpiece. Jefferson died on the 23rd of -April 1905. No man in his profession was more honoured for his -achievements or his character. He was the friend of many of the leading -men in American politics, art and literature. He was an ardent fisherman -and lover of nature, and devoted to painting. Jefferson was twice -married: to an actress, Margaret Clements Lockyer (1832-1861), in 1850, -and in 1867 to Sarah Warren, niece of William Warren the actor. - - Jefferson's _Autobiography_ (New York, 1889) is written with admirable - spirit and humour, and its judgments with regard to the art of the - actor and of the playwright entitle it to a place beside Cibber's - _Apology_. See William Winter, _The Jeffersons_ (1881), and _Life of - Joseph Jefferson_ (1894); Mrs. E. P. Jefferson, _Recollections of - Joseph Jefferson_ (1909). - - - - -JEFFERSON, THOMAS (1743-1826), third president of the United States of -America, and the most conspicuous apostle of democracy in America, was -born on the 13th of April 1743, at Shadwell, Albemarle county, Virginia. -His father, Peter Jefferson (1707-1757), of early Virginian yeoman -stock, was a civil engineer and a man of remarkable energy, who became a -justice of the peace, a county surveyor and a burgess, served the Crown -in inter-colonial boundary surveys, and married into one of the most -prominent colonial families, the Randolphs. Albemarle county was then in -the frontier wilderness of the Blue Ridge, and was very different, -socially, from the lowland counties where a few broad-acred families -dominated an open-handed, somewhat luxurious and assertive aristocracy. -Unlike his Randolph connexions, Peter Jefferson was a whig and a -thorough democrat; from him, and probably, too, from the Albemarle -environment, his son came naturally by democratic inclinations. - -Jefferson carried with him from the college of William and Mary at -Williamsburg, in his twentieth year, a good knowledge of Latin, Greek -and French (to which he soon added Spanish, Italian and Anglo-Saxon), -and a familiarity with the higher mathematics and natural sciences only -possessed, at his age, by men who have a rare natural taste and ability -for those studies. He remained an ardent student throughout life, able -to give and take in association with the many scholars, American and -foreign, whom he numbered among his friends and correspondents. With a -liberal Scotsman, Dr William Small, then of the faculty of William and -Mary and later a friend of Erasmus Darwin, and George Wythe (1726-1806), -a very accomplished scholar and leader of the Virginia bar, Jefferson -was an habitual member, while still in college, of a _partie carree_ at -the table of Francis Fauquier (c. 1720-1768), the accomplished -lieutenant-governor of Virginia. Jefferson was an expert violinist, a -good singer and dancer, proficient in outdoor sports, and an excellent -horseman. Thorough-bred horses always remained to him a necessary -luxury. When it is added that Fauquier was a passionate gambler, and -that the gentry who gathered every winter at Williamsburg, the seat of -government of the province, were ruinously addicted to the same -weakness, and that Jefferson had a taste for racing, it does credit to -his early strength of character that of his social opportunities he took -only the better. He never used tobacco, never played cards, never -gambled, and was never party to a personal quarrel. - -Soon after leaving college he entered Wythe's law office, and in 1767, -after five years of close study, was admitted to the bar. His thorough -preparation enabled him to compete from the first with the leading -lawyers of the colony, and his success shows that the bar had no rewards -that were not fairly within his reach. As an advocate, however, he did -not shine; a weakness of voice made continued speaking impossible, and -he had neither the ability nor the temperament for oratory. To his legal -scholarship and collecting zeal Virginia owed the preservation of a -large part of her early statutes. He seems to have lacked interest in -litigiousness, which was extraordinarily developed in colonial -Virginia; and he saw and wished to reform the law's abuses. It is -probable that he turned, therefore, the more willingly to politics; at -any rate, soon after entering public life he abandoned practice (1774). - -The death of his father had left him an estate of 1900 acres, the income -from which (about L400) gave him the position of an independent country -gentleman; and while engaged in the law he had added to his farms after -the ambitious Virginia fashion, until, when he married in his thirtieth -year, there were 5000 acres all paid for; and almost as much more[1] -came to him in 1773 on the death of his father-in-law. On the 1st of -January 1772, Jefferson married Martha Wayles Skelton (1749-1782), a -childless widow of twenty-three, very handsome, accomplished, and very -fond of music. Their married life was exceedingly happy, and Jefferson -never remarried after her early death. Of six children born from their -union, two daughters alone survived infancy. Jefferson was emotional and -very affectionate in his home, and his generous and devoted relations -with his children and grandchildren are among the finest features of his -character. - -Jefferson began his public service as a justice of the peace and parish -vestryman; he was chosen a member of the Virginia house of burgesses in -1769 and of every succeeding assembly and convention of the colony until -he entered the Continental Congress in 1775. His forceful, facile pen -gave him great influence from the first; but though a foremost member of -several great deliberative bodies, he can fairly be said never to have -made a speech. He hated the "morbid rage of debate" because he believed -that men were never convinced by argument, but only by reflection, -through reading or unprovocative conversation; and this belief guided -him through life. Moreover it is very improbable that he could ever have -shone as a public speaker, and to this fact unfriendly critics have -attributed, at least in part, his abstention from debate. The house of -burgesses of 1769, and its successors in 1773 and 1774, were dissolved -by the governor (see VIRGINIA) for their action on the subject of -colonial grievances and inter-colonial co-operation. Jefferson was -prominent in all; was a signer of the Virginia agreement of -non-importation and economy (1769); and was elected in 1774 to the first -Virginia convention, called to consider the state of the colony and -advance inter-colonial union. Prevented by illness from attending, -Jefferson sent to the convention elaborate resolutions, which he -proposed as instructions to the Virginia delegates to the Continental -Congress that was to meet at Philadelphia in September. In the direct -language of reproach and advice, with no disingenuous loading of the -Crown's policy upon its agents, these resolutions attacked the errors of -the king, and maintained that "the relation between Great Britain and -these colonies was exactly the same as that of England and Scotland -after the accession of James and until the Union; and that our -emigration to this country gave England no more rights over us than the -emigration of the Danes and Saxons gave to the present authorities of -their mother country over England." This was cutting at the common root -of allegiance, emigration and colonization; but such radicalism was too -thorough-going for the immediate end. The resolutions were published, -however, as a pamphlet, entitled _A Summary View of the Rights of -America_, which was widely circulated. In England, after receiving such -modifications--attributed to Burke--as adapted it to the purposes of the -opposition, this pamphlet ran through many editions, and procured for -its author, as he said, "the honour of having his name inserted in a -long list of proscriptions enrolled in a bill of attainder commenced in -one of the two houses of parliament, but suppressed in embryo by the -hasty course of events." It placed Jefferson among the foremost leaders -of revolution, and procured for him the honour of drafting, later, the -Declaration of Independence, whose historical portions were, in large -part, only a revised transcript of the _Summary View_. In June 1775 he -took his seat in the Continental Congress, taking with him fresh -credentials of radicalism in the shape of Virginia's answer, which he -had drafted, to Lord North's conciliatory propositions. Jefferson soon -drafted the reply of Congress to the same propositions. Reappointed to -the next Congress, he signalized his service by the authorship of the -Declaration of Independence (q.v.). Again reappointed, he surrendered -his seat, and after refusing a proffered election to serve as a -commissioner with Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane in France, he -entered again, in October 1776, the Virginia legislature, where he -considered his services most needed. - -The local work to which Jefferson attributed such importance was a -revision of Virginia's laws. Of the measures proposed to this end he -says: "I considered four, passed or reported, as forming a system by -which every trace would be eradicated of ancient or future aristocracy, -and a foundation laid for a government truly republican"--the repeal of -the laws of entail; the abolition of primogeniture and the unequal -division of inheritances (Jefferson was himself an eldest son); the -guarantee of freedom of conscience and relief of the people from -supporting, by taxation, an established church; and a system of general -education. The first object was embodied in law in 1776, the second in -1785, the third[2] in 1786 (supplemented 1799, 1801). The last two were -parts of a body of codified laws prepared (1776-1779) by Edmund -Pendleton,[3] George Wythe, and Jefferson, and principally by Jefferson. -Not so fortunate were Jefferson's ambitious schemes of education. -District, grammar and classical schools, a free state library and a -state college, were all included in his plan. He was the first American -statesman to make education by the state a fundamental article of -democratic faith. His bill for elementary education he regarded as the -most important part of the code, but Virginia had no strong middle -class, and the planters would not assume the burden of educating the -poor. At this time Jefferson championed the natural right of -expatriation, and gradual emancipation of the slaves. His earliest -legislative effort, in the five-day session of 1769, had been marked by -an effort to secure to masters freedom to manumit their slaves without -removing them from the state. It was unsuccessful, and the more radical -measure he now favoured was even more impossible of attainment; but a -bill he introduced to prohibit the importation of slaves was passed in -1778--the only important change effected in the slave system of the -state during the War of Independence. Finally he endeavoured, though -unsuccessfully, to secure the introduction of juries into the courts of -chancery, and--a generation and more before the fruition of the labours -of Romilly and his co-workers in England--aided in securing a -humanitarian revision of the penal code,[4] which, though lost by one -vote in 1785, was sustained by public sentiment, and was adopted in -1796. Jefferson is of course not entitled to the sole credit for all -these services: Wythe, George Mason and James Madison, in particular, -were his devoted lieutenants, and--after his departure for France--the -principals in the struggle; moreover, an approving public opinion must -receive large credit. But Jefferson was throughout the chief inspirer -and foremost worker. - -In 1779, at almost the gloomiest stage of the war in the southern -states, Jefferson succeeded Patrick Henry as the governor of Virginia, -being the second to hold that office after the organization of the state -government. In his second term (1780-1781) the state was overrun by -British expeditions, and Jefferson, a civilian, was blamed for the -ineffectual resistance. Though he cannot be said to have been eminently -fitted for the task that devolved upon him in such a crisis, most of the -criticism of his administration was undoubtedly grossly unjust. His -conduct being attacked, he declined renomination for the governorship, -but was unanimously returned by Albemarle as a delegate to the state -legislature; and on the day previously set for legislative inquiry on a -resolution offered by an impulsive critic, he received, by unanimous -vote of the house, a declaration of thanks and confidence. He wished -however to retire permanently from public life, a wish strengthened by -the illness and death of his wife. At this time he composed his _Notes -on Virginia_, a semi-statistical work full of humanitarian liberalism. -Congress twice offered him an appointment as one of the -plenipotentiaries to negotiate peace with England, but, though he -accepted the second offer, the business was so far advanced before he -could sail that his appointment was recalled. During the following -winter (1783) he was again in Congress, and headed the committee -appointed to consider the treaty of peace. In the succeeding session his -service was marked by a report, from which resulted the present monetary -system of the United States (the fundamental idea of its decimal basis -being due, however, to Gouverneur Morris); and by the honour of -reporting the first definitely formulated plan for the government of the -western territories,[5] that embodied in the ordinance of 1784. He was -already particularly associated with the great territory north-west of -the Ohio; for Virginia had tendered to Congress in 1781, while Jefferson -was governor, a cession of her claims to it, and now in 1784 formally -transferred the territory by act of Jefferson and his fellow delegates -in congress: a consummation for which he had laboured from the -beginning. His anti-slavery opinions grew in strength with years (though -he was somewhat inconsistent in his attitude on the Missouri question in -1820-1821). Not only justice but patriotism as well pleaded with him the -cause of the negroes,[6] for he foresaw the certainty that the race must -some day, in some way, be freed, and the dire political dangers involved -in the institution of slavery; and could any feasible plan of -emancipation have been suggested he would have regarded its cost as a -mere bagatelle. - -From 1784 to 1789 Jefferson was in France, first under an appointment to -assist Benjamin Franklin and John Adams in negotiating treaties of -commerce with European states, and then as Franklin's successor -(1785-1789) as minister to France.[7] In these years he travelled widely -in western Europe. Though the commercial principles of the United States -were far too liberal for acceptance, as such, by powers holding colonies -in America, Jefferson won some specific concessions to American trade. -He was exceedingly popular as a minister. The criticism is even to-day -current with the uninformed that Jefferson took his manners,[8] morals, -"irreligion" and political philosophy from his French residence; and it -cannot be wholly ignored. It may therefore be said that there is nothing -except unsubstantiated scandal to contradict the conclusion, which -various evidence supports, that Jefferson's morals were pure. His -religious views and political beliefs will be discussed later. His -theories had a deep and broad basis in English whiggism; and though he -may well have found at least confirmation of his own ideas in French -writers--and notably in Condorcet--he did not read sympathetically the -writers commonly named, Rousseau and Montesquieu; besides, his democracy -was seasoned, and he was rather a teacher than a student of -revolutionary politics when he went to Paris. The _Notes on Virginia_ -were widely read in Paris, and undoubtedly had some influence in -forwarding the dissolution of the doctrines of divine rights and passive -obedience among the cultivated classes of France. Jefferson was deeply -interested in all the events leading up to the French Revolution, and -all his ideas were coloured by his experience of the five seething years -passed in Paris. On the 3rd of June 1789 he proposed to the leaders of -the third estate a compromise between the king and the nation. In July -he received the extraordinary honour of being invited to assist in the -deliberations of the committee appointed by the national assembly to -draft a constitution. This honour his official position compelled him, -of course, to decline; for he sedulously observed official proprieties, -and in no way gave offence to the government to which he was accredited. - -When Jefferson left France it was with the intention of soon returning; -but President Washington tendered him the secretaryship of state in the -new federal government, and Jefferson reluctantly accepted. His only -essential objection to the constitution--the absence of a bill of -rights--was soon met, at least partially, by amendments. Alexander -Hamilton (q.v.) was secretary of the treasury. These two men, antipodal -in temperament and political belief, clashed in irreconcilable -hostility, and in the conflict of public sentiment, first on the -financial measures of Hamilton, and then on the questions with regard to -France and Great Britain, Jefferson's sympathies being predominantly -with the former, Hamilton's with the latter, they formed about -themselves the two great parties of Democrats and Federalists. The -schools of thought for which they stood have since contended for mastery -in American politics: Hamilton's gradually strengthened by the -necessities of stronger administration, as time gave widening amplitude -and increasing weight to the specific powers--and so to Hamilton's great -doctrine of the "implied powers"--of the general government of a growing -country; Jefferson's rooted in colonial life, and buttressed by the -hopes and convictions of democracy. - -The most perplexing questions treated by Jefferson as secretary of state -arose out of the policy of neutrality adopted by the United States -toward France, to whom she was bound by treaties and by a heavy debt of -gratitude. Separation from European politics--the doctrine of "America -for Americans" that was embodied later in the Monroe declaration--was a -tenet cherished by Jefferson as by other leaders (not, however, -Hamilton) and by none cherished more firmly, for by nature he was -peculiarly opposed to war, and peace was a fundamental part of his -politics. However deep, therefore, his French sympathies, he drew the -same safe line as did Washington between French politics and American -politics,[9] and handled the Genet complications to the satisfaction of -even the most partisan Federalists. He expounded, as a very high -authority has said, "with remarkable clearness and power the nature and -scope of neutral duty," and gave a "classic" statement of the doctrine -of recognition.[10] - -But the French question had another side in its reaction on American -parties.[11] Jefferson did not read excesses in Paris as warnings -against democracy, but as warnings against the abuses of monarchy; nor -did he regard Bonaparte's _coup d'etat_ as revealing the weakness of -republics, but rather as revealing the danger of standing armies; he did -not look on the war of the coalitions against France as one of mere -powers, but as one between forms of government; and though the immediate -fruits of the Revolution belied his hopes, as they did those of ardent -humanitarians the world over, he saw the broad trend of history, which -vindicated his faith that a successful reformation of government in -France would insure "a general reformation through Europe, and the -resurrection to a new life of their people." Each of these statements -could be reversed as regards Hamilton. It is the key to an understanding -of the times to remember that the War of Independence had disjointed -society; and democracy--which Jefferson had proclaimed in the -Declaration of Independence, and enthroned in Virginia--after -strengthening its rights by the sword, had run to excesses, particularly -in the Shays' rebellion, that produced a conservative reaction. To this -reaction Hamilton explicitly appealed in the convention of 1787; and of -this reaction various features of the constitution, and Hamiltonian -federalism generally, were direct fruits. Moreover, independently of -special incentives to the alarmist and the man of property, the opinions -of many Americans turned again, after the war, into a current of -sympathy for England, as naturally as American commerce returned to -English ports. Jefferson, however, far from America in these years and -unexposed to reactionary influences, came back with undiminished fervour -of democracy, and the talk he heard of praise for England, and fearful -recoil before even the beginning of the revolution in France, -disheartened him, and filled him with suspicion.[12] Hating as he did -feudal class institutions and Tudor-Stuart traditions of arbitrary -rule,[13] his attitude can be imagined toward Hamilton's oft-avowed -partialities--and Jefferson assumed, his intrigues--for British -class-government with its eighteenth-century measure of corruption. In -short, Hamilton took from recent years the lesson of the evils of lax -government; whereas Jefferson clung to the other lesson, which crumbling -colonial governments had illustrated, that governments derived their -strength (and the Declaration had proclaimed that they derived their -just rights) from the will of the governed. Each built his system -accordingly: the one on the basis of order, the other on -individualism--which led Jefferson to liberty alike in religion and in -politics. The two men and the fate of the parties they led are -understandable only by regarding one as the leader of reaction, the -other as in line with the American tendencies. The educated classes -characteristically furnished Federalism with a remarkable body of -alarmist leaders; and thus it happened that Jefferson, because, with -only a few of his great contemporaries, he had a thorough trust and -confidence in the people, became the idol of American democracy. - -As Hamilton was somewhat officious and very combative, and Jefferson, -although uncontentious, very suspicious and quite independent, both men -holding inflexibly to opinions, cabinet harmony became impossible when -the two secretaries had formed parties about them and their differences -were carried into the newspapers;[14] and Washington abandoned perforce -his idea "if parties did exist to reconcile them." Partly from -discontent with a position in which he did not feel that he enjoyed the -absolute confidence of the president,[15] and partly because of the -embarrassed condition of his private affairs, Jefferson repeatedly -sought to resign, and finally on the 31st of December 1793, with -Washington's reluctant consent, gave up his portfolio and retired to his -home at Monticello, near Charlottesville. - -Here he remained improving his estate (having refused a foreign mission) -until elected vice-president in 1796. Jefferson was never truly happy -except in the country. He loved gardening, experimented enthusiastically -in varieties and rotations of crops and kept meteorological tables with -diligence. For eight years he tabulated with painful accuracy the -earliest and latest appearance of thirty-seven vegetables in the -Washington market. When abroad he sought out varieties of grasses, -trees, rice and olives for American experiment, and after his return -from France received yearly for twenty-three years, from his old friend -the superintendent of the _Jardin des plantes_, a box of seeds, which he -distributed to public and private gardens throughout the United States. -Jefferson seems to have been the first discoverer of an exact formula -for the construction of mould-boards of least resistance for ploughs. He -managed to make practical use of his calculus about his farms, and seems -to have been remarkably apt in the practical application of mechanical -principles. - -In the presidential election of 1796 John Adams, the Federalist -candidate, received the largest number of electoral votes, and -Jefferson, the Republican candidate, the next largest number, and under -the law as it then existed the former became president and the latter -vice-president. Jefferson re-entered public life with reluctance, though -doubtless with keen enough interest and resolution. He had rightly -measured the strength of his followers, and was waiting for the -government to "drift into unison" with the republican sense of its -constituents, predicting that President Adams would be "overborne" -thereby. This prediction was speedily fulfilled. At first the reign of -terror and the X. Y. Z. disclosures strengthened the Federalists, until -these, mistaking the popular resentment against France for a reaction -against democracy--an equivalence in their own minds--passed the alien -and sedition laws. In answer to those odious measures Jefferson and -Madison prepared and procured the passage of the Kentucky and Virginia -resolutions. These resolutions later acquired extraordinary and -pernicious prominence in the historical elaboration of the -states'-rights doctrine. It is, however, unquestionably true, that as a -startling protest against measures "to silence," in Jefferson's words, -"by force and not by reason the complaints or criticisms, just or -unjust, of our citizens against the conduct of our agents," they served, -in this respect, a useful purpose; and as a counterblast against -Hamiltonian principles of centralization they were probably, at that -moment, very salutary; while even as pieces of constitutional -interpretation it is to be remembered that they did not contemplate -nullification by any single state, and, moreover, are not to be judged -by constitutional principles established later by courts and war. The -Federalist party had ruined itself, and it lost the presidential -election of 1800. The Republican candidates, Jefferson and Aaron Burr -(q.v.), receiving equal votes, it devolved upon the House of -Representatives, in accordance with the system which then obtained, to -make one of the two president, the other vice-president. Party feeling -in America has probably never been more dangerously impassioned than in -the three years preceding this election; discount as one will the -contrary obsessions of men like Fisher Ames, Hamilton and Jefferson, the -time was fateful. Unable to induce Burr to avow Federalist principles, -influential Federalists, in defiance of the constitution, contemplated -the desperate alternative of preventing an election, and appointing an -extra-constitutional (Federalist) president _pro tempore_. Better -counsels, however, prevailed; Hamilton used his influence in favour of -Jefferson as against Burr, and Jefferson became president, entering upon -his duties on the 4th of March 1801. Republicans who had affiliated with -the Federalists at the time of the X. Y. Z. disclosures returned; very -many of the Federalists themselves Jefferson placated and drew over. -"Believing," he wrote, "that (excepting the ardent monarchists) all our -citizens agreed in ancient whig principles"--or, as he elsewhere -expressed it, in "republican forms"--"I thought it advisable to define -and declare them, and let them see the ground on which we can rally." -This he did in his inaugural, which, though somewhat rhetorical, is a -splendid and famous statement of democracy.[16] His conciliatory policy -produced a mild schism in his own party, but proved eminently wise, and -the state elections of 1801 fulfilled his prophecy of 1791 that the -policy of the Federalists would leave them "all head and no body." In -1804 he was re-elected by 162 out of 176 votes. - -Jefferson's administrations were distinguished by the simplicity that -marked his conduct in private life. He eschewed the pomp and ceremonies, -natural inheritances from English origins, that had been an innocent -setting to the character of his two noble predecessors. His dress was of -"plain cloth" on the day of his inauguration. Instead of driving to the -Capitol in a coach and six, he walked without a guard or servant from -his lodgings--or, as a rival tradition has it, he rode, and hitched his -horse to a neighbouring fence--attended by a crowd of citizens. Instead -of opening Congress with a speech to which a formal reply was expected, -he sent in a written message by a private hand. He discontinued the -practice of sending ministers abroad in public vessels. Between himself -and the governors of states he recognized no difference in rank. He -would not have his birthday celebrated by state balls. The weekly levee -was practically abandoned. Even such titles as "Excellency," -"Honourable," "Mr" were distasteful to him. It was formally agreed in -cabinet meeting that "when brought together in society, all are -perfectly equal, whether foreign or domestic, titled or untitled, in or -out of office." Thus diplomatic grades were ignored in social precedence -and foreign relations were seriously compromised by dinner-table -complications. One minister who appeared in gold lace and dress sword -for his first, and regularly appointed, official call on the president, -was received--as he insisted with studied purpose--by Jefferson in -negligent undress and slippers down at the heel. All this was in part -premeditated system[17]--a part of Jefferson's purpose to republicanize -the government and public opinion, which was the distinguishing feature -of his administration; but it was also simply the nature of the man. In -the company he chose by preference, honesty and knowledge were his only -tests. He knew absolutely no social distinctions in his willingness to -perform services for the deserving. He held up to his daughter as an -especial model the family of a poor but gifted mechanic as one wherein -she would see "the best examples of rational living." "If it be -possible," he said, "to be certainly conscious of anything, I am -conscious of feeling no difference between writing to the highest and -lowest being on earth." - -Jefferson's first administration was marked by a reduction of the army, -navy, diplomatic establishment and, to the uttermost, of governmental -expenses; some reduction of the civil service, accompanied by a large -shifting of offices to Republicans; and, above all, by the Louisiana -Purchase (q.v.), following which Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, -sent by Jefferson, conducted their famous exploring expedition across -the continent to the Pacific (see LEWIS, MERIWETHER). Early in his term -he carried out a policy he had urged upon the government when minister -to France and when vice-president, by dispatching naval forces to coerce -Tripoli into a decent respect for the trade of his country--the first in -Christendom to gain honourable immunity from tribute or piracy in the -Mediterranean. The Louisiana Purchase, although the greatest -"inconsistency" of his career, was also an illustration, in -corresponding degree, of his essential practicality, and one of the -greatest proofs of his statesmanship. It was the crowning achievement of -his administration. It is often said that Jefferson established the -"spoils system" by his changes in the civil service. He was the -innovator, because for the first time there was opportunity for -innovation. But mere justice requires attention to the fact that -incentive to that innovation, and excuse for it, were found in the -absolute one-party monopoly maintained by the Federalists. Moreover, -Jefferson's ideals were high; his reasons for changes were in general -excellent; he at least so far resisted the great pressure for -office--producing by his resistance dissatisfaction within his party--as -not to have lowered, apparently, the personnel of the service; and there -were no such blots on his administration as President Adams's "midnight -judges." Nevertheless, his record here was not clear of blots, showing a -few regrettable inconsistencies.[18] Among important but secondary -measures of his second administration were the extinguishment of Indian -titles, and promotion of Indian emigration to lands beyond the -Mississippi; reorganization of the militia; fortification of the -seaports; reduction of the public debt; and a simultaneous reduction of -taxes. But his second term derives most of its historical interest from -the unsuccessful efforts to convict Aaron Burr of treasonable acts in -the south-west, and from the efforts made to maintain, without war, the -rights of neutrals on the high seas. In his diplomacy with Napoleon and -Great Britain Jefferson betrayed a painful incorrigibility of optimism. -A national policy of "growling before fighting"--later practised -successfully enough by the United States--was not then possible; and one -writer has very justly said that what chiefly affects one in the whole -matter is the pathos of it--"a philosopher and a friend of peace -struggling with a despot of superhuman genius, and a Tory cabinet of -superhuman insolence and stolidity" (Trent). It is possible to regard -the embargo policy dispassionately as an interesting illustration of -Jefferson's love of peace. The idea--a very old one with Jefferson--was -not entirely original; in essence it received other attempted -applications in the Napoleonic period--and especially in the continental -blockade. Jefferson's statesmanship had the limitations of an agrarian -outlook. The extreme to which he carried his advocacy of diplomatic -isolation, his opposition to the creation of an adequate navy,[19] his -estimate of cities as "sores upon the body politic," his prejudice -against manufactures, trust in farmers, and political distrust of the -artisan class, all reflect them. - -When, on the 4th of March 1809, Jefferson retired from the presidency, -he had been almost continuously in the public service for forty years. -He refused to be re-elected for a third time, though requested by the -legislatures of five states to be a candidate; and thus, with -Washington's prior example, helped to establish a precedent deemed by -him to be of great importance under a democratic government. His -influence seemed scarcely lessened in his retirement. Madison and -Monroe, his immediate successors--neighbours and devoted friends, whom -he had advised in their early education and led in their maturer -years--consulted him on all great questions, and there was no break of -principles in the twenty-four years of the "Jeffersonian system." -Jefferson was one of the greatest political managers his country has -known. He had a quick eye for character, was genuinely amiable, -uncontentious, tactful, masterful; and it may be assumed from his -success that he was wary or shrewd to a degree. It is true, moreover, -that, unless tested by a few unchanging principles, his acts were often -strikingly inconsistent; and even when so tested, not infrequently -remain so in appearance. Full explanations do not remove from some -important transactions in his political life an impression of -indirectness. But reasonable judgment must find very unjust the stigma -of duplicity put upon him by the Federalists. Measured by the records of -other men equally successful as political leaders, there seems little of -this nature to criticize severely. Jefferson had the full courage of his -convictions. Extreme as were his principles, his pertinacity in adhering -to them and his independence of expression were quite as extreme. There -were philosophic and philanthropic elements in his political faith which -will always lead some to class him as a visionary and fanatic; but -although he certainly indulged at times in dreams at which one may still -smile, he was not, properly speaking, a visionary; nor can he with -justice be stigmatized as a fanatic. He felt fervently, was not afraid -to risk all on the conclusions to which his heart and his mind led him, -declared himself with openness and energy; and he spoke and even wrote -his conclusions, how ever bold or abstract, without troubling to detail -his reasoning or clip his off-hand speculations. Certain it is that -there is much in his utterances for a less robust democracy than his own -to cavil at.[20] Soar, however, as he might, he was essentially not a -doctrinaire, but an empiricist; his mind was objective. Though he -remained, to the end, firm in his belief that there had been an active -monarchist party,[21] this obsession did not carry him out of touch with -the realities of human nature and of his time. He built with surety on -the colonial past, and had a better reasoned view of the actual future -than had any of his contemporaries. - -Events soon appraised the ultra-Federalist judgment of American -democracy, so tersely expressed by Fisher Ames as "like death ... only -the dismal passport to a more dismal hereafter"; and, with it, appraised -Jefferson's word in his first inaugural for those who, "in the full tide -of successful experiment," were ready to abandon a government that had -so far kept them "free and firm, on the visionary fear that it might by -possibility lack energy to preserve itself." Time soon tested, too, his -principle that that government must prove the strongest on earth "where -every man ... would meet invasions of the public order as his own -personal concern." He summed up as follows the difference between -himself and the Hamiltonian group: "One feared most the ignorance of the -people; the other the selfishness of rulers independent of them." -Jefferson, in short, had unlimited faith in the honesty of the people; a -large faith in their common sense; believed that all is to be won by -appealing to the reason of voters; that by education their ignorance can -be eliminated; that human nature is indefinitely perfectible; that -majorities rule, therefore, not only by virtue of force (which was -Locke's ultimate justification of them), but of right.[22] His -importance as a maker of modern America can scarcely be overstated, for -the ideas he advocated have become the very foundations of American -republicanism. His administration ended the possibility, probability or -certainty--measure it as one will--of the development of Federalism in -the direction of class government; and the party he formed, inspired by -the creed he gave it, fixed the democratic future of the nation. And by -his own labours he had vindicated his faith in the experiment of -self-government. - -Jefferson's last years were devoted to the establishment of the -university of Virginia at Charlottesville, near his home. He planned the -buildings, gathered its faculty--mainly from abroad--and shaped its -organization. Practically all the great ideas of aim, administration and -curriculum that dominated American universities at the end of the 19th -century were anticipated by him. He hoped that the university might be a -dominant influence in national culture, but circumstances crippled it. -His educational plans had been maturing in his mind since 1776. His -financial affairs in these last years gave him grave concern. His fine -library of over 10,000 volumes was purchased at a low price by Congress -in 1815, and a national contribution ($16,500) just before his death -enabled him to die in peace. Though not personally extravagant, his -salary, and the small income from his large estates, never sufficed to -meet his generous maintenance of his representative position; and after -his retirement from public life the numerous visitors to Monticello -consumed the remnants of his property. He died on the 4th of July 1826, -the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, on the same -day as John Adams. He chose for his tomb the epitaph: "Here was buried -Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of American Independence, of -the statute of Virginia for religious freedom, and father of the -university of Virginia." - - Jefferson was about 6 ft. in height, large-boned, slim, erect and - sinewy. He had angular features, a very ruddy complexion, sandy hair, - and hazel-flecked, grey eyes. Age lessened the unattractiveness of his - exterior. In later years he was negligent in dress and loose in - bearing. There was grace, nevertheless, in his manners; and his frank - and earnest address, his quick sympathy (yet he seemed cold to - strangers), his vivacious, desultory, informing talk, gave him an - engaging charm. Beneath a quiet surface he was fairly aglow with - intense convictions and a very emotional temperament. Yet he seems to - have acted habitually, in great and little things, on system. His - mind, no less trenchant and subtle than Hamilton's, was the most - impressible, the most receptive, mind of his time in America. The - range of his interests is remarkable. For many years he was president - of the American philosophical society. Though it is a biographical - tradition that he lacked wit, Moliere and _Don Quixote_ seem to have - been his favourites; and though the utilitarian wholly crowds - romanticism out of his writings, he had enough of that quality in - youth to prepare to learn Gaelic in order to translate Ossian, and - sent to Macpherson for the originals! His interest in art was - evidently intellectual. He was singularly sweet-tempered, and shrank - from the impassioned political bitterness that raged about him; bore - with relative equanimity a flood of coarse and malignant abuse of his - motives, morals, religion,[23] personal honesty and decency; cherished - very few personal animosities; and better than any of his great - antagonists cleared political opposition of ill-blooded personality. - In short, his kindness of heart rose above all social, religious or - political differences, and nothing destroyed his confidence in men and - his sanguine views of life. - - AUTHORITIES.--See the editions of Jefferson's _Writings_ by H. A. - Washington (9 vols., New York, 1853-1854), and--the best--by Paul - Leicester Ford (10 vols., New York, 1892-1899); letters in - Massachusetts Historical Society, _Collections_, series 7, vol. i.; S. - E. Forman, _The Letters and Writings of Thomas Jefferson, including - all his Important Utterances on Public Questions_ (1900); J. P. Foley, - _The Jefferson Cyclopaedia_ (New York, 1900); the _Memoir, - Correspondence_, &c., by T. J. Randolph (4 vols., Charlottesville, - Va., 1829); biographies by James Schouler ("Makers of America Series," - New York, 1893); John T. Morse ("American Statesmen Series," Boston, - 1883); George Tucker (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1837); James Parton - (Boston, 1874); and especially that by Henry S. Randall (3 vols., New - York, 1853), a monumental work, although marred by some special - pleading, and sharing Jefferson's implacable opinions of the - "Monocrats." See also Henry Adams, _History of the United States - 1801-1817_, vols. 1-4 (New York, 1889-1890); Herbert B. Adams, _Thomas - Jefferson and the University of Virginia_ (U. S. bureau of education, - Washington, 1888); Sarah N. Randolph, _Domestic Life of Thomas - Jefferson_ (New York, 1871); and an illuminating appreciation by W. P. - Trent, in his _Southern Statesmen of the Old Regime_ (New York, 1897); - that by John Fiske, Essays, _Historical and Literary_, vol. i. (New - York, 1902), has slighter merits. (F. S. P.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] It was embarrassed with a debt, however, of L3749, which, owing - to conditions caused by the War of Independence, he really paid three - times to his British creditors (not counting destruction on his - estates, of equal amount, ordered by Lord Cornwallis). This greatly - reduced his income for a number of years. - - [2] The first law of its kind in Christendom, although not the - earliest practice of such liberty in America. - - [3] George Mason and Thomas L. Lee were members of the commission, - but they were not lawyers, and did little actual work on the - revision. - - [4] Capital punishment was confined to treason and murder; the former - was not to be attended by corruption of blood, drawing, or - quartering; all other felonies were made punishable by confinement - and hard labour, save a few to which was applied, against Jefferson's - desire, the principle of retaliation. - - [5] This plan applied to the south-western as well as to the - north-western territory, and was notable for a provision that slavery - should not exist therein after 1800. This provision was defeated in - 1784, but was adopted in 1787 for the north-western territory--a step - which is very often said to have saved the Union in the Civil War; - the south-western territory (out of which were later formed - Mississippi, Alabama, &c.) being given over to slavery. Thus the - anti-slavery clause of the ordinance of 1784 was not adopted; and it - was preceded by unofficial proposals to the same end; yet to it - belongs rightly some special honour as blazoning the way for federal - control of slavery in the territories, which later proved of such - enormous consequence. Jefferson in the first draft of the Ordinance - of 1784, suggested the names to be given to the states eventually to - be formed out of the territory concerned. For his suggestions he has - been much ridiculed. The names are as follows: Illinoia, Michigania, - Sylvania, Polypotamia, Assenisipia, Charronesus, Pelisipia, Saratoga, - Metropotamia and Washington. - - [6] He owned at one time above 150 slaves. His overseers were under - contract never to bleed them; but he manumitted only a few at his - death. - - [7] During this time he assisted in negotiating a treaty of amity and - commerce with Prussia (1785) and one with Morocco (1789), and - negotiated with France a "convention defining and establishing the - functions and privileges of consuls and vice-consuls" (1788). - - [8] Patrick Henry humorously declaimed before a popular audience that - Jefferson, who favoured French wine and cookery, had "abjured his - native victuals." - - [9] Jefferson did not sympathize with the temper of his followers who - condoned the zealous excesses of Genet, and in general with the - "misbehaviour" of the democratic clubs; but, as a student of English - liberties, he could not accept Washington's doctrine that for a - self-created permanent body to declare "this act unconstitutional, - and that act pregnant with mischiefs" was "a stretch of arrogant - presumption" which would, if unchecked, "destroy the country." - - [10] John Basset Moore, _American Diplomacy_ (New York, 1905). - - [11] Compare C. D. Hazen, _Contemporary American opinion of the - French Revolution_ (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1897). - - [12] It was at this period of his life that Jefferson gave expression - to some of the opinions for which he has been most severely - criticized and ridiculed. For the Shays' rebellion he felt little - abhorrence, and wrote: "A little rebellion now and then is a good - thing ... an observation of this truth should render honest - republican governors so mild in their punishment of rebellions as not - to discourage them too much. It is a medicine necessary for the sound - health of government" (_Writings_, Ford ed., iv. 362-363). Again, - "Can history produce an instance of rebellion so honorably - conducted?... God forbid that we should ever be twenty years without - such a rebellion.... What signify a few lives lost in a century or - two? The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the - blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure" (Ibid. iv. - 467). Again he says: "Societies exist under three forms--(1) without - government, as among our Indians; (2) under governments wherein the - will of every one has a just influence.... (3) under governments of - force.... It is a problem not clear in my mind that the first - condition is not the best." (Ibid. iv. 362.) - - [13] He turned law students from Blackstone's toryism to Coke on - Littleton; and he would not read Walter Scott, so strong was his - aversion to that writer's predilection for class and feudalism. - - [14] Hamilton wrote for the papers himself; Jefferson never did. A - talented clerk in his department, however, Philip Freneau, set up an - anti-administration paper. It was alleged that Jefferson appointed - him for the purpose, and encouraged him. Undoubtedly there was - nothing in the charge. The Federalist outcry could only have been - silenced by removal of Freneau, or by disclaimers or admonitions, - which Jefferson did not think it incumbent upon himself--or, since he - thought Freneau was doing good, desirable for him--to make. - - [15] Contrary to the general belief that Hamilton dominated - Washington in the cabinet, there is the president's explicit - statement that "there were as many instances" of his deciding against - as in favour of the secretary of the treasury. - - [16] See also Jefferson to E. Gerry, 26th of January 1799 - (_Writings_, vii. 325), and to Dupont de Nemours (x. 23). Cf. - Hamilton to J. Dayton, 1799 (_Works_, x. 329). - - [17] In 1786 he suggested to James Monroe that the society of friends - he hoped to gather in Albemarle might, in sumptuary matters, "set a - good example" to a country (i.e. Virginia) that "needed" it. - - [18] See C. R. Fish, _The Civil Service and the Patronage_ (Harvard - Historical Studies, New York, 1905), ch. 2. - - [19] Jefferson's dislike of a navy was due to his desire for an - economical administration and for peace. Shortly after his - inauguration he expressed a desire to lay up the larger men of war in - the eastern branch of the Potomac, where they would require only "one - set of plunderers to take care of them." To Thomas Paine he wrote in - 1807: "I believe that gunboats are the only _water_ defence which can - be useful to us and protect us from the ruinous folly of a navy." - (_Works_, Ford ed., ix. 137.) The gunboats desired by Jefferson were - small, cheap craft equipped with one or two guns and kept on shore - under sheds until actually needed, when they were to be launched and - manned by a sort of naval militia. A large number of these boats were - constructed and they afforded some protection to coasting vessels - against privateers, but in bad weather, or when employed against a - frigate, they were worse than useless, and Jefferson's "gunboat - system" was admittedly a failure. - - [20] See e.g. his letters in 1787 on the Shays' rebellion, and his - speculations on the doctrine that one generation may not bind another - by paper documents. With the latter may be compared present-day - movements like the initiative and referendum, and not a few - discussions of national debts. Jefferson's distrust of governments - was nothing exceptional for a consistent individualist. - - [21] In his last years he carefully sifted and revised his - contemporary notes evidencing, as he believed, the existence of such - a party, and they remain as his _Ana_ (chiefly Hamiltoniana). The - only just judgment of these notes is to be obtained by looking at - them, and by testing his suspicions with the letters of Hamilton, - Ames, Oliver Wolcott, Theodore Sedgwick, George Cabot and the other - Hamiltonians. Such a comparison measures also the relative judgment, - temper and charity of these writers and Jefferson. It must still - remain true, however, that Jefferson's _Ana_ present him in a far - from engaging light. - - [22] "Jefferson, in 1789, wrote some such stuff about the will of - majorities, as a New Englander would lose his rank among men of sense - to avow."--Fisher Ames (Jan. 1800). - - [23] He was classed as a "French infidel" and atheist. His attitude - toward religion was in fact deeply reverent and sincere, but he - insisted that religion was purely an individual matter, "evidenced, - as concerns the world by each one's daily life," and demanded - absolute freedom of private judgment. He looked on Unitarianism with - much sympathy and desired its growth. "I am a Christian," he wrote in - 1823, "in the only sense in which he (Jesus) wished any one to be; - sincerely attached to his doctrines in preference to all others; - ascribing to himself every human excellence, and believing he never - claimed any other." - - - - -JEFFERSON CITY (legally and officially the City of Jefferson), the -capital of Missouri, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Cole county, on the -Missouri river, near the geographical centre of the state, about 125 m. -W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890), 6742; (1900), 9664, of whom 786 were -foreign-born and 1822 were negroes; (1910 census), 11,850. It is served -by the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago & Alton, and the Missouri, Kansas & -Texas railways. Its site is partly in the bottom-lands of the river and -partly on the steep banks at an elevation of about 600 ft. above the -sea. A steel bridge spans the river. The state capitol, an imposing -structure built on a bluff above the river, was built in 1838-1842 and -enlarged in 1887-1888; it was first occupied in 1840 by the legislature, -which previously had met (after 1837) in the county court house. Other -prominent buildings are the United States court house and post office, -the state supreme court house, the county court house, the state -penitentiary, the state armoury and the executive mansion. The -penitentiary is to a large extent self-supporting; in 1903-1904 the -earnings were $3493.80 in excess of the costs, but in 1904-1906 the -costs exceeded the earnings by $9044. Employment is furnished for the -convicts on the penitentiary premises by incorporated companies. The -state law library here is one of the best of the kind in the country, -and the city has a public library. In the city is Lincoln Institute, a -school for negroes, founded in 1866 by two regiments of negro infantry -upon their discharge from the United States army, opened in 1868, taken -over by the state in 1879, and having sub-normal, normal, college, -industrial and agricultural courses. Coal and limestone are found near -the city. In 1905 the total value of the factory product was $3,926,632, -an increase of 28.2% since 1900. The original constitution of Missouri -prescribed that the capital should be on the Missouri river within 40 m. -of the mouth of the Osage, and a commission selected in 1821 the site of -Jefferson City, on which a town was laid out in 1822, the name being -adopted in honour of Thomas Jefferson. The legislature first met here in -1826; Jefferson City became the county-seat in 1828, and in 1839 was -first chartered as a city. The constitutional conventions of 1845 and -1875, and the state convention which issued the call for the National -Liberal Republican convention at Cincinnati in 1872, met here, and so -for some of its sessions did the state convention of 1861-1863. In June -1861 Jefferson City was occupied by Union forces, and in -September-October 1864 it was threatened by Confederate troops under -General Sterling Price. - - - - -JEFFERSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Clark county, Indiana, -U.S.A., situated on the N. bank of the Ohio river, opposite Louisville, -Kentucky, with which it is connected by several bridges. Pop. (1890), -10,666; (1900), 10,774, of whom 1818 were of negro descent and 615 were -foreign-born; (1910 census), 10,412. It is served by the Baltimore & -Ohio South-western, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and -the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by three -inter-urban electric lines. It is attractively situated on bluffs above -the river, which at this point has a descent (known as the falls of the -Ohio) of 26 ft. in 2 m. This furnishes good water power for -manufacturing purposes both at Jeffersonville and at Louisville. The -total value of the factory product in 1905 was $4,526,443, an increase -of 20% since 1900. The Indiana reformatory (formerly the Southern -Indiana penitentiary) and a large supply depot of the United States army -are at Jeffersonville. General George Rogers Clark started (June 24, -1778) on his expedition against Kaskaskia and Vincennes from Corn Island -(now completely washed away) opposite what is now Jeffersonville. In -1786 the United States government established Fort Finney (built by -Captain Walter Finney), afterwards re-named Fort Steuben, on the site of -the present city; but the fort was abandoned in 1791, and the actual -beginning of Jeffersonville was in 1802, when a part of the Clark grant -(the site of the present city) was transferred by its original owner, -Lieut. Isaac Bowman, to three trustees, under whose direction a town was -laid out. Jeffersonville was incorporated as a town in 1815, and was -chartered as a city in 1839. - - - - -JEFFREY, FRANCIS JEFFREY, LORD (1773-1850), Scottish judge and literary -critic, son of a depute-clerk in the Court of Session, was born at -Edinburgh on the 23rd of October 1773. After attending the high school -for six years, he studied at the university of Glasgow from 1787 to May -1789, and at Queen's College, Oxford, from September 1791 to June 1792. -He had begun the study of law at Edinburgh before going to Oxford, and -now resumed his studies there. He became a member of the speculative -society, where he measured himself in debate with Scott, Brougham, -Francis Horner, the marquess of Lansdowne, Lord Kinnaird and others. He -was admitted to the Scotch bar in December 1794, but, having abandoned -the Tory principles in which he had been educated, he found that his -Whig politics seriously prejudiced his legal prospects. In consequence -of his lack of success at the bar he went to London in 1798 to try his -fortune as a journalist, but without success; he also made more than one -vain attempt to obtain an office which would have secured him the -advantage of a small but fixed salary. His marriage with Catherine -Wilson in 1801 made the question of a settled income even more pressing. -A project for a new review was brought forward by Sydney Smith in -Jeffrey's flat in the presence of H. P. Brougham (afterwards Lord -Brougham), Francis Horner and others; and the scheme resulted in the -appearance on the 10th of October 1802 of the first number of the -_Edinburgh Review_. At the outset the _Review_ was not under the charge -of any special editor. The first three numbers were, however, -practically edited by Sydney Smith, and on his leaving for England the -work devolved chiefly on Jeffrey, who, by an arrangement with Constable, -the publisher, was eventually appointed editor at a fixed salary. Most -of those associated in the undertaking were Whigs; but, although the -general bias of the Review was towards social and political reforms, it -was at first so little of a party organ that for a time it numbered Sir -Walter Scott among its contributors; and no distinct emphasis was given -to its political leanings until the publication in 1808 of an article by -Jeffrey himself on the work of Don Pedro Cevallos on the _French -Usurpation of Spain_. This article expressed despair of the success of -the British arms in Spain, and Scott at once withdrew his subscription, -the _Quarterly_ being soon afterwards started in opposition. According -to Lord Cockburn the effect of the first number of the _Edinburgh -Review_ was "electrical." The English reviews were at that time -practically publishers' organs, the articles in which were written by -hackwriters instructed to praise or blame according to the publishers' -interests. Few men of any standing consented to write for them. The -_Edinburgh Review_, on the other hand, enlisted a brilliant and -independent staff of contributors, guided by the editor, not the -publisher. They received sixteen guineas a sheet (sixteen printed -pages), increased subsequently to twenty-five guineas in many cases, -instead of the two guineas which formed the ordinary London reviewer's -fee. Further, the review was not limited to literary criticism. It -constituted itself the accredited organ of moderate Whig public opinion. -The particular work which provided the starting-point of an article was -in many cases merely the occasion for the exposition, always brilliant -and incisive, of the author's views on politics, social subjects, ethics -or literature. These general principles and the novelty of the method -ensured the success of the undertaking even after the original circle of -exceptionally able men who founded it had been dispersed. It had a -circulation, great for those days, of 12,000 copies. The period of -Jeffrey's editorship extended to about twenty-six years, ceasing with -the ninety-eighth number, published in June 1829, when he resigned in -favour of Macvey Napier. - -Jeffrey's own contributions, according to a list which has the sanction -of his authority, numbered two hundred, all except six being written -before his resignation of the editorship. Jeffrey wrote with great -rapidity, at odd moments of leisure and with little special preparation. -Great fluency and ease of diction, considerable warmth of imagination -and moral sentiment, and a sharp eye to discover any oddity of style or -violation of the accepted canons of good taste, made his criticisms -pungent and effective. But the essential narrowness and timidity of his -general outlook prevented him from detecting and estimating latent -forces, either in politics or in matters strictly intellectual and -moral; and this lack of understanding and sympathy accounts for his -distrust and dislike of the passion and fancy of Shelley and Keats, and -for his praise of the half-hearted and elegant romanticism of Rogers and -Campbell. (For his treatment of the lake poets see WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM.) - -A criticism in the fifteenth number of the _Review_ on the morality of -Moore's poems led in 1806 to a duel between the two authors at Chalk -Farm. The proceedings were stopped by the police, and Jeffrey's pistol -was found to contain no bullet. The affair led to a warm friendship, -however, and Moore contributed to the _Review_, while Jeffrey made ample -amends in a later article on _Lalla Rookh_ (1817). - -Jeffrey's wife had died in 1805, and in 1810 he became acquainted with -Charlotte, daughter of Charles Wilkes of New York, and great-niece of -John Wilkes. When she returned to America, Jeffrey followed her, and -they were married in 1813. Before returning to England they visited -several of the chief American cities, and his experience strengthened -Jeffrey in the conciliatory policy he had before advocated towards the -States. Notwithstanding the increasing success of the _Review_, Jeffrey -always continued to look to the bar as the chief field of his ambition. -As a matter of fact, his literary reputation helped his professional -advancement. His practice extended rapidly in the civil and criminal -courts, and he regularly appeared before the general assembly of the -Church of Scotland, where his work, though not financially profitable, -increased his reputation. As an advocate his sharpness and rapidity of -insight gave him a formidable advantage in the detection of the -weaknesses of a witness and the vulnerable points of his opponent's -case, while he grouped his own arguments with an admirable eye to -effect, especially excelling in eloquent closing appeals to a jury. -Jeffrey was twice, in 1820 and 1822, elected lord rector of the -university of Glasgow. In 1829 he was chosen dean of the faculty of -advocates. On the return of the Whigs to power in 1830 he became lord -advocate, and entered parliament as member for the Perth burghs. He was -unseated, and afterwards returned for Malton, a borough in the interest -of Lord Fitzwilliam. After the passing of the Scottish Reform Bill, -which he introduced in parliament, he was returned for Edinburgh in -December 1832. His parliamentary career, which, though not brilliantly -successful, had won him high general esteem, was terminated by his -elevation to the judicial bench as Lord Jeffrey in May 1834. In 1842 he -was moved to the first division of the Court of Session. On the -disruption of the Scottish Church he took the side of the seceders, -giving a judicial opinion in their favour, afterwards reversed by the -house of lords. He died at Edinburgh on the 26th of January 1850. - - Some of his contributions to the _Edinburgh Review_ appeared in four - volumes in 1844 and 1845. This selection includes the essay on - "Beauty" contributed to the _Ency. Brit._ The _Life of Lord Jeffrey, - with a Selection from his Correspondence_, by Lord Cockburn, appeared - in 1852 in 2 vols. See also the _Selected Correspondence of Macvey - Napier_ (1877); the sketch of Jeffrey in Carlyle's _Reminiscences_, - vol. ii. (1881); and an essay by Lewis E. Gates in _Three Studies in - Literature_ (New York, 1899). - - - - -JEFFREYS, GEORGE JEFFREYS, 1ST BARON (1648-1689), lord chancellor of -England, son of John Jeffreys, a Welsh country gentleman, was born at -Acton Park, his father's seat in Denbighshire, in 1648. His family, -though not wealthy, was of good social standing and repute in Wales; his -mother, a daughter of Sir Thomas Ireland of Bewsey, Lancashire, was "a -very pious good woman." He was educated at Shrewsbury, St Paul's and -Westminster schools, at the last of which he was a pupil of Busby, and -at Trinity College, Cambridge; but he left the university without taking -a degree, and entered the Inner Temple as a student in May 1663. From -his childhood Jeffreys displayed exceptional talent, but on coming to -London he occupied himself more with the pleasures of conviviality than -with serious study of the law. Though he never appears to have fallen -into the licentious immorality prevalent at that period, he early became -addicted to hard drinking and boisterous company. But as the records of -his early years, and indeed of his whole life, are derived almost -exclusively from vehemently hostile sources, the numerous anecdotes of -his depravity cannot be accepted without a large measure of scepticism. -He was a handsome, witty and attractive boon-companion, and in the -taverns of the city he made friends among attorneys with practice in the -criminal courts. Thus assisted he rose so rapidly in his profession that -within three years of his call to the bar in 1668, he was elected common -serjeant of the city of London. Such advancement, however, was not to be -attained even in the reign of Charles II. solely by the aid of -disreputable friendships. Jeffreys had remarkable aptitude for the -profession of an advocate--quick intelligence, caustic humour, copious -eloquence. His powers of cross-examination were masterly; and if he was -insufficiently grounded in legal principles to become a profound lawyer, -nothing but greater application was needed in the opinion of so hostile -a critic as Lord Campbell, to have made him the rival of Nottingham and -Hale. Jeffreys could count on the influence of respectable men of -position in the city, such as Sir Robert Clayton and his own namesake -Alderman Jeffreys; and he also enjoyed the personal friendship of the -virtuous Sir Matthew Hale. In 1667 Jeffreys had married in circumstances -which, if improvident, were creditable to his generosity and sense of -honour; and his domestic life, so far as is known, was free from the -scandal common among his contemporaries. While holding the judicial -office of common serjeant, he pursued his practice at the bar. With a -view to further preferment he now sought to ingratiate himself with the -court party, to which he obtained an introduction possibly through -William Chiffinch, the notorious keeper of the king's closet. He at once -attached himself to the king's mistress, the duchess of Portsmouth; and -as early as 1672 he was employed in confidential business by the court. -His influence in the city of London, where opposition to the government -of Charles II. was now becoming pronounced, enabled Jeffreys to make -himself useful to Danby. In September 1677 he received a knighthood, and -his growing favour with the court was further marked by his appointment -as solicitor-general to James, duke of York; while the city showed its -continued confidence in him by electing him to the post of recorder in -October 1678. - -In the previous month Titus Oates had made his first revelations of the -alleged popish plot, and from this time forward Jeffreys was prominently -identified, either as advocate or judge, with the memorable state trials -by which the political conflict between the Crown and the people was -waged during the remainder of the 17th century. The popish plot, -followed by the growing agitation for the exclusion of the duke of York -from the succession, widened the breach between the city and the court. -Jeffreys threw in his lot with the latter, displaying his zeal by -initiating the movement of the "abhorrers" (q.v.) against the -"petitioners" who were giving voice to the popular demand for the -summoning of parliament. He was rewarded with the coveted office of -chief justice of Chester on the 30th of April 1680; but when parliament -met in October the House of Commons passed a hostile resolution which -induced him to resign his recordership, a piece of pusillanimity that -drew from the king the remark that Jeffreys was "not parliament-proof." -Jeffreys nevertheless received from the city aldermen a substantial -token of appreciation for his past services. In 1681 he was created a -baronet. In June 1683 the first of the Rye House conspirators were -brought to trial. Jeffreys was briefed for the crown in the prosecution -of Lord William Howard; and, having been raised to the bench as lord -chief justice of the king's bench in September, he presided at the -trials of Algernon Sidney in November 1683 and of Sir Thomas Armstrong -in the following June. In the autumn of 1684 Jeffreys, who had been -active in procuring the surrender of municipal charters to the crown, -was called to the cabinet, having previously been sworn of the privy -council. In May 1685 he had the satisfaction of passing sentence on -Titus Oates for perjury in the plot trials; and about the same time -James II. rewarded his zeal with a peerage as Baron Jeffreys of Wem, an -honour never before conferred on a chief justice during his tenure of -office. Jeffreys had for some time been suffering from stone, which -aggravated the irritability of his naturally violent temper; and the -malady probably was in some degree the cause of the unmeasured fury he -displayed at the trial of Richard Baxter (q.v.) for seditious libel--if -the unofficial _ex parte_ report of the trial, which alone exists, is to -be accepted as trustworthy. - -In August 1685 Jeffreys opened at Winchester the commission known in -history as the "bloody assizes," his conduct of which has branded his -name with indelible infamy. The number of persons sentenced to death at -these assizes for complicity in the duke of Monmouth's insurrection is -uncertain. The official return of those actually executed was 320; many -hundreds more were transported and sold into slavery in the West Indies. -In all probability the great majority of those condemned were in fact -concerned in the rising, but the trials were in many cases a mockery of -the administration of justice. Numbers were cajoled into pleading -guilty; the case for the prisoners seldom obtained a hearing. The -merciless severity of the chief justice did not however exceed the -wishes of James II.; for on his return to London Jeffreys received from -the king the great seal with the title of lord chancellor. For the next -two years he was a strenuous upholder of prerogative, though he was less -abjectly pliant than has sometimes been represented. There is no reason -to doubt the sincerity of his attachment to the Church of England; for -although the king's favour was capricious Jeffreys never took the easy -and certain path to secure it that lay through apostasy; and he even -withstood James on occasion, when the latter pushed his Catholic zeal to -extremes. Though it is true that he accepted the presidency of the -ecclesiastical commission, Burnet's statement that it was Jeffreys who -suggested that institution to James is probably incorrect; and he was so -far from having instigated the prosecution of the seven bishops in 1688, -as has been frequently alleged, that he disapproved of the proceedings -and rejoiced secretly at the acquittal. But while he watched with -misgiving the king's preferment of Roman Catholics, he made himself the -masterful instrument of unconstitutional prerogative in coercing the -authorities of Cambridge University, who in 1687 refused to confer -degrees on a Benedictine monk, and the fellows of Magdalen College, -Oxford, who declined to elect as their president a disreputable nominee -of the king. - -Being thus conspicuously identified with the most tyrannical measures of -James II., Jeffreys found himself in a desperate plight when on the 11th -of December 1688 the king fled from the country on the approach to -London of William of Orange. The lord chancellor attempted to escape -like his master; but in spite of his disguise as a common seaman he was -recognized in a tavern at Wapping--possibly, as Roger North relates, by -an attorney whom Jeffreys had terrified on some occasion in the court of -chancery--and was arrested and conveyed to the Tower. The malady from -which he had long suffered had recently made fatal progress, and he died -in the Tower on the 18th of April 1689. He was succeeded in the peerage -by his son, John (2nd Baron Jeffreys of Wem), who died without male -issue in 1702, when the title became extinct. - -It is impossible to determine precisely with what justice tradition has -made the name of "Judge Jeffreys" a byword of infamy. The Revolution, -which brought about his fall, handed over his reputation at the same -time to the mercy of his bitterest enemies. They alone have recorded his -actions and appraised his motives and character. Even the adherents of -the deposed dynasty had no interest in finding excuse for one who served -as a convenient scapegoat for the offences of his master. For at least -half a century after his death no apology for Lord Jeffreys would have -obtained a hearing; and none was attempted. With the exception therefore -of what is to be gathered from the reports of the state trials, all -knowledge of his conduct rests on testimony tainted by undisguised -hostility. Innumerable scurrilous lampoons vilifying the hated -instrument of James's tyranny, but without a pretence of historic value, -flooded the country at the Revolution; and these, while they fanned the -undiscriminating hatred of contemporaries who remembered the judge's -severities, and perpetuated that hatred in tradition, have not been -sufficiently discounted even by modern historians like Macaulay and Lord -Campbell. The name of Jeffreys has therefore been handed down as that of -a coarse, ignorant, dissolute, foul-mouthed, inhuman bully, who -prostituted the seat of justice. That there was sufficient ground for -the execration in which his memory was long held is not to be gainsaid. -But the portrait has nevertheless been blackened overmuch. An occasional -significant admission in his favour may be gleaned even from the -writings of his enemies. Thus Roger North declares that "in matters -indifferent," i.e. where politics were not concerned, Jeffreys became -the seat of justice better than any other that author had seen in his -place. Sir J. Jekyll, master of the rolls, told Speaker Onslow that -Jeffreys "had great parts and made a great chancellor in the business of -his court. In mere private matters he was thought an able and upright -judge wherever he sat." His keen sense of humour, allied with a spirit -of inveterate mockery and an exuberant command of pungent eloquence, led -him to rail and storm at prisoners and witnesses in grossly unseemly -fashion. But in this he did not greatly surpass most of his -contemporaries on the judicial bench, and it was a failing from which -even the dignified and virtuous Hale was not altogether exempt. The -intemperance of Jeffreys which shocked North, certainly did not exceed -that of Saunders; in violence he was rivalled by Scroggs; though accused -of political apostasy, he was not a shameless renegade like Williams; -and there is no evidence that in pecuniary matters he was personally -venal, or that in licentiousness he followed the example set by Charles -II. and most of his courtiers. Some of his actions that have incurred -the sternest reprobation of posterity were otherwise estimated by the -best of his contemporaries. His trial of Algernon Sidney, described by -Macaulay and Lord Campbell as one of the most heinous of his iniquities, -was warmly commended by Dr William Lloyd, who was soon afterwards to -become a popular idol as one of the illustrious seven bishops (see -letter from the bishop of St Asaph in H. B. Irving's _Life of Judge -Jeffreys_, p. 184). Nor was the habitual illegality of his procedure on -the bench so unquestionable as many writers have assumed. Sir James -Stephen inclined to the opinion that no actual abuse of law tainted the -trials of the Rye House conspirators, or that of Alice Lisle, the most -prominent victim of the "bloody assizes." The conduct of the judges in -Russell's trial was, he thinks, "moderate and fair in general"; and the -trial of Sidney "much resembled that of Russell." The same high -authority pronounces that the trial of Lord Delamere in the House of -Lords was conducted by Jeffreys "with propriety and dignity." And if -Jeffreys judged political offenders with cruel severity, he also crushed -some glaring abuses; conspicuous examples of which were the frauds of -attorneys who infested Westminster Hall, and the systematic kidnapping -practised by the municipal authorities of Bristol. Moreover, if any -value is to be attached to the evidence of physiognomy, the traditional -estimate of the character of Jeffreys obtains no confirmation from the -refinement of his features and expression as depicted in Kneller's -portrait in the National Portrait Gallery of London. But even though the -popular notion requires to be thus modified in certain respects, it -remains incontestable that Jeffreys was probably on the whole the worst -example of a period when the administration of justice in England had -sunk to the lowest degradation, and the judicial bench had become the -too willing tool of an unconstitutional and unscrupulous executive. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief contemporary authorities for the life of - Jeffreys are Bishop Burnet's _History of my own Time_ (1724), and see - especially the edition "with notes by the Earls of Dartmouth and - Hardwick Speaker Onslow and Dean Swift" (Oxford Univ. Press, 1833); - Roger North's _Life of the Right Hon. Francis North, Baron of - Guildford_ (1808) and _Autobiography_ (ed. by Augustus Jessopp, 1887); - _Ellis Correspondence, Verney Papers_ (Hist. MSS. Comm.), _Hatton - Correspondence_ (Camden Soc. pub.); the earl of Ailesbury's _Memoirs_; - Evelyn's _Diary_. The only trustworthy information as to the judicial - conduct and capacity of Jeffreys is to be found in the reports of the - _State Trials_, vols. vii.-xii.; and cf. Sir J. F. Stephen's _History - of the Criminal Law of England_ (1883). For details of the "bloody - assizes," see _Harl. MSS._, 4689; George Roberts, _The Life, - Progresses and Rebellion of James Duke of Monmouth_, vol. ii. (1844); - also many pamphlets, lampoons, &c., in the British Museum, as to which - see the article on "Sources of History for Monmouth's Rebellion and - the Bloody Assizes," by A. L. Humphreys, in _Proceedings of the - Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural Hist. Soc._ (1892). Later - accounts are by H. W. Woolrych, _Memoirs of the Life of Judge - Jeffreys_ (1827); Lord Campbell, _The Lives of the Lord Chancellors_ - (1845), 1st series, vol. iii.; E. Foss, _The Judges of England_ - (1864), vol. vii.; Henry Roscoe, _Lives of Eminent British Lawyers_ - (1830); Lord Macaulay, _History of England_ (1848; and many subsequent - editions). Most of these works, and especially those by Macaulay and - Campbell, are uncritical in their hostility to Jeffreys, and are based - for the most part on untrustworthy authorities. The best modern work - on the subject, though unduly favourable to Jeffreys, is H. B. - Irving's _Life of Judge Jeffreys_ (1898), the appendix to which - contains a full bibliography. (R. J. M.) - - - - -JEHOIACHIN (Heb. "Yah[weh] establisheth"), in the Bible, son of -Jehoiakim and king of Judah (2 Kings xxiv. 8 sqq.; 2 Chron, xxxvi. 9 -seq.). He came to the throne at the age of eighteen in the midst of the -Chaldean invasion of Judah, and is said to have reigned three months. He -was compelled to surrender to Nebuchadrezzar and was carried off to -Babylon (597 B.C.). This was the First Captivity, and from it Ezekiel -(one of the exiles) dates his prophecies. Eight thousand people of the -better class (including artisans, &c.) were removed, the Temple was -partially despoiled (see Jer. xxvii. 18-20; xxiii.v. 3 seq.),[1] and -Jehoiachin's uncle Mattaniah (son of Josiah) was appointed king. -Jehoiachin's fate is outlined in Jer. xxii. 20-30 (cf. xxvii. 20). -Nearly forty years later, Nebuchadrezzar II. died (562 B.C.) and -Evil-Merodach (Amil-Marduk) his successor released the unfortunate -captive and gave him precedence over the other subjugated kings who were -kept prisoners in Babylon. With this gleam of hope for the unhappy -Judaeans both the book of Kings and the prophecies of Jeremiah conclude -(2 Kings xxv. 27-30; Jer. lii. 31-34). - - See, further, JEREMIAH (especially chaps. xxiv., xxvii. seq.), and - JEWS, S 17. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] 2 Kings xxiv. 13 seq. gives other numbers and a view of the - disaster which is more suitable for the Second Captivity. (See - ZEDEKIAH.) - - - - -JEHOIAKIM (Heb. "Yah[weh] raiseth up"), in the Bible, son of Josiah -(q.v.) and king of Judah (2 Kings xxiii. 34-xxiv. 6). On the defeat of -Josiah at Megiddo his younger brother Jehoahaz (or Shallum) was chosen -by the Judaeans, but the Egyptian conquerer Necho summoned him to his -headquarters at Riblah (south of Hamath on the Orontes) and removed him -to Egypt, appointing in his stead Eliakim, whose name ("El [God] raiseth -up") was changed to its better-known synonym, Jehoiakim. For a time -Jehoiakim remained under the protection of Necho and paid heavy tribute; -but with the rise of the new Chaldean Empire under Nebuchadrezzar II., -and the overthrow of Egypt at the battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.) a -vital change occurred. After three years of allegiance the king -revolted. Invasions followed by Chaldeans, Syrians, Moabites and -Ammonites, perhaps the advance troops despatched by the Babylonian -king; the power of Egypt was broken and the whole land came into the -hands of Nebuchadrezzar. It was at the close of Jehoiakim's reign, -apparently just before his death, that the enemy appeared at the gates -of Jerusalem, and although he himself "slept with his fathers" his young -son was destined to see the first captivity of the land of Judah (597 -B.C.). (See JEHOIACHIN.) - - Which "three years" (2 Kings xxiv. 1) are intended is disputed; it is - uncertain whether Judah suffered in 605 B.C. (Berossus in Jos. _c. - Ap._ i. 19) or was left unharmed (Jos. _Ant._ x. 6. 1); perhaps - Nebuchadrezzar made his first inroad against Judah in 602 B.C. because - of its intrigue with Egypt (H. Winckler, _Keilinschrift. u. d. alte - Test._, pp. 107 seq.), and the three years of allegiance extends to - 599. The chronicler's tradition (2 Chron. xxxvi. 5-8) speaks of - Jehoiakim's captivity, apparently confusing him with Jehoiachin. The - Septuagint, however, still preserves there the record of his peaceful - death, in agreement with the earlier source in 2 Kings, but against - the prophecy of Jeremiah (xxii. 18 seq., xxxvi. 30), which is accepted - by Jos. _Ant._ x. 6. 3. The different traditions can scarcely be - reconciled. Nothing certain is known of the marauding bands sent - against Jehoiakim; for Syrians (_Aram_) one would expect Edomites - (_Edom_), but see Jer. xxxv. 11; some recensions of the Septuagint - even include the "Samaritans"! (For further references to this reign - see especially JEREMIAH; see also JEWS: _History_, S 17.) - (S. A. C.) - - - - -JEHOL ("hot stream"), or CH'ENG-TE-FU, a city of China, formerly the -seat of the emperor's summer palace, near 118 deg. E. and 41 deg. N., -about 140 m. N.E. of Peking, with which it is connected by an excellent -road. Pop. (estimate), 10,000. It is a flourishing town, and consists of -one great street, about 2 m. long, with smaller streets radiating in all -directions. The people are well-to-do and there are some fine shops. The -palace, called Pi-shu-shan-chuang, or "mountain lodge for avoiding -heat," was built in 1703 on the plan of the palace of Yuen-ming-yuen -near Peking. A substantial brick wall 6 m. in circuit encloses several -well-wooded heights and extensive gardens, rockeries, pavilions, -temples, &c. Jehol was visited by Lord Macartney on his celebrated -mission to the emperor K'ienlung in 1793; and it was to Jehol that the -emperor Hienfeng retired when the allied armies of England and France -occupied Peking in 1860. In the vicinity of Jehol are numerous Lama -monasteries and temples, the most remarkable being Potala-su, built on -the model of the palace of the grand lama of Tibet at Potala. - - - - -JEHORAM, or JORAM (Heb. "Yah[weh] is high"), the name of two Biblical -characters. - -1. The son of Ahab, and king of Israel in succession to his brother -Ahaziah.[1] He maintained close relations with Judah, whose king came to -his assistance against Moab which had revolted after Ahab's death (2 -Kings i. 1; iii.). The king in question is said to have been -Jehoshaphat; but, according to Lucian's recension, it was Ahaziah, -whilst i. 17 would show that it was Jehoram's namesake (see 2). The -result of the campaign appears to have been a defeat for Israel (see on -the incidents EDOM, ELISHA, MOAB). The prophetical party were throughout -hostile to Jehoram (with his reform iii. 2 contrast x. 27), and the -singular account of the war of Benhadad king of Syria against the king -of Israel (vi. 24-vii.) shows the feeling against the reigning dynasty. -But whether the incidents in which Elisha and the unnamed king of Israel -appear originally belonged to the time of Jehoram is very doubtful, and -in view of the part which Elisha took in securing the accession of Jehu, -it has been urged with much force that they belong to the dynasty of the -latter, when the high position of the prophet would be perfectly -natural.[2] The briefest account is given of Jehoram's alliance with -Ahaziah (son of 2 below) against Hazael of Syria, at Ramoth-Gilead (2 -Kings viii. 25-29), and the incident--with the wounding of the Israelite -king in or about the critical year 842 B.C.--finds a noteworthy parallel -in the time of Jehoshaphat and Ahab (1 Kings xxii. 29-36) at the period -of the equally momentous events in 854 (see AHAB). See further JEHU. - -2. The son of Jehoshaphat and king of Judah. He married Athaliah the -daughter of Ahab, and thus was brother-in-law of 1. above, and -contemporary with him (2 Kings i. 17). In his days Edom revolted, and -this with the mention of Libnah's revolt (2 Kings viii. 20 sqq.) -suggests some common action on the part of Philistines and Edomites. The -chronicler's account of his life (2 Chron. xxi-xxii. 1) presupposes -this, but adds many remarkable details: he began his reign by massacring -his brethren (cf. Jehu son of Jehoshaphat, and his bloodshed, 2 Kings -ix. seq.); for his wickedness he received a communication from Elijah -foretelling his death from disease (cf. Elijah and Ahaziah of Israel, 2 -Kings i.); in a great invasion of Philistines and Arabian tribes he lost -all his possessions and family, and only Jehoahaz (i.e. Ahaziah) was -saved.[3] His son Ahaziah reigned only for a year (cf. his namesake of -Israel); he is condemned for his Israelite sympathies, and met his end -in the general butchery which attended the accession of Jehu (2 Kings -viii. 25 sqq.; 2 Chron. xxii. 3 seq., 7; with 2 Kings ix. 27 seq., note -the variant tradition in 2 Chron. xxii. 8 seq., and the details which -the LXX. (Lucian) appends to 2 Kings x.). (S. A. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] 2 Kings i. 17 seq.; see Lucian's reading (cf. Vulg. and Pesh.). - Apart from the allusion 1 Kings xxii. 49 (see 2 Chron. xx. 35), and - the narrative in 2 Kings i. (see ELIJAH), nothing is known of this - Ahaziah. Notwithstanding his very brief reign (1 Kings xxii. 51; 2 - Kings iii. 1), the compiler passes the usual hostile judgment (1 - Kings xxii. 52 seq.); see KINGS (BOOKS). The chronology in 1 Kings - xxii. 51 is difficult; if Lucian's text (twenty-fourth year of - Jehoshaphat) is correct, Jehoram 1 and 2 must have come to their - respective thrones at almost the same time. - - [2] In vii. 6 the hostility of Hittites and Mizraim (q.v.) points to - a period _after_ 842 B.C. (See JEWS, S 10 seq.) - - [3] These details are scarcely the invention of the chronicler; see - CHRONICLES, and EXPOSITOR, Aug. 1906, p. 191. - - - - -JEHOSHAPHAT (Heb. "Yahweh judges"), in the Bible, son of Asa, and king -of Judah, in the 9th century B.C. During his period close relations -subsisted between Israel and Judah; the two royal houses were connected -by marriage (see ATHALIAH; JEHORAM, 2), and undertook joint enterprise -in war and commerce. Jehoshaphat aided Ahab in the battle against -Benhadad at Ramoth-Gilead in which Ahab was slain (1 Kings xxii.; 2 -Chron. xviii.; cf. the parallel incident in 2 Kings viii. 25-29), and -trading journeys to Ophir were undertaken by his fleet in conjunction no -doubt with Ahab as well as with his son Ahaziah (2 Chron. xx. 35 sqq.; 1 -Kings xxii. 47 sqq.). The chronicler's account of his war against Moab, -Ammon and Edomite tribes (2 Chron. xx.), must rest ultimately upon a -tradition which is presupposed in the earlier source (1 Kings xxii. 47), -and the disaster to the ships at Ezion-Geber at the head of the Gulf of -Akaba preceded, if it was not the introduction to, the great revolt in -the days of Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram, where, again, the details in 2 -Chron. xxi. must rely in the first instance upon an old source. Apart -from what is said of Jehoshaphat's legislative measures (2 Chron. xix. 4 -sqq.; cf. the meaning of his name above), an account is preserved of his -alliance with Jehoram of Israel against Moab (2 Kings iii.), on which -see JEHORAM; MOAB. The "valley of Jehoshaphat" (Joel iii. 12) has been -identified by tradition (as old as Eusebius) with the valley between -Jerusalem and the mount of Olives. (S. A. C.) - - - - -JEHOVAH (YAHWEH[1]), in the Bible, the God of Israel. "Jehovah" is a -modern mispronunciation of the Hebrew name, resulting from combining the -consonants of that name, _Jhvh_, with the vowels of the word _adonay_, -"Lord," which the Jews substituted for the proper name in reading the -scriptures. In such cases of substitution the vowels of the word which -is to be read are written in the Hebrew text with the consonants of the -word which is not to be read. The consonants of the word to be -substituted are ordinarily written in the margin; but inasmuch as Adonay -was regularly read instead of the ineffable name Jhvh, it was deemed -unnecessary to note the fact at every occurrence. When Christian -scholars began to study the Old Testament in Hebrew, if they were -ignorant of this general rule or regarded the substitution as a piece of -Jewish superstition, reading what actually stood in the text, they would -inevitably pronounce the name Jehovah. It is an unprofitable inquiry who -first made this blunder; probably many fell into it independently. The -statement still commonly repeated that it originated with Petrus -Galatinus (1518) is erroneous; Jehova occurs in manuscripts at least as -early as the 14th century. - -The form Jehovah was used in the 16th century by many authors, both -Catholic and Protestant, and in the 17th was zealously defended by -Fuller, Gataker, Leusden and others, against the criticisms of such -scholars as Drusius, Cappellus and the elder Buxtorf. It appeared in the -English Bible in Tyndale's translation of the Pentateuch (1530), and is -found in all English Protestant versions of the 16th century except that -of Coverdale (1535). In the Authorized Version of 1611 it occurs in -Exod. vi. 3; Ps. lxxxiii. 18; Isa. xii. 2; xxvi. 4, beside the compound -names Jehovah-jireh, Jehovah-nissi, Jehovah-shalom; elsewhere, in -accordance with the usage of the ancient versions, Jhvh is represented -by Lord (distinguished by capitals from the title "Lord," Heb. -_adonay_). In the Revised Version of 1885 Jehovah is retained in the -places in which it stood in the A. V., and is introduced also in Exod. -vi. 2, 6, 7, 8; Ps. lxviii. 20; Isa. xlix. 14; Jer. xvi. 21; Hab. iii. -19. The American committee which cooperated in the revision desired to -employ the name Jehovah wherever Jhvh occurs in the original, and -editions embodying their preferences are printed accordingly. - -Several centuries before the Christian era the name Jhvh had ceased to -be commonly used by the Jews. Some of the later writers in the Old -Testament employ the appellative Elohim, God, prevailingly or -exclusively; a collection of Psalms (Ps. xlii.-lxxxiii.) was revised by -an editor who changed the Jhvh of the authors into Elohim (see e.g. xlv. -7; xlviii. 10; l. 7; li. 14); observe also the frequency of "the Most -High," "the God of Heaven," "King of Heaven," in Daniel, and of "Heaven" -in First Maccabees. The oldest Greek versions (Septuagint), from the -third century B.C., consistently use [Greek: Kyrios], "Lord," where the -Hebrew has Jhvh, corresponding to the substitution of Adonay for Jhvh in -reading the original; in books written in Greek in this period (e.g. -Wisdom, 2 and 3 Maccabees), as in the New Testament, [Greek: Kyrios] -takes the place of the name of God. Josephus, who as a priest knew the -pronunciation of the name, declares that religion forbids him to divulge -it; Philo calls it ineffable, and says that it is lawful for those only -whose ears and tongues are purified by wisdom to hear and utter it in a -holy place (that is, for priests in the Temple); and in another passage, -commenting on Lev. xxiv. 15 seq.: "If anyone, I do not say should -blaspheme against the Lord of men and gods, but should even dare to -utter his name unseasonably, let him expect the penalty of death."[2] - -Various motives may have concurred to bring about the suppression of the -name. An instinctive feeling that a proper name for God implicitly -recognizes the existence of other gods may have had some influence; -reverence and the fear lest the holy name should be profaned among the -heathen were potent reasons; but probably the most cogent motive was the -desire to prevent the abuse of the name in magic. If so, the secrecy had -the opposite effect; the name of the god of the Jews was one of the -great names in magic, heathen as well as Jewish, and miraculous efficacy -was attributed to the mere utterance of it. - -In the liturgy of the Temple the name was pronounced in the priestly -benediction (Num. vi. 27) after the regular daily sacrifice (in the -synagogues a substitute--probably Adonay--was employed);[3] on the Day -of Atonement the High Priest uttered the name ten times in his prayers -and benediction. In the last generations before the fall of Jerusalem, -however, it was pronounced in a low tone so that the sounds were lost in -the chant of the priests.[4] - -After the destruction of the Temple (A.D. 70) the liturgical use of the -name ceased, but the tradition was perpetuated in the schools of the -rabbis.[5] It was certainly known in Babylonia in the latter part of the -4th century,[6] and not improbably much later. Nor was the knowledge -confined to these pious circles; the name continued to be employed by -healers, exorcists and magicians, and has been preserved in many places -in magical papyri. The vehemence with which the utterance of the name is -denounced in the Mishna--"He who pronounces the Name with its own -letters has no part in the world to come!"[7]--suggests that this misuse -of the name was not uncommon among Jews. - -The Samaritans, who otherwise shared the scruples of the Jews about the -utterance of the name, seem to have used it in judicial oaths to the -scandal of the rabbis.[8] - -The early Christian scholars, who inquired what was the true name of the -God of the Old Testament, had therefore no great difficulty in getting -the information they sought. Clement of Alexandria (d. c. 212) says that -it was pronounced [Greek: Iaoue].[9] Epiphanius (d. 404), who was born -in Palestine and spent a considerable part of his life there, gives -[Greek: Iabe] (one cod. [Greek: Iaue]).[10] Theodoret (d. c. 457),[11] -born in Antioch, writes that the Samaritans pronounced the name [Greek: -Iabe] (in another passage, [Greek: Iabai]), the Jews [Greek: Aia].[12] -The latter is probably not Jhvh but _Ehyeh_ (Exod. iii. 14), which the -Jews counted among the names of God; there is no reason whatever to -imagine that the Samaritans pronounced the name Jhvh differently from -the Jews. This direct testimony is supplemented by that of the magical -texts, in which [Greek: Iabe zebyth] (Jahveh Sebaoth), as well as -[Greek: Iaba], occurs frequently.[13] In an Ethiopic list of magical -names of Jesus, purporting to have been taught by him to his disciples, -_Yawe_ is found.[14] Finally, there is evidence from more than one -source that the modern Samaritan priests pronounce the name _Yahweh_ or -_Yahwa_.[15] - -There is no reason to impugn the soundness of this substantially -consentient testimony to the pronunciation Yahweh or Jahveh, coming as -it does through several independent channels. It is confirmed by -grammatical considerations. The name Jhvh enters into the composition of -many proper names of persons in the Old Testament, either as the initial -element, in the form Jeho- or Jo- (as in Jehoram, Joram), or as the -final element, in the form _-jahu_ or _-jah_ (as in Adonijahu, -Adonijah). These various forms are perfectly regular if the divine name -was Yahweh, and, taken altogether, they cannot be explained on any other -hypothesis. Recent scholars, accordingly, with but few exceptions, are -agreed that the ancient pronunciation of the name was Yahweh (the first -h sounded at the end of the syllable). - -Genebrardus seems to have been the first to suggest the pronunciation -_Iahue_,[16] but it was not until the 19th century that it became -generally accepted. - -Jahveh or Yahweh is apparently an example of a common type of Hebrew -proper names which have the form of the 3rd pers. sing, of the verb. -e.g. Jabneh (name of a city), Jabin, Jamlek, Jiptah (Jephthah), &c. Most -of these really are verbs, the suppressed or implicit subject being -_'el_, "_numen_, god," or the name of a god; cf. Jabneh and Jabne-el, -Jiptah and Jiptah-el. - -The ancient explanations of the name proceed from Exod. iii. 14, 15, -where "Yahweh[17] hath sent me" in v. 15 corresponds to "Ehyeh hath sent -me" in v. 14, thus seeming to connect the name Yahweh with the Hebrew -verb _hayah_, "to become, to be." The Palestinian interpreters found in -this the promise that God would be with his people (cf. v. 12) in -future oppressions as he was in the present distress, or the assertion -of his eternity, or eternal constancy; the Alexandrian translation -[Greek: 'Ego eimi ho on ... 'Ho on apestalken me pros hymas], -understands it in the more metaphysical sense of God's absolute being. -Both interpretations, "He (who) is (always the same)," and "He (who) is -(absolutely, the truly existent)," import into the name all that they -profess to find in it; the one, the religious faith in God's unchanging -fidelity to his people, the other, a philosophical conception of -absolute being which is foreign both to the meaning of the Hebrew verb -and to the force of the tense employed. Modern scholars have sometimes -found in the name the expression of the aseity[18] of God; sometimes of -his reality, in contrast to the imaginary gods of the heathen. Another -explanation, which appears first in Jewish authors of the middle ages -and has found wide acceptance in recent times, derives the name from the -causative of the verb; He (who) causes things to be, gives them being; -or calls events into existence, brings them to pass; with many -individual modifications of interpretation--creator, life-giver, -fulfiller of promises. A serious objection to this theory in every form -is that the verb _hayah_, "to be," has no causative stem in Hebrew; to -express the ideas which these scholars find in the name Yahweh the -language employs altogether different verbs. - -This assumption that Yahweh is derived from the verb "to be," as seems -to be implied in Exod. iii. 14 seq., is not, however, free from -difficulty. "To be" in the Hebrew of the Old Testament is not _hawah_, -as the derivation would require, but _hayah_; and we are thus driven to -the further assumption that _hawah_ belongs to an earlier stage of the -language, or to some older speech of the forefathers of the Israelites. -This hypothesis is not intrinsically improbable--and in Aramaic, a -language closely related to Hebrew, "to be" actually is _hawa_--but it -should be noted that in adopting it we admit that, using the name Hebrew -in the historical sense, Yahweh is not a Hebrew name. And, inasmuch as -nowhere in the Old Testament, outside of Exod. iii., is there the -slightest indication that the Israelites connected the name of their God -with the idea of "being" in any sense, it may fairly be questioned -whether, if the author of Exod. iii. 14 seq., intended to give an -etymological interpretation of the name Yahweh,[19] his etymology is any -better than many other paronomastic explanations of proper names in the -Old Testament, or than, say, the connexion of the name [Greek: Apollon] -with [Greek: apolouon], [Greek: apolyon] in Plato's _Cratylus_, or the -popular derivation from [Greek: apollymi]. - -A root _hawah_ is represented in Hebrew by the nouns _howah_ (Ezek., -Isa. xlvii. 11) and _hawwah_ (Ps., Prov., Job) "disaster, calamity, -ruin."[20] The primary meaning is probably "sink down, fall," in which -sense--common in Arabic--the verb appears in Job xxxvii. 6 (of snow -falling to earth). A Catholic commentator of the 16th century, -Hieronymus ab Oleastro, seems to have been the first to connect the name -"Jehova" with _howah_ interpreting it _contritio, sive pernicies_ -(destruction of the Egyptians and Canaanites); Daumer, adopting the same -etymology, took it in a more general sense: Yahweh, as well as Shaddai, -meant "Destroyer," and fitly expressed the nature of the terrible god -whom he identified with Moloch. - -The derivation of Yahweh from _hawah_ is formally unimpeachable, and is -adopted by many recent scholars, who proceed, however, from the primary -sense of the root rather than from the specific meaning of the nouns. -The name is accordingly interpreted, He (who) falls (baetyl, [Greek: -baitylos], meteorite); or causes (rain or lightning) to fall (storm -god); or casts down (his foes, by his thunderbolts). It is obvious that -if the derivation be correct, the significance of the name, which in -itself denotes only "He falls" or "He fells," must be learned, if at -all, from early Israelitish conceptions of the nature of Yahweh rather -than from etymology. - -A more fundamental question is whether the name Yahweh originated among -the Israelites or was adopted by them from some other people and -speech.[21] The biblical author of the history of the sacred -institutions (P) expressly declares that the name Yahweh was unknown to -the patriarchs (Exod. vi. 3), and the much older Israelite historian (E) -records the first revelation of the name to Moses (Exod. iii. 13-15), -apparently following a tradition according to which the Israelites had -not been worshippers of Yahweh before the time of Moses, or, as he -conceived it, had not worshipped the god of their fathers under that -name. The revelation of the name to Moses was made at a mountain sacred -to Yahweh (the mountain of God) far to the south of Palestine, in a -region where the forefathers of the Israelites had never roamed, and in -the territory of other tribes; and long after the settlement in Canaan -this region continued to be regarded as the abode of Yahweh (Judg. v. 4; -Deut. xxxiii. 2 sqq.; 1 Kings xix. 8 sqq. &c.). Moses is closely -connected with the tribes in the vicinity of the holy mountain; -according to one account, he married a daughter of the priest of Midian -(Exod. ii. 16 sqq.; iii. 1); to this mountain he led the Israelites -after their deliverance from Egypt; there his father-in-law met him, and -extolling Yahweh as "greater than all the gods," offered (in his -capacity as priest of the place?) sacrifices, at which the chief men of -the Israelites were his guests; there the religion of Yahweh was -revealed through Moses, and the Israelites pledged themselves to serve -God according to its prescriptions. It appears, therefore, that in the -tradition followed by the Israelite historian the tribes within whose -pasture lands the mountain of God stood were worshippers of Yahweh -before the time of Moses; and the surmise that the name Yahweh belongs -to their speech, rather than to that of Israel, has considerable -probability. One of these tribes was Midian, in whose land the mountain -of God lay. The Kenites also, with whom another tradition connects -Moses, seem to have been worshippers of Yahweh. It is probable that -Yahweh was at one time worshipped by various tribes south of Palestine, -and that several places in that wide territory (Horeb, Sinai, Kadesh, -&c.) were sacred to him; the oldest and most famous of these, the -mountain of God, seems to have lain in Arabia, east of the Red Sea. From -some of these peoples and at one of these holy places, a group of -Israelite tribes adopted the religion of Yahweh, the God who, by the -hand of Moses, had delivered them from Egypt.[22] - -The tribes of this region probably belonged to some branch of the great -Arab stock, and the name Yahweh has, accordingly, been connected with -the Arabic _hawa_, "the void" (between heaven and earth), "the -atmosphere," or with the verb _hawa_, cognate with Heb. _hawah_, "sink, -glide down" (through space); _hawwa_ "blow" (wind). "He rides through -the air, He blows" (Wellhausen), would be a fit name for a god of wind -and storm. There is, however, no certain evidence that the Israelites in -historical times had any consciousness of the primitive significance of -the name. - -The attempts to connect the name Yahweh with that of an Indo-European -deity (Jehovah-Jove, &c.), or to derive it from Egyptian or Chinese, may -be passed over. But one theory which has had considerable currency -requires notice, namely, that Yahweh, or Yahu, Yaho,[23] is the name of -a god worshipped throughout the whole, or a great part, of the area -occupied by the Western Semites. In its earlier form this opinion rested -chiefly on certain misinterpreted testimonies in Greek authors about a -god [Greek: Iao], and was conclusively refuted by Baudissin; recent -adherents of the theory build more largely on the occurrence in various -parts of this territory of proper names of persons and places which -they explain as compounds of Yahu or Yah.[24] The explanation is in most -cases simply an assumption of the point at issue; some of the names have -been misread; others are undoubtedly the names of Jews. There remain, -however, some cases in which it is highly probable that names of -non-Israelites are really compounded with Yahweh. The most conspicuous -of these is the king of Hamath who in the inscriptions of Sargon -(722-705 B.C.) is called Yaubi'di and Ilubi'di (compare -Jehoiakim-Eliakim). Azriyau of Jaudi, also, in inscriptions of -Tiglath-Pileser (745-728 B.C.), who was formerly supposed to be Azariah -(Uzziah) of Judah, is probably a king of the country in northern Syria -known to us from the Zenjirli inscriptions as Ja'di. - -Friedrich Delitzsch brought into notice three tablets, of the age of the -first dynasty of Babylon, in which he read the names of _Ya-a'-ve-ilu_, -_Ya-ve-ilu_, and _Ya-u-um-ilu_ ("Yahweh is God"), and which he regarded -as conclusive proof that Yahweh was known in Babylonia before 2000 B.C.; -he was a god of the Semitic invaders in the second wave of migration, -who were, according to Winckler and Delitzsch, of North Semitic stock -(Canaanites, in the linguistic sense).[25] We should thus have in the -tablets evidence of the worship of Yahweh among the Western Semites at a -time long before the rise of Israel. The reading of the names is, -however, extremely uncertain, not to say improbable, and the -far-reaching inferences drawn from them carry no conviction. In a tablet -attributed to the 14th century B.C. which Sellin found in the course of -his excavations at Tell Ta'annuk (the Taanach of the O.T.) a name occurs -which may be read Ahi-Yawi (equivalent to Hebrew Ahijah);[26] if the -reading be correct, this would show that Yahweh was worshipped in -Central Palestine before the Israelite conquest. The reading is, -however, only one of several possibilities. The fact that the full form -Yahweh appears, whereas in Hebrew proper names only the shorter Yahu and -Yah occur, weighs somewhat against the interpretation, as it does -against Delitzsch's reading of his tablets. - -It would not be at all surprising if, in the great movements of -populations and shifting of ascendancy which lie beyond our historical -horizon, the worship of Yahweh should have been established in regions -remote from those which it occupied in historical times; but nothing -which we now know warrants the opinion that his worship was ever general -among the Western Semites. - -Many attempts have been made to trace the West Semitic Yahu back to -Babylonia. Thus Delitzsch formerly derived the name from an Akkadian -god, I or Ia; or from the Semitic nominative ending, Yau;[27] but this -deity has since disappeared from the pantheon of Assyriologists. The -combination of Yah with Ea, one of the great Babylonian gods, seems to -have a peculiar fascination for amateurs, by whom it is periodically -"discovered." Scholars are now agreed that, so far as Yahu or Yah occurs -in Babylonian texts, it is as the name of a foreign god. - -Assuming that Yahweh was primitively a nature god, scholars in the 19th -century discussed the question over what sphere of nature he originally -presided. According to some he was the god of consuming fire; others saw -in him the bright sky, or the heaven; still others recognized in him a -storm god, a theory with which the derivation of the name from Heb. -_hawah_ or Arab. _hawa_ well accords. The association of Yahweh with -storm and fire is frequent in the Old Testament; the thunder is the -voice of Yahweh, the lightning his arrows, the rainbow his bow. The -revelation at Sinai is amid the awe-inspiring phenomena of tempest. -Yahweh leads Israel through the desert in a pillar of cloud and fire; he -kindles Elijah's altar by lightning, and translates the prophet in a -chariot of fire. See also Judg. v. 4 seq.; Deut. xxxiii. 1; Ps. xviii. -7-15; Hab. iii. 3-6. The cherub upon which he rides when he flies on the -wings of the wind (Ps. xviii. 10) is not improbably an ancient -mythological personification of the storm cloud, the genius of tempest -(cf. Ps. civ. 3). In Ezekiel the throne of Yahweh is borne up on -Cherubim, the noise of whose wings is like thunder. Though we may -recognize in this poetical imagery the survival of ancient and, if we -please, mythical notions, we should err if we inferred that Yahweh was -originally a departmental god, presiding specifically over -meteorological phenomena, and that this conception of him persisted -among the Israelites till very late times. Rather, as the god--or the -chief god--of a region and a people, the most sublime and impressive -phenomena, the control of the mightiest forces of nature are attributed -to him. As the God of Israel Yahweh becomes its leader and champion in -war; he is a warrior, mighty in battle; but he is not a god of war in -the specific sense. - -In the inquiry concerning the nature of Yahweh the name Yahweh Sebaoth -(E.V., The LORD of Hosts) has had an important place. The hosts have by -some been interpreted of the armies of Israel (see 1 Sam. xvii. 45, and -note the association of the name in the Books of Samuel, where it first -appears, with the ark, or with war); by others, of the heavenly hosts, -the stars conceived as living beings, later, perhaps, the angels as the -court of Yahweh and the instruments of his will in nature and history -(Ps. lxxxix.); or of the forces of the world in general which do his -bidding, cf. the common Greek renderings, [Greek: Kyrios ton dynameon] -and [Greek: K. pantokrator], (Universal Ruler). It is likely that the -name was differently understood in different periods and circles; but in -the prophets the hosts are clearly superhuman powers. In many passages -the name seems to be only a more solemn substitute for the simple -Yahweh, and as such it has probably often been inserted by scribes. -Finally, Sebaoth came to be treated as a proper name (cf. Ps. lxxx. 5, -8, 20), and as such is very common in magical texts. - - LITERATURE.--Reland, _Decas exercitationum philologicarum de vera - pronuntiatione nominis Jehova_, 1707; Reinke, - "Philologisch-historische Abhandlung uber den Gottesnamen Jehova," in - _Beitrage zur Erklarung des Alten Testaments_, III. (1855); Baudissin, - "Der Ursprung des Gottesnamens [Greek: Iao]," in _Studien zur - semitischen Religionsgeschichte_, I. (1876), 179-254; Driver, "Recent - Theories on the Origin and Nature of the Tetragrammaton," in _Studia - Biblica_, I. (1885), 1-20; Deissmann, "Griechische Transkriptionen des - Tetragrammaton," in _Bibelstudien_ (1895), 1-20; Blau, _Das - altjudische Zauberwesen_, 1898. See also HEBREW RELIGION. - (G. F. Mo.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] This form, _Yahweh_, as the correct one, is generally used in the - separate articles throughout this work. - - [2] See Josephus, Ant. ii. 12, 4; Philo, _Vita Mosis_, iii. 11 (ii. - S114, ed. Cohn and Wendland); ib. iii. 27 (ii. S206). The Palestinian - authorities more correctly interpreted Lev. xxiv. 15 seq., not of the - mere utterance of the name, but of the use of the name of God in - blaspheming God. - - [3] _Siphre_, Num. SS 39, 43; _M. Sotah_, iii. 7; _Sotah_, 38_a_. The - tradition that the utterance of the name in the daily benedictions - ceased with the death of Simeon the Just, two centuries or more - before the Christian era, perhaps arose from a misunderstanding of - _Menahoth_, 109_b_; in any case it cannot stand against the testimony - of older and more authoritative texts. - - [4] _Yoma_, 39b; _Jer. Yoma_, iii. 7; _Kiddushin_, 71_a_. - - [5] R. Johanan (second half of the 3rd century), _Kiddushin_, 71a. - - [6] Kiddushin, l.c. = _Pesahim_, 50a. - - [7] _M. Sanhedrin_, x. 1; Abba Saul, end of 2nd century. - - [8] _Jer. Sanhedrin_, x. 1; R. Mana, 4th century. - - [9] _Strom._ v. 6. Variants: [Greek: Ia oue, Ia ouai]; cod. L. - [Greek: Iaou]. - - [10] _Panarion_, Haer. 40, 5; cf. Lagarde, _Psalter juxta Hebraeos_, - 154. - - [11] _Quaest._ 15 in Exod.; _Fab. haeret. compend._ v. 3, _sub fin_. - - [12] [Greek: Aia] occurs also in the great magical papyrus of Paris, - 1. 3020 (Wessely, _Denkschrift. Wien. Akad._, Phil. Hist. Kl., XXXVI. - p. 120), and in the Leiden Papyrus, xvii. 31. - - [13] See Deissmann, _Bibelstudien_, 13 sqq. - - [14] See Driver, _Studia Biblica_, I. 20. - - [15] See Montgomery, _Journal of Biblical Literature_, xxv. - (1906),49-51. - - [16] _Chronographia_, Paris, 1567 (ed. Paris, 1600, p. 79 seq.). - - [17] This transcription will be used henceforth. - - [18] _A-se-itas_, a scholastic Latin expression for the quality of - existing by oneself. - - [19] The critical difficulties of these verses need not be discussed - here. See W. R. Arnold, "The Divine Name in Exodus iii. 14," _Journal - of Biblical Literature_, XXIV. (1905), 107-165. - - [20] Cf. also _hawwah_, "desire," Mic. vii. 3; Prov. x. 3. - - [21] See HEBREW RELIGION. - - [22] The divergent Judaean tradition, according to which the - forefathers had worshipped Yahweh from time immemorial, may indicate - that Judah and the kindred clans had in fact been worshippers of - Yahweh before the time of Moses. - - [23] The form _Yahu_, or _Yaho_, occurs not only in composition, but - by itself; see _Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assuan_, B 4, 6, 11; E - 14; J 6. This is doubtless the original of [Greek: Iao], frequently - found in Greek authors and in magical texts as the name of the God of - the Jews. - - [24] See a collection and critical estimate of this evidence by - Zimmern, _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament_, 465 sqq. - - [25] _Babel und Bibel_, 1902. The enormous, and for the most part - ephemeral, literature provoked by Delitzsch's lecture cannot be cited - here. - - [26] _Denkschriften d. Wien. Akad._, L. iv. p. 115 seq. (1904). - - [27] _Wo lag das Paradies?_ (1881), pp. 158-166. - - - - -JEHU, son of Jehoshaphat and grandson of Nimshi, in the Bible, a general -of Ahab and Jehoram, and, later, king of Israel. Ahaziah son of Jehoram -of Judah and Jehoram brother of Ahaziah of Israel had taken joint action -against the Aramaeans of Damascus who were attacking Ramoth-Gilead under -Hazael. Jehoram had returned wounded to his palace at Jezreel, whither -Ahaziah had come down to visit him. Jehu, meanwhile, remained at the -seat of war, and the prophet Elisha sent a messenger to anoint him king. -The general at once acknowledged the call, "drove furiously" to Jezreel, -and, having slain both kings, proceeded to exterminate the whole of the -royal family (2 Kings ix., x.). A similar fate befell the royal princes -of Judah (see ATHALIAH), and thus, for a time at least, the new king -must have had complete control over the two kingdoms (cf. 2 Chron. xxii. -9). Israelite historians viewed these events as a great religious -revolution inspired by Elijah and initiated by Elisha, as the overthrow -of the worship of Baal, and as a retribution for the cruel murder of -Naboth the Jezreelite (see JEZEBEL). A vivid description is given of the -destruction of the prophets of Baal at the temple in Samaria (2 Kings x. -27; contrast iii. 2). While Jehu was supported by the Rechabites in his -reforming zeal, a similar revolt against Baalism in Judah is ascribed to -the priest Jehoiada (see JOASH). In the tragedies of the period it seems -clear that Elisha's interest in both Jehu and the Syrian Hazael (2 Kings -viii. 7 sqq.) had some political significance, and in opposition to the -"Deuteronomic" the commendation in 2 Kings x. 28 sqq., Hosea's -denunciation (i. 4) indicates the judgment which was passed upon Jehu's -bloodshed in other circles. - -In the course of an expedition against Hazael in 842 Shalmaneser II. of -Assyria received tribute of silver and gold from Ya-u-a son of Omri,[1] -Tyre and Sidon; another attack followed in 839. For some years after -this Assyria was unable to interfere, and war broke out between Damascus -and Israel. The Israelite story, which may perhaps be supplemented from -Judaean sources (see JOASH), records a great loss of territory on the -east of the Jordan (2 Kings x. 32 seq.). Under Jehu's successor Jehoahaz -there was continual war with Hazael and his son Benhadad, but relief was -obtained by his grandson Joash, and the land recovered complete -independence under Jeroboam. - - Jehu is also the name of a prophet of the time of Baasha and - Jehoshaphat (1 Kings xvi.; 2 Chron. xix., xx.). (S. A. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] I.e. either descendant of, or from the same district as, Omri - (see Hogg, _Ency. Bib._ col. 2291). The Assyrian king's sculpture, - depicting the embassy and its gifts, is the so-called "black obelisk" - now in the British Museum (Nimroud Central Gallery, No. 98; _Guide to - Bab. and Ass. Antiq._, 1900, p. 24 seq., pl. ii.). - - - - -JEKYLL, SIR JOSEPH (1663-1738), English lawyer and master of the rolls, -son of John Jekyll, was born in London, and after studying at the Middle -Temple was called to the bar in 1687. He rapidly rose to be chief -justice of Chester (1697), serjeant-at-law and king's serjeant (1700), -and a knight. In 1717 he was made master of the rolls. A Whig in -politics, he sat in parliament for various constituencies from 1697 to -the end of his life, and took an active part there in debating -constitutional questions with much learning, though, according to Lord -Hervey (_Mem._ 1, 474), with little "approbation." He was censured by -the House of Commons for accepting a brief for the defence of Lord -Halifax in a prosecution ordered by the house. He was one of the -managers of the impeachment of the Jacobite earl of Wintoun in 1715, and -of Harley (Lord Oxford) in 1717. In later years he supported Walpole. He -became very unpopular in 1736 for his introduction of the "gin act," -taxing the retailing of spirituous liquors, and his house had to be -protected from the mob. Pope has an illusion to "Jekyll or some odd -Whig, Who never changed his principle or wig" (_Epilogue to the -Satires_). Jekyll was also responsible for the Mortmain Act of 1736, -which was not superseded till 1888. He died without issue in 1738. - -His great-nephew JOSEPH JEKYLL (d. 1837) was a lawyer, politician and -wit, who excited a good deal of contemporary satire, and who wrote some -_jeux d'esprit_ which were well-known in his time. His _Letters of the -late Ignatius Sancho, an African_, was published in 1782. In 1894 his -correspondence was edited, with a memoir, by the Hon. Algernon Bourke. - - - - -JELLACHICH, JOSEF, COUNT (1801-1859), Croatian statesman, was born on -the 16th of October 1801 at Petervarad. He entered the Austrian army -(1819), fought against the Bosnians in 1845, was made ban of Croatia, -Slavonia and Dalmatia in 1848 on the petition of the Croatians, and was -simultaneously raised to the rank of lieutenant-general by the emperor. -As ban, Jellachich's policy was directed to preserving the Slav kingdoms -for the Habsburg monarchy by identifying himself with the nationalist -opposition to Magyar ascendancy, while at the same time discouraging the -extreme "Illyrism" advocated by Lodovik Gaj (1809-1872). Though his -separatist measures at first brought him into disfavour at the imperial -court, their true objective was soon recognized, and, with the triumph -of the more violent elements of the Hungarian revolution, he was hailed -as the most conspicuous champion of the unity of the empire, and was -able to bring about that union of the imperial army with the southern -Slavs by which the revolution in Vienna and Budapest was overthrown (see -AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: _History_). He began the war of independence in -September 1848 by crossing the Drave at the head of 40,000 Croats. After -the bloody battle of Buda he concluded a three days' truce with the -Hungarians to enable him to assist Prince Windischgratz to reduce -Vienna, and subsequently fought against the Magyars at Schwechat. During -the winter campaign of 1848-49 he commanded, under Windischgratz, the -Austrian right wing, capturing Magyar-Ovar and Raab, and defeating the -Magyars at Mor. After the recapture of Buda he was made -commander-in-chief of the southern army. At first he gained some -successes against Bem (q.v.), but on the 14th of July 1849 was routed by -the Hungarians at Hegyes and driven behind the Danube. He took no part -in the remainder of the war, but returned to Agram to administer -Croatia. In 1853 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army sent -against Montenegro, and in 1855 was created a count. He died on the 20th -of May 1859. His _Gedichte_ were published at Vienna in 1851. - - See the anonymous _The Croatian Revolution_ of the Year 1848 (Croat.), - Agram, 1898. (R. N. B.) - - - - -JELLINEK, ADOLF (1821-1893), Jewish preacher and scholar, was born in -Moravia. After filling clerical posts in Leipzig, he became _Prediger_ -(preacher) in Vienna in 1856. He was associated with the promoters of -the New Learning within Judaism, and wrote on the history of the -Kabbala. His bibliographies (each bearing the Hebrew title _Qontres_) -were useful compilations. But his most important work lay in three other -directions. (1) _Midrashic._ Jellinek published in the six parts of his -_Beth ha-Midrasch_ (1853-1878) a large number of smaller _Midrashi_, -ancient and medieval homilies and folk-lore records, which have been of -much service in the recent revival of interest in Jewish apocalyptic -literature. A translation of these collections of Jellinek into German -was undertaken by A. Wuensche, under the general title _Aus Israels -Lehrhalle_. (2) _Psychological._ Before the study of ethnic psychology -had become a science, Jellinek devoted attention to the subject. There -is much keen analysis and original investigation in his two essays _Der -judische Stamm_ (1869) and _Der judische Stamm in nicht-judischen -Spruch-wortern_ (1881-1882). It is to Jellinek that we owe the -oft-repeated comparison of the Jewish temperament to that of women in -its quickness of perception, versatility and sensibility. (3) -_Homiletic._ Jellinek was probably the greatest synagogue orator of the -19th century. He published some 200 sermons, in most of which are -displayed unobtrusive learning, fresh application of old sayings, and a -high conception of Judaism and its claims. Jellinek was a powerful -apologist and an accomplished homilist, at once profound and ingenious. - -His son, GEORGE JELLINEK, was appointed professor of international law -at Heidelberg in 1891. Another son, MAX HERMANN JELLINEK, was made -assistant professor of philology at Vienna in 1892. - -A brother of Adolf, HERMANN JELLINEK (b. 1823), was executed at the age -of 26 on account of his association with the Hungarian national movement -of 1848. One of Hermann Jellinek's best-known works was _Uriel Acosta_. -Another brother, MORITZ JELLINEK (1823-1883), was an accomplished -economist, and contributed to the Academy of Sciences essays on the -price of cereals and on the statistical organization of the country. He -founded the Budapest tramway company (1864) and was also president of -the corn exchange. - - See _Jewish Encyclopedia_, vii. 92-94. For a character sketch of Adolf - Jellinek see S. Singer, _Lectures and Addresses_ (1908), pp. 88-93; - Kohut, _Beruhmte israelitische Manner und Frauen_. (I. A.) - - - - -JEMAPPES, a town in the province of Hainaut, Belgium, near Mons, famous -as the scene of the battle at which Dumouriez, at the head of the French -Revolutionary Army, defeated the Austrian army (which was greatly -outnumbered) under the duke of Saxe-Teschen and Clerfayt on the 6th of -November 1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). - - - - -JENA, a university town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Saxe-Weimar, -on the left bank of the Saale, 56 m. S.W. from Leipzig by the -Grossberigen-Saalfeld and 12 m. S.E. of Weimar by the Weimar-Gera lines -of railway. Pop. (1905), 26,355. Its situation in a broad valley -environed by limestone hills is somewhat dreary. To the north lies the -plateau, descending steeply to the valley, famous as the scene of the -battle of Jena. The town is surrounded by promenades occupying the site -of the old fortifications; it contains in addition to the medieval -market square, many old-fashioned houses and quaint narrow streets. -Besides the old university buildings, the most interesting edifices are -the 15th-century church of St Michael, with a tower 318 ft. high, -containing an altar, beneath which is a doorway leading to a vault, and -a bronze statue of Luther, originally destined for his tomb; the -university library, in which is preserved a curious figure of a dragon; -and the bridge across the Saale, as long as the church steeple is high, -the centre arch of which is surmounted by a stone carved head of a -malefactor. Across the river is the "mountain," or hill, whence a fine -view is obtained of the town and surroundings, and hard by the -Fuchs-Turm (Fox tower) celebrated for student orgies, while in the -centre of the town is the house of an astronomer, Weigel, with a deep -shaft through which the stars can be seen in the day time. Thus the -seven marvels of Jena are summed up in the Latin lines:-- - - _Ara, caput, draco, mons, pons, vulpecula turris, - Weigeliana domus; septem miracula Jenae._ - -There must also be mentioned the university church, the new university -buildings, which occupy the site of the ducal palace (Schloss) where -Goethe wrote his _Hermann und Dorothea_, the Schwarzer Bar Hotel, where -Luther spent the night after his flight from the Wartburg, and four -towers and a gateway which now alone mark the position of the ancient -walls. The town has of late years become a favourite residential resort -and has greatly extended towards the west, where there is a colony of -pleasant villas. Its chief prosperity centres, however, in the -university. In 1547 the elector John Frederick the Magnanimous of -Saxony, while a captive in the hands of the emperor Charles V., -conceived the plan of founding a university at Jena, which was -accordingly established by his three sons. After having obtained a -charter from the emperor Ferdinand I., it was inaugurated on the 2nd of -February 1558. It was most numerously attended about the middle of the -18th century; but the most brilliant professoriate was under the duke -Charles Augustus, Goethe's patron (1787-1806), when Fichte, Hegel, -Schelling, Schlegel and Schiller were on its teaching staff. Founded as -a home for the new religious opinions of the 16th century, it has ever -been in the forefront of German universities in liberally accepting new -ideas. It distances perhaps every other German university in the extent -to which it carries out what are popularly regarded as the -characteristics of German student-life--duelling and the passion for -_Freiheit_. At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th -century, the opening of new universities, co-operating with the -suspicions of the various German governments as to the democratic -opinions which obtained at Jena, militated against the university, which -has never regained its former prosperity. In 1905 it was attended by -about 1100 students, and its teaching staff (including _privatdocenten_) -numbered 112. Amongst its numerous auxiliaries may be mentioned the -library, with 200,000 volumes, the observatory, the meteorological -institute, the botanical garden, seminaries of theology, philology and -education, and well equipped clinical, anatomical and physical -institutes. There are also veterinary and agricultural colleges in -connexion with the university. The manufactures of Jena are not -considerable. The book trade has of late years revived, and there are -several printing establishments. - -Jena appears to have possessed municipal rights in the 13th century. At -the beginning of the 14th century it was in the possession of the -margraves of Meissen, from whom it passed in 1423 to the elector of -Saxony. Since 1485 it has remained in the Ernestine line of the house of -Saxony. In 1662 it fell to Bernhard, youngest son of William duke of -Weimar, and became the capital of a small separate duchy. Bernhard's -line having become extinct in 1690, Jena was united with Eisenach, and -in 1741 reverted with that duchy to Weimar. In more modern times Jena -has been made famous by the defeat inflicted in the vicinity, on the -14th of October 1806, by Napoleon upon the Prussian army under the -prince of Hohenlohe (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). - - See Schreiber and Farber, _Jena von seinem Ursprung bis zur neuesten - Zeit_ (2nd ed., 1858); Ortloff, _Jena und Umgegend_ (3rd ed., 1875); - Leonhardt, _Jena als Universitat und Stadt_ (Jena, 1902); Ritter, - _Fuhrer durch Jena und Umgebung_ (Jena, 1901); Biedermann, _Die - Universitat Jena_ (Jena, 1858); and the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Jena_ - edited by J. E. A. Martin and O. Devrient (1888-1903). - - - - -JENATSCH, GEORG (1596-1639), Swiss political leader, one of the most -striking figures in the troubled history of the Grisons in the 17th -century, was born at Samaden (capital of the Upper Engadine). He studied -at Zurich and Basel, and in 1617 became the Protestant pastor of -Scharans (near Thusis). But almost at once he plunged into active -politics, taking the side of the Venetian and Protestant party of the -Salis family, as against the Spanish and Romanist policy supported by -the rival family, that of Planta. He headed the "preachers" who in 1618 -tortured to death the arch-priest Rusca, of Sondrio, and outlawed the -Plantas. As reprisals, a number of Protestants were massacred at Tirano -(1620), in the Valtellina, a very fertile valley, of considerable -strategical importance (for through it the Spaniards in Milan could -communicate by the Umbrail Pass with the Austrians in Tirol), which then -fell into the hands of the Spanish. Jenatsch took part in the murder -(1621) of Pompey Planta, the head of the rival party, but later with his -friends was compelled to fly the country, giving up his position as a -pastor, and henceforth acting solely as a soldier. He helped in the -revolt against the Austrians in the Prattigau (1622), and in the -invasion of the Valtellina by a French army (1624), but the peace made -(1626) between France and Spain left the Valtellina in the hands of the -pope, and so destroyed Jenatsch's hopes. Having killed his colonel, -Ruinelli, in a duel, Jenatsch had once more to leave his native land, -and took service with the Venetians (1629-1630). In 1631 he went to -Paris, and actively supported Richelieu's schemes for driving the -Spaniards out of the Valtellina, which led to the successful campaign of -Rohan (1635), one of whose firmest supporters was Jenatsch. But he soon -saw that the French were as unwilling as the Spaniards to restore the -Valtellina to the Grisons (which had seized it in 1512). So he became a -Romanist (1635), and negotiated secretly with the Spaniards and -Austrians. He was the leader of the conspiracy which broke out in 1637, -and resulted in the expulsion of Rohan and the French from the Grisons. -This treachery on Jenatsch's part did not, however, lead to the freeing -of the Valtellina from the Spaniards, and once more he tried to get -French support. But on the 24th of January 1639 he was assassinated at -Coire by the Plantas; later in the same year the much coveted valley was -restored by Spain to the Grisons, which held it till 1797. Jenatsch's -career is of general historical importance by reason of the long -conflict between France and Spain for the possession of the Valtellina, -which forms one of the most bloody episodes in the Thirty Years' War. - (W. A. B. C.) - - See biography by E. Haffter (Davos, 1894). - - - - -JENGHIZ KHAN (1162-1227), Mongol emperor, was born in a tent on the -banks of the river Onon. His father Yesukai was absent at the time of -his birth, in a campaign against a Tatar chieftain named Temuchin. The -fortune of war favoured Yesukai, who having slain his enemy returned to -his encampment in triumph. Here he was met by the news that his wife -Yulun had given birth to a son. On examining the child he observed in -its clenched fist a clot of coagulated blood like a red stone. In the -eyes of the superstitious Mongol this circumstance referred to his -victory over the Tatar chieftain, and he therefore named the infant -Temuchin. The death of Yesukai, which placed Temuchin at the age of -thirteen on the Mongol throne, was the signal also for the dispersal of -several tribes whose allegiance the old chieftain had retained by his -iron rule. When remonstrated with by Temuchin, the rebels replied: "The -deepest wells are sometimes dry, and the hardest stone is sometimes -broken; why should we cling to thee?" But Yulun was by no means willing -to see her son's power melt away; she led those retainers who remained -faithful against the deserters, and succeeded in bringing back fully one -half to their allegiance. With this doubtful material, Temuchin -succeeded in holding his ground against the plots and open hostilities -of the neighbouring tribes, more especially of the Naimans, Keraits and -Merkits. With one or other of these he maintained an almost unceasing -warfare until 1206, when he felt strong enough to proclaim himself the -ruler of an empire. He therefore summoned the notables of his kingdom -to an assembly on the banks of the Onon, and at their unanimous request -adopted the name and title of Jenghiz Khan (Chinese, Cheng-sze, or -"perfect warrior"). At this time there remained to him but one open -enemy on the Mongolian steppes, Polo the Naiman khan. Against this chief -he now led his troops, and in one battle so completely shattered his -forces that Kushlek, the successor of Polo, who