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diff --git a/41156-0.txt b/41156-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..80b502b --- /dev/null +++ b/41156-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17823 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41156 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE JAPAN: "Moreover, Korean history mentions twenty-five raids + made by the Japanese against Silla during the first five centuries + of the Christian era, but not one of them can be identified with + Jingo's alleged expedition." 'identified' amended from + 'indentified'. + + ARTICLE JAPAN: "Where these representatives of centralized power + found themselves impotent, it may well be supposed that the + comparatively petty chieftains who fought each for his own hand in + the 15th and 16th centuries were incapable of accomplishing + anything." 'chieftains' amended from 'chieftans'. + + ARTICLE JAPAN: "The survivors fled pell-mell to Osaka, where in a + colossal fortress, built by Hideyoshi, his son, Hideyori, and the + latter's mother, Yodo, were sheltered behind ramparts held by + 80,000 men." Added 'by'. + + ARTICLE JAPAN: "Thus in the interval between 1873 and 1877 there + were two centres of disturbance in Japan: one in Satsuma, where + Saigo figured as leader; the other in Tosa, under Itagaki's + guidance." 'between' amended from 'betweeen'. + + ARTICLE JAPAN: "... legislated consistently with that theory, and + entrusted to the police large powers of control over the press and + the platform." 'control' amended from 'conrol'. + + ARTICLE JAVA: "Snipe-shooting is a favourite sport." 'favourite' + amended from 'favourtie'. + + ARTICLE JAVA: "See R. Verbeek, 'Liget der oudheden van Java,' in + Verhand. v. h. Bat. Gen., xlvi., and his Oudheidkundige kaart van + Java." 'Oudheidkundige' amended from 'Oudreidkundige'. + + ARTICLE JEFFERSON CITY: "Employment is furnished for the convicts + on the penitentiary premises by incorporated companies." + 'penitentiary' amended from 'pentitentiary'. + + ARTICLE JENGHIZ KHAN: "On examining the child he observed in its + clenched fist a clot of coagulated blood like a red stone." 'he' + amended from 'be'. + + ARTICLE JENNER, EDWARD: "In the autumn of the same year, Jenner met + with the first opposition to vaccination; and this was the more + formidable because it proceeded from J. Ingenhousz, a celebrated + physician and man of science." 'proceeded' amended from 'proceded'. + + ARTICLE JERUSALEM: "According to this theory, the part of Jerusalem + known as Jebus was situated on the western hill, and the outlying + fort of Zion on the eastern hill. The men of Judah and Benjamin did + not succeed in getting full possession of the place ..." 'this' + amended from 'his'. + + ARTICLE JESUS CHRIST: "In the light of the coming kingdom it + proclaims the blessedness of the poor, the hungry, the sad and the + maligned; and the woefulness of the rich, the full, the merry and + the popular." 'woefulness' amended from 'wofulness'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XV, SLICE III + + Japan (part) to Jeveros + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + JAPAN (part) JEHOIACHIN + JAPANNING JEHOIAKIM + JAPHETH JEHOL + JAR JEHORAM + JARGON JEHOSHAPHAT + JARGOON JEHOVAH + JARIR IBN 'ATIYYA UL-KHATFI JEHU + JARKENT JEKYLL, SIR JOSEPH + JARNAC JELLACHICH, JOSEF + JARO JELLINEK, ADOLF + JAROSITE JEMAPPES + JARRAH WOOD JENA + JARROW JENATSCH, GEORG + JARRY, NICOLAS JENGHIZ KHAN + JARVIS, JOHN WESLEY JENKIN, HENRY CHARLES FLEEMING + JASHAR, BOOK OF JENKINS, SIR LEOLINE + JASHPUR JENKINS, ROBERT + JASMIN, JACQUES JENKS, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE + JASMINE JENNÉ + JASON JENNER, EDWARD + JASON OF CYRENE JENNER, SIR WILLIAM + JASPER JENNET + JASSY JENOLAN CAVES + JATAKA JENSEN, WILHELM + JATH JENYNS, SOAME + JÁTIVA JEOPARDY + JATS JEPHSON, ROBERT + JAUBERT, PIERRE AMÉDÉE PROBE JEPHTHAH + JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANÇOIS JERAHMEEL + JAUER JERBA + JAUHARI JERBOA + JAUNDICE JERDAN, WILLIAM + JAUNPUR JEREMIAH + JAUNTING-CAR JEREMY, EPISTLE OF + JAUREGUI, JUAN JERÉZ DE LA FRONTERA + JAURÉGUIBERRY, JEAN BERNARD JERÉZ DE LOS CABALLEROS + JÁUREGUI Y AGUILAR, JUAN MARTÍNEZ DE JERICHO + JAURÈS, JEAN LÉON JERKIN + JAVA JEROBOAM + JAVELIN JEROME, ST + JAW JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA + JAWALIQI JEROME OF PRAGUE + JAWHAR JERROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM + JAWORÓW JERRY + JAY, JOHN JERSEY, EARLS OF + JAY, WILLIAM JERSEY + JAY JERSEY CITY + JEALOUSY JERUSALEM + JEAN D'ARRAS JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF + JEAN DE MEUN JESI + JEANNETTE JESSE + JEANNIN, PIERRE JESSE, EDWARD + JEBB, JOHN JESSE, JOHN HENEAGE + JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JESSEL, SIR GEORGE + JEBEIL JESSORE + JEBEL JESTER + JEDBURGH JESUATI + JEEJEEBHOY, SIR JAMSETJEE JESUITS + JEFFERIES, RICHARD JESUP, MORRIS KETCHUM + JEFFERSON, JOSEPH JESUS CHRIST + JEFFERSON, THOMAS JET + JEFFERSON CITY JETHRO + JEFFERSONVILLE JETTY + JEFFREY, FRANCIS JEFFREY JEVER + JEFFREYS, GEORGE JEFFREYS JEVEROS + + + + +JAPAN, [_Continued from volume XV slice II._] + + + Japan's Claim for Judicial Autonomy. + +After the abolition of the shogunate and the resumption of +administrative functions by the Throne, one of the first acts of the +newly organized government was to invite the foreign representatives to +Kioto, where they had audience of the mikado. Subsequently a decree was +issued, announcing the emperor's resolve to establish amicable relations +with foreign countries, and "declaring that any Japanese subject +thereafter guilty of violent behaviour towards a foreigner would not +only act in opposition to the Imperial command, but would also be guilty +of impairing the dignity and good faith of the nation in the eyes of the +powers with which his majesty had pledged himself to maintain +friendship." From that time the relations between Japan and foreign +states grew yearly more amicable; the nation adopted the products of +Western civilization with notable thoroughness, and the provisions of +the treaties were carefully observed. Those treaties, however, presented +one feature which very soon became exceedingly irksome to Japan. They +exempted foreigners residing within her borders from the operation of +her criminal laws, and secured to them the privilege of being arraigned +solely before tribunals of their own nationality. That system had always +been considered necessary where the subjects of Christian states visited +or sojourned in non-Christian countries, and, for the purpose of giving +effect to it, consular courts were established. This necessitated the +confinement of foreign residents to settlements in the neighbourhood of +the consular courts, since it would have been imprudent to allow +foreigners to have free access to districts remote from the only +tribunals competent to control them. The Japanese raised no objection to +the embodiment of this system in the treaties. They recognized its +necessity and even its expediency, for if, on the one hand, it infringed +their country's sovereign rights, on the other, it prevented +complications which must have ensued had they been entrusted with +jurisdiction which they were not prepared to discharge satisfactorily. +But the consular courts were not free from defects. A few of the powers +organized competent tribunals presided over by judicial experts, but a +majority of the treaty states, not having sufficiently large interests +at stake, were content to delegate consular duties to merchants, not +only deficient in legal training, but also themselves engaged in the +very commercial transactions upon which they might at any moment be +required to adjudicate in a magisterial capacity. In any circumstances +the dual functions of consul and judge could not be discharged without +anomaly by the same official, for he was obliged to act as advocate in +the preliminary stages of complications about which, in his position as +judge, he might ultimately have to deliver an impartial verdict. In +practice, however, the system worked with tolerable smoothness, and +might have remained long in force had not the patriotism of the Japanese +rebelled bitterly against the implication that their country was unfit +to exercise one of the fundamental attributes of every sovereign state, +judicial autonomy. From the very outset they spared no effort to qualify +for the recovery of this attribute. Revision of the country's laws and +reorganization of its law courts would necessarily have been an +essential feature of the general reforms suggested by contact with the +Occident, but the question of consular jurisdiction certainly +constituted a special incentive. Expert assistance was obtained from +France and Germany; the best features of European jurisprudence were +adapted to the conditions and usages of Japan; the law courts were +remodelled, and steps were taken to educate a competent judiciary. In +criminal law the example of France was chiefly followed; in commercial +law that of Germany; and in civil law that of the Occident generally, +with due regard to the customs of the country. The jury system was not +adopted, collegiate courts being regarded as more conducive to justice, +and the order of procedure went from tribunals of first instance to +appeal courts and finally to the court of cassation. Schools of law were +quickly opened, and a well-equipped bar soon came into existence. Twelve +years after the inception of these great works, Japan made formal +application for revision of the treaties on the basis of abolishing +consular jurisdiction. She had asked for revision in 1871, sending to +Europe and America an important embassy to raise the question. But at +that time the conditions originally calling for consular jurisdiction +had not undergone any change such as would have justified its abolition, +and the Japanese government, though very anxious to recover tariff +autonomy as well as judicial, shrank from separating the two questions, +lest by prematurely solving one the solution of the other might be +unduly deferred. Thus the embassy failed, and though the problem +attracted great academical interest from the first, it did not re-enter +the field of practical politics until 1883. The negotiations were long +protracted. Never previously had an Oriental state received at the hands +of the Occident recognition such as that now demanded by Japan, and the +West naturally felt deep reluctance to try a wholly novel experiment. +The United States had set a generous example by concluding a new treaty +(1878) on the lines desired by Japan. But its operation was conditional +on a similar act of compliance by the other treaty powers. Ill-informed +European publicists ridiculed the Washington statesmen's attitude on +this occasion, claiming that what had been given with one hand was taken +back with the other. The truth is that the conditional provision was +inserted at the request of Japan herself, who appreciated her own +unpreparedness for the concession. From 1883, however, she was ready to +accept full responsibility, and she therefore asked that all foreigners +within her borders should thenceforth be subject to her laws and +judiciable by her law-courts, supplementing her application by +promising that its favourable reception should be followed by the +complete opening of the country and the removal of all restrictions +hitherto imposed on foreign trade, travel and residence in her realm. +"From the first it had been the habit of Occidental peoples to upbraid +Japan on account of the barriers opposed by her to full and free foreign +intercourse, and she was now able to claim that these barriers were no +longer maintained by her desire, but that they existed because of a +system which theoretically proclaimed her unfitness for free association +with Western nations, and practically made it impossible for her to +throw open her territories completely for the ingress of foreigners." +She had a strong case, but on the side of the European powers extreme +reluctance was manifested to try the unprecedented experiment of placing +their people under the jurisdiction of an Oriental country. Still +greater was the reluctance of those upon whom the experiment would be +tried. Foreigners residing in Japan naturally clung to consular +jurisdiction as a privilege of inestimable value. They saw, indeed, that +such a system could not be permanently imposed on a country where the +conditions justifying it had nominally disappeared. But they saw, also, +that the legal and judicial reforms effected by Japan had been crowded +into an extraordinarily brief period, and that, as tyros experimenting +with alien systems, the Japanese might be betrayed into many errors. + + + Recognition by the Powers. + +The negotiations lasted for eleven years. They were begun in 1883 and a +solution was not reached until 1894. Finally European governments +conceded the justice of Japan's case, and it was agreed that from July +1899 Japanese tribunals should assume jurisdiction over every person, of +whatever nationality, within the confines of Japan, and the whole +country should be thrown open to foreigners, all limitations upon trade, +travel and residence being removed. Great Britain took the lead in thus +releasing Japan from the fetters of the old system. The initiative came +from her with special grace, for the system and all its irksome +consequences had been originally imposed on Japan by a combination of +powers with Great Britain in the van. As a matter of historical sequence +the United States dictated the terms of the first treaty providing for +consular jurisdiction. But from a very early period the Washington +government showed its willingness to remove all limitations of Japan's +sovereignty, whereas Europe, headed by Great Britain, whose +preponderating interests entitled her to lead, resolutely refused to +make any substantial concession. In Japanese eyes, therefore, British +conservatism seemed to be the one serious obstacle, and since the +British residents in the settlements far outnumbered all other +nationalities, and since they alone had newspaper organs to ventilate +their grievances--it was certainly fortunate for the popularity of her +people in the Far East that Great Britain saw her way finally to set a +liberal example. Nearly five years were required to bring the other +Occidental powers into line with Great Britain and America. It should be +stated, however, that neither reluctance to make the necessary +concessions nor want of sympathy with Japan caused the delay. The +explanation is, first, that each set of negotiators sought to improve +either the terms or the terminology of the treaties already concluded, +and, secondly, that the tariff arrangements for the different countries +required elaborate discussion. + + + Reception given to the Revised Treaties. + +Until the last of the revised treaties was ratified, voices of protest +against revision continued to be vehemently raised by a large section of +the foreign community in the settlements. Some were honestly +apprehensive as to the issue of the experiment. Others were swayed by +racial prejudice. A few had fallen into an insuperable habit of +grumbling, or found their account in advocating conservatism under +pretence of championing foreign interests; and all were naturally +reluctant to forfeit the immunity from taxation hitherto enjoyed. It +seemed as though the inauguration of the new system would find the +foreign community in a mood which must greatly diminish the chances of a +happy result, for where a captious and aggrieved disposition exists, +opportunities to discover causes of complaint cannot be wanting. But at +the eleventh hour this unfavourable demeanour underwent a marked change. +So soon as it became evident that the old system was hopelessly doomed, +the sound common sense of the European and American business man +asserted itself. The foreign residents let it be seen that they intended +to bow cheerfully to the inevitable, and that no obstacles would be +willingly placed by them in the path of Japanese jurisdiction. The +Japanese, on their side, took some promising steps. An Imperial rescript +declared in unequivocal terms that it was the sovereign's policy and +desire to abolish all distinctions between natives and foreigners, and +that by fully carrying out the friendly purpose of the treaties his +people would best consult his wishes, maintain the character of the +nation, and promote its prestige. The premier and other ministers of +state issued instructions to the effect that the responsibility now +devolved on the government, and the duty on the people, of enabling +foreigners to reside confidently and contentedly in every part of the +country. Even the chief Buddhist prelates addressed to the priests and +parishioners in their dioceses injunctions pointing out that, freedom of +conscience being now guaranteed by the constitution, men professing +alien creeds must be treated as courteously as the followers of +Buddhism, and must enjoy the same rights and privileges. + +Thus the great change was effected in circumstances of happy augury. Its +results were successful on the whole. Foreigners residing in Japan now +enjoy immunity of domicile, personal and religious liberty, freedom from +official interference, and security of life and property as fully as +though they were living in their own countries, and they have gradually +learned to look with greatly increased respect upon Japanese law and its +administrators. + + + Anglo-Japanese Alliance. + +Next to the revision of the treaties and to the result of the great wars +waged by Japan since the resumption of foreign intercourse, the most +memorable incident in her modern career was the conclusion, first, of an +_entente_, and, secondly, of an offensive and defensive alliance with +Great Britain in January 1902 and September 1905, respectively. The +_entente_ set out by disavowing on the part of each of the contracting +parties any aggressive tendency in either China or Korea, the +independence of which two countries was explicitly recognized; and went +on to declare that Great Britain in China and Japan in China and Korea +might take indispensable means to safeguard their interests; while, if +such measures involved one of the signatories in war with a third power, +the other signatory would not only remain neutral but would also +endeavour to prevent other powers from joining in hostilities against +its ally, and would come to the assistance of the latter in the event of +its being faced by two or more powers. The _entente_ further recognized +that Japan possessed, in a peculiar degree, political, commercial and +industrial interests in Korea. This agreement, equally novel for each of +the contracting parties, evidently tended to the benefit of Japan more +than to that of Great Britain, inasmuch as the interests in question +were vital from the former power's point of view but merely local from +the latter's. The inequality was corrected by an offensive and defensive +alliance in 1905. For the scope of the agreement was then extended to +India and eastern Asia generally, and while the signatories pledged +themselves, on the one hand, to preserve the common interests of all +powers in China by insuring her integrity and independence as well as +the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce and industry of +all nations within her borders, they agreed, on the other, to maintain +their own territorial rights in eastern Asia and India, and to come to +each other's armed assistance in the event of those rights being +assailed by any other power or powers. These agreements have, of course, +a close relation to the events which accompanied or immediately preceded +them, but they also present a vivid and radical contrast between a +country which, less than half a century previously, had struggled +vehemently to remain secluded from the world, and a country which now +allied itself with one of the most liberal and progressive nations for +the purposes of a policy extending over the whole of eastern Asia and +India. This contrast was accentuated two years later (1907) when France +and Russia concluded _ententes_ with Japan, recognizing the independence +and integrity of the Chinese Empire, as well as the principle of equal +opportunity for all nations in that country, and engaging to support +each other for assuring peace and security there. Japan thus became a +world power in the most unequivocal sense. + + + War with Korea. + +_Japan's Foreign Wars and Complications._--The earliest foreign war +conducted by Japan is said to have taken place at the beginning of the +3rd century, when the empress Jingo led an army to the conquest of +Korea. But as the event is supposed to have happened more than 500 years +before the first Japanese record was written, its traditional details +cannot be seriously discussed. There is, however, no room to doubt that +from time to time in early ages Japanese troops were seen in Korea, +though they made no permanent impression on the country. It was reserved +for Hideyoshi, the taiko, to make the Korean peninsula the scene of a +great over-sea campaign. Hideyoshi, the Napoleon of Japan, having +brought the whole empire under his sway as the sequel of many years of +incomparable generalship and statecraft, conceived the project of +subjugating China. By some historians his motive has been described as a +desire to find employment for the immense mob of armed men whom four +centuries of almost continuous fighting had called into existence in +Japan: he felt that domestic peace could not be permanently restored +unless these restless spirits were occupied abroad. But although that +object may have reinforced his purpose, his ambition aimed at nothing +less than the conquest of China, and he regarded Korea merely as a +stepping-stone to that aim. Had Korea consented to be put to such a use, +she need not have fought or suffered. The Koreans, however, counted +China invincible. They considered that Japan would be shattered by the +first contact with the great empire, and therefore although, in the 13th +century, they had given the use of their harbours to the Mongol invaders +of Japan, they flatly refused in the 16th to allow their territory to be +used for a Japanese invasion of China. On the 24th of May 1592 the wave +of invasion rolled against Korea's southern coast. Hideyoshi had chosen +Nagoya in the province of Hizen as the home-base of his operations. +There the sea separating Japan from the Korean peninsula narrows to a +strait divided into two channels of almost equal width by the island of +Tsushima. To reach this island from the Japanese side was an easy and +safe task, but in the 56-mile channel that separated Tsushima from the +peninsula an invading flotilla had to run the risk of attack by Korean +war-ships. At Nagoya Hideyoshi assembled an army of over 300,000 men, of +whom some 70,000 constituted the first fighting line, 87,000 the second, +and the remainder formed a reserve to be subsequently drawn on as +occasion demanded. The question of transport presented some difficulty, +but it was solved by the simple expedient of ordering every feudatory to +furnish two ships for each 100,000 _koku_ of his fief's revenue. These +were not fighting vessels but mere transports. As for the plan of +campaign, it was precisely in accord with modern principles of strategy, +and bore witness to the daring genius of Hideyoshi. The van, consisting +of three army corps and mustering in all 51,000 men, was to cross +rapidly to Fusan, on the south coast of the peninsula, and immediately +commence a movement northward towards the capital, Seoul, one corps +moving by the eastern coast-road, one by the central route, and one by +the western coast-line. Thereafter the other four corps, which formed +the first fighting line, together with the corps under the direct orders +of the commander-in-chief, Ukida Hideiye, were to cross, for the purpose +of effectually subduing the regions through which the van had passed; +and, finally, the two remaining corps of the second line were to be +transported by sea up the west coast of the peninsula, to form a +junction with the van which, by that time, should be preparing to pass +into China over the northern boundary of Korea, namely, the Yalu River. +For the landing place of these reinforcements the town of Phyong-yang +was adopted, being easily accessible by the Taidong River from the +coast. In later ages Japanese armies were destined to move twice over +these same regions, once to the invasion of China, once to the attack of +Russia, and they adopted almost the same strategical plan as that mapped +out by Hideyoshi in the year 1592. The forecast was that the Koreans +would offer their chief resistance, first, at the capital, Seoul; next +at Phyong-yang, and finally at the Yalu, as the approaches to all these +places offered positions capable of being utilized to great advantage +for defensive purposes. + + + Landing In Korea and Advance of the Invaders. + +On the 24th of May 1592 the first army corps, under the command of +Konishi Yukinaga, crossed unmolested to the peninsula; next day the +castle of Fusan was carried by storm, which same fate befell, on the +27th, another and stronger fortress lying 3 miles inland and garrisoned +by 20,000 picked soldiers. The invaders were irresistible. From the +landing-place at Fusan to the gates of Seoul the distance is 267 miles. +Konishi's corps covered that interval in 19 days, storming two forts, +carrying two positions and fighting one pitched battle _en route_. On +the 12th of June the Korean capital was in Japanese hands, and by the +16th four army corps had assembled there, while four others had effected +a landing at Fusan. After a rest of 15 days the northward advance was +resumed, and July 15th saw Phyong-yang in Japanese possession. The +distance of 130 miles from Seoul to the Taidong had been traversed in 18 +days, 10 having been occupied in forcing the passage of a river which, +if held with moderate resolution and skill, should have stopped the +Japanese altogether. At this point, however, the invasion suffered a +check owing to a cause which in modern times has received much +attention, though in Hideyoshi's days it had been little considered; the +Japanese lost the command of the sea. + + + Fighting at Sea. + +The Japanese idea of sea-fighting in those times was to use open boats +propelled chiefly by oars. They closed as quickly as possible with the +enemy, and then fell on with the trenchant swords which they used so +skilfully. Now during the 15th century and part of the 16th the Chinese +had been so harassed by Japanese piratical raids that their inventive +genius, quickened by suffering, suggested a device for coping with these +formidable adversaries. Once allow the Japanese swordsman to come to +close quarters and he carried all before him. To keep him at a distance, +then, was the great desideratum, and the Chinese compassed this in +maritime warfare by completely covering their boats with roofs of solid +timber, so that those within were protected against missiles, while +loop-holes and ports enabled them to pour bullets and arrows on a foe. +The Koreans learned this device from the Chinese and were the first to +employ it in actual warfare. Their own history alleges that they +improved upon the Chinese model by nailing sheet iron over the roofs and +sides of the "turtle-shell" craft and studding the whole surface with +_chevaux de frise_, but Japanese annals indicate that in the great +majority of cases solid timber alone was used. It seems strange that the +Japanese should have been without any clear perception of the immense +fighting superiority possessed by such protected war-vessels over small +open boats. But certainly they were either ignorant or indifferent. The +fleet which they provided to hold the command of Korean waters did not +include one vessel of any magnitude; it consisted simply of some +hundreds of row-boats manned by 7000 men. Hideyoshi himself was perhaps +not without misgivings. Six years previously he had endeavoured to +obtain two war-galleons from the Portuguese, and had he succeeded, the +history of the Far East might have been radically different. Evidently, +however, he committed a blunder which his countrymen in modern times +have conspicuously avoided; he drew the sword without having fully +investigated his adversary's resources. Just about the time when the van +of the Japanese army was entering Seoul, the Korean admiral, Yi Sun-sin, +at the head of a fleet of 80 vessels, attacked the Japanese squadron +which lay at anchor near the entrance to Fusan harbour, set 26 of the +vessels on fire and dispersed the rest. Four other engagements ensued in +rapid succession. The last and most important took place shortly after +the Japanese troops had seized Phyong-yang. It resulted in the sinking +of over 70 Japanese vessels, transports and fighting ships combined, +which formed the main part of a flotilla carrying reinforcements by sea +to the van of the invading army. This despatch of troops and supplies by +water had been a leading feature of Hideyoshi's plan of campaign, and +the destruction of the flotilla to which the duty was entrusted may be +said to have sealed the fate of the war by isolating the army in Korea +from its home base. It is true that Konishi Yukinaga, who commanded the +first division, would have continued his northward march from +Phyong-yang without delay. He argued that China was wholly unprepared, +and that the best hope of ultimate victory lay in not giving her time to +collect her forces. But the commander-in-chief, Ukida Hideiye, refused +to endorse this plan. He took the view that since the Korean provinces +were still offering desperate resistance, supplies could not be drawn +from them, neither could the troops engaged in subjugating them be freed +for service at the front. Therefore it was essential to await the +consummation of the second phase of Hideyoshi's plan, namely, the +despatch of reinforcements and munitions by water to Phyong-yang. The +reader has seen how that second phase fared. The Japanese commander at +Phyong-yang never received any accession of strength. His force suffered +constant diminution from casualties, and the question of commissariat +became daily more difficult. It is further plain to any reader of +history--and Japanese historians themselves admit the fact--that no wise +effort was made to conciliate the Korean people. They were treated so +harshly that even the humble peasant took up arms, and thus the +peninsula, instead of serving as a basis of supplies, had to be +garrisoned perpetually by a strong army. + + + Chinese Intervention. + +The Koreans, having suffered for their loyalty to China, naturally +looked to her for succour. Again and again appeals were made to Peking, +and at length a force of 5000 men, which had been mobilized in the +Liaotung peninsula, crossed the Yalu and moved south to Phyong-yang, +where the Japanese van had been lying idle for over two months. This was +early in October 1592. Memorable as the first encounter between Japanese +and Chinese, the incident also illustrated China's supreme confidence in +her own ineffable superiority. The whole of the Korean forces had been +driven northward throughout the entire length of the peninsula by the +Japanese armies, yet Peking considered that 5000 Chinese "braves" would +suffice to roll back this tide of invasion. Three thousand of the +Chinese were killed and the remainder fled pell-mell across the Yalu. +China now began to be seriously alarmed. She collected an army variously +estimated at from 51,000 to 200,000 men, and marching it across +Manchuria in the dead of winter, hurled it against Phyong-yang during +the first week of February 1593. The Japanese garrison did not exceed +20,000, nearly one-half of its original number having been detached to +hold a line of forts which guarded the communications with Seoul. +Moreover, the Chinese, though their swords were much inferior to the +Japanese weapon, possessed great superiority in artillery and cavalry, +as well as in the fact that their troopers wore iron mail which defied +the keenest blade. Thus, after a severe fight, the Japanese had to +evacuate Phyong-yang and fall back upon Seoul. But this one victory +alone stands to China's credit. In all subsequent encounters of any +magnitude her army suffered heavy defeats, losing on one occasion some +10,000 men, on another 4000, and on a third 39,000. But the presence of +her forces and the determined resistance offered by the Koreans +effectually saved China from invasion. Indeed, after the evacuation of +Seoul, on the 9th of May 1593, Hideyoshi abandoned all idea of carrying +the war into Chinese territory, and devoted his attention to obtaining +honourable terms of peace, the Japanese troops meanwhile holding a line +of forts along the southern coast of Korea. He died before that end had +been accomplished. Had he lived a few days longer, he would have learned +of a crushing defeat inflicted on the Chinese forces (at Sö-chhön, +October 30, 1598), when the Satsuma men under Shimazu Yoshihiro took +38,700 Chinese heads and sent the noses and ears to Japan, where they +now lie buried under a tumulus (_mimizuka_, ear-mound) near the temple +of Daibutsu in Kioto. Thereafter the statesmen to whom the regent on his +death-bed had entrusted the duty of terminating the struggle and +recalling the troops, intimated to the enemy that the evacuation of the +peninsula might be obtained if a Korean prince repaired to Japan as +envoy, and if some tiger-skins and _ginseng_ were sent to Kioto in token +of amity. So ended one of the greatest over-sea campaigns recorded in +history. It had lasted 6½ years, had seen 200,000 Japanese troops at one +time on Korean soil, and had cost something like a quarter of a million +lives. + + + Contrast between Foreign Relations in Medieval and Modern Times. + +From the recall of the Korea expedition in 1598 to the resumption of +intercourse with the Occident in modern times, Japan enjoyed +uninterrupted peace with foreign nations. Thereafter she had to engage +in four wars. It is a striking contrast. During the first eleven +centuries of her historical existence she was involved in only one +contest abroad; during the next half century she fought four times +beyond the sea and was confronted by many complications. Whatever +material or moral advantages her association with the West conferred on +her, it did not bring peace. + + + The "Maria Luz" Complication. + +The first menacing foreign complication with which the Japanese +government of the Meiji era had to deal was connected with the traffic +in Chinese labour, an abuse not yet wholly eradicated. In 1872, a +Peruvian ship, the "Maria Luz," put into port at Yokohama, carrying 200 +contract labourers. One of the unfortunate men succeeded in reaching the +shore and made a piteous appeal to the Japanese authorities, who at once +seized the vessel and released her freight of slaves, for they were +little better. The Japanese had not always been so particular. In the +days of early foreign intercourse, before England's attitude towards +slavery had established a new code of ethics, Portuguese ships had been +permitted to carry away from Hirado, as they did from Macao, cargoes of +men and women, doomed to a life of enforced toil if they survived the +horrors of the voyage. But modern Japan followed the tenets of modern +morality in such matters. Of course the Peruvian government protested, +and for a time relations were strained almost to the point of rupture; +but it was finally agreed that the question should be submitted to the +arbitration of the tsar, who decided in Japan's favour. Japan's attitude +in this affair elicited applause, not merely from the point of view of +humanity, but also because of the confidence she showed in Occidental +justice. + + + The Sakhalin Complication. + +Another complication which occupied the attention of the Tokyo +government from the beginning of the Meiji era was in truth a legacy +from the days of feudalism. In those days the island of Yezo, as well as +Sakhalin on its north-west and the Kurile group on its north, could +scarcely be said to be in effective Japanese occupation. It is true that +the feudal chief of Matsumae (now Fuku-yama), the remains of whose +castle may still be seen on the coast at the southern extremity of the +island of Yezo, exercised nominal jurisdiction; but his functions did +not greatly exceed the levying of taxes on the aboriginal inhabitants of +Yezo, the Kuriles and southern Sakhalin. Thus from the beginning of the +18th century Russian fishermen began to settle in the Kuriles and +Russian ships menaced Sakhalin. There can be no doubt that the first +explorers of Sakhalin were Japanese. As early as 1620, some vassals of +the feudal chief of Matsumae visited the place and passed a winter +there. It was then supposed to be a peninsula forming part of the +Asiatic mainland, but in 1806 a daring Japanese traveller, by name +Mamiya Rinzo, made his way to Manchuria, voyaged up and down the Amur, +and, crossing to Sakhalin, discovered that a narrow strait separated it +from the mainland. There still prevails in the minds of many Occidentals +a belief that the discovery of Sakhalin's insular character was reserved +for Captain Nevelskoy, a Russian, who visited the place in 1849, but in +Japan the fact had then been known for 43 years. Muravief, the great +Russian empire-builder in East Asia, under whose orders Nevelskoy acted, +quickly appreciated the necessity of acquiring Sakhalin, which commands +the estuary of the Amur. After the conclusion of the treaty of Aigun +(1857) he visited Japan with a squadron, and required that the strait of +La Pérouse, which separates