was left dead upon the -field, fled with his ally Toto, the Merkit khan, to the river Irtysh. - -Jenghiz Khan now meditated an invasion of the empire of the Kin Tatars, -who had wrested northern China from the Sung dynasty. As a first step he -invaded western Hia, and, having captured several strongholds, retired -in the summer of 1208 to Lung-ting to escape the great heat of the -plains. While there news reached him that Toto and Kushlek were -preparing for war. In a pitched battle on the river Irtysh he overthrew -them completely. Toto was amongst the slain, and Kushlek fled for refuge -to the Khitan Tatars. Satisfied with his victory, Jenghiz again directed -his forces against Hia. After having defeated the Kin army under the -leadership of a son of the sovereign, he captured the Wu-liang-hai Pass -in the Great Wall, and penetrated as far as Ning-sia Fu in Kansuh. With -unceasing vigour he pushed on his troops, and even established his sway -over the province of Liaotung. Several of the Kin commanders, seeing how -persistently victory attended his banners, deserted to him, and -garrisons surrendered at his bidding. Having thus secured a firm footing -within the Great Wall, he despatched three armies in the autumn of 1213 -to overrun the empire. The right wing, under his three sons, Juji, -Jagatai and Ogotai, marched towards the south; the left wing, under his -brothers Hochar, Kwang-tsin Noyen and Chow-tse-te-po-shi, advanced -eastward towards the sea; while Jenghiz and his son Tule with the centre -directed their course in a south-easterly direction. Complete success -attended all three expeditions. The right wing advanced as far as Honan, -and after having captured upwards of twenty-eight cities rejoined -headquarters by the great western road. Hochar made himself master of -the country as far as Liao-si; and Jenghiz ceased his triumphal career -only when he reached the cliffs of the Shantung promontory. But either -because he was weary of the strife, or because it was necessary to -revisit his Mongolian empire, he sent an envoy to the Kin emperor in the -spring of the following year (1214), saying, "All your possessions in -Shantung and the whole country north of the Yellow River are now mine -with the solitary exception of Yenking (the modern Peking). By the -decree of heaven you are now as weak as I am strong, but I am willing to -retire from my conquests; as a condition of my doing so, however, it -will be necessary that you distribute largess to my officers and men to -appease their fierce hostility." These terms of safety the Kin emperor -eagerly accepted, and as a peace offering he presented Jenghiz with a -daughter of the late emperor, another princess of the imperial house, -500 youths and maidens, and 3000 horses. No sooner, however, had Jenghiz -passed beyond the Great Wall than the Kin emperor, fearing to remain any -longer so near the Mongol frontier, moved his court to K'ai-feng Fu in -Honan. This transfer of capital appearing to Jenghiz to indicate a -hostile attitude, he once more marched his troops into the doomed -empire. - -While Jenghiz was thus adding city to city and province to province in -China, Kushlek, the fugitive Naiman chief, was not idle. With -characteristic treachery he requested permission from his host, the -Khitan khan, to collect the fragments of his army which had been -scattered by Jenghiz at the battle on the Irtysh, and thus having -collected a considerable force he leagued himself with Mahommed, the -shah of Khwarizm, against the confiding khan. After a short but decisive -campaign the allies remained masters of the position, and the khan was -compelled to abdicate the throne in favour of the late guest. - -With the power and prestige thus acquired, Kushlek prepared once again -to measure swords with the Mongol chief. On receiving the news of his -hostile preparations, Jenghiz at once took the field, and in the first -battle routed the Naiman troops and made Kushlek a prisoner. His -ill-gotten kingdom became an apanage of the Mongol Empire. Jenghiz now -held sway up to the Khwarizm frontier. Beyond this he had no immediate -desire to go, and he therefore sent envoys to Mahommed, the shah, with -presents, saying, "I send thee greeting; I know thy power and the vast -extent of thine empire; I regard thee as my most cherished son. On my -part thou must know that I have conquered China and all the Turkish -nations north of it; thou knowest that my country is a magazine of -warriors, a mine of silver, and that I have no need of other lands. I -take it that we have an equal interest in encouraging trade between our -subjects." This peaceful message was well received by the shah, and in -all probability the Mongol armies would never have appeared in Europe -but for an unfortunate occurrence. Shortly after the despatch of this -first mission Jenghiz sent a party of traders into Transoxiana who were -seized and put to death as spies by Inaljuk, the governor of Otrar. As -satisfaction for this outrage Jenghiz demanded the extradition of the -offending governor. Far from yielding to this summons, however, Mahommed -beheaded the chief of the Mongol envoys, and sent the others back -without their beards. This insult made war inevitable, and in the spring -of 1219 Jenghiz set out from Karakorum on a campaign which was destined -to be as startling in its immediate results as its ulterior effects were -far-reaching. The invading force was in the first instance divided into -two armies: one commanded by Jenghiz's second son Jagatai was directed -to march against the Kankalis, the northern defenders of the Khwarizm -empire; and the other, led by Juji, his eldest son, advanced by way of -Sighnak against Jand (Jend). Against this latter force Mahommed led an -army of 400,000 men, who were completely routed, leaving it is said -160,000 dead upon the field. With the remnant of his host Mahommed fled -to Samarkand. Meanwhile Jagatai marched down upon the Syr Daria -(Jaxartes) by the pass of Taras and invested Otrar, the offending city. -After a siege of five months the citadel was taken by assault, and -Inaljuk and his followers were put to the sword. The conquerors levelled -the walls with the ground, after having given the city over to pillage. -At the same time a third army besieged and took Khojent on the Jaxartes; -and yet a fourth, led by Jenghiz and his youngest son Tule, advanced in -the direction of Bokhara. Tashkent and Nur surrendered on their -approach, and after a short siege Bokhara fell into their hands. On -entering the town Jenghiz ascended the steps of the principal mosque, -and shouted to his followers, "The hay is cut; give your horses fodder." -No second invitation to plunder was needed; the city was sacked, and the -inhabitants either escaped beyond the walls or were compelled to submit -to infamies which were worse than death. As a final act of vengeance the -town was fired, and before the last of the Mongols left the district, -the great mosque and certain palaces were the only buildings left to -mark the spot where the "centre of science" once stood. From the ruins -of Bokhara Jenghiz advanced along the valley of the Sogd to Samarkand, -which, weakened by treachery, surrendered to him, as did also Balkh. But -in neither case did submission save either the inhabitants from -slaughter or the city from pillage. Beyond this point Jenghiz went no -farther westward, but sent Tule, at the head of 70,000 men, to ravage -Khorasan, and two flying columns under Chepe and Sabutai Bahadar to -pursue after Mahommed who had taken refuge in Nishapur. Defeated and -almost alone, Mahommed fled before his pursuers to the village of Astara -on the shore of the Caspian Sea, where he died of an attack of pleurisy, -leaving his empire to his son Jelaleddin (Jalal ud-din). Meanwhile Tule -carried his arms into the fertile province of Khorasan, and after having -captured Nessa by assault appeared before Merv. By an act of atrocious -treachery the Mongols gained possession of the city, and, after their -manner, sacked and burnt the town. From Merv Tule marched upon Nishapur, -where he met with a most determined resistance. For four days the -garrison fought desperately on the walls and in the streets, but at -length they were overpowered, and, with the exception of 400 artisans -who were sent into Mongolia, every man, woman and child was slain. Herat -escaped the fate which had overtaken Merv and Nishapur by opening its -gates to the Mongols. At this point of his victorious career Tule -received an order to join Jenghiz before Talikhan in Badakshan, where -that chieftain was preparing to renew his pursuit of Jelaleddin, after a -check he had sustained in an engagement fought before Ghazni. As soon as -sufficient reinforcements arrived Jenghiz advanced against Jelaleddin, -who had taken up a position on the banks of the Indus. Here the Turks, -though far outnumbered, defended their ground with undaunted courage, -until, beaten at all points, they fled in confusion. Jelaleddin, seeing -that all was lost, mounted a fresh horse and jumped into the river, -which flowed 20 ft. below. With admiring gaze Jenghiz watched the -desperate venture of his enemy, and even saw without regret the dripping -horseman mount the opposite bank. From the Indus Jenghiz sent in pursuit -of Jelaleddin, who fled to Delhi, but failing to capture the fugitive -the Mongols returned to Ghazni after having ravaged the provinces of -Lahore, Peshawar and Melikpur. At this moment news reached Jenghiz that -the inhabitants of Herat had deposed the governor whom Tule had -appointed over the city, and had placed one of their own choice in his -room. To punish this act of rebellion Jenghiz sent an army of 80,000 men -against the offending city, which after a siege of six months was taken -by assault. For a whole week the Mongols ceased not to kill, burn and -destroy, and 1,600,000 persons are said to have been massacred within -the walls. Having consummated this act of vengeance, Jenghiz returned to -Mongolia by way of Balkh, Bokhara and Samarkand. - -Meanwhile Chepe and Sabutai marched through Azerbeijan, and in the -spring of 1222 advanced into Georgia. Here they defeated a combined -force of Lesghians, Circassians and Kipchaks, and after taking Astrakhan -followed the retreating Kipchaks to the Don. The news of the approach of -the mysterious enemy of whose name even they were ignorant was received -by the Russian princes at Kiev with dismay. At the instigation, however, -of Mitislaf, prince of Galicia, they assembled an opposing force on the -Dnieper. Here they received envoys from the Mongol camp, whom they -barbarously put to death. "You have killed our envoys," was the answer -made by the Mongols; "well, as you wish for war you shall have it. We -have done you no harm. God is impartial; He will decide our quarrel." In -the first battle, on the river Kaleza, the Russians were utterly routed, -and fled before the invaders, who, after ravaging Great Bulgaria -retired, gorged with booty, through the country of Saksin, along the -river Aktuba, on their way to Mongolia. - -In China the same success had attended the Mongol arms as in western -Asia. The whole of the country north of the Yellow river, with the -exception of one or two cities, was added to the Mongol rule, and, on -the death of the Kin emperor Suan Tsung in 1223, the Kin empire -virtually ceased to be, and Jenghiz's frontiers thus became conterminous -with those of the Sung emperors who held sway over the whole of central -and southern China. After his return from Central Asia, Jenghiz once -more took the field in western China. While on this campaign the five -planets appeared in a certain conjunction, which to the superstitiously -minded Mongol chief foretold that evil was awaiting him. With this -presentiment strongly impressed upon him he turned his face homewards, -and had advanced no farther than the Si-Kiang river in Kansuh when he -was seized with an illness of which he died a short time afterwards -(1227) at his travelling palace at Ha-lao-tu, on the banks of the river -Sale in Mongolia. By the terms of his will Ogotai was appointed his -successor, but so essential was it considered to be that his death -should remain a secret until Ogotai was proclaimed that, as the funeral -procession moved northwards to the great ordu on the banks of the -Kerulen, the escort killed every one they met. The body of Jenghiz was -then carried successively to the ordus of his several wives, and was -finally laid to rest in the valley of Kilien. - -Thus ended the career of one of the greatest conquerors the world has -ever seen. Born and nurtured as the chief of a petty Mongolian tribe, he -lived to see his armies victorious from the China Sea to the banks of -the Dnieper; and, though the empire which he created ultimately -dwindled away under the hands of his degenerate descendants, leaving not -a wrack behind, we have in the presence of the Turks in Europe a -consequence of his rule, since it was the advance of his armies which -drove their Osmanli ancestors from their original home in northern Asia, -and thus led to their invasion of Bithynia under Othman, and finally -their advance into Europe under Amurath I. - - See Sir H. H. Howorth, _The History of the Mongols_; Sir Robert K. - Douglas, _The Life of Jenghiz Khan_. (R. K. D.) - - - - -JENKIN, HENRY CHARLES FLEEMING (1833-1885), British engineer, was born -near Dungeness on the 25th of March 1833, his father (d. 1885) being a -naval commander, and his mother (d. 1885) a novelist of some literary -repute, her best books perhaps being _Cousin Stella_ (1859) and _Who -breaks, pays_ (1861). Fleeming Jenkin was educated at first in Scotland, -but in 1846 the family went to live abroad, owing to financial straits, -and he studied at Genoa University, where he took a first-class degree -in physical science. In 1851 he began his engineering career as -apprentice in an establishment at Manchester, and subsequently he -entered Newall's submarine cable works at Birkenhead. In 1859 he began, -in concert with Sir William Thomson (afterwards Lord Kelvin), to work on -problems respecting the making and use of cables, and the importance of -his researches on the resistance of gutta-percha was at once recognized. -From this time he was in constant request in connexion with submarine -telegraphy, and he became known also as an inventor. In partnership with -Thomson, he made a large income as a consulting telegraph engineer. In -1865 he was elected F.R.S., and was appointed professor of engineering -at University College, London. In 1868 he obtained the same -professorship at Edinburgh University, and in 1873 he published a -textbook of _Magnetism and Electricity_, full of original work. He was -author of the article "Bridges" in the ninth edition of this -encyclopaedia. His influence among the Edinburgh students was -pronounced, and R. L. Stevenson's well-known _Memoir_ is a sympathetic -tribute to his ability and character. The meteoric charm of his -conversation is well described in Stevenson's essay on "Talk and -Talkers," under the name of Cockshot. Jenkin's interests were by no -means confined to engineering, but extended to the arts and literature; -his miscellaneous papers, showing his critical and unconventional views, -were issued posthumously in two volumes (1887). In 1882 Jenkin invented -an automatic method of electric transport for goods--"telpherage"--but -the completion of its details was prevented by his death on the 12th of -June 1885. A telpher line on his system was subsequently erected at -Glynde in Sussex. He was also well known as a sanitary reformer, and -during the last ten years of his life he did much useful work in -inculcating more enlightened ideas on the subject both in Edinburgh and -other places. - - - - -JENKINS, SIR LEOLINE (1623-1685), English lawyer and diplomatist, was -the son of a Welsh country gentleman. He was born in 1623 and was -educated at Jesus College, Oxford, of which he was elected a fellow at -the Restoration in 1660, having been an ardent royalist during the civil -war and commonwealth; and in 1661 he became head of the college. In the -same year he was made registrar of the consistory court of Westminster; -in 1664 deputy judge of the court of arches; about a year later judge of -the admiralty court; in 1689 judge of the prerogative court of -Canterbury. In these offices Jenkins did enduring work in elucidating -and establishing legal principles, especially in relation to -international law and admiralty jurisdiction. He was selected to draw up -the claim of Charles II. to succeed to the property of his mother, -Henrietta Maria, on her death in August 1666, and while in Paris for -this purpose he succeeded in defeating the rival claim of the duchess of -Orleans, being rewarded by a knighthood on his return. In 1673, on being -elected member for Hythe, Jenkins resigned the headship of Jesus -College. He was one of the English representatives at the congress of -Cologne in 1673, and at the more important congress of Nijmwegen in -1676-1679. He was made a privy councillor in February 1680 and became -secretary of state in April of the same year, in which office he was the -official leader of the opposition to the Exclusion Bill, though he was -by no means a pliant tool in the hands of the court. He resigned office -in 1684, and died on the 1st of September 1685. He left most of his -property to Jesus College, Oxford, including his books, which he -bequeathed to the college library, built by himself; and he left some -important manuscripts to All Souls College, where they are preserved. -Jenkins left his impress on the law of England in the Statute of Frauds, -and the Statute of Distributions, of which he was the principal author, -and of which the former profoundly affected the mercantile law of the -country, while the latter regulated the inheritance of the personal -property of intestates. He was never married. - - See William Wynne, _Life of Sir Leoline Jenkins_ (2 vols., London, - 1724), which contains a number of his diplomatic despatches, letters, - speeches and other papers. See also Sir William Temple, _Works_, vol. - ii. (4 vols., 1770); Anthony a Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_ (Fasti) - edited by P. Bliss (4 vols., London, 1813-1820), and _History and - Antiquities of the University of Oxford_, edited by J. Gutch (Oxford, - 1792-1796). - - - - -JENKINS, ROBERT (fl. 1731-1745), English master mariner, is known as the -protagonist of the "Jenkins's ear" incident, which, magnified in England -by the press and the opposition, became a contributory cause of the war -between England and Spain (1739). Bringing home the brig "Rebecca" from -the West Indies in 1731, Jenkins was boarded by a Spanish guarda-costa, -whose commander rifled the holds and cut off one of his ears. On -arriving in England Jenkins stated his grievance to the king, and a -report was furnished by the commander-in-chief in the West Indies -confirming his account. At first the case created no great stir, but in -1738 he repeated his story with dramatic detail before a committee of -the House of Commons, producing what purported to be the ear that had -been cut off. Afterwards it was suggested that he might have lost the -ear in the pillory. - - Jenkins was subsequently given the command of a ship in the East India - Company's service, and later became supervisor of the company's - affairs at St Helena. In 1741 he was sent from England to that island - to investigate charges of corruption brought against the acting - governor, and from May 1741 until March 1742 he administered the - affairs of the island. Thereafter he resumed his naval career, and is - stated in an action with a pirate vessel to have preserved his own - vessel and three others under his care (see T. H. Brooke, _History of - the Island of St Helena_ (London, 2nd ed., 1824), and H. R. Janisch, - _Extracts from the St Helena Records_, 1885). - - - - -JENKS, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE (1856- ), American economist, was born in St -Clair, Michigan, on the 2nd of September 1856. He graduated at the -university of Michigan in 1878; taught Greek, Latin and German in Mt. -Morris College, Illinois; studied in Germany, receiving the degree of -Ph.D. from the university of Halle in 1885; taught political science and -English literature at Knox College, Galesburg, Ill., in 1886-1889; was -professor of political economy and social science at Indiana State -University in 1889-1891; and was successively professor of political, -municipal and social institutions (1891-1892), professor of political -economy and civil and social institutions (1892-1901), and after 1901 -professor of political economy and politics at Cornell University. In -1899-1901 he served as an expert agent of the United States industrial -commission on investigation of trusts and industrial combinations in the -United States and Europe, and contributed to vols. i., viii. and xiii. -of this commission's report (1900 and 1901), vol. viii. being a report, -written wholly by him, on industrial combinations in Europe. In -1901-1902 he was special commissioner of the United States war -department on colonial administration, and wrote a _Report on Certain -Economic Questions in the English and Dutch Colonies in the Orient_, -published (1902) by the bureau of insular affairs; and in 1903 he was -adviser to the Mexican ministry of finance on projected currency -changes. In 1903-1904 he was a member of the United States commission on -international exchange, in especial charge of the reform of currency in -China; in 1905 he was special representative of the United States with -the imperial Chinese special mission visiting the United States. In 1907 -he became a member of the United States immigration commission. Best -known as an expert on "trusts," he has written besides on elections, -ballot reform, proportional representation, on education (especially as -a training for citizenship), on legislation regarding highways, &c. - - His principal published works are _Henry C. Carey als Nationalokonom_ - (Halle a. S., 1885); _The Trust Problem_ (1900; revised 1903); _Great - Fortunes_ (1906); _Citizenship and the Schools_ (1906); and - _Principles of Politics_ (1909). - - - - -JENNE, a city of West Africa, formerly the capital of the Songhoi -empire, now included in the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger. -Jenne is situated on a marigot or natural canal connecting the Niger and -its affluent the Bani or Mahel Balevel, and is within a few miles of the -latter stream. It lies 250 m. S.W. of Timbuktu in a straight line. The -city is surrounded by channels connected with the Bani but in the dry -season it ceases to be an island. On the north is the Moorish quarter; -on the north-west, the oldest part of the city, stood the citadel, -converted by the French since 1893 into a modern fort. The market-place -is midway between the fort and the commercial harbour. The old mosque, -partially destroyed in 1830, covered a large area in the south-west -portion of the city. It was built on the site of the ancient palace of -the Songhoi kings. The architecture of many of the buildings bears a -resemblance to Egyptian, the facades of the houses being adorned with -great buttresses of pylonic form. There is little trace of the influence -of Moorish or Arabian art. The buildings are mostly constructed of clay -made into flat long bricks. Massive clay walls surround the city. The -inhabitants are great traders and the principal merchants have -representatives at Timbuktu and all the chief places on the Niger. The -boats built at Jenne are famous throughout the western Sudan. - -Jenne is believed to have been founded by the Songhoi in the 8th -century, and though it has passed under the dominion of many races it -has never been destroyed. Jenne seems to have been at the height of its -power from the 12th to the 16th century, when its merchandise was found -at every port along the west coast of Africa. From this circumstance it -is conjectured that Jenne (Guinea) gave its name to the whole coast (see -GUINEA). Subsequently, under the control of Moorish, Tuareg and Fula -invaders, the importance of the city greatly declined. With the advent -of the French, commerce again began to flourish. - - See F. Dubois, _Tombouctou la mysterieuse_ (Paris, 1897), in which - several chapters are devoted to Jenne; also SONGHOI; TIMBUKTU; and - SENEGAL. - - - - -JENNER, EDWARD (1749-1823), English physician and discoverer of -vaccination, was born at Berkeley, Gloucestershire, on the 17th of May -1749. His father, the Rev. Stephen Jenner, rector of Rockhampton and -vicar of Berkeley, came of a family that had been long established in -that county, and was possessed of considerable landed property; he died -when Edward was only six years old, but his eldest son, the Rev. Stephen -Jenner, brought his brother up with paternal care and tenderness. Edward -received his early education at Wotton-under-Edge and Cirencester, where -he already showed a strong taste for natural history. The medical -profession having been selected for him, he began his studies under -Daniel Ludlow, a surgeon of Sodbury near Bristol; but in his -twenty-first year he proceeded to London, where he became a favourite -pupil of John Hunter, in whose house he resided for two years. During -this period he was employed by Sir Joseph Banks to arrange and prepare -the valuable zoological specimens which he had brought back from Captain -Cook's first voyage in 1771. He must have acquitted himself -satisfactorily in this task, since he was offered the post of naturalist -in the second expedition, but declined it as well as other advantageous -offers, preferring rather to practise his profession in his native -place, and near his eldest brother, to whom he was much attached. He was -the principal founder of a local medical society, to which he -contributed several papers of marked ability, in one of which he -apparently anticipated later discoveries concerning rheumatic -inflammations of the heart. He maintained a correspondence with John -Hunter, under whose direction he investigated various points in biology, -particularly the hibernation of hedgehogs and habits of the cuckoo; his -paper on the latter subject was laid by Hunter before the Royal Society, -and appeared in the _Phil. Trans._ for 1788. He also devoted -considerable attention to the varied geological character of the -district in which he lived, and constructed the first balloon seen in -those parts. He was a great favourite in general society, from his -agreeable and instructive conversation, and the many accomplishments he -possessed. Thus he was a fair musician, both as a part singer and as a -performer on the violin and flute, and a very successful writer, after -the fashion of that time, of fugitive pieces of verse. In 1788 he -married Catherine Kingscote, and in 1792 he obtained the degree of -doctor of medicine from St Andrews. - -Meanwhile the discovery that is associated with his name had been slowly -maturing in his mind. When only an apprentice at Sodbury, his attention -had been directed to the relations between cow-pox and small-pox in -connexion with a popular belief which he found current in -Gloucestershire, as to the antagonism between these two diseases. During -his stay in London he appears to have mentioned the thing repeatedly to -Hunter, who, being engrossed by other important pursuits, was not so -strongly persuaded as Jenner was of its possible importance, yet spoke -of it to his friends and in his lectures. After he began practice in -Berkeley, Jenner was always accustomed to inquire what his professional -brethren thought of it; but he found that, when medical men had noticed -the popular report at all, they supposed it to be based on imperfect -induction. His first careful investigation of the subject dated from -about 1775, and five years elapsed before he had succeeded in clearing -away the most perplexing difficulties by which it was surrounded. He -first satisfied himself that two different forms of disease had been -hitherto confounded under the term cow-pox, only one of which protected -against small-pox, and that many of the cases of failure were to be thus -accounted for; and his next step was to ascertain that the true cow-pox -itself only protects when communicated at a particular stage of the -disease. At the same time he came to the conclusion that "the grease" of -horses is the same disease as cow-pox and small-pox, each being modified -by the organism in which it was developed. For many years, cow-pox being -scarce in his county, he had no opportunity of inoculating the disease, -and so putting his discovery to the test, but he did all he could in the -way of collecting information and communicating what he had ascertained. -Thus in 1788 he carried a drawing of the cow-pox, as seen on the hands -of a milkmaid, to London, and showed it to Sir E. Home and others, who -agreed that it was "an interesting and curious subject." At length, on -the 14th of May 1796, he was able to inoculate James Phipps, a boy about -eight years old, with matter from cow-pox vesicles on the hand of Sarah -Nelmes. On the 1st of the following July the boy was carefully -inoculated with variolous matter, but (as Jenner had predicted) no -small-pox followed. The discovery was now complete, but Jenner was -unable to repeat his experiment until 1798, owing to the disappearance -of cow-pox from the dairies. He then repeated his inoculations with the -utmost care, and prepared a pamphlet (_Inquiry into the Cause and -Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae_) which should announce his discovery -to the world. Before publishing it, however, he thought it well to visit -London, so as to demonstrate the truth of his assertions to his friends; -but he remained in London nearly three months, without being able to -find any person who would submit to be vaccinated. Soon after he had -returned home, however, Henry Cline, surgeon of St Thomas's Hospital, -inoculated some vaccine matter obtained from him over the diseased -hip-joint of a child, thinking the counter-irritation might be useful, -and found the patient afterwards incapable of acquiring small-pox. In -the autumn of the same year, Jenner met with the first opposition to -vaccination; and this was the more formidable because it proceeded from -J. Ingenhousz, a celebrated physician and man of science. But meanwhile -Cline's advocacy of vaccination brought it much more decidedly before -the medical profession, of whom the majority were prudent enough to -suspend their judgment until they had more ample information. But -besides these there were two noisy and troublesome factions, one of -which opposed vaccination as a useless and dangerous practice, while the -other endangered its success much more by rash and self-seeking -advocacy. At the head of the latter was George Pearson, who in November -1798 published a pamphlet speculating upon the subject, before even -seeing a case of cow-pox, and afterwards endeavoured, by lecturing on -the subject and supplying the virus, to put himself forward as the chief -agent in the cause. The matter which he distributed, which had been -derived from cows that were found to be infected in London, was found -frequently to produce, not the slight disease described by Jenner, but -more or less severe eruptions resembling small-pox. Jenner concluded at -once that this was due to an accidental contamination of the vaccine -with variolous matter, and a visit to London in the spring of 1799 -convinced him that this was the case. In the course of this year the -practice of vaccination spread over England, being urged principally by -non-professional persons of position; and towards its close attempts -were made to found institutions for gratuitous vaccination and for -supplying lymph to all who might apply for it. Pearson proposed to -establish one of these in London, without Jenner's knowledge, in which -he offered him the post of honorary corresponding physician! On learning -of this scheme to supplant him, and to carry on an institution for -public vaccination on principles which he knew to be partly erroneous, -Jenner once more visited London early in 1800, when he had influence -enough to secure the abandonment of the project. He was afterwards -presented to the king, the queen and the prince of Wales, whose -encouragement materially aided the spread of vaccination in England. -Meanwhile it had made rapid progress in the United States, where it was -introduced by Benjamin Waterhouse, then professor of physic at Harvard, -and on the continent of Europe, where it was at first diffused by De -Carro of Vienna. In consequence of the war between England and France, -the discovery was later in reaching Paris; but, its importance once -realized, it spread rapidly over France, Spain and Italy. - -A few of the incidents connected with its extension may be mentioned. -Perhaps the most striking is the expedition which was sent out by the -court of Spain in 1803, for the purpose of diffusing cow-pox through all -the Spanish possessions in the Old and New Worlds, and which returned in -three years, having circumnavigated the globe, and succeeded beyond its -utmost expectations. Clergymen in Geneva and Holland urged vaccination -upon their parishioners from the pulpit; in Sicily, South America and -Naples religious processions were formed for the purpose of receiving -it; the anniversary of Jenner's birthday, or of the successful -vaccination of James Phipps, was for many years celebrated as a feast in -Germany; and the empress of Russia caused the first child operated upon -to receive the name of Vaccinov, and to be educated at the public -expense. About the close of the year 1801 Jenner's friends in -Gloucestershire presented him with a small service of plate as a -testimonial of the esteem in which they held his discovery. This was -intended merely as a preliminary to the presenting of a petition to -parliament for a grant. The petition was presented in 1802, and was -referred to a committee, of which the investigations resulted in a -report in favour of the grant, and ultimately in a vote of L10,000. - -Towards the end of 1802 steps were taken to form a society for the -proper spread of vaccination in London, and the Royal Jennerian Society -was finally established, Jenner returning to town to preside at the -first meeting. This institution began very prosperously, more than -twelve thousand persons having been inoculated in the first eighteen -months, and with such effect that the deaths from small-pox, which for -the latter half of the 18th century had averaged 2018 annually, fell in -1804 to 622. Unfortunately the chief resident inoculator soon set -himself up as an authority opposed to Jenner, and this led to such -dissensions as caused the society to die out in 1808. - -Jenner was led, by the language of the chancellor of the exchequer when -his grant was proposed, to attempt practice in London, but after a -year's trial he returned to Berkeley. His grant was not paid until 1804, -and then, after the deduction of about L1000 for fees, it did little -more than pay the expenses attendant upon his discovery. For he was so -thoroughly known everywhere as the discoverer of vaccination that, as he -himself said, he was "the vaccine clerk of the whole world." At the -same time he continued to vaccinate gratuitously all the poor who -applied to him on certain days, so that he sometimes had as many as -three hundred persons waiting at his door. Meanwhile honours began to -shower upon him from abroad: he was elected a member of almost all the -chief scientific societies on the continent of Europe, the first being -that of Gottingen, where he was proposed by J. F. Blumenbach. But -perhaps the most flattering proof of his influence was derived from -France. On one occasion, when he was endeavouring to obtain the release -of some of the unfortunate Englishmen who had been detained in France on -the sudden termination of the Peace of Amiens, Napoleon was about to -reject the petition, when Josephine uttered the name of Jenner. The -emperor paused and exclaimed: "Ah, we can refuse nothing to that name." -Somewhat later he did the same service to Englishmen confined in Mexico -and in Austria; and during the latter part of the great war persons -before leaving England would sometimes obtain certificates signed by him -which served as passports. In his own country his merits were less -recognized. His applications on behalf of French prisoners in England -were less successful; he never shared in any of the patronage at the -disposal of the government, and was even unable to obtain a living for -his nephew George. - -In 1806 Lord Henry Petty (afterwards the marquess of Lansdowne) became -chancellor of the exchequer, and was so convinced of the inadequacy of -the former parliamentary grant that he proposed an address to the Crown, -praying that the college of physicians should be directed to report upon -the success of vaccination. Their report being strongly in its favour, -the then chancellor of the exchequer (Spencer Perceval) proposed that a -sum of L10,000 without any deductions should be paid to Jenner. The -anti-vaccinationists found but one advocate in the House of Commons; and -finally the sum was raised to L20,000. Jenner, however, at the same time -had the mortification of learning that government did not intend to take -any steps towards checking small-pox inoculation, which so persistently -kept up that disease. About the same time a subscription for his benefit -was begun in India, where his discovery had been gratefully received, -but the full amount of this (L7383) only reached him in 1812. - -The Royal Jennerian Society having failed, the national vaccine -establishment was founded, for the extension of vaccination, in 1808. -Jenner spent five months in London for the purpose of organizing it, but -was then obliged, by the dangerous illness of one of his sons, to return -to Berkeley. He had been appointed director of the institution; but he -had no sooner left London than Sir Lucas Pepys, president of the college -of physicians, neglected his recommendations, and formed the board out -of the officials of that college and the college of surgeons. Jenner at -once resigned his post as director, though he continued to give the -benefit of his advice whenever it was needed, and this resignation was a -bitter mortification to him. In 1810 his eldest son died, and Jenner's -grief at his loss, and his incessant labours, materially affected his -health. In 1813 the university of Oxford conferred on him the degree of -M.D. It was believed that this would lead to his election into the -college of physicians, but that learned body decided that he could not -be admitted until he had undergone an examination in classics. This -Jenner at once refused; to brush up his classics would, he said, "be -irksome beyond measure. I would not do it for a diadem. That indeed -would be a bauble; I would not do it for John Hunter's museum." - -He visited London for the last time in 1814, when he was presented to -the Allied Sovereigns and to most of the principal personages who -accompanied them. In the next year his wife's death was the signal for -him to retire from public life: he never left Berkeley again, except for -a day or two, as long as he lived. He found sufficient occupation for -the remainder of his life in collecting further evidence on some points -connected with his great discovery, and in his engagements as a -physician, a naturalist and a magistrate. In 1818 a severe epidemic of -small-pox prevailed, and fresh doubts were thrown on the efficacy of -vaccination, in part apparently owing to the bad quality of the vaccine -lymph employed. This caused Jenner much annoyance, which was relieved by -an able defence of the practice, written by Sir Gilbert Blane. But this -led him, in 1821, to send a circular letter to most of the medical men -in the kingdom inquiring into the effect of other skin diseases in -modifying the progress of cow-pox. A year later he published his last -work, _On the Influence of Artificial Eruptions in Certain Diseases_; -and in 1823 he presented his last paper--"On the Migration of Birds"--to -the Royal Society. On the 24th of January 1823 he retired to rest -apparently as well as usual, and next morning rose and came down to his -library, where he was found insensible on the floor, in a state of -apoplexy, and with the right side paralysed. He never rallied, and died -on the following morning. - -A public subscription was set on foot, shortly after his death, by the -medical men of his county, for the purpose of erecting some memorial in -his honour, and with much difficulty a sufficient sum was raised to -enable a statue to be placed in Gloucester Cathedral. In 1850 another -attempt was made to set up a monument to him; this appears to have -failed, but at length, in 1858, a statue of him was erected by public -subscription in London. - - Jenner's life was written by the intimate friend of his later years, - Dr John Baron of Gloucester (2 vols., 1827, 1838). See also - Vaccination. - - - - -JENNER, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1815-1898), English physician, was born at -Chatham on the 30th of January 1815, and educated at University College, -London. He became M.R.C.S. in 1837, and F.R.C.P. in 1852, and in 1844 -took the London M.D. In 1847 he began at the London fever hospital -investigations into cases of "continued" fever which enabled him finally -to make the distinction between typhus and typhoid on which his -reputation as a pathologist principally rests. In 1849 he was appointed -professor of pathological anatomy at University College, and also -assistant physician to University College Hospital, where he afterwards -became physician (1854-1876) and consulting physician (1879), besides -holding similar appointments at other hospitals. He was also -successively Holme professor of clinical medicine and professor of the -principles and practice of medicine at University College. He was -president of the college of physicians (1881-1888); he was elected -F.R.S. in 1864, and received honorary degrees from Oxford, Cambridge and -Edinburgh. In 1861 he was appointed physician extraordinary, and in 1862 -physician in ordinary, to Queen Victoria, and in 1863 physician in -ordinary to the prince of Wales; he attended both the prince consort and -the prince of Wales in their attacks of typhoid fever. In 1868 he was -created a baronet. As a consultant Sir William Jenner had a great -reputation, and he left a large fortune when he died, at Bishop's -Waltham, Hants, on the 11th of December 1898, having then retired from -practice for eight years owing to failing health. - - - - -JENNET, a small Spanish horse; the word is sometimes applied in English -to a mule, the offspring of a she-ass and a stallion. Jennet comes, -through Fr. _genet_, from Span, _jinete_, a light horseman who rides _a -la gineta_, explained as "with his legs tucked up." The name is taken to -be a corruption of the Arabic Zenata, a Berber tribe famed for its -cavalry. English and French transferred the word from the rider to his -horse, a meaning which the word has only acquired in Spain in modern -times. - - - - -JENOLAN CAVES, a series of remarkable caverns in Roxburgh county, New -South Wales, Australia; 113 m. W. by N. of Sydney, and 36 m. from -Tarana, which is served by railway. They are the most celebrated of -several similar groups in the limestone of the country; they have not -yielded fossils of great interest, but the stalactitic formations, -sometimes pure white, are of extraordinary beauty. The caves have been -rendered easily accessible to visitors and lighted by electricity. - - - - -JENSEN, WILHELM (1837- ), German author, was born at Heiligenhafen in -Holstein on the 15th of February 1837, the son of a local Danish -magistrate, who came of old patrician Frisian stock. After attending the -classical schools at Kiel and Lubeck, Jensen studied medicine at the -universities of Kiel, Wurzburg and Breslau. He, however, abandoned the -medical profession for that of letters, and after engaging for some -years in individual private study proceeded to Munich, where he -associated with men of letters. After a residence in Stuttgart -(1865-1869), where for a short time he conducted the _Schwabische -Volks-Zeitung_, he became editor in Flensburg of the _Norddeutsche -Zeitung_. In 1872 he again returned to Kiel, lived from 1876 to 1888 in -Freiburg im Breisgau, and since 1888 has been resident in Munich. - - Jensen is perhaps the most fertile of modern German writers of - fiction, more than one hundred works having proceeded from his pen; - but only comparatively few of them have caught the public taste; such - are the novels, _Karin von Schweden_ (Berlin, 1878); _Die braune - Erica_ (Berlin, 1868); and the tale, _Die Pfeifer von Dusenbach, Eine - Geschichte aus dem Elsass_ (1884). Among others may be mentioned: - _Barthenia_ (Berlin, 1877); _Gotz und Gisela_ (Berlin, 1886); - _Heimkunft_ (Dresden, 1894); _Aus See und Sand_ (Dresden, 1897); _Luv - und Lee_ (Berlin, 1897); and the narratives, _Aus den Tagen der Hansa_ - (Leipzig, 1885); _Aus stiller Zeit_ (Berlin, 1881-1885); and _Heimath_ - (1901). Jensen also published some tragedies, among which _Dido_ - (Berlin, 1870) and _Der Kampf fur's Reich_ (Freiburg im Br., 1884) may - be mentioned. - - - - -JENYNS, SOAME (1704-1787), English author, was born in London on the 1st -of January 1704, and was educated at St John's College, Cambridge. In -1742 he was chosen M.P. for Cambridgeshire, in which his property lay, -and he afterwards sat for the borough of Dunwich and the town of -Cambridge. From 1755 to 1780 he was one of the commissioners of the -board of trade. He died on the 18th of December 1787. - -For the measure of literary repute which he enjoyed during his life -Jenyns was indebted as much to his wealth and social standing as to his -accomplishments and talents, though both were considerable. His poetical -works, the _Art of Dancing_ (1727) and _Miscellanies_ (1770), contain -many passages graceful and lively though occasionally verging on -licence. The first of his prose works was his _Free Inquiry into the -Nature and Origin of Evil_ (1756). This essay was severely criticized on -its appearance, especially by Samuel Johnson in the _Literary Magazine_. -Johnson, in a slashing review--the best paper of the kind he ever -wrote--condemned the book as a slight and shallow attempt to solve one -of the most difficult of moral problems. Jenyns, a gentle and amiable -man in the main, was extremely irritated by his failure. He put forth a -second edition of his work, prefaced by a vindication, and tried to take -vengeance on Johnson after his death by a sarcastic epitaph.[1] In 1776 -Jenyns published his _View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian -Religion_. Though at one period of his life he had affected a kind of -deistic scepticism, he had now returned to orthodoxy, and there seems no -reason to doubt his sincerity, questioned at the time, in defending -Christianity on the ground of its total variance with the principles of -human reason. The work was deservedly praised in its day for its -literary merits, but is so plainly the production of an amateur in -theology that as a scientific treatise it is valueless. - - A collected edition of the works of Jenyns appeared in 1790, with a - biography by Charles Nalson Cole. There are several references to him - in Boswell's _Johnson_. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Two lines will suffice:-- - - Boswell and Thrale, retailers of his wit, - Will tell you how he wrote, and talk'd, and cough'd, and spit. - - - - -JEOPARDY, a term meaning risk or danger of death, loss or other injury. -The word, in Mid. Eng. _juparti_, _jeupartie_, &c., was adapted from O. -Fr. _ju_, later _jeu_, and _parti_, even game, in medieval Latin _jocus -partitus_. This term was originally used of a problem in chess or of a -stage in any other game at which the chances of success or failure are -evenly divided between the players. It was thus early transformed to any -state of uncertainty. - - - - -JEPHSON, ROBERT (1736-1803), British dramatist, was born in Ireland. -After serving for some years in the British army, he retired with the -rank of captain, and lived in England, where he was the friend of -Garrick, Reynolds, Goldsmith, Johnson, Burke, Burney and Charles -Townshend. His appointment as master of the horse to the lord-lieutenant -of Ireland took him back to Dublin. He published, in the _Mercury_ -newspaper a series of articles in defence of the lord-lieutenant's -administration which were afterwards collected and issued in book form -under the title of _The Bachelor, or Speculations of Jeoffry Wagstaffe_. -A pension of L300, afterwards doubled, was granted him, and he held his -appointment under twelve succeeding viceroys. From 1775 he was engaged -in the writing of plays. Among others, his tragedy _Braganza_ was -successfully performed at Drury Lane in 1775, _Conspiracy_ in 1796, _The -Law of Lombardy_ in 1779, and _The Count of Narbonne_ at Covent Garden -in 1781. In 1794 he published an heroic poem _Roman Portraits_, and _The -Confessions of Jacques Baptiste Couteau_, a satire on the excesses of -the French Revolution. He died at Blackrock, near Dublin, on the 31st of -May 1803. - - - - -JEPHTHAH, one of the judges of Israel, in the Bible, was an illegitimate -son of Gilead, and, being expelled from his father's house by his lawful -brethren, took refuge in the Syrian land of Tob, where he gathered -around him a powerful band of homeless men like himself. The Ammonites -pressing hard on his countrymen, the elders of Gilead called for his -help, which he consented to give on condition that in the event of -victory he should be made their head (Judg. xi. 1-xii. 7). His name is -best known in history and literature in connexion with his vow, which -led to the sacrifice of his daughter on his successful return. The -reluctance shown by many writers in accepting the plain sense of the -narrative on this point proceeds to a large extent on unwarranted -assumptions as to the stage of ethical development which had been -reached in Israel in the period of the judges, or at the time when the -narrative took shape. The annual lamentation of the women for her death -suggests a mythical origin (see Adonis). Attached to the narrative is an -account of a quarrel between Jephthah and the Ephraimites. The latter -were defeated, and their retreat was cut off by the Gileadites, who had -seized the fords of the Jordan. As the fugitives attempted to cross they -were bidden to say "shibboleth" ("flood" or "ear of corn"), and those -who said "sibboleth" (the Ephraimites apparently being unused to _sh_), -were at once put to death. In this way 42,000 of the tribe were -killed.[1] - - The loose connexion between this and the main narrative, as also the - lengthy speech to the children of Ammon (xi. 14-27), which really - relates to Moab, has led some writers to infer that two distinct - heroes and situations have been combined. See further the commentaries - on the Book of Judges (q.v.), and Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._, art. - "Jephthah." (S. A. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Similarly a Syrian story tells how the Druses came to slay - Ibrahim Pasha's troops, and desiring to spare the Syrians ordered the - men to say _gamal_ (camel). As the Syrians pronounce the _g_ soft, - and the Egyptians the _g_, hard, the former were easily identified. - Other examples from the East will be found in H. C. Kay, _Yaman_, p. - 36, and in S. Lane-Poole, _History of Egypt in the Middle Ages_, p. - 300. Also, at the Sicilian Vespers (March 13, 1282) the French were - made to betray themselves by their pronunciation of _ceci_ and - _ciceri_ (Ital. _c_ like _tch_; Fr. _c_ like _s_). - - - - -JERAHMEEL, (Heb. "May God pity"), in the Bible, a clan which with Caleb, -the Kenites and others, occupied the southern steppes of Palestine, -probably in the district around Arad, about 17 m. S. of Hebron. It was -on friendly terms with David during his residence at Ziklag (1 Sam. xxx. -29), and it was apparently in his reign that the various elements of the -south were united and were reckoned to Israel. This is expressed in the -chronicler's genealogies which make Jerahmeel and Caleb descendants of -Judah (see DAVID; JUDAH). - - On the names in 1 Chron. ii. see S. A. Cook, _Ency. Bib._, col. 2363 - seq. Peleth (v. 33) may be the origin of the Pelethites (2 Sam. viii. - 18; xv. 18; xx. 7), and since the name occurs in the revolt of Korah - (Num. xvi. 1), it is possible that Jerahmeel, like Caleb and the - Kenites, had moved northwards from Kadesh. Samuel (q.v.) was of - Jerahmeel (1 Sam. i. 1; Septuagint), and the consecutive Jerahmeelite - names Nathan and Zabad (1 Chron. ii. 36) have been associated with the - prophet and officer (Zabud, 1 Kings iv. 5) of the times of David and - Solomon respectively. The association of Samuel and Nathan with this - clan, if correct, is a further illustration of the importance of the - south for the growth of biblical history (see KENITES and RECHABITES). - The _Chronicles of Jerahmeel_ (M. Gaster, _Oriental Translation Fund_, - 1899) is a late production containing a number of apocryphal Jewish - legends of no historical value. (S. A. C.) - - - - - -JERBA, an island off the coast of North Africa in the Gulf of Gabes, -forming part of the regency of Tunisia. It is separated from the -mainland by two narrow straits, and save for these channels blocks the -entrance to a large bight identified with the Lake Triton of the Romans. -The western strait, opening into the Gulf of Gabes, is a mile and a half -broad; the eastern strait is wider, but at low water it is possible to -cross to the mainland by the Tarik-el-Jemil (road of the camel). The -island is irregular in outline, its greatest length and breadth being -some 20 m., and its area 425 sq. m. It contains neither rivers nor -springs, but is supplied with water by wells and cisterns. It is flat -and well wooded with date palms and olive trees. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000, -the bulk of the inhabitants being Berbers. Though many of them have -adopted Arabic a Berber idiom is commonly spoken. An affinity exists -between the Berbers of Jerba and the Beni Mzab. About 3000 Jews live -apart in villages of their own, and some 400 Europeans, chiefly Maltese -and Greeks, are settled in the island. Jerba has a considerable -reputation for the manufacture of the woollen tissues interwoven with -silk which are known as burnous stuffs; a market for the sale of sponges -is held from November till March; and there is a considerable export -trade in olives, dates, figs and other fruits. The capital, trading -centre and usual landing-place are at Haumt-es-Suk (market quarter) on -the north side of the island (pop. 2500). Here are a medieval fort, -built by the Spaniards in 1284, and a modern fort, garrisoned by the -French. Gallala, to the south, is noted for the manufacture of a kind of -white pottery, much prized. At El Kantara (the bridge) on the eastern -strait, and formerly connected with the mainland by a causeway, are -extensive ruins of a Roman city--probably those of Meninx, once a -flourishing seaport. - -Jerba is the Lotophagitis or Lotus-eaters' Island of the Greek and Roman -geographers, and is also identified with the Brachion of Scylax. The -modern name appears as early as the 4th century in Sextus Aurelius -Victor. In the middle ages the possession of Jerba was contested by the -Normans of Sicily, the Spaniards and the Turks, the Turks proving -victorious. In 1560 after the destruction of the Spanish fleet off the -coast of the island by Piali Pasha and the corsair Dragut the Spanish -garrison at Haumt-es-Suk was exterminated, and a pyramid, 10 ft. broad -at the base and 20 ft. high, was built of their skulls and other bones. -In 1848 this pyramid was pulled down at the instance of the Christian -community, and the bones were buried in the Catholic cemetery. In -general, from the Arab invasion in the 7th century Jerba shared the -fortunes of Tunisia. - - See H. Barth, _Wanderungen durch die Kustenl. des Mittelmeeres_ - (Berlin, 1849); and H. von Maltzan, _Reise in Tunis und Tripolis_ - (Leipzig, 1870). - - - - -JERBOA, properly the name of an Arabian and North African jumping rodent -mammal, _Jaculus aegyptius_ (also known as _Jaculus_, or _Dipus_, -_jaculus_) typifying the family _Jaculidae_ (or _Dipodidae_), but in a -wider sense applied to most of the representatives of that family, which -are widely distributed over the desert and semi-desert tracts of the Old -World, although unknown in Africa south of the Sahara. In all the more -typical members of the family the three middle metatarsals of the long -hind-legs are fused into a cannon-bone; and in the true jerboas of the -genus _Jaculus_ the two lateral toes, with their supporting metatarsals, -are lost, although they are present in the alactagas (_Alactaga_), in -which, however, as in certain allied genera, only the three middle toes -are functional. As regards the true jerboas, there is a curious -resemblance in the structure of their hind-legs to that obtaining among -birds. In both groups, for instance, the lower part of the hind-leg is -formed by a long, slender cannon-bone, or metatarsus, terminating -inferiorly in triple condyles for the three long and sharply clawed -toes, the resemblance being increased by the fact that in both cases the -small bone of the leg (fibula) is fused with the large one (tibia). It -may also be noticed that in mammals and birds which hop on two legs, -such as jerboas, kangaroos, thrushes and finches, the proportionate -length of the thigh-bone or femur to the tibia and foot (metatarsus and -toes) is constant, being 2 to 5; in animals, on the other hand, such as -hares, horses and frogs, which use all four feet, the corresponding -lengths are 4 to 7. The resemblance between the jerboa's and the bird's -skeleton is owing to adaptation to a similar mode of existence. In the -young jerboa the proportion of the femur to the rest of the leg is the -same as in ordinary running animals. Further, at an early stage of -development the fibula is a complete and separate bone, while the three -metatarsals, which subsequently fuse together to form the cannon-bone, -are likewise separate. In addition to their long hind and short fore -limbs, jerboas are mostly characterized by their silky coats--of a fawn -colour to harmonize with their desert surroundings--their large eyes, -and long tails and ears. As is always the case with large-eared animals, -the tympanic bullae of the skull are of unusually large size; the size -varying in the different genera according to that of the ears. (For the -characteristics of the family and of its more important generic -representatives, see RODENTIA.) - - In the Egyptian jerboa the length of the body is 8 in., and that of - the tail, which is long, cylindrical and covered with short hair - terminated by a tuft, 10 in. The five-toed front limbs are extremely - short, while the hind pair are six times as long. When about to - spring, this jerboa raises its body by means of the hinder - extremities, and supports itself at the same time upon its tail, while - the fore-feet are so closely pressed to the breast as to be scarcely - visible, which doubtless suggested the name _Dipus_, or two-footed. It - then leaps into the air and alights upon its four feet, but - instantaneously erecting itself, it makes another spring, and so on in - such rapid succession as to appear as if rather flying than running. - It is a gregarious animal, living in considerable colonies in burrows, - which it excavates with its nails and teeth in the sandy soil of Egypt - and Arabia. In these it remains during great part of the day, emerging - at night in search of the herbs on which it feeds. It is exceedingly - shy, and this, together with its extraordinary agility, renders it - difficult to capture. The Arabs, however, succeed by closing up all - the exits from the burrows with a single exception, by which the - rodents are forced to escape, and over which a net is placed for their - capture. When confined, they will gnaw through the hardest wood in - order to make their escape. The Persian jerboa (_Alactaga indica_) is - also a nocturnal burrowing animal, feeding chiefly on grain, which it - stores up in underground repositories, closing these when full, and - only drawing upon them when the supply of food above ground is - exhausted (see also JUMPING MOUSE). (R. L.*) - - - - -JERDAN, WILLIAM (1782-1869), Scottish journalist, was born on the 16th -of April 1782, at Kelso, Scotland. During the years between 1799 and -1806 he spent short periods in a country lawyer's office, a London West -India merchant's counting-house, an Edinburgh solicitor's chambers, and -held the position of surgeon's mate on board H.M. guardship "Gladiator" -in Portsmouth Harbour, under his uncle, who was surgeon. He went to -London in 1806, and became a newspaper reporter. He was in the lobby of -the House of Commons on the 11th of May 1812 when Spencer Perceval was -shot, and was the first to seize the assassin. By 1812 he had become -editor of _The Sun_, a semi-official Tory paper; he occasionally -inserted literary articles, then quite an unusual proceeding; but a -quarrel with the chief proprietor brought that engagement to a close in -1817. He passed next to the editor's chair of the _Literary Gazette_, -which he conducted with success for thirty-four years. Jerdan's position -as editor brought him into contact with many distinguished writers. An -account of his friends, among whom Canning was a special intimate, is to -be found in his _Men I have Known_ (1866). When Jerdan retired in 1850 -from the editorship of the _Literary Gazette_ his pecuniary affairs were -far from satisfactory. A testimonial of over L900 was subscribed by his -friends; and in 1853 a government pension of 100 guineas was conferred -on him by Lord Aberdeen. He published his _Autobiography_ in 1852-1853, -and died on the 11th of July 1869. - - - - -JEREMIAH, in the Bible, the last pre-exilic prophet (fl. 626-586 B.C.?), -son of Hilkiah. - -_Early Days of Jeremiah._--There must anciently have existed one or more -prose works on Jeremiah and his times, written partly to do honour to -the prophet, partly to propagate those views respecting Israel's past -with which the name of Jeremiah was associated. Some fragments of this -work (or these works) have come down to us; they greatly add to the -popularity of the Book of Jeremiah. Strict historical truth we must not -ask of them, but they do give us what was believed concerning Jeremiah -in the following age, and we must believe that the personality so -honoured was an extraordinary one. We have also a number of genuine -prophecies which admit us into Jeremiah's inner nature. These are our -best authorities, but they are deficient in concrete facts. By birth -Jeremiah was a countryman; he came of a priestly family whose estate lay -at Anathoth "in the land of Benjamin" (xxxii. 3; cf. i. 1). He came -forward as a prophet in the thirteenth year of Josiah (626 B.C.), still -young but irresistibly impelled. Unfortunately the account of the call -and of the object of the divine caller come to us from a later hand (ch. -i.), but we can well believe that the concrete fact which the prophetic -call illuminated was an impending blow to the state (i. 13-16; cf. ch. -iv.). What the blow exactly was is disputed,[1] but it is certain that -Jeremiah saw the gathering storm and anticipated its result, while the -statesmen were still wrapped in a false security. Five years later came -the reform movement produced by the "finding" of the "book of the law" -in the Temple in 621 B.C. (2 Kings xxii. 8), and some critics have -gathered from Jer. xi. 1-8 that Jeremiah joined the ranks of those who -publicly supported this book in Jerusalem and elsewhere. To others this -view appears in itself improbable. How can a man like Jeremiah have -advocated any such panacea? He was indeed not at first a complete -pessimist, but to be a preacher of Deuteronomy required a sanguine -temper which a prophet of the school of Isaiah could not possess. -Besides, there is a famous passage (viii. 8, see R.V.) in which Jeremiah -delivers a vehement attack upon the "scribes" (or, as we might render, -"bookmen") and their "false pen." If, as Wellhausen and Duhm suppose, -this refers to Deuteronomy (i.e. the original Deuteronomy), the -incorrectness of the theory referred to is proved. And even if we think -that the phraseology of viii. 8 applies rather to a body of writings -than to a single book, yet there is no good ground (xi. 1-8 and xxxiv. -12 being of doubtful origin) for supposing that Jeremiah would have -excepted Deuteronomy from his condemnation. - -_Stages of his Development._--At first our prophet was not altogether a -pessimist. He aspired to convince the better minds that the only hope -for Israelites, as well as for Israel, lay in "returning" to the true -Yahweh, a deity who was no mere national god, and was not to be cajoled -by the punctual offering of costly sacrifices. When Jeremiah wrote iv. -1-4 he evidently considered that the judgment could even then be -averted. Afterwards he became less hopeful, and it was perhaps a closer -acquaintance with the manners of the capital that served to -disillusionize him. He began his work at Anathoth, but v. 1-5 (as Duhm -points out) seems to come from one who has just now for the first time -"run to and fro in the streets of Jerusalem," observing and observed. -And what is the result of his expedition? That he cannot find a single -just and honest man; that high and low, rich and poor, are all ignorant -of the true method of worshipping God ("the way of Yahweh," v. 4). It -would seem as if Anathoth were less corrupt than the capital, the moral -state of which so shocked Jeremiah. And yet he does not really go beyond -the great city-prophet Isaiah who calls the men of Jerusalem "a people -of Gomorrah" (i. 10). With all reverence, an historical student has to -deduct something from both these statements. It is true that commercial -prosperity had put a severe strain on the old morality, and that contact -with other peoples, as well as the course of political history, had -appeared to lower the position of the God of Israel in relation to other -gods. Still, some adherents of the old Israelitish moral and religious -standards must have survived, only they were not to be found in the -chief places of concourse, but as a rule in coteries which handed on the -traditions of Amos and Isaiah in sorrowful retirement. - -_Danger of Book Religion._--Probably, too, even in the highest class -there were some who had a moral sympathy with Jeremiah; otherwise we can -hardly account for the contents of Deuteronomy, at least if the book -"found" in the Temple at all resembled the central portion of our -Deuteronomy. And the assumption seems to be confirmed by the respectful -attitude of certain "elders of the land" in xxvi. 17 sqq., and of the -"princes" in xxxvi. 19, 25, towards Jeremiah, which may, at any rate in -part, have been due to the recent reform movement. If therefore Jeremiah -aimed at Deuteronomy in the severe language of viii. 8, he went too far. -History shows that book religion has special dangers of its own.[2] -Nevertheless the same incorruptible adviser also shows that book -religion may be necessary as an educational instrument, and a compromise -between the two types of religion is without historical precedent. - -_Reaction: Opposition to Jeremiah._--This, however, could not as yet be -recognized by the friends of prophecy, even though it seemed for a time -as if the claims of book religion were rebuffed by facts. The death of -the pious king Josiah at Megiddo in 608 B.C. dashed the high hopes of -the "book-men," but meant no victory for Jeremiah. Its only result for -the majority was a falling back on the earlier popular cultus of the -Baals, and on the heathen customs introduced, or reintroduced, by -Josiah's grandfather, Manasseh. Would that we possessed the section of -the prophet's biography which described his attitude immediately after -the news of the battle of Megiddo! Let us, however, be thankful for what -we have, and notably for the detailed narratives in chs. xxvi. and -xxxvi. The former is dated in the beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim, -though Wellhausen suspects that the date is a mistake, and that the real -occasion was the death of Josiah. The one clear-sighted patriot saw the -full meaning of the tragedy of Megiddo, and for "prophesying against -this city"--secured, as men thought, by the Temple (vii. 4)--he was -accused by "the priests, the prophets, and all the people" of high -treason. But the divinity which hedged a prophet saved him. The -"princes," supported by certain "elders" and by "the people" (quick to -change their leaders), succeeded in quashing the accusation and setting -the prophet free. No king, be it observed, is mentioned. The latter -narrative is still more exciting. In the fourth year of Jehoiakim (= the -first of Nebuchadrezzar, xxv. 1) Jeremiah was bidden to write down "all -the words that Yahweh had spoken to him against Jerusalem (so LXX.), -Judah and all the nations from the days of Josiah onwards" (xxxvi. 