Sakhalin from Yezo, should be regarded as +the frontier between Russia and Japan. This would have given the whole +of Sakhalin to Russia. Japan refused, and Muravief immediately resorted +to the policy he had already pursued with signal success in the Usuri +region: he sent emigrants to settle in Sakhalin. Twice the shogunate +attempted to frustrate this process of gradual absorption by proposing a +division of the island along the 50th parallel of north latitude, and +finally, in 1872, the Meiji government offered to purchase the Russian +portion for 2,000,000 dollars (then equivalent to about £400,000). St +Petersburg, having by that time discovered the comparative worthlessness +of the island as a wealth-earning possession, showed some signs of +acquiescence, and possibly an agreement might have been reached had not +a leading Japanese statesman--afterwards Count Kuroda--opposed the +bargain as disadvantageous to Japan. Finally St Petersburg's +perseverance won the day. In 1875 Japan agreed to recognize Russia's +title to the whole island on condition that Russia similarly recognized +Japan's title to the Kuriles. It was a singular compact. Russia +purchased a Japanese property and paid for it with a part of Japan's +belongings. These details form a curious preface to the fact that +Sakhalin was destined, 30 years later, to be the scene of a Japanese +invasion, in the sequel of which it was divided along the 50th parallel +as the shogun's administration had originally proposed. + + + Military Expedition to Formosa. + +The first of Japan's four conflicts was an expedition to Formosa in +1874. Insignificant from a military point of view, this affair derives +vicarious interest from its effect upon the relations between China and +Japan, and upon the question of the ownership of the Riukiu islands. +These islands, which lie at a little distance south of Japan, had for +centuries been regarded as an apanage of the Satsuma fief. The language +and customs of their inhabitants showed unmistakable traces of +relationship to the Japanese, and the possibility of the islands being +included among the dominions of China had probably never occurred to any +Japanese statesman. When therefore, in 1873, the crew of a wrecked +Riukiuan junk were barbarously treated by the inhabitants of northern +Formosa, the Japanese government unhesitatingly assumed the +responsibility of seeking redress for their outrage. Formosa being a +part of the Chinese Empire, complaint was duly preferred in Peking. But +the Chinese authorities showed such resolute indifference to Japan's +representations that the latter finally took the law into her own hands, +and sent a small force to punish the Formosan murderers, who, of course, +were found quite unable to offer any serious resistance. The Chinese +government, now recognizing the fact that its territories had been +invaded, lodged a protest which, but for the intervention of the British +minister in Peking, might have involved the two empires in war. The +final terms of arrangement were that, in consideration of Japan +withdrawing her troops from Formosa, China should indemnify her to the +extent of the expenses of the expedition. In sending this expedition to +Formosa the government sought to placate the Satsuma samurai, who were +beginning to show much opposition to certain features of the +administrative reforms just inaugurated, and who claimed special +interest in the affairs of the Riukiu islands. + + + The Riukiu Complication. + +Had Japan needed any confirmation of her belief that the Riukiu islands +belonged to her, the incidents and settlement of the Formosan +complication would have constituted conclusive evidence. Thus in 1876 +she did not hesitate to extend her newly organized system of prefectural +government to Riukiu, which thenceforth became the Okinawa prefecture, +the former ruler of the islands being pensioned, according to the system +followed in the case of the feudal chiefs in Japan proper. China at once +entered an objection. She claimed that Riukiu had always been a +tributary of her empire, and she was doubtless perfectly sincere in the +contention. But China's interpretation of tribute did not seem +reducible to a working theory. So long as her own advantage could be +promoted, she regarded as a token of vassalage the presents periodically +carried to her court from neighbouring states. So soon, however, as +there arose any question of discharging a suzerain's duties, she classed +these offerings as insignificant interchanges of neighbourly courtesy. +It was true that Riukiu had followed the custom of despatching +gift-bearing envoys to China from time to time, just as Japan herself +had done, though with less regularity. But it was also true that Riukiu +had been subdued by Satsuma without China stretching out a hand to help +her; that for two centuries the islands had been included in the Satsuma +fief, and that China, in the sequel to the Formosan affair, had made a +practical acknowledgment of Japan's superior title to protect the +islanders. Each empire positively asserted its claims; but whereas Japan +put hers into practice, China confined herself to remonstrances. Things +remained in that state until 1880, when General Grant, visiting the +East, suggested the advisability of a compromise. A conference met in +Peking, and the plenipotentiaries agreed that the islands should be +divided, Japan taking the northern group, China the southern. But on the +eve of signature the Chinese plenipotentiary drew back, pleading that he +had no authority to conclude an agreement without previously referring +it to certain other dignitaries. Japan, sensible that she had been +flouted, retired from the discussion and retained the islands, China's +share in them being reduced to a grievance. + + + The Korean Complication. + +From the 16th century, when the Korean peninsula was overrun by Japanese +troops, its rulers made a habit of sending a present-bearing embassy to +Japan to felicitate the accession of each shogun. But after the fall of +the Tokugawa shogunate, the Korean court desisted from this custom, +declared a determination to have no further relations with a country +embracing Western civilization, and refused even to receive a Japanese +embassy. This conduct caused deep umbrage in Japan. Several prominent +politicians cast their votes for war, and undoubtedly the sword would +have been drawn had not the leading statesmen felt that a struggle with +Korea, involving probably a rupture with China, must fatally check the +progress of the administrative reforms then (1873) in their infancy. Two +years later, however, the Koreans crowned their defiance by firing on +the boats of a Japanese war-vessel engaged in the operation of +coast-surveying. No choice now remained except to despatch an armed +expedition against the truculent kingdom. But Japan did not want to +fight. In this matter she showed herself an apt pupil of Occidental +methods such as had been practised against herself in former years. She +assembled an imposing force of war-ships and transports, but instead of +proceeding to extremities, she employed the squadron--which was by no +means so strong as it seemed--to intimidate Korea into signing a treaty +of amity and commerce, and opening three ports to foreign trade (1876). +That was the beginning of Korea's friendly relations with the outer +world, and Japan naturally took credit for the fact that, thus early in +her new career, she had become an instrument for extending the principle +of universal intercourse opposed so strenuously by herself in the past. + + + War with China. + +From time immemorial China's policy towards the petty states on her +frontiers had been to utilize them as buffers for softening the shock of +foreign contact, while contriving, at the same time, that her relations +with them should involve no inconvenient responsibilities for herself. +The aggressive impulses of the outside world were to be checked by an +unproclaimed understanding that the territories of these states partook +of the inviolability of China, while the states, on their side, must +never expect their suzerain to bear the consequences of their acts. This +arrangement, depending largely on sentiment and prestige, retained its +validity in the atmosphere of Oriental seclusion, but quickly failed to +endure the test of modern Occidental practicality. Tongking, Annam, Siam +and Burma were withdrawn, one by one, from the fiction of dependence on +China and independence towards all other countries. But with regard to +Korea, China proved more tenacious. The possession of the peninsula by +a foreign power would have threatened the maritime route to the Chinese +capital and given easy access to Manchuria, the cradle of the dynasty +which ruled China. Therefore Peking statesmen endeavoured to preserve +the old-time relations with the little kingdom. But they could never +persuade themselves to modify the indirect methods sanctioned by +tradition. Instead of boldly declaring Korea a dependency of China, they +sought to keep up the romance of ultimate dependency and intermediate +sovereignty. Thus in 1876 Korea was suffered to conclude with Japan a +treaty of which the first article declared her "an independent state +enjoying the same rights as Japan," and subsequently to make with the +United States (1882), Great Britain (1883) and other powers, treaties in +which her independence was constructively admitted. China, however, did +not intend that Korea should exercise the independence thus +conventionally recognized. A Chinese resident was placed in Seoul, and a +system of steady though covert interference in Korea's affairs was +inaugurated. The chief sufferer from these anomalous conditions was +Japan. In all her dealings with Korea, in all complications that arose +out of her comparatively large trade with the peninsula, in all +questions connected with her numerous settlers there, she found herself +negotiating with a dependency of China, and with officials who took +their orders from the Chinese representative. China had long entertained +a rooted apprehension of Japanese aggression in Korea--an apprehension +not unwarranted by history--and that distrust tinged all the influence +exerted by her agents there. On many occasions Japan was made sensible +of the discrimination thus exercised against her. Little by little the +consciousness roused her indignation, and although no single instance +constituted a ground for strong international protest, the Japanese +people gradually acquired a sense of being perpetually baffled, thwarted +and humiliated by China's interference in Korean affairs. For thirty +years China had treated Japan as a contemptible deserter from the +Oriental standard, and had regarded her progressive efforts with openly +disdainful aversion; while Japan, on her side, had chafed more and more +to furnish some striking evidence of the wisdom of her preference for +Western civilization. Even more serious were the consequences of Chinese +interference from the point of view of Korean administration. The rulers +of the country lost all sense of national responsibility, and gave +unrestrained sway to selfish ambition. The functions of the judiciary +and of the executive alike came to be discharged by bribery only. Family +interests predominated over those of the state. Taxes were imposed in +proportion to the greed of local officials. No thought whatever was +taken for the welfare of the people or for the development of the +country's resources. Personal responsibility was unknown among +officials. To be a member of the Min family, to which the queen +belonged, was to possess a passport to office and an indemnity against +the consequences of abuse of power. From time to time the advocates of +progress or the victims of oppression rose in arms. They effected +nothing except to recall to the world's recollection the miserable +condition into which Korea had fallen. Chinese military aid was always +furnished readily for the suppression of these risings, and thus the Min +family learned to base its tenure of power on ability to conciliate +China and on readiness to obey Chinese dictation, while the people at +large fell into the apathetic condition of men who possess neither +security of property nor national ambition. + +As a matter of state policy the Korean problem caused much anxiety to +Japan. Her own security being deeply concerned in preserving Korea from +the grasp of a Western power, she could not suffer the little kingdom to +drift into a condition of such administrative incompetence and national +debility that a strong aggressor might find at any moment a pretext for +interference. On two occasions (1882 and 1884) when China's armed +intervention was employed in the interests of the Min to suppress +movements of reform, the partisans of the victors, regarding Japan as +the fountain of progressive tendencies, destroyed her legation in Seoul +and compelled its inmates to fly from the city. Japan behaved with +forbearance at these crises, but in the consequent negotiations she +acquired conventional titles that touched the core of China's alleged +suzerainty. In 1882 her right to maintain troops in Seoul for the +protection of her legation was admitted; in 1885 she concluded with +China a convention by which each power pledged itself not to send troops +to Korea without notifying the other. + + + The Rupture with China. + +In the spring of 1894 a serious insurrection broke out in Korea, and the +Min family appealed for China's aid. On the 6th of July 2500 Chinese +troops embarked at Tientsin and were transported to the peninsula, where +they went into camp at Ya-shan (Asan), on the south-west coast, notice +of the measure being given by the Chinese government to the Japanese +representative at Peking, according to treaty. During the interval +immediately preceding these events, Japan had been rendered acutely +sensible of China's arbitrary and unfriendly interference in Korea. +Twice the efforts of the Japanese government to obtain redress for +unlawful and ruinous commercial prohibitions had been thwarted by the +Chinese representative in Seoul; and an ultimatum addressed from Tokyo +to the Korean government had elicited from the viceroy Li in Tientsin a +thinly veiled threat of Chinese armed opposition. Still more provocative +of national indignation was China's procedure with regard to the murder +of Kim Ok-kyun, the leader of progress in Korea, who had been for some +years a refugee in Japan. Inveigled from Japan to China by a +fellow-countryman sent from Seoul to assassinate him, Kim was shot in a +Japanese hotel in Shanghai; and China, instead of punishing the +murderer, conveyed him in a war-ship of her own to Korea to be publicly +honoured. When, therefore, the Korean insurrection of 1894 induced the +Min family again to solicit China's armed intervention, the Tokyo +government concluded that, in the interests of Japan's security and of +civilization in the Orient, steps must be taken to put an end to the +misrule which offered incessant invitations to foreign aggression, and +checked Korea's capacity to maintain its own independence. Japan did not +claim for herself any rights or interests in the peninsula superior to +those possessed there by China. But there was not the remotest +probability that China, whose face had been contemptuously set against +all the progressive measures adopted by Japan during the preceding +twenty-five years, would join in forcing upon a neighbouring kingdom the +very reforms she herself despised, were her co-operation invited through +ordinary diplomatic channels only. It was necessary to contrive a +situation which would not only furnish clear proof of Japan's +resolution, but also enable her to pursue her programme independently of +Chinese endorsement, should the latter be finally unobtainable. She +therefore met China's notice of a despatch of troops with a +corresponding notice of her own, and the month of July 1894 found a +Chinese force assembled at Asan and a Japanese force occupying positions +in the neighbourhood of Seoul. China's motive for sending troops was +nominally to quell the Tonghak insurrection, but really to re-affirm her +own domination in the peninsula. Japan's motive was to secure such a +position as would enable her to insist upon the radically curative +treatment of Korea's malady. Up to this point the two empires were +strictly within their conventional rights. Each was entitled by treaty +to send troops to Korea, provided that notice was given to the other. +But China, in giving notice, described Korea as her "tributary state," +thus thrusting into the forefront of the discussion a contention which +Japan, from conciliatory motives, would have kept out of sight. Once +formally advanced, however, the claim had to be challenged. In the +treaty of amity and commerce concluded in 1876 between Japan and Korea, +the two high contracting parties were explicitly declared to possess the +same national status. Japan could not agree that a power which for +nearly two decades she had acknowledged and treated as her equal should +be openly classed as a tributary of China. She protested, but the +Chinese statesmen took no notice of her protest. They continued to apply +the disputed appellation to Korea, and they further asserted their +assumption of sovereignty in the peninsula by seeking to set limits to +the number of troops sent by Japan, as well as to the sphere of their +employment. Japan then proposed that the two empires should unite their +efforts for the suppression of disturbances in Korea, and for the +subsequent improvement of that kingdom's administration, the latter +purpose to be pursued by the despatch of a joint commission of +investigation. But China refused everything. Ready at all times to +interfere by force of arms between the Korean people and the dominant +political faction, she declined to interfere in any way for the +promotion of reform. She even expressed supercilious surprise that +Japan, while asserting Korea's independence, should suggest the idea of +peremptorily reforming its administration. In short, for Chinese +purposes the Peking statesmen openly declared Korea a tributary state; +but for Japanese purposes they insisted that it must be held +independent. They believed that their island neighbour aimed at the +absorption of Korea into the Japanese empire. Viewed in the light of +that suspicion, China's attitude became comprehensible, but her +procedure was inconsistent, illogical and unpractical. The Tokyo cabinet +now declared its resolve not to withdraw the Japanese troops without +"some understanding that would guarantee the future peace, order, and +good government of Korea," and since China still declined to come to +such an understanding, Japan undertook the work of reform single-handed. + + + Outbreak of Hostilities. + +The Chinese representative in Seoul threw his whole weight into the +scale against the success of these reforms. But the determining cause of +rupture was in itself a belligerent operation. China's troops had been +sent originally for the purpose of quelling the Tonghak rebellion. But +the rebellion having died of inanition before the landing of the troops, +their services were not required. Nevertheless China kept them in Korea, +her declared reason for doing so being the presence of a Japanese +military force. Throughout the subsequent negotiations the Chinese +forces lay in an entrenched camp at Asan, while the Japanese occupied +Seoul. An attempt on China's part to send reinforcements could be +construed only as an unequivocal declaration of resolve to oppose +Japan's proceedings by force of arms. Nevertheless China not only +despatched troops by sea to strengthen the camp at Asan, but also sent +an army overland across Korea's northern frontier. At this stage an act +of war occurred. Three Chinese men-of-war, convoying a transport with +1200 men encountered and fired on three Japanese cruisers. One of the +Chinese ships was taken; another was so shattered that she had to be +beached and abandoned; the third escaped in a dilapidated condition; and +the transport, refusing to surrender, was sunk. This happened on the +25th of July 1894, and an open declaration of war was made by each +empire six days later. + + + Remote Origin of the Conflict. + +From the moment when Japan applied herself to break away from Oriental +traditions, and to remove from her limbs the fetters of Eastern +conservatism, it was inevitable that a widening gulf should gradually +grow between herself and China. The war of 1894 was really a contest +between Japanese progress and Chinese stagnation. To secure Korean +immunity from foreign--especially Russian--aggression was of capital +importance to both empires. Japan believed that such security could be +attained by introducing into Korea the civilization which had +contributed so signally to the development of her own strength and +resources. China thought that she could guarantee it without any +departure from old-fashioned methods, and by the same process of +capricious protection which had failed so signally in the cases of +Annam, Tongking, Burma and Siam. The issue really at stake was whether +Japan should be suffered to act as the Eastern propagandist of Western +progress, or whether her efforts in that cause should be held in check +by Chinese conservatism. + + + Events of the War. + +The war itself was a succession of triumphs for Japan. Four days after +the first naval encounter she sent from Seoul a column of troops who +routed the Chinese entrenched at Asan. Many of the fugitives effected +their escape to Phyong-yang, a town on the Taidong River, offering +excellent facilities for defence, and historically interesting as the +place where a Japanese army of invasion had its first encounter with +Chinese troops in 1592. There the Chinese assembled a force of 17,000 +men, and made leisurely preparations for a decisive contest. Forty days +elapsed before the Japanese columns converged upon Phyong-yang, and that +interval was utilized by the Chinese to throw up parapets, mount Krupp +guns and otherwise strengthen their position. Moreover, they were armed +with repeating rifles, whereas the Japanese had only single-loaders, and +the ground offered little cover for an attacking force. In such +circumstances, the advantages possessed by the defence ought to have +been well-nigh insuperable; yet a day's fighting sufficed to carry all +the positions, the assailants' casualties amounting to less than 700 and +the defenders losing 6000 in killed and wounded. This brilliant victory +was the prelude to an equally conspicuous success at sea. For on the +17th of September, the very day after the battle at Phyong-yang, a great +naval fight took place near the mouth of the Yalu River, which forms the +northern boundary of Korea. Fourteen Chinese war-ships and six +torpedo-boats were returning to home ports after convoying a fleet of +transports to the Yalu, when they encountered eleven Japanese men-of-war +cruising in the Yellow Sea. Hitherto the Chinese had sedulously avoided +a contest at sea. Their fleet included two armoured battleships of over +7000 tons displacement, whereas the biggest vessels on the Japanese side +were belted cruisers of only 4000 tons. In the hands of an admiral +appreciating the value of sea power, China's naval force would certainly +have been led against Japan's maritime communications, for a successful +blow struck there must have put an end to the Korean campaign. The +Chinese, however, failed to read history. They employed their +war-vessels as convoys only, and, when not using them for that purpose, +hid them in port. Everything goes to show that they would have avoided +the battle off the Yalu had choice been possible, though when forced to +fight they fought bravely. Four of their ships were sunk, and the +remainder escaped to Wei-hai-wei, the vigour of the Japanese pursuit +being greatly impaired by the presence of torpedo-boats in the +retreating squadron. + +The Yalu victory opened the over-sea route to China. Japan could now +strike at Talien, Port Arthur, and Wei-hai-wei, naval stations on the +Liaotung and Shantung peninsulas, where powerful permanent +fortifications, built after plans prepared by European experts and armed +with the best modern weapons, were regarded as almost impregnable; They +fell before the assaults of the Japanese troops as easily as the +comparatively rude fortifications at Phyong-yang had fallen. The only +resistance of a stubborn character was made by the Chinese fleet at +Wei-hai-wei; but after the whole squadron of torpedo-craft had been +destroyed or captured as they attempted to escape, and after three of +the largest vessels had been sunk at their moorings by Japanese +torpedoes, and one by gun-fire, the remaining ships surrendered, and +their brave commander, Admiral Ting, committed suicide. This ended the +war. It had lasted seven and a half months, during which time Japan put +into the field five columns, aggregating about 120,000 of all arms. One +of these columns marched northward from Seoul, won the battle of +Phyong-yang, advanced to the Yalu, forced its way into Manchuria, and +moved towards Mukden by Feng-hwang, fighting several minor engagements, +and conducting the greater part of its operations amid deep snow in +midwinter. The second column diverged westwards from the Yalu, and, +marching through southern Manchuria, reached Hai-cheng, whence it +advanced to the capture of Niuchwang and Ying-tse-kow. The third landed +on the Liaotung peninsula, and, turning southwards, carried Talien and +Port Arthur by assault. The fourth moved up the Liaotung peninsula, and, +having seized Kaiping, advanced against Ying-tse-kow, where it joined +hands with the second column. The fifth crossed from Port Arthur to +Wei-hai-wei, and captured the latter. In all these operations the total +Japanese casualties were 1005 killed and 4922 wounded--figures which +sufficiently indicate the inefficiency of the Chinese fighting. The +deaths from disease totalled 16,866, and the total monetary expenditure +was £20,000,000 sterling. + + + Conclusion of Peace. + +The Chinese government sent Li Hung-chang, viceroy of Pechili and senior +grand secretary of state, and Li Ching-fong, to discuss terms of peace +with Japan, the latter being represented by Marquis (afterwards Prince) +Ito and Count Mutsu, prime minister and minister for foreign affairs, +respectively. A treaty was signed at Shimonoseki on the 17th of April +1895, and subsequently ratified by the sovereigns of the two empires. It +declared the absolute independence of Korea; ceded to Japan the part of +Manchuria lying south of a line drawn from the mouth of the river Anping +to the mouth of the Liao, through Feng-hwang, Hai-cheng and +Ying-tse-kow, as well as the islands of Formosa and the Pescadores; +pledged China to pay an indemnity of 200,000,000 taels; provided for the +occupation of Wei-hai-wei by Japan pending payment of the indemnity; +secured some additional commercial privileges, such as the opening of +four new places to foreign trade and the right of foreigners to engage +in manufacturing enterprises in China, and provided for the conclusion +of a treaty of commerce and amity between the two empires, based on the +lines of China's treaties with Occidental powers. + + + Foreign Interference. + +No sooner was this agreement ratified than Russia, Germany and France +presented a joint note to the Tokyo government, recommending that the +territories ceded to Japan on the mainland of China should not be +permanently occupied, as such a proceeding would be detrimental to +peace. The recommendation was couched in the usual terms of diplomatic +courtesy, but everything indicated that its signatories were prepared to +enforce their advice by an appeal to arms. Japan found herself compelled +to comply. Exhausted by the Chinese campaign, which had drained her +treasury, consumed her supplies of warlike material, and kept her +squadrons constantly at sea for eight months, she had no residue of +strength to oppose such a coalition. Her resolve was quickly taken. The +day that saw the publication of the ratified treaty saw also the issue +of an Imperial rescript in which the mikado, avowing his unalterable +devotion to the cause of peace, and recognizing that the counsel offered +by the European states was prompted by the same sentiment, "yielded to +the dictates of magnanimity, and accepted the advice of the three +Powers." The Japanese people were shocked by this incident. They could +understand the motives influencing Russia and France, for it was +evidently natural that the former should desire to exclude warlike and +progressive people like the Japanese from territories contiguous to her +borders, and it was also natural that France should remain true to her +alliance with Russia. But Germany, wholly uninterested in the ownership +of Manchuria, and by profession a warm friend of Japan, seemed to have +joined in robbing the latter of the fruits of her victory simply for the +sake of establishing some shadowy title to Russia's goodwill. It was not +known until a later period that the German emperor entertained profound +apprehensions about the "yellow peril," an irruption of Oriental hordes +into the Occident, and held it a sacred duty to prevent Japan from +gaining a position which might enable her to construct an immense +military machine out of the countless millions of China. + + + Chinese Crisis of 1900. + +Japan's third expedition over-sea in the Meiji era had its origin in +causes which belong to the history of China (q.v.). In the second half +of 1900 an anti-foreign and anti-dynastic rebellion, breaking out in +Shantung, spread to the metropolitan province of Pechili, and resulted +in a situation of extreme peril for the foreign communities of Tientsin +and Peking. It was impossible for any European power, or for the United +States, to organize sufficiently prompt measures of relief. Thus the +eyes of the world turned to Japan, whose proximity to the scene of +disturbance rendered intervention comparatively easy for her. But Japan +hesitated. Knowing now with what suspicion and distrust the development +of her resources and the growth of her military strength were regarded +by some European peoples, and aware that she had been admitted to the +comity of Western nations on sufferance, she shrank, on the one hand, +from seeming to grasp at an opportunity for armed display, and, on the +other, from the solecism of obtrusiveness in the society of strangers. +Not until Europe and America made it quite plain that they needed and +desired her aid did she send a division (21,000) men to Pechili. Her +troops played a fine part in the subsequent expedition for the relief of +Peking, which had to be approached in midsummer under very trying +conditions. Fighting side by side with European and American soldiers, +and under the eyes of competent military critics, the Japanese acquitted +themselves in such a manner as to establish a high military reputation. +Further, after the relief of Peking they withdrew a moiety of their +forces, and that step, as well as their unequivocal co-operation with +Western powers in the subsequent negotiations, helped to show the +injustice of the suspicions with which they had been regarded. + + + War with Russia. + +From the time (1895) when Russia, with the co-operation of Germany and +France, dictated to Japan a cardinal alteration of the Shimonoseki +treaty, Japanese statesmen seem to have concluded that their country +must one day cross swords with the great northern power. Not a few +European and American publicists shared that view. But the vast +majority, arguing that the little Eastern empire would never invite +annihilation by such an encounter, believed that sufficient forbearance +to avert serious trouble would always be forthcoming on Japan's side. +Yet when the geographical and historical situation was carefully +considered, little hope of an ultimately peaceful settlement presented +itself. + +Japan along its western shore, Korea along its southern and eastern, and +Russia along the eastern coast of its maritime province, are washed by +the Sea of Japan. The communications between the sea and the Pacific +Ocean are practically two only. One is on the north-east, namely, +Tsugaru Strait; the other is on the south, namely, the channel between +the extremity of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese island of the +nine provinces. Tsugaru Strait is entirely under Japan's control. It is +between her main island and her island of Yezo, and in case of need she +can close it with mines. The channel between the southern extremity of +Korea and Japan has a width of 102 m. and would therefore be a fine open +sea-way were it free from islands. But almost mid-way in this channel +lie the twin islands of Tsushima, and the space of 56 m. that separates +them from Japan is narrowed by another island, Iki. Tsushima and Iki +belong to the Japanese empire. The former has some exceptionally good +harbours, constituting a naval base from which the channel on either +side could easily be sealed. Thus the avenues from the Pacific Ocean to +the Sea of Japan are controlled by the Japanese empire. In other words, +access to the Pacific from Korea's eastern and southern coasts and +access to the Pacific from Russia's maritime province depend upon +Japan's goodwill. So far as Korea was concerned this question mattered +little, it being her fate to depend upon the goodwill of Japan in +affairs of much greater importance. But with Russia the case was +different. Vladivostok, which until recent times was her principal port +in the Far East, lies at the southern extremity of the maritime +province; that is to say, on the north-western shore of the Japan Sea. +It was therefore necessary for Russia that freedom of passage by the +Tsushima channel should be secured, and to secure it one of two things +was essential, namely, either that she herself should possess a +fortified port on the Korean side, or that Japan should be bound neither +to acquire such a port nor to impose any restriction upon the navigation +of the strait. To put the matter briefly, Russia must either acquire a +strong foothold for herself in southern Korea, or contrive that Japan +should not acquire one. There was here a strong inducement for Russian +aggression in Korea. + +Russia's eastward movement through Asia has been strikingly illustrative +of her strong craving for free access to southern seas and of the +impediments she had experienced in gratifying that wish. An irresistible +impulse had driven her oceanward. Checked again and again in her attempts +to reach the Mediterranean, she set out on a five-thousand-miles march of +conquest right across the vast Asiatic continent towards the Pacific. +Eastward of Lake Baikal she found her line of least resistance along the +Amur, and when, owing to the restless perseverance of Muravief, she +reached the mouth of that great river, the acquisition of Nikolayevsk for +a naval basis was her immediate reward. But Nikolayevsk could not +possibly satisfy her. Situated in an inhospitable region far away from +all the main routes of the world's commerce, it offered itself only as a +stepping-stone to further acquisitions. To push southward from this new +port became an immediate object to Russia. There lay an obstacle in the +way, however; the long strip of sea-coast from the mouth of the Amur to +the Korean frontier--an area then called the Usuri region because the +Usuri forms its western boundary--belonged to China, and she, having +conceded much to Russia in the matter of the Amur, showed no disposition +to make further concessions in the matter of the Usuri. In the presence +of menaces, however, she agreed that the region should be regarded as +common property pending a convenient opportunity for clear delimitation. +That opportunity came very soon. Seizing the moment (1860) when China had +been beaten to her knees by England and France, Russia secured final +cession of the Usuri region, which now became the maritime province of +Siberia. Then Russia shifted her naval base on the Pacific from +Nikolayevsk to Vladivostok. She gained ten degrees in a southerly +direction. + +From the mouth of the Amur, where Nikolayevsk is situated, to the +southern shore of Korea there rests on the coast of eastern Asia an arch +of islands having at its northern point Sakhalin and at its southern +Tsushima, the keystone of the arch being the main island of Japan. This +arch embraces the Sea of Japan and is washed on its convex side by the +Pacific Ocean. Immediately after the transfer of Russia's naval base +from Nikolayevsk to Vladivostok, an attempt was made to obtain +possession of the southern point of the arch, namely, Tsushima. A +Russian man-of-war proceeded thither and quietly began to establish a +settlement, which would soon have constituted a title of ownership had +not Great Britain interfered. The Russians saw that Vladivostok, +acquired at the cost of so much toil, would be comparatively useless +unless from the sea on whose shore it was situated an avenue to the +Pacific could be opened, and they therefore tried to obtain command of +the Tsushima channel. Immediately after reaching the mouth of the Amur +the same instinct had led them to begin the colonization of Sakhalin. +The axis of this long narrow island is inclined at a very acute angle to +the Usuri region, which its northern extremity almost touches, while its +southern is separated from Yezo by the strait of La Pérouse. But in +Sakhalin the Russians found Japanese subjects. In fact the island was a +part of the Japanese empire. Resorting, however, to the Usuri fiction of +joint occupation, they succeeded by 1875 in transferring the whole of +Sakhalin to Russia's dominion. Further encroachments upon Japanese +territory could not be lightly essayed, and the Russians held their +hands. They had been trebly checked: checked in trying to push southward +along the coast of the mainland; checked in trying to secure an avenue +from Vladivostok to the Pacific; and checked in their search for an +ice-free port, which definition Vladivostok did not fulfil. Enterprise +in the direction of Korea seemed to be the only hope of saving the +maritime results of the great Trans-Asian march. + +Was Korea within safe range of such enterprises? Everything seemed to +answer in the affirmative. Korea had all the qualifications desired by +an aggressor. Her people were unprogressive, her resources undeveloped, +her self-defensive capacities insignificant, her government corrupt. But +she was a tributary of China, and China had begun to show some tenacity +in protecting the integrity of her buffer states. Besides, Japan was +understood to have pretensions with regard to Korea. On the whole, +therefore, the problem of carrying to full fruition the work of Muravief +and his lieutenants demanded strength greater than Russia could exercise +without some line of communications supplementing the Amur waterway and +the long ocean route. Therefore she set about the construction of a +railway across Asia. + +The Amur being the boundary of Russia's east Asian territory, this +railway had to be carried along its northern bank where many +engineering and economic obstacles presented themselves. Besides, the +river, from an early stage in its course, makes a huge semicircular +sweep northward, and a railway following its bank to Vladivostok must +make the same détour. If, on the contrary, the road could be carried +over the diameter of the semicircle, it would be a straight and +therefore shorter line, technically easier and economically better. The +diameter, however, passed through Chinese territory, and an excuse for +extorting China's permission was not in sight. Russia therefore +proceeded to build each end of the road, deferring the construction of +the Amur section for the moment. She had not waited long when, in 1894, +war broke out between China and Japan, and the latter, completely +victorious, demanded as the price of peace the southern littoral of +Manchuria from the Korean boundary to the Liaotung peninsula at the +entrance to the Gulf of Pechili. This was a crisis in Russia's career. +She saw that her maritime extension could never get nearer to the +Pacific than Vladivostok were this claim of Japan's established. For the +proposed arrangement would place the littoral of Manchuria in Japan's +direct occupation and the littoral of Korea in her constructive control, +since not only had she fought to rescue Korea from Chinese suzerainty, +but also her object in demanding a slice of the Manchurian coast-line +was to protect Korea against aggression from the north; that is to say, +against aggression from Russia. Muravief's enterprise had carried his +country first to the mouth of the Amur and thence southward along the +coast to Vladivostok and to Possiet Bay at the north-eastern extremity +of Korea. But it had not given to Russia free access to the Pacific, and +now she was menaced with a perpetual barrier to that access, since the +whole remaining coast of east Asia as far as the Gulf of Pechili was +about to pass into Japan's possession or under her domination. + +Then Russia took an extraordinary step. She persuaded Germany and France +to force Japan out of Manchuria. It is not to be supposed that she +frankly exposed her own aggressive designs and asked for assistance to +prosecute them. Neither is it to be supposed that France and Germany +were so curiously deficient in perspicacity as to overlook those +designs. At all events these three great powers served on Japan a notice +to quit, and Japan, exhausted by her struggle with China, had no choice +but to obey. + +The notice was accompanied by an _exposé_ of reasons. Its signatories +said that Japan's tenure of the Manchurian littoral would menace the +security of the Chinese capital, would render the independence of Korea +illusory, and would constitute an obstacle to the peace of the Orient. + +By way of saving the situation in some slight degree Japan sought from +China a guarantee that no portion of Manchuria should thereafter be +leased or ceded to a foreign state. But France warned Japan that to +press such a demand would offend Russia, and Russia declared that, for +her part, she had no intention of trespassing in Manchuria. Japan, had +she been in a position to insist on the guarantee, would also have been +in a position to disobey the mandate of the three powers. Unable to do +either the one or the other, she quietly stepped out of Manchuria, and +proceeded to double her army and treble her navy. + +As a reward for the assistance nominally rendered to China in this +matter, Russia obtained permission in Peking to divert her Trans-Asian +railway from the huge bend of the Amur to the straight line through +Manchuria. Neither Germany nor France received any immediate recompense. +Three years later, by way of indemnity for the murder of two +missionaries by a mob, Germany seized a portion of the province of +Shantung. Immediately, on the principle that two wrongs make a right, +Russia obtained a lease of the Liaotung peninsula, from which she had +driven Japan in 1895. This act she followed by extorting from China +permission to construct a branch of the Trans-Asian railway through +Manchuria from north to south. + +Russia's maritime aspirations had now assumed a radically altered phase. +Instead of pushing southward from Vladivostok and Possiet Bay along the +coast of Korea, she had suddenly leaped the Korean peninsula and found +access to the Pacific in Liaotung. Nothing was wanting to establish her +as practical mistress of Manchuria except a plausible excuse for +garrisoning the place. Such an excuse was furnished by the Boxer rising +in 1900. Its conclusion saw her in military occupation of the whole +region, and she might easily have made her occupation permanent by +prolonging it until peace and order should have been fully restored. But +here she fell into an error of judgment. Imagining that the Chinese +could be persuaded or intimidated to any concession, she proposed a +convention virtually recognizing her title to Manchuria. + +Japan watched all these things with profound anxiety. If there were any +reality in the dangers which Russia, Germany and France had declared to +be incidental to Japanese occupation of a part of Manchuria, the same +dangers must be doubly incidental to Russian occupation of the whole of +Manchuria--the security of the Chinese capital would be threatened, and +an obstacle would be created to the permanent peace of the East. The +independence of Korea was an object of supreme solicitude to Japan. +Historically she held towards the little state a relation closely +resembling that of suzerain, and though of her ancient conquests nothing +remained except a settlement at Fusan on the southern coast, her +national sentiment would have been deeply wounded by any foreign +aggression in the peninsula. It was to establish Korean independence +that she waged war with China in 1894; and her annexation of the +Manchurian littoral adjacent to the Korean frontier, after the war, was +designed to secure that independence, not to menace it as the triple +alliance professed to think. But if Russia came into possession of all +Manchuria, her subsequent absorption of Korea would be almost +inevitable. For the consideration set forth above as to Vladivostok's +maritime avenues would then acquire absolute cogency. Manchuria is +larger than France and the United Kingdom lumped together. The addition +of such an immense area to Russia's east Asiatic dominions, together +with its littoral on the Gulf of Pechili and the Yellow Sea, would +necessitate a corresponding expansion of her naval forces in the Far +East. With the one exception of Port Arthur, however, the Manchurian +coast does not offer any convenient naval base. It is only in the +splendid harbours of southern Korea that such bases can be found. +Moreover, there would be an even stronger motive impelling Russia +towards Korea. Neither the Usuri region nor the Manchurian littoral +possesses so much as one port qualified to satisfy her perennial longing +for free access to the ocean in a temperate zone. Without Korea, then, +Russia's east Asian expansion, though it added huge blocks of territory +to her dominions, would have been commercially incomplete and +strategically defective. + +If it be asked why, apart from history and national sentiment, Japan +should object to a Russian Korea, the answer is, first, because there +would thus be planted almost within cannon-shot of her shores a power of +enormous strength and insatiable ambition; secondly, because, whatever +voice in Manchuria's destiny Russia derived from her railway, the same +voice in Korea's destiny was possessed by Japan as the sole owner of +railways in the peninsula; thirdly, that whereas Russia had an +altogether insignificant share in the foreign commerce of Korea and +scarcely ten bona-fide settlers, Japan did the greater part of the +over-sea trade and had tens of thousands of settlers; fourthly, that if +Russia's dominions stretched uninterruptedly from the Sea of Okhotsk to +the Gulf of Pechili, her ultimate absorption of north China would be as +certain as sunrise; and fifthly, that such domination and such +absorption would involve the practical closure of all that immense +region to Japanese commerce and industry as well as to the commerce and +industry of every Western nation except Russia. This last proposition +did not rest solely on the fact that to oppose artificial barriers to +free competition is Russia's sole hope of utilizing to her own benefit +any commercial opportunities brought within her reach. It rested also on +the fact that Russia had objected to foreign settlements at the marts +recently opened by treaty with China to American and Japanese subjects. +Without settlements, trade at those marts would be impossible, and thus +Russia had constructively announced that there should be no trade but +Russian, if she could prevent it. + +Against such dangers Japan would have been justified in adopting any +measure of self-protection. She had foreseen them for six years, and had +been strengthening herself to avert them. But she wanted peace. She +wanted to develop her material resources and to accumulate some measure +of wealth, without which she must remain insignificant among the +nations. Two pacific devices offered, and she adopted them both. Russia, +instead of trusting time to consolidate her tenure of Manchuria, had +made the mistake of pragmatically importuning China for a conventional +title. If then Peking could be strengthened to resist this demand, some +arrangement of a distinctly terminable nature might be made. The United +States, Great Britain and Japan, joining hands for that purpose, did +succeed in so far stiffening China's backbone that her show of +resolution finally induced Russia to sign a treaty pledging herself to +withdraw her troops from Manchuria in three instalments, each step of +evacuation to be accomplished by a fixed date. That was one of the +pacific devices. The other suggested itself in connexion with the new +commercial treaties which China had promised to negotiate in the sequel +of the Boxer troubles. In these documents clauses provided for the +opening of three places in Manchuria to foreign trade. It seemed a +reasonable hope that, having secured commercial access to Manchuria by +covenant with its sovereign, China, the powers would not allow Russia +arbitrarily to restrict their privileges. It seemed also a reasonable +hope that Russia, having solemnly promised to evacuate Manchuria at +fixed dates, would fulfil her engagement. + +The latter hope was signally disappointed. When the time came for +evacuation, Russia behaved as though no promise had ever been given. She +proposed wholly new conditions, which would have strengthened her grasp +of Manchuria instead of loosening it. China being powerless to offer any +practical protest, and Japan's interests ranking next in order of +importance, the Tokyo government approached Russia direct. They did not +ask for anything that could hurt her pride or injure her position. +Appreciating fully the economical status she had acquired in Manchuria +by large outlays of capital, they offered to recognize that status, +provided that Russia would extend similar recognition to Japan's status +in Korea, would promise, in common with Japan, to respect the +sovereignty and the territorial integrity of China and Korea, and would +be a party to a mutual engagement that all nations should have equal +industrial and commercial opportunities in Manchuria and the Korean +peninsula. In a word, they invited Russia to subscribe the policy +enunciated by the United States and Great Britain, the policy of the +open door and of the integrity of the Chinese and Korean empires. + +Thus commenced a negotiation which lasted five and a half months. Japan +gradually reduced her demands to a minimum. Russia never made the +smallest appreciable concession. She refused to listen to Japan for one +moment about Manchuria. Eight years previously Japan had been in +military possession of Manchuria, and Russia with the assistance of +Germany and France had expelled her for reasons which concerned Japan +incomparably more than they concerned any of the three powers--the +security of the Chinese capital, the independence of Korea, the peace of +the East. Now, Russia had the splendid assurance to declare by +implication that none of these things concerned Japan at all. The utmost +she would admit was Japan's partial right to be heard about Korea. And +at the same time she herself commenced in northern Korea a series of +aggressions, partly perhaps to show her potentialities, partly by way of +counter-irritant. That was not all. Whilst she studiously deferred her +answers to Japan's proposals and protracted the negotiations to an +extent which was actually contumelious, she hastened to send eastward a +big fleet of war-ships and a new army of soldiers. It was impossible for +the dullest politician to mistake her purpose. She intended to yield +nothing, but to prepare such a parade of force that her obduracy would +command submission. The only alternatives for Japan were war or total +and permanent effacement in Asia. She chose war, and in fighting it she +fought the battle of free and equal opportunities for all without undue +encroachment upon the sovereign rights or territorial integrity of China +or Korea, against a military dictatorship, a programme of ruthless +territorial aggrandizement and a policy of selfish restrictions. + + + The Results of the War. + +The details of the great struggle that ensued are given elsewhere (see +RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR). After the battle of Mukden the belligerents found +themselves in a position which must either prelude another stupendous +effort on both sides or be utilized for the purpose of peace +negotiations. At this point the president of the United States of +America intervened in the interests of humanity, and on the 9th of June +1905 instructed the United States' representative in Tokyo to urge that +the Japanese government should open direct negotiations with Russia, an +exactly corresponding note being simultaneously sent to the Russian +government through the United States' representative in St Petersburg. +Japan's reply was made on the 10th of June. It intimated frank +acquiescence, and Russia lost no time in taking a similar step. +Nevertheless two months elapsed before the plenipotentiaries of the +belligerents met, on the 10th of August, at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, +U.S.A. Russia sent M. (afterwards Count) de Witte and Baron Rosen; +Japan, Baron (afterwards Count) Komura, who had held the portfolio of +foreign affairs throughout the war, and Mr. (afterwards Baron) Takahira. +In entering this conference, Japanese statesmen, as was subsequently +known, saw clearly that a great part of the credit accruing to them for +their successful conduct of the war would be forfeited in the sequel of +the negotiations. For the people of Japan had accustomed themselves to +expect that Russia would assuredly recoup the expenses incurred by their +country in the contest, whereas the cabinet in Tokyo understood well +that to look for payment of indemnity by a great state whose territory +had not been invaded effectively nor its existence menaced must be +futile. Nevertheless, diplomacy required that this conviction should be +concealed, and thus Russia carried to the conference a belief that the +financial phase of the discussion would be crucial, while, at the same +time, the Japanese nation reckoned fully on an indemnity of 150 millions +sterling. Baron Komura's mandate was, however, that the only radically +essential terms were those formulated by Japan prior to the war. She +must insist on securing the ends for which she had fought, since she +believed them to be indispensable to the peace of the Far East, but she +would not demand anything more. The Japanese plenipotentiary, therefore, +judged it wise to marshal his terms in the order of their importance, +leaving his Russian colleague to imagine, as he probably would, that the +converse method had been adopted, and that everything preliminary to the +questions of finance and territory was of minor consequence. The +negotiations, commencing on the 10th of August, were not concluded until +the 5th of September, when a treaty of peace was signed. There had been +a moment when the onlooking world believed that unless Russia agreed to +ransom the island of Sakhalin by paying to Japan a sum of 120 millions +sterling, the conference would be broken off; nor did such an exchange +seem unreasonable, for were Russia expelled from the northern part of +Sakhalin, which commands the estuary of the Amur River, her position in +Siberia would have been compromised. But the statesmen who directed +Japan's affairs were not disposed to make any display of earth-hunger. +The southern half of Sakhalin had originally belonged to Japan and had +passed into Russia's possession by an arrangement which the Japanese +nation strongly resented. To recover that portion of the island seemed, +therefore, a legitimate ambition. Japan did not contemplate any larger +demand, nor did she seriously insist on an indemnity. Therefore the +negotiations were never in real danger of failure. The treaty of +Portsmouth recognized Japan's "paramount political, military and +economic interests" in Korea; provided for the simultaneous evacuation +of Manchuria by the contracting parties; transferred to Japan the lease +of the Liaotung peninsula held by Russia from China together with the +Russian railways south of Kwang-Cheng-tsze and all collateral mining or +other privileges; ceded to Japan the southern half of Sakhalin, the 50th +parallel of latitude to be the boundary between the two parts; secured +fishing rights for Japanese subjects along the coasts of the seas of +Japan, Okhotsk and Bering; laid down that the expenses incurred by the +Japanese for the maintenance of the Russian prisoners during the war +should be reimbursed by Russia, less the outlays made by the latter on +account of Japanese prisoners--by which arrangement Japan obtained a +payment of some 4 millions sterling--and provided that the contracting +parties, while withdrawing their military forces from Manchuria, might +maintain guards to protect their respective railways, the number of such +guards not to exceed 15 per kilometre of line. There were other +important restrictions: first, the contracting parties were to abstain +from taking, on the Russo-Korean frontier, any military measures which +might menace the security of Russian or Korean territory; secondly, the +two powers pledged themselves not to exploit the Manchurian railways for +strategic purposes; and thirdly, they promised not to build on Sakhalin +or its adjacent islands any fortifications or other similar military +works, or to take any military measures which might impede the free +navigation of the straits of La Pérouse and the Gulf of Tartary. The +above provisions concerned the two contracting parties only. But China's +interests also were considered. Thus it was agreed to "restore entirely +and completely to her exclusive administration" all portions of +Manchuria then in the occupation, or under the control, of Japanese or +Russian troops, except the leased territory; that her consent must be +obtained for the transfer to Japan of the leases and concessions held by +the Russians in Manchuria; that the Russian government would disavow the +possession of "any territorial advantages or preferential or exclusive +concessions in impairment of Chinese sovereignty or inconsistent with +the principle of equal opportunity in Manchuria"; and that Japan and +Russia "engaged reciprocally not to obstruct any general measures common +to all countries which China might take for the development of the +commerce and industry of Manchuria." This distinction between the +special interests of the contracting parties and the interests of China +herself as well as of foreign nations generally is essential to clear +understanding of a situation which subsequently attracted much +attention. From the time of the opium war (1857) to the Boxer rising +(1900) each of the great Western powers struggled for its own hand in +China, and each sought to gain for itself exclusive concessions and +privileges with comparatively little regard for the interests of others, +and with no regard whatever for China's sovereign rights. The fruits of +this period were: permanently ceded territories (Hong-Kong and Macao); +leases temporarily establishing foreign sovereignty in various districts +(Kiaochow, Wei-hai-wei and Kwang-chow); railway and mining concessions; +and the establishment of settlements at open ports where foreign +jurisdiction was supreme. But when, in 1900, the Boxer rising forced all +the powers into a common camp, they awoke to full appreciation of a +principle which had been growing current for the past two or three +years, namely, that concerted action on the lines of maintaining China's +integrity and securing to all alike equality of opportunity and a +similarly open door, was the only feasible method of preventing the +partition of the Chinese Empire and averting a clash of rival interests +which might have disastrous results. This, of course, did not mean that +there was to be any abandonment of special privileges already acquired +or any surrender of existing concessions. The arrangement was not to be +retrospective in any sense. Vested interests were to be strictly guarded +until the lapse of the periods for which they had been granted, or until +the maturity of China's competence to be really autonomous. A curious +situation was thus created. International professions of respect for +China's sovereignty, for the integrity of her empire and for the +enforcement of the open door and equal opportunity, coexisted with +legacies from an entirely different past. Russia endorsed this new +policy, but not unnaturally declined to abate any of the advantages +previously enjoyed by her in Manchuria. Those advantages were very +substantial. They included a twenty-five years' lease--with provision +for renewal--of the Liaotung peninsula, within which area of 1220 sq. m. +Chinese troops might not penetrate, whereas Russia would not only +exercise full administrative authority, but also take military and naval +action of any kind; they included the creation of a neutral territory in +the immediate north of the former and still more extensive, which should +remain under Chinese administration, but where neither Chinese nor +Russian troops might enter, nor might China, without Russia's consent, +cede land, open trading marts or grant concessions to any third +nationality; and they included the right to build some 1600 m. of +railway (which China would have the opportunity of purchasing at cost +price in the year 1938 and would be entitled to receive gratis in 1982), +as well as the right to hold extensive zones on either side of the +railway, to administer these zones in the fullest sense, and to work all +mines lying along the lines. Under the Portsmouth treaty these +advantages were transferred to Japan by Russia, the railway, however, +being divided so that only the portion (521½ m.) to the south of +Kwang-Cheng-tsze fell to Japan's share, while the portion (1077 m.) to +the north of that place remained in Russia's hands. China's consent to +the above transfers and assignments was obtained in a treaty signed at +Peking on the 22nd of December 1905. Thus Japan came to hold in +Manchuria a position somewhat contradictory. On the one hand, she +figured as the champion of the Chinese Empire's integrity and as an +exponent of the new principle of equal opportunity and the open door. On +the other, she appeared as the legatee of many privileges more or less +inconsistent with that principle. But, at the same time, nearly all the +great powers of Europe were similarly circumstanced. In their cases also +the same incongruity was observable between the newly professed policy +and the aftermath of the old practice. It was scarcely to be expected +that Japan alone should make a large sacrifice on the altar of a theory +to which no other state thought of yielding any retrospective obedience +whatever. She did, indeed, furnish a clear proof of deference to the +open-door doctrine, for instead of reserving the railway zones to her +own exclusive use, as she was fully entitled to do, she sought and +obtained from China a pledge to open to foreign trade 16 places within +those zones. For the rest, however, the inconsistency between the past +and the present, though existing throughout the whole of China, was +nowhere so conspicuous as in the three eastern provinces (Manchuria); +not because there was any real difference of degree, but because +Manchuria had been the scene of the greatest war of modern times; +because that war had been fought by Japan in the cause of the new +policy, and because the principles of the equally open door and of +China's integrity had been the main bases of the Portsmouth treaty, of +the Anglo-Japanese alliance, and of the subsequently concluded +_ententes_ with France and Russia. In short, the world's eyes were fixed +on Manchuria and diverted from China proper, so that every act of Japan +was subjected to an exceptionally rigorous scrutiny, and the nations +behaved as though they expected her to live up to a standard of almost +ideal altitude. China's mood, too, greatly complicated the situation. +She had the choice between two moderate and natural courses: either to +wait quietly until the various concessions granted by her to foreign +powers in the evil past should lapse by maturity, or to qualify herself +by earnest reforms and industrious development for their earlier +recovery. Nominally she adopted the latter course, but in reality she +fell into a mood of much impatience. Under the name of a +"rights-recovery campaign" her people began to protest vehemently +against the continuance of any conditions which impaired her +sovereignty, and as this temper coloured her attitude towards the +various questions which inevitably grew out of the situation in +Manchuria, her relations with Japan became somewhat strained in the +early part of 1909. + + + Japan in Korea after the War with Russia. + +Having waged two wars on account of Korea, Japan emerged from the second +conflict with the conviction that the policy of maintaining the +independence of Korea must be modified, and that since the identity of +Korean and Japanese interests in the Far East and the paramount +character of Japanese interests in Korea would not permit Japan to leave +Korea to the care of any third power, she must assume the charge +herself. Europe and America also recognized that view of the situation, +and consented to withdraw their legations from Seoul, thus leaving the +control of Korean foreign affairs entirely in the hands of Japan, who +further undertook to assume military direction in the event of +aggression from without or disturbance from within. But in the matter of +internal administration she continued to limit herself to advisory +supervision. Thus, though a Japanese resident-general in Seoul, with +subordinate residents throughout the provinces, assumed the functions +hitherto discharged by foreign representatives and consuls, the Korean +government was merely asked to employ Japanese experts in the position +of counsellors, the right to accept or reject their counsels being left +to their employers. Once again, however, the futility of looking for any +real reforms under this optional system was demonstrated. Japan sent her +most renowned statesman, Prince Ito, to discharge the duties of +resident-general; but even he, in spite of profound patience and tact, +found that some less optional methods must be resorted to. Hence on the +24th of July 1907 a new agreement was signed, by which the +resident-general acquired initiative as well as consultative competence +to enact and enforce laws and ordinances, to appoint and remove Korean +officials, and to place capable Japanese subjects in the ranks of the +administration. That this constituted a heavy blow to Korea's +independence could not be gainsaid. That it was inevitable seemed to be +equally obvious. For there existed in Korea nearly all the worst abuses +of medieval systems. The administration of justice depended solely on +favour or interest. The police contributed by corruption and +incompetence to the insecurity of life and property. The troops were a +body of useless mercenaries. Offices being allotted by sale, thousands +of incapables thronged the ranks of the executive. The emperor's court +was crowded by diviners and plotters of all kinds, male and female. The +finances of the throne and those of the state were hopelessly confused. +There was nothing like an organized judiciary. A witness was in many +cases considered _particeps criminis_; torture was commonly employed to +obtain evidence, and defendants in civil cases were placed under arrest. +Imprisonment meant death or permanent disablement for a man of small +means. Flogging so severe as to cripple, if not to kill, was a common +punishment; every major offence from robbery upward was capital, and +female criminals were frequently executed by administering shockingly +painful poisons. The currency was in a state of the utmost confusion. +Extreme corruption and extortion were practised in connexion with +taxation. Finally, while nothing showed that the average Korean lacked +the elementary virtue of patriotism, there had been repeated proofs that +the safety and independence of the empire counted for little in the +estimates of political intriguers. Japan must either step out of Korea +altogether or effect drastic reforms there. She necessarily chose the +latter alternative, and the things which she accomplished between the +beginning of 1906 and the close of 1908 may be briefly described as the +elaboration of a proper system of taxation; the organization of a staff +to administer annual budgets; the re-assessment of taxable property; the +floating of public loans for productive enterprises; the reform of the +currency; the establishment of banks of various kinds, including +agricultural and commercial; the creation of associations for putting +bank-notes into circulation; the introduction of a warehousing system to +supply capital to farmers; the lighting and buoying of the coasts; the +provision of posts, telegraphs, roads and railways; the erection of +public buildings; the starting of various industrial enterprises (such +as printing, brick-making, forestry and coal-mining); the laying out of +model farms; the beginning of cotton cultivation; the building and +equipping of an industrial training school; the inauguration of sanitary +works; the opening of hospitals and medical schools; the organization of +an excellent educational system; the construction of waterworks in +several towns; the complete remodelling of the central government; the +differentiation of the court and the executive, as well as of the +administration and the judiciary; the formation of an efficient body of +police; the organization of law courts with a majority of Japanese +jurists on the bench; the enactment of a new penal code; drastic reforms +in the taxation system. In the summer of 1907 the resident-general +advised the Throne to disband the standing army as an unserviceable and +expensive force. The measure was doubtless desirable, but the docility +of the troops had been over-rated. Some of them resisted vehemently, and +many became the nucleus of an insurrection which lasted in a desultory +manner for nearly two years; cost the lives of 21,000 insurgents and +1300 Japanese; and entailed upon Japan an outlay of nearly a million +sterling. Altogether Japan was 15 millions sterling out of pocket on +Korea's account by the end of 1909. She had also lost the veteran +statesman Prince Ito, who was assassinated at Harbin by a Korean fanatic +on the 26th of October 1909. Finally an end was put to an anomalous +situation by the annexation of Korea to Japan on the 29th of August +1910. (See further KOREA.) + + +IX.