2). -So at least the authors of Jeremiah's biography tell us. They add that -in the next year Jeremiah's scribe Baruch read the prophecies of -Jeremiah first to the people assembled in the Temple, then to the -"princes," and then to the king, who decided his own future policy by -burning Baruch's roll in the brazier. We cannot, however, bind ourselves -to this tradition. Much more probably the prophecy was virtually a new -one (i.e. even if some old passages were repeated yet the setting was -new), and the burden of the prophecy was "The king of Babylon shall come -and destroy this land."[3] We cannot therefore assent to the judgment -that "we have, at least as regards [the] oldest portions [of the book] -information considerably more specific than is usual in the case of the -writings of the prophets."[4] - -_Fall of the State._--Under Zedekiah the prophet was less fortunate. -Such was the tension of feeling that the "princes," who were formerly -friendly to Jeremiah, now took up an attitude of decided hostility to -him. At last they had him consigned to a miry dungeon, and it was the -king who (at the instance of the Cushite Ebed-melech) intervened for his -relief, though he remained a prisoner in other quarters till the fall of -Jerusalem (586 B.C.). Nebuchadrezzar, who is assumed to have heard of -Jeremiah's constant recommendations of submission, gave him the choice -either of going to Babylon or of remaining in the country (chs. xxxviii. -seq.). He chose the latter and resided with Gedaliah, the native -governor, at Mizpah. On the murder of Gedaliah he was carried to Mizraim -or Egypt, or perhaps to the land of Mizrim in north Arabia--against his -will (chs. xl.-xliii.). How far all this is correct we know not. The -graphic style of a narrative is no sufficient proof of its truth. -Conceivably enough the story of Jeremiah's journey to Egypt (or Mizrim) -may have been imagined to supply a background for the artificial -prophecies ascribed to Jeremiah in chs. xlvi.-li. A legend in Jerome and -Epiphanius states that he was stoned to death at Daphnae, but the -biography, though not averse from horrors, does not mention this. - -_A Patriot?_--Was Jeremiah really a patriot? The question has been -variously answered. He was not a Phocion, for he never became the tool -of a foreign power. To say with Winckler[5] that he was "a decided -adherent of the Chaldean party" is to go beyond the evidence. He did -indeed counsel submission, but only because his detachment from party -gave him a clearness of vision (cf. xxxviii. 17, 18) which the -politicians lacked. How he suffered in his uphill course he has told us -himself (xv. 10-21). In after ages the oppressed people saw in his love -for Israel and his patient resignation their own realized ideal. "And -Onias said, This is the lover of the brethren, he who prayeth much for -the people and the holy city, Jeremiah the prophet of God" (2 Macc. xv. -14). And in proportion as the popular belief in Jeremiah rose, fresh -prophecies were added to the book (notably those of the new covenant and -of the restoration of the people after seventy years) to justify it. -Professor N. Schmidt has gone further into the character of this -sympathetic prophet, _Ency. Bib._ "Jeremiah," S 5. - - _Jeremiah's Prophecies._--It has been said above that our best - authorities are Jeremiah's own prophecies. Which may these be? Before - answering we must again point out (see also ISAIAH) that the records - of the pre-exilic prophets came down in a fragmentary form, and that - these fragments needed much supplementing to adapt them to the use of - post-exilic readers. In Jeremiah, as in Isaiah, we must constantly ask - to what age do the phraseology, the ideas and the implied - circumstances most naturally point? According to Duhm there are many - passages in which metre (see also AMOS) may also be a factor in our - critical conclusions. Jeremiah, he thinks, always uses the same metre. - Giesebrecht, on the other hand, maintains that there are passages - which are certainly Jeremiah's, but which are not in what Duhm calls - Jeremiah's metre; Giesebrecht also, himself rather conservative, - considers Duhm remarkably free with his emendations. There has also to - be considered whether the text of the poetical passages has not often - become corrupt, not only from ordinary causes but through the - misunderstanding and misreading of north Arabian names on the part of - late scribes and editors, the danger to Judah from north Arabia being - (it is held) not less in pre-exilic times than the danger from Assyria - and Babylonia, so that references to north Arabia are only to be - expected. To bring educated readers into touch with critical workers - it is needful to acquaint them with these various points, the neglect - of any one of which may to some extent injure the results of - criticism. - - It is a new stage of criticism on which we have entered, so that no - single critic can be reckoned as _the_ authority on Jeremiah. But - since the results of the higher criticism depend on the soundness and - thoroughness of the criticism called "lower," and since Duhm has the - advantage of being exceptionally free from that exaggerated respect - for the letters of the traditional text which has survived the - destruction of the old superstitious veneration for the vowel-points, - it may be best to give the student his "higher critical" results, - dated 1901. Let us premise, however, that the portions mentioned in - the 9th edition of the _Ency. Brit._ as having been "entirely or in - part denied," to Jeremiah, viz. x. 1-16; xxx.; xxxiii.; l.-li. and - lii., are still regarded in their present form as non-Jeremianic. The - question which next awaits decision is whether any part of the booklet - on foreign nations (xxv., xlvi.-li.) can safely be regarded as - Jeremianic. Giesebrecht still asserts the genuineness of xxv. 15-24 - (apart from glosses), xlvii. (in the main) and xlix. 7, 8, 10, 11. - Against these views see N. Schmidt, _Ency. Bib._, col. 2384. - - Let us now listen to Duhm, who analyses the book into six groups of - passages. These are (a) i.-xxv., the "words of Jeremiah." (i. 1); (b) - xxvi.-xxix., passages from Baruch's biography of Jeremiah; (c) - xxx.-xxxi., the book of the future of Israel and Judah; (d) - xxxii.-xlv., from Baruch; (e) xlvi.-li., the prophecies "concerning - the nations";[6] (f) lii., historical appendix. Upon examining these - groups we find that besides a prose letter (ch. xxix.), about sixty - poetical pieces may be Jeremiah's. A: Anathoth passages before 621, - (a) ii. 2b, 3, 14-28; ii. 29-37; iii. 1-5; iii. 12b, 13, 19, 20; iii. - 21-25; iv. i, 3, 4; these form a cycle, (b) xxxi. 2-6; 15-20; 21, 22; - another cycle. (c) iv. 5-8; 11b, 12a, 13, 15-17a; 19-21; 23-26; 29-31; - visions and "auditions" of the impending invasion. B: Jerusalem - passages. (d) v. 1-6a; 6b-9; 10-17; vi. 1-5; 6b-8; 9-14; 16, 17, 20; - 22-26a; 27-30; vii. 28, 29; viii. 4-7a; 8, 9, 13; 14-17; viii. 18-23; - ix. 1-8; 9 (short song); 16-18; 19-21; x. 19, 20, 22; reign of Josiah, - strong personal element. (e) xxii. 10 (Jehoahaz). xxii. 13-17; - probably too xi. 15, 16; xii. 7-12 (Jehoiakim). xxii. 18, 19, perhaps - too xxii. 6b, 7; 20-23; and the cycle xiii. 15, 16; 17; 18, 19; 20, - 21a, 22-25a, 26, 27 (later, Jehoiakim). xxii. 24; xxii. 28 - (Jehoiachin). (f) Later poems. xiv. 2-10; xv. 5-9; xvi. 5-7; xviii. - 13-17; xxiii. 9-12; 13-15; xi. 18-20; xv. 10-12; 15-19a, and 20, 21; - xvii. 9, 10, 14, 16, 17; xviii. 18-20; xx. 7-11; xx. 14-18; xiv. 17, - 18; xvii. 1-4; xxxviii. 24; assigned to the close of Zedekiah's time. - - _Two Recensions of the Text._--It has often been said that we have - virtually two recensions of the text, that represented by the - Septuagint and the Massoretic text, and critics have taken different - sides, some for one and some for the other. "Recension," however, is a - bad term; it implies that the two texts which undeniably exist were - the result of revising and editing according to definite critical - principles. Such, however, is not the case. It is true that "there are - (in the LXX.) many omissions of words, sentences, verses and whole - passages, in fact, that altogether about 2700 words are wanting, or - the eighth part of the Massoretic text" (Bleek). It may also be - admitted that the scribes who produced the Hebrew basis of the - Septuagint version, conscious of the unsettled state of the text, did - not shrink from what they considered a justifiable simplification. But - we must also grant that those from whom the "written" Hebrew text - proceeds allowed themselves to fill up and to repeat without any - sufficient warrant. In each case in which there is a genuine - difference of reading between the two texts, it is for the critic to - decide; often, however, he will have to seek to go behind what both - the texts present in order to constitute a truer text than either. - Here is the great difficulty of the future. We may add to the credit - of the Septuagint that the position given to the prophecies on "the - nations" (chs. xlvi.-li. in our Bible) in the Septuagint is probably - more original than that in the Massoretic text. On this point see - especially Schmidt, _Ency. Bib._ "Jeremiah (Book)" SS 6 and 21; - Davidson, Hastings's _Dict. Bible_, ii. 573b-575; Driver, - _Introduction_ (8th ed.), pp. 269, 270. - - The best German commentary is that of Cornill (1905). A skilful - translation by Driver, with notes intended for ordinary students - (1906) should also be mentioned. (T. K. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Davidson (Hast., _D.B._, ii. 570 b) mentions two views. (1) The - foe might be "a creation of his moral presentiment and assigned to - the north as the cloudy region of mystery." (2) The more usual view - is that the Scythians (see Herod, i. 76, 103-106; iv. 1 ) are meant. - Neither of these views is satisfactory. The passage v. 15-17 is too - definite for (1), and as for (2), the idea of a threatened Scythian - invasion lacks a sufficient basis. Those who hold (2) have to suppose - that original references to the Scythians were retouched under the - impression of Chaldean invasions. Hence Cheyne's theory of a north - Arabian invasion from the land of Zaphon = Zibeon (Gen. xxxvi. 2, - 14), i.e. Ishmael. Cf. N. Schmidt, _Ency. Bib._, Zibeon, "Scythians," - S 8; Cheyne, _Critica Biblica_, part i. (Isaiah and Jeremiah). - - [2] Cf. Ewald, _The Prophets_, Eng. trans., iii. 63, 64. - - [3] Cheyne, _Ency. Brit._ (9th ed.,), "Jeremiah," suggests after - Gratz that the roll simply contained ch. xxv., omitting the most - obvious interpolations. Against this view see N. Schmidt, _Ency. - Bib._, "Jeremiah (Book)," S 8, who, however, accepts the negative - part of Cheyne's arguments. - - [4] Driver, _Introd. to the Lit. of the O.T._ (6), p. 249. - - [5] In Helmolt's _Weltgeschichte_, iii. 211. - - [6] li. 59-64a, however, is a specimen of imaginative "Midrashic" - history. See Giesebrecht's monograph. - - - - -JEREMY, EPISTLE OF, an apocryphal book of the Old Testament. This letter -purports to have been written by Jeremiah to the exiles who were already -in Babylon or on the way thither. The author was a Hellenistic Jew, and -not improbably a Jew of Alexandria. His work, which shows little -literary skill, was written with a serious practical purpose. He veiled -his fierce attack on the idol gods of Egypt by holding up to derision -the idolatry of Babylon. The fact that Jeremiah (xxix. 1 sqq.) was known -to have written a letter of this nature naturally suggested to a -Hellenist, possibly of the 1st century B.C. or earlier, the idea of a -second epistolary undertaking, and other passages of Jeremiah's prophecy -(x. 1-12; xxix. 4-23) may have determined also its general character and -contents. - -The writer warned the exiles that they were to remain in captivity for -seven generations; that they would there see the worship paid to idols, -from all participation in which they were to hold aloof; for that idols -were nothing save the work of men's hands, without the powers of speech, -hearing or self-preservation. They could not bless their worshippers -even in the smallest concerns of life; they were indifferent to moral -qualities, and were of less value than the commonest household objects, -and finally, "with rare irony, the author compared an idol to a -scarecrow (v. 70), impotent to protect, but deluding to the imagination" -(MARSHALL). - - The date of the epistle is uncertain. It is believed by some scholars - to be referred to in 2 Macc. ii. 2, which says that Jeremiah charged - the exiles "not to forget the statutes of the Lord, neither to be led - astray in their minds when they saw images of gold and silver and the - adornment thereof." But the reference is disputed by Fritzsche, - Gifford, Shurer and others. The epistle was included in the Greek - canon. There was no question of its canonicity till the time of - Jerome, who termed it a pseudepigraph. - - See Fritzsche, _Handb. zu den Apok._, 1851; Gifford, in _Speaker's - Apoc._ ii. 286-303; Marshall, in Hastings' _Dict. Bible_, ii. 578-579. - (R. H. C.) - - - - -JEREZ DE LA FRONTERA (formerly XERES), a town of southern Spain, in the -province of Cadiz, near the right bank of the river Guadalete, and on -the Seville-Cadiz railway, about 7 m. from the Atlantic coast. Pop. -(1900), 63,473. Jerez is built in the midst of an undulating plain of -great fertility. Its whitewashed houses, clean, broad streets, and -squares planted with trees extend far beyond the limits formerly -enclosed by the Moorish walls, almost entirely demolished. The principal -buildings are the 15th-century church of San Miguel, the 17th-century -collegiate church with its lofty bell-tower, the 16th-century town-hall, -superseded, for official purposes, by a modern edifice, the bull-ring, -and many hospitals, charitable institutions and schools, including -academies of law, medicine and commerce. But the most characteristic -features of Jerez are the huge _bodegas_, or wine-lodges, for the -manufacture and storage of sherry, and the vineyards, covering more than -150,000 acres, which surround it on all sides. The town is an important -market for grain, fruit and livestock, but its staple trade is in wine. -Sherry is also produced in other districts, but takes its name, formerly -written in English as _sherris_ or _xeres_, from Jerez. The demand for -sherry diminished very greatly during the last quarter of the 19th -century, especially in England, which had been the chief consumer. In -1872 the sherry shipped from Cadiz to Great Britain alone was valued at -L2,500,000; in 1902 the total export hardly amounted to one-fifth of -this sum. The wine trade, however, still brings a considerable profit, -and few towns of southern Spain display greater commercial activity than -Jerez. In the earlier part of the 18th century the neighbourhood -suffered severely from yellow fever; but it was rendered comparatively -healthy when in 1869 an aqueduct was opened to supply pure water. -Strikes and revolutionary disturbances have frequently retarded business -in more recent years. - -Jerez has been variously identified with the Roman Municipium Seriense; -with Asido, perhaps the original of the Moorish Sherish; and with Hasta -Regia, a name which may survive in the designation of La Mesa de Asta, a -neighbouring hill. Jerez was taken from the Moors by Ferdinand III. of -Castile (1217-1252); but it was twice recaptured before Alphonso X. -finally occupied it in 1264. Towards the close of the 14th century it -received the title _de la Frontera_, i.e. "of the frontier," common to -several towns on the Moorish border. - - - - -JEREZ DE LOS CABALLEROS, a town of south-western Spain, in the province -of Badajoz, picturesquely situated on two heights overlooking the river -Ardila, a tributary of the Guadiana, 12 m. E. of the Portuguese -frontier. Pop. (1900), 10,271. The old town is surrounded by a Moorish -wall with six gates; the newer portion is well and regularly built, and -planted with numerous orange and other fruit trees. Owing to the lack of -railway communication Jerez is of little commercial importance; its -staple trade is in agricultural produce, especially in ham and bacon -from the large herds of swine which are reared in the surrounding oak -forests. The town is said to have been founded by Alphonso IX. of Leon -in 1229; in 1232 it was extended by his son St Ferdinand, who gave it to -the knights templar. Hence the name _Jerez de los Caballeros_, "Jerez of -the knights." - - - - -JERICHO ([Hebrew: Yricho, Yricho], once [Hebrew: Yrichoa], a word of -disputed meaning, whether "fragrant" or "moon [-god] city"), an -important town in the Jordan valley some 5 m. N. of the Dead Sea. The -references to it in the Pentateuch are confined to rough geographical -indications of the latitude of the trans-Jordanic camp of the Israelites -in Moab before their crossing of the river. This was the first Canaanite -city to be attacked and reduced by the victorious Israelites. The story -of its conquest is His Sundays were spent in the catacombs in -discovering graves of the martyrs and deciphering inscriptions. Pope -Liberius baptized him in 360; three years later the news of the death of -the emperor Julian came to Rome, and Christians felt relieved from a -great dread. - -When his student days were over Jerome returned to Strido, but did not -stay there long. His character was formed. He was a scholar, with a -scholar's tastes and cravings for knowledge, easily excited, bent on -scholarly discoveries. From Strido he went to Aquileia, where he formed -some friendships among the monks of the large monastery, notably with -Rufinus, with whom he was destined to quarrel bitterly over the question -of Origen's orthodoxy and worth as a commentator; for Jerome was a man -who always sacrificed a friend to an opinion, and when he changed sides -in a controversy expected his acquaintances to follow him. From Aquileia -he went to Gaul (366-370), visiting in turn the principal places in that -country, from Narbonne and Toulouse in the south to Treves on the -north-east frontier. He stayed some time at Treves studying and -observing, and it was there that he first began to think seriously upon -sacred things. From Treves he returned to Strido, and from Strido to -Aquileia. He settled down to literary work in Aquileia (370-373) and -composed there his first original tract, _De muliere septies percussa_, -in the form of a letter to his friend Innocentius. Some dispute caused -him to leave Aquileia suddenly; and with a few companions, Innocentius, -Evagrius, and Heliodorus being among them, he started for a long tour in -the East. The epistle to Rufinus (3rd in Vallarsi's enumeration) tells -us the route. They went through Thrace, visiting Athens, Bithynia, -Galatia, Pontus, Cappadocia and Cilicia, to Antioch, Jerome observing -and making notes as they went. He was interested in the theological -disputes and schisms in Galatia, in the two languages spoken in Cilicia, -&c. At Antioch the party remained some time. Innocentius died of a -fever, and Jerome was dangerously ill. This illness induced a spiritual -change, and he resolved to renounce whatever kept him back from God. His -greatest temptation was the study of the literature of pagan Rome. In a -dream Christ reproached him with caring more to be a Ciceronian than a -Christian. He disliked the uncouth style of the Scriptures. "O Lord," he -prayed, "thou knowest that whenever I have and study secular MSS. I deny -thee," and he made a resolve henceforth to devote his scholarship to the -Holy Scripture. "David was to be henceforth his Simonides, Pindar and -Alcaeus, his Flaccus, Catullus and Severus." Fortified by these resolves -he betook himself to a hermit life in the wastes of Chalcis, S.E. from -Antioch (373-379). Chalcis was the Thebaid of Syria. Great numbers of -monks, each in solitary cell, spent lonely lives, scorched by the sun, -ill-clad and scantily fed, pondering on portions of Scripture or copying -MSS. to serve as objects of meditation. Jerome at once set himself to -such scholarly work as the place afforded. He discovered and copied -MSS., and began to study Hebrew. There also he wrote the life of St Paul -of Thebes, probably an imaginary tale embodying the facts of the monkish -life around him. Just then the Meletian schism, which arose over the -relation of the orthodox to Arian bishops and to those baptized by -Arians, distressed the church at Antioch (see MELETIUS OF ANTIOCH), and -Jerome as usual eagerly joined the fray. Here as elsewhere he had but -one rule to guide him in matters of doctrine and discipline--the -practice of Rome and the West; for it is singular to see how Jerome, who -is daringly original in points of scholarly criticism, was a ruthless -partisan in all other matters; and, having discovered what was the -Western practice, he set tongue and pen to work with his usual -bitterness (_Altercatio luciferiani et orthodoxi_). - -At Antioch in 379 he was ordained presbyter. From there he went to -Constantinople, where he met with the great Eastern scholar and -theologian Gregory of Nazianzus, and with his aid tried to perfect -himself in Greek. The result of his studies there was the translation of -the _Chronicon_ of Eusebius, with a continuation[1] of twenty-eight -homilies of Origen on Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and of nine homilies of -Origen on the visions of Isaiah. - -In 381 Meletius died, and Pope Damasus interfered in the dispute at -Antioch, hoping to end it. Jerome was called to Rome in 382 to give help -in the matter, and was made secretary during the investigation. His work -brought him into intercourse with this great pontiff, who soon saw what -he could best do, and how his vast scholarship might be made of use to -the church. Damasus suggested to him to revise the "Old Latin" -translation of the Bible; and to this task he henceforth devoted his -great abilities. At Rome were published the Gospels (with a dedication -to Pope Damasus, an explanatory introduction, and the canons of -Eusebius), the rest of the New Testament and the version of the Psalms -from the Septuagint known as the _Psalterium romanum_, which was -followed (c. 388) by the _Psalterium gallicanum_, based on the Hexaplar -Greek text. These scholarly labours, however, did not take up his whole -time, and it was almost impossible for Jerome to be long anywhere -without getting into a dispute. He was a zealous defender of that -monastic life which was beginning to take such a large place in the -church of the 4th century, and he found enthusiastic disciples among the -Roman ladies. A number of widows and maidens met together in the house -of Marcella to study the Scriptures with him; he taught them Hebrew, and -preached the virtues of the celibate life. His arguments and -exhortations may be gathered from many of his epistles and from his -tract _Adversus Helvidium_, in which he defends the perpetual virginity -of Mary against Helvidius, who maintained that she bore children to -Joseph. His influence over these ladies alarmed their relatives and -excited the suspicions of the regular priesthood and of the populace, -but while Pope Damasus lived Jerome remained secure. Damasus died, -however, in 384, and was succeeded by Siricius, who did not show much -friendship for Jerome. He found it expedient to leave Rome, and set out -for the East in 385. His letters (especially Ep. 45) are full of -outcries against his enemies and of indignant protestations that he had -done nothing unbecoming a Christian, that he had taken no money, nor -gifts great nor small, that he had no delight in silken attire, -sparkling gems or gold ornaments, that no matron moved him unless by -penitence and fasting, &c. His route is given in the third book _In -Rufinum_; he went by Rhegium and Cyprus, where he was entertained by -Bishop Epiphanius, to Antioch. There he was joined by two wealthy Roman -ladies, Paula, a widow, and Eustochium, her daughter, one of Jerome's -Hebrew students. They came accompanied by a band of Roman maidens vowed -to live a celibate life in a nunnery in Palestine. Accompanied by these -ladies Jerome made the tour of Palestine, carefully noting with a -scholar's keenness the various places mentioned in Holy Scripture. The -results of this journey may be traced in his translation with -emendations of the book of Eusebius on the situation and names of Hebrew -places, written probably three years afterwards, when he had settled -down at Bethlehem. From Palestine Jerome and his companions went to -Egypt, remaining some time in Alexandria, and they visited the convents -of the Nitrian desert. Jerome's mind was evidently full of anxiety about -his translation of the Old Testament, for we find him in his letters -recording the conversations he had with learned men about disputed -readings and doubtful renderings; the blind Didymus of Alexandria, whom -he heard interpreting Hosea, appears to have been most useful. When they -returned to Palestine they all settled at Bethlehem, where Paula built -four monasteries, three for nuns and one for monks. She was at the head -of the nunneries until her death in 404, when Eustochium succeeded her; -Jerome presided over the fourth monastery. Here he did most of his -literary work and, throwing aside his unfinished plan of a translation -from Origen's Hexaplar text, translated the Old Testament directly from -the Hebrew, with the aid of Jewish scholars. He mentions a rabbi from -Lydda, a rabbi from Tiberias, and above all rabbi Ben Anina, who came to -him by night secretly for fear of the Jews. Jerome was not familiar -enough with Hebrew to be able to dispense with such assistance, and he -makes the synagogue responsible for the fully narrated in the first -seven chapters of Joshua. There must be some little exaggeration in the -statement that Jericho was totally destroyed; a hamlet large enough to -be enumerated among the towns of Benjamin (Josh. xviii. 21) must have -remained; but that it was small is shown by the fact that it was deemed -a suitable place for David's ambassadors to retire to after the -indignities put upon them by Hanun (2 Sam. x. 5; 1 Chron. xix. 5). Its -refortification was due to a Bethelite named Hiel, who endeavoured to -avert the curse of Joshua by offering his sons as sacrifices at certain -stages of the work (1 Kings xvi. 34). After this event it grew again -into importance and became the site of a college of prophets (2 Kings -ii. 4 sqq.) for whom Elisha "healed" its poisonous waters. The principal -spring in the neighbourhood of Jericho still bears (among the foreign -residents) the name of Elisha; the natives call it, Ain es-Sultan, or -"Sultan's spring." To Jericho the victorious Israelite marauders -magnanimously returned their Judahite captives at the bidding of the -prophet Oded (2 Chron. xxviii. 15). Here was fought the last fight -between the Babylonians and Zedekiah, wherein the kingdom of Judah came -to an end (2 Kings xxv. 5; Jer. xxxix. 5, lii. 8). In the New Testament -Jericho is connected with the well-known stories of Bar-Timaeus (Matt. -xx. 29; Mark x. 46; Luke xviii. 35) and Zacchaeus (Luke xix. 1) and with -the good Samaritan (Luke x. 30). - - The extra-Biblical history of Jericho is as disastrous as are the - records preserved in the Scriptures. Bacchides, the general of the - Syrians, captured and fortified it (1. Macc. ix. 50), Aristobulus - (Jos. _Ant._ XIV. i. 2) also took it, Pompey (ib. XIV. iv. 1) encamped - here on his way to Jerusalem. Before Herod its inhabitants ran away - (ib. XIV. xv. 3) as they did before Vespasian (_Wars_, IV. viii. 2). - The reason of this lack of warlike quality was no doubt the enervating - effect of the great heat of the depression in which the city lies, - which has the same effect on the handful of degraded humanity that - still occupies the ancient site. - - Few places in Palestine are more fertile. It was the city of palm - trees of the ancient record of the Israelite invasion preserved in - part in Judg. i. 16; and Josephus speaks of its fruitfulness with - enthusiasm (_Wars_ IV. 8, 3). Even now with every possible hindrance - in the way of cultivation it is an important centre of fruit-growing. - - The modern er-Riha is a poor squalid village of, it is estimated, - about 300 inhabitants. It is not built exactly on the ancient site. - Indeed, the site of Jericho has shifted several times. The mound of - Tell es-Sultan, near "Elisha's Fountain," north of the modern village, - no doubt covers the Canaanite town. There are two later sites, of - Roman or Herodian date, one north, the other west, of this. It was - probably the crusaders who established the modern site. An old tower - attributed to them is to be seen in the village, and in the - surrounding mountains are many remains of early monasticism. - Aqueducts, ruined sugar-mills, and other remains of ancient industry - abound in the neighbourhood. The whole district is the private - property of the sultan of Turkey. In 1907-8 the Canaanite Jericho was - excavated under the direction of Prof. Sellin of Vienna. - - See "The German Excavations at Jericho," _Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart. - Statem._ (1910), pp. 54-68. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Cf. Schoene's critical edition (Berlin, 1866, 1875). - - - - -JERKIN, a short close-fitting jacket, made usually of leather, and -without sleeves, the typical male upper garment of the 16th and 17th -centuries. The origin of the word is unknown. The Dutch word _jurk_, a -child's frock, often taken as the source, is modern, and represents -neither the sound nor the sense of the English word. In architecture the -term "jerkin-roofed" is applied, probably with some obscure connexion -with the garment, to a particular form of gable end, the gable being cut -off half way up the roof and sloping back like a "hipped roof" to the -edge. - - - - -JEROBOAM (Heb. _yarob'am_, apparently "Am ['the clan,' here perhaps a -divine name] contends"; LXX. [Greek: ieroboam]), the name of two kings -in the Bible. - -1. The first king of (north) Israel after the disruption (see SOLOMON). -According to the traditions of his early life (1 Kings xi. 26 sqq. and -LXX.), he was an Ephraimite who for his ability was placed over the -forced levy of Ephraim and Manasseh. Having subsequently incurred -Solomon's suspicions he fled to Shishak, king of Egypt, and remained -with him until Rehoboam's accession. When the latter came to be made -king at Shechem, the old religious centre (see ABIMELECH), hopes were -entertained that a more lenient policy would be introduced. But -Rehoboam refused to depart from Solomon's despotic rule, and was -tactless enough to send Adoniram, the overseer of the _corvee_. He was -stoned to death, and Rehoboam realizing the temper of the people fled to -Jerusalem and prepared for war. Jeroboam became the recognized leader of -the northern tribes.[1] Conflicts occurred (1 Kings xiv. 30), but no -details are preserved except the late story of Rehoboam's son Abijah in -2 Chron. xiii. Jeroboam's chief achievement was the fortification of -Shechem (his new capital) and of Penuel in east Jordan. To counteract -the influence of Jerusalem he established golden calves at Dan and -Bethel, an act which to later ages was as gross a piece of wickedness as -his rebellion against the legitimate dynasty of Judah. No notice has -survived of Shishak's invasion of Israel (see REHOBOAM), and after a -reign of twenty-two years Jeroboam was succeeded by Nadab, whose violent -death two years later brought the whole house of Jeroboam to an end. - - The history of the separation of Judah and Israel in the 10th century - B.C. was written from a strong religious standpoint at a date - considerably later than the event itself. The visit of Ahijah to - Shiloh (xi. 29-39), to announce symbolically the rending of the - kingdom, replaces some account of a rebellion in which Jeroboam - "lifted up his hand" (v. 27) against Solomon. To such an account, not - to the incident of Ahijah and the cloak, his flight (v. 40) is the - natural sequel. The story of Ahijah's prophecy against Jeroboam (ch. - xiv.) is not in the original LXX., but another version of the same - narrative appears at xii. 24 (LXX.), in which there is no reference to - a previous promise to Jeroboam through Ahijah, but the prophet is - introduced as a new character. Further, in this version (xii. 24) the - incident of the tearing of the cloak is related of Shemaiah and placed - at the convention of Shechem. Shemaiah is the prophet who counselled - Rehoboam to refrain from war (xii. 21-24); the injunction is opposed - to xiv. 30, but appears to be intended to explain Rehoboam's failure - to overcome north Israel. (See W. R. Smith, _Old Test. in Jewish - Church_ (2nd ed.), 117 sqq.; Winckler, _Alte Test. Untersuch._ 12 - sqq., and J. Skinner, _Century Bible: Kings_, pp. 443 sqq.) - -2. JEROBOAM, son of Joash (2) a contemporary of Azariah king of Judah. -He was one of the greatest of the kings of Israel. He succeeded in -breaking the power of Damascus, which had long been devastating his -land, and extended his kingdom from Hamath on the Orontes to the Dead -Sea. The brief summary of his achievements preserved in 2 Kings xiv. 23 -sqq. may be supplemented by the original writings of Amos and Hosea.[2] -There appears to be an allusion in Amos vi. 13 to the recovery of -Ashteroth-Karnaim and Lodebar in E. Jordan, and the conquest of Moab -(Isa. xv. seq.) is often ascribed to this reign. After a period of -prosperity, internal disturbances broke out and the northern kingdom -hastened to its fall. Jeroboam was succeeded by his son Zechariah, who -after six months was killed at Ibleam (so read in 2 Kings xv. 10; cp. -ix. 27, murder of Ahaziah) by Shallum the son of Jabesh--i.e. possibly -of Jabesh-Gilead--who a month later fell to Menahem (q.v.). - (S. A. C.) - - See, further, JEWS SS 7, 9 and SS 12, 13. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] On the variant traditions in the Hebrew text and the Septuagint, - see the commentaries on Kings. - - [2] See also JONAH. In 2 Kings xiv. 28, "Hamath, _which had belonged_ - to Judah" (R.V.) is incorrect; Winckler (_Keilinschrift. u. Alte - Test._, 2nd ed., 262) suspects a reference to Israel's overlordship - in Judah; Burney (_Heb. Text of Kings_) reads: "how he fought with - Damascus and how he turned away the wrath of Yahweh from Israel"; see - also _Ency. Bib._ col. 2406 n. 4, and the commentaries. - - - - -JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. -340-420), was born at Strido (modern Strigau?), a town on the border of -Dalmatia fronting Pannonia, destroyed by the Goths in A.D. 377. What is -known of Jerome has mostly been recovered from his own writings. He -appears to have been born about 340; his parents were Christians, -orthodox though living among people mostly Arians and wealthy. He was at -first educated at home, Bonosus, a life-long friend, sharing his -youthful studies, and was afterwards sent to Rome. Donatus taught him -grammar and explained the Latin poets. Victorinus taught him rhetoric. -He attended the law-courts, and listened to the Roman advocates pleading -in the Forum. He went to the schools of philosophy, and heard lectures -on Plato, Diogenes, Clitomachus and Carneades; the conjunction of names -show how philosophy had become a dead tradition. accuracy of his -version: "Let him who would challenge aught in this translation," he -says, "ask the Jews." The result of all this labour was the Latin -translation of the Scriptures which, in spite of much opposition from -the more conservative party in the church, afterwards became the Vulgate -or authorized version; but the Vulgate as we have it now is not exactly -Jerome's Vulgate, for it suffered a good deal from changes made under -the influence of the older translations; the text became very corrupt -during the middle ages, and in particular all the Apocrypha, except -Tobit and Judith, which Jerome translated from the Chaldee, were added -from the older versions. (See BIBLE: _O.T. Versions_.) - -Notwithstanding the labour involved in translating the Scriptures, -Jerome found time to do a great deal of literary work, and also to -indulge in violent controversy. Earlier in life he had a great -admiration for Origen, and translated many of his works, and this lasted -after he had settled at Bethlehem, for in 389 he translated Origen's -homilies on Luke; but he came to change his opinion and wrote violently -against two admirers of the great Alexandrian scholar, John, bishop of -Jerusalem, and his own former friend Rufinus. - -At Bethlehem also he found time to finish _Didymi de spiritu sancto -liber_, a translation begun at Rome at the request of Pope Damasus, to -denounce the revival of Gnostic heresies by Jovinianus and Vigilantius -(_Adv. Jovinianum lib. II._ and _Contra Vigilantium liber_), and to -repeat his admiration of the hermit life in his _Vita S. Hilarionis -eremitae_, in his _Vita Malchi monachi captivi_, in his translations of -the Rule of St Pachomius (the Benedict of Egypt), and in his _S. -Pachomii et S. Theodorici epistolae et verba mystica_. He also wrote at -Bethlehem _De viris illustribus sive de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis_, a -church history in biographies, ending with the life of the author; _De -nominibus Hebraicis_, compiled from Philo and Origen; and _De situ et -nominibus locorum Hebraicorum_.[1] At the same place, too, he wrote -_Quaestiones Hebraicae_ on Genesis,[2] and a series of commentaries on -Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, the Twelve Minor Prophets, Matthew -and the Epistles of St Paul. About 394 Jerome came to know Augustine, -for whom he held a high regard. He engaged in the Pelagian controversy -with more than even his usual bitterness (_Dialogi contra pelagianos_); -and it is said that the violence of his invective so provoked his -opponents that an armed mob attacked the monastery, and that Jerome was -forced to flee and to remain in concealment for nearly two years. He -returned to Bethlehem in 418, and after a lingering illness died on the -30th of September 420. - -Jerome "is one of the few Fathers to whom the title of Saint appears to -have been given in recognition of services rendered to the Church rather -than for eminent sanctity. He is the great Christian scholar of his age, -rather than the profound theologian or the wise guide of souls." His -great work was the Vulgate, but his achievements in other fields would -have sufficed to distinguish him. His commentaries are valuable because -of his knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, his varied interests, and his -comparative freedom from allegory. To him we owe the distinction between -canonical and apocryphal writings; in the _Prologus Galeatus_ prefixed -to his version of Samuel and Kings, he says that the church reads the -Apocrypha "for the edification of the people, not for confirming the -authority of ecclesiastical doctrines." He was a pioneer in the fields -of patrology and of biblical archaeology. In controversy he was too fond -of mingling personal abuse with legitimate argument, and this weakness -mars his letters, which were held in high admiration in the early middle -ages, and are valuable for their history of the man and his times. -Luther in his _Table Talk_ condemns them as dealing only with fasting, -meats, virginity, &c. "If he only had insisted upon the works of faith -and performed them! But he teaches nothing either about faith, or love, -or hope, or the works of faith." - - Editions of the complete works: Erasmus (9 vols., Basel, 1516-1520); - Mar. Victorius, bishop of Rieti (9 vols., Rome, 1565-1572); F. - Calixtus and A. Tribbechovius (12 vols., Frankfort and Leipzig, - 1684-1690); J. Martianay (5 vols., incomplete Benedictine ed., Paris, - 1693-1706); D. Vallarsi (11 vols., Verona, 1734-1742), the best; - Migne, _Patrol. Ser. Lat._ (xxii.-xxix.). The _De viris illust._ was - edited by Herding in 1879. A selection is given in translation by W. - H. Fremantle, "Select Library of Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers," 2nd - series, vol. vi. (New York, 1893). Biographies are prefixed to most of - the above editions. See also lives by F. Z. Collombet (Paris and - Lyons, 1844); O. Zockler (Gotha, 1865); E. L. Cutts (London, 1878); C. - Martin (London, 1888); P. Largent (Paris, 1898); F. W. Farrar, _Lives - of the Fathers_, ii. 150-297 (Edinburgh, 1889). Additional literature - is cited in Hauck-Herzog's _Realencyk. fur prot. Theol._ viii. 42. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Compare the critical edition of these two works in Lagarde's - _Onomastica sacra_ (Gotting. 1870). - - [2] See Lagarde's edition appended to his _Genesis Graece_ (Leipzig, - 1868). - - - - -JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859- ), English author, was born on the 2nd of -May 1859. He was educated at the philological school, Marylebone, -London; and was by turns clerk, schoolmaster and actor, before he -settled down to journalism. He made his reputation as a humorist in 1889 -with _Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow_ and _Three Men in a Boat_, and -from 1892 to 1897 he was co-editor of the _Idler_ with Robert Barr. At -the same time he was also the editor of _To-Day_. A one-act play of his, -_Barbara_, was produced at the Globe theatre in 1886, and was followed -by many others, among them _Sunset_ (1888), _Wood Barrow Farm_ (1891), -_The Passing of the Third Floor Back_ (1907). Among his later books are -_Letters to Clorinda_ (1898), _The Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow_ -(1898), _Three Men on the Bummel_ (1900), _Tommy and Co._ (1904), _They -and I_ (1909). - - - - -JEROME OF PRAGUE (d. 1416), an early Bohemian church-reformer and friend -of John Hus. Jerome's part in the Hussite movement was formerly much -over-rated. Very little is known of his early years. He is stated to -have belonged to a noble Bohemian family[1] and to have been a few years -younger than Hus. After beginning his studies at the university of -Prague, where he never attempted to obtain any ecclesiastical office, -Jerome proceeded to Oxford in 1398. There he became greatly impressed by -the writings of Wycliffe, of whose _Dialogus_ and _Trialogus_ he made -copies. Always inclined to a roving life, he soon proceeded to the -university of Paris and afterwards continued his studies at Cologne and -Heidelberg, returning to Prague in 1407. In 1403 he is stated to have -undertaken a journey to Jerusalem. At Paris his open advocacy of the -views of Wycliffe brought him into conflict with John Gerson, chancellor -of the university. In Prague Jerome soon attracted attention by his -advanced and outspoken opinions. He gave great offence also by -exhibiting a portrait of Wycliffe in his room. Jerome was soon on terms -of friendship with Hus, and took part in all the controversies of the -university. When in 1408 a French embassy arrived at Kutna Hora, the -residence of King Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and proposed that the papal -schism should be terminated by the refusal of the temporal authorities -further to recognize either of the rival popes, Wenceslaus summoned to -Kutna Hora the members of the university. The Bohemian _magistri_ spoke -strongly in favour of the French proposals, while the Germans maintained -their allegiance to the Roman pope, Gregory XII. The reorganization of -the university was also discussed, and as Wenceslaus for a time favoured -the Germans, Hus and Jerome, as leaders of the Bohemians, incurred the -anger of the king, who threatened them with death by fire should they -oppose his will. - -In 1410 Jerome, who had incurred the hostility of the archbishop of -Prague by his speeches in favour of Wycliffe's teaching, went to Ofen, -where King Sigismund of Hungary resided, and, though a layman, preached -before the king denouncing strongly the rapacity and immorality of the -clergy. Sigismund shortly afterwards received a letter from the -archbishop of Prague containing accusations against Jerome. He was -imprisoned by order of the king, but does not appear to have been -detained long in Hungary. Appearing at Vienna, he was again brought -before the ecclesiastical authorities. He was accused of spreading -Wycliffe's doctrines, and his general conduct at Oxford, Paris, Cologne, -Prague and Ofen was censured. Jerome vowed that he would not leave -Vienna till he had cleared himself from the accusation of heresy. -Shortly afterwards he secretly left Vienna, declaring that this promise -had been forced on him. He went first to Vottau in Moravia, and then to -Prague. In 1412 the representatives of Pope Gregory XII. publicly -offered indulgences for sale at Prague, wishing to raise money for the -pope's campaign against King Ladislaus of Naples, an adherent of the -antipope of Avignon. Contrary to the wishes of the archbishop of Prague -a meeting of the members of the university took place, at which both Hus -and Jerome spoke strongly against the sale of indulgences. The fiery -eloquence of Jerome, which is noted by all contemporary writers, -obtained for him greater success even than that of Hus, particularly -among the younger students, who conducted him in triumph to his -dwelling-place. Shortly afterwards Jerome proceeded to Poland--it is -said on the invitation of King Wladislaus. His courtly manners and his -eloquence here also caused him to become very popular, but he again met -with strong opposition from the Roman Church. While travelling with the -grand-duke Lithold of Lithuania Jerome took part in the religious -services of the Greek Orthodox Church. - -During his stay in northern Europe Jerome received the news that Hus had -been summoned to appear before the council of Constance. He wrote to his -friend advising him to do so and adding that he would also proceed there -to afford him assistance. Contrary to the advice of Hus he arrived at -Constance on the 4th of April 1415. Advised to fly immediately to -Bohemia, he succeeded in reaching Hirschau, only 25 m. from the Bohemian -frontier. He was here arrested and brought back in chains to Constance, -where he was examined by judges appointed by the council. His courage -failed him in prison and, to regain his freedom, he renounced the -doctrines of Wycliffe and Hus. He declared that Hus had been justly -executed and stated in a letter addressed on the 12th of August 1415 to -Lacek, lord of Kravar--the only literary document of Jerome that has -been preserved--that "the dead man (Hus) had written many false and -harmful things." Full confidence was not placed in Jerome's recantation. -He claimed to be heard at a general meeting of the council, and this was -granted to him. He now again maintained all the theories which he had -formerly advocated, and, after a trial that lasted only one day, he was -condemned to be burnt as a heretic. The sentence was immediately carried -out on the 30th of May 1416, and he met his death with fortitude. As -Poggio Bracciolini writes, "none of the Stoics with so constant and -brave a soul endured death, which he (Jerome) seemed rather to long -for." The eloquence of the Italian humanist has bestowed a not entirely -merited aureole on the memory of Jerome of Prague. - - See all works dealing with Hus; and indeed all histories of Bohemia - contain detailed accounts of the career of Jerome. _The Lives of John - Wicliffe, Lord Cobham, John Huss, Jerome of Prague and Zizka_ by - William Gilpin (London, 1765) still has a certain value. (L.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The statement that Jerome's family name was Faulfiss, is founded - on a misunderstood passage of Aeneas Sylvius, _Historica Bohemica_. - Aeneas Sylvius names as one of the early Bohemian reformers a man - "_genere nobilis, ex domo quam Putridi Piscis vacant_." This was - erroneously believed to refer to Jerome. - - - - -JERROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM (1803-1857), English dramatist and man of -letters, was born in London on the 3rd of January 1803. His father, -Samuel Jerrold, actor, was at that time lessee of the little theatre of -Wilsby near Cranbrook in Kent, but in 1807 he removed to Sheerness. -There, among the bluejackets who swarmed in the port during the war with -France, Douglas grew into boyhood. He occasionally took a child's part -on the stage, but his father's profession had little attraction for the -boy. In December 1813 he joined the guardship "Namur," where he had Jane -Austen's brother as captain, and he served as a midshipman until the -peace of 1815. He saw nothing of the war save a number of wounded -soldiers from Waterloo; but till his dying day there lingered traces of -his early passion for the sea. The peace of 1815 ruined Samuel Jerrold; -there was no more prize money. On the 1st of January 1816 he removed -with his family to London, where the ex-midshipman began the world again -as a printer's apprentice, and in 1819 became a compositor in the -printing-office of the _Sunday Monitor_. Several short papers and copies -of verses by him had already appeared in the sixpenny magazines, and -one evening he dropped into the editor's box a criticism of the opera -_Der Freischutz_. Next morning he received his own copy to set up, -together with a flattering note from the editor, requesting further -contributions from the anonymous author. Thenceforward Jerrold was -engaged in journalism. In 1821 a comedy that he had composed in his -fifteenth year was brought out at Sadler's Wells theatre, under the -title _More Frightened than Hurt_. Other pieces followed, and in 1825 he -was engaged for a few pounds weekly to produce dramas and farces to the -order of Davidge of the Coburg theatre. In the autumn of 1824 the -"little Shakespeare in a camlet cloak," as he was called, married Mary -Swann; and, while he was engaged with the drama at night, he was -steadily pushing his way as a journalist. For a short while he was part -proprietor of a small Sunday newspaper. In 1829, through a quarrel with -the exacting Davidge, Jerrold left the Coburg; and his three-act -melodrama, _Black-eyed Susan; or, All in the Downs_, was brought out by -R. W. Elliston at the Surrey theatre. The success of the piece was -enormous. With its free gallant sea-flavour, it took the town by storm, -and "all London went over the water to see it." Elliston made a fortune -by the piece; T. P. Cooke, who played William, made his reputation; -Jerrold received about L60 and was engaged as dramatic author at five -pounds a week. But his fame as a dramatist was achieved. In 1830 it was -proposed that he should adapt something from the French for Drury Lane. -"No," was his reply, "I shall come into this theatre as an original -dramatist or not at all." _The Bride of Ludgate_ (December 8, 1831) was -the first of a number of his plays produced at Drury Lane. The other -patent houses threw their doors open to him also (the Adelphi had -already done so); and in 1836 Jerrold became co-manager of the Strand -theatre with W. J. Hammond, his brother-in-law. The venture was not -successful, and the partnership was dissolved. While it lasted Jerrold -wrote his only tragedy, _The Painter of Ghent_, and himself appeared in -the title-role, without any very marked success. He continued to write -sparkling comedies till 1854, the date of his last piece, _The Heart of -Gold_. - -Meanwhile he had won his way to the pages of numerous -periodicals--before 1830 of the second-rate magazines only, but after -that to those of more importance. He was a contributor to the _Monthly -Magazine, Blackwood's,_ the _New Monthly_, and the _Athenaeum_. To -_Punch_, the publication which of all others is associated with his -name, he contributed from its second number in 1841 till within a few -days of his death. He founded and edited for some time, though with -indifferent success, the _Illuminated Magazine, Jerrold's Shilling -Magazine_, and _Douglas Jerrold's Weekly Newspaper;_ and under his -editorship _Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper_ rose from almost nonentity to a -circulation of 182,000. The history of his later years is little more -than a catalogue of his literary productions, interrupted now and again -by brief visits to the Continent or to the country. Douglas Jerrold died -at his house, Kilburn Priory, in London, on the 8th of June 1857. - -Jerrold's figure was small and spare, and in later years bowed almost to -deformity. His features were strongly marked and expressive from the -thin humorous lips to the keen blue eyes gleaming from beneath the -shaggy eyebrows. He was brisk and active, with the careless bluffness of -a sailor. Open and sincere, he concealed neither his anger nor his -pleasure; to his simple frankness all polite duplicity was distasteful. -The cynical side of his nature he kept for his writings; in private life -his hand was always open. In politics Jerrold was a Liberal, and he gave -eager sympathy to Kossuth, Mazzini and Louis Blanc. In social politics -especially he took an eager part; he never tired of declaiming against -the horrors of war, the luxury of bishops, and the iniquity of capital -punishment. - -Douglas Jerrold is now perhaps better known from his reputation as a -brilliant wit in conversation than from his writings. As a dramatist he -was very popular, though his plays have not kept the stage. He dealt -with rather humbler forms of social life than had commonly been -represented on the boards. He was one of the first and certainly one of -the most successful of those who in defence of the native English drama -endeavoured to stem the tide of translation from the French, which -threatened early in the 19th century altogether to drown original native -talent. His skill in construction and his mastery of epigram and -brilliant dialogue are well exemplified in his comedy, _Time Works -Wonders_ (Haymarket, April 26, 1845). The tales and sketches which form -the bulk of Jerrold's collected works vary much in skill and interest; -but, although there are evident traces of their having been composed -from week to week, they are always marked by keen satirical observation -and pungent wit. - - Among the best known of his numerous works are: _Men of Character_ - (1838), including "Job Pippin: The man who couldn't help it," and - other sketches of the same kind; _Cakes and Ale_ (2 vols., 1842), a - collection of short papers and whimsical stories; some more serious - novels--_The Story of a Feather_ (1844), _The Chronicles of - Clovernook_ (1846), _A Man made of Money_ (1849); and _St Giles and St - James_ (1851); and various series of papers reprinted from - _Punch--Punch's Letters to his Son_ (1843), _Punch's Complete - Letter-writer_ (1845), and the famous _Mrs Caudle's Curtain Lectures_ - (1846). - - See W. B. Jerrold, _Life and Remains of Douglas Jerrold_ (1859). A - collected edition of his writings appeared in 1851-1854, and _The - Works of Douglas Jerrold_, with a memoir by his son, W. B. Jerrold, in - 1863-1864; but neither is complete. Among the numerous selections from - his tales and witticisms are two edited by his grandson, Walter - Jerrold, _Bons Mots of Charles Dickens and Douglas Jerrold_ (new ed. - 1904), and _The Essays of Douglas Jerrold_ (1903), illustrated by H. - M. Brock. See also _The Wit and Opinions of Douglas Jerrold_ (1858), - edited by W. B. Jerrold. - -His eldest son, WILLIAM BLANCHARD JERROLD (1826-1884), English -journalist and author, was born in London on the 23rd of December 1826, -and abandoning the artistic career for which he was educated, began -newspaper work at an early age there. He was appointed Crystal Palace -commissioner to Sweden in 1853, and wrote _A Brage-Beaker with the -Swedes_ (1854) on his return. In 1855 he was sent to the Paris -exhibition as correspondent for several London papers, and from that -time he lived much in Paris. In 1857 he succeeded his father as editor -of _Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper_, a post which he held for twenty-six -years. During the Civil War in America he strongly supported the North, -and several of his leading articles were reprinted and placarded in New -York by the federal government. He was the founder and president of the -English branch of the international literary association for the -assimilation of copyright laws. Four of his plays were successfully -produced on the London stage, the popular farce _Cool as a Cucumber_ -(Lyceum 1851) being the best known. His French experiences resulted in a -number of books, most important of which is his _Life of Napoleon III_. -(1874). He was occupied in writing the biography of Gustave Dore, who -had illustrated several of his books, when he died on the 10th of March -1884. - - Among his books are _A Story of Social Distinction_ (1848), _Life and - Remains of Douglas Jerrold_ (1859), _Up and Down in the World_ (1863), - _The Children of Lutetia_ (1864), _Cent per Cent_ (1871), _At Home in - Paris_ (1871), _The Best of all Good Company_ (1871-1873), and _The - Life of George Cruikshank_ (1882). - - - - -JERRY, a short form of the name Jeremiah, applied to various common -objects, and more particularly to a machine for finishing cloth. The -expression "jerry-built" is applied to houses built badly and of -inferior materials, and run up by a speculative builder. There seems to -be no foundation for the assertion that this expression was occasioned -by the work of a firm of Liverpool builders named Jerry. - - - - -JERSEY, EARLS OF. Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1656-1711), son of Sir Edward -Villiers (1620-1689), of Richmond, Surrey, was created Baron Villiers -and Viscount Villiers in 1691 and earl of Jersey in 1697. His -grandfather, Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1585-1626), master of the mint and -president of Munster, was half-brother of George Villiers, 1st duke of -Buckingham, and of Christopher Villiers, 1st earl of Anglesey; his -sister was Elizabeth Villiers, the mistress of William III., and -afterwards countess of Orkney. Villiers was knight-marshal of the royal -household in succession to his father; master of the horse to Queen -Mary; and lord chamberlain to William III. and Queen Anne. In 1696 he -represented his country at the congress of Ryswick; he was ambassador -at the Hague, and after becoming an earl was ambassador in Paris. In -1699 he was made secretary of state for the southern department, and on -three occasions he was one of the lords justices of England. In 1704 he -was dismissed from office by Anne, and after this event he was concerned -in some of the Jacobite schemes. He died on the 25th of August 1711. The -2nd earl was his son William (c. 1682-1721), an adherent of the exiled -house of Stuart, and the 3rd earl was the latter's son William (d. -1769), who succeeded his kinsman John Fitzgerald (c. 1692-1766) as 6th -Viscount Grandison. The 3rd earl's son, George Bussy, the 4th earl -(1735-1805), held several positions at the court of George III., and on -account of his courtly manners was called the "prince of Maccaronies." -The 4th earl's son, George, 5th earl of Jersey (1773-1859), one of the -most celebrated fox-hunters of his time and a successful owner of -racehorses, married Sarah Sophia (1785-1867), daughter of John Fane, -10th earl of Westmorland, and granddaughter of Robert Child, the banker. -She inherited her grandfather's great wealth, including his interest in -Child's bank, and with her husband took the name of Child-Villiers. -Since this time the connexions of the earls of Jersey with Child's bank -has been maintained. Victor Albert George Child-Villiers (b. 1845) -succeeded his father George Augustus (1808-1859), 6th earl, who had only -held the title for three weeks, as 7th earl of Jersey in 1859. This -nobleman was governor of New South Wales from 1890 to 1893. - - - - -JERSEY, the largest of the Channel Islands, belonging to Great Britain. -Its chief town, St Helier, on the south coast of the island, is in 49 -deg. 12' N., 2 deg. 7' W., 105 m. S. by E. of Portland Bill on the -English coast, and 24 m. from the French coast to the east. Jersey is -the southernmost of the more important islands of the group. It is of -oblong form with a length of 10 m. from east to west and an extreme -breadth of 6(1/4) m. The area is 28,717 acres, or 45 sq. m. Pop. (1901), -52,576. - -The island reaches its greatest elevation (nearly 500 ft.) in the north, -the land rising sharply from the north coast, and displaying bold and -picturesque cliffs towards the sea. The east, south and west coasts -consist of a succession of large open bays, shallow and rocky, with -marshy or sandy shores separated by rocky headlands. The principal bays -are Greve au Lancons, Greve de Lecq, St John's and Bouley Bays on the -north coast; St Catherine's and Grouville Bays on the east; St -Clement's, St Aubin's and St Brelade's Bays on the south; and St Ouen's -Bay, the wide sweep of which occupies nearly the whole of the west -coast. The sea in many places has encroached greatly on the land, and -sand drifts have been found troublesome, especially on the west coast. -The surface of the country is broken by winding valleys having a general -direction from north to south, and as they approach the south uniting so -as to form small plains. The lofty hedges which bound the small -enclosures into which Jersey is divided, the trees and shrubberies which -line the roads and cluster round the uplands and in almost every nook of -the valleys unutilized for pasturage or tillage, give the island a -luxuriant appearance, neutralizing the bare effect of the few sandy -plains and sand-covered hills. Fruits and flowers indigenous to warm -climates grow freely in the open air. The land, under careful -cultivation, is rich and productive, the soil being generally a deep -loam, especially in the valleys, but in the west shallow, light and -sandy. The subsoil is usually gravel, but in some parts an unfertile -clay. Some two-thirds of the total area is under cultivation, great -numbers of cattle being pastured, and much market gardening practised. -The potato crop is very large. The peasants take advantage of every bit -of wall and every isolated nook of ground for growing fruit trees. -Grapes are ripened under glass; oranges can be grown in sheltered -situations, but the most common fruits are apples, which are used for -cider, and pears. A manure of burnt sea-weed (vraic) is generally used. -The pasturage is very rich, and is much improved by the application of -this manure to the surface. The breed of cattle is kept pure by -stringent laws against the importation of foreign animals. The milk is -used almost exclusively to manufacture butter. The cattle are always -housed in winter, but remain out at night from May till October. There -was formerly a small black breed of horses peculiar to the island, but -horses are now chiefly imported from France or England. Pigs are kept -principally for local consumption, and only a few sheep are reared. Fish -are not so plentiful as round the shores of Guernsey, but mackerel, -turbot, cod, mullet and especially the conger eel are abundant at the -Minquiers. There is a large oyster bed between Jersey and France, but -partly on account of over-dredging the supply is not so abundant as -formerly. There is a great variety of other shell fish. The fisheries, -ship-building and boat-building employ many of the inhabitants. Kelp and -iodine are manufactured from sea-weed. The principal exports are -granite, fruit and vegetables (especially potatoes), butter and cattle; -and the chief imports coal and articles of human consumption. -Communications with England are maintained principally from Southampton -and Weymouth, and there are regular steamship services from Granville -and St Malo on the French coast. The Jersey railway runs west from St -Helier round St Aubin's Bay to St Aubin, and continues to Corbiere at -the south-western extremity of the island; and the Jersey eastern -railway follows the southern and eastern coasts to Gorey. The island is -intersected with a network of good roads. - -Jersey is under a distinct and in several respects different form of -administrative government from Guernsey and the smaller islands included -in the bailiwick of Guernsey. For its peculiar constitution, system of -justice, ecclesiastical arrangements and finance, see CHANNEL ISLANDS. -There are twelve parishes, namely St Helier, Grouville, St Brelade, St -Clement, St John, St Laurence, St Martin, St Mary, St Ouen, St Peter, St -Saviour and Trinity. The population of the island nearly doubled between -1821 and 1901, but decreased from 54,518 to 52,576 between 1891 and -1901. - -The history of Jersey is treated under CHANNEL ISLANDS. Among objects of -antiquarian interest, a cromlech near Mont Orgueil is the finest of -several examples. St Brelade's church, probably the oldest in the -island, dates from the 12th century; among the later churches St -Helier's, of the 14th century, may be mentioned. There are also some -very early chapels, considered to date from the 10th century or earlier; -among these may be noted the Chapelle-es-Pecheurs at St Brelade's, and -the picturesque chapel in the grounds of the manor of Rozel. The castle -of Mont Orgueil, of which there are considerable remains, is believed to -be founded upon the site of a Roman stronghold, and a "Caesar's fort" -still forms a part of it. - - - - -JERSEY CITY, a city and the county-seat of Hudson county, New Jersey, -U.S.A., on a peninsula between the Hudson and Hackensack rivers at the -N. and between New York and Newark bays at the S., opposite lower -Manhattan Island. Pop. (1890), 163,003; (1900), 206,433, of whom 58,424 -were foreign-born (19,314 Irish, 17,375 German, 4642 English, 3832 -Italian, 1694 Russian, 1690 Scottish, 1643 Russian Poles, 1445 Austrian) -and 3704 were negroes; (1910 census) 267,779. It is the eastern terminus -of the Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley, the West Shore, the Central of -New Jersey, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Northern of New Jersey (operated -by the Erie), the Erie, the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the New -Jersey & New York (controlled by the Erie) railways, the first three -using the Pennsylvania station; and of the little-used Morris canal. -Jersey City is served by several inter-urban electric railways and by -the tunnels of the Hudson & Manhattan railroad company to Dey St. and to -33rd St. and 6th Ave., New York City, and it also has docks of several -lines of Transatlantic and coast steamers. The city occupies a land area -of 14.3 sq. m. and has a water-front of about 12 m. Bergen Hill, a -southerly extension of the Palisades, extends longitudinally through it -from north to south. At the north end this hill rises on the east side -precipitously to a height of nearly 200 ft.; on the west and south sides -the slope is gradual. On the crest of the hill is the fine Hudson County -Boulevard, about 19 m. long and 100 ft. wide, extending through the city -and county from north to south and passing through West Side Park, a -splendid county park containing lakes and a 70-acre playground. The -water-front, especially on the east side, is given up to manufacturing -and shipping establishments. In the hill section are the better -residences, most of which are wooden and detached. - - The principal buildings are the city hall and the court house. There - are nine small city parks with an aggregate area of 39.1 acres. The - city has a public library containing (1907) 107,600 volumes and an - historical museum. At the corner of Bergen Ave. and Forrest St. is the - People's Palace, given in 1904 by Joseph Milbank to the First - Congregational church and containing a library and reading-room, a - gymnasium, bowling alleys, a billiard-room, a rifle-range, a - roof-garden, and an auditorium and theatre; kindergarten classes are - held and an employment bureau is maintained. Among the educational - institutions are the German American school, Hasbrouck institute, St - Aloysius academy (Roman Catholic) and St Peter's college (Roman - Catholic); and there are good public schools. Grain is shipped to and - from Jersey City in large quantities, and in general the city is an - important shipping port; being included, however, in the port of New - York, no separate statistics are available. There are large - slaughtering establishments, and factories for the refining of sugar - and for the manufacture of tobacco goods, soap and perfumery, lead - pencils, iron and steel, railway cars, chemicals, rubber goods, silk - goods, dressed lumber, and malt liquors. The value of the city's - manufactured products increased from $37,376,322 in 1890 to - $77,225,116 in 1900, or 106.6%; in 1905 the factory product alone was - valued at $75,740,934, an increase of only 3.9% over the factory - product in 1900, this small rate of increase being due very largely to - a decline in the value of the products of the sugar and molasses - refining industry. The value of the wholesale slaughtering and - meat-packing product decreased from $18,551,783 in 1880 and - $11,356,511 in 1890 to $6,243,217 in 1900--of this $5,708,763 - represented wholesale slaughtering alone; in 1905 the wholesale - slaughtering product was valued at $7,568,739. - -In 1908 the assessed valuation of the city was $267,039,754. The city is -governed by a board of aldermen and a mayor (elected biennially), who -appoints most of the officials, the street and water board being the -principal exception. - -Jersey City when first incorporated was a small sandy peninsula (an -island at high tide) known as Paulus Hook, directly opposite the lower -end of Manhattan Island. It had been a part of the Dutch patroonship of -Pavonia granted to Michael Pauw in 1630. In 1633 the first buildings -were erected, and for more than a century the Hook was occupied by a -small agricultural and trading community. In 1764 a new post route -between New York and Philadelphia passed through what is now the city, -and direct ferry communication began with New York. Early in the War of -Independence Paulus Hook was fortified by the Americans, but soon after -the battle of Long Island they abandoned it, and on the 23rd of -September 1776 it was occupied by the British. On the morning of the -19th of August 1779 the British garrison was surprised by Major Henry -Lee ("Light Horse Harry"), who with about 500 men took 159 prisoners and -lost only 2 killed and 3 wounded, one of the most brilliant exploits -during the War of Independence. In 1804 Paulus Hook, containing 117 -acres and having about 15 inhabitants, passed into the possession of -three enterprising New York lawyers, who laid it out as a town and -formed an association for its government, which was incorporated as the -"associates of the Jersey company." In 1820 the town was incorporated as -the City of Jersey, but it remained a part of the township of Bergen -until 1838, when it was reincorporated as a distinct municipality. In -1851 the township of Van Vorst, founded in 1804 between Paulus Hook and -Hoboken, was annexed. In 1870 there were two annexations: to the south, -the town of Bergen, the county-seat, which was founded in 1660; to the -north-west, Hudson City, which had been separated from the township of -North Bergen in 1852 and incorporated as a city in 1855. The town of -Greenville, to the south, was annexed in 1873. - - - - -JERUSALEM (Heb. [Hebrew: Yerushalaim] _Yerushalaim_, pronounced as a -dual), the chief city of Palestine. Letters found at Tell el-Amarna in -Egypt, written by an early ruler of Jerusalem, show that the name -existed under the form _Urusalim_, i.e. "City of Salim" or "City of -Peace," many years before the Israelites under Joshua entered Canaan. -The emperor Hadrian, when he rebuilt the city, changed the name to Aelia -Capitolina. The Arabs usually designate Jerusalem by names expressive of -holiness, such as Beit el Makdis and El Mukaddis or briefly El Kuds, -i.e. the Sanctuary. - - _Natural Topography._--Jerusalem is situated in 31 deg. 47' N. and 35 - deg. 15' E., in the hill country of southern Palestine, close to the - watershed, at an average altitude of 2500 ft. above the Mediterranean, - and 3800 ft. above the level of the Dead Sea. The city stands on a - rocky plateau, which projects southwards from the main line of hills. - On the east the valley of the Kidron separates this plateau from the - ridge of the Mount of Olives, which is 100 to 200 ft. higher, while - the Wadi Er Rababi bounds Jerusalem on the west and south, meeting the - Valley of Kidron near the lower pool of Siloam. Both valleys fall - rapidly as they approach the point of junction, which lies at a depth - of more than 600 ft. below the general valley of the plateau. The - latter, which covers an area of about 1000 acres, has at the present - time a fairly uniform surface and slopes gradually from the north to - the south and east. Originally, however, its formation was very - different, as it was intersected by a deep valley, called Tyropoeon by - Josephus, which, starting from a point N.W. of the Damascus gate, - followed a course first south-east and then west of south, and joined - the two main valleys of Kidron and Er Rababi at Siloam. Another - shorter valley began near the present Jaffa gate and, taking an - easterly direction, joined the Tyropoeon; while a third ravine passed - across what is now the northern part of the Haram enclosure and fell - into the valley of the Kidron. The exact form of these three interior - valleys, which had an important influence on the construction and - history of the city, is still imperfectly known, as they are to a - great extent obliterated by vast accumulations of rubbish, which has - filled them up in some places to a depth of more than 100 ft. Their - approximate form was only arrived at by excavations made during the - later years of the 19th century. The limited knowledge which we - possess of the original features of the ground within the area of the - city makes a reconstruction of the topographical history of the latter - a difficult task; and, as a natural result, many irreconcilable - theories have been suggested. The difficulty is increased by the fact - that the geographical descriptions given in the Old Testament the - Apocrypha and the writings of Josephus are very short, and, having - been written for those who were acquainted with the places, convey - insufficient information to historians of the present day, when the - sites are so greatly altered. All that can be done is to form a - continuous account in accord with the ancient histories, and with the - original formation of the ground, so far as this has been identified - by modern exploration. But the progress of exploration and excavation - may render this subject to further modification. - - The geological formation of the plateau consists of thin beds of hard - silicious chalk, locally called _misse_, which overlie a thick bed of - soft white limestone, known by the name of _meleke_. Both descriptions - of rock yielded good material for building; while in the soft _meleke_ - tanks, underground chambers, tombs, &c., were easily excavated. In - ancient times a brook flowed down the valley of the Kidron, and it is - possible that a stream flowed also through the Tyropoeon valley. The - only known spring existing at present within the limits of the city is - the "fountain of the Virgin," on the western side of the Kidron - valley, but there may have been others which are now concealed by the - accumulations of rubbish. Cisterns were also used for the storage of - rain water, and aqueducts, of which the remains still exist (see - AQUEDUCTS _ad init._), were constructed for the conveyance of water - from a distance. Speaking generally, it is probable that the water - supply of Jerusalem in ancient times was better than it is at present. - -_History._--The early history of Jerusalem is very obscure. The Tell -el-Amarna letters show that, long before the invasion by Joshua, it was -occupied by the Egyptians, and was probably a stronghold of considerable -importance, as it formed a good strategical position in the hill country -of southern Palestine. We do not know how the Egyptians were forced to -abandon Jerusalem; but, at the time of the Israelite conquest, it was -undoubtedly in the hands of the Jebusites, the native inhabitants of the -country. The exact position of the Jebusite city is unknown; some -authorities locate it on the western hill, now known as Zion; some on -the eastern hill, afterwards occupied by the Temple and the city of -David; while others consider it was a double settlement, one part being -on the western, and the other on the eastern hill, separated from one -another by the Tyropoeon valley. The latter view appears to be the most -probable, as, according to the Biblical accounts, Jerusalem was partly -in Judah and partly in Benjamin, the line of demarcation between the two -tribes passing through the city. According to this theory, the part of -Jerusalem known as Jebus was situated on the western hill, and the -outlying fort of Zion on the eastern hill. The men of Judah and Benjamin -did not succeed in getting full possession of the place, and the -Jebusites still held it when David became king of Israel. Some years -after his accession David succeeded after some difficulty in taking -Jerusalem. He established his royal city on the eastern hill close to -the site of the Jebusite Zion, while Jebus, the town on the western side -of the Tyropoeon valley, became the civil city, of which Joab, David's -leading general, was appointed governor. David surrounded the royal city -with a wall and built a citadel, probably on the site of the Jebusite -fort of Zion, while Joab fortified the western town. North of the city -of David, the king, acting under divine guidance, chose a site for the -Temple of Jehovah, which was erected with great magnificence by Solomon. -The actual site occupied by this building has given rise to much -controversy, though all authorities are agreed that it must have stood -on some part of the area now known as the Haram. James Fergusson was of -opinion that the Temple stood near the south-western corner. As, -however, it was proved by the explorations of Sir Charles Warren in -1869-1870 that the Tyropoeon valley passed under this corner, and that -the foundations must have been of enormous depth, Fergusson's theory -must be regarded as untenable (see also SEPULCHRE, HOLY). On the whole -it is most likely that the Temple was erected by Solomon on the same -spot as is now occupied by the Dome of the Rock, commonly known as the -Mosque of Omar, and, regard being had to the levels of the ground, it is -possible that the Holy of Holies, the most sacred chamber of the Temple, -stood over the rock which is still regarded with veneration by the -Mahommedans. Solomon greatly strengthened the fortifications of -Jerusalem, and was probably the builder of the line of defence, called -by Josephus the first or old wall, which united the cities on the -eastern and western hills. The kingdom reached its highest point of -importance during the reign of Solomon, but, shortly after his death, it -was broken up by the rebellion of Jeroboam, who founded the separate -kingdom of Israel with its capital at Shechem. Two tribes only, Judah -and Benjamin, with the descendants of Levi, remained faithful to -Rehoboam, the son of Solomon. Jerusalem thus lost much of its -importance, especially after it was forced to surrender to Shishak, king -of Egypt, who carried off a great part of the riches which had been -accumulated by Solomon. The history of Jerusalem during the succeeding -three centuries consists for the most part of a succession of wars -against the kingdom of Israel, the Moabites and the Syrians. Joash, king -of Israel, captured the city from Amaziah, king of Judah, and destroyed -part of the fortifications, but these were rebuilt by Uzziah, the son of -Amaziah, who did much to restore the city to its original prosperity. In -the reign of Hezekiah, the kingdom of Judah became tributary to the -Assyrians, who attempted the capture of Jerusalem. Hezekiah improved the -defences and arranged for a good water supply, preparatory to the siege -by Sennacherib, the Assyrian general. The siege failed and the Assyrians -retired. Some years later Syria was again invaded by the Egyptians, who -reduced Judah to the position of a tributary state. In the reign of -Zedekiah, the last of the line of kings, Jerusalem was captured by -Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, who pillaged the city, destroyed the -Temple, and ruined the fortifications (see JEWS, S 17). A number of the -principal inhabitants were carried captive to Babylon, and Jerusalem was -reduced to the position of an insignificant town. Nebuchadrezzar placed -in the city a garrison which appears to have been quartered on the -western hill, while the eastern hill on which were the Temple and the -city of David was left more or less desolate. We have no information -regarding Jerusalem during the period of the captivity, but fortunately -Nehemiah, who was permitted to return and rebuild the defences about 445 -B.C., has given a fairly clear description of the line of the wall which -enables us to obtain a good idea of the extent of the city at this -period. The Temple had already been partially rebuilt by Zedekiah and -his companions, but on a scale far inferior to the magnificent building -of King Solomon, and Nehemiah devoted his attention to the -reconstruction of the walls. Before beginning the work, he made a -preliminary reconnaissance of the fortifications on the south of the -town from the Valley Gate, which was near the S.E. corner, to the pool -of Siloam and valley of the Kidron. He then allotted the reconstruction -of wall and gates to different parties of workmen, and his narrative -describes the portion of wall upon which each of these was employed.[1] - - It is clear from his account that the lines of fortifications included - both the eastern and western hills. North of the Temple enclosure - there was a gate, known as the Sheep Gate, which must have opened into - the third valley mentioned above, and stood somewhere near what is now - the north side of the Haram enclosure, but considerably south of the - present north wall of the latter. To the west of the Sheep Gate there - were two important towers in the wall, called respectively Meah and - Hananeel. The tower Hananeel is specially worthy of notice as it stood - N.W. of the Temple and probably formed the basis of the citadel built - by Simon Maccabaeus, which again was succeeded by the fortress of - Antonia, constructed by Herod the Great, and one of the most important - positions at the time of the siege by Titus. At or near the tower - Hananeel the wall turned south along the east side of the Tyropoeon - valley, and then again westward, crossing the valley at a point - probably near the remarkable construction known as Wilson's arch. A - gate in the valley, known as the Fish Gate, opened on a road which, - leading from the north, went down the Tyropoeon valley to the southern - part of the city. Westward of this gate the wall followed the south - side of the valley which joined the Tyropoeon from the west as far as - the north-western corner of the city at the site of the present Jaffa - Gate and the so-called tower of David. In this part of the wall there - were apparently two gates facing north, i.e. the Old Gate and the Gate - of Ephraim, 400 cubits from the corner.[2] At the corner stood the - residence of the Babylonian governor, near the site upon which King - Herod afterwards built his magnificent palace. From the corner at the - governor's house, the wall went in a southerly direction and turned - south-east to the Valley Gate, remains of which were discovered by F. - J. Bliss and fully described in his _Excavations in Jerusalem in - 1894-1897_. From the Valley Gate the wall took an easterly course for - a distance of 1000 cubits to the Dung Gate, near which on the east was - the Fountain Gate, not far from the lower pool of Siloam. Here was the - most southerly point of Jerusalem, and the wall turning hence to the - north followed the west side of the valley of the Kidron, enclosing - the city of David and the Temple enclosure, and finally turning west - at some point near the site of the Golden Gate joined the wall, - already described, at the Sheep Gate. Nehemiah mentions a number of - places on the eastern hill, including the tomb of David, the positions - of which cannot with our present knowledge be fixed with any - certainty. - -After the restoration of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah, a -considerable number of Jews returned to the city, but we know -practically nothing of its history for more than a century until, in 332 -B.C., Alexander the Great conquered Syria. The gates of Jerusalem were -opened to him and he left the Jews in peaceful occupation. But his -successors did not act with similar leniency; when the city was captured -by Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, twelve years later, the fortifications -were partially demolished and apparently not again restored until the -period of the high priest Simon II., who repaired the defences and also -the Temple buildings. In 168 B.C. Antiochus Epiphanes captured -Jerusalem, destroyed the walls, and devastated the Temple, reducing the -city to a worse position than it had occupied since the time of the -captivity. He built a citadel called the Acra to dominate the town and -placed in it a strong garrison of Greeks. The position of the Acra is -doubtful, but it appears most probable that it stood on the eastern hill -between the Temple and the city of David, both of which it commanded. -Some writers place it north of the Temple on the site afterwards -occupied by the fortress of Antonia, but such a position is not in -accord with the descriptions either in Josephus or in the books of the -Maccabees, which are quite consistent with each other. Other writers -again have placed the Acra on the eastern side of the hill upon which -the church of the Holy Sepulchre now stands, but as this point was -probably quite outside the city at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, and -is at too great a distance from the Temple, it can hardly be accepted. -But the site which has been already indicated at the N.E. corner of the -present Mosque el Aksa meets the accounts of the ancient authorities -better than any other. At this point in the Haram enclosure there is an -enormous underground cistern, known as the Great Sea, and this may -possibly have been the source of water supply for the Greek garrison. -The oppression of Antiochus led to a revolt of the Jews under the -leadership of the Maccabees, and Judas Maccabaeus succeeded in capturing -Jerusalem after severe fighting, but could not get possession of the -Acra, which caused much trouble to the Jews, who erected a wall between -it and the Temple, and another wall to cut it off from the city. The -Greeks held out for a considerable time, but had finally to surrender, -probably from want of food, to Simon Maccabaeus, who demolished the Acra -and cut down the hill upon which it stood so that it might no longer be -higher than the Temple, and that there should be no separation between -the latter and the city. Simon then constructed a new citadel, north of -the Temple, to take the place of the Acra, and established in Judaea the -Asmonean dynasty, which lasted for nearly a century, when the Roman -republic began to make its influence felt in Syria. In 65 B.C. Jerusalem -was captured by Pompey after a difficult siege. The Asmonean dynasty -lasted a few years longer, but finally came to an end when Herod the -Great, with the aid of the Romans, took possession of Jerusalem and -became the first king of the Idumaean dynasty. Herod again raised the -city to the position of an important capital, restoring the -fortifications, and rebuilding the Temple from its foundations. He also -built the great fortress of Antonia, N.W. of the Temple, on the site of -the citadel of the Asmoneans, and constructed a magnificent palace for -himself on the western hill, defended by three great towers, which he -named Mariamne, Hippicus and Phasaelus. At some period between the time -of the Maccabees and of Herod, a second or outer wall had been built -outside and north of the first wall, but it is not possible to fix an -accurate date to this line of defence, as the references to it in -Josephus are obscure. Herod adorned the town with other buildings and -constructed a theatre and gymnasium. He doubled the area of the -enclosure round the Temple, and there can be little doubt that a great -part of the walls of the Haram area date from the time of Herod, while -probably the tower of David, which still exists near the Jaffa Gate, is -on the same foundation as one of the towers adjoining his palace. -Archelaus, Herod's successor, had far less authority than Herod, and the -real power of government at Jerusalem was assumed by the Roman -procurators, in the time of one of whom, Pontius Pilate, Jesus Christ -was condemned to death and crucified outside Jerusalem. The places of -his execution and burial are not certainly known (see SEPULCHRE, HOLY). - -Herod Agrippa, who succeeded to the kingdom, built a third or outer wall -on the north side of Jerusalem in order to enclose and defend the -buildings which had gradually been constructed outside the old -fortifications. The exact line of this third wall is not known with -certainty, but it probably followed approximately the same line as the -existing north wall of Jerusalem. Some writers have considered that it -extended a considerable distance farther to the north, but of this there -is no proof, and no remains have as yet been found which would support -the opinion. The wall of Herod Agrippa was planned on a grand scale, but -its execution was stopped by the Romans, so that it was not completed at -the time of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus. The writings of Josephus -give a good idea of the fortifications and buildings of Jerusalem at the -time of the siege, and his accurate personal knowledge makes his account -worthy of the most careful perusal. He explains clearly how Titus, -beginning his attack from the north, captured the third or outer wall, -then the second wall, and finally the fortress of Antonia, the Temple, -and the upper city. After the capture, Titus ordered the Temple to be -demolished and the fortifications to be levelled, with the exception of -the three great towers at Herod's palace. It is, however, uncertain how -far the order was carried out, and it is probable that the outer walls -of the Temple enclosure were left partially standing and that the -defences on the west and south of the city were not completely levelled. -When Titus and his army withdrew from Jerusalem, the 10th legion was -left as a permanent Roman garrison, and a fortified camp for their -occupation was established on the western hill. We have no account of -the size or position of this camp, but a consideration of the site, and -a comparison with other Roman camps in various parts of Europe, make it -probable that it occupied an area of about 50 acres, extending over what -is now known as the Armenian quarter of the town, and that it was -bounded on the north by the old or first wall, on the west also by the -old wall, on the south by a line of defence somewhat in the same -position as the present south wall where it passes the Zion Gate, and on -the east by an entrenchment running north and south parallel to the -existing thoroughfare known as David Street. For sixty years the Roman -garrison were left in undisturbed occupation, but in 132 the Jews rose -in revolt under the leadership of Bar-Cochebas or Barcochba, and took -possession of Jerusalem. After a severe struggle, the revolt was -suppressed by the Roman general, Julius Severus, and Jerusalem was -recaptured and again destroyed. According to some writers, this -devastation was even more complete than after the siege by Titus. About -130 the emperor Hadrian decided to rebuild Jerusalem, and make it a -Roman colony. The new city was called Aelia Capitolina. The exact size -of the city is not known, but it probably extended as far as the present -north wall of Jerusalem and included the northern part of the western -hill. A temple dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus was erected on the site -of the Temple, and other buildings were constructed, known as the -Theatre, the Demosia, the Tetranymphon, the Dodecapylon and the Codra. -The Jews were forbidden to reside in the city, but Christians were -freely admitted. The history of Jerusalem during the period between the -foundation of the city of Aelia by the emperor Hadrian and the accession -of Constantine the Great in 306 is obscure, but no important change -appears to have been made in the size or fortifications of the city, -which continued as a Roman colony. In 326 Constantine, after his -conversion to Christianity, issued orders to the bishop Macarius to -recover the site of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, and the tomb in -which his body was laid (see SEPULCHRE, HOLY). After the holy sites had -been determined, Constantine gave orders for the construction of two -magnificent churches, the one over the tomb and the other over the place -where the cross was discovered. The present church of the Holy Sepulchre -stands on the site upon which one of the churches of Constantine was -built, but the second church, the Basilica of the Cross, has completely -disappeared. The next important epoch in building construction at -Jerusalem was about 460, when the empress Eudocia visited Palestine and -expended large sums oh the improvement of the city. The walls were -repaired by her orders, and the line of fortifications appears to have -been extended on the south so as to include the pool of Siloam. A church -was built above the pool, probably at the same time, and, after having -completely disappeared for many centuries, it was recovered by F. J. -Bliss when making his exploration of Jerusalem. The empress also erected -a large church in honour of St Stephen north of the Damascus Gate, and -is believed to have been buried therein. The site of this church was -discovered in 1874, and it has since been rebuilt. In the 6th century -the emperor Justinian erected a magnificent basilica at Jerusalem, in -honour of the Virgin Mary, and attached to it two hospitals, one for the -reception of pilgrims and one for the accommodation of the sick poor. -The description given by Procopius does not indicate clearly where this -church was situated. A theory frequently put forward is that it stood -within the Haram area near the Mosque of el Aksa, but it is more -probable that it was on Zion, near the traditional place of the -Coenaculum or last supper, where the Mahommedan building known as the -tomb of David now stands. In 614 Chosroes II., the king of Persia, -captured Jerusalem, devastated many of the buildings, and massacred a -great number of the inhabitants. The churches at the Holy Sepulchre were -much damaged, but were partially restored by the monk Modestus, who -devoted himself with great energy to the work. After a severe struggle -the Persians were defeated by the emperor Heraclius, who entered -Jerusalem in triumph in 629 bringing with him the holy cross, which had -been carried off by Chosroes. At this period the religion of Mahomet was -spreading over the east, and in 637 the caliph Omar marched on -Jerusalem, which capitulated after a siege of four months. Omar behaved -with great moderation, restraining his troops from pillage and leaving -the Christians in possession of their churches. A wooden mosque was -erected near the site of the Temple, which was replaced by the Mosque -of Aksa, built by the amir Abdalmalik (Abd el Malek), who also -constructed the Dome of the Rock, known as the Mosque of Omar, in 688. -The Mahommedans held Jerusalem until 1099, when it was captured by the -crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon, and became the capital of the Latin -Kingdom of Jerusalem (see CRUSADES, vol. viii. p. 401) until 1187, when -Saladin reconquered it, and rebuilt the walls. Since that time, except -from 1229 to 1239, and from 1243 to 1244, the city has been held by the -Mahommedans. It was occupied by the Egyptian sultans until 1517, when -the Turks under Selim I. occupied Syria. Selim's successor, Suleiman the -Magnificent, restored the fortifications, which since that time have -been little altered. - - _Modern Jerusalem._--Jerusalem is the chief town of a sanjak, governed - by a _mutessarif_, who reports directly to the Porte. It has the usual - executive and town councils, upon which the recognized religious - communities, or _millets_, have representatives; and it is garrisoned - by infantry of the V. army corps. The city is connected with its port, - Jaffa, by a carriage road, 41 m., and by a metre-gauge railway, 54 m., - which was completed in 1892, and is worked by a French company. There - are also carriage roads to Bethlehem, Hebron and Jericho, and a road - to Nablus was in course of construction in 1909. Prior to 1858, when - the modern building period commenced, Jerusalem lay wholly within its - 16th-century walls, and even as late as 1875 there were few private - residences beyond their limits. At present Jerusalem without the walls - covers a larger area than that within them. The growth has been - chiefly towards the north and north-west; but there are large suburbs - on the west, and on the south-west near the railway station on the - plain of Rephaim. The village of Siloam has also increased in size, - and the western slopes of Olivet are being covered with churches, - monasteries and houses. Amongst the most marked features of the change - that has taken place since 1875 are the growth of religious and - philanthropic establishments; the settlement of Jewish colonies from - Bokhara, Yemen and Europe; the migration of Europeans, old Moslem - families, and Jews from the city to the suburbs; the increased - vegetation, due to the numerous gardens and improved methods of - cultivation; the substitution of timber and red tiles for the vaulted - stone roofs which were so characteristic of the old city; the striking - want of beauty, grandeur, and harmony with their environment exhibited - by most of the new buildings; and the introduction of wheeled - transport, which, cutting into the soft limestone, has produced mud - and dust to an extent previously unknown. To facilitate communication - between the city and its suburbs, the Bab ez-Zahire, or Herod's Gate, - and a new gate, near the north-west angle of the walls, have been - opened; and a portion of the wall, adjoining the Jaffa Gate, has been - thrown down, to allow free access for carriages. Within the city the - principal streets have been roughly paved, and iron bars placed across - the narrow alleys to prevent the passage of camels. Without the walls - carriage roads have been made to the mount of Olives, the railway - station, and various parts of the suburbs, but they are kept in bad - repair. Little effort has been made to meet the increased sanitary - requirements of the larger population and wider inhabited area. There - is no municipal water-supply, and the main drain of the city - discharges into the lower pool of Siloam, which has become an open - cesspit. In several places the debris within the walls is saturated - with sewage, and the water of the Fountain of the Virgin, and of many - of the old cisterns, is unfit for drinking. Amongst the more important - buildings for ecclesiastical and philanthropic purposes erected to the - north of the city since 1860 are the Russian cathedral, hospice and - hospital; the French hospital of St Louis, and hospice and church of - St Augustine; the German schools, orphanages and hospitals; the new - hospital and industrial school of the London mission to the Jews; the - Abyssinian church; the church and schools of the Church missionary - society; the Anglican church, college and bishop's house; the - Dominican monastery, seminary and church of St Stephen; the Rothschild - hospital and girls' school; and the industrial school and workshops of - the Alliance Israelite. On the mount of Olives are the Russian church, - tower and hospice, near the chapel of the Ascension; the French - Paternoster church; the Carmelite nunnery; and the Russian church of - St Mary Magdalene, near Gethsemane. South of the city are the Armenian - monastery of Mount Zion and Bishop Gobat's school. On the west side - are the institution of the sisters of St Vincent; the Ratisbon school; - the Montefiore hospice; the British ophthalmic hospital of the knights - of St John; the convent and church of the Clarisses; and the Moravian - leper hospital. Within the city walls are the Latin Patriarchal church - and residence; the school of the Freres de la Doctrine Chretienne; the - schools and printing house of the Franciscans; the Coptic monastery; - the German church of the Redeemer, and hospice; the United Armenian - church of the Spasm; the convent and school of the Soeurs de Zion; the - Austrian hospice; the Turkish school and museum; the monastery and - seminary of the Freres de la Mission Algerienne, with the restored - church of St Anne, the church, schools and hospital of the London - mission to the Jews; the Armenian seminary and Patriarchal buildings; - the Rothschild hospital; and Jewish hospices and synagogues. The - climate is naturally good, but continued neglect of sanitary - precautions has made the city unhealthy. During the summer months the - heat is tempered by a fresh sea-breeze, and there is usually a sharp - fall of temperature at night; but in spring and autumn the east and - south-east winds, which blow across the heated depression of the Ghor, - are enervating and oppressive. A dry season, which lasts from May to - October, is followed by a rainy season, divided into the early winter - and latter rains. Snow falls two years out of three, but soon melts. - The mean annual temperature is 62.8 deg. F., the maximum 112 deg., and - the minimum 25 deg. The mean monthly temperature is lowest (47.2 deg.) - in February, and highest (76.3 deg.) in August. The mean annual - rainfall (1861 to 1899) is 26.06 in. The most unhealthy period is from - 1st May to 31st October, when there are, from time to time, outbreaks - of typhoid, small-pox, diphtheria and other epidemics. The - unhealthiness of the city is chiefly due to want of proper drainage, - impure drinking-water, miasma from the disturbed rubbish heaps, and - contaminated dust from the uncleansed roads and streets. The only - industry is the manufacture of olive-wood and mother-of-pearl goods - for sale to pilgrims and for export. The imports (see Joppa) are - chiefly food, clothing and building material. The population in 1905 - was about 60,000 (Moslems 7000, Christians 13,000, Jews 40,000). - During the pilgrimage season it is increased by about 15,000 - travellers and pilgrims. - - AUTHORITIES.--Pal. Exp. Fund Publications--Sir C. Warren, _Jerusalem, - Memoir_ (1884); Clermont-Ganneau, _Archaeol. Researches_ (vol. i., - 1899); Bliss, _Excavns. at Jerusalem_ (1898); Conder, _Latin Kingdom - of Jerusalem_ (1897), and _The City of Jerusalem_ (1909), an - historical survey over 4000 years; Le Strange, _Pal. under the - Moslems_ (1890); Fergusson, _Temples of the Jews_ (1878); Hayter - Lewis, _Holy Places of Jerusalem_(1888); _Churches of Constantine at - Jerusalem_ (1891); Guthe, "Ausgrabungen in Jer.," in _Zeitschrift d. - D. Pal. Vereins_ (vol. v.); Tobler, _Topographie von Jerusalem_ - (Berlin, 1854); Dritte Wanderung (1859); Sepp, _Jerusalem und das - heilige Land_ (1873); Rohricht, _Regesta Regni Hierosolymitani; - Bibliotheca Geographica Palaestinae_ (1890); De Vogue, _Le Temple de - Jerusalem_ (1864); Sir C. W. Wilson, _Golgotha and the Holy Sepulchre_ - (1906); publications of the Pal. Pilgrims' Text Society and of the - _Societe de l'Orient latin_; papers in _Quarterly Statements_ of the - P. E. Fund, the _Zeitschrift d. D. Pal. Vereins_, Clermont-Ganneau's - _Recueil d'archeologie orientale and Etudes d'arch. orientale_, and - the _Revue Biblique_; Baedeker's _Handbook to Palestine and Syria_ - (1906); Mommert, _Die hl. Grabeskirche zu Jerusalem_ (1898); _Golgotha - und das hl. Grab zu Jerusalem_ (1900); Couret, _La Prise de Jerusm. - par les Perses, 614_. (Orleans, 1896--Plans, Ordnance Survey, revised - ed.; Ordnance Survey revised by Dr Schick in _Z.D.P.V._ xviii., 1895). - (C. W. W.; C. M. W.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The sites shown on the plan are tentative, and cannot be regarded - as certain; see Nehemiah ii. 12-15, iii. 1-32, xii. 37-39. - - [2] See 2 Kings xiv. 13. - - - - -JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672). By far the most important of the many synods -held at Jerusalem (see Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, 2nd ed., vi. -1357 sqq.) is that of 1672; and its confession is the most vital -statement of faith made in the Greek Church during the past thousand -years. It refutes article by article the confession of Cyril Lucaris, -which appeared in Latin at Geneva in 1629, and in Greek, with the -addition of four "questions," in 1633. Lucaris, who died in 1638 as -patriarch of Constantinople, had corresponded with Western scholars and -had imbibed Calvinistic views. The great opposition which arose during -his lifetime continued after his death, and found classic expression in -the highly venerated confession of Petrus Mogilas, metropolitan of Kiev -(1643). Though this was intended as a barrier against Calvinistic -influences, certain Reformed writers, as well as Roman Catholics, -persisted in claiming the support of the Greek Church for sundry of -their own positions. Against the Calvinists the synod of 1672 therefore -aimed its rejection of unconditional predestination and of justification -by faith alone, also its advocacy of what are substantially the Roman -doctrines of transubstantiation and of purgatory; the Oriental hostility -to Calvinism had been fanned by the Jesuits. Against the Church of Rome, -however, there was directed the affirmation that the Holy Ghost proceeds -from the Father and not from both Father and Son; this rejection of the -_filioque_ was not unwelcome to the Turks. Curiously enough, the synod -refused to believe that the heretical confession it refuted was actually -by a former patriarch of Constantinople; yet the proofs of its -genuineness seem to most scholars overwhelming. In negotiations between -Anglican and Russian churchmen the confession of Dositheus[1] usually -comes to the front. - - TEXTS.--The confession of Dositheus, or the eighteen decrees of the - Synod of Jerusalem, appeared in 1676 at Paris as _Synodus - Bethlehemitica_; a revised text in 1678 as _Synodus Jerosolymitana_; - Hardouin, _Acta conciliorum_, vol. xi.; Kimmel, _Monumenta fidei - ecclesiae orientalis_ (Jena, 1850; critical edition); P. Schaff, _The - Creeds of Christendom_, vol. ii. (text after Hardouin and Kimmel, with - Latin translation); _The Acts and Decrees of the Synod of Jerusalem - translated from the Greek, with notes_, by J. N. W. B. Robertson - (London, 1899); J. Michalcescu, _Die Bekenntnisse und die wichtigsten - Glaubenszeugnisse der griechisch-orientalischen Kirche_ (Leipzig, - 1904; Kimmel's text with introductions). LITERATURE.--_The Doctrine of - the Russian Church ..._ translated by R. W. Blackmore (Aberdeen, - 1845), p. xxv. sqq.; Schaff, i. S 17; Wetzer and Welte, - _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.) vi. 1359 seq.; Herzog-Hauck, - _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.), viii. 703-705; Michalcescu, 123 sqq. - (See COUNCILS.) (W. W. R.*) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Patriarch of Jerusalem (1669-1707), who presided over the synod. - - - - -JESI (anc. _Aesis_), a town and episcopal see of the Marches, Italy, in -the province of Ancona, from which it is 17 m. W. by S. by rail, 318 ft. -above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 23,285. The place took its ancient name -from the river Aesis (mod. Esino), upon the left bank of which it lies. -It still retains its picturesque medieval town walls. The Palazzo del -Comune is a fine, simple, early Renaissance building (1487-1503) by -Francesco di Giorgio Martini; the walls are of brick and the window and -door-frames of stone, with severely restrained ornamentation. The -courtyard with its loggie was built by Andrea Sansovino in 1519. The -library contains some good pictures by Lorenzo Lotto. The castle was -built by Baccio Pontelli (1488), designer of the castle at Ostia -(1483-1486). Jesi was the birthplace of the emperor Frederic II. (1194), -and also of the musical composer, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi -(1710-1736). The river Aesis formed the boundary of Italy proper from -about 250 B.C. to the time of Sulla (c. 82 B.C.); and, in Augustus' -division of Italy, that between Umbria (the 6th region) and Picenum (the -5th). The town itself was a colony, of little importance, except, -apparently, as a recruiting ground for the Roman army. - - - - -JESSE, in the Bible, the father of David (q.v.), and as such often -regarded as the first in the genealogy of Jesus Christ (cf. Isa. xi. 1, -10). Hence the phrase "tree of Jesse" is applied to a design -representing the descent of Jesus from the royal line of David, formerly -a favourite ecclesiastical ornament. From a recumbent figure of Jesse -springs a tree bearing in its branches the chief figures in the line of -descent, and terminating in the figure of Jesus, or of the Virgin and -Child. There are remains of such a tree in the church of St Mary at -Abergavenny, carved in wood, and supposed to have once stood behind the -high altar. Jesse candelabra were also made. At Laon and Amiens there -are sculptured Jesses over the central west doorways of the cathedrals. -The design was chiefly used in windows. The great east window at Wells -and the window at the west end of the nave at Chartres are fine -examples. There is a 16th-century Jesse window from Mechlin in St -George's, Hanover Square, London. The Jesse window in the choir of -Dorchester Abbey, Oxfordshire, is remarkable in that the tree forms the -central mullion, and many of the figures are represented as statuettes -on the branches of the upper tracery; other figures are in the stained -glass; the whole gives a beautiful example of the combination of glass -and carved stonework in one design. - - - - -JESSE, EDWARD (1780-1868), English writer on natural history, was born -on the 14th of January 1780, at Hutton Cranswick, Yorkshire, where his -father was vicar of the parish. He became clerk in a government office -in 1798, and for a time was secretary to Lord Dartmouth, when president -of the Board of Control. In 1812 he was appointed commissioner of -hackney coaches, and later he became deputy surveyor-general of the -royal parks and palaces. On the abolition of this office he retired on a -pension, and he died at Brighton on the 28th of March 1868. - - The result of his interest in the habits and characteristics of - animals was a series of pleasant and popular books on natural history, - the principal of which are _Gleanings in Natural History_ (1832-1835); - _An Angler's Rambles_ (1836); _Anecdotes of Dogs_ (1846); and - _Lectures on Natural History_ (1863). He also edited Izaak Walton's - _Compleat Angler_, Gilbert White's _Selborne_, and L. Ritchie's - _Windsor Castle_, and wrote a number of handbooks to places of - interest, including Windsor and Hampton Court. - - - - -JESSE, JOHN HENEAGE (1815-1874), English historian, son of Edward Jesse, -was educated at Eton, and afterwards became a clerk in the secretary's -department of the admiralty. He died in London on the 7th of July 1874. -His poem on Mary Queen of Scots was published about 1831, and was -followed by a collection of poems entitled _Tales of the Dead_. He also -wrote a drama, _Richard III._, and a fragmentary poem entitled _London_. -None of these ventures achieved any success, but his numerous historical -works are written with vivacity and interest, and, in their own style, -are an important contribution to the history of England. They include -_Memoirs of the Court of England during the Reign of the Stuarts_ -(1840), _Memoirs of the Court of England from the Revolution of 1688 to -the Death of George II._ (1843), _George Selwyn and his Contemporaries_ -(1843, new ed. 1882), _Memoirs of the Pretenders and their Adherents_ -(1845), _Memoirs of Richard the Third and his Contemporaries_ (1861), -and _Memoirs of the Life and Reign of King George the Third_ (1867). The -titles of these works are sufficiently indicative of their character. -They are sketches of the principal personages and of the social details -of various periods in the history of England rather than complete and -comprehensive historical narratives. In addition to these works Jesse -wrote _Literary and Historical Memorials of London_ (1847), _London and -its Celebrities_ (1850), and a new edition of this work as _London: its -Celebrated Characters and Remarkable Places_ (1871). His _Memoirs of -Celebrated Etonians_ appeared in 1875. - - A collected edition containing most of his works in thirty volumes was - published in London in 1901. - - - - -JESSEL, SIR GEORGE (1824-1883), English judge, was born in London on the -13th of February 1824. He was the son of Zadok Aaron Jessel, a Jewish -coral merchant. George Jessel was educated at a school for Jews at Kew, -and being prevented by then existing religious disabilities from -proceeding to Oxford or Cambridge, went to University College, London. -He entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn in 1842, and a year later took -his B.A. degree at the university of London, becoming M.A. and gold -medallist in mathematics and natural philosophy in 1844. In 1846 he -became a fellow of University College, and in 1847 he was called to the -bar at Lincoln's Inn. His earnings during his first three years at the -bar were 52, 346, and 795 guineas, from which it will be seen that his -rise to a tolerably large practice was rapid. His work, however, was -mainly conveyancing, and for long his income remained almost stationary. -By degrees, however, he got more work, and was called within the bar in -1865, becoming a bencher of his Inn in the same year and practising in -the Rolls Court. Jessel entered parliament as Liberal member for Dover -in 1868, and although neither his intellect nor his oratory was of a -class likely to commend itself to his fellow-members, he attracted -Gladstone's attention by two learned speeches on the Bankruptcy Bill -which was before the house in 1869, with the result that in 1871 he was -appointed solicitor-general. His reputation at this time stood high in -the chancery courts; on the common law side he was unknown, and on the -first occasion upon which he came into the court of Queen's bench to -move on behalf of the Crown, there was very nearly a collision between -him and the bench. His forceful and direct method of bringing his -arguments home to the bench was not modified in his subsequent practice -before it. His great powers were fully recognized; his business in -addition to that on behalf of the Crown became very large, and his -income for three years before he was raised to the bench amounted to -nearly L25,000 per annum. In 1873 Jessel succeeded Lord Romilly as -master of the rolls. From 1873 to 1881 Jessel sat as a judge of first -instance in the rolls court, being also a member of the court of appeal. -In November 1874 the first Judicature Act came into effect, and in 1881 -the Judicature Act of that year made the master of the rolls the -ordinary president of the first court of appeal, relieving him of his -duties as a judge of first instance. In the court of appeal Jessel -presided almost to the day of his death. For some time before 1883 he -suffered from diabetes with chronic disorder of the heart and liver, but -struggled against it; on the 16th of March 1883 he sat in court for the -last time, and on the 21st of March he died at his residence in London, -the immediate cause of death being cardiac syncope. - -As a judge of first instance Jessel was a revelation to those accustomed -to the proverbial slowness of the chancery courts and of the master of -the rolls who preceded him. He disposed of the business before him with -rapidity combined with correctness of judgment, and he not only had no -arrears himself, but was frequently able to help other judges to clear -their lists. His knowledge of law and equity was wide and accurate, and -his memory for cases and command of the principles laid down in them -extraordinary. In the rolls court he never reserved a judgment, not even -in the Epping Forest case (_Commissioners of Sewers_ v. _Glasse_, L.R. -19 Eq.; _The Times_, 11th November 1874), in which the evidence and -arguments lasted twenty-two days (150 witnesses being examined in court, -while the documents went back to the days of King John), and in the -court of appeal he did so only twice, and then in deference to the -wishes of his colleagues. The second of these two occasions was the case -of _Robarts_ v. _The Corporation of London_ (49 _Law Times_ 455; _The -Times_, 10th March 1883), and those who may read Jessel's judgment -should remember that, reviewing as it does the law and custom on the -subject, and the records of the city with regard to the appointment of a -remembrancer from the 16th century, together with the facts of the case -before the court, it occupied nearly an hour to deliver, but was -nevertheless delivered without notes--this, too, on the 9th of March -1883, when the judge who uttered it was within a fortnight of his death. -Never during the 19th century was the business of any court performed so -rapidly, punctually, and satisfactorily as it was when Jessel presided. -He was master of the rolls at a momentous period of legal history. The -Judicature Acts, completing the fusion of law and equity, were passed -while he was judge of first instance, and were still new to the courts -when he died. His knowledge and power of assimilating knowledge of all -subjects, his mastery of every branch of law with which he had to -concern himself, as well as of equity, together with his willingness to -give effect to the new system, caused it to be said when he died that -the success of the Judicature Acts would have been impossible without -him. His faults as a judge lay in his disposition to be intolerant of -those who, not able to follow the rapidity of his judgment, endeavoured -to persist in argument after he had made up his mind; but though he was -peremptory with the most eminent counsel, young men had no cause to -complain of his treatment of them. - -Jessel sat on the royal commission for the amendment of the Medical -Acts, taking an active part in the preparation of its report. He -actively interested himself in the management of London University, of -which he was a fellow from 1861, and of which he was elected -vice-chancellor in 1880. He was one of the commissioners of patents, and -trustee of the British Museum. He was also chairman of the committee of -judges which drafted the new rules rendered necessary by the Judicature -Acts. He was treasurer of Lincoln's Inn in 1883, and vice-president of -the council of legal education. He was also a fellow of the Royal -Society. Jessel's career marks an epoch on the bench, owing to the -active part taken by him in rendering the Judicature Acts effective, and -also because he was the last judge capable of sitting in the House of -Commons, a privilege of which he did not avail himself. He was the first -Jew who, as solicitor-general, took a share in the executive government -of his country, the first Jew who was sworn a regular member of the -privy council, and the first Jew who took a seat on the judicial bench -of Great Britain; he was also, for many years after being called to the -bar, so situated that any one might have driven him from it, because, -being a Jew, he was not qualified to be a member of the bar. In person -Jessel was a stoutish, square-built man of middle height, with dark -hair, somewhat heavy features, a fresh ruddy complexion, and a large -mouth. He married in 1856 Amelia, daughter of Joseph Moses, who survived -him together with three daughters and two sons, the elder of whom, -Charles James (b. 1860), was made a baronet shortly after the death of -his distinguished father and in recognition of his services. - - See _The Times_, March 23, 1883; E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_ - (1904). - - - - -JESSORE, a town and district of British India, in the Presidency -division of Bengal. The town is on the Bhairab river, with a railway -station 75 m. N.E. of Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 8054. - -The DISTRICT OF JESSORE has an area of 2925 sq. m. Pop. (1901), -1,813,155, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade. The district forms -the central portion of the delta between the Hugli and the united Ganges -and Brahmaputra. It is a vast alluvial plain intersected by rivers and -watercourses, which in the southern portion spread out into large -marshes. The northern part is verdant, with extensive groves of -date-palms; villages are numerous and large; and the people are -prosperous. In the central portion the population is sparse, the only -part suitable for dwellings being the high land on the banks of rivers. -The principal rivers are the Madhumati or Haringhata (which forms the -eastern boundary of the district), with its tributaries the Nabaganga, -Chitra, and Bhairab; the Kumar, Kabadak, Katki, Harihar, Bhadra and -Atharabanka. Within the last century the rivers in the interior of -Jessore have ceased to be true deltaic rivers; and, whereas the northern -portion of the district formerly lay under water for several months -every year, it is now reached only by unusual inundations. The tide -reaches as far north as the latitude of Jessore town. Jessore is the -centre of sugar manufacture from date palms. The exports are sugar, -rice, pulse, timber, honey, shells, &c.; the imports are salt, English -goods, and cloth. The district is crossed by the Eastern Bengal railway, -but the chief means of communication are waterways. - -British administration was completely established in the district in -1781, when the governor-general ordered the opening of a court at Murali -near Jessore. Before that, however, the fiscal administration had been -in the hands of the English, having been transferred to the East India -company with that of the rest of Bengal in 1765. The changes in -jurisdiction in Jessore have been very numerous. After many transfers -and rectifications, the district was in 1863 finally constituted as it -at present stands. The rajas of Jessore or Chanchra trace their origin -to Bhabeswar Rai, a soldier in the army of Khan-i-Azam, an imperial -general, who deprived Raja Pratapaditya, the popular hero of the -Sundarbans, of several fiscal divisions, and conferred them on -Bhabeswar. But Manohar Rai (1649-1705) is regarded as the principal -founder of the family. The estate when he inherited it was of moderate -size, but he acquired one _pargana_ after another, until, at his death, -the property was by far the largest in the neighbourhood. - - - - -JESTER, a provider of "jests" or amusements, a buffoon, especially a -professional fool at a royal court or in a nobleman's household (see -FOOL). The word "jest," from which "jester" is formed, is used from the -16th century for the earlier "gest," Lat. _gesta_, or _res gestae_, -things done, from _gerere_, to do, hence deeds, exploits, especially as -told in history, and so used of the metrical and prose romances and -chronicles of the middle ages. The word became applied to satirical -writings and to any long-winded empty tale, and thence to a joke or -piece of fun, the current meaning of the word. - - - - -JESUATI, a religious order founded by Giovanni Colombini of Siena in -1360. Colombini had been a prosperous merchant and a senator in his -native city, but, coming under ecstatic religious influences, abandoned -secular affairs and his wife and daughter (after making provision for -them), and with a friend of like temperament, Francesco Miani, gave -himself to a life of apostolic poverty, penitential discipline, hospital -service and public preaching. The name Jesuati was given to Colombini -and his disciples from the habit of calling loudly on the name of Jesus -at the beginning and end of their ecstatic sermons. The senate banished -Colombini from Siena for imparting foolish ideas to the young men of the -city, and he continued his mission in Arezzo and other places, only to -be honourably recalled home on the outbreak of a devastating pestilence. -He went out to meet Urban V. on his return from Avignon to Rome in 1367, -and craved his sanction for the new order and a distinctive habit. -Before this was granted Colombini had to clear the movement of a -suspicion that it was connected with the heretical sect of Fraticelli, -and he died on the 31st of July 1367, soon after the papal approval had -been given. The guidance of the new order, whose members (all lay -brothers) gave themselves entirely to works of mercy, devolved upon -Miani. Their rule of life, originally a compound of Benedictine and -Franciscan elements, was later modified on Augustinian lines, but traces -of the early penitential idea persisted, e.g. the wearing of sandals and -a daily flagellation. Paul V. in 1606 arranged for a small proportion of -clerical members, and later in the 17th century the Jesuati became so -secularized that the members were known as the Aquavitae Fathers, and -the order was dissolved by Clement IX. in 1668. The female branch of the -order, the Jesuati sisters, founded by Caterina Colombini (d. 1387) in -Siena, and thence widely dispersed, more consistently maintained the -primitive strictness of the society and survived the male branch by 200 -years, existing until 1872 in small communities in Italy. - - - - -JESUITS, the name generally given to the members of the Society of -Jesus, a religious order in the Roman Catholic Church, founded in 1539. -This Society may be defined, in its original conception and well-avowed -object, as a body of highly trained religious men of various degrees, -bound by the three personal vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, -together with, in some cases, a special vow to the pope's service, with -the object of labouring for the spiritual good of themselves and their -neighbours. They are declared to be mendicants and enjoy all the -privileges of the other mendicant orders. They are governed and live by -constitutions and rules, mostly drawn up by their founder, St Ignatius -of Loyola, and approved by the popes. Their proper title is "Clerks -Regulars of the Society of Jesus," the word _Societas_ being taken as -synonymous with the original Spanish term, _Compania_; perhaps the -military term _Cohors_ might more fully have expressed the original idea -of a band of spiritual soldiers living under martial law and discipline. -The ordinary term "Jesuit" was given to the Society by its avowed -opponents; it is first found in the writings of Calvin and in the -registers of the Parlement of Paris as early as 1552. - -_Constitution and Character._--The formation of the Society was a -masterpiece of genius on the part of a man (see LOYOLA) who was quick to -realize the necessity of the moment. Just before Ignatius was -experiencing the call to conversion, Luther had begun his revolt against -the Roman Church by burning the papal bull of excommunication on the -10th of December 1520. But while Luther's most formidable opponent was -thus being prepared in Spain, the actual formation of the Society was -not to take place for eighteen years. Its conception seems to have -developed very slowly in the mind of Ignatius. It introduced a new idea -into the Church. Hitherto all regulars made a point of the choral office -in choir. But as Ignatius conceived the Church to be in a state of war, -what was desirable in days of peace ceased when the life of the cloister -had to be exchanged for the discipline of the camp; so in the sketch of -the new society which he laid before Paul III., Ignatius laid down the -principle that the obligation of the breviary should be fulfilled -privately and separately and not in choir. The other orders, too, were -bound by the idea of a constitutional monarchy based on the democratic -spirit. Not so with the Society. The founder placed the general for life -in an almost uncontrolled position of authority, giving him the faculty -of dispensing individuals from the decrees of the highest legislative -body, the general congregations. Thus the principle of military -obedience was exalted to a degree higher than that existing in the older -orders, which preserved to their members certain constitutional rights. - - The soldier-mind of Ignatius can be seen throughout the constitutions. - Even in the spiritual labours which the Society shares with the other - orders, its own ways of dealing with persons and things result from - the system of training which succeeds in forming men to a type that is - considered desirable. But it must not be thought that in practice the - rule of the Society and the high degree of obedience demanded result - in mere mechanism. By a system of check and counter check devised in - the constitutions the power of local superiors is modified, so that in - practice the working is smooth. Ignatius knew that while a high ideal - was necessary for every society, his followers were flesh and blood, - not machines. He made it clear from the first that the Society was - everything and the individual nothing, except so far as he might prove - a useful instrument for carrying out the Society's objects. Ignatius - said to his secretary Polanco that "in those who offered themselves - he looked less to purely natural goodness than to firmness of - character and ability for business, for he was of opinion that those - who were not fit for public business were not adapted for filling - offices in the Society." He further declared that even exceptional - qualities and endowments in a candidate were valuable in his eyes only - on the condition of their being brought into play, or held in - abeyance, strictly at the command of a superior. Hence his teaching on - obedience. His letter on this subject, addressed to the Jesuits of - Coimbra in 1553, is still one of the standard formularies of the - Society, ranking with those other products of his pen, the _Spiritual - Exercises_ and the _Constitutions_. In this letter Ignatius clothes - the general with the powers of a commander-in-chief in time of war, - giving him the absolute disposal of all members of the Society in - every place and for every purpose. He pushes the claim even further, - requiring, besides entire outward submission to command, also the - complete identification of the inferior's will with that of the - superior. He lays down that the superior is to be obeyed simply as - such and as standing in the place of God, without reference to his - personal wisdom, piety or discretion; that any obedience which falls - short of making the superior's will one's own, in inward affection as - well as in outward effect, is lax and imperfect; that going beyond the - letter of command, even in things abstractly good and praiseworthy, is - disobedience, and that the "sacrifice of the intellect" is the third - and highest grade of obedience, well pleasing to God, when the - inferior not only wills what the superior wills, but thinks what he - thinks, submitting his judgment, so far as it is possible for the will - to influence and lead the judgment. This _Letter on Obedience_ was - written for the guidance and formation of Ignatius's own followers; it - was an entirely domestic affair. But when it became known beyond the - Society the teaching met with great opposition, especially from - members of other orders whose institutes represented the normal days - of peace rather than those of war. The letter was condemned by the - Inquisitions of Spain and Portugal; and it tasked all the skill and - learning of Bellarmine as its apologist, together with the whole - influence of the Society, to avert what seemed to be a probable - condemnation at Rome. - - The teaching of the _Letter_ must be understood in the living spirit - of the Society. Ignatius himself lays down the rule that an inferior - is bound to make all necessary representations to his superior so as - to guide him in imposing a precept of obedience. When a superior knows - the views of his inferior and still commands, it is because he is - aware of other sides of the question which appear of greater - importance than those that the inferior has brought forward. Ignatius - distinctly excepts the case where obedience in itself would be sinful: - "In all things _except sin_ I ought to do the will of my superior and - not my own." There may be cases where an inferior judges that what is - commanded is sinful. What is to be done? Ignatius says: "When it seems - to me that I am commanded by my superior to do a thing against which - my conscience revolts as sinful and my superior judges otherwise, it - is my duty to yield my doubts to him unless I am otherwise constrained - by evident reasons. ... If submissions do not appease my conscience I - must impart my doubts to two or three persons of discretion and abide - by their decision." From this it is clear that only in _doubtful_ - cases concerning sin should an inferior try to submit his judgment to - that of his superior, who _ex officio_ is held to be not only one who - would not order what is clearly sinful, but also a competent judge who - knows and understands, better than the inferior, the nature and aspect - of the command. As the Jesuit obedience is based on the law of God, it - is clearly impossible that he should be bound to obey in what is - directly opposed to the divine service. A Jesuit lives in obedience - all his life, though the yoke is not galling nor always felt. He can - accept no dignity or office which will make him independent of the - Society; and even if ordered by the pope to accept the cardinalate or - the episcopate, he is still bound, if not to obey, yet to listen to - the advice of those whom the general deputes to counsel him in - important matters. - - The Jesuits had to find their principal work in the world and in - direct and immediate contact with mankind. To seek spiritual - perfection in a retired life of contemplation and prayer did not seem - to Ignatius to be the best way of reforming the evils which had - brought about the revolt from Rome. He withdrew his followers from - this sort of retirement, except as a mere temporary preparation for - later activity; he made habitual intercourse with the world a prime - duty; and to this end he rigidly suppressed all such external - peculiarities of dress or rule as tended to put obstacles in the way - of his followers acting freely as emissaries, agents or missionaries - in the most various places and circumstances. Another change he - introduced even more completely than did the founders of the Friars. - The Jesuit has no home: the whole world is his parish. Mobility and - cosmopolitanism are of the very essence of the Society. As Ignatius - said, the ancient monastic communities were the infantry of the - Church, whose duty was to stand firmly in one place on the - battlefield; the Jesuits were to be her light horse, capable of going - anywhere at a moment's notice, but especially apt and designed for - scouting and skirmishing. To carry out this view, it was one of his - plans to send foreigners as superiors or officers to the Jesuit houses - in each country, requiring of these envoys, however, invariably to use - the language of their new place of residence and to study it both in - speaking and writing till entire mastery of it had been acquired--thus - by degrees making all the parts of his system mutually - interchangeable, and so largely increasing the number of persons - eligible to fill any given post without reference to locality. But - subsequent experience has, in practice, modified this interchange, as - far as local government goes, though the central government of the - Society is always cosmopolitan. - -Next we must consider the machinery by which the Society is constituted -and governed so as to make its spirit a living energy and not a mere -abstract theory. The Society is distributed into six grades: novices, -scholastics, temporal coadjutors (lay brothers), spiritual coadjutors, -professed of the three vows, and professed of the four vows. No one can -become a postulant for admission to the Society until fourteen years -old, unless by special dispensation. The novice is classified according -as his destination is the priesthood or lay brotherhood, while a third -class of "indifferents" receives such as are reserved for further -inquiry before a decision of this kind is made. The novice has first to -undergo a strict retreat, practically in solitary confinement, during -which he receives from a director the _Spiritual Exercises_ and makes a -general confession of his whole life; after which the first novitiate of -two years' duration begins. In this period of trial the real character -of the man is discerned, his weak points are noted and his will is -tested. Prayer and the practices of asceticism, as means to an end, are -the chief occupations of the novice. He may leave or be dismissed at any -time during the two years; but at the end of the period if he is -approved and destined for the priesthood, he is advanced to the grade of -scholastic and takes the following simple vows in the presence of -certain witnesses, but not to any person:-- - - "Almighty Everlasting God, albeit everyway most unworthy in Thy holy - sight, yet relying on Thine infinite kindness and mercy and impelled - by the desire of serving Thee, before the Most Holy Virgin Mary and - all Thy heavenly host, I, N., vow to Thy divine Majesty Poverty, - Chastity and Perpetual Obedience to the Society of Jesus, and promise - that I will enter the same Society to live in it perpetually, - understanding all things according to the Constitutions of the - Society. I humbly pray from Thine immense goodness and clemency, - through the Blood of Jesus Christ, that Thou wilt deign to accept this - sacrifice in the odour of sweetness; and as Thou hast granted me to - desire and to offer this, so wilt Thou bestow abundant grace to fulfil - it." - -The scholastic then follows the ordinary course of an undergraduate at a -university. After passing five years in arts he has, while still keeping -up his own studies, to devote five or six years more to teaching the -junior classes in various Jesuit schools or colleges. About this period -he takes his simple vows in the following terms:-- - - "I, _N._, promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and the - whole heavenly host, and to thee, Reverend Father General of the - Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, and to thy successors (or - to thee, Reverend Father _M._ in place of the General of the Society - of Jesus and his successors holding the place of God), Perpetual - Poverty, Chastity and Obedience; and according to it a peculiar care - in the education of boys, according to the manner expressed in the - Apostolic Letter and Constitutions of the said Society." - -The lay brothers leave out the clause concerning education. The -scholastic does not begin the study of theology until he is twenty-eight -or thirty, and then passes through a four or six years' course. Only -when he is thirty-four or thirty-six can he be ordained a priest and -enter on the grade of a spiritual coadjutor. A lay brother, before he -can become a temporal coadjutor for the discharge of domestic duties, -must pass ten years before he is admitted to vows. Sometimes after -ordination the priest, in the midst of his work, is again called away to -a third year's novitiate, called the tertianship, as a preparation for -his solemn profession of the three vows. His former vows were simple and -the Society was at liberty to dismiss him for any canonical reason. The -formula of the famous Jesuit vow is as follows:-- - - "I, _N._, promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and the - whole heavenly host, and to all standing by; and to thee, Reverend - Father General of the Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, and - to thy successors (or to thee, Reverend Father _M._ in place of the - General of the Society of Jesus and his successors holding the place - of God), Perpetual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience; and according to - it a peculiar care in the education of boys according to the form of - life contained in the Apostolic Letters of the Society of Jesus and in - its Constitutions." - -Immediately after the vows the Jesuit adds the following simple vows: -(1) that he will never act nor consent that the provisions in the -constitutions concerning poverty should be changed; (2) that he will not -directly nor indirectly procure election or promotion for himself to any -prelacy or dignity in the Society; (3) that he will not accept or -consent to his election to any dignity or prelacy outside the Society -unless forced thereunto by obedience; (4) that if he knows of others -doing these things he will denounce them to the superiors; (5) that if -elected to a bishopric he will never refuse to hear such advice as the -general may deign to send him and will follow it if he judges it is -better than his own opinion. The professed is now eligible to certain -offices in the Society, and he may remain as a professed father of the -three vows for the rest of his life. The highest class, who constitute -the real core of the Society, whence all its chief officers are taken, -are the professed of the four vows. This grade can seldom be reached -until the candidate is in his forty-fifth year, which involves a -probation of thirty-one years in the case of those who have entered on -the novitiate at the earliest legal age. The number of these select -members is small in comparison with the whole Society; the exact -proportion varies from time to time, the present tendency being to -increase the number. The vows of this grade are the same as the last -formula, with the addition of the following important clause:-- - - "Moreover I promise the special obedience to the Sovereign Pontiff - concerning missions, as is contained in the same Apostolic Letter and - Constitutions." - -These various members of the Society are distributed in its novitiate -houses, its colleges, its professed houses and its mission residences. -The question has been hotly debated whether, in addition to these six -grades, there be not a seventh answering in some degree to the -tertiaries of the Franciscan and Dominican orders, but secretly -affiliated to the Society and acting as its emissaries in various lay -positions. This class was styled in France "Jesuits of the short robe," -and there is some evidence in support of its actual existence under -Louis XV. The Jesuits themselves deny the existence of any such body, -and are able to adduce the negative disproof that no provision for it is -to be found in their constitutions. On the other hand there are clauses -therein which make the creation of such a class perfectly feasible if -thought expedient. An admitted instance is the case of Francisco Borgia, -who in 1548, while still duke of Gandia, was received into the Society. -What has given colour to the idea is that certain persons have made vows -of obedience to individual Jesuits; as Thomas Worthington, rector of the -Douai seminary, to Father Robert Parsons; Ann Vaux to Fr. Henry Garnet, -who told her that he was not indeed allowed to receive her vows, but -that she might make them if she wished and then receive his direction. -The archaeologist George Oliver of Exeter was, according to Foley's -_Records of the English Province_, the last of the secular priests of -England who vowed obedience to the Society before its suppression. - -The general lives permanently at Rome and holds in his hands the right -to appoint, not only to the office of provincial over each of the head -districts into which the Society is mapped, but to the offices of each -house in particular. There is no standard of electoral right in the -Society except in the election of the general himself. By a minute and -frequent system of official and private reports he is informed of the -doings and progress of every member of the Society and of everything -that concerns it throughout the world. Every Jesuit has not only the -right but the duty in certain cases of communicating, directly and -privately, with his general. While the general thus controls everything, -he himself is not exempt from supervision on the part of the Society. A -consultative council is imposed upon him by the general congregation, -consisting of the assistants of the various nations, a _socius_, or -adviser, to warn him of mistakes, and a confessor. These he cannot -remove nor select; and he is bound, in certain circumstances, to listen -to their advice, although he is not obliged to follow it. Once elected -the general may not refuse the office, nor abdicate, nor accept any -dignity or office outside of the Society; on the other hand, for certain -definite reasons, he may be suspended or even deposed by the authority -of the Society, which can thus preserve itself from destruction. No such -instance has occurred, although steps were once taken in this direction -in the case of a general who had set himself against the current -feeling. - - It is said that the general of the Jesuits is independent of the pope; - and his popular name, "the black pope," has gone to confirm this idea. - But it is based on an entirely wrong conception of the two offices. - The suppression of the Society by Clement XIV. in 1773 was an - object-lesson in the supremacy of the pope. The Society became very - numerous and, from time to time, received extraordinary privileges - from popes, who were warranted by the necessities of the times in - granting them. A great number of influential friends, also, gathered - round the fathers who, naturally, sought in every way to retain what - had been granted. Popes who thought it well to bring about certain - changes, or to withdraw privileges that were found to have passed - their intentions or to interfere unduly with the rights of other - bodies, often met with loyal resistances against their proposed - measures. Resistance up to a certain point is lawful and is not - disobedience, for every society has the right of self-preservation. In - cases where the popes insisted, in spite of the representations of the - Jesuits, their commands were obeyed. Many of the popes were distinctly - unfavourable to the Society, while others were as friendly, and often - what one pope did against them the next pope withdrew. Whatever was - done in times when strong divergence of opinion existed, and whatever - may have been the actions of individuals who, even in so highly - organized a body as the Society of Jesus, cannot always be - successfully controlled by their superiors, yet the ultimate result on - the part of the Society has always been obedience to the pope, who - authorized, protected and privileged them, and on whom they ultimately - depend for their very existence. - -Thus constituted, with a skilful union of strictness and freedom, of -complex organization with a minimum of friction in working, the Society -was admirably devised for its purpose of introducing a new power into -the Church and the world. Its immediate services to the Church were -great. The Society did much, single-handed, to roll back the tide of -Protestant advance when half of Europe, which had not already shaken off -its allegiance to the papacy, was threatening to do so. The honours of -the reaction belong to the Jesuits, and the reactionary spirit has -become their tradition. They had the wisdom to see and to admit, in -their correspondence with their superiors, that the real cause of the -Reformation was the ignorance, neglect and vicious lives of so many -priests. They recognized, as most earnest men did, that the difficulty -was in the higher places, and that these could best be touched by -indirect methods. At a time when primary or even secondary education had -in most places become a mere effete and pedantic adherence to obsolete -methods, they were bold enough to innovate, both in system and material. -Putting fresh spirit and devotion into the work, they not merely taught -and catechized in a new, fresh and attractive manner, besides -establishing free schools of good quality, but provided new school books -for their pupils which were an enormous advance on those they found in -use; so that for nearly three centuries the Jesuits were accounted the -best schoolmasters in Europe, as they were, till their forcible -suppression in 1901, confessedly the best in France. The Jesuit teachers -conciliated the goodwill of their pupils by mingled firmness and -gentleness. Although the method of the _Ratio Studiorum_ has ceased to -be acceptable, yet it played in its time as serious a part in the -intellectual development of Europe as did the method of Frederick the -Great in modern warfare. Bacon succinctly gives his opinion of the -Jesuit teaching in these words: "As for the pedagogical part, the -shortest rule would be, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for nothing -better has been put in practice" (_De Augmentis_, vi. 4). In instruction -they were excellent; but in education, or formation of character, -deficient. Again, when most of the continental clergy had sunk, more or -less, into the moral and intellectual slough which is pictured for us in -the writings of Erasmus and the _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_ (see -HUTTEN, ULRICH VON), the Jesuits won back respect for the clerical -calling by their personal culture and the unimpeachable purity of their -lives. These qualities they have carefully maintained; and probably no -large body of men in the world has been so free from the reproach of -discreditable members or has kept up, on the whole, an equally high -average of intelligence and conduct. As preachers, too, they delivered -the pulpit from the bondage of an effete scholasticism and reached at -once a clearness and simplicity of treatment such as the English pulpit -scarcely begins to exhibit till after the days of Tillotson; while in -literature and theology they count a far larger number of respectable -writers than any other religious society can boast. It is in the mission -field, however, that their achievements have been most remarkable. -Whether toiling among the teeming millions in Hindustan and China, -labouring amongst the Hurons and Iroquois of North America, governing -and civilizing the natives of Brazil and Paraguay in the missions and -"reductions," or ministering, at the hourly risk of his life to his -fellow-Catholics in England under Elizabeth and the Stuarts, the Jesuit -appears alike devoted, indefatigable, cheerful and worthy of hearty -admiration and respect. - -Nevertheless, two startling and indisputable facts meet the student who -pursues the history of the Society. The first is the universal suspicion -and hostility it has incurred--not merely from the Protestants whose -avowed foe it has been, not yet from the enemies of all clericalism and -dogma, but from every Catholic state and nation in the world. Its chief -enemies have been those of the household of the Roman Catholic faith. -The second fact is the ultimate failure which seems to dog all its most -promising schemes and efforts. These two results are to be observed -alike in the provinces of morals and politics. The first cause of the -opposition indeed redounds to the Jesuits' credit, for it was largely -due to their success. Their pulpits rang with a studied eloquence; their -churches, sumptuous and attractive, were crowded; and in the -confessional their advice was eagerly sought in all kinds of -difficulties, for they were the fashionable professors of the art of -direction. Full of enthusiasm and zeal, devoted wholly to their Society, -they were able to bring in numbers of rich and influential persons to -their ranks; for, with a clear understanding of the power of wealth, -they became, of set purpose, the apostles of the rich and influential. -The Jesuits felt that they were the new men, the men of the time; so -with a perfect confidence in themselves they went out to set the Church -to rights. It was no wonder that success, so well worked for and so well -deserved, failed to win the approval or sympathy of those who found -themselves supplanted. Old-fashioned men, to whom the apostles' advice -to "do all to the glory of God" seemed sufficient, mistrusted those who -professed to go beyond all others and adopted as their motto the famous -_Ad majorem Dei gloriam_, "To the greater glory of God." But, besides -this, the _esprit de corps_ which is necessary for every body of men -was, it was held, carried to an excess and made the Jesuits intolerant -of any one or anything if not of "ours." The novelties too which they -introduced into the conception of the religious life, naturally, were -displeasing to the older orders, who felt like old aristocratic families -towards a newly rich or purse-proud upstart. The Society, or rather its -members, were too aggressive and self-assertive to be welcomed; and a -certain characteristic, which soon began to manifest itself in an -impatience of episcopal control, showed that the quality of "Jesuitry," -usually associated with the Society, was singularly lacking in their -dealings with opponents. Their political attitude also alienated many. -Many of the Jesuits could not separate religion from politics. To say -this is only to assert that they were not clearer-minded than most men -of their age. But unfortunately they invariably took the wrong side and -allowed themselves to be made the tools of men who saw farther and more -clearly than they did. They had their share, direct or indirect, in the -embroiling of states, in concocting conspiracies and in kindling wars. -They were also responsible by their theoretical teachings in theological -schools, where cases were considered and treated in the abstract, for -not a few assassinations of the enemies of the cause. Weak minds heard -tyrannicide discussed and defended in the abstract; and it was no -wonder that, when opportunity served, the train that had been heedlessly -laid by speculative professors was fired by rash hands. What professors -like Suarez taught in the calm atmosphere of the lecture hall, what -writers like Mariana upheld and praised, practical men took as -justification for deeds of blood. There is no evidence that any Jesuit -took a direct part in political assassinations; however, indirectly, -they may have been morally responsible. They were playing with edged -tools and often got wounded through their own carelessness. Other -grievances were raised by their perpetual meddling in politics, e.g. -their large share in fanning the flames of political hatred against the -Huguenots under the last two Valois kings; their perpetual plotting -against England in the reign of Elizabeth; their share in the Thirty -Years' War and in the religious miseries of Bohemia; their decisive -influence in causing the revocation of the edict of Nantes and the -expulsion of the Protestants from France; the ruin of the Stuart cause -under James II., and the establishment of the Protestant succession. In -a number of cases where the evidence against them is defective, it is at -least an unfortunate coincidence that there is always direct proof of -some Jesuit having been in communication with the actual agents engaged. -They were the stormy petrels of politics. Yet the Jesuits, as a body, -should not be made responsible for the doings of men who, in their -political intrigues, were going directly against the distinct law of the -Society, which in strict terms, and under heavy penalties, forbade them -to have anything to do with such matters. The politicians were -comparatively few in number, though unfortunately they held high rank; -and their disobedience to the rule besmirched the name of the society -and destroyed the good work of the other Jesuits who were faithfully -carrying out their own proper duties. - -A far graver cause for uneasiness was given by the Jesuits' activity in -the region of doctrine and morals. Here the charges against them are -precise, early, numerous and weighty. Their founder himself was -arrested, more than once, by the Inquisition and required to give -account of his belief and conduct. But St Ignatius, with all his -powerful gifts of intellect, was entirely practical and ethical in his -range, and had no turn whatever for speculation, nor desire to discuss, -much less to question, any of the received dogmas of the Church. He -gives it as a rule of orthodoxy to be ready to say that black is white -if the Church says so. He was therefore acquitted on every occasion, and -applied each time for a formally attested certificate of his orthodoxy, -knowing well that, in default of such documents, the fact of his arrest -as a suspected heretic would be more distinctly recollected by opponents -than that of his honourable dismissal from custody. His followers, -however, have not been so fortunate. On doctrinal questions indeed, -though their teaching on grace, especially in the form given to it by -Molina (q.v.), ran contrary to the accepted teaching on the subject by -the Augustinians, Dominicans and other representative schools; yet by -their pertinacity they gained for their views a recognized and -established position. A special congregation of cardinals and -theologians known as _de auxiliis_ was summoned by the pope to settle -the dispute, for the _odium theologicum_ had risen to a desperate height -between the representatives of the old and the new theology; but after -many years they failed to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion, and the -pope, instead of settling the dispute, was only able to impose mutual -silence on all opponents. Among those who held out stiffly against the -Jesuits on the subject of grace were the Jansenists, who held that they -were following the special teaching of St Augustine, known _par -excellence_ as the doctor of grace. The Jesuits and the Jansenists soon -became deadly enemies; and in the ensuing conflict both parties accused -each other of flinging scruples to the wind. (See JANSENISM.) - -But the accusations against the Jesuit system of moral theology and -their action as guides of conduct have had a more serious effect on -their reputation. It is undeniable that some of their moral writers were -lax in their teaching; and conscience was strained to the snapping -point. The Society was trying to make itself all things to all men. -Propositions extracted from Jesuit moral theologians have again and -again been condemned by the pope and declared untenable. Many of these -can be found in Viva's _Condemned Propositions_. As early as 1554 the -Jesuits were censured by the Sorbonne, chiefly at the instance of -Eustache de Bellay, bishop of Paris, as being dangerous in matters of -faith. Melchor Cano, a Dominican, one of the ablest divines of the 16th -century, never ceased to lift up his testimony against them, from their -first beginnings till his own death in 1560; and, unmollified by the -bribe of the bishopric of the Canaries, which their interest procured -for him, he succeeded in banishing them from the university of -Salamanca. Carlo Borromeo, to whose original advocacy they owed much, -especially in the council of Trent, found himself attacked in his own -cathedral pulpit and interfered with in his jurisdiction. He withdrew -his protection and expelled them from his colleges and churches; and he -was followed in 1604 in this policy by his cousin and successor Cardinal -Federigo Borromeo. St Theresa learnt, in after years, to mistrust their -methods, although she was grateful to them for much assistance in the -first years of her work. The credit of the Society was seriously damaged -by the publication, at Cracow, in 1612, of the _Monita Secreta_. This -book, which is undoubtedly a forgery, professes to contain the -authoritative secret instructions drawn up by the general Acquaviva and -given by the superiors of the Society to its various officers and -members. A bold caricature of Jesuit methods, the book has been ascribed -to John Zaorowsky or to Cambilone and Schloss, all ex-Jesuits, and it is -stated to have been discovered in manuscript by Christian of Brunswick -in the Jesuit college at Prague. It consists of suggestions and methods -for extending the influence of the Jesuits in various ways, for securing -a footing in fresh places, for acquiring wealth, for creeping into -households and leading silly rich widows captive and so forth, all -marked with ambition, craft and unscrupulousness. It had a wide success -and popularity, passing through several editions, and even to this day -it is used by controversialists as unscrupulous as the original writers. -It may, perhaps, represent the actions of some individuals who allowed -their zeal to outrun their discretion, but surely no society which -exists for good and is marked by so many worthy men could systematically -have conducted its operations in such a manner. Later on a formidable -assault was made on Jesuit moral theology in the famous _Provincial -Letters_ of Blaise Pascal (q.v.), eighteen in number, issued under the -pen-name of Louis de Montalte, from January 1656 to March 1657. Their -wit, irony, eloquence and finished style have kept them alive as one of -the great French classics--a destiny more fortunate than that of the -kindred works by Antoine Arnauld, _Theologie morale des Jesuites_, -consisting of extracts from writings of members of the Society, and -_Morale pratique des Jesuites_, made up of narratives professing to set -forth the manner in which they carried out their own maxims. But, like -most controversial writers, the authors were not scrupulous in their -quotations, and by giving passages divorced from their contexts often -entirely misrepresented their opponents. The immediate reply on the part -of the Jesuits, _The Discourses of Cleander and Eudoxus_ by Pere Daniel, -could not compete with Pascal's work in brilliancy, wit or style; -moreover, it was unfortunate enough to be put upon the Index of -prohibited books in 1701. The reply on behalf of the Society to Pascal's -charges of lax morality, apart from mere general denials, is broadly as -follows:-- - - (1) St Ignatius himself, the founder of the Society, had a special - aversion from untruthfulness in all its forms, from quibbling, - equivocation or even studied obscurity of language, and it would be - contrary to the spirit of conformity with his example and institutions - for his followers to think and act otherwise. Hence, any who practised - equivocation were, so far, unfaithful to the Society. (2) Several of - the cases cited by Pascal are mere abstract hypotheses, many of them - now obsolete, argued simply as intellectual exercises, but having no - practical bearing whatever. (3) Even such as do belong to the sphere - of actual life are of the nature of counsel to spiritual physicians, - how to deal with exceptional maladies; and were never intended to fix - the standard of moral obligation for the general public. (4) The - theory that they were intended for this latter purpose and do - represent the normal teaching of the Society becomes more untenable in - exact proportion as this immorality is insisted on, because it is a - matter of notoriety that the Jesuits themselves have been singularly - free from personal, as distinguished from corporate, evil repute; and - no one pretends that the large number of lay-folk whom they have - educated or influenced exhibit greater moral inferiority than others. - -The third of these replies is the most cogent as regards Pascal, but the -real weakness of his attack lies in that nervous dread of appeal to -first principles and their logical result which has been the besetting -snare of Gallicanism. Pascal, at his best, has mistaken the part for the -whole; he charges to the Society what, at the most, are the doings of -individuals; and from these he asserts the degeneration of the body from -its original standard; whereas the stronger the life and the more -extensive the natural development, side by side will exist marks of -degeneration; and a society like the Jesuits has no difficulty in -asserting its life independently of such excrescences or, in time, in -freeing itself from them. - - A charge persistently made against the Society is that it teaches that - the end justifies the means. And the words of Busembaum, whose - _Medulla theologiae_ has gone through more than fifty editions, are - quoted in proof. True it is that Busembaum uses these words: _Cui - licitus est finis etiam licent media_. But on turning to his work (ed. - Paris 1729, p. 584, or Lib. vi. Tract vi. cap. ii., _De sacramentis_, - dubium ii.) it will be found that the author is making no universal - application of an old legal maxim; but is treating of a particular - subject (concerning certain lawful liberties in the marital relation) - beyond which his words cannot be forced. The sense in which other - Jesuit theologians--e.g. Paul Laymann (1575-1635), in his _Theologia - moralis_ (Munich, 1625), and Ludwig Wagemann (1713-1792), in his - _Synopsis theologiae moralis_ (Innsbruck, 1762)--quote the axiom is an - equally harmless piece of common sense. For instance, if it is lawful - to go on a journey by railway it is lawful to take a ticket. No one - who put forth that proposition would be thought to mean that it is - lawful to defraud the company by stealing a ticket; for the _proviso_ - is always to be understood, that the means employed should, in - themselves, not be bad but good or at least indifferent. So when - Wagemann says tersely _Finis determinat probitatem actus_ he is - clearly referring to acts which in themselves are indifferent, i.e. - indeterminate. For instance: shooting is an indifferent act, neither - good nor bad in itself. The morality of any specified shooting depends - upon what is shot, and the circumstances attending that act: shooting - a man in self-defence is, as a moral act, on an entirely different - plane to shooting a man in murder. It has never been proved, and never - can be proved, although the attempt has frequently been made, that the - Jesuits ever taught the nefarious proposition ascribed to them, which - would be entirely subversive of all morality. Again, the doctrine of - probabilism is utterly misunderstood. It is based on an accurate - conception of law. Law to bind must be clear and definite; if it be - not so, its obligation ceases and liberty of action remains. No - probable opinion can stand against a clear and definite law; but when - a law is doubtful in its application, in certain circumstances, so is - the obligation of obedience: and as a doubtful law is, for practical - purposes, no law at all, so it superinduces no obligation. Hence a - probable opinion is one, founded on reason and held on serious - grounds, that the law does not apply to certain specified cases; and - that the law-giver therefore did not intend to bind. It is the - principle of equity applied to law. In moral matters a probable - opinion, that is one held on no trivial grounds but by unprejudiced - and solid thinkers, has no place where the voice of conscience is - clear, distinct and formed. - -Two causes have been at work to produce the universal failure of the -great Society in all its plans and efforts. First stands its lack of -really great intellects. It has had its golden age. No society can keep -up to its highest level. Nothing can be wider of the truth than the -popular conception of the ordinary Jesuit as a being of almost -superhuman abilities and universal knowledge. The Society, numbering as -it does so many thousands, and with abundant means of devoting men to -special branches of study, has, without doubt, produced men of great -intelligence and solid learning. The average member, too, on account of -his long and systematic training, is always equal and often superior to -the average member of any other equally large body, besides being -disciplined by a far more perfect drill. But it takes great men to carry -out great plans; and of really great men, as the outside world knows and -judges, the Society has been markedly barren from almost the first. -Apart from its founder and his early companion, St Francis Xavier, there -is none who stands in the very first rank. Laynez and Acquaviva were -able administrators and politicians; the Bollandists (q.v.) were -industrious workers and have developed a critical spirit from which much -good can be expected; Francisco Suarez, Leonhard Lessius and Cardinal -Franzelin were some of the leading Jesuit theologians; Cornelius a -Lapide (1567-1637) represents their old school of scriptural studies, -while their new German writers are the most advanced of all orthodox -higher critics; the French Louis Bourdaloue (q.v.), the Italian Paolo -Segneri (1624-1694), and the Portuguese Antonio Vieyra (1608-1697) -represent their best pulpit orators; while of the many mathematicians -and astronomers produced by the Society Angelo Secchi, Ruggiero Giuseppe -Boscovich and G. B. Beccaria are conspicuous, and in modern times -Stephen Joseph Perry (1833-1889), director of the Stonyhurst College -observatory, took a high rank among men of science. Their boldest and -most original thinker, Denis Petau, so many years neglected, is now, by -inspiring Cardinal Newman's _Essay on the Development of Christian -Doctrine_, producing a permanent influence over the current of human -thought. The Jesuits have produced no Aquinas, no Anselm, no Bacon, no -Richelieu. Men whom they trained, and who broke loose from their -teaching, Pascal, Descartes, Voltaire, have powerfully affected the -philosophical and religious beliefs of great masses of mankind; but -respectable mediocrity is the brand on the long list of Jesuit names in -the catalogues of Alegambe and De Backer. This is doubtless due in great -measure to the destructive process of scooping out the will of the -Jesuit novice, to replace it with that of his superior (as a watchmaker -might fit a new movement into a case), and thereby tending, in most -cases, to annihilate those subtle qualities of individuality and -originality which are essential to genius. Men of the higher stamp will -either refuse to submit to the process and leave the Society, or run the -danger of coming forth from the mill with their finest qualities -pulverized and useless. In accordance with the spirit of its founder, -who wished to secure uniformity in the judgment of his followers even in -points left open by the Church ("Let us all think the same way, let us -all speak in the same manner if possible"), the Society has shown itself -to be impatient of those who think or write in a way different from what -is current in its ranks. - - Nor is this all. The _Ratio Studiorum_, devised by Acquaviva and still - obligatory in the colleges of the Society, lays down rules which are - incompatible with all breadth and progress in the higher forms of - education. True to the anti-speculative and traditional side of the - founder's mind, it prescribes that, even where religious topics are - not in question, the teacher is not to permit any novel opinions or - discussions to be mooted; nor to cite or allow others to cite the - opinions of an author not of known repute; nor to teach or suffer to - be taught anything contrary to the prevalent opinions of acknowledged - doctors current in the schools. Obsolete and false opinions are not to - be mentioned at all, even for refutation, nor are objections to - received teaching to be dwelt on at any length. The result is that the - Jesuit emerges from his schools without any real knowledge of any - other method of thought than that which his professors have instilled - into him. The professor of Biblical Literature is always to support - and defend the Vulgate and can never prefer the marginal readings from - the Hebrew and Greek. The Septuagint, as far as it is incorrupt, is to - be held not less authentic than the Vulgate. In philosophy Aristotle - is always to be followed, and St Thomas Aquinas generally, care being - taken to speak respectfully of him even when abandoning his opinions, - though now it is customary for the Jesuit teachers to explain him in - their own sense. _De vera mente D. Thomas_ is no unfamiliar expression - in their books. It is not wonderful, under such a method of training, - fixed as it has been in minute detail for more than three hundred - years, that highly cultivated commonplaces should be the inevitable - average result; and that in proportion as Jesuit power has become - dominant in Christendom, especially in ecclesiastical circles, the - same doom of intellectual sterility and consequent loss of influence - with the higher and thoughtful classes, has separated the part from - the whole. The initial mistake in the formation of character is that - the Jesuits have aimed at educating lay boys in the same manner as - they consider advisable for their own novices, for whom obedience and - direction is the one thing necessary; whereas for lay people the right - use of liberty and initiative are to be desired. - -The second cause which has blighted the efforts of the Society is the -lesson, too faithfully learnt and practised, of making its corporate -interests the first object at all times and in all places. Men were -quick to see that Jesuits did not aim at co-operation with the other -members of the Church but directly or indirectly at mastery. The most -brilliant exception to this rule is found in some of the missions of the -Society and notably in that of St Francis Xavier (q.v.). But he quitted -Europe in 1541 before the new society, especially under Laynez, had -hardened into its final mould; and he never returned. His work, so far -as can be gathered from contemporary accounts, was not done on true -Jesuit lines as they afterwards developed, though the Society has reaped -all the credit; and it is even possible that, had he succeeded the -founder as general, the institute might not have received that political -and self-seeking turn which Laynez, as second general, gave at the -critical moment. - - It would almost seem that careful selection was made of the men of the - greatest piety and enthusiasm, whose unworldliness made them less apt - for diplomatic intrigues, to break new ground in the various missions - where their success would throw lustre on the Society and their - scruples need never come into play. But such men are not to be found - easily; and, as they died off, the tendency was to fill their places - with more ordinary characters, whose aim was to increase the power and - resources of the body. Hence the condescension to heathen rites in - Hindustan and China, and the attempted subjugation of the English - Catholic clergy. The first successes of the Indian mission were - entirely among the lower classes; but when in Madura, in 1606, Robert - de Nobili, a nephew of Bellarmine, to win the Brahmins, adopted their - dress and mode of life--a step sanctioned by Gregory XV. in 1623 and - by Clement XI. in 1707--the fathers who followed his example pushed - the new caste-feeling so far as absolutely to refuse the ministrations - and sacraments to the pariahs, lest the Brahmin converts should take - offence--an attempt which was reported to Rome and was vainly censured - by the breves of Innocent X. in 1645, Clement IX. in 1669, Clement - XII. in 1734 and 1739, and Benedict XIV. in 1745. The Chinese rites, - assailed with equal unsuccess by one pope after another, were not - finally put down until 1744 by a bull of Benedict XIV. For Japan, - where their side of the story is that best known, we have a remarkable - letter, printed by Lucas Wadding in the _Annales minorum_, addressed - to Paul V. by Soleto, a Franciscan missionary, who was martyred in - 1624, in which he complains to the pope that the Jesuits - systematically postponed the spiritual welfare of the native - Christians to their own convenience and advantage; while as regards - the test of martyrdom, no such result had followed on their teaching, - but only on that of the other orders who had undertaken missionary - work in Japan. Yet soon many Jesuit martyrs in Japan were to shed a - new glory on the Society (see JAPAN: _Foreign Intercourse_). Again, - even in Paraguay, the most promising of all Jesuit undertakings, the - evidence shows that the fathers, though civilizing the Guarani - population just sufficiently to make them useful and docile servants, - happier no doubt than they were before or after, stopped there. While - the mission was begun on the rational principle of governing races - still in their childhood by methods adapted to that stage in their - mental development, yet for one hundred and fifty years the - "reductions" were conducted in the same manner, and when the hour of - trial came the Jesuit civilization fell like a house of cards. - -These examples are sufficient to explain the final collapse of so many -promising efforts. The individual Jesuit might be, and often was, a -hero, saint and martyr, but the system which he was obliged to -administer was foredoomed to failure; and the suppression which came in -1773 was the natural result of forces and elements they had set in -antagonism without the power of controlling. - -The influence of the Society since its restoration in 1814 has not been -marked with greater success than in its previous history. It was natural -after the restoration that an attempt should be made to pick up again -the threads that were dropped; but soon they came to realize the truth -of the saying of St Ignatius: "The Society shall adapt itself to the -times and not the times to the Society." The political conditions of -Europe have completely changed, and constitutionalism is unfavourable to -that personal influence which, in former times, the Jesuits were able to -bring to bear upon the heads of states. In Europe they confine -themselves mainly to educational and ecclesiastical politics, although -both Germany and France have followed the example of Portugal and -refuse, on political grounds, to allow them to be in these countries. It -would appear as though some of the Jesuits had not, even yet, learnt the -lesson that meddling with politics has always been their ruin. The main -cause of any difficulty that may exist to-day with the Society is that -the Jesuits are true to the teaching of that remarkable panegyric, the -_Imago primi saeculi Societatis_ (probably written by John Tollenarius -in 1640), by identifying the Church with their own body, and being -intolerant of all who will not share this view. Their power is still -large in certain sections of the ecclesiastical world, but in secular -affairs it is small. Moreover within the church itself there is a strong -and growing feeling that the interests of Catholicism may necessitate a -second and final suppression of the Society. Cardinal Manning, a keen -observer of times and influences, was wont to say:--"The work of 1773 -was the work of God: and there is another 1773 coming." But, if this -come, it will be due not to the pressure of secular governments, as in -the 18th century, but to the action of the Church itself. The very -nations which have cast out the Society have shown no disposition to -accept its own estimate and identify it with the Church; while the -Church itself is not conscious of depending upon the Society. To the -Church the Jesuits have been what the Janissaries were to the Ottoman -Empire, at first its defenders and its champions, but in the end its -taskmasters. - -_History._--The separate article on Loyola tells of his early years, his -conversion, and his first gathering of companions. It was not until -November 1537, when all hope of going to the Holy Land was given up, -that any outward steps were taken to form these companions into an -organized body. It was on the eve of their going to Rome, for the second -time, that the fathers met Ignatius at Vicenza and it was determined to -adopt a common rule and, at the suggestion of Ignatius, the name of the -Company of Jesus. Whatever may have been his private hopes and -intentions, it was not until he, Laynez and Faber (Pierre Lefevre), in -the name of their companions, were sent to lay their services at the -feet of the pope that the history of the Society really begins. - - On their arrival at Rome the three Jesuits were favourably received by - Paul III., who at once appointed Faber to the chair of scripture and - Laynez to that of scholastic theology in the university of the - Sapienza. But they encountered much opposition and were even charged - with heresy; when this accusation had been disposed of, there were - still difficulties in the way of starting any new order. Despite the - approval of Cardinal Contarini and the goodwill of the pope (who is - said to have exclaimed on perusing the scheme of Ignatius, "The finger - of God is here"), there was a strong and general feeling that the - regular system had broken down and could not be wisely developed - farther. Cardinal Guidiccioni, one of the commission of three - appointed to examine the draft constitution, was known to advocate the - abolition of all existing orders, save four which were to be - remodelled and put under strict control. That very year, 1538, a - commission of cardinals, including Reginald Pole, Contarini, Sadolet, - Caraffa (afterwards Paul IV.), Fregoso and others, had reported that - the conventual orders, which they had to deal with, had drifted into - such a state that they should all be abolished. Not only so, but, when - greater strictness of rule and of enclosure seemed the most needful - reforms in communities that had become too secular in tone, the - proposal of Ignatius, to make it a first principle that the members of - his institute should mix freely in the world and be as little marked - off as possible externally from secular clerical life and usages, ran - counter to all tradition and prejudice, save that Caraffa's then - recent order of Theatines, which had some analogy with the proposed - Society, had taken some steps in the same direction. - - Ignatius and his companions, however, had but little doubt of ultimate - success, and so bound themselves, on the 15th of April 1539, to obey - any superior chosen from amongst their body, and added on the 4th of - May certain other rules, the most important of which was a vow of - special allegiance to the pope for mission purposes to be taken by all - the members of the society. But Guidiccioni, on a careful study of the - papers, changed his mind; it is supposed that the cause of this change - was in large measure the strong interest in the new scheme exhibited - by John III., king of Portugal, who instructed his ambassador to press - it on the pope and to ask Ignatius to send some priests of his Society - for mission work in Portugal and its Indian possessions. Francis - Xavier and Simon Rodriguez were sent to the king in March 1540. - Obstacles being cleared away, Paul III., on the 27th of September - 1540, issued his bull _Regimini militantis ecclesiae_, by which he - confirmed the new Society (the term "order" does not belong to it), - but limited the members to sixty, a restriction which was removed by - the same pope in the bull _Injunctum nobis_ of the 14th of March 1543. - In the former bull, the pope gives the text of the formula submitted - by Ignatius as the scheme of the proposed society, and in it we get - the founder's own ideas: "... This Society, instituted to this special - end, namely, to offer spiritual consolation for the advancement of - souls in life and Christian doctrine, for the propagation of the faith - by public preaching and the ministry of the word of God, spiritual - exercises and works of charity and, especially, by the instruction of - children and ignorant people in Christianity, and by the spiritual - consolation of the faithful in Christ in hearing confessions...." In - this original scheme it is clearly marked out "that this entire - Society and all its members fight for God under the faithful - obedience of the most sacred lord, the pope, and the other Roman - pontiffs his successors"; and Ignatius makes particular mention that - each member should "be bound by a special vow," beyond that formal - obligation under which all Christians are of obeying the pope, "so - that whatsoever the present and other Roman pontiffs for the time - being shall ordain, pertaining to the advancement of souls and the - propagation of the faith, to whatever provinces he shall resolve to - send us, we are straightway bound to obey, as far as in us lies, - without any tergiversation or excuse, whether he send us among the - Turks or to any other unbelievers in being, even to those parts called - India, or to any heretics or schismatics or likewise to any - believers." Obedience to the general is enjoined "in all things - pertaining to the institute of the Society ... and in him they shall - acknowledge Christ as though present, and as far as is becoming shall - venerate him"; poverty is enjoined, and this rule affects not only the - individual but the common sustentation or care of the Society, except - that in the case of colleges revenues are allowed "to be applied to - the wants and necessities of the students"; and the private recitation - of the Office is distinctly mentioned. On the other hand, the - perpetuity of the general's office during his life was no part of the - original scheme. - -On the 7th of April 1541, Ignatius was unanimously chosen general. His -refusal of this post was overruled, so he entered on his office on the -13th of April; and two days after, the newly constituted Society took -its formal corporate vows in the basilica of San Paolo _fuori le mura_. -Scarcely was the Society launched when its members dispersed in various -directions to their new tasks. Alfonso Salmeron and Pasquier-Brouet, as -papal delegates, were sent on a secret mission to Ireland to encourage -the native clergy and people to resist the religious changes introduced -by Henry VIII.; Nicholas Bobadilla went to Naples; Faber, first to the -diet of Worms and then to Spain; Laynez and Claude le Jay to Germany, -while Ignatius busied himself at Rome in good works and in drawing up -the constitutions and completing the _Spiritual Exercises_. Success -crowned these first efforts; and the Society began to win golden -opinions. The first college was founded at Coimbra in 1542 by John III. -of Portugal and put under the rectorship of Rodriguez. It was designed -as a training school to feed the Indian mission of which Francis Xavier -had already taken the oversight, while a seminary at Goa was the second -institution founded outside Rome in connexion with the Society. Both -from the original scheme and from the foundation at Coimbra it is clear -that the original idea of the colleges was to provide for the education -of future Jesuits. In Spain, national pride in the founder aided the -Society's cause almost as much as royal patronage did in Portugal; and -the third house was opened in Gandia under the protection of its duke, -Francisco Borgia, a grandson of Alexander VI. In Germany, the Jesuits -were eagerly welcomed as the only persons able to meet the Lutherans on -equal terms. Only in France, among the countries which still were united -with the Roman Church, was their advance checked, owing to political -distrust of their Spanish origin, together with the hostility of the -Sorbonne and the bishop of Paris. However, after many difficulties, they -succeeded in getting a footing through the help of Guillaume du Prat, -bishop of Clermont (d. 1560), who founded a college for them in 1545 in -the town of Billom, besides making over to them his house at Paris, the -hotel de Clermont, which became the nucleus of the afterwards famous -college of Louis-le-Grand, while a formal legalization was granted to -them by the states-general at Poissy in 1561. In Rome, Paul III.'s -favour did not lessen. He bestowed on them the church of St Andrea and -conferred at the same time the valuable privilege of making and altering -their own statutes; besides the other points, in 1546, which Ignatius -had still more at heart, as touching the very essence of his institute, -namely, exemption from ecclesiastical offices and dignities and from the -task of acting as directors and confessors to convents of women. The -former of these measures effectually stopped any drain of the best -members away from the society and limited their hopes within its bounds, -by putting them more freely at the general's disposal, especially as it -was provided that the final vows could not be annulled, nor could a -professed member be dismissed, save by the joint action of the general -and the pope. The regulation as to convents seems partly due to a desire -to avoid the worry and expenditure of time involved in the discharge of -such offices and partly to a conviction that penitents living in -enclosure, as all religious persons then were, would be of no effective -use to the Society; whereas the founder, against the wishes of several -of his companions, laid much stress on the duty of accepting the post of -confessor to kings, queens and women of high rank when opportunity -presented itself. And the year 1546 is notable in the annals of the -Society as that in which it embarked on its great educational career, -especially by the annexation of free day-schools to all its colleges. - - The council of Trent, in its first period, seemed to increase the - reputation of the Society; for the pope chose Laynez, Faber and - Salmeron to act as his theologians in that assembly, and in this - capacity they had no little influence in framing its decrees. When the - council reassembled under Pius IV., Laynez and Salmeron again attended - in the same capacity. It is sometimes said that the council formally - approved of the Society. This is impossible; for as the Society had - received the papal approval, that of the council would have been - impertinent as well as unnecessary. St Charles Borromeo wrote to the - presiding cardinals, on the 11th of May 1562, saying that, as France - was disaffected to the Jesuits whom the pope wished to see established - in every country, Pius IV. desired, when the council was occupying - itself about regulars, that it should make some honourable mention of - the Society in order to recommend it. This was done in the - twenty-fifth session (cap. XVI., d.r.) when the decree was passed that - at the end of the time of probation novices should either be professed - or dismissed; and the words of the council are: "By these things, - however, the Synod does not intend to make any innovation or - prohibition, so as to hinder the religious order of Clerks of the - Society of Jesus from being able to serve God and His Church, in - accordance with their pious institute approved of by the Holy - Apostolic See." - -In 1548 the Society received a valuable recruit in the person of -Francisco Borgia, duke of Gandia, afterwards thrice general, while two -important events marked 1550--the foundation of the Collegio Romano and -a fresh confirmation of the Society by Julius III. The German college, -for the children of poor nobles, was founded in 1552; and in the same -year Ignatius firmly settled the discipline of the Society by putting -down, with promptness and severity, some attempts at independent action -on the part of Rodriguez at Coimbra--this being the occasion of the -famous letter on obedience; while 1553 saw the despatch of a mission to -Abyssinia with one of the fathers as patriarch, and the first rift -within the lute when the pope thought that the Spanish Jesuits were -taking part with the emperor against the Holy See. Paul IV. (whose -election alarmed the Jesuits, for they had not found him very friendly -as cardinal) was for a time managed with supreme tact by Ignatius, whom -he respected personally. In 1556, the founder died and left the Society -consisting of forty-five professed fathers and two thousand ordinary -members, distributed over twelve provinces, with more than a hundred -colleges and houses. - - After the death of the first general there was an interregnum of two - years, with Laynez as vicar. During this long period he occupied - himself with completing the constitutions by incorporating certain - declarations, said to be Ignatian, which explained and sometimes - completely altered the meaning of the original text. Laynez was an - astute politician and saw the vast capabilities of the Society over a - far wider field than the founder contemplated; and he prepared to give - it the direction that it has since followed. In some senses, this - learned and consummately clever man may be looked upon as the real - founder of the Society as history knows it. Having carefully prepared - the way, he summoned the general congregation from which he emerged as - second general in 1556. As soon as Ignatius had died Paul IV. - announced his intention of instituting reforms in the Society, - especially in two points: the public recitation of the office in choir - and the limitation of the general's office to a term of three years. - Despite all the protests and negotiations of Laynez, the pope remained - obstinate; and there was nothing but to submit. On the 8th of - September 1558, two points were added to the constitutions: that the - generalship should be triennial and not perpetual, although after the - three years the general might be confirmed; and that the canonical - hours should be observed in choir after the manner of the other - orders, but with that moderation which should seem expedient to the - general. Taking advantage of this last clause, Laynez applied the new - law to two houses only, namely, Rome and Lisbon, the other houses - contenting themselves with singing vespers on feast days; and as soon - as Paul IV. died, Laynez, acting on advice, quietly ignored for the - future the orders of the late pope. He also succeeded in increasing - further the already enormous powers of the general. Laynez took a - leading part in the colloquy of Poissy in 1561 between the Catholics - and Huguenots; and obtained a legal footing from the states-general - for colleges of the Society in France. He died in 1564, leaving the - Society increased to eighteen provinces with a hundred and thirty - colleges, and was succeeded by Francisco Borgia. During the third - generalate, Pius V. confirmed all the former privileges, and in the - amplest form extended to the Society, as being a mendicant institute, - all favours that had been or might afterwards be granted to such - mendicant bodies. It was a trifling set-off that in 1567 the pope - again enjoined the fathers to keep choir and to admit only the - professed to priests' orders, especially as Gregory XIII. rescinded - both these injunctions in 1573; and indeed, as regards the hours, all - that Pius V. was able to obtain was the nominal concession that the - breviary should be recited in choir in the professed houses only, and - that not of necessity by more than two persons at a time. Everard - Mercurian, a Fleming, and a subject of Spain, succeeded Borgia in - 1573, being forced on the Society by the pope, in preference to - Polanco, Ignatius's secretary and the vicar-general, who was rejected - partly as a Spaniard and still more because he was a "New Christian" - of Jewish origin and therefore objected to in Spain itself. During his - term of office there took place the troubles in Rome concerning the - English college and the subsequent Jesuit rule over that institution; - and in 1580 the first Jesuit mission, headed by the redoubtable Robert - Parsons and the saintly Edmund Campion, set out for England. This - mission, on one side, carried on an active propaganda against - Elizabeth in favour of Spain; and on the other, among the true - missionaries, was marked with devoted zeal and heroism even to the - ghastly death of traitors. Claude Acquaviva, the fifth general, held - office from 1581 to 1615, a time almost coinciding with the high tide - of the successful reaction, chiefly due to the Jesuits. He was an - able, strong-willed man, and crushed what was tantamount to a - rebellion in Spain. It was during this struggle that Mariana, the - historian and the author of the famous _De rege_ in which he defends - tyrannicide, wrote his treatise _On the Defects in the Government of - the Society_. He confessed freely that the Society had faults and that - there was a great deal of unrest among the members; and he mentioned - among the various points calling for reform the education of the - novices and students; the state of the lay brother and the possessions - of the Society; the spying system, which he declared to be carried so - far that, if the general's archives at Rome should be searched, not - one Jesuit's character would be found to escape; the monopoly of the - higher offices by a small clique; and the absence of all encouragement - and recompense for the best men of the Society. - -It was chiefly during the generalship of Acquaviva that the Society -began to gain an evil reputation which eclipsed its good report. In -France the Jesuits joined, if they did not originate, the league against -Henry of Navarre. Absolution was refused by them to those who would not -join in the Guise rebellion, and Acquaviva is said to have tried to stop -them, but in vain. The assassination of Henry III. in the interests of -the league and the wounding of Henry IV. in 1594 by Chastel, a pupil of -theirs, revealed the danger that the whole Society was running by the -intrigues of a few men. The Jesuits were banished from France in 1594, -but were allowed to return by Henry IV. under conditions; as Sully has -recorded, the king declared his only motive to be the expediency of not -driving them into a corner with possible disastrous results to his life, -and because his only hope of tranquillity lay in appeasing them and -their powerful friends. In England the political schemings of Parsons -were no small factors in the odium which fell on the Society at large; -and his determination to capture the English Catholics as an apanage of -the Society, to the exclusion of all else, was an object lesson to the -rest of Europe of a restless ambition and lust of domination which were -to find many imitators. The political turn which was being given by some -to the Society, to the detriment of its real spiritual work, evoked the -fears of the wiser heads of the body; and in the fifth general -congregation held in 1593-1594 it was decreed: "Whereas in these times -of difficulty and danger it has happened through the fault of certain -individuals, through ambition and intemperate zeal, that our institute -has been ill spoken of in divers places and before divers sovereigns ... -it is severely and strictly forbidden to all members of the Society to -interfere in any manner whatever in public affairs even though they be -thereto invited; or to deviate from the institute through entreaty, -persuasion or any other motive whatever." It would have been well had -Acquaviva enforced this decree; but Parsons was allowed to keep on with -his work, and other Jesuits in France for many years after directed, to -the loss of religion, affairs of state. In 1605 took place in England -the Gunpowder Plot, in which Henry Garnet, the superior of the Society -in England, was implicated. That the Jesuits were the instigators of -the plot there is no evidence, but they were in close touch with the -conspirators, of whose designs Garnet had a general knowledge. There is -now no reasonable doubt that he and other Jesuits were legally -accessories, and that the condemnation of Garnet as a traitor was -substantially just (see GARNET, HENRY). - - It was during Acquaviva's generalship that Philip II. of Spain - complained bitterly of the Society to Sixtus V., and encouraged him in - those plans of reform (even to changing the name) which were only cut - short by the pope's death in 1590, and also that the long protracted - discussions on grace, wherein the Dominicans contended against the - Jesuits, were carried on at Rome with little practical result, by the - Congregation _de auxiliis_, which sat from 1598 till 1607. The _Ratio - Studiorum_ took its shape during this time. The Jesuit influence at - Rome was supported by the Spanish ambassador; but when Henry IV. "went - to Mass," the balance inclined to the side of France, and the Spanish - monopoly became a thing of the past. Acquaviva saw the expulsion of - the Jesuits from Venice in 1606 for siding with Paul V. when he placed - the republic under interdict, but did not live to see their recall, - which took place at the intercession of Louis XIV. in 1657. He also - had to banish Parsons from Rome, by order of Clement VIII., who was - wearied with the perpetual complaints made against that intriguer. - Gregory XIV., by the bull _Ecclesiae Christi_ (July 28, 1591), again - confirmed the Society, and granted that Jesuits might, for true cause, - be expelled from the body without any form of trial or even - documentary procedure, besides denouncing excommunications against - every one, save the pope or his legates, who directly or indirectly - infringed the constitutions of the Society or attempted to bring about - any change therein. - - Under Vitelleschi, the next general, the Society celebrated its first - centenary on the 25th of September 1639, the hundredth anniversary of - the verbal approbation given to the scheme by Paul III. During this - hundred years the Society had grown to thirty-six provinces, with - eight hundred houses containing some fifteen thousand members. In 1640 - broke out the great Jansenist controversy, in which the Society took - the leading part on one side and finally secured the victory. In this - same year, considering themselves ill-used by Olivarez, prime minister - of Philip IV. of Spain, the Jesuits powerfully aided the revolution - which placed the duke of Braganza on the throne of Portugal; and their - services were rewarded for nearly one hundred years with the practical - control of ecclesiastical and almost of civil affairs in that kingdom. - - The Society also gained ground steadily in France; for, though held in - check by Richelieu and little more favoured by Mazarin, yet from the - moment that Louis XIV. took the reins, their star was in the - ascendant, and Jesuit confessors, the most celebrated of whom were - Francois de La Chaise (q.v.) and Michel Le Tellier (1643-1719), guided - the policy of the king, not hesitating to take his side in his quarrel - with the Holy See, which nearly resulted in a schism, nor to sign the - Gallican articles. Their hostility to the Huguenots forced on the - revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, and their war against their - Jansenist opponents did not cease till the very walls of Port Royal - were demolished in 1710, even to the very abbey church itself, and the - bodies of the dead taken with every mark of insult from their graves - and literally flung to the dogs to devour. But while thus gaining - power in one direction, the Society was losing it in another. The - Japanese mission had vanished in blood in 1651; and though many - Jesuits died with their converts bravely as martyrs for the faith, yet - it is impossible to acquit them of a large share in the causes of that - overthrow. It was also about this same period that the grave scandal - of the Chinese and Malabar rites began to attract attention in Europe, - and to make thinking men ask seriously whether the Jesuit missionaries - in those parts taught anything which could fairly be called - Christianity at all. When it was remembered, too, that they had - decided, at a council held at Lima, that it was inexpedient to impose - any act of Christian devotion except baptism, on the South American - converts, without the greatest precautions, on the ground of - intellectual difficulties, it is not wonderful that this doubt was not - satisfactorily cleared up, notably in face of the charges brought - against the Society by Bernardin de Cardonas, bishop of Paraguay, and - the saintly Juan de Palafox (q.v.), bishop of Angelopolis in Mexico. - - But "the terrible power in the universal church, the great riches and - the extraordinary prestige" of the Society, which