--DOMESTIC HISTORY + +_Cosmography._--Japanese annals represent the first inhabitant of earth +as a direct descendant of the gods. Two books describe the events of the +"Divine age." One, compiled in 712, is called the _Kojiki (Records of +Ancient Matters)_; the other, compiled in 720, is called the _Nihongi +(Chronicles of Japan)_. Both describe the processes of creation, but the +author of the _Chronicles_ drew largely upon Chinese traditions, whereas +the compilers of the _Records_ appear to have limited themselves to +materials which they believed to be native. The _Records_, therefore, +have always been regarded as the more trustworthy guide to pure Japanese +conceptions. They deal with the creation of Japan only, other countries +having been apparently judged unworthy of attention. At the beginning of +all things a primordial trinity is represented as existing on the "plain +of high heaven." Thereafter, during an indefinite time and by an +indefinite process, other deities come into existence, their titles +indicating a vague connexion with constructive and fertilizing forces. +They are not immortal: it is explicitly stated that they ultimately pass +away, and the idea of the cosmographers seems to be that each deity +marks a gradual approach to human methods of procreation. Meanwhile the +earth is "young and, like floating oil, drifts about after the manner of +a jelly-fish." At last there are born two deities, the creator and the +creatress, and these receive the mandate of all the heavenly beings to +"make, consolidate and give birth to the drifting land." For use in that +work a jewelled spear is given to them, and, standing upon the bridge +that connects heaven and earth, they thrust downwards with the weapon, +stir the brine below and draw up the spear, when from its point fall +drops which, accumulating, form the first dry land. Upon this land the +two deities descend, and, by ordinary processes, beget the islands of +Japan as well as numerous gods representing the forces of nature. But in +giving birth to the god of fire the creatress (Izanami) perishes, and +the creator (Izanagi) makes his way to the under-world in search of +her--an obvious parallel to the tales of Ishtar and Orpheus. With +difficulty he returns to earth, and, as he washes himself from the +pollution of Hades, there are born from the turbid water a number of +evil deities succeeded by a number of good, just as in the Babylonian +cosmogony the primordial ocean, Tiamat, brings forth simultaneously gods +and imps. Finally, as Izanagi washes his left eye the Goddess of the Sun +comes into existence; as he washes his right, the God of the Moon; and +as he washes his nose, the God of Force. To these three he assigns, +respectively, the dominion of the sun, the dominion of the moon, and the +dominion of the ocean. But the god of force (Sosanoo), like Lucifer, +rebels against this decree, creates a commotion in heaven, and after +having been the cause of the temporary seclusion of the sun goddess and +the consequent wrapping of the world in darkness, kills the goddess of +food and is permanently banished from heaven by the host of deities. He +descends to Izumo on the west of the main island of Japan, and there +saves a maiden from an eight-headed serpent. Sosanoo himself passes to +the under-world and becomes the deity of Hades, but he invests one of +his descendants with the sovereignty of Japan, and the title is +established after many curious adventures. To the sun goddess also, +whose feud with her fierce brother survives the latter's banishment from +heaven, the idea of making her grandson ruler of Japan presents itself. +She despatches three embassies to impose her will upon the descendants +of Sosanoo, and finally her grandson descends, not, however, in Izumo, +where the demi-gods of Sosanoo's race hold sway, but in Hiuga in the +southern island of Kiushiu. This grandson of Amaterasu (the goddess of +the sun) is called Ninigi, whose great-grandson figures in Japanese +history as the first human sovereign of the country, known during life +as Kamu-Yamato-Iware-Biko, and given the name of Jimmu tenno (Jimmu, son +of heaven) fourteen centuries after his death. Japanese annalists +attribute the accession of Jimmu to the year 660 B.C. Why that date was +chosen must remain a matter of conjecture. The _Records of Ancient +Matters_ has no chronology, but the more pretentious writers of the +_Chronicles of Japan_, doubtless in imitation of their Chinese models, +considered it necessary to assign a year, a month, and even a day for +each event of importance. There is abundant reason, however, to question +the accuracy of all Japanese chronology prior to the 5th century. The +first date corroborated by external evidence is 461, and Aston, who has +made a special study of the subject, concludes that the year 500 may be +taken as the time when the chronology of the _Chronicles_ begins to be +trustworthy. Many Japanese, however, are firm believers in the +_Chronicles_, and when assigning the year of the empire they invariably +take 660 B.C. for starting-point, so that 1909 of the Gregorian calendar +becomes for them 2569. + +_Prehistoric Period._--Thus, if the most rigid estimate be accepted, the +space of 1160 years, from 660 B.C. to A.D. 500, may be called the +prehistoric period. During that long interval the annals include 24 +sovereigns, the first 17 of whom lived for over a hundred years on the +average. It seems reasonable to conclude that the so-called assignment +of the sovereignty of Japan to Sosanoo's descendants and the +establishment of their kingdom in Izumo represent an invasion of +Mongolian immigrants coming from the direction of the Korean +peninsula--indeed one of the _Nihongi's_ versions of the event actually +indicates Korea as the point of departure--and that the subsequent +descent of Ninigi on Mount Takachiho in Hiuga indicates the advent of a +body of Malayan settlers from the south sea. Jimmu, according to the +_Chronicles_, set out from Hiuga in 667 B.C. and was not crowned at his +new palace in Yamato until 660. This campaign of seven years is +described in some detail, but no satisfactory information is given as to +the nature of the craft in which the invader and his troops voyaged, or +as to the number of men under his command. The weapons said to have been +carried were bows, spears and swords. A supernatural element is imported +into the narrative in the form of the three-legged crow of the sun, +which Amaterasu sends down to act as guide and messenger for her +descendants. Jimmu died at his palace of Kashiwa-bara in 585 B.C., his +age being 127 according to the _Chronicles_, and 137 according to the +_Records_. He was buried in a kind of tomb called _misasagi_, which +seems to have been in use in Japan for some centuries before the +Christian era--"a highly specialized form of tumulus, consisting of two +mounds, one having a circular, the other a triangular base, which merged +into each other, the whole being surrounded by a moat, or sometimes by +two concentric moats with a narrow strip of land between. In some, +perhaps in most, cases the misasagi contains a large vault of great +unhewn stones without mortar. The walls of this vault converge gradually +towards the top, which is roofed in by enormous slabs of stone weighing +many tons each. The entrance is by means of a gallery roofed with +similar stones." Several of these ancient sepulchral mounds have been +examined during recent years, and their contents have furnished +information of much antiquarian interest, though there is a complete +absence of inscriptions. The reigns of the eight sovereigns who +succeeded Jimmu were absolutely uneventful. Nothing is set down except +the genealogy of each ruler, the place of his residence and his burial, +his age and the date of his death. It was then the custom--and it +remained so until the 8th century of the Christian era--to change the +capital on the accession of each emperor; a habit which effectually +prevented the growth of any great metropolis. The reign of the 10th +emperor, Sujin, lasted from 98 to 30 B.C. During his era the land was +troubled by pestilence and the people broke out in rebellion; calamities +which were supposed to be caused by the spirit of the ancient ruler of +Izumo to avenge a want of consideration shown to his descendants by +their supplanters. Divination--by a Chinese process--and visions +revealed the source of trouble; rites of worship were performed in +honour of the ancient ruler, his descendant being entrusted with the +duty, and the pestilence ceased. We now hear for the first time of +vigorous measures to quell the aboriginal savages, doubtless the Ainu. +Four generals are sent out against them in different directions. But the +expedition is interrupted by an armed attempt on the part of the +emperor's half-brother, who, utilizing the opportunity of the troops' +absence from Yamato, marches from Yamashiro at the head of a powerful +army to win the crown for himself. In connexion with these incidents, +curious evidence is furnished of the place then assigned to woman by the +writers of the _Chronicles_. It is a girl who warns one of the emperor's +generals of the plot; it is the sovereign's aunt who interprets the +warning; and it is Ata, the wife of the rebellious prince, who leads the +left wing of his army. Four other noteworthy facts are recorded of this +reign: the taking of a census; the imposition of a tax on animals' skins +and game to be paid by men, and on textile fabrics by women; the +building of boats for coastwise transport, and the digging of dikes and +reservoirs for agricultural purposes. All these things rest solely on +the testimony of annalists writing eight centuries later than the era +they discuss and compiling their narrative mostly from tradition. +Careful investigations have been made to ascertain whether the histories +of China and Korea corroborate or contradict those of Japan. Without +entering into detailed evidence, the inference may be at once stated +that the dates given in Japanese early history are just 120 years too +remote; an error very likely to occur when using the sexagenary cycle, +which constituted the first method of reckoning time in Japan. But +although this correction suffices to reconcile some contradictory +features of Far-Eastern history, it does not constitute any explanation +of the incredible longevity assigned by the _Chronicles_ to several +Japanese sovereigns, and the conclusion is that when a consecutive +record of reigns came to be compiled in the 8th century, many lacunae +were found which had to be filled up from the imagination of the +compilers. With this parenthesis we may pass rapidly over the events of +the next two centuries (29 B.C. to A.D. 200). They are remarkable for +vigorous measures to subdue the aboriginal Ainu, who in the southern +island of Kiushiu are called Kuma-so (the names of two tribes) and +sometimes earth-spiders (i.e. cave-dwellers), while in the north-eastern +regions of the main island they are designated Yemishi. Expeditions are +led against them in both regions by Prince Yamato-dake, a hero revered +by all succeeding generations of Japanese as the type of valour and +loyalty. Dying from the effects of hardship and exposure, but declaring +with his last breath that loss of life was as nothing compared with the +sorrow of seeing his father's face no more, his spirit ascends to heaven +as a white bird, and when his son, Chuai, comes to the throne, he causes +cranes to be placed in the moat surrounding his palace in memory of his +illustrious sire. + +The sovereign had partly ceased to follow the example of Jimmu, who led +his armies in person. The emperors did not, however, pass a sedentary +life. They frequently made progresses throughout their dominions, and +on these occasions a not uncommon incident was the addition of some +local beauty to the Imperial harem. This licence had a far-reaching +effect, since to provide for the sovereign's numerous offspring--the +emperor Keiko (71-130) had 80 children--no better way offered than to +make grants of land, and thus were laid the foundations of a territorial +nobility destined profoundly to influence the course of Japanese +history. Woman continues to figure conspicuously in the story. The image +of the sun goddess, enshrined in Ise (5 B.C.), is entrusted to the +keeping of a princess, as are the mirror, sword and jewel inherited from +the sun goddess; a woman (Tachibana) accompanies Prince Yamato-dake in +his campaign against the Yemishi, and sacrifices her life to quell a +tempest at sea; Saho, consort of Suinin, is the heroine of a most tragic +tale in which the conflict between filial piety and conjugal loyalty +leads to her self-destruction; and a woman is found ruling over a large +district in Kiushu when the Emperor Keiko is engaged in his campaign +against the aborigines. The reign of Suinin saw the beginning of an art +destined to assume extraordinary importance in Japan--the art of +wrestling--and the first champion, Nomi no Sukune, is honoured for +having suggested that clay figures should take the place of the human +sacrifices hitherto offered at the sepulture of Imperial personages. The +irrigation works commenced in the time of Sujin were zealously continued +under his two immediate successors, Suinin and Keiko. More than 800 +ponds and channels are described as having been constructed under the +former's rule. We find evidence also that the sway of the throne had +been by this time widely extended, for in 125 a governor-general of 15 +provinces is nominated, and two years later, governors (_miyakko_) are +appointed in every province and mayors (_inaki_) in every village. The +number or names of these local divisions are not given, but it is +explained that mountains and rivers were taken as boundaries of +provinces, the limits of towns and villages being marked by roads +running respectively east and west, north and south. + + + Invasion of Korea. + +An incident is now reached which the Japanese count a landmark in their +history, though foreign critics are disposed to regard it as apocryphal. +It is the invasion of Korea by a Japanese army under the command of the +empress Jingo, in 200. The emperor Chuai, having proceeded to Kiushiu +for the purpose of conducting a campaign against the Kuma-so, is there +joined by the empress, who, at the inspiration of a deity, seeks to +divert the Imperial arms against Korea. But the emperor refuses to +believe in the existence of any such country, and heaven punishes his +incredulity with death at the hands of the Kuma-so, according to one +account; from the effects of disease, according to another. The calamity +is concealed; the Kuma-so are subdued, and the empress, having collected +a fleet and raised an army, crosses to the state of Silla (in Korea), +where, at the spectacle of her overwhelming strength, the Korean monarch +submits without fighting, and swears that until the sun rises in the +west, until rivers run towards their sources, and until pebbles ascend +to the sky and become stars, he will do homage and send tribute to +Japan. His example is followed by the kings of the two other states +constituting the Korean peninsula, and the warlike empress returns +triumphant. Many supernatural elements embellish the tale, but the +features which chiefly discredit it are that it abounds in anachronisms, +and that the event, despite its signal importance, is not mentioned in +either Chinese or Korean history. It is certain that China then +possessed in Korea territory administered by Chinese governors. She must +therefore have had cognisance of such an invasion, had it occurred. +Moreover, Korean history mentions twenty-five raids made by the Japanese +against Silla during the first five centuries of the Christian era, but +not one of them can be identified with Jingo's alleged expedition. There +can be no doubt that the early Japanese were an aggressive, enterprising +people, and that their nearest over-sea neighbour suffered much from +their activity. Nor can there be any reasonable doubt that the Jingo +tale contains a large germ of truth, and is at least an echo of the +relations that existed between Japan and Korea in the 3rd and 4th +centuries. The records of the 69 years comprising Jingo's reign are in +the main an account of intercourse, sometimes peaceful, sometimes +stormy, between the neighbouring countries. Only one other episode +occupies a prominent place: it is an attempt on the part of Jingo's +step-brothers to oppose her return to Yamato and to prevent the +accession of her son to the throne. It should be noted here that all +such names as Jimmu, Sujin, Chuai, &c., are posthumous, and were +invented in the reign of Kwammu (782-806), the fashion being taken from +China and the names themselves being purely Chinese translations of the +qualities assigned to the respective monarchs. Thus Jimmu signifies +"divine valour"; Sujin, "deity-honouring"; and Chuai, "sad middle son." +The names of these rulers during life were wholly different from their +posthumous appellations. + + + Earliest Notices in Chinese History. + +Chinese history, which is incomparably older and more precise than +Korean, is by no means silent about Japan. Long notices occur in the +later Han and Wei records (25 to 265). The Japanese are spoken of as +dwarfs (_Wa_), and their islands, frequently called the queen country, +are said to be mountainous, with soil suitable for growing grain, hemp, +and the silkworm mulberry. The climate is so mild that vegetables can be +grown in winter and summer; there are neither oxen, horses, tigers, nor +leopards; the people understand the art of weaving; the men tattoo their +faces and bodies in patterns indicating differences of rank; male attire +consists of a single piece of cloth; females wear a gown passed over the +head, and tie their hair in a bow; soldiers are armed with spears and +shields, and also with bows, from which they discharge arrows tipped +with bone or iron; the sovereign resides in Yamato; there are stockaded +forts and houses; food is taken with the fingers but is served on bamboo +trays and wooden trenchers; foot-gear is not worn; when men of the lower +classes meet a man of rank, they leave the road and retire to the grass, +squatting or kneeling with both hands on the ground when they address +him; intoxicating liquor is much used; the people are long-lived, many +reaching the age of 100; women are more numerous than men; there is no +theft, and litigation is infrequent; the women are faithful and not +jealous; all men of high rank have four or five wives, others two or +three; wives and children of law-breakers are confiscated, and for grave +crimes the offender's family is extirpated; divination is practised by +burning bones; mourning lasts for some ten days and the rites are +performed by a "mourning-keeper"; after a funeral the whole family +perform ablutions; fishing is much practised, and the fishermen are +skilled divers; there are distinctions of rank and some are vassals to +others; each province has a market where goods are exchanged; the +country is divided into more than 100 provinces, and among its products +are white pearls, green jade and cinnabar. These annals go on to say +that between 147 and 190 civil war prevailed for several years, and +order was finally restored by a female sovereign, who is described as +having been old and unmarried; much addicted to magic arts; attended by +a thousand females; dwelling in a palace with lofty pavilions surrounded +by a stockade and guarded by soldiers; but leading such a secluded life +that few saw her face except one man who served her meals and acted as a +medium of communication. There can be little question that this queen +was the empress Jingo who, according to Japanese annals, came to the +throne in the year A.D. 200, and whose every public act had its +inception or promotion in some alleged divine interposition. In one +point, however, the Chinese historians are certainly incorrect. They +represent tattooing as universal in ancient Japan, whereas it was +confined to criminals, in whose case it played the part that branding +does elsewhere. Centuries later, in feudal days, the habit came to be +practised by men of the lower orders whose avocations involved baring +the body, but it never acquired vogue among educated people. In other +respects these ancient Chinese annals must be credited with remarkable +accuracy in their description of Japan and the Japanese. Their account +may be advantageously compared with Professor Chamberlain's analysis of +the manners and customs of the early Japanese, in the preface to his +translation of the _Kojiki_. + + "The Japanese of the mythical period, as pictured in the legends + preserved by the compiler of the _Records of Ancient Matters_, were a + race who had long emerged from the savage stage and had attained to a + high level of barbaric skill. The Stone Age was forgotten by them--or + nearly so--and the evidence points to their never having passed + through a genuine Bronze Age, though the knowledge of bronze was at a + later period introduced from the neighbouring continent. They used + iron for manufacturing spears, swords and knives of various shapes, + and likewise for the more peaceful purpose of making hooks wherewith + to angle or to fasten the doors of their huts. Their other warlike and + hunting implements (besides traps and gins, which appear to have been + used equally for catching beasts and birds and for destroying human + enemies) were bows and arrows, spears and elbow-pads--the latter + seemingly of skin, while special allusion is made to the fact that the + arrows were feathered. Perhaps clubs should be added to the list. Of + the bows and arrows, swords and knives, there is perpetual mention, + but nowhere do we hear of the tools with which they were manufactured, + and there is the same remarkable silence regarding such widely spread + domestic implements as the saw and the axe. We hear, however, of the + pestle and mortar, of the fire-drill, of the wedge, of the sickle, and + of the shuttle used in weaving. Navigation seems to have been in a + very elementary state. Indeed the art of sailing was but little + practised in Japan even so late as the middle of the 10th century of + our era, subsequent to the general diffusion of Chinese civilization, + though rowing and punting are often mentioned by the early poets. To + what we should call towns or villages very little reference is made + anywhere in the _Records_ or in that part of the _Chronicles_ which + contain the account of the so-called Divine Age. But from what we + learn incidentally it would seem that the scanty population was + chiefly distributed in small hamlets and isolated dwellings along the + coast and up the course of the larger streams. Of house-building there + is frequent mention. Fences were in use. Rugs of skins and + rush-matting were occasionally brought in to sit on, and we even hear + once or twice of silk rugs being used for the same purpose by the + noble and wealthy. The habits of personal cleanliness which so + pleasantly distinguish the modern Japanese from their neighbours, in + continental Asia, though less fully developed than at present would + seem to have existed in the germ in early times, as we read more than + once of bathing in rivers, and are told of bathing women being + specially attached to the person of a certain Imperial infant. + Lustrations, too, formed part of the religious practices of the race. + Latrines are mentioned several times. They would appear to have been + situated away from the houses and to have been generally placed over a + running stream, whence doubtless the name for latrine in the archaic + dialect--_kawaya_ (river-house). A peculiar sort of dwelling-place + which the two old histories bring prominently under our notice is the + so-called parturition house--a one-roomed hut without windows, which a + woman was expected to build and retire into for the purpose Of being + delivered unseen. Castles are not distinctly spoken of until a time + which coincides, according to the received chronology, with the first + century B.C. We then first meet with the curious term rice-castle, + whose precise signification is a matter of dispute among the native + commentators, but which, on comparison with Chinese descriptions of + the early Japanese, should probably be understood to mean a kind of + palisade serving the purpose of a redoubt, behind which the warriors + could ensconce themselves. The food of the early Japanese consisted of + fish and of the flesh of the wild creatures which fell by the hunter's + arrow or were taken in the trapper's snare. Rice is the only cereal of + which there is such mention made as to place it beyond a doubt that + its cultivation dates back to time immemorial. Beans, millet and + barley are indeed named once, together with silkworms, in the account + of the Divine Age. But the passage has every aspect of an + interpolation in the legend, perhaps not dating back long before the + time of the eighth-century compiler. A few unimportant vegetables and + fruits, of most of which there is but a single mention, are found. The + intoxicating liquor called _sake_ was known in Japan during the + mythical period, and so were chopsticks for eating food with. Cooking + pots and cups and dishes--the latter both of earthenware and of leaves + of trees--are also mentioned; but of the use of fire for warming + purposes we hear nothing. Tables are named several times, but never in + connexion with food: they would seem to have been used exclusively for + the purpose of presenting offerings on, and were probably quite small + and low--in fact, rather trays than tables, according to European + ideas. In the use of clothing and the specialization of garments the + early Japanese had reached a high level. We read in the most ancient + legends of upper garments, skirts, trowsers, girdles, veils and hats, + while both sexes adorned themselves with necklaces, bracelets and head + ornaments of stones considered precious--in this respect offering a + striking contrast to their descendants in modern times, of whose + attire jewelry forms no part. The material of their clothes was hempen + cloth and paper--mulberry bark, coloured by being rubbed with madder, + and probably with woad and other tinctorial plants. All the garments, + so far as we may judge, were woven, sewing being nowhere mentioned. + From the great place which the chase occupied in daily life, we are + led to suppose that skins also were used to make garments of. There is + in the _Records_ at least one passage which favours this supposition, + and the _Chronicles_ in one place mention the straw rain-coat and + broad-brimmed hat, which still form the Japanese peasant's effectual + protection against the inclemencies of the weather. The tendrils of + creeping plants served the purposes of strings, and bound the + warrior's sword round his waist. Combs are mentioned, and it is + evident that much attention was devoted to the dressing of the hair. + The men seem to have bound up their hair in two bunches, one on each + side of the head, while the young boys tied theirs in a top-knot, the + unmarried girls let their locks hang down over their necks, and the + married women dressed theirs after a fashion which apparently combined + the two last-named methods. There is no mention in any of the old + books of cutting the hair or beard except in token of disgrace; + neither do we gather that the sexes, but for the matter of the + head-dress, were distinguished by a diversity of apparel and + ornamentation. With regard to the precious stones mentioned above as + having been used as ornaments for the head, neck and arms, we know + from the specimens which have rewarded the labours of archaeological + research in Japan that agate, crystal, glass, jade, serpentine and + steatite were the most used materials, and carved and pierced + cylindrical shapes the commonest forms. The horse--which was ridden, + but not driven--the barn-door fowl and the cormorant used for fishing, + are the only domesticated creatures mentioned in the earlier + traditions, with the doubtful exception of the silkworm. In the later + portions of the _Records_ and _Chronicles_ dogs and cattle are alluded + to, but sheep, swine and even cats were apparently not yet + introduced." + +As the prehistoric era draws to its end the above analyses of Japanese +civilization have to be modified. Thus, towards the close of the 3rd +century, ship-building made great progress, and instead of the small +boats hitherto in use, a vessel 100 ft. long was constructed. Notable +above all is the fact that Japan's turbulent relations with Korea were +replaced by friendly intercourse, so that she began to receive from her +neighbour instruction in the art of writing. The date assigned by the +_Chronicles_ for this important event is A.D. 285, but it has been +proved almost conclusively that Japanese annals relating to this period +are in error to the extent of 120 years. Hence the introduction of +calligraphy must be placed in 405. Chinese history shows that between 57 +and 247 Japan sent four embassies to the courts of the Han and the Wei, +and this intercourse cannot have failed to disclose the ideograph. But +the knowledge appears to have been confined to a few interpreters, and +not until the year 405 were steps taken to extend it, with the aid of a +learned Korean, Wang-in. Korea herself began to study Chinese learning +only a few years before she undertook to impart it to Japan. We now find +a numerous colony of Koreans passing to Japan and settling there; a +large number are also carried over as prisoners of war, and the Japanese +obtain seamstresses from both of their continental neighbours. One fact, +related with much precision, shows that the refinements of life were in +an advanced condition: an ice-house is described, and we read that from +374 (? 494) it became the fashion to store ice in this manner for use in +the hot months by placing it in water or _sake_. The emperor, Nintoku, +to whose time this innovation is attributed, is one of the romantic +figures of Japanese history. He commenced his career by refusing to +accept the sovereignty from his younger brother, who pressed him +earnestly to do so on the ground that the proper order of succession had +been disturbed by their father's partiality--though the rights attaching +to primogeniture did not receive imperative recognition in early Japan. +After three years of this mutual self-effacement, during which the +throne remained vacant, the younger brother committed suicide, and +Nintoku reluctantly became sovereign. He chose Naniwa (the modern Osaka) +for his capital, but he would not take the farmers from their work to +finish the building of a palace, and subsequently, inferring from the +absence of smoke over the houses of the people that the country was +impoverished, he remitted all taxes and suspended forced labour for a +term of three years, during which his palace fell into a state of ruin +and he himself fared in the coarsest manner. Digging canals, damming +rivers, constructing roads and bridges, and establishing granaries +occupied his attention when love did not distract it. But in affairs of +the heart he was most unhappy. He figures as the sole wearer of the +Japanese crown who was defied by his consort; for when he took a +concubine in despite of the empress, her jealousy was so bitter that, +refusing to be placated by any of his majesty's verses or other +overtures, she left the palace altogether; and when he sought to +introduce another beauty into the inner chamber, his own half-brother, +who carried his proposals, won the girl for himself. One other fact +deserves to be remembered in connexion with Nintoku's reign: +Ki-no-tsuno, representative of a great family which had filled the +highest administrative and military posts under several sovereigns, is +mentioned as "the first to commit to writing in detail the productions +of the soil in each locality." This was in 353 (probably 473). We shall +err little if we date the commencement of Japanese written annals from +this time, though no compilation earlier than the _Kojiki_ has survived. + +_Early Historical Period._--With the emperor Richu, who came to the +throne A.D. 400, the historical period may be said to commence; for +though the chronology of the records is still questionable, the facts +are generally accepted as credible. Conspicuous loyalty towards the +sovereign was not an attribute of the Japanese Imperial family in early +times. Attempts to usurp the throne were not uncommon, though there are +very few instances of such essays on the part of a subject. Love or lust +played no insignificant part in the drama, and a common method of +placating an irate sovereign was to present a beautiful damsel for his +delectation. The veto of consanguinity did not receive very strict +respect in these matters. Children of the same father might intermarry, +but not those of the same mother; a canon which becomes explicable on +observing that as wives usually lived apart from their husbands and had +the sole custody of their offspring, two or more families often remained +to the end unconscious of the fact that they had a common sire. There +was a remarkable tendency to organize the nation into groups of persons +following the same pursuit or charged with the same functions. A group +thus composed was called _be_. The heads of the great families had +titles--as _omi_, _muraji_, _miakko_, _wake_, &c.--and affairs of state +were administered by the most renowned of these nobles, wholly subject +to the sovereign's ultimate will. The provincial districts were ruled by +scions of the Imperial family, who appear to have been, on the whole, +entirely subservient to the Throne. There were no tribunals of justice: +the ordeal of boiling water or heated metal was the sole test of guilt +or innocence, apart, of course, from confession, which was often exacted +under menace of torture. A celebrated instance of the ordeal of boiling +water is recorded in 415, when this device was employed to correct the +genealogies of families suspected of falsely claiming descent from +emperors or divine beings. The test proved efficacious, for men +conscious of forgery refused to undergo the ordeal. Deprivation of rank +was the lightest form of punishment; death the commonest, and +occasionally the whole family of an offender became serfs of the house +against which the offence had been committed or which had been +instrumental in disclosing a crime. There are, however, frequent +examples of wrong-doing expiated by the voluntary surrender of lands or +other property. We find several instances of that extreme type of +loyalty which became habitual in later ages--suicide in preference to +surviving a deceased lord. On the whole the successive sovereigns of +these early times appear to have ruled with clemency and consideration +for the people's welfare. But there were two notable exceptions--Yuriaku +(457-479) and Muretsu (499-506). The former slew men ruthlessly in fits +of passion or resentment, and the latter was the Nero of Japanese +history, a man who loved to witness the agony of his fellows and knew no +sentiment of mercy or remorse. Yet even Yuriaku did not fail to promote +industrial pursuits. Skilled artisans were obtained from Korea, and it +is related that, in 462, this monarch induced the empress and the ladies +of the palace to plant mulberry trees with their own hands in order to +encourage sericulture. Throughout the 5th and 6th centuries many +instances are recorded of the acquisition of landed estates by the +Throne, and their occasional bestowal upon princes or Imperial consorts, +such gifts being frequently accompanied by the assignment of bodies of +agriculturists who seem to have accepted the position of serfs. +Meanwhile Chinese civilization was gradually becoming known, either by +direct contact or through Korea. Several immigrations of Chinese or +Korean settlers are on record. No less than 7053 householders of Chinese +subjects came, through Korea, in 540, and one of their number received +high rank together with the post of director of the Imperial treasury. +From these facts, and from a national register showing the derivation of +all the principal families in Japan, it is clearly established that a +considerable strain of Chinese and Korean blood runs in the veins of +many Japanese subjects. + + + Introduction of Buddhism. + +The most signal and far-reaching event of this epoch was the importation +of the Buddhist creed, which took place in 552. A Korean monarch acted +as propagandist, sending a special envoy with a bronze image of the +Buddha and with several volumes of the Sutras. Unfortunately the coming +of the foreign faith happened to synchronize with an epidemic of plague, +and conservatives at the Imperial court were easily able to attribute +this visitation to resentment on the part of the ancestral deities +against the invasion of Japan by an alien creed. Thus the spread of +Buddhism was checked; but only for a time. Thirty-five years after the +coming of the Sutras, the first temple was erected to enshrine a wooden +image of the Buddha 16 ft. high. It has often been alleged that the +question between the imported and the indigenous cults had to be decided +by the sword. The statement is misleading. That the final adoption of +Buddhism resulted from a war is true, but its adoption or rejection did +not constitute the motive of the combat. A contest for the succession to +the throne at the opening of Sujun's reign (588-592) found the partisans +of the Indian faith ranged on one side, its opponents on the other, and +in a moment of stress the leaders of the former, Soma and Prince +Umayado, vowed to erect Buddhist temples should victory rest on their +arms. From that time the future of Buddhism was assured. In 588 Korea +sent Buddhist relics, Buddhist priests, Buddhist ascetics, architects of +Buddhist temples, and casters of Buddhist images. She had already sent +men learned in divination, in medicine, and in the calendar. The +building of temples began to be fashionable in the closing years of the +6th century, as did also abdication of the world by people of both +sexes; and a census taken in 623, during the reign of the empress Suiko +(583-628), showed that there were then 46 temples, 816 priests and 569 +nuns in the empire. This rapid growth of the alien faith was due mainly +to two causes: first, that the empress Suiko, being of the Soga family, +naturally favoured a creed which had found its earliest Japanese patron +in the great statesman and general, Soga no Umako; secondly, that one of +the most illustrious scholars and philosophers ever possessed by Japan, +Prince Shotoku, devoted all his energies to fostering Buddhism. + +The adoption of Buddhism meant to the Japanese much more than the +acquisition of a practical religion with a code of clearly defined +morality in place of the amorphous and jejune cult of Shinto. It meant +the introduction of Chinese civilization. Priests and scholars crossed +in numbers from China, and men passed over from Japan to study the +Sutras at what was then regarded as the fountain-head of Buddhism. There +was also a constant stream of immigrants from China and Korea, and the +result may be gathered from the fact that a census taken of the Japanese +nobility in 814 indicated 382 Korean and Chinese families against only +796 of pure Japanese origin. The records show that in costume and +customs a signal advance was made towards refinement. Hair-ornaments of +gold or silver chiselled in the form of flowers; caps of sarcenet in +twelve special tints, each indicating a different grade; garments of +brocade and embroidery with figured thin silks of various colours--all +these were worn on ceremonial occasions; the art of painting was +introduced; a recorder's office was established; perfumes were largely +employed; court picnics to gather medicinal herbs were instituted, +princes and princesses attending in brilliant raiment; Chinese music and +dancing were introduced; cross bows and catapults were added to the +weapons of war; domestic architecture made signal strides in obedience +to the examples of Buddhist sacred edifices, which, from the first, +showed magnificence of dimension and decoration hitherto unconceived in +Japan; the arts of metal-casting and sculpture underwent great +improvement; Prince Shotoku compiled a code, commonly spoken of as the +first written laws of Japan, but in reality a collection of maxims +evincing a moral spirit of the highest type. In some respects, however, +there was no improvement. The succession to the throne still tended to +provoke disputes among the Imperial princes; the sword constituted the +principal weapon of punishment, and torture the chief judicial device. +Now, too, for the first time, a noble family is found seeking to usurp +the Imperial authority. The head of the Soga house, Umako, having +compassed the murder of the emperor Sujun and placed on the throne his +own niece (Suiko), swept away all opposition to the latter's successor, +Jomei, and controlled the administration of state affairs throughout two +reigns. In all this he was strongly seconded by his son, Iruka, who even +surpassed him in contumelious assumption of power and parade of dignity. +Iruka was slain in the presence of the empress Kogyoku by Prince Naka +with the assistance of the minister of the interior, Kamako, and it is +not surprising to find the empress (Kogyoku) abdicating immediately +afterwards in favour of Kamako's protégé, Prince Karu, who is known in +history as Kotoku. This Kamako, planner and leader of the conspiracy +which overthrew the Soga, is remembered by posterity under the name of +Kamatari and as the founder of the most illustrious of Japan's noble +houses, the Fujiwara. At this time (645), a habit which afterwards +contributed materially to the effacement of the Throne's practical +authority was inaugurated. Prince Furubito, pressed by his brother, +Prince Karu, to assume the sceptre in accordance with his right of +primogeniture, made his refusal peremptory by abandoning the world and +taking the tonsure. This retirement to a monastery was afterwards +dictated to several sovereigns by ministers who found that an active +occupant of the throne impeded their own exercise of administrative +autocracy. Furubito's recourse to the tonsure proved, however, to be +merely a cloak for ambitious designs. Before a year had passed he +conspired to usurp the throne and was put to death with his children, +his consorts strangling themselves. Suicide to escape the disgrace of +defeat had now become a common practice. Another prominent feature of +this epoch was the prevalence of superstition. The smallest +incidents--the growing of two lotus flowers on one stem; a popular +ballad; the reputed song of a sleeping monkey; the condition of the +water in a pond; rain without clouds--all these and cognate trifles were +regarded as omens; wizards and witches deluded the common people; a +strange form of caterpillar was worshipped as the god of the everlasting +world, and the peasants impoverished themselves by making sacrifices to +it. + + + First Legislative Epoch. + +An interesting epoch is now reached, the first legislative era of early +Japanese history. It commenced with the reign of the emperor Kotoku +(645), of whom the _Chronicles_ say that he "honoured the religion of +Buddha and despised Shinto"; that "he was of gentle disposition; loved +men of learning; made no distinction of noble and mean, and continually +dispensed beneficent edicts." The customs calling most loudly for reform +in his time were abuse of the system of forced labour; corrupt +administration of justice; spoliation of the peasant class; assumption +of spurious titles to justify oppression; indiscriminate distribution of +the families of slaves and serfs; diversion of taxes to the pockets of +collectors; formation of great estates, and a general lack of +administrative centralization. The first step of reform consisted in +ordering the governors of provinces to prepare registers showing the +numbers of freemen and serfs within their jurisdiction as well as the +area of cultivated land. It was further ordained that the advantages of +irrigation should be shared equally with the common people; that no +local governor might try and decide criminal cases while in his +province; that any one convicted of accepting bribes should be liable to +a fine of double the amount as well as to other punishment; that in the +Imperial court a box should be placed for receiving petitions and a bell +hung to be sounded in the event of delay in answering them or unfairness +in dealing with them; that all absorption of land into great estates +should cease; that barriers, outposts, guards and post-horses should be +provided; that high officials should be dowered with hereditary estates +by way of emolument, the largest of such grants being 3000 homesteads; +that men of unblemished character and proved capacity should be +appointed aldermen for adjudicating criminal matters; that there should +be chosen as clerks for governors and vice-governors of provinces men of +solid competence "skilled in writing and arithmetic"; that the land +should be parcelled out in fixed proportions to every adult unit of the +population with right of tenure for a term of six years; that forced +labour should be commuted for taxes of silk and cloth; and that for +fiscal and administrative purposes households should be organized in +groups of five, each group under an elder, and ten groups forming a +township, which, again, should be governed by an elder. Incidentally to +these reforms many of the evil customs of the time are exposed. Thus +provincial governors when they visited the capital were accustomed to +travel with great retinues who appear to have constituted a charge on +the regions through which they passed. The law now limited the number of +a chief governor's attendants to nine, and forbade him to use official +houses or to fare at public cost unless journeying on public business. +Again, men who had acquired some local distinction, though they did not +belong to noble families, took advantage of the absence of historical +records or official registers, and, representing themselves as +descendants of magnates to whom the charge of public granaries had been +entrusted, succeeded in usurping valuable privileges. The office of +provincial governor had in many cases become hereditary, and not only +were governors largely independent of Imperial control, but also, since +every free man carried arms, there had grown up about these officials a +population relying largely on the law of force. Kotoku's reforms sought +to institute a system of temporary governors, and directed that all arms +and armour should be stored in arsenals built in waste places, except in +the case of provinces adjoining lands where unsubdued aborigines +(Yemishi) dwelt. Punishments were drastic, and in the case of a man +convicted of treason, all his children were executed with him, his wives +and consorts committing suicide. From a much earlier age suicide had +been freely resorted to as the most honourable exit from pending +disgrace, but as yet the samurai's method of disembowelment was not +employed, strangulation or cutting the throat being the regular +practice. Torture was freely employed and men often died under it. +Signal abuses prevailed in regions beyond the immediate range of the +central government's observation. It has been shown that from early days +the numerous scions of the Imperial family had generally been provided +for by grants of provincial estates. Gradually the descendants of these +men, and the representatives of great families who held hereditary rank, +extended their domains unscrupulously, employing forced labour to +reclaim lands, which they let to the peasants, not hesitating to +appropriate large slices of public property, and remitting to the +central treasury only such fractions of the taxes as they found +convenient. So prevalent had the exaction of forced labour become that +country-folk, repairing to the capital to seek redress of grievances, +were often compelled to remain there for the purpose of carrying out +some work in which dignitaries of state were interested. The removal of +the capital to a new site on each change of sovereign involved a vast +quantity of unproductive toil. It is recorded that in 656, when the +empress Saimei occupied the throne, a canal was dug which required the +work of 30,000 men and a wall was built which had employed 70,000 men +before its completion. The construction of tombs for grandees was +another heavy drain on the people's labour. Some of these sepulchres +attained enormous dimensions--that of the emperor Ojin (270-310) +measures 2312 yds. round the outer moat and is some 60 ft. high; the +emperor Nintoku's (313-399) is still larger, and there is a tumulus in +Kawachi on the flank of which a good-sized village has been built. +Kotoku's laws provided that the tomb of a prince should not be so large +as to require the work of more than 1000 men for seven days, and that +the grave of a petty official must be completed by 50 men in one day. +Moreover, it was forbidden to bury with the body gold, silver, copper, +iron, jewelled shirts, jade armour or silk brocade. It appears that the +custom of suicide or sacrifice at the tomb of grandees still survived, +and that people sometimes cut off their hair or stabbed their thighs +preparatory to declaiming a threnody. All these practices were vetoed. +Abuses had grown up even in connexion with the Shinto rite of purgation. +This rite required not only the reading of rituals but also the offering +of food and fruits. For the sake of these edibles the rite was often +harshly enforced, especially in connexion with pollution from contact +with corpses; and thus it fell out that when of two brothers, returning +from a scene of forced labour, one lay down upon the road and died, the +other, dreading the cost of compulsory purgation, refused to take up the +body. Many other evil customs came into existence in connexion with this +rite, and all were dealt with in the new laws. Not the least important +of the reforms then introduced was the organization of the ministry +after the model of the Tang dynasty of China. Eight departments of state +were created, and several of them received names which are similarly +used to this day. Not only the institutions of China were borrowed but +also her official costumes. During Kotoku's reign 19 grades of head-gear +were instituted, and in the time of Tenchi (668-671) the number was +increased to 26, with corresponding robes. Throughout this era +intercourse was frequent with China, and the spread of Buddhism +continued steadily. The empress Saimei (655-661), who succeeded Kotoku, +was an earnest patron of the faith. By her command several public +expositions of the Sutras were given, and the building of temples went +on in many districts, estates being liberally granted for the +maintenance of these places of worship. + +_The Fujiwara Era._--In the _Chronicles of Japan_ the year 672 is +treated as a kind of interregnum. It was in truth a year of something +like anarchy, a great part of it being occupied by a conflict of +unparalleled magnitude between Prince Otomo (called in history Emperor +Kobun) and Prince Oama, who emerged victorious and is historically +entitled Temmu (673-686). The four centuries that followed are +conveniently designated the Fujiwara era, because throughout that long +interval affairs of state were controlled by the Fujiwara family, whose +daughters were given as consorts to successive sovereigns and whose sons +filled all the high administrative posts. It has been related above that +Kamako, chief of the Shinto officials, inspired the assassination of the +Soga chief, Iruka, and thus defeated the latter's designs upon the +throne in the days of the empress Kogyoku. Kamako, better known to +subsequent generations as Kamatari, was thenceforth regarded with +unlimited favour by successive sovereigns, and just before his death in +670, the family name of Fujiwara was bestowed on him by the emperor +Tenchi. Kamatari himself deserved all the honour he received, but his +descendants abused the high trust reposed in them, reduced the sovereign +to a mere puppet, and exercised Imperial authority without openly +usurping it. Much of this was due to the adoption of Chinese +administrative systems, a process which may be said to have commenced +during the reign of Kotoku (645-654) and to have continued almost +uninterruptedly until the 11th century. Under these systems the emperor +ceased directly to exercise supreme civil or military power: he became +merely the source of authority, not its wielder, the civil functions +being delegated to a bureaucracy and the military to a soldier class. +Possibly had the custom held of transferring the capital to a new site +on each change of sovereign, and had the growth of luxurious habits been +thus checked, the comparatively simple life of early times might have +held the throne and the people in closer contact. But from the beginning +of the 8th century a strong tendency to avoid these costly migrations +developed itself. In 709 the court took up its residence at Nara, +remaining there until 784; ten years after the latter date Kioto became +the permanent metropolis. The capital at Nara--established during the +reign of the empress Gemmyo (708-715)--was built on the plan of the +Chinese metropolis. It had nine gates and nine avenues, the palace being +situated in the northern section and approached by a broad, straight +avenue, which divided the city into two perfectly equal halves, all the +other streets running parallel to this main avenue or at right angles +to it. Seven sovereigns reigned at Heijo (castle of peace), as Nara is +historically called, and, during this period of 75 years, seven of the +grandest temples ever seen in Japan were erected; a multitude of idols +were cast, among them a colossal bronze Daibutsu 53½ ft. high; large +temple-bells were founded, and all the best artists and artisans of the +era devoted their services to these works. This religious mania reached +its acme in the reign of the emperor Shomu (724-748), a man equally +superstitious and addicted to display. In Temmu's time the custom had +been introduced of compelling large numbers of persons to enter the +Buddhist priesthood with the object of propitiating heaven's aid to heal +the illness of an illustrious personage. In Shomu's day every natural +calamity or abnormal phenomenon was regarded as calling for religious +services on a large scale, and the great expense involved in all these +buildings and ceremonials, supplemented by lavish outlays on court +pageants, was severely felt by the nation. The condition of the +agricultural class, who were the chief tax-payers, was further +aggravated by the operation of the emperor Kotoku's land system, which +rendered tenure so uncertain as to deter improvements. Therefore, in the +Nara epoch, the principle of private ownership of land began to be +recognized. Attention was also paid to road-making, bridge-building, +river control and house construction, a special feature of this last +being the use of tiles for roofing purposes in place of the shingles or +thatch hitherto employed. In all these steps of progress Buddhist +priests took an active part. Costumes were now governed by purely +Chinese fashions. This change had been gradually introduced from the +time of Kotoku's legislative measures--generally called the Taikwa +reforms after the name of the era (645-650) of their adoption--and was +rendered more thorough by supplementary enactments in the period 701-703 +while Mommu occupied the throne. Ladies seem by this time to have +abandoned the strings of beads worn in early eras round the neck, wrists +and ankles. They used ornaments of gold, silver or jade in their hair, +but in other respects their habiliments closely resembled those of men, +and to make the difference still less conspicuous they straddled their +horses when riding. Attempts were made to facilitate travel by +establishing stores of grain along the principal highways, but as yet +there were no hostelries, and if a wayfarer did not find shelter in the +house of a friend, he had to bivouac as best he could. Such a state of +affairs in the provinces offered a marked contrast to the luxurious +indulgence which had now begun to prevail in the capital. There +festivals of various kinds, dancing, verse-composing, flower picnics, +archery, polo, football--of a very refined nature--hawking, hunting and +gambling absorbed the attention of the aristocracy. Nothing disturbed +the serenity of the epoch except a revolt of the northern Yemishi, which +was temporarily subdued by a Fujiwara general, for the Fujiwara had not +yet laid aside the martial habits of their ancestors. In 794 the +Imperial capital was transferred from Nara to Kioto by order of the +emperor Kwammu, one of the greatest of Japanese sovereigns. Education, +the organization of the civil service, riparian works, irrigation +improvements, the separation of religion from politics, the abolition of +sinecure offices, devices for encouraging and assisting agriculture, all +received attention from him. But a twenty-two years' campaign against +the northern Yemishi; the building of numerous temples; the indulgence +of such a passionate love of the chase that he organized 140 hunting +excursions during his reign of 25 years; profuse extravagance on the +part of the aristocracy in Kioto and the exactions of provincial nobles, +conspired to sink the working classes into greater depths of hardship +than ever. Farmers had to borrow money and seed-rice from local +officials or Buddhist temples, hypothecating their land as security; +thus the temples and the nobles extended their already great estates, +whilst the agricultural population gradually fell into a position of +practical serfdom. + + + Rise of the Fujiwara. + +Meanwhile the Fujiwara family were steadily developing their influence +in Kioto. Their methods were simple but thoroughly effective. "By +progressive exercises of arbitrariness they gradually contrived that the +choice of a consort for the sovereign should be legally limited to a +daughter of their family, five branches of which were specially +designated to that honour through all ages. When a son was born to an +emperor, the Fujiwara took the child into one of their palaces, and on +his accession to the throne, the particular Fujiwara noble that happened +to be his maternal grandfather became regent of the empire. This office +of regent, created towards the close of the 9th century, was part of the +scheme; for the Fujiwara did not allow the purple to be worn by a +sovereign after he had attained his majority, or, if they suffered him +to wield the sceptre during a few years of manhood, they compelled him +to abdicate so soon as any independent aspirations began to impair his +docility; and since for the purposes of administration in these +constantly recurring minorities an office more powerful than that of +prime minister (dajo daijin) was needed, they created that of regent +(kwambaku), making it hereditary in their own family. In fact the +history of Japan from the 9th to the 19th century may be described as +the history of four families, the Fujiwara, the Taira, the Minamoto and +the Tokugawa. The Fujiwara governed through the emperor; the Taira, the +Minamoto and the Tokugawa governed in spite of the emperor. The Fujiwara +based their power on matrimonial alliances with the Throne; the Taira, +the Minamoto and the Tokugawa based theirs on the possession of armed +strength which the throne had no competence to control. There another +broad line of cleavage is seen. Throughout the Fujiwara era the centre +of political gravity remained always in the court. Throughout the era of +the Taira, the Minamoto and the Tokugawa the centre of political gravity +was transferred to a point outside the court, the headquarters of a +military feudalism." The process of transfer was of course gradual. It +commenced with the granting of large tracts of tax-free lands to +noblemen who had wrested them from the aborigines (Yemishi) or had +reclaimed them by means of serf-labour. These tracts lay for the most +part in the northern and eastern parts of the main island, at such a +distance from the Capital that the writ of the central government did +not run there; and since such lands could be rented at rates +considerably less than the tax levied on farms belonging to the state, +the peasants by degrees abandoned the latter and settled on the former, +with the result that the revenues of the Throne steadily diminished, +while those of the provincial magnates correspondingly increased. +Moreover, in the 7th century, at the time of the adoption of Chinese +models of administration and organization, the court began to rely for +military protection on the services of guards temporarily drafted from +the provincial troops, and, during the protracted struggle against the +Yemishi in the north and east in the 8th century, the fact that the +power of the sword lay with the provinces began to be noted. + + + The Taira and the Minamoto. + +Kioto remained the source of authority. But with the growth of luxury +and effeminacy in the capital the Fujiwara became more and more averse +from the hardships of campaigning, and in the 9th and 10th centuries, +respectively, the Taira and the Minamoto[1] families came into +prominence as military leaders, the field of the Taira operations being +the south and west, that of the Minamoto the north and east. Had the +court reserved to itself and munificently exercised the privilege of +rewarding these services, it might still have retained power and wealth. +But by a niggardly and contemptuous policy on the part of Kioto not only +were the Minamoto leaders estranged but also they assumed the right of +recompensing their followers with tax-free estates, an example which the +Taira leaders quickly followed. By the early years of the 12th century +these estates had attracted the great majority of the farming class, +whereas the public land was left wild and uncultivated. In a word, the +court and the Fujiwara found themselves without revenue, while the +coffers of the Taira and the Minamoto were full: the power of the purse +and the power of the sword had passed effectually to the two military +families. Prominent features of the moral condition of the capital at +this era (12th century) were superstition, refinement and effeminacy. A +belief was widely held that calamity could not be averted or success +insured without recourse to Buddhist priests. Thus, during a reign of +only 13 years at the close of the 11th century, the emperor Shirakawa +caused 5420 religious pictures to be painted, ordered the casting of 127 +statues of Buddha, each 11 ft. high, of 3150 life-sized images and of +2930 smaller idols, and constructed 21 large temples as well as 446,630 +religious edifices of various kinds. Side by side with this faith in the +supernatural, sexual immorality prevailed widely, never accompanied, +however, by immodesty. Literary proficiency ranked as the be-all and +end-all of existence. "A man estimated the conjugal qualities of a young +lady by her skill in finding scholarly similes and by her perception of +the cadence of words. If a woman was so fortunate as to acquire a +reputation for learning, she possessed a certificate of universal virtue +and amiability." All the pastimes of the Nara epoch were pursued with +increased fervour and elaboration in the Heian (Kioto) era. The building +of fine dwelling-houses and the laying out of landscape gardens took +place on a considerable scale, though in these respects the ideals of +later ages were not yet reached. As to costume, the close-fitting, +business-like and comparatively simple dress of the 8th century was +exchanged for a much more elaborate style. During the Nara epoch the +many-hued hats of China had been abandoned for a sober head-gear of silk +gauze covered with black lacquer, but in the Heian era this was replaced +by an imposing structure glistening with jewels: the sleeves of the +tunic grew so long that they hung to the knees when a man's arms were +crossed, and the trowsers were made so full and baggy that they +resembled a divided skirt. From this era may be said to have commenced +the manufacture of the tasteful and gorgeous textile fabrics for which +Japan afterwards became famous. "A fop's ideal was to wear several +suits, one above the other, disposing them so that their various colours +showed in harmoniously contrasting lines at the folds on the bosom and +at the edges of the long sleeves. A successful costume created a +sensation in court circles. Its wearer became the hero of the hour, and +under the pernicious influence of such ambition men began even to powder +their faces and rouge their cheeks like women. As for the fair sex, +their costume reached the acme of unpracticality and extravagance in +this epoch. Long flowing hair was essential, and what with developing +the volume and multiplying the number of her robes, and wearing above +her trowsers a many-plied train, a grand lady of the time always seemed +to be struggling to emerge from a cataract of habiliments." It was +fortunate for Japan that circumstances favoured the growth of a military +class in this age of her career, for had the conditions existing in +Kioto during the Heian epoch spread throughout the whole country, the +penalty never escaped by a demoralized nation must have overtaken her. +But by the middle of the 12th century the pernicious influence of the +Fujiwara had paled before that of the Taira and the Minamoto, and a +question of succession to the throne marshalled the latter two families +in opposite camps, thus inaugurating an era of civil war which held the +country in the throes of almost continuous battle for 450 years, placed +it under the administration of a military feudalism, and educated a +nation of warriors. At first the Minamoto were vanquished and driven +from the capital, Kiyomori, the Taira chief, being left complete master +of the situation. He established his headquarters at Rokuharu, in Kioto, +appropriated the revenues of 30 out of the 66 provinces forming the +empire, and filled all the high offices of state with his own relatives +or connexions. But he made no radical change in the administrative +system, preferring to follow the example of the Fujiwara by keeping the +throne in the hands of minors. And he committed the blunder of sparing +the lives of two youthful sons of his defeated rival, the Minamoto +chief. They were Yoritomo and Yoshitsune; the latter the greatest +strategist Japan ever produced, with perhaps one exception; the former, +one of her three greatest statesmen, the founder of military feudalism. +By these two men the Taira were so completely overthrown that they never +raised their heads again, a sea-fight at Dan-no-ura (1155) giving them +the _coup de grâce_. Their supremacy had lasted 22 years. + +_The Feudal Era._--Yoritomo, acting largely under the advice of an +astute counsellor, Oye no Hiromoto, established his seat of power at +Kamakura, 300 m. from Kioto. He saw that, effectively to utilize the +strength of the military class, propinquity to the military centres in +the provinces was essential. At Kamakura he organized an administrative +body similar in mechanism to that of the metropolitan government but +studiously differentiated in the matter of nomenclature. As to the +country at large, he brought it effectually under the sway of Kamakura +by placing the provinces under the direct control of military governors, +chosen and appointed by himself. No attempt was made, however, to +interfere in any way with the polity in Kioto: it was left intact, and +the nobles about the Throne--_kuge_ (courtly houses), as they came to be +called in contradistinction to the _buke_ (military houses)--were +placated by renewal of their property titles. The Buddhist priests, +also, who had been treated most harshly during the Taira tenure of +power, found their fortunes restored under Kamakura's sway. Subsequently +Yoritomo obtained for himself the title of _sei-itai-shogun_ +(barbarian-subduing generalissimo), and just as the office of regent +(kwambaku) had long been hereditary in the Fujiwara family, so the +office of shogun became thenceforth hereditary in that of the Minamoto. +These changes were radical. They signified a complete shifting of the +centre of power. During eighteen centuries from the time of Jimmu's +invasion--as Japanese historians reckon--the country had been ruled from +the south; now the north became supreme, and for a civilian +administration a purely military was substituted. But there was no +contumely towards the court in Kioto. Kamakura made a show of seeking +Imperial sanction for every one of its acts, and the whole of the +military administration was carried on in the name of the emperor by a +shogun who called himself the Imperial deputy. In this respect things +changed materially after the death of Yoritomo (1198). Kamakura then +became the scene of a drama analogous to that acted in Kioto from the +10th century. + + + Rule of the Hojo. + +The Hojo family, to which belonged Masa, Yoritomo's consort, assumed +towards the Kamakura shogun an attitude similar to that previously +assumed by the Fujiwara family towards the emperor in Kioto. A child, +who on state occasions was carried to the council chamber in Masa's +arms, served as the nominal repository of the shogun's power, the +functions of administration being discharged in reality by the Hojo +family, whose successive heads took the name of _shikken_ (constable). +At first care was taken to have the shogun's office filled by a near +relative of Yoritomo; but after the death of that great statesman's two +sons and his nephew, the puppet shoguns were taken from the ranks of the +Fujiwara or of the Imperial princes, and were deposed so soon as they +attempted to assert themselves. What this meant becomes apparent when we +note that in the interval of 83 years between 1220 and 1308, there were +six shoguns whose ages at the time of appointment ranged from 3 to 16. +Whether, if events had not forced their hands, the Hojo constables would +have maintained towards the Throne the reverent demeanour adopted by +Yoritomo must remain a matter of conjecture. What actually happened was +that the ex-emperor, Go-Toba, made an ill-judged attempt (1221) to break +the power of Kamakura. He issued a call to arms which was responded to +by some thousands of cenobites and as many soldiers of Taira extraction. +In the brief struggle that ensued the Imperial partisans were wholly +shattered, and the direct consequences were the dethronement and exile +of the reigning emperor, the banishment of his predecessor together with +two princes of the blood, and the compulsory adoption of the tonsure by +Go-Toba; while the indirect consequence was that the succession to the +throne and the tenure of Imperial power fell under the dictation of the +Hojo as they had formerly fallen under the direction of the Fujiwara. +Yoshitoki, then head of the Hojo family, installed his brother, +Tokifusa, as military governor of Kioto, and confiscating about 3000 +estates, the property of those who had espoused the Imperial cause, +distributed these lands among the adherents of his own family, thus +greatly strengthening the basis of the feudal system. "It fared with +the Hojo as it had fared with all the great families that preceded them: +their own misrule ultimately wrought their ruin. Their first eight +representatives were talented and upright administrators. They took +justice, simplicity and truth for guiding principles; they despised +luxury and pomp; they never aspired to high official rank; they were +content with two provinces for estates, and they sternly repelled the +effeminate, depraved customs of Kioto." Thus the greater part of the +13th century was, on the whole, a golden era for Japan, and the lower +orders learned to welcome feudalism. Nevertheless no century furnished +more conspicuous illustrations of the peculiarly Japanese system of +vicarious government. Children occupied the position of shogun in +Kamakura under authority emanating from children on the throne in Kioto; +and members of the Hojo family as shikken administered affairs at the +mandate of the child shoguns. Through all three stages in the dignities +of mikado, shogun and shikken, the strictly regulated principle of +heredity was maintained, according to which no Hojo shikken could ever +become shogun; no Minamoto or Fujiwara could occupy the throne. At the +beginning of the 14th century, however, several causes combined to shake +the supremacy of the Hojo. Under the sway of the ninth shikken +(Takatoki), the austere simplicity of life and earnest discharge of +executive duties which had distinguished the early chiefs of the family +were exchanged for luxury, debauchery and perfunctory government. Thus +the management of fiscal affairs fell into the hands of Takasuke, a man +of usurious instincts. It had been the wise custom of the Hojo +constables to store grain in seasons of plenty, and distribute it at low +prices in times of dearth. There occurred at this epoch a succession of +bad harvests, but instead of opening the state granaries with benevolent +liberality, Takasuke sold their contents at the highest obtainable +rates; and, by way of contrast to the prevailing indigence, the people +saw the constable in Kamakura affecting the pomp and extravagance of a +sovereign waited upon by 37 mistresses, supporting a band of 2000 +dancers, and keeping a pack of 5000 fighting dogs. The throne happened +to be then occupied (1310-1338) by an emperor, Go-Daigo, who had reached +full maturity before his accession, and was correspondingly averse from +acting the puppet part assigned to the sovereigns of his time. Female +influence contributed to his impatience. One of his concubines bore a +son for whom he sought to obtain nomination as prince imperial, in +defiance of an arrangement made by the Hojo that the succession should +pass alternately to the senior and junior branches of the Imperial +family. Kamakura refused to entertain Go-Daigo's project, and +thenceforth the child's mother importuned her sovereign and lover to +overthrow the Hojo. The _entourage_ of the throne in Kioto at this time +was a counterpart of former eras. The Fujiwara, indeed, wielded nothing +of their ancient influence. They had been divided by the Hojo into five +branches, each endowed with an equal right to the office of regent, and +their strength was thus dissipated in struggling among themselves for +the possession of the prize. But what the Fujiwara had done in their +days of greatness, what the Taira had done during their brief tenure of +power, the Saionji were now doing, namely, aspiring to furnish prime +ministers and empresses from their own family solely. They had already +given consorts to five emperors in succession, and jealous rivals were +watching keenly to attack this clan which threatened to usurp the place +long held by the most illustrious family in the land. A petty incident +disturbed this state of very tender equilibrium before the plan of the +Hojo's enemies had fully matured, and the emperor presently found +himself an exile on the island of Oki. But there now appeared upon the +scene three men of great prowess: Kusunoki Masashige, Nitta Yoshisada +and Ashikaga Takauji. The first espoused from the outset the cause of +the Throne and, though commanding only a small force, held the Hojo +troops in check. The last two were both of Minamoto descent. Their +common ancestor was Minamoto Yoshiiye, whose exploits against the +northern Yemishi in the second half of the 11th century had so impressed +his countrymen that they gave him the title of Hachiman Taro +(first-born of the god of war). Both men took the field originally in +the cause of the Hojo, but at heart they desired to be avenged upon the +latter for disloyalty to the Minamoto. Nitta Yoshisada marched suddenly +against Kamakura, carried it by storm and committed the city to the +flames. Ashikaga Takauji occupied Kioto, and with the suicide of +Takatoki the Hojo fell finally from rule after 115 years of supremacy +(1219-1334). The emperor now returned from exile, and his son, Prince +Moriyoshi, having been appointed to the office of shogun at Kamakura, +the restoration of the administrative power to the Throne seemed an +accomplished fact. + + + The Ashikaga Shoguns. + +Go-Daigo, however, was not in any sense a wise sovereign. The +extermination of the Hojo placed wide estates at his disposal, but +instead of rewarding those who had deserved well of him, he used a great +part of them to enrich his favourites, the companions of his +dissipation. Ashikaga Takauji sought just such an opportunity. The +following year (1335) saw him proclaiming himself shogun at Kamakura, +and after a complicated pageant of incidents, the emperor Go-Daigo was +obliged once more to fly from Kioto. He carried the regalia with him, +refused to submit to Takauji, and declined to recognize his usurped +title of shogun. The Ashikaga chief solved the situation by deposing +Go-Daigo and placing upon the throne another scion of the imperial +family who is known in history as Komyo (1336-1348), and who, of course, +confirmed Takauji in the office of shogun. Thus commenced the Ashikaga +line of shoguns, and thus commenced also a fifty-six-year period of +divided sovereignty, the emperor Go-Daigo and his descendants reigning +in Yoshino as the southern court (_nancho_), and the emperor Komyo and +his descendants reigning in Kioto as the northern court (_hokucho_). It +was by the efforts of the shogun Yoshimitsu, one of the greatest of the +Ashikaga potentates, that this quarrel was finally composed, but during +its progress the country had fallen into a deplorable condition. "The +constitutional powers had become completely disorganized, especially in +regions at a distance from the chief towns. The peasant was +impoverished, his spirit broken, his hope of better things completely +gone. He dreamed away his miserable existence and left the fields +untilled. Bands of robbers followed the armies through the interior of +the country, and increased the feeling of lawlessness and insecurity. +The coast population, especially that of the island of Kiushiu, had +given itself up in a great measure to piracy. Even on the shores of +Korea and China these enterprising Japanese corsairs made their +appearance." The shogun Yoshimitsu checked piracy, and there ensued +between Japan and China a renewal of cordial intercourse which, upon the +part of the shogun, developed phases plainly suggesting an admission of +Chinese suzerainty. + +For a brief moment during the sway of Yoshimitsu the country had rest +from internecine war, but immediately after his death (1394) the +struggle began afresh. Many of the great territorial lords had now grown +too puissant to concern themselves about either mikado or shogun. Each +fought for his own hand, thinking only of extending his sway and his +territories. By the middle of the 16th century Kioto was in ruins, and +little vitality remained in any trade or industry except those that +ministered to the wants of the warrior. Again in the case of the +Ashikaga shoguns the political tendency to exercise power vicariously +was shown, as it had been shown in the case of the mikados in Kioto and +in the case of the Minamoto in Kamakura. What the regents had been to +the emperors and the constables to the Minamoto shoguns, that the +wardens (_kwanryo_) were to the Ashikaga shoguns. Therefore, for +possession of this office of kwanryo vehement conflicts were waged, and +at one time five rival shoguns were used as figure-heads by contending +factions. Yoshimitsu had apportioned an ample allowance for the support +of the Imperial court, but in the continuous warfare