Palafox complained - had raised it "above all dignities, laws, councils and apostolic - constitutions," carried with them the seeds of rapid and inevitable - decay. A succession of devout but incapable generals, after the death - of Acquaviva, saw the gradual secularization of tone by the flocking - in of recruits of rank and wealth desirous to share in the glories and - influence of the Society, but not well adapted to increase them. The - general's supremacy received a shock when the eleventh general - congregation appointed Oliva as vicar, with the right of succession - and powers that practically superseded those of the general Goswin - Nickel, whose infirmities, it is said, did not permit him to govern - with the necessary application and vigour; and an attempt was made to - depose Tirso Gonzalez, the thirteenth general, whose views on - probabilism diverged from those favoured by the rest of the Jesuits. - Though the political weight of the Society continued to increase in - the cabinets of Europe, it was being steadily weakened internally. The - Jesuits abandoned the system of free education which had won them so - much influence and honour; by attaching themselves exclusively to the - interests of courts, they lost favour with the middle and lower - classes; and above all, their monopoly of power and patronage in - France, with the fatal use they had made of it, drew down the - bitterest hostility upon them. It was to their credit, indeed, that - the encyclopaedists attacked them as the foremost representatives of - Christianity, but they are accountable in no small degree in France, - as in England, for alienating the minds of men from the religion for - which they professed to work. - -But the most fatal part of the policy of the Society was its activity, -wealth and importance as a great trading firm with branch houses -scattered over the richest countries of the world. Its founder, with a -wise instinct, had forbidden the accumulation of wealth; its own -constitutions, as revised in the 84th decree of the sixth general -congregation, had forbidden all pursuits of a commercial nature, as also -had various popes; but nevertheless the trade went on unceasingly, -necessarily with the full knowledge of the general, unless it be pleaded -that the system of obligatory espionage had completely broken down. The -first muttering of the storm which was soon to break was heard in a -breve issued in 1741 by Benedict XIV., wherein he denounced the Jesuit -offenders as "disobedient, contumacious, captious and reprobate -persons," and enacted many stringent regulations for their better -government. The first serious attack came from a country where they had -been long dominant. In 1753 Spain and Portugal exchanged certain -American provinces with each other, which involved a transfer of -sovereign rights over Paraguay; but it was also provided that the -populations should severally migrate also, that the subjects of each -crown might remain the same as before. The inhabitants of the -"reductions," whom the Jesuits had trained in the use of European arms -and discipline, naturally rose in defence of their homes, and attacked -the troops and authorities. Their previous docility and their entire -submission to the Jesuits left no possible doubt as to the source of the -rebellion, and gave the enemies of the Jesuits a handle against them -that was not forgotten. In 1757 Carvalho, marquis of Pombal, prime -minister of Joseph I. of Portugal, and an old pupil of the Jesuits at -Coimbra, dismissed the three Jesuit chaplains of the king and named -three secular priests in their stead. He next complained to Benedict -XIV. that the trading operations of the Society hampered the commercial -prosperity of the nation, and asked for remedial measures. The pope, who -knew the situation, committed a visitation of the Society to Cardinal -Saldanha, an intimate friend of Pombal, who issued a severe decree -against the Jesuits and ordered the confiscation of all their -merchandise. But at this juncture Benedict XIV., the most learned and -able pope of the period, was succeeded by a pope strongly in favour of -the Jesuits, Clement XIII. Pombal, finding no help from Rome, adopted -other means. The king was fired at and wounded on returning from a visit -to his mistress on the 3rd of September 1758. The duke of Aveiro and -other high personages were tried and executed for conspiracy; while some -of the Jesuits, who had undoubtedly been in communication with them, -were charged, on doubtful evidence, with complicity in the attempted -assassination. Pombal charged the whole Society with the possible guilt -of a few, and, unwilling to wait the dubious issue of an application to -the pope for licence to try them in the civil courts, whence they were -exempt, issued on the 1st of September 1759 a decree ordering the -immediate deportation of every Jesuit from Portugal and all its -dependencies and their suppression by the bishops in the schools and -universities. Those in Portugal were at once shipped, in great misery, -to the papal states, and were soon followed by those in the colonies. In -France, Madame de Pompadour was their enemy because they had refused her -absolution while she remained the king's mistress; but the immediate -cause of their ruin was the bankruptcy of Father Lavalette, the Jesuit -superior in Martinique, a daring speculator, who failed, after trading -for some years, for 2,400,000 francs and brought ruin upon some French -commercial houses of note. Lorenzo Ricci, then general of the Society, -repudiated the debt, alleging lack of authority on Lavalette's part to -pledge the credit of the Society, and he was sued by the creditors. -Losing his cause, he appealed to the parlement of Paris, and it, to -decide the issue raised by Ricci, required the constitutions of the -Jesuits to be produced in evidence, and affirmed the judgment of the -courts below. But the publicity given to a document scarcely known till -then raised the utmost indignation against the Society. A royal -commission, appointed by the duc de Choiseul to examine the -constitutions, convoked a private assembly of fifty-one archbishops and -bishops under the presidency of Cardinal de Luynes, all of whom except -six voted that the unlimited authority of the general was incompatible -with the laws of France, and that the appointment of a resident vicar, -subject to those laws, was the only solution of the question fair on all -sides. Ricci replied with the historical answer, _Sint ut sunt, aut non -sint_; and after some further delay, during which much interest was -exerted in their favour, the Jesuits were suppressed by an edict in -November 1764, but suffered to remain on the footing of secular priests, -a grace withdrawn in 1767, when they were expelled from the kingdom. In -the very same year, Charles III. of Spain, a monarch known for personal -devoutness, convinced, on evidence not now forthcoming, that the Jesuits -were plotting against his authority, prepared, through his minister -D'Aranda, a decree suppressing the Society in every part of his -dominions. Sealed despatches were sent to every Spanish colony, to be -opened on the same day, the 2nd of April 1767, when the measure was to -take effect in Spain itself, and the expulsion was relentlessly carried -out, nearly six thousand priests being deported from Spain alone, and -sent to the Italian coast, whence, however, they were repelled by the -orders of the pope and Ricci himself, finding a refuge at Corte in -Corsica, after some months' suffering in overcrowded vessels at sea. The -general's object may probably have been to accentuate the harshness with -which the fathers had been treated, and so to increase public sympathy, -but the actual result of his policy was blame for the cruelty with which -he enhanced their misfortunes, for the poverty of Corsica made even a -bare subsistence scarcely procurable for them there. The Bourbon courts -of Naples and Parma followed the example of France and Spain; Clement -XIII. retorted with a bull launched at the weakest adversary, and -declaring the rank and title of the duke of Parma forfeit. The Bourbon -sovereigns threatened to make war on the pope in return (France, indeed, -seizing on the county of Avignon), and a joint note demanding a -retractation, and the abolition of the Jesuits, was presented by the -French ambassador at Rome on the 10th of December 1768 in the name of -France, Spain and the two Sicilies. The pope, a man of eighty-two, died -of apoplexy, brought on by the shock, early in 1769. Cardinal Lorenzo -Ganganelli, a conventual Franciscan, was chosen to succeed him, and took -the name of Clement XIV. He endeavoured to avert the decision forced -upon him, but, as Portugal joined the Bourbon league, and Maria Theresa -with her son the emperor Joseph II. ceased to protect the Jesuits, there -remained only the petty kingdom of Sardinia in their favour, though the -fall of Choiseul in France raised the hopes of the Society for a time. -The pope began with some preliminary measures, permitting first the -renewal of lawsuits against the Society, which had been suspended by -papal authority, and which, indeed, had in no case been ever successful -at Rome. He then closed the Collegio Romano, on the plea of its -insolvency, seized the houses at Frascati and Tivoli, and broke up the -establishments in Bologna and the Legations. Finally on the 21st of July -1773 the famous breve _Dominus ac Redemptor_ appeared, suppressing the -Society of Jesus. This remarkable document opens by citing a long series -of precedents for the suppression of religious orders by the Holy See, -amongst which occurs the ill-omened instance of the Templars. It then -briefly sketches the objects and history of the Jesuits themselves. It -speaks of their defiance of their own constitution, expressly revived by -Paul V., forbidding them to meddle in politics; of the great ruin to -souls caused by their quarrels with local ordinaries and the other -religious orders, their condescension to heathen usages in the East, and -the disturbances, resulting in persecutions of the Church, which they -had stirred up even in Catholic countries, so that several popes had -been obliged to punish them. Seeing then that the Catholic sovereigns -had been forced to expel them, that many bishops and other eminent -persons demanded their extinction, and that the Society had ceased to -fulfil the intention of its institute, the pope declares it necessary -for the peace of the Church that it should be suppressed, extinguished, -abolished and abrogated for ever, with all its houses, colleges, schools -and hospitals; transfers all the authority of its general or officers to -the local ordinaries; forbids the reception of any more novices, -directing that such as were actually in probation should be dismissed, -and declaring that profession in the Society should not serve as a title -to holy orders. Priests of the Society are given the option of either -joining other orders or remaining as secular clergy, under obedience to -the ordinaries, who are empowered to grant or withhold from them -licences to hear confessions. Such of the fathers as are engaged in the -work of education are permitted to continue, on condition of abstaining -from lax and questionable doctrines apt to cause strife and trouble. The -question of missions is reserved, and the relaxations granted to the -Society in such matters as fasting, reciting the hours and reading -heretical books, are withdrawn; while the breve ends with clauses -carefully drawn to bar any legal exceptions that might be taken against -its full validity and obligation. It has been necessary to cite these -heads of the breve because the apologists of the Society allege that no -motive influenced the pope save the desire of peace at any price, and -that he did not believe in the culpability of the fathers. The -categorical charges made in the document rebut this plea. The pope -followed up this breve by appointing a congregation of cardinals to take -possession of the temporalities of the Society, and armed it with -summary powers against all who should attempt to retain or conceal any -of the property. He also threw Lorenzo Ricci, the general, into prison, -first in the English college and then in the castle of St Angelo, where -he died in 1775, under the pontificate of Pius VI., who, though not -unfavourable to the Society, and owing his own advancement to it, dared -not release him, probably because his continued imprisonment was made a -condition by the powers who enjoyed a right of veto in papal elections. -In September 1774 Clement XIV. died after much suffering, and the -question has been hotly debated ever since whether poison was the cause -of his death. But the latest researches have shown that there is no -evidence to support the theory of poison. Salicetti, the pope's -physician, denied that the body showed signs of poisoning, and Tanucci, -Neapolitan ambassador at Rome, who had a large share in procuring the -breve of suppression, entirely acquits the Jesuits, while F. Theiner, no -friend to the Society, does the like. - -At the date of this suppression, the Society had 41 provinces and 22,589 -members, of whom 11,295 were priests. Far from submitting to the papal -breve, the ex-Jesuits, after some ineffectual attempts at direct -resistance, withdrew into the territories of the free-thinking -sovereigns of Russia and Prussia, Frederick II. and Catherine II., who -became their active friends and protectors; and the fathers alleged as a -principle, in so far as their theology is concerned, that no papal bull -is binding in a state whose sovereign has not approved and authorized -its publication and execution. Russia formed the headquarters of the -Society, and two forged breves were speedily circulated, being dated -June 9 and June 29, 1774, approving their establishment in Russia, and -implying the repeal of the breve of suppression. But these are -contradicted by the tenor of five genuine breves issued in September -1774 to the archbishop of Gnesen, and making certain assurances to the -ex-Jesuits, on condition of their complete obedience to the injunctions -already laid on them. The Jesuits also pleaded a verbal approbation by -Pius VI., technically known as an _Oraculum vivae vocis_, but this is -invalid for purposes of law unless reduced to writing and duly -authenticated. - -They elected three Poles successively as generals, taking, however, only -the title of vicars, till on the 7th of March 1801 Pius VII. granted -them liberty to reconstitute themselves in north Russia, and permitted -Kareu, then vicar, to exercise full authority as general. On the 30th of -July 1804 a similar breve restored the Jesuits in the Two Sicilies, at -the express desire of Ferdinand IV., the pope thus anticipating the -further action of 1814, when, by the constitution _Sollicitudo omnium -Ecclesiarum_, he revoked the action of Clement XIV., and formally -restored the Society to corporate legal existence, yet not only omitted -any censure of his predecessor's conduct, but all vindication of the -Jesuits from the heavy charges in the breve _Dominus ac Redemptor_. In -France, even after their expulsion in 1765, they had maintained a -precarious footing in the country under the partial disguise and names -of "Fathers of the Faith" or "Clerks of the Sacred Heart," but were -obliged by Napoleon I. to retire in 1804. They reappeared under their -true name in 1814, and obtained formal licence in 1822, but became the -objects of so much hostility that Charles X. deprived them by ordinance -of the right of instruction, and obliged all applicants for licences as -teachers to make oath that they did not belong to any community -unrecognized by the laws. They were dispersed again by the revolution of -July 1830, but soon reappeared and, though put to much inconvenience -during the latter years of Louis Philippe's reign, notably in 1845, -maintained their footing, recovered the right to teach freely after the -revolution of 1848, and gradually became the leading educational and -ecclesiastical power in France, notably under the Second Empire, till -they were once more expelled by the Ferry laws of 1880, though they -quietly returned since the execution of those measures. They were again -expelled by the Law of Associations of 1901. In Spain they came back -with Ferdinand VII., but were expelled at the constitutional rising in -1820, returning in 1823, when the duke of Angouleme's army replaced -Ferdinand on his throne; they were driven out once more by Espartero in -1835, and have had no legal position since, though their presence is -openly tolerated. In Portugal, ranging themselves on the side of Dom -Miguel, they fell with his cause, and were exiled in 1834. There are -some to this day in Lisbon under the name of "Fathers of the Faith." -Russia, which had been their warmest patron, drove them from St -Petersburg and Moscow in 1813, and from the whole empire in 1820, mainly -on the plea of attempted proselytizing in the imperial army. Holland -drove them out in 1816, and, by giving them thus a valid excuse for -aiding the Belgian revolution of 1830, secured them the strong position -they have ever since held in Belgium; but they have succeeded in -returning to Holland. They were expelled from Switzerland in 1847-1848 -for the part they were charged with in exciting the war of the -Sonderbund. In south Germany, inclusive of Austria and Bavaria, their -annals since their restoration have been uneventful; but in north -Germany, owing to the footing Frederick II. had given them in Prussia, -they became very powerful, especially in the Rhine provinces, and, -gradually moulding the younger generation of clergy after the close of -the War of Liberation, succeeded in spreading Ultramontane views amongst -them, and so leading up to the difficulties with the civil government -which issued in the Falk laws, and their own expulsion by decree of the -German parliament (June 19, 1872). Since then many attempts have been -made to procure the recall of the Society to the German Empire, but -without success, although as individuals they are now allowed in the -country. In Great Britain, whither they began to straggle over during -the revolutionary troubles at the close of the 18th century, and where, -practically unaffected by the clause directed against them in the -Emancipation Act of 1829, their chief settlement has been at Stonyhurst -in Lancashire, an estate conferred on them by Thomas Weld in 1795, they -have been unmolested; but there has been little affinity to the order in -the British temperament, and the English province has consequently never -risen to numerical or intellectual importance in the Society. In Rome -itself, its progress after the restoration was at first slow, and it was -not till the reign of Leo XII. (1823-1829) that it recovered its place -as the chief educational body there. It advanced steadily under Gregory -XVI., and, though it was at first shunned by Pius IX., it secured his -entire confidence after his return from Gaeta in 1849, and obtained from -him a special breve erecting the staff of its literary journal, the -_Civilta Cattolica_, into a perpetual college under the general of the -Jesuits, for the purpose of teaching and propagating the faith in its -pages. How, with this pope's support throughout his long reign, the -gradual filling of nearly all the sees of Latin Christendom with bishops -of their own selection, and their practical capture, directly or -indirectly, of the education of the clergy in seminaries, they contrived -to stamp out the last remains of independence everywhere, and to crown -the Ultramontane triumph with the Vatican Decrees, is matter of familiar -knowledge. Leo XIII., while favouring them somewhat, never gave them his -full confidence; and by his adhesion to the Thomist philosophy and -theology, and his active work for the regeneration and progress of the -older orders, he made another suppression possible by destroying much of -their prestige. But the usual sequence has been observed under Pius X., -who appeared to be greatly in favour of the Society and to rely upon -them for many of the measures of his pontificate. - -The Society has been ruled by twenty-five generals and four vicars from -its foundation to the present day (1910). Of all the various -nationalities represented in the Society, neither France, its original -cradle, nor England, has ever given it a head, while Spain, Italy, -Holland, Belgium, Germany and Poland, were all represented. The numbers -of the Society are not accurately known, but are estimated at about -20,000, in all parts of the world; and of these the English, Irish and -American Jesuits are under 3000. - - The generals of the Jesuits have been as follow:-- - - 1. Ignatius de Loyola (Spaniard) 1541-1556 - 2. Diego Laynez (Spaniard) 1558-1565 - 3. Francisco Borgia (Spaniard) 1565-1572 - 4. Everard Mercurian (Belgian) 1573-1580 - 5. Claudio Acquaviva (Neapolitan) 1581-1615 - 6. Mutio Vitelleschi (Roman) 1615-1645 - 7. Vincenzio Caraffa (Neapolitan) 1646-1649 - 8. Francesco Piccolomini (Florentine) 1649-1651 - 9. Alessandro Gottofredi (Roman) 1652 - 10. Goswin Nickel (German) 1652-1664 - 11. Giovanni Paolo Oliva (Genoese) vicar-general and - coadjutor, 1661; general 1664-1681 - 12. Charles de Noyelle (Belgian) 1682-1686 - 13. Tirso Gonzalez (Spaniard) 1687-1705 - 14. Michele Angelo Tamburini (Modenese) 1706-1730 - 15. Franz Retz (Bohemian) 1730-1750 - 16. Ignazio Visconti (Milanese) 1751-1755 - 17. Alessandro Centurioni (Genoese) 1755-1757 - 18. Lorenzo Ricci (Florentine) 1758-1775 - _a_. Stanislaus Czerniewicz (Pole), vicar-general 1782-1785 - _b_. Gabriel Lienkiewicz (Pole), " 1785-1798 - _c_. Franciscus Xavier Kareu (Pole), (general in - Russia, 7th March 1801) 1799-1802 - _d_. Gabriel Gruber (German) 1802-1805 - 19. Thaddaeus Brzozowski (Pole) 1805-1820 - 20. Aloysio Fortis (Veronese) 1820-1829 - 21. Johannes Roothaan (Dutchman) 1829-1853 - 22. Peter Johannes Beckx (Belgian) 1853-1884 - 23. Antoine Anderledy (Swiss) 1884-1892 - 24. Luis Martin (Spanish) 1892-1906 - 25. Francis Xavier Wernz (German) 1906- - - The bibliography of Jesuitism is of enormous extent, and it is - impracticable to cite more than a few of the most important works. - They are as follows: _Institutum Societatis Jesu_ (7 vols., Avignon, - 1830-1838); Orlandini, _Historia Societatis Jesu_ (Antwerp, 1620); - _Imago primi saeculi Societatis Jesu_ (Antwerp, 1640); Nieremberg, - _Vida de San Ignacio de Loyola_ (9 vols., fol., Madrid, 1645-1736); - Genelli, _Life of St Ignatius of Loyola_ (London, 1872); Backer, - _Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la Compagnie de Jesus_ (7 vols., Paris, - 1853-1861); Cretineau Joly, _Histoire de la Compagnie de Jesus_ (6 - vols., Paris, 1844); Guettee, _Histoire des Jesuites_ (3 vols., Paris, - 1858-1859); Wolff, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Jesuiten_ (4 vols., - Zurich, 1789-1792); Gioberti, _Il Gesuita moderno_ (Lausanne, 1846); - F. Parkman, _Pioneers of France in the New World_ and _The Jesuits in - North America_ (Boston, 1868); _Lettres edifiantes et curieuses, - ecrites des missions etrangeres, avec les Annales de la propagation de - la foi_ (40 vols., Lyons, 1819-1854); Saint-Priest, _Histoire de la - chute des Jesuites au XVIII^e Siecle_ (Paris, 1844); Ranke, _Romische - Papste_ (3 vols., Berlin, 1838); E. Taunton, _History of the Jesuits - in England_ (London, 1901); Thomas Hughes, S.J., _History of the - Society of Jesus in North America_ (London and New York, 1907); R. G. - Thwaites, _Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents_ (73 vols. Cleveland, - 1896-1901). (R. F. L.; E. Tn.) - - - - -JESUP, MORRIS KETCHUM (1830-1908), American banker and philanthropist, -was born at Westport, Connecticut, on the 21st of June 1830. In 1842 he -went to New York City, where after some experience in business he -established a banking house in 1852. In 1856 he organized the banking -firm of M. K. Jesup & Company, which after two reorganizations became -Cuyler, Morgan & Jesup. He became widely known as a financier, retiring -from active business in 1884. He was best known, however, as a -munificent patron of scientific research, a large contributor to the -needs of education, and a public-spirited citizen of wide interests, who -did much for the betterment of social conditions in New York. He -contributed largely to the funds for the Arctic expeditions of Commander -Robert E. Peary, becoming president of the Peary Arctic Club in 1899. To -the American museum of natural history, in New York City, he gave large -sums in his lifetime and bequeathed $1,000,000. He was president of the -New York chamber of commerce from 1899 until 1907, and was the largest -subscriber to its new building. To his native town he gave a fine public -library. He died in New York City on the 22nd of January 1908. - - - - -JESUS CHRIST. To write a summary account of the life of Christ, though -always involving a grave responsibility, was until recent years a -comparatively straightforward task; for it was assumed that all that was -needed, or could be offered, was a chronological outline based on a -harmony of the four canonical Gospels. But to-day history is not -satisfied by this simple procedure. Literary criticism has analysed the -documents, and has already established some important results; and many -questions are still in debate, the answers to which must affect our -judgment of the historical value of the existing narratives. It seems -therefore consonant alike with prudence and reverence to refrain from -attempting to combine afresh into a single picture the materials -derivable from the various documents, and to endeavour instead to -describe the main contents of the sources from which our knowledge of -the Lord Jesus Christ as an historical personage is ultimately drawn, -and to observe the picture of Him which each writer in turn has offered -to us. - - The chief elements of the evidence with which we shall deal are the - following:-- - - 1. First, because earliest in point of time, the references to the - Lord Jesus Christ in the earliest Epistles of St Paul. - - 2. The Gospel according to St Mark. - - 3. A document, no longer extant, which was partially incorporated into - the Gospels of St Matthew and St Luke. - - 4. Further information added by St Matthew's Gospel. - - 5. Further information added by St Luke's Gospel. - - 6. The Gospel according to St John. - - With regard to traditional sayings or doings of our Lord, which were - only written down at a later period, it will suffice to say that those - which have any claim to be genuine are very scanty, and that their - genuineness has to be tested by their correspondence with the great - bulk of information which is derived from the sources already - enumerated. The fictitious literature of the second and third - centuries, known as the Apocryphal Gospels, offers no direct evidence - of any historical value at all: it is chiefly valuable for the - contrast which it presents to the grave simplicity of the canonical - Gospels, and as showing how incapable a later age was of adding - anything to the Gospel history which was not palpably absurd. - -1. _Letters of St Paul._--In the order of chronology we must give the -first place to the earliest letters of St Paul. The first piece of -Christian literature which has an independent existence and to which we -can fix a date is St Paul's first Epistle to the Thessalonians. -Lightfoot dates it in 52 or 53; Harnack places it five years earlier. We -may say, then, that it was written some twenty years after the -Crucifixion. St Paul is not an historian; he is not attempting to -describe what Jesus Christ said or did. He is writing a letter to -encourage a little Christian society which he, a Jew, had founded in a -distant Greek city; and he reminds his readers of many things which he -had told them when he was with them. The evidence, to be collected from -his epistles generally must not detain us here, but we may glance for a -moment at this one letter, because it contains what appears to be the -first mention of Jesus Christ in the literature of the world. Those who -would get a true history cannot afford to neglect their earliest -documents. Now the opening sentence of this letter is as follows: "Paul -and Silvanus and Timothy to the Church of the Thessalonians in God the -Father and the Lord Jesus Christ: Grace to you, and peace." Three men -with Greek or Latin names are writing to some kind of assembly in a city -of Macedonia. The writers are Jews, to judge by their salutation of -"peace," and by their mention of "God the Father," and of the assembly -or society as being "in" Him. But what is this new name which is placed -side by side with the Divine Name--"in God the Father and the Lord Jesus -Christ"? An educated Greek, who knew something (as many at that time -did) of the Greek translation of the ancient Hebrew Scriptures, if he -had picked up this letter before he had ever heard the name of Jesus -Christ, would have been deeply interested in these opening words. He -would have known that "Jesus" was the Greek form of Joshua; that -"Christ" was the Greek rendering of Messiah, or Anointed, the title of -the great King for whom the Jews were looking; he might further have -remembered that "the Lord" is the expression which the Greek Old -Testament constantly uses instead of the ineffable name of God, which we -now call "Jehovah" (q.v.). Who, then, he might well ask is this Jesus -Christ who is lifted to this unexampled height? For it is plain that -Jesus Christ stands in some close relation to "God the Father," and that -on the ground of that relation a society has been built up, apparently -by Jews, in a Greek city far distant from Palestine. He would learn -something as he read on; for the letter makes a passing reference to the -foundation of the society, and to the expansion of its influence in -other parts of Greece; to the conversion of its members from heathenism, -and to the consequent sufferings at the hands of their heathen -neighbours. The writers speak of themselves as "apostles," or -messengers, of Christ; they refer to similar societies "in Christ -Jesus," which they call "churches of God," in Judaea, and they say that -these also suffer from the Jews there, who had "killed the Lord Jesus" -some time before. But they further speak of Jesus as "raised from the -dead," and they refer to the belief which they had led the society to -entertain, that He would come again "from heaven to deliver them from -the coming wrath." Moreover, they urge them not to grieve for certain -members of the society who have already died, saying that, "if we -believe that Jesus died and rose again," we may also be assured that -"the dead in Christ will rise" and will live for ever with Him. Thus the -letter assumes that its readers already have considerable knowledge as -to "the Lord Jesus Christ," and as to His relation to "God the Father," -a knowledge derived from teaching given in person on a former visit. The -purpose of the letter is not to give information as to the past, but to -stimulate its readers to perseverance by giving fresh teaching as to the -future. Historically it is of great value as showing how widely within -twenty or twenty-five years of the Crucifixion a religion which -proclaimed developed theological teaching as to "the Lord Jesus Christ" -had spread in the Roman Empire. We may draw a further conclusion from -this and other letters of St Paul before we go on. St Paul's missionary -work must have created a demand. Those who had heard him and read his -letters would want to know more than he had told them of the earthly -life of the Lord Jesus. They would wish to be able to picture Him to -their minds; and especially to understand what could have led to His -being put to death by the Romans at the requisition of the Jews. St Paul -had not been one of his personal disciples in Galilee or Jerusalem; he -had no memories to relate of His miracles and teaching. Some written -account of these was an obvious need. And we may be sure that any such -narrative concerning One who was so deeply reverenced would be most -carefully scrutinized at a time when many were still living whose -memories went back to the period of Our Lord's public ministry. One such -narrative we now proceed to describe. - -2. _St Mark's Gospel._--The Gospel according to St Mark was written -within fifteen years of the first letter of St Paul to the -Thessalonians--i.e. about 65. It seems designed to meet the requirements -of Christians living far away from Palestine. The author was not an -eye-witness of what he relates, but he writes with the firm security of -a man who has the best authority behind him. The characteristics of his -work confirm the early belief that St Mark wrote this Gospel for the -Christians of Rome under the guidance of St Peter. It is of the first -importance that we should endeavour to see this book as a whole; to gain -the total impression which it makes on the mind; to look at the picture -of Jesus Christ which it offers. That picture must inevitably be an -incomplete representation of Him; it will need to be supplemented by -other pictures which other writers have drawn. But it is important to -consider it by itself, as showing us what impress the Master had made on -the memory of one disciple who had been almost constantly by His side. - - - Beginning of Christ's Mission. - -The book opens thus: "The beginning of the Gospel of Jesus Christ." This -"beginning" is shown to be itself rooted in the past. Hebrew prophets -had foretold that God would send a "messenger"; that a voice would be -heard saying, "Prepare the way of the Lord." And so, in fact, John came, -baptizing in the wilderness and turning the heart of the nation back to -God. But John was only a forerunner. He was himself a prophet, and his -prophecy was this, "He that is stronger than I am is coming after me." -Then, we read, "Jesus came." St Mark introduces Him quite abruptly, just -as he had introduced John; for he is writing for those who already know -the outlines of the story. "Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee." He was -baptized by John, and as He came out of the water He had a vision of the -opened heavens and the Holy Spirit, like a dove, descending upon Him; -and He heard a Voice saying, "Thou art My Son, the Beloved: in Thee I am -well pleased." He then passed away into the wilderness, where He was -tempted by Satan and fed by angels. Then He begins His work; and from -the very first we feel that He fulfils John's sign: He is strong. His -first words are words of strength; "the time is fulfilled"--that is to -say, all the past has been leading up to this great moment; "the kingdom -of God is at hand"--that is to say, all your best hopes are on the point -of being fulfilled; "repent, and believe the Gospel"--that is to say, -turn from your sins and accept the tidings which I bring you. It is but -a brief summary of what He must have said; but we feel its strength. He -does not hesitate to fix all eyes upon Himself. Then we see Him call two -brothers who are fishermen. "Come after Me," He says, "and I will make -you fishers of men." They dropped their nets and went after Him, and so -did two other brothers, their partners; for they all felt the power of -this Master of men: He was strong. He began to teach in the synagogue; -they were astonished at His teaching, for he spoke with authority. He -was interrupted by a demoniac, but He quelled the evil spirit by a word; -He was stronger than the power of evil. When the sun set the Sabbath was -at an end, and the people could carry out their sick into the street -where He was; and He came forth and healed them all. The demoniacs -showed a strange faculty of recognition, and cried that He was "the holy -one of God," and "the Christ," but He silenced them at once. The next -morning He was gone. He had sought a quiet spot for prayer. Peter, one -of those fishermen whom He had called, whose wife's mother had been -healed the day before, found Him and tried to bring Him back. "All men -are seeking Thee," he pleaded. "Let us go elsewhere" was the quiet reply -of one who could not be moved by popular enthusiasm. Once again, we -observe, He fulfils John's sign: He is strong. This is our first sight -of Jesus Christ. The next shows us that this great strength is united to -a most tender sympathy. To touch a leper was forbidden, and the offence -involved ceremonial defilement. Yet when a leper declared that Jesus -could heal him, if only He would, "He put forth His hand and touched -him." The act perfected the leper's faith, and he was healed -immediately. But he disobeyed the command to be silent about the matter, -and the result was that Jesus could not openly enter into the town, but -remained outside in the country. It is the first shadow that falls -across His path; His power finds a check in human wilfulness. Presently -He is in Capernaum again. He heals a paralysed man, but not until He has -come into touch, as we say, with him also, by reaching his deepest need -and declaring the forgiveness of his sins. This declaration disturbs the -rabbis, who regard it as a blasphemous usurpation of Divine authority. -But He claims that "the Son of Man hath authority on earth to forgive -sins." The title which He thus adopts must be considered later. - - - Attitude towards Religious Tradition. - -We may note, as we pass on, that He has again, in the exercise of His -power and His sympathy, come into conflict with the established -religious tradition. This freedom from the trammels of convention -appears yet again when he claims as a new disciple a publican, a man -whose calling as a tax-gatherer for the Roman government made him odious -to every patriotic Jew. Publicans were classed with open sinners; and -when Jesus went to this man's house and met a company of his fellows the -rabbis were scandalized: "Why eateth your Master with publicans and -sinners?" The gentle answer of Jesus showed His sympathy even with those -who opposed Him: "The doctor," He said, "must go to the sick." And -again, when they challenged His disciples for not observing the regular -fasts, He gently reminded them that they themselves relaxed the -discipline of fasting for a bridegroom's friends. And He added, in -picturesque and pregnant sayings, that an old garment could not bear a -new patch, and that old wine-skins could not take new wine. Such -language was at once gentle and strong; without condemning the old, it -claimed liberty for the new. To what lengths would this liberty go? The -sacred badge of the Jews' religion, which marked them off from other men -all the world over, was their observance of the Sabbath. It was a -national emblem, the test of religion and patriotism. The rabbis had -fenced the Sabbath round with minute commands, lest any Jews should even -seem to work on the Sabbath day. Thus, plucking and rubbing the ears of -corn was counted a form of reaping and threshing. The hungry disciples -had so transgressed as they walked through the fields of ripe corn. -Jesus defended them by the example of David, who had eaten the -shewbread, which only priests might eat, and had given it to his hungry -men. Necessity absolves from ritual restrictions. And he went farther, -and proclaimed a principle: "The Sabbath was made for man, and not man -for the Sabbath, so that the Son of Man is lord even of the Sabbath." -For a second time, in justifying His position, He used the expression -"the Son of Man." The words might sound to Jewish ears merely as a -synonym for "man." For Himself, and possibly for some others, they -involved a reference, as appears later, to the "one like to a son of -man" in Daniel's prophecy of the coming kingdom. They emphasized His -relation to humanity as a whole, in contrast to such narrower titles as -"Son of Abraham" or "Son of David." They were fitted to express a wider -mission than that of a merely Jewish Messiah: He stood and spoke for -mankind. The controversy was renewed when a man with a withered hand -appeared in the synagogue on the Sabbath, and the rabbis watched to see -whether Jesus would heal him. For the first time, we read that Jesus was -angry. They were wilfully blind, and they would rather not see good done -than see it done in a way that contradicted their teachings and -undermined their influence. After a sharp remonstrance, He healed the -man by a mere word. And they went out to make a compact with the -followers of the worldly Herod to kill Him, and so to stave off a -religious revolution which might easily have been followed by political -trouble. - - - Recapitulation. - -Up to this point what have we seen? On the stage of Palestine, an -outlying district of the Roman Empire, the home of the Jewish nation, -now subject but still fired with the hope of freedom and even of -universal domination under the leadership of a divinely anointed King, a -new figure has appeared. His appearance has been announced by a -reforming prophet, who has summoned the nation to return to its God, and -promised that a stronger than himself is to follow. In fulfilment of -this promise, who is it that has come? Not a rough prophet in the desert -like John, not a leader striking for political freedom, not a pretender -aiming at the petty throne of the Herods, not even a great rabbi, -building on the patriotic foundation of the Pharisees who had secured -the national life by a new devotion to the ancient law. None of these, -but, on the contrary, an unknown figure from the remote hills of -Galilee, standing on the populous shores of its lake, proclaiming as a -message from God that the highest hopes were about to be fulfilled, -fastening attention on Himself by speaking with authority and attaching -a few followers to His person, exhibiting wonderful powers of healing as -a sign that He has come to fulfil all needs, manifesting at the same -time an unparalleled sympathy, and setting quietly aside every religious -convention which limited the outflow of this sympathy; and as the result -of all this arousing the enthusiasm of astonished multitudes and evoking -the opposition and even the murderous resentment of the religious guides -of the nation. Of His teaching we have heard nothing, except in the -occasional sentences by which He justified some of His unexpected -actions. No party is formed, no programme is announced, no doctrine is -formulated; without assuming the title of Messiah, He offers Himself as -the centre of expectation, and seems to invite an unlimited confidence -in His person. This, then, in brief summary, is what we have seen: the -natural development of an historical situation, a march of events -leading rapidly to a climax; an unexampled strength and an unexampled -sympathy issuing inevitably in an unexampled liberty; and then the -forces of orthodox religion combining with the forces of worldly -indifference in order to suppress a dangerous innovator. Yet the writer -who in a few pages presents us with so remarkable a representation shows -no consciousness at all of artistic treatment. He tells a simple tale in -the plainest words: he never stops to offer a comment or to point a -moral. The wonder of it all is not in the writing, but in the subject -itself. We feel that we have here no skilful composition, but a bare -transcript of what occurred. And we feel besides that such a narrative -as this is the worthy commencement of an answer to the question with -which its readers would have come to it: What was the beginning of the -Gospel? How did the Lord Jesus speak and act? and why did He arouse such -malignant enmity amongst His own people? - -We have followed St Mark's narrative up to the point at which it became -clear that conciliatory argument could have no effect upon the Jewish -religious leaders. The controversy about the Sabbath had brought their -dissatisfaction to a climax. Henceforth Jesus was to them a -revolutionary, who must, by any means, be suppressed. After this -decisive breach a new period opens. Jesus leaves Capernaum, never again, -it would seem, to appear in its synagogue. Henceforward He was to be -found, with His disciples, on the shore of the lake, where vast -multitudes gathered round Him, drawn not only from Galilee and Judaea, -but also from the farther districts north and east of these. He would -take refuge from the crowds in a boat, which carried Him from shore to -shore; and His healing activity was now at its height. Yet in the midst -of this popular enthusiasm He knew that the time had come to prepare for -a very different future, and accordingly a fresh departure was made when -He selected twelve of His disciples for a more intimate companionship, -with a view to a special mission: "He appointed twelve that they might -be with Him, and that He might send them forth to preach and to have -power to cast out the devils." The excitement and pressure of the crowds -was at this time almost overwhelming, and the relatives of Jesus -endeavoured to restrain Him; "for they said, He is mad." The scribes -from Jerusalem offered a more sinister explanation, saying that He was -possessed by the prince of the devils, and that this was why He was able -to control all the evil spirits. He answered them first in figurative -language, speaking of the certain downfall of a kingdom or a family -divided against itself, and of the strong man's house which could not be -looted unless the strong man were first bound. Then followed the -tremendous warning, that to assign His work to Satan, and so to call -good evil, was to blaspheme against the Holy Spirit--the one sin which -admitted of no forgiveness. Presently, when He was told that His mother -and brethren were calling for Him, He disclaimed their interference by -pointing to a new circle of family relationship, consisting of all those -who "do the will of God." - - - Christ's Teaching. - -Again we find Him teaching by the lake, and the pressure of the -multitude is still so great that He sits in a boat while they line the -shore. For the first time we are allowed to hear how He taught them. He -gives them a parable from nature--the sower's three kinds of failure, -compensated by the rich produce of the good soil. At the close He utters -the pregnant saying: "He that hath ears to hear let him hear." When His -disciples afterwards asked for an explanation, He prefaced it by saying -that the inner circle only were intended to understand. The disciples -might learn that the message would often prove fruitless, but that -nevertheless an abundant harvest would result. For the light was -intended to shine, and the hidden was meant to be revealed. Another -parable compared the kingdom of God to seed which, when once planted, -must inevitably germinate; the process was secret and slow, but the -harvest was certain. Again, it was like the tiny mustard-seed which grew -out of all proportion to its original size, till the birds could shelter -in its great branches. These enigmatic speeches were all that the -multitudes got, but the disciples in private were taught their lesson of -hope. As we review this teaching it is very remarkable. The world of -common things is seen to be a lesson-book of the kingdom of God to those -who have eyes to read it. What that kingdom is to be we are not told; we -are only taught that its coming is secret, slow and certain. If nature -in its ordinary processes was thus seen to be full of significance, the -disciples were also to learn that it was under His control. As the boat -from which He had been teaching passed to the other side, the tired -Teacher slept. A sudden storm terrified the disciples, and they roused -Him in alarm. He stilled the storm with a word and rebuked their want of -faith. "Who then is this," they whispered with awe, "that even the wind -and the sea obey Him?" On the opposite hills a solitary spectator had -watched the rise and the lull of the tempest, a fierce demoniac who -dwelt among the tombs on the mountain-side. He believed himself to be -possessed by a regiment of demons. When Jesus bade them go forth, he -begged that they might be allowed to enter into a herd of swine which -was hard by. His request was granted, and the swine rushed over a steep -place into the lake. It is worth while to note that while most of the -cures which Jesus had performed appear to have belonged to this class, -this particular case is described as an exceptionally severe one, and -the visible effect of the removal of his tormentors may have greatly -helped to restore the man's shattered personality. - -We must not attempt to trace in detail the whole of St Mark's story. We -have followed it long enough to see its directness and simplicity, to -observe the naturalness with which one incident succeeds another, and to -watch the gradual manifestation of a personality at once strong and -sympathetic, wielding extraordinary powers, which are placed wholly at -the service of others, and refusing to be hindered from helping men by -the ordinary restrictions of social or religious custom. And we have -seen as the consequence of all this the development of an historical -situation in which the leaders of current orthodoxy ally themselves with -the indifferentism which accepts existing political conditions in order -to put down a disturber of the peace. We must now be content with a -broader survey of the course of events. - - - Healing Powers. - -Two notable cures were wrought on the western side of the lake--the -healing of the woman with the issue and the raising of Jairus's -daughter. In each of these cures prominence is given to the requirement -and the reward of faith--that is to say, of personal confidence in the -Healer: "Thy faith hath made thee whole." "Fear not, only believe." -After this Jesus passed away from the enthusiastic crowds by the lake to -visit His own Nazareth, and to find there a strange incredulity in -regard to one whom the villagers knew as the carpenter. Once more we -come across a mysterious limitation of His powers: "He could not do -there any miracle," save the cure of a few sick folk; and He marvelled -because of their want of faith. The moment had now come when the twelve -disciples were to be entrusted with a share of His healing power and -with the proclamation of repentance. While they are journeying two and -two in various directions St Mark takes occasion to tell us the current -conjectures as to who Jesus really was. Some thought him Elijah or one -of the ancient prophets returned to earth--a suggestion based on popular -tradition; others said He was John the Baptist risen from the dead--the -superstition of Herod who had put him to death. When the disciples -returned, Jesus took them apart for rest; but the crowds reassembled -when they found Him again near the lake, and His yearning compassion for -these shepherdless sheep led Him to give them an impressive sign that He -had indeed come to supply all human needs. Hitherto His power had gone -forth to individuals, but now He fed five thousand men from the scanty -stock of five loaves and two fishes. That night He came to His disciples -walking upon the waters, and in the period which immediately followed -there was once more a great manifestation of healing power. - - - Opposition of the Scribes. - -We have heard nothing for some time of any opposition; but now a fresh -conflict arose with certain scribes who had come down from Jerusalem, -and who complained that the disciples neglected the ceremonial washing -of their hands before meals. Jesus replied with a stern rebuke, -addressing the questioners as hypocrites, and exposing the falsity of a -system which allowed the breach of fundamental commandments in order -that traditional regulations might be observed. He then turned from them -to the multitude, and uttered a saying which in effect annulled the -Jewish distinction between clean and unclean meats. This was a direct -attack on the whole Pharisaic position. The controversy was plainly -irreconcilable, and Jesus withdrew to the north, actually passing -outside the limits of the Holy Land. He desired to remain unknown, and -not to extend His mission to the heathen population, but the -extraordinary faith and the modest importunity of a Syrophenician woman -induced Him to heal her daughter. Then He returned by a circuitous route -to the Sea of Galilee. His return was marked by another miraculous -feeding of the multitude, and also by two healing miracles which present -unusual features. In both the patient was withdrawn from the multitude -and the cure was wrought with the accompaniment of symbolic actions. -Moreover, in one case Jesus is described as groaning before He spoke; in -the other the cure was at first incomplete; and both of the men were -strictly charged to observe silence afterwards. It cannot be a mere -coincidence that these are the last cures which St Mark records as -performed in Galilee. - - - Messianic Teaching. - -In fact the Galilean ministry is now closed. Jesus retires northwards to -Caesarea Philippi, and appears henceforth to devote Himself entirely to -the instruction of his disciples, who needed to be prepared for the -fatal issue which could not long be delayed. He begins by asking them -the popular opinion as to His Person. The suggestions are still the -same--John the Baptist, or Elijah, or some other of the prophets. But -when He asked their own belief, Peter replied, "Thou art the Christ." He -warned them not to make this known; and He proceeded to give them the -wholly new teaching that the Son of Man must suffer and be killed, -adding that after three days He must rise again. Peter took Him aside -and urged Him not to speak so. But He turned to the other disciples and -openly rebuked Peter. And then, addressing a yet wider circle, He -demanded of those who should follow Him a self-sacrifice like His own. -He even used the metaphor of the cross which was carried by the sufferer -to the place of execution. Life, he declared, could only be saved by -voluntary death. He went on to demand an unswerving loyalty to Himself -and His teaching in the face of a threatening world; and then He -promised that some of those who were present should not die before they -had seen the coming of the kingdom of God. We have had no hint of such -teaching as this in the whole of the Galilean ministry. Jesus had stood -forth as the strong healer and helper of men; it was bewildering to hear -Him speak of dying. He had promised to fulfil men's highest -expectations, if only they would not doubt His willingness and power. He -had been enthusiastically reverenced by the common people, though -suspected and attacked by the religious leaders. He had spoken of "the -will of God" as supreme, and had set aside ceremonial traditions. He had -announced the nearness of the kingdom of God, but had described it only -in parables from nature. He had adopted the vague title of the "Son of -Man," but had refrained from proclaiming Himself as the expected -Messiah. At last the disciples had expressed their conviction that He -was the Christ, and immediately He tells them that He goes to meet -humiliation and death as the necessary steps to a resurrection and a -coming of the Son of Man in the glory of His Father. It was an amazing -announcement and He plainly added that their path like His own lay -through death to life. The dark shadows of this picture of the future -alone could impress their minds, but a week later three of them were -allowed a momentary vision of the light which should overcome the -darkness. They saw Jesus transfigured in a radiance of glory: Elijah -appeared with Moses, and they talked with Jesus. A cloud came over them, -and a Voice, like that of the Baptism, proclaimed "This is My Son, the -Beloved: hear ye Him." They were bidden to keep the vision secret till -the Son of Man should have risen from the dead. It was in itself a -foretaste of resurrection, and the puzzled disciples remembered that the -scribes declared that before the resurrection Elijah would appear. Their -minds were confused as to what resurrection was meant. Jesus told them -that Elijah had in fact come; and He also said that the Scriptures -foretold the sufferings of the Son of Man. But the situation was wholly -beyond their grasp, and the very language of St Mark at this point seems -to reflect the confusion of their minds. - -The other disciples, in the meantime, had been vainly endeavouring to -cure a peculiarly violent case of demoniacal possession. Jesus Himself -cast out the demon, but not before the suffering child had been rendered -seemingly lifeless by a final assault. Then they journeyed secretly -through Galilee towards Judaea and the eastern side of the Jordan. On -the way Jesus reinforced the new lesson of self-renunciation. He offered -the little children as the type of those to whom the kingdom of God -belonged; and He disappointed a young and wealthy aspirant to His -favour, amazing His disciples by saying that the kingdom of God could -hardly be entered by the rich; he who forsook all should have all, and -more than all; the world's estimates were to be reversed--the first -should be last and the last first. They were now journeying towards -Jerusalem, and the prediction of the Passion was repeated. James and -John, who had witnessed the Transfiguration, and who were confident of -the coming glory, asked for the places nearest to their Master, and -professed their readiness to share His sufferings. When the other ten -were aggrieved Jesus declared that greatness was measured by service, -not by rank; and that the Son of Man had come not to be served but to -serve, and to give His life to ransom many other lives. As they came up -from the Jordan valley and passed through Jericho, an incident occurred -which signalized the beginning of the final period. A blind man appealed -to Jesus as "the Son of David," and was answered by the restoration of -his sight; and when, a little later, Jesus fulfilled an ancient prophecy -by mounting an ass and riding into Jerusalem, the multitudes snouted -their welcome to the returning "kingdom of David." Hitherto He had not -permitted any public recognition of His Messiahship, but now He entered -David's city in lowly but significant pomp as David's promised heir. - - - Entry into Jerusalem. - -Two incidents illustrate the spirit of judgment with which He approached -the splendid but apostate city. On His arrival He had carefully observed -the condition of the Temple, and had retired to sleep outside the city. -On the following morning, finding no fruit on a fig-tree in full leaf, -He said, "Let no man eat fruit of thee henceforth for ever." It was a -parable of impending doom. Then, when He entered the Temple, He swept -away with a fiery zeal the merchants and merchandise which had turned -God's House into "a robbers' den." The act was at once an assertion of -commanding authority and an open condemnation of the religious rulers -who had permitted the desecration. Its immediate effect was to make new -and powerful enemies; for the chief priests, as well as their rivals the -scribes, were now inflamed against Him. At the moment they could do -nothing, but the next day they formally demanded whence He derived His -right so to act. When they refused to answer His question as to the -authority of John the Baptist, He in turn refused to tell them His own. -But He uttered a parable which more than answered them. The owner of the -vineyard, who had sent his servants and last of all his only son, would -visit their rejection and murder on the wicked husbandmen. He added a -reminder that the stone which the builders refused was, after all, the -Divine choice. They were restrained from arresting Him by fear of the -people, to whom the meaning of the parable was plain. They therefore -sent a joint deputation of Pharisees and Herodians to entrap Him with a -question as to the Roman tribute, in answering which He must either lose -His influence with the people or else lay Himself open to a charge of -treason. When they were baffled, the Sadducees, to whose party the chief -priests belonged, sought in vain to pose Him with a problem as to the -resurrection of the dead; and after that a more honest scribe confessed -the truth of His teaching as to the supremacy of love to God and man -over all the sacrificial worship of the Temple, and was told in reply -that he was not far from the kingdom of God. Jesus Himself now put a -question as to the teaching of the scribes which identified the Messiah -with "the Son of David"; and then He denounced those scribes whose pride -and extortion and hypocrisy were preparing for them a terrible doom. -Before He left the Temple, never to return, one incident gave Him pure -satisfaction. His own teaching that all must be given for God was -illustrated by the devotion of a poor widow who cast into the treasury -the two tiny coins which were all that she had. As He passed out He -foretold, in words which corresponded to the doom of the fig-tree, the -utter demolition of the imposing but profitless Temple; and presently He -opened up to four of His disciples a vision of the future, warning them -against false Christs, bidding them expect great sorrows, national and -personal, declaring that the gospel must be proclaimed to all the -nations, and that after a great tribulation the Son of Man should -appear, "coming with the clouds of heaven." The day and the hour none -knew, neither the angels nor the Son, but only the Father: it was the -duty of all to watch. - - - Final Scenes. - -We now come to the final scenes. The passover was approaching, and plots -were being laid for His destruction. He Himself spoke mysteriously of -His burial, when a woman poured a vase of costly ointment upon His head. -To some this seemed a wasteful act; but He accepted it as a token of the -love which gave all that was in its power, and He promised that it -should never cease to illustrate His Gospel. Two of the disciples were -sent into Jerusalem to prepare the Passover meal. During the meal Jesus -declared that He should be betrayed by one of their number. Later in the -evening He gave them bread and wine, proclaiming that these were His -body and His blood--the tokens of His giving Himself to them, and of a -new covenant with God through His death. As they withdrew to the Mount -of Olives He foretold their general flight, but promised that when He -was risen He would go before them into Galilee. Peter protested -faithfulness unto death, but was told that he would deny his Master -three times that very night. Then coming to a place called Gethsemane, -He bade the disciples wait while He should pray; and taking the three -who had been with Him at the Transfiguration He told them to tarry near -Him and to watch. He went forward, and fell on the ground, praying that -"the cup might be taken away" from Him, but resigning Himself to His -Father's will. Presently Judas arrived with a band of armed men, and -greeted his Master with a kiss--the signal for His arrest. The disciples -fled in panic, after one of them had wounded the high priest's servant. -Only a nameless young man tried to follow, but he too fled when hands -were laid upon him. Before the high priest Jesus was charged, among -other accusations, with threatening to destroy the Temple; but the -matter was brought to an issue when He was plainly asked if He were "the -Christ, the Son of the Blessed One." He answered that He was, and He -predicted that they should see the fulfilment of Daniel's vision of the -Son of Man sitting on the right hand of power. Thereupon He was -condemned to death for manifest blasphemy, and a scene of cruel mockery -followed. Meanwhile Peter in the court below had been sitting with the -servants, and in his anxiety to escape recognition had thrice declared -that he did not know Jesus. Thus the night passed, and in the morning -Jesus was taken to Pilate, for the Jewish council had no power to -execute their decree of death. Pilate's question, "Art Thou the King of -the Jews?" shows the nature of the accusation which was thought likely -to tell with the Roman governor. He had already in bonds one leader of -revolution, whose hands were stained with blood--a striking contrast to -the calm and silent figure who stood before him. At this moment a crowd -came up to ask the fulfilment of his annual act of grace, the pardon of -a prisoner at the Passover. Pilate, discerning that it was the envy of -the rulers which sought to destroy an inconvenient rival, offered "the -King of the Jews" as the prisoner to be released. But the chief priests -succeeded in making the people ask for Barabbas and demand the -crucifixion of Jesus. Pilate fulfilled his pledge by giving them the man -of their choice, and Jesus, whom he had vainly hoped to release on a -satisfactory pretext, he now condemned to the shameful punishments of -scourging and crucifixion; for the cross, as Jesus had foreseen, was the -inevitable fate of a Jewish pretender to sovereignty. The Roman soldiers -mocked "the King of the Jews" with a purple robe and a crown of thorns. -As they led Him out they forced the cross, which the sufferer commonly -carried, upon the shoulders of one Simon of Cyrene, whose son's -Alexander and Rufus are here mentioned--probably as being known to St -Mark's readers; at any rate, it is interesting to note that, in writing -to the Christians at Rome, St Paul a few years earlier had sent a -greeting to "Rufus and his mother." Over the cross, which stood between -two others, was the condemnatory inscription, "The King of the Jews." -This was the Roman designation of Him whom the Jewish rulers tauntingly -addressed as "the King of Israel." The same revilers, with a deeper -truth than they knew, summed up the mystery of His life and death when -they said, "He saved others, Himself He cannot save." - -A great darkness shrouded the scene for three hours, and then, in His -native Aramaic, Jesus cried in the words of the Psalm, "My God, My God, -why has Thou forsaken Me?" One other cry He uttered, and the end came, -and at that moment the veil of the Temple was rent from top to -bottom--an omen of fearful import to those who had mocked Him, even on -the cross, as the destroyer of the Temple, who in three days should -build it anew. The disciples of Jesus do not appear as spectators of the -end, but only a group of women who had ministered to His needs in -Galilee, and had followed Him up to Jerusalem. These women watched His -burial, which was performed by a Jewish councillor, to whom Pilate had -granted the body after the centurion had certified the reality of the -unexpectedly early death. The body was placed in a rock-hewn tomb, and a -great stone was rolled against the entrance. Sunset brought on the -Jewish sabbath, but the next evening the women brought spices to anoint -the body, and at sunrise on the third day they arrived at the tomb, and -saw that the stone was rolled away. They entered and found a young man -in a white robe, who said, "He is risen, He is not here," and bade them -say to His disciples and Peter, "He goeth before you into Galilee; there -ye shall see Him, as He said unto you." In terror they fled from the -tomb, "and they said nothing to any man, for they feared...." - -So with a broken sentence the narrative ends. The document is imperfect, -owing probably to the accidental loss of its last leaf. In very early -times attempts were made to furnish it with a fitting close; but neither -of the supplements which we find in manuscripts can be regarded as -coming from the original writer. If we ask what must, on grounds of -literary probability, have been added before the record was closed, we -may content ourselves here with saying that some incident must certainly -have been narrated which should have realized the twice-repeated promise -that Jesus would be seen by His disciples in Galilee. - -3. _Document used by St Matthew and St Luke._--We pass on now to compare -with this narrative of St Mark another very early document which no -longer exists in an independent form, but which can be partially -reconstructed from the portions of it which have been embodied in the -Gospels of St Matthew and St Luke. - -When we review St Mark's narrative as a whole we are struck, first of -all, with its directness and simplicity. It moves straightforward upon a -well-defined path. It shows us the Lord Jesus entering on the mission -predicted by the Baptist without declaring Himself to be the Messiah; -attracting the multitudes in Galilee by His healing power and His -unbounded sympathy, and at the same time awakening the envy and -suspicion of the leaders of religion; training a few disciples till they -reach