following his death +the estates charged with the duty of paying this allowance ceased to +return any revenue; the court nobles had to seek shelter and sustenance +with one or other of the feudal chiefs in the provinces, and the court +itself was reduced to such a state of indigence that when the emperor +Go-Tsuchi died (1500), his corpse lay for forty days awaiting burial, +no funds being available for purposes of sepulture. + +Alone among the vicissitudes of these troublous times the strength and +influence of Buddhism grew steadily. The great monasteries were military +strongholds as well as places of worship. When the emperor Kwammu chose +Kioto for his capital, he established on the hill of Hiyei-zan, which +lay north-east of the city, a magnificent temple to ward off the evil +influences supposed to emanate from that quarter. Twenty years later, +Kobo, the most famous of all Japanese Buddhist saints, founded on +Koyasan in Yamato a monastery not less important than that of Hiyei-zan. +These and many other temples had large tax-free estates, and for the +protection of their property they found it expedient to train and arm +the cenobites as soldiers. From that to taking active part in the +political struggles of the time was but a short step, especially as the +great temples often became refuges of sovereigns and princes who, though +nominally forsaking the world, retained all their interest, and even +continued to take an active part, in its vicissitudes. It is recorded of +the emperor Shirakawa (1073-1086) that the three things which he +declared his total inability to control were the waters of the river +Kamo, the fall of the dice, and the monks of Buddha. His successors +might have confessed equal inability. Kiyomori, the puissant chief of +the Taira family, had fruitlessly essayed to defy the Buddhists; +Yoritomo, in the hour of his most signal triumph, thought it wise to +placate them. Where these representatives of centralized power found +themselves impotent, it may well be supposed that the comparatively +petty chieftains who fought each for his own hand in the 15th and 16th +centuries were incapable of accomplishing anything. In fact, the task of +centralizing the administrative power, and thus restoring peace and +order to the distracted empire, seemed, at the middle of the 16th +century, a task beyond achievement by human capacity. + + + Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu. + +But if ever events create the men to deal with them, such was the case +in the second half of that century. Three of the greatest captains and +statesmen in Japanese history appeared upon the stage simultaneously, +and moreover worked in union, an event altogether inconsistent with the +nature of the age. They were Oda Nobunaga, Hideyoshi (the _taiko_) and +Tokugawa Iyeyasu. Nobunaga belonged to the Taira family and was +originally ruler of a small fief in the province of Owari. Iyeyasu, a +sub-feudatory of Nobunaga's enemy, the powerful daimyo[2] of Mikawa and +two other provinces, was a scion of the Minamoto and therefore eligible +for the shogunate. Hideyoshi was a peasant's son, equally lacking in +patrons and in personal attractions. No chance seemed more remote than +that such men, above all Hideyoshi, could possibly rise to supreme +power. On the other hand, one outcome of the commotion with which the +country had seethed for more than four centuries was to give special +effect to the principle of natural selection. The fittest alone +surviving, the qualities that made for fitness came to take precedence +of rank or station, and those qualities were prowess in the battlefield +and wisdom in the statesman's closet. "Any plebeian that would prove +himself a first-class fighting man was willingly received into the armed +_comitatus_ which every feudal potentate was eager to attach to himself +and his flag." It was thus that Hideyoshi was originally enrolled in the +ranks of Nobunaga's retainers. + +Nobunaga, succeeding to his small fief in Owari in 1542, added to it six +whole provinces within 25 years of continuous endeavour. Being finally +invited by the emperor to undertake the pacification of the country, and +appealed to by Yoshiaki, the last of the Ashikaga chiefs, to secure for +him the shogunate, he marched into Kioto at the head of a powerful army +(1568), and, having accomplished the latter purpose, was preparing to +complete the former when he fell under the sword of a traitor. +Throughout his brilliant career he had the invaluable assistance of +Hideyoshi, who would have attained immortal fame on any stage in any +era. Hideyoshi entered Nobunaga's service as a groom and ended by +administering the whole empire. When he accompanied Nobunaga to Kioto +in obedience to the invitation of the mikado, Okimachi, order and +tranquillity were quickly restored in the capital and its vicinity. But +to extend this blessing to the whole country, four powerful daimyos as +well as the militant monks had still to be dealt with. The monks had +from the outset sheltered and succoured Nobunaga's enemies, and one +great prelate, Kenryo, hierarch of the Monto sect, whose headquarters +were at Osaka, was believed to aspire to the throne itself. In 1571 +Nobunaga attacked and gave to the flames the celebrated monastery of +Hiyei-zan, established nearly eight centuries previously; and in 1580 he +would have similarly served the splendid temple Hongwan-ji in Osaka, had +not the mikado sought and obtained grace for it. The task then remained +of subduing four powerful daimyos, three in the south and one in the +north-east, who continued to follow the bent of their own warlike +ambitions without paying the least attention to either sovereign or +shogun. The task was commenced by sending an army under Hideyoshi +against Mori of Choshu, whose fief lay on the northern shore of the +Shimonoseki strait. This proved to be the last enterprise planned by +Nobunaga. On a morning in June 1582 one of the corps intended to +reinforce Hideyoshi's army marched out of Kameyama under the command of +Akechi Mitsuhide, who either harboured a personal grudge against +Nobunaga or was swayed by blind ambition. Mitsuhide suddenly changed the +route of his troops, led them to Kioto, and attacked the temple Honno-ji +where Nobunaga was sojourning all unsuspicious of treachery. Rescue and +resistance being alike hopeless, the great soldier committed suicide. +Thirteen days later, Hideyoshi, having concluded peace with Mori of +Choshu, fell upon Mitsuhide's forces and shattered them, Mitsuhide +himself being killed by a peasant as he fled from the field. + + + Hideyoshi. + +Nobunaga's removal at once made Hideyoshi the most conspicuous figure in +the empire, the only man with any claim to dispute that title being +Tokugawa Iyeyasu. These two had hitherto worked in concert. But the +question of the succession to Nobunaga's estates threw the country once +more into tumult. He left two grown-up sons and a baby grandson, whose +father, Nobunaga's first-born, had perished in the holocaust at +Honno-ji. Hideyoshi, not unmindful, it may be assumed, of the privileges +of a guardian, espoused the cause of the infant, and wrested from +Nobunaga's three other great captains a reluctant endorsement of his +choice. Nobutaka, third son of Nobunaga, at once drew the sword, which +he presently had to turn against his own person; two years later (1584), +his elder brother, Nobuo, took the field under the aegis of Tokugawa +Iyeyasu. Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu, now pitted against each other for the +first time, were found to be of equal prowess, and being too wise to +prolong a useless war, they reverted to their old alliance, subsequently +confirming it by a family union, the son of Iyeyasu being adopted by +Hideyoshi and the latter's daughter being given in marriage to Iyeyasu. +Hideyoshi had now been invested by the mikado with the post of regent, +and his position in the capital was omnipotent. He organized in Kioto a +magnificent pageant, in which the principal figures were himself, +Iyeyasu, Nobuo and twenty-seven daimyos. The emperor was present. +Hideyoshi sat on the right of the throne, and all the nobles did +obeisance to the sovereign. Prior to this event Hideyoshi had conducted +against the still defiant daimyos of Kiushiu, especially Shimazu of +Satsuma, the greatest army ever massed by any Japanese general, and had +reduced the island of the nine provinces, not by weight of armament +only, but also by a signal exercise of the wise clemency which +distinguished him from all the statesmen of his era. + +The whole of Japan was now under Hideyoshi's sway except the fiefs in +the extreme north and those in the region known as the Kwanto, namely, +the eight provinces forming the eastern elbow of the main island. Seven +of these provinces were virtually under the sway of Hojo Ujimasa, fourth +representative of a family established in 1476 by a brilliant adventurer +of Ise, not related in any way to the great but then extinct house of +Kamakura Hojos. The daimyos in the north were comparatively powerless to +resist Hideyoshi, but to reach them the Kwanto had to be reduced, and +not only was its chief, Ujimasa, a formidable foe, but also the +topographical features of the district represented fortifications of +immense strength. After various unsuccessful overtures, having for their +purpose to induce Ujimasa to visit the capital and pay homage to the +emperor, Hideyoshi marched from Kioto in the spring of 1590 at the head +of 170,000 men, his colleagues Nobuo and Iyeyasu having under their +orders 80,000 more. The campaign ended as did all Hideyoshi's +enterprises, except that he treated his vanquished enemies with unusual +severity. During the three months spent investing Odawara, the northern +daimyos surrendered, and thus the autumn of 1590 saw Hideyoshi master of +Japan from end to end, and saw Tokugawa Iyeyasu established at Yedo as +recognized ruler of the eight provinces of the Kwanto. These two facts +should be bracketed together, because Japan's emergence from the deep +gloom of long-continued civil strife was due not more to the brilliant +qualities of Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu individually than to the fortunate +synchronism of their careers, so that the one was able to carry the +other's work to completion and permanence. The last eight years of +Hideyoshi's life--he died in 1598--were chiefly remarkable for his +attempt to invade China through Korea, and for his attitude towards +Christianity (see § VIII.: FOREIGN INTERCOURSE). + +_The Tokugawa Era._--When Hideyoshi died he left a son, Hideyori, then +only six years of age, and the problem of this child's future had +naturally caused supreme solicitude to the peasant statesman. He finally +entrusted the care of the boy and the management of state affairs to +five regents, five ministers, and three intermediary councillors. But he +placed chief reliance upon Iyeyasu, whom he appointed president of the +board of regents. Among the latter was one, Ishida Mitsunari, who to +insatiable ambition added an extraordinary faculty for intrigue and +great personal magnetism. These qualities he utilized with such success +that the dissensions among the daimyos, which had been temporarily +composed by Hideyoshi, broke out again, and the year 1600 saw Japan +divided into two camps, one composed of Tokugawa Iyeyasu and his allies, +the other of Ishida Mitsunari and his partisans. + + + Iyeyasu. + +The situation of Iyeyasu was eminently perilous. From his position in +the east of the country, he found himself menaced by two powerful +enemies on the north and on the south, respectively, the former barely +contained by a greatly weaker force of his friends, and the latter +moving up in seemingly overwhelming strength from Kioto. He decided to +hurl himself upon the southern army without awaiting the result of the +conflict in the north. The encounter took place at Sekigahara in the +province of Mino on the 21st of October 1600. The army of Iyeyasu had to +move to the attack in such a manner that its left flank and its left +rear were threatened by divisions of the enemy posted on commanding +eminences. But with the leaders of these divisions Iyeyasu had come to +an understanding by which they could be trusted to abide so long as +victory did not declare against him. Such incidents were naturally +common in an era when every man fought for his own hand. The southerners +suffered a crushing defeat. The survivors fled pell-mell to Osaka, where +in a colossal fortress, built by Hideyoshi, his son, Hideyori, and the +latter's mother, Yodo, were sheltered behind ramparts held by 80,000 +men. Hideyori's cause had been openly put forward by Ishida Mitsunari +and his partisans, but Iyeyasu made no immediate attempt to visit the +sin upon the head of his deceased benefactor's child. On the contrary, +he sent word to the lady Yodo and her little boy that he absolved them +of all complicity. The battle of Sekigahara is commonly spoken of as +having terminated the civil war which had devastated Japan, with brief +intervals, from the latter half of the 12th century to the beginning of +the 17th. That is incorrect in view of the fact that Sekigahara was +followed by other fighting, especially by the terrible conflict at Osaka +in 1615 when Yodo and her son perished. But Sekigahara's importance +cannot be over-rated. For had Iyeyasu been finally crushed there, the +wave of internecine strife must have rolled again over the empire until +providence provided another Hideyoshi and another Iyeyasu to stem it. +Sekigahara, therefore, may be truly described as a turning-point in +Japan's career and as one of the decisive battles of the world. As for +the fact that the Tokugawa leader did not at once proceed to extremities +in the case of the boy Hideyori, though the events of the Sekigahara +campaign had made it quite plain that such a course would ultimately be +inevitable, we have to remember that only two years had elapsed since +Hideyoshi was laid in his grave. His memory was still green and the +glory of his achievements still enveloped his family. Iyeyasu foresaw +that to carry the tragedy to its bitter end at once must have forced +into Hideyori's camp many puissant daimyos whose sense of allegiance +would grow less cogent with the lapse of time. When he did lay siege to +the Osaka castle in 1615, the power of the Tokugawa was well-nigh +shattered against its ramparts; had not the onset been aided by +treachery, the stronghold would probably have proved impregnable. + +But signal as were the triumphs of the Tokugawa chieftain in the field, +what distinguishes him from all his predecessors is the ability he +displayed in consolidating his conquests. The immense estates that fell +into his hands he parcelled out in such a manner that all important +strategical positions were held by daimyos whose fidelity could be +confidently trusted, and every feudatory of doubtful loyalty found his +fief within touch of a Tokugawa partisan. This arrangement, supplemented +by a system which required all the great daimyos to have mansions in the +shogun's capital. Yedo, to keep their families there always and to +reside there themselves in alternate years, proved so potent a check to +disaffection that from 1615, when the castle of Osaka fell, until 1864, +when the Choshu ronin attacked Kioto, Japan remained entirely free from +civil war. + +It is possible to form a clear idea of the ethical and administrative +principles by which Iyeyasu and the early Tokugawa chiefs were guided in +elaborating the system which gave to Japan an unprecedented era of peace +and prosperity. Evidence is furnished not only by the system itself but +also by the contents of a document generally called the _Testament of +Iyeyasu_, though probably it was not fully compiled until the time of +his grandson, Iyemitsu (1623-1650). The great Tokugawa chief, though he +munificently patronized Buddhism and though he carried constantly in his +bosom a miniature Buddhist image to which he ascribed all his success in +the field and his safety in battle, took his ethical code from +Confucius. He held that the basis of all legislation and administration +should be the five relations of sovereign and subject, parent and child, +husband and wife, brother and sister, friend and friend. The family was, +in his eyes, the essential foundation of society, to be maintained at +all sacrifices. Beyond these broad outlines of moral duty it was not +deemed necessary to instruct the people. Therefore out of the hundred +chapters forming the _Testament_ only 22 contain what can be called +legal enactments, while 55 relate to administration and politics; 16 set +forth moral maxims and reflections, and the remainder record +illustrative episodes in the career of the author. No distinct line is +drawn between law and morals, between the duty of a citizen and the +virtues of a member of a family. Substantive law is entirely wanting, +just as it was wanting in the so-called constitution of Prince Shotoku. +Custom, as sanctioned by public observance, must be complied with in the +civil affairs of life. What required minute exposition was criminal law, +the relations of social classes, etiquette, rank, precedence, +administration and government. + + + Social distinctions in the Tokugawa Era. + +Society under feudalism had been moulded into three sharply defined +groups, namely, first, the Throne and the court nobles (_kuge_); +secondly, the military class (_buke_ or _samurai_); and thirdly, the +common people (_heimin_). These lines of cleavage were emphasized as +much as possible by the Tokugawa rulers. The divine origin of the mikado +was held to separate him from contact with mundane affairs, and he was +therefore strictly secluded in the palace at Kioto, his main function +being to mediate between his heavenly ancestors and his subjects, +entrusting to the shogun and the samurai the duty of transacting all +worldly business on behalf of the state. In obedience to this principle +the mikado became a kind of sacrosanct abstraction. No one except his +consorts and his chief ministers ever saw his face. In the rare cases +when he gave audience to a privileged subject, he sat behind a curtain, +and when he went abroad, he rode in a closely shut car drawn by oxen. A +revenue of ten thousand _koku_ of rice--the equivalent of about as many +guineas--was apportioned for his support, and the right was reserved to +him of conferring empty titles upon the living and rank upon the dead. +His majesty had one wife, the empress (_kogo_), necessarily taken from +one of the five chosen families (_go-sekke_) of the Fujiwara, but he +might also have twelve consorts, and if direct issue failed, the +succession passed to one of the two princely families of Arisugawa and +Fushimi, adoption, however, being possible in the last resort. The +_kuge_ constituted the court nobility, consisting of 155 families all of +whom traced their lineage to ancient mikados; they ranked far above the +feudal chiefs, not excepting even the shogun; filled by right of +heredity nearly all the offices at the court, the emoluments attached +being, however, a mere pittance; were entirely without the great estates +which had belonged to them in ante-feudal times, and lived lives of +proud poverty, occupying themselves with the study of literature and the +practice of music and art. After the kuge and at a long distance below +them in theoretical rank came the military families, who, as a class, +were called _buke_ or _samurai_. They had hereditary revenues, and they +filled the administrative posts, these, too, being often hereditary. The +third, and by far the most numerous, section of the nation were the +commoners (_heimin_). They had no social status; were not allowed to +carry swords, and possessed no income except what they could earn with +their hands. About 55 in every 1000 units of the nation were samurai, +the latter's wives and children being included in this estimate. + + + Daimyos. + +Under the Hojo and the Ashikaga shoguns the holders of the great estates +changed frequently according to the vicissitudes of those troublesome +times, but under the Tokugawa no change took place, and there thus grew +up a landed nobility of the most permanent character. Every one of these +estates was a feudal kingdom, large or small, with its own usages and +its own laws, based on the general principles above indicated and liable +to be judged according to those principles by the shogun's government +(_baku-fu_) in Yedo. A daimyo or feudal chief drew from the peasants on +his estate the means of subsistence for himself and his retainers. For +this purpose the produce of his estate was assessed by the shogun's +officials in _koku_ (one _koku_ = 180.39 litres, worth about £1), and +about one-half of the assessed amount went to the feudatory, the other +half to the tillers of the soil. The richest daimyo was Mayeda of Kaga, +whose fief was assessed at a little over a million _koku_, his revenue +thus being about half a million sterling. Just as an empress had to be +taken from one of five families designated to that distinction for all +time, so a successor to the shogunate, failing direct heir, had to be +selected from three families (_sanke_), namely, those of the daimyos of +Owari, Kii and Mito, whose first representatives were three sons of +Iyeyasu. Out of the total body of 255 daimyos existing in the year 1862, +141 were specially distinguished as _fudai_, or hereditary vassals of +the Tokugawa house, and to 18 of these was strictly limited the +perpetual privilege of filling all the high offices in the Yedo +administration, while to 4 of them was reserved the special honour of +supplying a regent (_go-tairo_) during the minority of the shogun. +Moreover, a _fudai_ daimyo was of necessity appointed to the command of +the fortress of Nijo in Kioto as well as of the great castles of Osaka +and Fushimi, which Iyeyasu designated the keys of the country. No +intermarriage might take place between members of the court nobility and +the feudal houses without the consent of Yedo; no daimyo might apply +direct to the emperor for an official title, or might put foot within +the imperial district of Kioto without the shogun's permit, and at all +entrances to the region known as the Kwanto there were established +guardhouses, where every one, of whatever rank, must submit to be +examined, in order to prevent the wives and children of the daimyos +from secretly leaving Yedo for their own provinces. In their journeys to +and from Yedo every second year the feudal chiefs had to travel by one +of two great highways, the Tokaido or the Nakasendo, and as they moved +with great retinues, these roads were provided with a number of inns and +tea-houses equipped in a sumptuous manner, and having an abundance of +female servants. A puissant daimyo's procession often numbered as many +as 1000 retainers, and nothing illustrates more forcibly the wide +interval that separated the soldier and the plebeian than the fact that +at the appearance of the heralds who preceded these progresses all +commoners who happened to be abroad had to kneel on the ground with +bowed and uncovered heads; all wayside houses had to close the shutters +of windows giving on the road, and none might venture to look down from +a height on the passing magnate. Any violation of these rules of +etiquette exposed the violator to instant death at the hands of the +daimyo's retinue. Moreover, the samurai and the heimin lived strictly +apart. A feudal chief had a castle which generally occupied a commanding +position. It was surrounded by from one to three broad moats, the +innermost crowned with a high wall of huge cut stones, its trace +arranged so as to give flank defence, which was further provided by +pagoda-like towers placed at the salient angles. Inside this wall stood +the houses of the high officials on the outskirts of a park surrounding +the residence of the daimyo himself, and from the scarps of the moats or +in the intervals between them rose houses for the military retainers, +barrack-like structures, provided, whenever possible, with small but +artistically arranged and carefully tended gardens. All this domain of +the military was called _yashiki_ in distinction to the _machi_ +(streets) where the despised commoners had their habitat. + + + Samurai. + +The general body of the samurai received stipends and lived frugally. +Their pay was not reckoned in money: it took the form of so many rations +of rice delivered from their chief's granaries. A few had landed +estates, usually bestowed in recognition of conspicuous merit. They were +probably the finest type of hereditary soldiers the world ever produced. +Money and all devices for earning it they profoundly despised. The right +of wearing a sword was to them the highest conceivable privilege. They +counted themselves the guardians of their fiefs' honour and of their +country's welfare. At any moment they were prepared cheerfully to +sacrifice their lives on the altar of loyalty. Their word, once given, +must never be violated. The slightest insult to their honour might not +be condoned. Stoicism was a quality which they esteemed next to courage: +all outward display of emotion must be suppressed. The sword might never +be drawn for a petty cause, but, if once drawn, must never be returned +to its scabbard until it had done its duty. Martial exercises occupied +much of their attention, but book learning also they esteemed highly. +They were profoundly courteous towards each other, profoundly +contemptuous towards the commoner, whatever his wealth. Filial piety +ranked next to loyalty in their code of ethics. Thus the Confucian +maxim, endorsed explicitly in the _Testament of Iyeyasu_, that a man +must not live under the same sky with his father's murderer or his +brother's slayer, received most literal obedience, and many instances +occurred of vendettas pursued in the face of apparently insuperable +difficulties and consummated after years of effort. By the standard of +modern morality the Japanese samurai would be counted cruel. Holding +that death was the natural sequel of defeat and the only certain way of +avoiding disgrace, he did not seek quarter himself or think of extending +it to an enemy. Yet in his treatment of the latter he loved to display +courtesy until the supreme moment when all considerations of mercy were +laid aside. It cannot be doubted that the practice of employing torture +judicially tended to educate a mood of callousness towards suffering, or +that the many idle hours of a military man's life in time of peace +encouraged a measure of dissipation. But there does not seem to be any +valid ground for concluding that either of these defects was conspicuous +in the character of the Japanese samurai. Faithlessness towards women +was the greatest fault that can be laid to his door. The samurai lady +claimed no privilege of timidity on account of her sex. She knew how to +die in the cause of honour just as readily as her husband, her father or +her brother died, and conjugal fidelity did not rank as a virtue in her +eyes, being regarded as a simple duty. But her husband held marital +faith in small esteem and ranked his wife far below his sword. It has to +be remembered that when we speak of a samurai's suicide, there is no +question of poison, the bullet, drowning or any comparatively painless +manner of exit from the world. The invariable method was to cut open the +abdomen (_hara-kiri_ or _seppuku_) and afterwards, if strength remained, +the sword was turned against the throat. To such endurance had the +samurai trained himself that he went through this cruel ordeal without +flinching in the smallest degree. + + + Heimin. + +The heimin or commoners were divided into three classes--husbandmen, +artisans and traders. The farmer, as the nation lived by his labour, was +counted the most respectable among the bread-winners, and a cultivator +of his own estate might even carry one sword but never two, that +privilege being strictly reserved to a samurai. The artisan, too, +received much consideration, as is easily understood when we remember +that included in his ranks were artists, sword-smiths, armourers, +sculptors of sacred images or sword-furniture, ceramists and lacquerers. +Many artisans were in the permanent service of feudal chiefs from whom +they received fixed salaries. Tradesmen, however, were regarded with +disdain and stood lowest of all in the social organization. Too much +despised to be even included in that organization were the _eta_ +(defiled folks) and the _hinin_ (outcasts). The exact origin of these +latter pariahs is uncertain, but the ancestors of the eta would seem to +have been prisoners of war or the enslaved families of criminals. To +such people were assigned the defiling duties of tending tombs, +disposing of the bodies of the dead, slaughtering animals or tanning +hides. The hinin were mendicants. On them devolved the task of removing +and burying the corpses of executed criminals. Living in segregated +hamlets, forbidden to marry with heimin, still less with samurai, not +allowed to eat, drink or associate with persons above their own class, +the eta remained under the ban of ostracism from generation to +generation, though many of them contrived to amass much wealth. They +were governed by their own headmen, and they had three chiefs, one +residing in each of the cities of Yedo, Osaka and Kioto. All these +members of the submerged classes were relieved from proscription and +admitted to the ranks of the commoners under the enlightened system of +Meiji. The 12th of October 1871 saw their enfranchisement, and at that +date the census showed 287,111 eta and 695,689 hinin. + + + Decline and Fall of the Shogunate. + +Naturally, as the unbroken peace of the Tokugawa régime became habitual, +the mood of the nation underwent a change. The samurai, no longer +required to lead the frugal life of camp or barracks, began to live +beyond their incomes. "They found difficulty in meeting the pecuniary +engagements of everyday existence, so that money acquired new importance +in their eyes, and they gradually forfeited the respect which their +traditional disinterestedness had won for them in the past." At the same +time the abuses of feudalism were thrown into increased salience. A +large body of hereditary soldiers become an anomaly when fighting has +passed even out of memory. On the other hand, the agricultural and +commercial classes acquired new importance. The enormous sums disbursed +every year in Yedo, for the maintenance of the great establishments +which the feudal chiefs vied with each other in keeping there, enriched +the merchants and traders so greatly that their scale of living +underwent radical change. Buddhism was a potent influence, but its +ethical restraints were weakened by the conduct of its priests, who +themselves often yielded to the temptation of the time. The aristocracy +adhered to its refined pastimes--performances of the _No_; tea reunions; +poem composing; polo; football; equestrian archery; fencing and +gambling--but the commoner, being excluded from all this realm and, at +the same time, emerging rapidly from his old position of penury and +degradation, began to develop luxurious proclivities and to demand +corresponding amusements. Thus the theatre came into existence; the +dancing girl and the jester found lucrative employment; a popular school +of art was founded and quickly carried to perfection; the _lupanar_ +assumed unprecedented dimensions; rich and costly costumes acquired wide +vogue in despite of sumptuary laws enacted from time to time; wrestling +became an important institution, and plutocracy asserted itself in the +face of caste distinctions. + +Simultaneously with the change of social conditions thus taking place, +history repeated itself at the shogun's court. The substance of +administrative power passed into the hands of a minister, its shadow +alone remaining to the shogun. During only two generations were the +successors of Iyeyasu able to resist this traditional tendency. The +representative of the third--Iyetsuna (1661-1680)--succumbed to the +machinations of an ambitious minister, Sakai Takakiyo, and it may be +said that from that time the nominal repository of administrative +authority in Yedo was generally a species of magnificent recluse, +secluded from contact with the outer world and seeing and hearing only +through the eyes and ears of the ladies of his household. In this +respect the descendants of the great Tokugawa statesman found themselves +reduced to a position precisely analogous to that of the emperor in +Kioto. Sovereign and shogun were alike mere abstractions so far as the +practical work of government was concerned. With the great mass of the +feudal chiefs things fared similarly. These men who, in the days of +Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu, had directed the policies of their +fiefs and led their armies in the field, were gradually transformed, +during the long peace of the Tokugawa era, into voluptuous _fainéants_ +or, at best, thoughtless dilettanti, willing to abandon the direction of +their affairs to seneschals and mayors, who, while on the whole their +administration was able and loyal, found their account in contriving and +perpetuating the effacement of their chiefs. Thus, in effect, the +government of the country, taken out of the hands of the shogun and the +feudatories, fell into those of their vassals. There were exceptions, of +course, but so rare as to be merely accidental. + +Another important factor has to be noted. It has been shown above that +Iyeyasu bestowed upon his three sons the rich fiefs of Owari, Kii +(Kishu) and Mito, and that these three families exclusively enjoyed the +privilege of furnishing an heir to the shogun should the latter be +without direct issue. Mito ought therefore to have been a most unlikely +place for the conception and propagation of principles subversive of the +shogun's administrative autocracy. Nevertheless, in the days of the +second of the Mito chiefs at the close of the 17th century, there arose +in that province a school of thinkers who, revolting against the +ascendancy of Chinese literature and of Buddhism, devoted themselves to +compiling a history such as should recall the attention of the nation to +its own annals and revive its allegiance to Shinto. It would seem that +in patronizing the compilation of this great work the Mito chief was +swayed by the spirit of pure patriotism and studentship, and that he +discerned nothing of the goal to which the new researches must lead the +litterati of his fief. "He and they, for the sake of history and without +any thought of politics, undertook a retrospect of their country's +annals, and their frank analysis furnished conclusive proof that the +emperor was the prime source of administrative authority and that its +independent exercise by a shogun must be regarded as a usurpation. They +did not attempt to give practical effect to their discoveries; the era +was essentially academical. But this galaxy of scholars projected into +the future a light which burned with growing force in each succeeding +generation and ultimately burst into a flame which consumed feudalism +and the shogunate," fused the nation into one, and restored the +governing authority to the emperor. Of course the Mito men were not +alone in this matter: many students subsequently trod in their footsteps +and many others sought to stem the tendency; but the net result was +fatal to faith in the dual system of government. Possibly had nothing +occurred to furnish signal proof of the system's practical defects, it +might have long survived this theoretical disapproval. But the crisis +caused by the advent of foreign ships and by the forceful renewal of +foreign intercourse in the 19th century afforded convincing evidence of +the shogunate's incapacity to protect the state's supposed interests and +to enforce the traditional policy of isolation which the nation had +learned to consider essential to the empire's integrity. + +Another important factor made for the fall of the shogunate. That factor +was the traditional disaffection of the two great southern fiefs, +Satsuma and Choshu. When Iyeyasu parcelled out the empire, he deemed it +the wisest policy to leave these chieftains in full possession of their +large estates. But this measure, construed as an evidence of weakness +rather than a token of liberality, neither won the allegiance of the big +feudatories nor cooled their ambition. Thus no sooner did the nation +divide into two camps over the question of renewed foreign intercourse +than men of the above clans, in concert with representatives of certain +of the old court nobles, placed themselves at the head of a movement +animated by two loudly proclaimed purposes: restoration of the +administration to the emperor, and expulsion of aliens. This latter +aspiration underwent a radical change when the bombardment of the +Satsuma capital, Kagoshima, and the destruction of the Choshu forts and +ships at Shimonoseki proved conclusively to the Satsuma and Choshu clans +that Japan in her unequipped and backward condition could not hope to +stand for a moment against the Occident in arms. But the unwelcome +discovery was accompanied by a conviction that only a thoroughly united +nation might aspire to preserve its independence, and thus the abolition +of the dual form of government became more than ever an article of +public faith. It is unnecessary to recount the successive incidents +which conspired to undermine the shogun's authority, and to destroy the +prestige of the Yedo administration. Both had been reduced to vanishing +quantities by the year 1866 when Keiki succeeded to the shogunate. + +Keiki, known historically as Yoshinobu, the last of the shoguns, was a +man of matured intellect and high capacities. He had been put forward by +the anti-foreign Conservatives for the succession to the shogunate in +1857 when the complications of foreign intercourse were in their first +stage of acuteness. But, like many other intelligent Japanese, he had +learned, in the interval between 1857 and 1866, that to keep her doors +closed was an impossible task for Japan, and very quickly after taking +the reins of office he recognized that national union could never be +achieved while power was divided between Kioto and Yedo. At this +juncture there was addressed to him by Yodo, chief of the great Tosa +fief, a memorial setting forth the hopelessness of the position in which +the Yedo court now found itself, and urging that, in the interests of +good government and in order that the nation's united strength might be +available to meet the exigencies of its new career, the administration +should be restored to the emperor. Keiki received this memorial in +Kioto. He immediately summoned a council of all the feudatories and high +officials then in the Imperial city, announced to them his intention to +lay down his office, and, the next day, presented his resignation to the +sovereign. This happened on the 14th of October 1867. It must be ranked +among the signal events of the world's history, for it signified the +voluntary surrender of kingly authority wielded uninterruptedly for +nearly three centuries. That the shogun's resignation was tendered in +good faith there can be no doubt, and had it been accepted in the same +spirit, the great danger it involved might have been consummated without +bloodshed or disorder. But the clansmen of Satsuma and Choshu were +distrustful. One of the shogun's first acts after assuming office had +been to obtain from the throne an edict for imposing penalties on +Choshu, and there was a precedent for suspecting that the renunciation +of power by the shogun might merely prelude its resumption on a firmer +basis. Therefore steps were taken to induce the emperor, then a youth of +fifteen, to issue a secret rescript to Satsuma and Choshu, denouncing +the shogun as the nation's enemy and enjoining his destruction. At the +same time all officials connected with the Tokugawa or suspected of +sympathy with them were expelled from office in Kioto, and the shogun's +troops were deprived of the custody of the palace gates by methods which +verged upon the use of armed force. In the face of such provocation +Keiki's earnest efforts to restrain the indignation of his vassals and +adherents failed. They marched against Kioto and were defeated, +whereupon Keiki left his castle at Osaka and retired to Yedo, where he +subsequently made unconditional surrender to the Imperial army. There is +little more to be set down on this page of the history. The Yedo court +consented to lay aside its dignities and be stripped of its +administrative authority, but all the Tokugawa vassals and adherents did +not prove equally placable. There was resistance in the northern +provinces, where the Aizu feudatory refused to abandon the Tokugawa +cause; there was an attempt to set up a rival candidate for the throne +in the person of an Imperial prince who presided over the Uyeno +Monastery in Yedo; and there was a wild essay on the part of the admiral +of the shogun's fleet to establish a republic in the island of Yezo. But +these were mere ripples on the surface of the broad stream which set +towards the peaceful overthrow of the dual system of government and +ultimately towards the fall of feudalism itself. That this system, the +outcome of five centuries of nearly continuous warfare, was swept away +in almost as many weeks with little loss of life or destruction of +property constitutes, perhaps, the most striking incident, certainly the +most momentous, in the history of the Japanese nation. + +_The Meiji Era._--It must be remembered that when reference is made to +the Japanese nation in connexion with these radical changes, only the +nobles and the samurai are indicated--in other words, a section of the +population representing about one-sixteenth of the whole. The bulk of +the people--the agricultural, the industrial and the mercantile +classes--remained outside the sphere of politics, not sharing the +anti-foreign prejudice, or taking any serious interest in the great +questions of the time. Foreigners often noted with surprise the contrast +between the fierce antipathy displayed towards them by certain samurai +on the one hand, and the genial, hospitable reception given to them by +the common people on the other. History teaches that the latter was the +natural disposition of the Japanese, the former a mood educated by +special experiences. Further, even the comparatively narrow statement +that the restoration of the administrative power to the emperor was the +work of the nobles and the samurai must be taken with limitations. A +majority of the nobles entertained no idea of any necessity for change. +They were either held fast in the vice of Tokugawa authority, or +paralyzed by the sensuous seductions of the lives provided for them by +the machinations of their retainers, who transferred the administrative +authority of the fiefs to their own hands, leaving its shadow only to +their lords. It was among the retainers that longings for a new order of +things were generated. Some of these men were sincere disciples of +progress--a small band of students and deep thinkers who, looking +through the narrow Dutch window at Deshima, had caught a glimmering +perception of the realities that lay beyond the horizon of their +country's prejudices. But the influence of such Liberals was +comparatively insignificant. Though they showed remarkable moral courage +and tenacity of purpose, the age did not furnish any strong object +lesson to enforce their propaganda of progress. The factors chiefly +making for change were, first, the ambition of the southern clans to +oust the Tokugawa, and, secondly, the samurai's loyal instinct, +reinforced by the teachings of his country's history, by the revival of +the Shinto cult, by the promptings of national enterprise, and by the +object-lessons of foreign intercourse. + + + Character of the Revolution. + +But though essentially imperialistic in its prime purposes, the +revolution which involved the fall of the shogunate, and ultimately of +feudalism, may be called democratic with regard to the personnel of +those who planned and directed it. They were, for the most part, men +without either official rank or social standing. That is a point +essential to a clear understanding of the issue. Fifty-five individuals +may be said to have planned and carried out the overthrow of the Yedo +administration, and only five of them were territorial nobles. Eight, +belonging to the court nobility, laboured under the traditional +disadvantages of their class, poverty and political insignificance; and +the remaining forty-two, the hearts and hands of the movement, may be +described as ambitious youths, who sought to make a career for +themselves in the first place, and for their country in the second. The +average age of the whole did not exceed thirty. There was another +element for which any student of Japanese history might have been +prepared: the Satsuma samurai aimed originally not merely at +overthrowing the Tokugawa but also at obtaining the shogunate for their +own chief. Possibly it would be unjust to say that all the leaders of +the great southern clan harboured that idea. But some of them certainly +did, and not until they had consented to abandon the project did their +union with Choshu, the other great southern clan, become possible--a +union without which the revolution could scarcely have been +accomplished. This ambition of the Satsuma clansmen deserves special +mention, because it bore remarkable fruit; it may be said to have laid +the foundation of constitutional government in Japan. For, in +consequence of the distrust engendered by such aspirations, the authors +of the Restoration agreed that when the emperor assumed the reins of +power, he should solemnly pledge himself to convene a deliberative +assembly, to appoint to administrative posts men of intellect and +erudition wherever they might be found, and to decide all measures in +accordance with public opinion. This promise, referred to frequently in +later times as the Imperial oath at the Restoration, came to be +accounted the basis of representative institutions, though in reality it +was intended solely as a guarantee against the political ascendancy of +any one clan. + + + The Anti-feudal Idea. + +At the outset the necessity of abolishing feudalism did not present +itself clearly to the leaders of the revolution. Their sole idea was the +unification of the nation. But when they came to consider closely the +practical side of the problem, they understood how far it would lead +them. Evidently that one homogeneous system of law should replace the +more or less heterogeneous systems operative in the various fiefs was +essential, and such a substitution meant that the feudatories must be +deprived of their local autonomy and, incidentally, of their control of +local finances. That was a stupendous change. Hitherto each feudal chief +had collected the revenues of his fief and had employed them at will, +subject to the sole condition of maintaining a body of troops +proportionate to his income. He had been, and was still, an autocrat +within the limits of his territory. On the other hand, the active +authors of the revolution were a small band of men mainly without +prestige or territorial influence. It was impossible that they should +dictate any measure sensibly impairing the local and fiscal autonomy of +the feudatories. No power capable of enforcing such a measure existed at +the time. All the great political changes in Japan had formerly been +preceded by wars culminating in the accession of some strong clan to +supreme authority, whereas in this case there had been a displacement +without a substitution--the Tokugawa had been overthrown and no new +administrators had been set up in their stead. It was, moreover, certain +that an attempt on the part of any one clan to constitute itself +executor of the sovereign's mandates would have stirred the other clans +to vehement resistance. In short, the leaders of the revolution found +themselves pledged to a new theory of government without any machinery +for carrying it into effect, or any means of abolishing the old +practice. An ingenious exit from this curious dilemma was devised by the +young reformers. They induced the feudal chiefs of Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa +and Hizen, the four most powerful clans in the south, publicly to +surrender their fiefs to the emperor, praying his majesty to reorganize +them and to bring them all under the same system of law. In the case of +Shimazu, chief of Satsuma, and Yodo, chief of Tosa, this act must stand +to their credit as a noble sacrifice. To them the exercise of power had +been a reality and the effort of surrendering it must have been +correspondingly costly. But the chiefs of Choshu and Hizen obeyed the +suggestions of their principal vassals with little, if any, sense of the +probable cost of obedience. The same remark applies to all the other +feudatories, with exceptions so rare as to emphasize the rule. They had +long been accustomed to abandon the management of their affairs to their +leading clansmen, and they allowed themselves to follow the same +guidance at this crisis. Out of more than 250 feudatories, only 17 +hesitated to imitate the example of the four southern fiefs. + + + Motives of the Reformers. + +An explanation of this remarkable incident has been sought by supposing +that the samurai of the various clans, when they advised a course so +inconsistent with fidelity to the interests of their feudal chiefs, were +influenced by motives of personal ambition, imagining that they +themselves might find great opportunities under the new régime. Some +hope of that kind may fairly be assumed, and was certainly realized, in +the case of the leading samurai of the four southern clans which headed +the movement. But it is plain that no such expectations can have been +generally entertained. The simplest explanation seems to be the true +one: a certain course, indicated by the action of the four southern +clans, was conceived to be in accord with the spirit of the Restoration, +and not to adopt it would have been to shrink publicly from a sacrifice +dictated by the principle of loyalty to the Throne--a principle which +had acquired supreme sanctity in the eyes of the men of that era. There +might have been some uncertainty about the initial step; but so soon as +that was taken by the southern clans their example acquired compelling +force. History shows that in political crises the Japanese samurai is +generally ready to pay deference to certain canons of almost romantic +morality. There was a fever of loyalty and of patriotism in the air of +the year 1869. Any one hesitating, for obviously selfish reasons, to +adopt a precedent such as that offered by the procedure of the great +southern clans, would have seemed to forfeit the right of calling +himself a samurai. But although the leaders of this remarkable movement +now understood that they must contrive the total abolition of feudalism +and build up a new administrative edifice on foundations of +constitutional monarchy, they appreciated the necessity of advancing +slowly towards a goal which still lay beyond the range of their +followers' vision. Thus the first steps taken after the surrender of the +fiefs were to appoint the feudatories to the position of governors in +the districts over which they had previously ruled; to confirm the +samurai in the possession of their incomes and official positions; to +put an end to the distinction between court nobles and territorial +nobles, and to organize in Kioto a cabinet consisting of the leaders of +the restoration. Each new governor received one-tenth of the income of +the fief by way of emoluments; the pay of the officials and the samurai, +as well as the administrative expenses of the district, was defrayed +from the same source, and the residue, if any, was to pass into the +treasury of the central government. + + + Defects of the First Measures. + +The defects of this system from a monarchical point of view soon became +evident. It did not give the power of either the purse or the sword to +the sovereign. The revenues of the administrative districts continued to +be collected and disbursed by the former feudatories, who also retained +the control of the troops, the right of appointing and dismissing +officials, and almost complete local autonomy. A further radical step +had to be taken, and the leaders of reform, seeing nothing better than +to continue the method of procedure which had thus far proved so +successful, contrived, first, that several of the administrative +districts should send in petitions offering to surrender their local +autonomy and be brought under the direct rule of the central government; +secondly, that a number of samurai should apply for permission to lay +aside their swords. While the nation was digesting the principles +embodied in these petitions, the government made preparations for +further measures of reform. The ex-chief of Satsuma, who showed some +umbrage because the services of his clan in promoting the restoration +had not been more fully recognized, was induced to take high ministerial +office, as were also the ex-chiefs of Choshu and Tosa. Each of the four +great clans had now three representatives in the ministry. These clans +were further persuaded to send to Tokyo--whither the emperor had moved +his court--contingents of troops to form the nucleus of a national army. +Importance attaches to these details because the principle of clan +representation, illustrated in the organization of the cabinet of 1871, +continued to be approximately observed for many years in forming +ministries, and ultimately became a target for the attacks of party +politicians. + + + Adoption of Radical Measures. + +On the 29th of August 1871 an Imperial decree announced the abolition of +the system of local autonomy, and the removal of the territorial nobles +from the posts of governor. The taxes of the former fiefs were to be +paid thenceforth into the central treasury; all officials were to be +appointed by the Imperial government, and the feudatories, retaining +permanently an income of one-tenth of their original revenues, were to +make Tokyo their place of residence. As for the samurai, they remained +for the moment in possession of their hereditary pensions. Radical as +these changes seem, the disturbance caused by them was not great, since +they left the incomes of the military class untouched. Some of the +incomes were for life only, but the majority were hereditary, and all +had been granted in consideration of their holders devoting themselves +to military service. Four hundred thousand men approximately were in +receipt of such emoluments, and the total amount annually taken from the +tax-payers for this purpose was about £2,000,000. Plainly the nation +would have to be relieved of this burden sooner or later. The samurai +were essentially an element of the feudal system, and that they should +survive the latter's fall would have been incongruous. On the other +hand, suddenly and wholly to deprive these men and their families--a +total of some two million persons--of the means of subsistence on which +they had hitherto relied with absolute confidence, and in return for +which they and their forefathers had rendered faithful service, would +have been an act of inhumanity. It may easily be conceived that this +problem caused extreme perplexity to the administrators of the new +Japan. They left it unsolved for the moment, trusting that time and the +loyalty of the samurai themselves would suggest some solution. As for +the feudal chiefs, who had now been deprived of all official status and +reduced to the position of private gentlemen, without even a patent of +nobility to distinguish them from ordinary individuals, they did not +find anything specially irksome or regrettable in their altered +position. No scrutiny had been made into the contents of their +treasuries. They were allowed to retain unquestioned possession of all +the accumulated funds of their former fiefs, and they also became public +creditors for annual allowances equal to one-tenth of their feudal +revenues. They had never previously been so pleasantly circumstanced. It +is true that they were entirely stripped of all administrative and +military authority; but since their possession of such authority had +been in most cases merely nominal, they only felt the change as a relief +from responsibility. + + + Treatment of the Samurai. + +By degrees public opinion began to declare itself with regard to the +samurai. If they were to be absorbed into the bulk of the people and to +lose their fixed revenues, some capital must be placed at their disposal +to begin the world again. The samurai themselves showed a noble faculty +of resignation. They had been a privileged class, but they had purchased +their privileges with their blood and by serving as patterns of all the +qualities most prized among Japanese national characteristics. The +record of their acts and the recognition of the people entitled them to +look for munificent treatment at the hands of the government which they +had been the means of setting up. Yet none of these considerations +blinded them to the painful fact that the time had passed them by; that +no place existed for them in the new polity. Many of them voluntarily +stepped down into the company of the peasant or the tradesman, and many +others signified their willingness to join the ranks of common +bread-winners if some aid was given to equip them for such a career. +After two years' consideration the government took action. A decree +announced, in 1873, that the treasury was prepared to commute the +pensions of the samurai at the rate of six years' purchase for +hereditary pensions and four years for life pensions--one-half of the +commutation to be paid in cash, and one-half in bonds bearing interest +at the rate of 8%. It will be seen that a perpetual pension of £10 would +be exchanged for a payment of £30 in cash, together with securities +giving an income of £2, 8s.; and that a £10 life pensioner received £20 +in cash and securities yielding £1, 12s. annually. It is scarcely +credible that the samurai should have accepted such an arrangement. +Something, perhaps, must be ascribed to their want of business +knowledge, but the general explanation is that they made a large +sacrifice in the interests of their country. Nothing in all their career +as soldiers became them better than their manner of abandoning it. They +were told that they might lay aside their swords, and many of them did +so, though from time immemorial they had cherished the sword as the mark +of a gentleman, the most precious possession of a warrior, and the one +outward evidence that distinguished men of their order from common +toilers after gain. They saw themselves deprived of their military +employment, were invited to surrender more than one-half of the income +it brought, and knew that they were unprepared alike by education and by +tradition to earn bread in any calling save that of arms. Yet, at the +invitation of a government which they had helped to establish, many of +them bowed their heads quietly to this sharp reverse of fortune. It was +certainly a striking instance of the fortitude and resignation which the +creed of the samurai required him to display in the presence of +adversity. As yet, however, the government's measures with regard to the +samurai were not compulsory. Men laid aside their swords and commuted +their pensions at their own option. + + + Saigo Takamori. + +Meanwhile differences of opinion began to occur among the leaders of +progress themselves. Coalitions formed for destructive purposes are +often found unable to endure the strain of constructive efforts. Such +lack of cohesion might easily have been foreseen in the case of the +Japanese reformers. Young men without experience of public affairs, or +special education to fit them for responsible posts, found the duty +suddenly imposed on them not only of devising administrative and fiscal +systems universally applicable to a nation hitherto divided into a +congeries of semi-independent principalities, but also of shaping the +country's demeanour towards novel problems of foreign intercourse and +alien civilization. So long as the heat of their assault upon the +shogunate fused them into a homogeneous party they worked together +successfully. But when they had to build a brand-new edifice on the +ruins of a still vivid past, it was inevitable that their opinions +should vary as to the nature of the materials to be employed. In this +divergence of views many of the capital incidents of Japan's modern +history had their origin. Of the fifty-five men whose united efforts had +compassed the fall of the shogunate, five stood conspicuous above their +colleagues. They were Iwakura and Sanjo, court nobles; Saigo and Okubo, +samurai of Satsuma, and Kido, a samurai of Choshu. In the second rank +came many men of great gifts, whose youth alone disqualified them for +prominence--Ito, the constructive statesman of the Meiji era, who +inspired nearly all the important measures of the time, though he did +not openly figure as their originator; Inouye, who never lacked a +resource or swerved from the dictates of loyalty; Okuma, a politician of +subtle, versatile and vigorous intellect; Itagaki, the Rousseau of his +era; and a score of others created by the extraordinary circumstances +with which they had to deal. But the five first mentioned were the +captains, the rest only lieutenants. Among the five, four were sincere +reformers--not free, of course, from selfish motives, but truthfully +bent upon promoting the interests of their country before all other +aims. The fifth, Saigo Takamori, was a man in whom boundless ambition +lay concealed under qualities of the noblest and most enduring type. His +absolute freedom from every trace of sordidness gave currency to a +belief that his aims were of the simplest; the story of his career +satisfied the highest canons of the samurai; his massive physique, +commanding presence and sunny aspect impressed and attracted even those +who had no opportunity of admiring his life of self-sacrificing effort +or appreciating the remarkable military talent he possessed. In the +first part of his career, the elevation of his clan to supreme power +seems to have been his sole motive, but subsequently personal ambition +appears to have swayed him. To the consummation of either object the +preservation of the military class was essential. By the swords of the +samurai alone could a new _imperium in imperio_ be carved out. On the +other hand, Saigo's colleagues in the ministry saw clearly not only that +the samurai were an unwarrantable burden on the nation, but also that +their continued existence after the fall of feudalism would be a menace +to public peace as well as an anomaly. Therefore they took the steps +already described, and followed them by a conscription law, making every +adult male liable for military service without regard to his social +standing. It is easy to conceive how painfully unwelcome this +conscription law proved to the samurai. Many of them were not unwilling +to commute their pensions, since their creed had always forbidden them +to care for money. Many of them were not unwilling to abandon the habit +of carrying swords, since the adoption of foreign costume rendered such +a custom incongruous and inconvenient. But very few of them could +readily consent to step down from their cherished position as the +military class, and relinquish their traditional title to bear the whole +responsibility and enjoy the whole honour of fighting their country's +battles. They had supposed, not unreasonably, that service in the army +and navy would be reserved exclusively for them and their sons, whereas +now the commonest rustic, mechanic or tradesman would be equally +eligible. + + + Split among the Reformers. + +While the pain of this blow was still fresh there occurred a trouble +with Korea. The little state had behaved with insulting contumely, and +when Japan's course came to be debated in Tokyo, a disruption resulted +in the ranks of the reformers. Saigo saw in a foreign war the sole +remaining chance of achieving his ambition by lawful means. The +government's conscription scheme, yet in its infancy, had not produced +even the skeleton of an army. If Korea had to be conquered, the samurai +must be employed; and their employment would mean, if not their +rehabilitation, at least their organization into a force which, under +Saigo's leadership, might dictate a new policy. Other members of the +cabinet believed that the nation would be disgraced if it tamely endured +Korea's insults. Thus several influential voices swelled the clamour for +war. But a peace party offered strenuous opposition. Its members saw the +collateral issues of the problem, and declared that the country must not +think of taking up arms during a period of radical transition. The final +discussion took place in the emperor's presence. The advocates of peace +understood the national significance of the issue and perceived that +they were debating, not merely whether there should be peace or war, but +whether the country should halt or advance on its newly adopted path of +progress. They prevailed, and four members of the cabinet, including +Saigo, resigned. This rupture was destined to have far-reaching +consequences. One of the seceders immediately raised the standard of +revolt. Among the devices employed by him to win adherents was an +attempt to fan into flame the dying embers of the anti-foreign +sentiment. The government easily crushed the insurrection. Another +seceder was Itagaki Taisuke. The third and most prominent was Saigo, who +seems to have concluded from that moment that he must abandon his aims +or achieve them by force. He retired to his native province of Satsuma, +and applied his whole resources, his great reputation and the devoted +loyalty of a number of able followers to organizing and equipping a +strong body of samurai. Matters were facilitated for him by the +conservatism of the celebrated Shimazu Saburo, former chief of Satsuma, +who, though not opposed to foreign intercourse, had been revolted by the +wholesale iconoclasm of the time, and by the indiscriminate rejection of +Japanese customs in favour of foreign. He protested vehemently against +what seemed to him a slavish abandonment of the nation's individuality, +and finding his protest fruitless, he set himself to preserve in his own +distant province, where the writ of the Yedo government had never run, +the fashions, institutions and customs which his former colleagues in +the administration were ruthlessly rejecting. Satsuma thus became a +centre of conservative influences, among which Saigo and his constantly +augmenting band of samurai found a congenial environment. During four +years this breach between the central government and the southern clan +grew constantly. + + + Final Abolition of Sword-wearing and Pensions. + +In the meanwhile (1876) two extreme measures were adopted by the +government: a veto on the wearing of swords, and an edict ordering the +compulsory commutation of the pensions and allowances received by the +nobles and the samurai. Three years previously the discarding of swords +had been declared optional, and a scheme of voluntary commutation had +been announced. Many had bowed quietly to the spirit of these +enactments. But many still retained their swords and drew their pensions +as of old, obstructing, in the former respect, the government's projects +for the reorganization of society, and imposing, in the latter, an +intolerable burden on the resources of the treasury. The government +thought that the time had come, and that its own strength sufficed, to +substitute compulsion for persuasion. The financial measure--which was +contrived so as to affect the smallest pension-holders least +injuriously--evoked no complaint. The samurai remained faithful to the +creed which forbade them to be concerned about money. But the veto +against sword-wearing overtaxed the patience of the extreme +Conservatives. It seemed to them that all the most honoured traditions +of their country were being ruthlessly sacrificed on the altar of alien +innovations. Armed protests ensued. A few score of samurai, equipping +themselves with the hauberks and weapons of old times, fell upon the +garrison of a castle, killed or wounded some 300, and then, retiring to +an adjacent mountain, died by their own hands. Their example found +imitators in two other places, and finally the Satsuma samurai rose in +arms under Saigo. + + + Satsuma Insurrection. + +This was an insurrection very different in dimensions and motives from +the outbreaks that had preceded it. During four years the preparations +of the Satsuma men had been unremitting. They were equipped with rifles +and cannon; they numbered some 30,000; they were all of the military +class, and in addition to high training in western tactics and in the +use of modern arms of precision, they knew how to wield that formidable +weapon, the Japanese sword, of which their opponents were for the most +part ignorant. Ostensibly their object was to restore the samurai to +their old supremacy, and to secure for them all the posts in the army, +the navy and the administration. But although they doubtless entertained +that intention, it was put forward mainly with the hope of winning the +co-operation of the military class throughout the empire. The real +purpose of the revolt was to secure the governing power for Satsuma. A +bitter struggle ensued. Beginning on the 29th of January 1877, it was +brought to a close on the 24th of September by the death, voluntary or +in battle, of all the rebel leaders. During that period the number of +men engaged on the government's side had been 66,000 and the number on +the side of the rebels 40,000, out of which total the killed and wounded +aggregated 35,000, or 33% of the whole. Had the government's troops been +finally defeated, there can be no doubt that the samurai's exclusive +title to man and direct the army and navy would have been +re-established, and Japan would have found herself permanently saddled +with a military class, heavily burdening her finances, seriously +impeding her progress towards constitutional government, and +perpetuating all the abuses incidental to a policy in which the power of +the sword rests entirely in the hands of one section of the people. The +nation scarcely appreciated the great issues that were at stake. It +found more interest in the struggle as furnishing a conclusive test of +the efficiency of the new military system compared with the old. The +army sent to quell the insurrection consisted of recruits drawn +indiscriminately from every class of the people. Viewed in the light of +history, it was an army of commoners, deficient in the fighting +instinct, and traditionally demoralized for all purposes of resistance +to the military class. The Satsuma insurgents, on the contrary, +represented the flower of the samurai, long trained for this very +struggle, and led by men whom the nation regarded as its bravest +captains. The result dispelled all doubts about the fighting quality of +the people at large. + + + Steps of Progress. + +Concurrently with these events the government diligently endeavoured to +equip the country with all the paraphernalia of Occidental civilization. +It is easy to understand that the master-minds of the era, who had +planned and carried out the Restoration, continued to take the lead in +all paths of progress. Their intellectual superiority entitled them to +act as guides; they had enjoyed exceptional opportunities of acquiring +enlightenment by visits to Europe and America, and the Japanese people +had not yet lost the habit of looking to officialdom for every +initiative. But the spectacle thus presented to foreign onlookers was +not altogether without disquieting suggestions. The government's reforms +seemed to outstrip the nation's readiness for them, and the results wore +an air of some artificiality and confusion. Englishmen were employed to +superintend the building of railways, the erection of telegraphs, the +construction of lighthouses and the organization of a navy. To Frenchmen +was entrusted the work of recasting the laws and training the army in +strategy and tactics. Educational affairs, the organization of a postal +service, the improvement of agriculture and the work of colonization +were supervised by Americans. The teaching of medical science, the +compilation of a commercial code, the elaboration of a system of local +government, and ultimately the training of military officers were +assigned to Germans. For instruction in sculpture and painting Italians +were engaged. Was it possible that so many novelties should be +successfully assimilated, or that the nation should adapt itself to +systems planned by a motley band of aliens who knew nothing of its +character and customs? These questions did not trouble the Japanese +nearly so much as they troubled strangers. The truth is that +conservatism was not really required to make the great sacrifices +suggested by appearances. Among all the innovations of the era the only +one that a Japanese could not lay aside at will was the new fashion of +dressing the hair. He abandoned the _queue_ irrevocably. But for the +rest he lived a dual life. During hours of duty he wore a fine uniform, +shaped and decorated in foreign style. But so soon as he stepped out of +office or off parade, he reverted to his own comfortable and picturesque +costume. Handsome houses were built and furnished according to Western +models. But each had an annex where alcoves, verandas, matted floors and +paper sliding doors continued to do traditional duty. Beefsteaks, beer, +"grape-wine," knives and forks came into use on occasion. But rice-bowls +and chopsticks held their everyday place as of old. In a word, though +the Japanese adopted every convenient and serviceable attribute of +foreign civilization, such as railways, steamships, telegraphs, +post-offices, banks and machinery of all kinds; though they accepted +Occidental sciences, and, to a large extent, Occidental philosophies; +though they recognized the superiority of European jurisprudence and set +themselves to bring their laws into accord with it, they nevertheless +preserved the essentials of their own mode of life and never lost their +individuality. A remarkable spirit of liberalism and a fine eclectic +instinct were needed for the part they acted, but they did no radical +violence to their own traditions, creeds and conventions. There was +indeed a certain element of incongruity and even grotesqueness in the +nation's doings. Old people cannot fit their feet to new roads without +some clumsiness. The Japanese had grown very old in their special paths, +and their novel departure was occasionally disfigured by solecisms. The +refined taste that guided them unerringly in all the affairs of life as +they had been accustomed to live it, seemed to fail them signally when +they emerged into an alien atmosphere. They have given their proofs, +however. It is now seen that the apparently excessive rapidity of their +progress did not overtax their capacities; that they have emerged safely +from their destructive era and carried their constructive career within +reach of certain success, and that while they have still to develop some +of the traits of their new civilization, there is no prospect whatever +of its