the conviction that He is the Christ, and then, but not till then, -admitting them into the secret of His coming sufferings, and preparing -them for a mission in which they also must sacrifice themselves; then -journeying to Jerusalem to fulfil the destiny which He foresaw, -accepting the responsibility of the Messianic title, only to be -condemned by the religious authorities as a blasphemer and handed over -to the Roman power as a pretender to the Jewish throne. That is the -story in its barest outline. It is adequate to its presumed purpose of -offering to distant Gentile converts a clear account of their Master's -earthly work, and of the causes which led to His rejection by His own -people and to His death by Roman crucifixion. The writer makes no -comment on the wonderful story which he tells. Allusions to Jewish -customs are, indeed, explained as they occur, but apart from this the -narrative appears to be a mere transcript of remembered facts. The -actors are never characterized; their actions are simply noted down; -there is no praise and no blame. To this simplicity and directness of -narrative we may in large measure attribute the fact that when two later -evangelists desired to give fuller accounts of our Lord's life they both -made this early book the basis of their work. In those days there was no -sense of unfairness in using up existing materials in order to make a -more complete treatise. Accordingly so much of St Mark's Gospel has been -taken over word for word in the Gospels of St Luke and St Matthew that, -if every copy of it had perished, we could still reconstruct large -portions of it by carefully comparing their narratives. They did not -hesitate, however, to alter St Mark's language where it seemed to them -rough or obscure, for each of them had a distinctive style of his own, -and St Luke was a literary artist of a high order. Moreover, though they -both accepted the general scheme of St Mark's narrative, each of them -was obliged to omit many incidents in order to find room for other -material which was at their disposal, by which they were able to -supplement the deficiencies of the earlier book. The most conspicuous -deficiency was in regard to our Lord's teaching, of which, as we have -seen, St Mark had given surprisingly little. Here they were happily in a -position to make a very important contribution. - -For side by side with St Mark's Gospel there was current in the earliest -times another account of the doings and sayings of Jesus Christ. Our -knowledge of it to-day is entirely derived from a comparison of the two -later evangelists who embodied large portions of it, working it in and -out of the general scheme which they derived from St Mark, according as -each of them thought most appropriate. St Luke appears to have taken it -over in sections for the most part without much modification; but in St -Matthew's Gospel its incidents seldom find an independent place; the -sayings to which they gave rise are often detached from their context -and grouped with sayings of a similar character so as to form -considerable discourses, or else they are linked on to sayings which -were uttered on other occasions recorded by St Mark. It is probable that -many passages of St Luke's Gospel which have no parallel in St Matthew -were also derived from this early source; but this is not easily capable -of distinct proof; and, therefore, in order to gain a secure conception -of the document we must confine ourselves at first to those parts of it -which were borrowed by both writers. We shall, however, look to St Luke -in the main as preserving for us the more nearly its original form. - -We proceed now to give an outline of the contents of this document. To -begin with, it contained a fuller account of the teaching of John the -Baptist. St Mark tells us only his message of hope; but here we read the -severer language with which he called men to repentance. We hear his -warning of "the coming wrath": his mighty Successor will baptize with -fire; the fruitless tree will be cast into the fire; the chaff will be -separated from the wheat and burned with unquenchable fire; the claim to -be children of Abraham will not avail, for God can raise up other -children to Abraham, if it be from the stones of the desert. Next, we -have a narrative of the Temptation, of which St Mark had but recorded -the bare fact. It was grounded on the Divine sonship, which we already -know was proclaimed at the Baptism. In a threefold vision Jesus is -invited to enter upon His inheritance at once; to satisfy His own needs, -to accept of earthly dominion, to presume on the Divine protection. The -passage stands almost alone as a revelation of inner conflict in a life -which outwardly was marked by unusual calm. - - - The Sermon on the Mount. - -Not far from the beginning of the document there stood a remarkable -discourse delivered among the hills above the lake. It opens with a -startling reversal of the common estimates of happiness and misery. In -the light of the coming kingdom it proclaims the blessedness of the -poor, the hungry, the sad and the maligned; and the woefulness of the -rich, the full, the merry and the popular. It goes on to reverse the -ordinary maxims of conduct. Enemies are to be loved, helped, blessed, -prayed for. No blow is to be returned; every demand, just or unjust, is -to be granted: in short, "as ye desire that men should do to you, do in -like manner to them." Then the motive and the model of this conduct are -adduced: "Love your enemies ... and ye shall be sons of the Highest; for -He is kind to the thankless and wicked. Be merciful, as your Father is -merciful; and judge not, and ye shall not be judged." We note in passing -that this is the first introduction of our Lord's teaching of the -fatherhood of God. God is your Father, He says in effect; you will be -His sons if like Him you will refuse to make distinctions, loving -without looking for a return, sure that in the end love will not be -wholly lost. Then follow grave warnings--generous towards others, you -must be strict with yourselves; only the good can truly do good; hearers -of these words must be doers also, if they would build on the rock and -not on the sand. So, with the parable of the two builders, the discourse -reached its formal close. - -It was followed by the entry of Jesus into Capernaum, where He was asked -to heal the servant of a Roman officer. This man's unusual faith, based -on his soldierly sense of discipline, surprised the Lord, who declared -that it had no equal in Israel itself. Somewhat later messengers arrived -from the imprisoned Baptist, who asked if Jesus were indeed "the coming -One" of whom he had spoken. Jesus pointed to His acts of healing the -sick, raising the dead and proclaiming good news for the poor; thereby -suggesting to those who could understand that He fulfilled the ancient -prophecy of the Messiah. He then declared the greatness of John in -exalted terms, adding, however, that the least in the kingdom of God was -John's superior. Then He complained of the unreasonableness of an age -which refused John as too austere and Himself as too lax and as being -"the friend of publicans and sinners." This narrative clearly -presupposes a series of miracles already performed, and also such a -conflict with the Pharisees as we have seen recorded by St Mark. -Presently we find an offer of discipleship met by the warning that "the -Son of Man" is a homeless wanderer; and then the stern refusal of a -request for leave to perform a father's funeral rites. - - - Other Sayings of Jesus. - -Close upon these incidents follows a special mission of disciples, -introduced by the saying: "The harvest is great, but the labourers are -few." The disciples as they journey are to take no provisions, but to -throw themselves on the bounty of their hearers; they are to heal the -sick and to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God. The city that -rejects them shall have a less lenient judgment than Sodom; Tyre and -Sidon shall be better off than cities like Chorazin and Bethsaida which -have seen His miracles; Capernaum, favoured above all, shall sink to the -deepest depth. If words could be sterner than these, they are those -which follow: "He that heareth you heareth Me; and he that rejecteth you -rejecteth Me; but He that rejecteth Me rejecteth Him that sent Me." This -reference to His own personal mission is strikingly expanded in words -which He uttered on the return of the disciples. After thanking the -Father for revealing to babes what He hides from the wise, He continued -in mysterious language: "All things are delivered to Me by My Father; -and none knoweth who the Son is but the Father; and who the Father is -but the Son, and he to whom the Son chooseth to reveal Him." Happy were -the disciples in seeing and hearing what prophets and kings had looked -for in vain. - -When His disciples, having watched Him at prayer, desired to be taught -how to pray, they were bidden to address God as "Father"; to ask first -for the hallowing of the Father's name, and the coming of His kingdom; -then for their daily food, for the pardon of their sins and for freedom -from temptation. It was the prayer of a family--that the sons might be -true to the Father, and the Father true to the sons; and they were -further encouraged by a parable of the family: "Ask and ye shall -receive.... Every one that asketh receiveth": for the heavenly Father -will do more, not less, than an earthly father would do for his -children. After He had cast out a dumb demon, some said that His power -was due to Beelzebub. He accordingly asked them by whom the Jews -themselves cast out demons; and He claimed that His power was a sign -that the kingdom of God was come. But He warned them that demons cast -out once might return in greater force. When they asked for a sign from -heaven, He would give them no more than the sign of Jonah, explaining -that the repentant Ninevites should condemn the present generation: so, -too, should the queen of Sheba; for that which they were now rejecting -was more than Jonah and more than Solomon. Yet further warnings were -given when a Pharisee invited Him to his table, and expressed surprise -that He did not wash His hands before the meal. The cleansing of -externals and the tithing of garden-produce, He declares, have usurped -the place of judgment and the love of God. Woe is pronounced upon the -Pharisees: they are successors to the murderers of the prophets. Then -citing from Genesis and 2 Chronicles, the first and last books in the -order of the Jewish Bible, He declared that all righteous blood from -that of Abel to that of Zachariah should be required of that generation. -After this the disciples are encouraged not to fear their murderous -opponents. The very sparrows are God's care--much more shall they be; -the hairs of their head are all counted. In the end the Son of Man will -openly own those who have owned Him before men. For earthly needs no -thought is to be taken: the birds and the flowers make no provision for -their life and beauty. God will give food and raiment to those who are -seeking His kingdom. Earthly goods should be given away in exchange for -the imperishable treasures. Suddenly will the Son of Man come: happy the -servant whom His Master finds at his appointed task. In brief parables -the kingdom of God is likened to a mustard-seed and to leaven. When -Jesus is asked if the saved shall be few, He replies that the door is a -narrow one. Then, changing His illustration, He says that many shall -seek entrance in vain; for the master of the house will refuse to -recognize them. But while they are excluded, a multitude from all -quarters of the earth shall sit down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and -the prophets in the kingdom of God. - -His eyes are now fixed on Jerusalem, where, like the prophets, He must -die. "Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how often have I desired to gather thy -children together, as a bird her brood beneath her wings, but ye -refused." "Ye shall not see Me, until ye shall say, Blessed is He that -cometh in the name of the Lord." After this we have the healing of a -dropsical man on the Sabbath, with a reply to the murmuring Pharisees; -and then a parable of the failure of invited guests and the filling of -their places from the streets. A few fragmentary passages remain, of -which it will be sufficient to cite a word or two to call them to -remembrance. There is a warning that he who forsakes not father and -mother cannot be a disciple, nor he who does not bear his cross. -Savourless salt is fit for nothing. The lost sheep is brought home with -a special joy. "Ye cannot serve God and Mammon." Scandals must arise, -but woe to him through whom they arise. The Son of Man will come with -the suddenness of lightning; the days of Noah and the days of Lot will -find a parallel in their blind gaiety and their inevitable disaster. He -who seeks to gain his life will lose it. "One shall be taken, and the -other left." "Where the carcase is, the vultures will gather." Then, -lastly, we have a parable of the servant who failed to employ the money -entrusted to him; and a promise that the disciples shall sit on twelve -thrones to judge the twelve tribes of Israel. We cannot say by our -present method of determination, how this document closed; for in the -narratives of the Passion and the Resurrection St Matthew and St Luke -only coincide in passages which they have taken from St Mark. - - - Comparison with St Mark. - -Now that we have reconstructed in outline this early account of the Lord -Jesus, so far as it has been used by both the later evangelists, we may -attempt to compare the picture which it presents to us with that which -was offered by St Mark. But in doing so we must remember that we know it -only in fragments. There can be little doubt that much more of it is -embedded in St Luke's Gospel, and something more also in St Matthew's; -but in order to stand on firm ground we have considered thus far only -those portions which both of these writers elected to use in composing -their later narratives. To go beyond this is a work of delicate -discrimination. It can only be effected by a close examination of the -style and language of the document, which may enable us in some -instances to identify with comparative security certain passages which -are found in St Luke, but which St Matthew did not regard as suitable -for his purpose. Among these we may venture, quite tentatively, to -mention the sermon at Nazareth which opened with a passage from the Book -of Isaiah, the raising of the widow's son at Nain, and the parable of -the good Samaritan. These are found in St Luke, but not in St Matthew. -On the other hand, it is not improbable that the wonderful words which -begin, "Come unto Me all ye that labour," were drawn by St Matthew from -the same document, though they are not recorded by St Luke. But here we -have entered upon a region of less certainty, in which critical -scholarship has still much to do; and these passages are mentioned here -only as a reminder that the document must have contained more than what -St Matthew and St Luke each independently determined to borrow from it. -Looking, then, at the portions which we have indicated as having this -two-fold testimony, we see that in their fragmentary condition we cannot -trace the clear historical development which was so conspicuous a -feature of St Mark's Gospel; yet we need not conclude that in its -complete form it failed to present an orderly narrative. Next, we see -that wherever we are able to observe its method of relating an incident, -as in the case of the healing of the centurion's servant, we have the -same characteristics of brevity and simplicity which we admired in St -Mark. No comment is made by the narrator; he tells his tale in the -fewest words and passes on. Again, we note that it supplies just what we -feel we most need when we have reached the end of St Mark's story, a -fuller account of the teaching which Jesus gave to His disciples and to -the people at large. And we see that the substance of that teaching is -in complete harmony with the scattered hints that we found in St Mark. -If the fatherhood of God stands out clearly, we may remember a passage -of St Mark also which speaks of "the Heavenly Father" as forgiving those -who forgive. If prayer is encouraged, we may also remember that the same -passage of St Mark records the saying: "All things whatsoever ye pray -for and ask, believe that ye have received them and ye shall have them." -If in one mysterious passage Jesus speaks of "the Father" and "the -Son"--terms with which the Gospel of St John has made us familiar--St -Mark also in one passage uses the same impressive terms--"the Son" and -"the Father." There are, of course, many other parallels with St Mark, -and at some points the two documents seem to overlap and to relate the -same incidents in somewhat different forms. There is the same use of -parables from nature, the same incisiveness of speech and employment of -paradox, the same demand to sacrifice all to Him and for His cause, the -same importunate claim made by Him on the human soul. - - - The Element of Warning. - -But the contrast between the two writers is even more important for our -purpose. No one can read through the passages to which we have pointed -without feeling the solemn sternness of the great Teacher, a sternness -which can indeed be traced here and there in St Mark, but which does not -give its tone to the whole of his picture. Here we see Christ standing -forth in solitary grandeur, looking with the eyes of another world on a -society which is blindly hastening to its dissolution. It may be that if -this document had come down to us in its entirety, we should have -gathered from it an exaggerated idea of the severity of our Lord's -character. Certain it is that as we read over these fragments we are -somewhat startled by the predominance of the element of warning, and by -the assertion of rules of conduct which seem almost inconsistent with a -normal condition of settled social life. The warning to the nation -sounded by the Baptist, that God could raise up a new family for -Abraham, is heard again and again in our Lord's teaching. Gentile faith -puts Israel to shame. The sons of the kingdom will be left outside, -while strangers feast with Abraham. Capernaum shall go to perdition; -Jerusalem shall be a desolate ruin. The doom of the nation is -pronounced; its fate is imminent; there is no ray of hope for the -existing constitution of religion and society. As to individuals within -the nation, the despised publicans and sinners will find God's favour -before the self-satisfied representatives of the national religion. In -such a condition of affairs it is hardly surprising to find that the -great and stern Teacher congratulates the poor and has nothing but pity -for the rich; that He has no interest at all in comfort or property. If -a man asks you for anything, give it him; if he takes it without asking, -do not seek to recover it. Nothing material is worth a thought; anxiety -is folly; your Father, who feeds His birds and clothes His flowers, will -feed and clothe you. Rise to the height of your sonship to God; love -your enemies even as God loves His; and if they kill you, God will care -for you still; fear them not, fear only Him who loves you all. - -Here is a new philosophy of life, offering solid consolation amid the -ruin of a world. We have no idea who the disciple may have been who thus -seized upon the sadder elements of the teaching of Jesus; but we may -well think of him as one of those who were living in Palestine in the -dark and threatening years of internecine strife, when the Roman eagles -were gathering round their prey, and the first thunder was muttering of -the storm which was to leave Jerusalem a heap of stones. At such a -moment the warnings of our Lord would claim a large place in a record of -His teaching, and the strange comfort which He had offered would be the -only hope which it would seem possible to entertain. - - - The Earlier Narratives. - -4. _Additions by the Gospel according to St Matthew._--We have now -examined in turn the two earliest pictures which have been preserved to -us of the life of Jesus Christ. The first portrays Him chiefly by a -record of His actions, and illustrates His strength, His sympathy, and -His freedom from conventional restraints. It shows the disturbing forces -of these characteristics, which aroused the envy and apprehension of the -leaders of religion. The first bright days of welcome and popularity are -soon clouded: the storm begins to lower. More and more the Master -devotes Himself to the little circle of His disciples, who are taught -that they, as well as He, can only triumph through defeat, succeed by -failure, and find their life in giving it away. At length, in fear of -religious innovations and pretending that He is a political usurper, the -Jews deliver Him up to die on a Roman cross. The last page of the story -is torn away, just at the point when it has been declared that He is -alive again and about to show Himself to His disciples. The second -picture has a somewhat different tone. It is mainly a record of -teaching, and the teaching is for the most part stern and paradoxical. -It might be described as revolutionary. It is good tidings to the poor: -it sets no store on property and material comfort: it pities the wealthy -and congratulates the needy. It reverses ordinary judgments and -conventional maxims of conduct. It proclaims the downfall of -institutions, and compares the present blind security to the days of -Noah and of Lot: a few only shall escape the coming overthrow. Yet even -in this sterner setting the figure portrayed is unmistakably the same. -There is the same strength, the same tender sympathy, the same freedom -from convention: there is the same promise to fulfil the highest hopes, -the same surrender of life, and the same imperious demand on the lives -of others. No thoughtful man who examines and compares these pictures -can doubt that they are genuine historical portraits of a figure wholly -different from any which had hitherto appeared on the world's stage. -They are beyond the power of human invention. They are drawn with a -simplicity which is their own guarantee. If we had these, and these -only, we should have an adequate explanation of the beginnings of -Christianity. There would still be a great gap to be filled before we -reached the earliest letters of St Paul; but yet we should know what the -Apostle meant when he wrote to "the Church of the Thessalonians in God -the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ," and reminded them how they had -"turned from idols to serve the living and true God, and to wait for His -Son from heaven, whom He raised from the dead, even Jesus who delivereth -us from the wrath to come." - -If these two narratives served the first needs of Christian believers, -it is easy to see that they would presently stimulate further activity -in the same direction. For, to begin with, they were obviously -incomplete: many incidents and teachings known to the earliest disciples -found no place in them; and they contained no account of the life of -Jesus Christ before His public ministry, no record of His pedigree, His -birth or His childhood. Secondly, their form left much to be desired; -for one of them at least was rude in style, sometimes needlessly -repetitive and sometimes brief to obscurity. Moreover the very fact that -there were two challenged a new and combined work which perhaps should -supersede both. - - - The Gospel of St Matthew. - -Accordingly, some years after the fall of Jerusalem--we cannot tell the -exact date or the author's name--the book which we call the Gospel -according to St Matthew was written to give the Palestinian Christians a -full account of Jesus Christ, which should present Him as the promised -Messiah, fulfilling the ancient Hebrew prophecies, proclaiming the -kingdom of heaven, and founding the Christian society. The writer takes -St Mark as his basis, but he incorporates into the story large portions -of the teaching which he has found in the other document. He groups his -materials with small regard to chronological order; and he fashions out -of the many scattered sayings of our Lord continuous discourses, -everywhere bringing like to like, with considerable literary art. A wide -knowledge of the Old Testament supplies him with a text to illustrate -one incident after another; and so deeply is he impressed with the -correspondence between the life of Christ and the words of ancient -prophecy, that he does not hesitate to introduce his quotations by the -formula "that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet." - -His Hebrew instinct leads him to begin with a table of genealogy, -artificially constructed in groups of fourteen generations--from Abraham -to David, from David to the Captivity, and from the Captivity to the -Christ. The royal descent of the Messiah is thus declared, and from the -outset His figure is set against the background of the Old Testament. He -then proceeds to show that, though His lineage is traced through -Joseph's ancestors, He was but the adopted son of Joseph, and he tells -the story of the Virgin-birth. The coming of the Child draws Eastern -sages to his cradle and fills the court of Herod with suspicious fears. -The cruel tyrant kills the babes of Bethlehem, but the Child has been -withdrawn by a secret flight into Egypt, whence he presently returns to -the family home at Nazareth in Galilee. All this is necessarily fresh -material, for the other records had dealt only with the period of public -ministry. We have no knowledge of the source from which it was drawn. -From the historical standpoint its value must be appraised by the -estimate which is formed of the writer's general trustworthiness as a -narrator, and by the extent to which the incidents receive confirmation -from other quarters. The central fact of the Virgin-birth, as we shall -presently see, has high attestation from another early writer. - - - Discourses and Parables. - -The next addition which St Matthew's Gospel makes to our knowledge is of -a different kind. It consists of various important sayings of our Lord, -which are combined with discourses found in the second document and are -worked up into the great utterance which we call the Sermon on the -Mount. Such grouping of materials is a feature of this Gospel, and was -possibly designed for purposes of public instruction; so that continuous -passages might be read aloud in the services of the Church, just as -passages from the Old Testament were read in the Jewish synagogues. This -motive would account not only for the arrangement of the material, but -also for certain changes in the language which seem intended to remove -difficulties, and to interpret what is ambiguous or obscure. An example -of such interpretation meets us at the outset. The startling saying, -"Blessed are ye poor," followed by the woe pronounced upon the rich, -might seem like a condemnation of the very principle of property; and -when the Christian Church had come to be organized as a society -containing rich and poor, the heart of the saying was felt to be more -truly and clearly expressed in the words, "Blessed are the poor in -spirit." This interpretative process may be traced again and again in -this Gospel, which frequently seems to reflect the definite tradition of -a settled Church. - -Apart from the important parables of the tares, the pearl and the net, -the writer adds little to his sources until we come to the remarkable -passage in ch. xvi., in which Peter the Rock is declared to be the -foundation of the future Church, and is entrusted with the keys of the -kingdom of heaven. The function of "binding and loosing," here assigned -to him, is in identical terms assigned to the disciples generally in a -passage in ch. xviii. in which for the second time we meet with the word -"Church"--a word not found elsewhere in the Gospels. There is no -sufficient ground for denying that these sayings were uttered by our -Lord, but the fact that they were now first placed upon record -harmonizes with what has been said already as to the more settled -condition of the Christian society which this Gospel appears to reflect. - -The parables of the two debtors, the labourers in the vineyard, the two -sons, the ten virgins, the sheep and goats, are recorded only by this -evangelist. But by way of incident he has almost nothing to add till we -come to the closing scenes. The earthquake at the moment of our Lord's -death and the subsequent appearance of departed saints are strange -traditions unattested by other writers. The same is to be said of the -soldiers placed to guard the tomb, and of the story that they had been -bribed to say that the sacred body had been stolen while they slept. On -the other hand, the appearance of the risen Christ to the women may have -been taken from the lost pages of St Mark, being the sequel to the -narrative which is broken off abruptly in this Gospel: and it is not -improbable that St Mark's Gospel was the source of the great commission -to preach and baptize with which St Matthew closes, though the wording -of it has probably been modified in accordance with a settled tradition. - -The work which the writer of this Gospel thus performed received the -immediate sanction of a wide acceptance. It met a definite spiritual -need. It presented the Gospel in a suitable form for the edification of -the Church; and it confirmed its truth by constant appeals to the Old -Testament scriptures, thus manifesting its intimate relation with the -past as the outcome of a long preparation and as the fulfilment of a -Divine purpose. No Gospel is so frequently quoted by the early -post-apostolic writers: none has exercised a greater influence upon -Christianity, and consequently upon the history of the world. - -Yet from the purely historical point of view its evidential value is not -the same as that of St Mark. Its facts for the most part are simply -taken over from the earlier evangelist, and the historian must obviously -prefer the primary source. Its true importance lies in its attestation -of the genuineness of the earlier portraits to which it has so little to -add, in its recognition of the relation of Christ to the whole purpose -of God as revealed in the Old Testament, and in its interpretation of -the Gospel message in its bearing on the living Church of the primitive -days. - -5. _Additions by St Luke._--While the needs of Jewish believers were -amply met by St Matthew's Gospel, a like service was rendered to Gentile -converts by a very different writer. St Luke was a physician who had -accompanied St Paul on his missionary journeys. He undertook a history -of the beginnings of Christianity, two volumes of which have come down -to us, entitled the Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles. His Gospel, -like St Matthew's, is founded on St Mark, with the incorporation of -large portions of the second document of which we have spoken above. But -the way in which the two writers have used the same materials is -strikingly different. In St Matthew's Gospel the original sources are -frequently blended: the incidents of St Mark are rearranged and often -grouped afresh according to subject matter: harsh and ambiguous -sentences of both documents are toned down or interpreted. St Luke, on -the contrary, chooses between parallel stories of his two sources, -preferring neither to duplicate nor to combine: he incorporates St Mark -in continuous sections, following him alone for a time, then leaving him -entirely, and then returning to introduce a new block of his narrative. -He modifies St Mark's style very freely, but he makes less change in the -recorded words of our Lord, and he adheres more closely to the original -language of the second document. - -In his first two chapters he gives an account of the birth and childhood -of St John the Baptist and of our Lord Himself, gathered perhaps -directly from the traditions of the Holy Family, and written in close -imitation of the sacred stories of the Old Testament which were familiar -to him in their Greek translation. The whole series of incidents differ -from that which we find in St Matthew's Gospel, but there is no direct -variance between them. The two narratives are in agreement as to the -central fact of the Virgin-birth. St Luke gives a table of genealogy -which is irreconcilable with the artificial table of St Matthew's -Gospel, and which traces our Lord's ancestry up to Adam, "which was the -son of God." - -The opening scene of the Galilean ministry is the discourse at Nazareth, -in which our Lord claims to fulfil Isaiah's prophecy of the proclamation -of good tidings to the poor. The same prophecy is alluded to in His -reply to the Baptist's messengers which is incorporated subsequently -from the second document. The scene ends with the rejection of Christ by -His own townsfolk, as in the parallel story of St Mark which St Luke -does not give. It is probable that St Luke found this narrative in the -second document, and chose it after his manner in preference to the less -instructive story in St Mark. He similarly omits the Marcan account of -the call of the fishermen, substituting the story of the miraculous -draught. After that he follows St Mark alone, until he introduces after -the call of the twelve apostles the sermon which begins with the -beatitudes and woes. This is from the second document, which he -continues to use, and that without interruption (if we may venture to -assign to it the raising of the widow's son at Nain and the anointing by -the sinful woman in the Pharisee's house), until he returns to -incorporate another section from St Mark. - - - Characteristic Section of St. Luke's Gospel. - -This in turn is followed by the most characteristic section of his -Gospel (ix. 51-xviii. 14), a long series of incidents wholly independent -of St Mark, and introduced as belonging to the period of the final -journey from Galilee to Jerusalem. Much of this material is demonstrably -derived from the second document; and it is quite possible that the -whole of it may come from that source. There are special reasons for -thinking so in regard to certain passages, as for example the mission of -the seventy disciples and the parable of the good Samaritan, although -they are not contained in St Matthew's Gospel. - -For the closing scenes at Jerusalem St Luke makes considerable additions -to St Mark's narrative: he gives a different account of the Last Supper, -and he adds the trial before Herod and the incident of the penitent -robber. He appears to have had no information as to the appearance of -the risen Lord in Galilee, and he accordingly omits from his -reproduction of St Mark's narrative the twice-repeated promise of a -meeting with the disciples there. He supplies, however, an account of -the appearance to the two disciples at Emmaus and to the whole body of -the apostles in Jerusalem. - -St Luke's use of his two main sources has preserved the characteristics -of both of them. The sternness of certain passages, which has led some -critics to imagine that he was an Ebionite, is mainly, if not entirely, -due to his faithful reproduction of the language of the second document. -The key-note of his Gospel is universality: the mission of the Christ -embraces the poor, the weak, the despised, the heretic and the sinful: -it is good tidings to all mankind. He tells of the devotion of Mary and -Martha, and of the band of women who ministered to our Lord's needs and -followed Him to Jerusalem: he tells also of His kindness to more than -one sinful woman. Zacchaeus the publican and the grateful Samaritan -leper further illustrate this characteristic. Writing as he does for -Gentile believers he omits many details which from their strongly Jewish -cast might be unintelligible or uninteresting. He also modifies the -harshness of St Mark's style, and frequently recasts his language in -reference to diseases. From an historical point of view his Gospel is of -high value. The proved accuracy of detail elsewhere, as in his narration -of events which he witnessed in company with St Paul, enhances our -general estimation of his work. A trustworthy observer and a literary -artist, the one non-Jewish evangelist has given us--to use M. Renan's -words--"the most beautiful book in the world." - -6. _Additions by St John._--We come lastly to consider what addition to -our knowledge of Christ's life and work is made by the Fourth Gospel. St -Mark's narrative of our Lord's ministry and passion is so simple and -straightforward that it satisfies our historical sense. We trace a -natural development in it: we seem to see why with such power and such -sympathy He necessarily came into conflict with the religious leaders of -the people, who were jealous of the influence which He gained and were -scandalized by His refusal to be hindered in His mission of mercy by -rules and conventions to which they attached the highest importance. The -issue is fought out in Galilee, and when our Lord finally journeys to -Jerusalem He knows that He goes there to die. The story is so plain and -convincing in itself that it gives at first sight an impression of -completeness. This impression is confirmed by the Gospels of St Matthew -and St Luke, which though they add much fresh material do not disturb -the general scheme presented by St Mark. But on reflection we are led to -question the sufficiency of the account thus offered to us. Is it -probable, we ask, that our Lord should have neglected the sacred custom -in accordance with which the pious Jew visited Jerusalem several times -each year for the observance of the divinely appointed feasts? It is -true that St Mark does not break his narrative of the Galilean ministry -to record such visits: but this does not prove that such visits were not -made. Again, is it probable that He should have so far neglected -Jerusalem as to give it no opportunity of seeing Him and hearing His -message until the last week of His life? If the writers of the other two -Gospels had no means at their disposal for enlarging the narrow -framework of St Mark's narrative by recording definite visits to -Jerusalem, at least they preserve to us words from the second document -which seem to imply such visits: for how else are we to explain the -pathetic complaint, "Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how often would I have -gathered thee, as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings; but ye -would not"? - -St John's Gospel meets our questionings by a wholly new series of -incidents and by an account of a ministry which is concerned mainly not -with Galileans but with Judaeans, and which centres in Jerusalem. It is -carried on to a large extent concurrently with the Galilean ministry: it -is not continuous, but is taken up from feast to feast as our Lord -visits the sacred city at the times of its greatest religious activity. -It differs in character from the Galilean ministry: for among the -simple, unsophisticated folk of Galilee Jesus presents Himself as a -healer and helper and teacher, keeping in the background as far as -possible His claim to be the Messiah; whereas in Jerusalem His authority -is challenged at His first appearance, the element of controversy is -never absent, His relation to God is from the outset the vital issue, -and consequently His Divine claim is of necessity made explicit. Time -after time His life is threatened before the feast is ended, and when -the last passover has come we can well understand, what was not made -sufficiently clear in the brief Marcan narrative, why Jerusalem proved -so fatally hostile to His Messianic claim. - - - The Purpose of St John's Gospel. - -The Fourth Gospel thus offers us a most important supplement to the -limited sketch of our Lord's life which we find in the Synoptic Gospels. -Yet this was not the purpose which led to its composition. That purpose -is plainly stated by the author himself: "These things have been written -that ye may believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that -believing ye may have life in His name." His avowed aim is, not to write -history, but to produce conviction. He desires to interpret the coming -of Jesus Christ into the world, to declare whence and why He came, and -to explain how His coming, as light in the midst of darkness, brought a -crisis into the lives of all with whom He came in contact. The issue of -this crisis in His rejection by the Jews at Jerusalem is the main theme -of the book. - -St John's prologue prepares us to find that he is not writing for -persons who require a succinct narrative of facts, but for those who -having such already in familiar use are asking deep questions as to our -Lord's mission. It goes back far behind human birth or lines of -ancestry. It begins, like the sacred story of creation, "In the -beginning." The Book of Genesis had told how all things were called into -existence by a Divine utterance: "God said, Let there be ... and there -was." The creative Word had been long personified by Jewish thought, -especially in connexion with the prophets to whom "the Word of the Lord" -came. "In the beginning," then, St John tells us, the Word was--was with -God--yea, was God. He was the medium of creation, the source of its -light and its life--especially of that higher life which finds its -manifestation in men. So He was in the world, and the world was made by -Him, and yet the world knew Him not. At length He came, came to the home -which had been prepared for Him, but His own people rejected Him. But -such as did receive Him found a new birth, beyond their birth of flesh -and blood: they became children of God, were born of God. In order thus -to manifest Himself He had undergone a human birth: "the Word was made -flesh, and dwelt among us, and we beheld His glory"--the glory, as the -evangelist has learned to see, of the Father's only-begotten Son, who -has come into the world to reveal to men that God whom "no man hath ever -seen." In these opening words we are invited to study the life of Christ -from a new point of view, to observe His self-manifestation and its -issue. The evangelist looks back across a period of half a century, and -writes of Christ not merely as he saw Him in those far-off days, but as -he has come by long experience to think and speak of Him. The past is -now filled with a glory which could not be so fully perceived at the -time, but which, as St John tells, it was the function of the Holy -Spirit to reveal to Christ's disciples. - -The first name which occurs in this Gospel is that of John the Baptist. -He is even introduced into the prologue which sketches in general terms -the manifestation of the Divine Word: "There was a man sent from God, -whose name was John: he came for witness, to witness to the Light, that -through him all might believe." This witness of John holds a position of -high importance in this Gospel. His mission is described as running on -for a while concurrently with that of our Lord, whereas in the other -Gospels we have no record of our Lord's work until John is cast into -prison. It is among the disciples of the Baptist on the banks of the -Jordan that Jesus finds His first disciples. The Baptist has pointed Him -out to them in striking language, which recalls at once the symbolic -ritual of the law and the spiritual lessons of the prophets: "Behold, -the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world." - -Soon afterwards at Cana of Galilee Jesus gives His first "sign," as the -evangelist calls it, in the change of water into wine to supply the -deficiency at a marriage feast. This scene has all the happy brightness -of the early Galilean ministry which St Mark records. It stands in sharp -contrast with the subsequent appearance of Jesus in Jerusalem at the -Passover, when His first act is to drive the traders from the Temple -courts. In this He seems to be carrying the Baptist's stern mission of -purification from the desert into the heart of the sacred city, and so -fulfilling, perhaps consciously, the solemn prophecy of Malachi which -opens with the words: "Behold, I will send My Messenger, and He shall -prepare the way before Me; and the Lord whom ye seek shall suddenly come -to His Temple" (Mai. iii. 1-5). This significant action provokes a -challenge of His authority, which is answered by a mysterious saying, -not understood at the time, but interpreted afterwards as referring to -the Resurrection. After this our Lord was visited secretly by a Pharisee -named Nicodemus, whose advances were severely met by the words, "Except -a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God." When Nicodemus -objected that this was to demand a physical impossibility, he was -answered that the new birth was "of water and spirit"--words which -doubtless contained a reference to the mission of the Baptist and to his -prophecy of One who should baptize with the Holy Spirit. Towards the end -of this conversation the evangelist passes imperceptibly from reporting -the words of the Lord into an interpretation or amplification of them, -and in language which recalls the prologue he unfolds the meaning of -Christ's mission and indicates the crisis of self-judgment which -necessarily accompanies the manifestation of the Light to each -individual. When he resumes his narrative the Lord has left Jerusalem, -and is found baptizing disciples, in even greater numbers than the -Baptist himself. Though Jesus did not personally perform the rite, it is -plain once again that in this early period He closely linked His own -mission with that of John the Baptist. When men hinted at a rivalry -between them, John plainly declared "He must increase, and I must -decrease": and the reply of Jesus was to leave Judaea for Galilee. - -Away from the atmosphere of contention we find Him manifesting the same -broad sympathy and freedom from convention which we have noted in the -other Gospels, especially in that of St Luke. He converses with a woman, -with a woman moreover who is a Samaritan, and who is of unchaste life. -He offers her the "living water" which shall supply all her needs: she -readily accepts Him as the expected Messiah, and He receives a welcome -from the Samaritans. He passes on to Galilee, where also He is welcomed, -and where He performs His second "sign," healing the son of one of -Herod's courtiers. - - - The Ministry at Jerusalem. - -But St John's interest does not lie in Galilee, and he soon brings our -Lord back to Jerusalem on the occasion of a feast. The Baptist's work is -now ended; and, though Jesus still appeals to the testimony of John, the -new conflict with the Jewish authorities shows that He is moving now on -His own independent and characteristic lines. In cleansing the Temple He -had given offence by what might seem an excess of rigour: now, by -healing a sick man and bidding him carry his bed on the Sabbath, He -offended by His laxity. He answered His accusers by the brief but -pregnant sentence: "My Father worketh even until now, and I work." They -at once understood that He thus claimed a unique relation to God, and -their antagonism became the more intense: "the Jews therefore sought the -more to kill Him, because He had not only broken the Sabbath, but had -also said that God was His own Father, making Himself equal to God." His -first reply is then expanded to cover the whole region of life. The Son -beholds the Father at work, and works concurrently, doing nothing of -Himself. He does the Father's will. The very principle of life is -entrusted to Him. He quickens, and He judges. As Son of Man He judges -man. - -The next incident is the feeding of the five thousand, which belongs to -the Galilean ministry and is recorded by the three other evangelists. St -John's purpose in introducing it is not historical but didactic. It is -made the occasion of instruction as to the heavenly food, the flesh and -blood of Him who came down from heaven. This teaching leads to a -conflict with certain Judaeans who seem to have come from Jerusalem, and -it proves a severe test even to the faith of disciples. - -The feast of tabernacles brings fresh disputes in Jerusalem, and an -attempt is made to arrest Jesus. A climax of indignation is reached when -a blind man is healed at the pool of Siloam on the sabbath day. At the -feast of the dedication a fresh effort at arrest was made, and Jesus -then withdrew beyond the Jordan. Here He learned of the sickness of -Lazarus, and presently He returned and came to Bethany to raise him from -the dead. The excitement produced by this miracle led to yet another -attack, destined this time to be successful, on the life of Jesus. The -Passover was at hand, and the last supper of our Lord with His disciples -on the evening before the Passover lamb was killed is made the occasion -of the most inspiring consolations. Our Lord interprets His relation to -the disciples by the figure of a tree and its branches--He is the whole -of which they are the parts; He promises the mission of the Holy Spirit -to continue His work in the world; and He solemnly commends to His -Father the disciples whom He is about to leave. - -The account of the trial and the crucifixion differs considerably from -the accounts given in the other Gospels. St John's narratives are in -large part personal memories, and in more than one incident he himself -figures as the unnamed disciple "whom Jesus loved." In the Resurrection -scenes he also gives incidents in which he has played a part; and the -appearances of the risen Lord are not confined either to Jerusalem or to -Galilee, but occur in both localities. - -If we ask what is the special contribution to history, apart from -theology, which St John's Gospel makes, the answer would seem to be -this--that beside the Galilean ministry reported by St Mark there was a -ministry to "Jews" (Judaeans) in Jerusalem, not continuous, but -occasional, taken up from time to time as the great feasts came round; -that its teaching was widely different from that which was given to -Galileans, and that the situation created was wholly unlike that which -arose out of the Galilean ministry. The Galilean ministry opens with -enthusiasm, ripening into a popularity which even endangers a -satisfactory result. Where opposition manifests itself, it is not native -opposition, but comes from religious teachers who are parts of a system -which centres in Jerusalem, and who are sometimes expressly noted as -having come from Jerusalem. The Jerusalem ministry on the contrary is -never welcomed with enthusiasm. It has to do with those who challenge it -from the first. There is no atmosphere of simplicity and teachableness -which rejoices in the manifestation of power and sympathy and liberty. -It is a witness delivered to a hostile audience, whether they will hear -or no. Ultimate issues are quickly raised: keen critics see at once the -claims which underlie deeds and words, and the claims in consequence -become explicit: the relation of the teacher to God Himself is the vital -interest. The conflict which thus arose explains what St Mark's succinct -narrative had left unexplained--the fatal hostility of Jerusalem. It may -have been a part of St John's purpose to give this explanation, and to -make other supplements or corrections where earlier narratives appeared -to him incomplete or misleading. But he says nothing to indicate this, -while on the other hand he distinctly proclaims that his purpose is to -produce and confirm conviction of the divine claims of Jesus Christ. - - For bibliography see BIBLE; CHRISTIANITY; CHURCH HISTORY; and the - articles on the separate Gospels. (J. A. R.) - - - - -JET (Fr. _jais_, Ger. _Gagat_), a substance which seems to be a peculiar -kind of lignite or anthracite; often cut and polished for ornaments. The -word "jet" probably comes, through O. Fr. _jaiet_, from the classical -_gagates_, a word which was derived, according to Pliny, from Gagas, in -Lycia, where jet, or a similar substance, was originally found. Jet was -used in Britain in prehistoric times; many round barrows of the Bronze -age have yielded jet beads, buttons, rings, armlets and other ornaments. -The abundance of jet in Britain is alluded to by Caius Julius Solinus -(fl. 3rd century) and jet ornaments are found with Roman relics in -Britain. Probably the supply was obtained from the coast of Yorkshire, -especially near Whitby, where nodules of jet were formerly picked up on -the shore. Caedmon refers to this jet, and at a later date it was used -for rosary beads by the monks of Whitby Abbey. - - The Whitby jet occurs in irregular masses, often of lenticular shape, - embedded in hard shales known as jet-rock. The jet-rock series belongs - to that division of the Upper Lias which is termed the zone of - _Ammonites serpentinus_. Microscopic examination of jet occasionally - reveals the structure of coniferous wood, which A. C. Seward has shown - to be araucarian. Probably masses of wood were brought down by a - river, and drifted out to sea, where becoming water-logged they sank, - and became gradually buried in a deposit of fine mud, which eventually - hardened into shale. Under pressure, perhaps assisted by heat, and - with exclusion of air, the wood suffered a peculiar kind of - decomposition, probably modified by the presence of salt water, as - suggested by Percy E. Spielmann. Scales of fish and other fossils of - the jet-rock are frequently impregnated with bituminous products, - which may replace the original tissues. Drops of liquid bitumen occur - in the cavities of some fossils, whilst inflammable gas is not - uncommon in the jet-workings, and petroleum may be detected by its - smell. Iron pyrites is often associated with the jet. - - Formerly sufficient jet was found in loose pieces on the shore, set - free by the disintegration of the cliffs, or washed up from a - submarine source. When this supply became insufficient, the rock was - attacked by the jet-workers; ultimately the workings took the form of - true mines, levels being driven into the shales not only at their - outcrop in the cliffs but in some of the inland dales of the Yorkshire - moorlands, such as Eskdale. The best jet has a uniform black colour, - and is hard, compact and homogeneous in texture, breaking with a - conchoidal fracture. It must be tough enough to be readily carved or - turned on the lathe, and sufficiently compact in texture to receive a - high polish. The final polish was formerly given by means of rouge, - which produces a beautiful velvety surface, but rotten-stone and - lampblack are often employed instead. The softer kinds, not capable of - being freely worked, are known as bastard jet. A soft jet is obtained - from the estuarine series of the Lower Oolites of Yorkshire. - - Much jet is imported from Spain, but it is generally less hard and - lustrous than true Whitby jet. In Spain the chief locality is - Villaviciosa, in the province of Asturias. France furnishes jet, - especially in the department of the Aude. Much jet, too, occurs in the - Lias of Wurttemberg, and works have been established for its - utilization. In the United States jet is known at many localities but - is not systematically worked. Pennsylvanian anthracite, however, has - been occasionally employed as a substitute. In like manner Scotch - cannel coal has been sometimes used at Whitby. Imitations of jet, or - substitutes for it, are furnished by vulcanite, glass, black obsidian - and black onyx, or stained chalcedony. Jet is sometimes improperly - termed black amber, because like amber, though in less degree, it - becomes electric by friction. - - See P. E. Spielmann, "On the Origin of Jet," _Chemical News_ (Dec. 14, - 1906); C. Fox-Strangways, "The Jurassic Rocks of Britain, Vol. I. - Yorkshire," _Mem. Geol. Surv._ (1892); J. A. Bower, "Whitby Jet and - its Manufacture," _Journ. Soc. Arts_ (1874, vol. xxii. p. 80). - - - - -JETHRO (or JETHER, Exod. iv. 18), the priest of Midian, in the Bible, -whose daughter Zipporah became the wife of Moses. He is known as Hobab -the son of Reuel the Kenite (Num. x. 29; Judg. iv. 11 ), and once as -Reuel (Exod. ii. 18); and if Zipporah is the wife of Moses referred to -in Num. xii. 1, the family could be regarded as Cushite (see Cush). -Jethro was the priest of Yahweh, and resided at the sacred mountain -where the deity commissioned Moses to deliver the Israelites from Egypt. -Subsequently Jethro came to Moses (probably at Kadesh), a great -sacrificial feast was held, and the priest instructed Moses in -legislative procedure; Exod. xviii. 27 (see EXODUS) and Num. x. 30 imply -that the scene was not Sinai. Jethro was invited to accompany the people -into the promised land, and later, we find his clan settling in the -south of Judah (Judg. i. 16); see KENITES. The traditions agree in -representing the kin of Moses as related to the mixed tribes of the -south of Palestine (see EDOM) and in ascribing to the family an -important share in the early development of the worship of Yahweh. -Cheyne suggests that the names of Hobab and of Jonadab the father of the -Rechabites (q.v.) were originally identical (_Ency. Bib._ ii. col. -2101). - - - - -JETTY. The term jetty, derived from Fr. _jetee_, and therefore -signifying something "thrown out," is applied to a variety of structures -employed in river, dock and maritime works, which are generally carried -out in pairs from river banks, or in continuation of river channels at -their outlets into deep water; or out into docks, and outside their -entrances; or for forming basins along the sea-coast for ports in -tideless seas. The forms and construction of these jetties are as varied -as their uses; for though they invariably extend out into water, and -serve either for directing a current or for accommodating vessels, they -are sometimes formed of high open timber-work, sometimes of low solid -projections, and occasionally only differ from breakwaters in their -object. - - _Jetties for regulating Rivers._--Formerly jetties of timber-work were - very commonly extended out, opposite one another, from each bank of a - river, at intervals, to contract a wide channel, and by concentration - of the current to produce a deepening of the central channel; or - sometimes mounds of rubble stone, stretching down the foreshore from - each bank, served the same purpose. As, however, this system - occasioned a greater scour between the ends of the jetties than in the - intervening channels, and consequently produced an irregular depth, it - has to a great extent been superseded by longitudinal training works, - or by dipping cross dikes pointing somewhat upstream (see RIVER - ENGINEERING). - - [Illustration: FIG 1.--Timber Jetty across Dock Slope.] - - _Jetties at Docks._--Where docks are given sloping sides, openwork - timber jetties are generally carried across the slope, at the ends of - which vessels can lie in deep water (fig. 1); or more solid structures - are erected over the slope for supporting coal-tips. Pilework jetties - are also constructed in the water outside the entrances to docks on - each side, so as to form an enlarging trumpet-shaped channel between - the entrance, lock or tidal basin and the approach channel, in order - to guide vessels in entering or leaving the docks. Solid jetties, - moreover, lined with quay walls, are sometimes carried out into a wide - dock, at right angles to the line of quays at the side, to enlarge the - accommodation; and they also serve, when extended on a large scale - from the coast of a tideless sea under shelter of an outlying - breakwater, to form the basins in which vessels lie when discharging - and taking in cargoes in such a port as Marseilles (see DOCK). - - _Jetties at Entrances to Jetty Harbours._--The approach channel to - some ports situated on sandy coasts is guided and protected across the - beach by parallel jetties, made solid up to a little above low water - of neap tides, on which open timber-work is erected, provided with a - planked platform at the top raised above the highest tides. The - channel between the jetties was originally maintained by tidal scour - from low-lying areas close to the coast, and subsequently by the - current from sluicing basins; but it is now often considerably - deepened by sand-pump dredging. It is protected to some extent by the - solid portion of the jetties from the inroad of sand from the adjacent - beach, and from the levelling action of the waves; whilst the upper - open portion serves to indicate the channel, and to guide the vessels - if necessary (see HARBOUR). The bottom part of the older jetties, in - such long-established jetty ports as Calais, Dunkirk and Ostend, was - composed of clay or rubble stone, covered on the top by fascine-work - or pitching; but the deepening of the jetty channel by dredging, and - the need which arose for its enlargement, led to the reconstruction of - the jetties at these ports. The new jetties at Dunkirk were founded in - the sandy beach, by the aid of compressed air, at a depth of 22(3/4) - ft. below low water of spring tides; and their solid masonry portion, - on a concrete foundation, was raised 5(3/5) ft. above low water of - neap tides (fig. 2). - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Dunkirk East Jetty.] - - _Jetties at Lagoon Outlets._--A small tidal rise spreading tidal water - over a large expanse of lagoon or inland back-water causes the influx - and efflux of the tide to maintain a deep channel through a narrow - outlet; but the issuing current on emerging from the outlet, being no - longer confined by a bank on each side, becomes dispersed, and owing - to the reduction of its scouring force, is no longer able at a - moderate distance from the shore effectually to resist the action of - the waves and littoral currents tending to form a continuous beach in - front of the outlet. Hence a bar is produced which diminishes the - available depth in the approach channel. By carrying out a solid jetty - over the bar, however, on each side of the outlet, the tidal currents - are concentrated in the channel across the bar, and lower it by scour. - Thus the available depth of the approach channels to Venice through - the Malamocco and Lido outlets from the Venetian lagoon have been - deepened several feet over their bars by jetties of rubble stone - surmounted by a small superstructure (fig. 3), carried out across the - foreshore into deep water on both sides of the channel. Other examples - are provided by the long jetties extended into the sea in front of the - entrance to Charleston harbour, formerly constructed of fascines, - weighted with stone and logs, but subsequently of rubble stone, and by - the two converging rubble jetties carried out from each shore of - Dublin bay for deepening the approach to Dublin harbour. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lido Outlet Jetty, Venice.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Mississippi South Pass Outlet Jetty.] - - _Jetties at the Outlet of Tideless Rivers._--Jetties have been - constructed on each side of the outlet of some of the rivers flowing - into the Baltic, with the objects of prolonging the scour of the river - and protecting the channel from being shoaled by the littoral drift - along the shore. The most interesting application of parallel jetties - is in lowering the bar in front of one of the mouths of a deltaic - river flowing into a tideless sea, by extending the scour of the river - out to the bar by a virtual prolongation of its banks. Jetties - prolonging the Sulina branch of the Danube into the Black Sea, and the - south pass of the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico (fig. 4), formed - of rubble stone and concrete blocks, and fascine mattresses weighted - with stone and surmounted with large concrete blocks respectively, - have enabled the discharge of these rivers to scour away the bars - obstructing the access to them; and they have also carried the - sediment-bearing waters sufficiently far out to come under the - influence of littoral currents, which, by conveying away some of the - sediment, postpone the eventual formation of a fresh bar farther out - (see RIVER ENGINEERING). - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.--River Maas Outlet, North Jetty.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--River Nervion Outlet, Western Jetty.] - - _Jetties at the Mouth of Tidal Rivers._--Where a river is narrow near - its mouth, and its discharge is generally feeble, the sea is liable on - an exposed coast, when the tidal range is small, to block up its - outlet during severe storms. The river is thus forced to seek another - exit at a weak spot of the beach, which along a low coast may be at - some distance off; and this new outlet in its turn may be blocked up, - so that the river from time to time shifts the position of its mouth. - This inconvenient cycle of changes may be stopped by fixing the outlet - of the river at a suitable site, by carrying a jetty on each side of - this outlet across the beach, thereby concentrating its discharge in a - definite channel and protecting the mouth from being blocked up by - littoral drift. This system was long ago applied to the shifting - outlet of the river Yare to the south of Yarmouth, and has also been - successfully employed for fixing the wandering mouth of the Adur near - Shoreham, and of the Adour flowing into the Bay of Biscay below - Bayonne. When a new channel was cut across the Hook of Holland to - provide a straighter and deeper outlet channel for the river Maas, - forming the approach channel to Rotterdam, low, broad, parallel - jetties, composed of fascine mattresses weighted with stone (fig. 5), - were carried across the foreshore into the sea on either side of the - new mouth of the river, to protect the jetty channel from littoral - drift, and cause the discharge of the river to maintain it out to deep - water (see RIVER ENGINEERING). The channel, also, beyond the outlet of - the river Nervion into the Bay of Biscay has been regulated by - jetties; and by extending the south-west jetty out for nearly half a - mile with a curve concave towards the channel the outlet has not only - been protected to some extent from the easterly drift, but the bar in - front has been lowered by the scour produced by the discharge of the - river following the concave bend of the south-west jetty. As the outer - portion of this jetty was exposed to westerly storms from the Bay of - Biscay before the outer harbour was constructed, it has been given the - form and strength of a breakwater situated in shallow water (fig. 6). - (L. F. V.-H.) - - - - -JEVER, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, 13 m. by rail -N.W. of Wilhelmshaven, and connected with the North Sea by a navigable -canal. Pop. (1901), 5486. The chief industries are weaving, spinning, -dyeing, brewing and milling; there is also a trade in horses and cattle. -The fathers (_Die Getreuen_) of the town used to send an annual birthday -present of 101 plovers' eggs to Bismarck, with a dedication in verse. - -The castle of Jever was built by Prince Edo Wiemken (d. 1410), the ruler -of Jeverland, a populous district which in 1575 came under the rule of -the dukes of Oldenburg. In 1603 it passed to the house of Anhalt and was -later the property of the empress Catherine II. of Russia, a member of -this family. In 1814 it came again into the possession of Oldenburg. - - See D. Hohnholz, _Aus Jevers Vorgangenheit_ (Jever, 1886); Hagena, - _Jeverland bis zum Jahr_ 1500 (Oldenburg, 1902); and F. W. Riemann, - _Geschichte des Jeverlandes_ (Jever, 1896). - - - - -JEVEROS (JEBEROS, JIBAROS, JIVAROS or GIVAROS), a tribe of South -American Indians on the upper Maranon, Peru, where they wander in the -forests. The tribe has many branches and there are frequent tribal wars, -but they have always united against a common enemy. Juan de Velasco -declares them to be faithful, noble and amiable. They are brave and -warlike, and though upon the conquest of Peru they temporarily -submitted, a general insurrection in 1599 won them back their liberty. -Curious dried human heads, supposed to have been objects of worship, -have been found among the Jeveros (see _Ethnol. Soc. Trans._ 1862, W. -Bollaert). - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 15, Slice 3, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 41156.txt or 41156.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/1/5/41156/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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