proving ultimately unsuited to them. + + + Development of Representative Government. + +After the Satsuma rebellion, nothing disturbed the even tenor of Japan's +domestic politics except an attempt on the part of some of her people to +force the growth of parliamentary government. It is evident that the +united effort made by the fiefs to overthrow the system of dual +government and wrest the administrative power from the shogun could have +only one logical outcome: the combined exercise of the recovered power +by those who had been instrumental in recovering it. That was the +meaning of the oath taken by the emperor at the Restoration, when the +youthful sovereign was made to say that wise counsels should be widely +sought, and all things determined by public discussion. But the framers +of the oath had the samurai alone in view. Into their consideration the +common people--farmers, mechanics, tradesmen--did not enter at all, nor +had the common people themselves any idea of advancing a claim to be +considered. A voice in the administration would have been to them an +embarrassing rather than a pleasing privilege. Thus the first +deliberative assembly was composed of nobles and samurai only. A mere +debating club without any legislative authority, it was permanently +dissolved after two sessions. Possibly the problem of a parliament might +have been long postponed after that fiasco, had it not found an ardent +advocate in Itagaki Taisuke (afterwards Count Itagaki). A Tosa samurai +conspicuous as a leader of the restoration movement, Itagaki was among +the advocates of recourse to strong measures against Korea in 1873, and +his failure to carry his point, supplemented by a belief that a large +section of public opinion would have supported him had there been any +machinery for appealing to it, gave fresh impetus to his faith in +constitutional government. Resigning office on account of the Korean +question, he became the nucleus of agitation in favour of a +parliamentary system, and under his banner were enrolled not only +discontented samurai but also many of the young men who, returning from +direct observation of the working of constitutional systems in Europe or +America, and failing to obtain official posts in Japan, attributed their +failure to the oligarchical form of their country's polity. Thus in the +interval between 1873 and 1877 there were two centres of disturbance in +Japan: one in Satsuma, where Saigo figured as leader; the other in Tosa, +under Itagaki's guidance. When the Satsuma men appealed to arms in 1877, +a widespread apprehension prevailed lest the Tosa politicians should +throw in their lot with the insurgents. Such a fear had its origin in +failure to understand the object of the one side or to appreciate the +sincerity of the other. Saigo and his adherents fought to substitute a +Satsuma clique for the oligarchy already in power. Itagaki and his +followers struggled for constitutional institutions. The two could not +have anything in common. There was consequently no coalition. But the +Tosa agitators did not neglect to make capital out of the embarrassment +caused by the Satsuma rebellion. While the struggle was at its height, +they addressed to the government a memorial, charging the administration +with oppressive measures to restrain the voice of public opinion, with +usurpation of power to the exclusion of the nation at large, and with +levelling downwards instead of upwards, since the samurai had been +reduced to the rank of commoners, whereas the commoners should have been +educated up to the standard of the samurai. This memorial asked for a +representative assembly and talked of popular rights. But since the +document admitted that the people were uneducated, it is plain that +there cannot have been any serious idea of giving them a share in the +administration. In fact, the Tosa Liberals were not really contending +for popular representation in the full sense of the term. What they +wanted was the creation of some machinery for securing to the samurai at +large a voice in the management of state affairs. They chafed against +the fact that, whereas the efforts and sacrifices demanded by the +Restoration had fallen equally on the whole military class, the +official prizes under the new system were monopolized by a small coterie +of men belonging to the four principal clans. It is on record that +Itagaki would have been content originally with an assembly consisting +half of officials, half of non-official samurai, and not including any +popular element whatever. + +But the government did not believe that the time had come even for a +measure such as the Tosa Liberals advocated. The statesmen in power +conceived that the nation must be educated up to constitutional +standards, and that the first step should be to provide an official +model. Accordingly, in 1874, arrangements were made for periodically +convening an assembly of prefectural governors, in order that they might +act as channels of communication between the central authorities and the +provincial population, and mutually exchange ideas as to the safest and +most effective methods of encouraging progress within the limits of +their jurisdictions. This was intended to be the embryo of +representative institutions. But the governors, being officials +appointed by the cabinet, did not bear in any sense the character of +popular nominees, nor could it even be said that they reflected the +public feeling of the districts they administered, for their habitual +and natural tendency was to try, by means of heroic object lessons, to +win the people's allegiance to the government's progressive policy, +rather than to convince the government of the danger of overstepping the +people's capacities. + +These conventions of local officials had no legislative power whatever. +The foundations of a body for discharging that function were laid in +1875, when a senate (_genro-in_) was organized. It consisted of official +nominees, and its duty was to discuss and revise all laws and ordinances +prior to their promulgation. It is to be noted, however, that expediency +not less than a spirit of progress presided at the creation of the +senate. Into its ranks were drafted a number of men for whom no places +could be found in the executive, and who, without some official +employment, would have been drawn into the current of disaffection. From +that point of view the senate soon came to be regarded as a kind of +hospital for administrative invalids, but undoubtedly its discharge of +quasi-legislative functions proved suggestive, useful and instructive. + + + Assassination of Okubo. + +The second meeting of the provincial governors had just been prorogued +when, in the spring of 1878, the great minister, Okubo Toshimitsu, was +assassinated. Okubo, uniformly ready to bear the heaviest burden of +responsibility in every political complication, had stood prominently +before the nation as Saigo's opponent. He fell under the swords of +Saigo's sympathizers. They immediately surrendered themselves to +justice, having taken previous care to circulate a statement of motives, +which showed that they ranked the government's failure to establish +representative institutions as a sin scarcely less heinous than its +alleged abuses of power. Well-informed followers of Saigo could never +have been sincere believers in representative institutions. These men +belonged to a province far removed from the scene of Saigo's desperate +struggle. But the broad fact that they had sealed with their life-blood +an appeal for a political change indicated the existence of a strong +public conviction which would derive further strength from their act. +The Japanese are essentially a brave people. Throughout the troublous +events that preceded and followed the Restoration, it is not possible to +point to one man whose obedience to duty or conviction was visibly +weakened by prospects of personal peril. Okubo's assassination did not +alarm any of his colleagues; but they understood its suggestiveness, and +hastened to give effect to a previously formed resolve. + + + Local Government. + +Two months after Okubo's death, an edict announced that elective +assemblies should forthwith be established in various prefectures and +cities. These assemblies were to consist of members having a high +property qualification, elected by voters having one-half of that +qualification; the voting to be by signed ballot, and the session to +last for one month in the spring of each year. As to their functions, +they were to determine the method of levying and spending local taxes, +subject to approval by the minister of state for home affairs; to +scrutinize the accounts for the previous year, and, if necessary, to +present petitions to the central government. Thus the foundations of +genuine representative institutions were laid. It is true that +legislative power was not vested in the local assemblies, but in all +other important respects they discharged parliamentary duties. Their +history need not be related at any length. Sometimes they came into +violent collision with the governor of the prefecture, and unsightly +struggles resulted. The governors were disposed to advocate public works +which the people considered extravagant; and further, as years went by, +and as political organizations grew stronger, there was found in each +assembly a group of men ready to oppose the governor simply because of +his official status. But on the whole the system worked well. The local +assemblies served as training schools for the future parliament, and +their members showed devotion to public duty as well as considerable +aptitude for debate. + + + The Liberal Party. + +This was not what Itagaki and his followers wanted. Their purpose was to +overthrow the clique of clansmen who, holding the reins of +administrative power, monopolized the prizes of officialdom. Towards the +consummation of such an aim the local assemblies helped little. Itagaki +redoubled his agitation. He organized his fellow-thinkers into an +association called _jiyuto_ (Liberals), the first political party in +Japan, to whose ranks there very soon gravitated several men who had +been in office and resented the loss of it; many that had never been in +office and desired to be; and a still greater number who sincerely +believed in the principles of political liberty, but had not yet +considered the possibility of immediately adapting such principles to +Japan's case. It was in the nature of things that an association of this +kind, professing such doctrines, should present a picturesque aspect to +the public, and that its collisions with the authorities should invite +popular sympathy. Nor were collisions infrequent. For the government, +arguing that if the nation was not ready for representative +institutions, neither was it ready for full freedom of speech or of +public meeting, legislated consistently with that theory, and entrusted +to the police large powers of control over the press and the platform. +The exercise of these powers often created situations in which the +Liberals were able to pose as victims of official tyranny, so that they +grew in popularity and the contagion of political agitation spread. + + + The Progressist Party. + +Three years later (1881) another split occurred in the ranks of the +ruling oligarchy. Okuma Shigenobu (afterwards Count Okuma) seceded from +the administration, and was followed by a number of able men who had +owed their appointments to his patronage, or who, during his tenure of +office as minister of finance, had passed under the influence of his +powerful personality. If Itagaki be called the Rousseau of Japan, Okuma +may be regarded as the Peel. To remarkable financial ability and a +lucid, vigorous judgment he added the faculty of placing himself on the +crest of any wave which a genuine _aura popularis_ had begun to swell. +He, too, inscribed on his banner of revolt against the oligarchy the +motto "constitutional government," and it might have been expected that +his followers would join hands with those of Itagaki, since the avowed +political purpose of both was identical. They did nothing of the kind. +Okuma organized an independent party, calling themselves Progressists +(_shimpoto_), who not only stood aloof from the Liberals but even +assumed an attitude hostile to them. This fact is eloquent. It shows +that Japan's first political parties were grouped, not about principles, +but about persons. Hence an inevitable lack of cohesion among their +elements and a constant tendency to break up into caves and coteries. +These are the characteristics that render the story of political +evolution in Japan so perplexing to a foreign student. He looks for +differences of platform and finds none. Just as a true Liberal must be a +Progressist, and a true Progressist a Liberal, so, though each may cast +his profession of faith in a mould of different phrases, the ultimate +shape must be the same. The mainsprings of early political agitation in +Japan were personal grievances and a desire to wrest the administrative +power from the hands of the statesmen who had held it so long as to +overtax the patience of their rivals. He that searches for profound +moral or ethical bases will be disappointed. There were no +Conservatives. Society was permeated with the spirit of progress. In a +comparative sense the epithet "Conservative" might have been applied to +the statesmen who proposed to defer parliamentary institutions until the +people, as distinguished from the former samurai, had been in some +measure prepared for such an innovation. But since these very statesmen +were the guiding spirits of the whole Meiji revolution, it was plain +that their convictions must be radical, and that, unless they did +violence to their record, they must finally lead the country to +representative institutions, the logical sequel of their own reforms. + +Okubo's assassination had been followed, in 1878, by an edict announcing +the establishment of local assemblies. Okuma's secession in 1881 was +followed by an edict announcing that a national assembly would be +convened in 1891. + + + Anti-Government Agitation. + +The political parties, having now virtually attained their object, might +have been expected to desist from further agitation. But they had +another task to perform--that of disseminating anti-official prejudices +among the future electors. They worked diligently, and they had an +undisputed field, for no one was put forward to champion the +government's cause. The campaign was not always conducted on lawful +lines. There were plots to assassinate ministers; there was an attempt +to employ dynamite, and there was a scheme to foment an insurrection in +Korea. On the other hand, dispersals of political meetings by order of +police inspectors, and suspension or suppression of newspapers by the +unchallengeable verdict of a minister for home affairs, were common +occurrences. The breach widened steadily. It is true that Okuma rejoined +the cabinet for a time in 1887, but he retired again in circumstances +that aggravated his party's hostility to officialdom. In short, during +the ten years immediately prior to the opening of the first parliament, +an anti-government propaganda was incessantly preached from the platform +and in the press. + +Meanwhile the statesmen in power resolutely pursued their path of +progressive reform. They codified the civil and penal laws, remodelling +them on Western bases; they brought a vast number of affairs within the +scope of minute regulations; they rescued the finances from confusion +and restored them to a sound condition; they recast the whole framework +of local government; they organized a great national bank, and +established a network of subordinate institutions throughout the +country; they pushed on the work of railway construction, and +successfully enlisted private enterprise in its cause; they steadily +extended the postal and telegraphic services; they economized public +expenditures so that the state's income always exceeded its outlays; +they laid the foundations of a strong mercantile marine; they instituted +a system of postal savings-banks; they undertook large schemes of +harbour improvement and road-making; they planned and put into operation +an extensive programme of riparian improvement; they made civil service +appointments depend on competitive examination; they sent numbers of +students to Europe and America to complete their studies; and by +tactful, persevering diplomacy they gradually introduced a new tone into +the empire's relations with foreign powers. Japan's affairs were never +better administered. + + + The Constitution of 1890. + +In 1890 the Constitution was promulgated. Imposing ceremonies marked the +event. All the nation's notables were summoned to the palace to witness +the delivery of the important document by the sovereign to the prime +minister; salvos of artillery were fired; the cities were illuminated, +and the people kept holiday. Marquis (afterwards Prince) Ito directed +the framing of the Constitution. He had visited the Occident for the +purpose of investigating the development of parliamentary institutions +and studying their practical working. His name is connected with nearly +every great work of constructive statesmanship in the history of new +Japan, and perhaps the crown of his legislative career was the drafting +of the Constitution, to which the Japanese people point proudly as the +only charter of the kind voluntarily given by a sovereign to his +subjects. In other countries such concessions were always the outcome of +long struggles between ruler and ruled. In Japan the emperor freely +divested himself of a portion of his prerogatives and transferred them +to the people. That view of the case, as may be seen from the story told +above, is not untinged with romance; but in a general sense it is true. + + + Working of the System. + +No incident in Japan's modern career seemed more hazardous than this +sudden plunge into parliamentary institutions. There had been some +preparation. Provincial assemblies had partially familiarized the people +with the methods of deliberative bodies. But provincial assemblies were +at best petty arenas--places where the making or mending of roads, and +the policing and sanitation of villages came up for discussion, and +where political parties exercised no legislative function nor found any +opportunity to attack the government or to debate problems of national +interest. Thus the convening of a diet and the sudden transfer of +financial and legislative authority from the throne and its entourage of +tried statesmen to the hands of men whose qualifications for public life +rested on the verdict of electors, themselves apparently devoid of all +light to guide their choice--this sweeping innovation seemed likely to +tax severely, if not to overtax completely, the progressive capacities +of the nation. What enhanced the interest of the situation was that the +oligarchs who held the administrative power had taken no pains to win a +following in the political field. Knowing that the opening of the diet +would be a veritable letting loose of the dogs of war, an unmuzzling of +the agitators whose mouths had hitherto been partly closed by legal +restrictions upon free speech, but who would now enjoy complete immunity +within the walls of the assembly whatever the nature of their +utterances--foreseeing all this, the statesmen of the day nevertheless +stood severely aloof from alliances of every kind, and discharged their +administrative functions with apparent indifference to the changes that +popular representation could not fail to induce. This somewhat +inexplicable display of unconcern became partially intelligible when the +constitution was promulgated, for it then appeared that the cabinet's +tenure of office was to depend solely on the emperor's will; that +ministers were to take their mandate from the Throne, not from +parliament. This fact was merely an outcome of the theory underlying +every part of the Japanese polity. Laws might be redrafted, institutions +remodelled, systems recast, but amid all changes and mutations one +steady point must be carefully preserved, the Throne. The makers of new +Japan understood that so long as the sanctity and inviolability of the +imperial prerogatives could be preserved, the nation would be held by a +strong anchor from drifting into dangerous waters. They laboured under +no misapprehension about the inevitable issue of their work in framing +the constitution. They knew very well that party cabinets are an +essential outcome of representative institutions, and that to some kind +of party cabinet Japan must come. But they regarded the Imperial mandate +as a conservative safeguard, pending the organization and education of +parties competent to form cabinets. Such parties did not yet exist, and +until they came into unequivocal existence, the Restoration statesmen, +who had so successfully managed the affairs of the nation during a +quarter of a century, resolved that the steady point furnished by the +throne must not be abandoned. + +On the other hand, the agitators found here a new platform. They had +obtained a constitution and a diet, but they had not obtained an +instrument for pulling down the "clan" administrators, since these stood +secure from attack under the aegis of the sovereign's mandate. They +dared not raise their voices against the unfettered exercise of the +mikado's prerogative. The nation, loyal to the core, would not have +suffered such a protest, nor could the agitators themselves have found +heart to formulate it. But they could read their own interpretation into +the text of the Constitution, and they could demonstrate practically +that a cabinet not acknowledging responsibility to the legislature was +virtually impotent for law-making purposes. + + + The Diet and the Government. + +These are the broad outlines of the contest that began in the first +session of the Diet and continued for several years. It is unnecessary +to speak of the special points of controversy. Just as the political +parties had been formed on the lines of persons, not principles, so the +opposition in the Diet was directed against men, not measures. The +struggle presented varying aspects at different times, but the +fundamental question at issue never changed. Obstruction was the weapon +of the political parties. They sought to render legislation and finance +impossible for any ministry that refused to take its mandate from the +majority in the lower house, and they imparted an air of respectability +and even patriotism to their destructive campaign by making +"anti-clannism" their war-cry, and industriously fostering the idea that +the struggle lay between administration guided by public opinion and +administration controlled by a clique of clansmen who separated the +throne from the nation. Had not the House of Peers stood stanchly by the +government throughout this contest, it is possible that the nation might +have suffered severely from the rashness of the political parties. + +There was something melancholy in the spectacle. The Restoration +statesmen were the men who had made Modern Japan; the men who had raised +her, in the face of immense obstacles, from the position of an +insignificant Oriental state to that of a formidable unit in the comity +of nations; the men, finally, who had given to her a constitution and +representative institutions. Yet these same men were now fiercely +attacked by the arms which they had themselves nerved; were held up to +public obloquy as self-seeking usurpers, and were declared to be +impeding the people's constitutional route to administrative privileges, +when in reality they were only holding the breach until the people +should be able to march into the citadel with some show of orderly and +competent organization. That there was no corruption, no abuse of +position, is not to be pretended; but on the whole the conservatism of +the clan statesmen had only one object--to provide that the newly +constructed representative machine should not be set working until its +parts were duly adjusted and brought into proper gear. On both sides the +leaders understood the situation accurately. The heads of the parties, +while publicly clamouring for parliamentary cabinets, privately +confessed that they were not yet prepared to assume administrative +responsibilities;[3] and the so-called "clan statesmen," while refusing +before the world to accept the Diet's mandates, admitted within official +circles that the question was one of time only. The situation did not +undergo any marked change until, the country becoming engaged in war +with China (1894-95), domestic squabbles were forgotten in the presence +of foreign danger. From that time an era of coalition commenced. Both +the political parties joined hands to vote funds for the prosecution of +the campaign, and one of them, the Liberals, subsequently gave support +to a cabinet under the presidency of Marquis Ito, the purpose of the +union being to carry through the diet an extensive scheme of enlarged +armaments and public works planned in the sequel of the war. The +Progressists, however, remained implacable, continuing their opposition +to the thing called bureaucracy quite irrespective of its measures. + + + Fusion of the Two Parties. + +The next phase (1898) was a fusion of the two parties into one large +organization which adopted the name "Constitutional Party" +(_kensei-to_). By this union the chief obstacles to parliamentary +cabinets were removed. Not only did the Constitutionalists command a +large majority in the lower house, but also they possessed a sufficiency +of men who, although lacking ministerial experience, might still advance +a reasonable title to be entrusted with portfolios. Immediately the +emperor, acting on the advice of Marquis Ito, invited Counts Okuma and +Itagaki to form a cabinet. It was essentially a trial. The party +politicians were required to demonstrate in practice the justice of the +claim they had been so long asserting in theory. They had worked in +combination for the destructive purpose of pulling down the so-called +"clan statesmen"; they had now to show whether they could work in +combination for the constructive purposes of administration. Their +heads, Counts Okuma and Itagaki, accepted the Imperial mandate, and the +nation watched the result. There was no need to wait long. In less than +six months these new links snapped under the tension of old enmities, +and the coalition split up once more into its original elements. It had +demonstrated that the sweets of power, which the "clan statesmen" had +been so vehemently accused of coveting, possessed even greater +attractions for their accusers. The issue of the experiment was such a +palpable fiasco that it effectually rehabilitated the "clan statesmen," +and finally proved, what had indeed been long evident to every close +observer, that without the assistance of those statesmen no political +party could hold office successfully. + + + Enrolment of the Clan Statesmen in Political Associations. + +Thenceforth it became the unique aim of Liberals and Progressists alike +to join hands permanently with the men towards whom they had once +displayed such implacable hostility. Prince Ito, the leader of the +so-called "elder statesmen," received special solicitations, for it was +plain that he would bring to any political party an overwhelming access +of strength alike in his own person and in the number of friends and +disciples certain to follow him. But Prince Ito declined to be absorbed +into any existing party, or to adopt the principle of parliamentary +cabinets. He would consent to form a new association, but it must +consist of men sufficiently disciplined to obey him implicitly, and +sufficiently docile to accept their programme from his hand. The +Liberals agreed to these terms. They dissolved their party (August 1900) +and enrolled themselves in the ranks of a new organization, which did +not even call itself a party, its designation being _rikken seiyu-kai_ +(association of friends of the constitution), and which had for the +cardinal plank in its platform a declaration of ministerial +irresponsibility to the Diet. A singular page was thus added to the +story of Japanese political development; for not merely did the Liberals +enlist under the banner of the statesmen whom for twenty years they had +fought to overthrow, but they also tacitly consented to erase from their +profession of faith its essential article, parliamentary cabinets, and, +by resigning that article to the Progressists, created for the first +time an opposition with a solid and intelligible platform. Nevertheless +the seiyu-kai grew steadily in strength whereas the number of its +opponents declined correspondingly. At the general elections in May 1908 +the former secured 195 seats, the four sections of the opposition +winning only 184. Thus for the first time in Japanese parliamentary +history a majority of the lower chamber found themselves marching under +the same banner. Moreover, the four sections of the opposition were +independently organized and differed nearly as much from one another as +they all differed from the seiyu-kai. Their impotence to make head +against the solid phalanx of the latter was thus conspicuous, especially +during the 1908-1909 session of the Diet. Much talk then began to be +heard about the necessity of coalition, and that this talk will +materialize eventually cannot be doubted. Reduction of armaments, +abolition of taxes specially imposed for belligerent purposes, and the +substitution of a strictly constitutional system for the existing +bureaucracy--these objects constitute a sufficiently solid platform, and +nothing is wanted except that a body of proved administrators should +join the opposition in occupying it. There were in 1909 no signs, +however, that any such defection from the ranks of officialdom would +take place. Deference is paid to public opinions inasmuch as even a +seiyu-kai ministry will not remain in office after its popularity has +begun to show signs of waning. But no deference is paid to the doctrine +of party cabinets. Prince Ito did not continue to lead the seiyu-kai for +more than three years. In July 1903 he delegated that function to +Marquis Saionji, representative of one of the very oldest families of +the court nobility and a personal friend of the emperor, as also was +Prince Ito. The Imperial stamp is thus vicariously set upon the +principle of political combinations for the better practical conduct of +parliamentary business, but that the seiyu-kai, founded by Prince Ito +and led by Marquis Saionji, should ever hold office in defiance of the +sovereign's mandate is unthinkable. Constitutional institutions in Japan +are therefore developing along lines entirely without precedent. The +storm and stress of early parliamentary days have given place to +comparative calm. During the first twelve sessions of the Diet, +extending over 8 years, there were five dissolutions of the lower house. +During the next thirteen sessions, extending over 11 years, there were +two dissolutions. During the first 8 years of the Diet's existence there +were six changes of cabinet; during the next 11 years there were five +changes. Another healthy sign was that men of affairs were beginning to +realize the importance of parliamentary representation. At first the +constituencies were contested almost entirely by professional +politicians, barristers and journalists. In 1909 there was a solid body +(the _boshin_ club) of business men commanding nearly 50 votes in the +lower house; and as the upper chamber included 45 representatives of the +highest tax-payers, the interests of commerce and industry were +intelligently debated. (F. By.) + + +X.--THE CLAIM OF JAPAN: BY A JAPANESE STATESMAN[4] + +It has been said that it is impossible for an Occidental to understand +the Oriental, and vice versa; but, admitting that the mutual +understanding of two different races or peoples is a difficult matter, +why should Occidentals and Orientals be thus set in opposition? No +doubt, different peoples of Europe understand each other better than +they do the Asiatic; but can Asiatic peoples understand each other +better than they can Europeans or than the Europeans can understand any +of them? Do Japanese understand Persians or even Indians better than +English or French? It is true perhaps that Japanese can and do +understand the Chinese better than Europeans; but that is due not only +to centuries of mutual intercourse, but to the wonderful and peculiar +fact that they have adopted the old classical Chinese literature as +their own, somewhat in the way, but in a much greater degree, in which +the European nations have adopted the old Greek and Latin literatures. +What is here contended for is that the mutual understanding of two +peoples is not so much a matter of race, but of the knowledge of each +other's history, traditions, literature, &c. + +The Japanese have, they think, suffered much from the misunderstanding +of their motives, feelings and ideas; what they want is to be understood +fully and to be known for what they really are, be it good or bad. They +desire, above all, not to be lumped as Oriental, but to be known and +judged on their own account. In the latter half of the 19th century, in +fact up to the Chinese War, it irritated Japanese travelling abroad more +than anything else to be taken for Chinese. Then, after the Chinese War, +the alarm about Japan leading Eastern Asia to make a general attack upon +Europe--the so-called Yellow Peril--seemed so ridiculous to the Japanese +that the bad effects of such wild talk were not quite appreciated by +them. The aim of the Japanese nation, ever since, at the time of the +Restoration (1868), they laid aside definitively all ideas of seclusion +and entered into the comity of nations, has been that they should rise +above the level of the Eastern peoples to an equality with the Western +and should be in the foremost rank of the brotherhood of nations; it was +not their ambition at all to be the champion of the East against the +West, but rather to beat down the barriers between themselves and the +West. + +The intense pride of the Japanese in their nationality, their patriotism +and loyalty, arise from their history, for what other nation can point +to an Imperial family of one unbroken lineage reigning over the land for +twenty-five centuries? Is it not a glorious tradition for a nation, that +its emperor should be descended directly from that grandson of "the +great heaven-illuminating goddess," to whom she said, "This land +(Japan) is the region over which my descendants shall be the lords. Do +thou, my august child, proceed thither and govern it. Go! _The +prosperity of thy dynasty shall be coeval with heaven and earth._" Thus +they call their country the land of _kami_ (ancient gods of tradition). +With this spirit, in the old days when China held the hegemony of the +East, and all neighbouring peoples were regarded as its tributaries, +Japan alone, largely no doubt on account of its insular position, held +itself quite aloof; it set at defiance the power of Kublai and routed +utterly the combined Chinese and Korean fleets with vast forces sent by +him to conquer Japan, this being the only occasion that Japan was +threatened with a foreign invasion. + +With this spirit, as soon as they perceived the superiority of the +Western civilization, they set to work to introduce it into their +country, just as in the 7th and 8th centuries they had adopted and +adapted the Chinese civilization. In 1868, the first year of the era of +Meiji, the emperor swore solemnly the memorable oath of five articles, +setting forth the policy that was to be and has been followed thereafter +by the government. These five articles were:-- + + 1. Deliberative assemblies shall be established and all measures of + government shall be decided by public opinion. + + 2. All classes, high and low, shall unite in vigorously carrying out + the plan of government. + + 3. Officials, civil and military, and all common people shall as far + as possible be allowed to fulfil their just desires so that there may + not be any discontent among them. + + 4. _Uncivilized customs of former times shall be broken through_, and + everything shall be based upon just and equitable principles of heaven + and earth (nature). + + 5. _Knowledge shall be sought for throughout the world_, so that the + welfare of the empire may be promoted. + + (Translation due to Prof. N. Hozumi of Tokyo Imp. Univ.) + +It is interesting, as showing the continuity of the policy of the +empire, to place side by side with these articles the words of the +Imperial rescript issued in 1908, which are as follows:-- + + "We are convinced that with the rapid and unceasing advance of + civilization, the East and West, mutually dependent and helping each + other, are bound by common interests. It is our sincere wish to + continue to enjoy for ever its benefits in common with other powers by + entering into closer and closer relations and strengthening our + friendship with them. Now in order to be able to move onward along + with the constant progress of the world and to share in the blessings + of civilization, it is obvious that we must develop our internal + resources; our nation, but recently emerged from an exhausting war, + must put forth increased activity in every branch of administration. + It therefore behoves our people to endeavour with one mind, from the + highest to the lowest, to pursue their callings honestly and + earnestly, to be industrious and thrifty, to abide in faith and + righteousness, to be simple and warm-hearted, to put away ostentation + and vanity and strive after the useful and solid, to avoid idleness + and indulgence, and to apply themselves incessantly to strenuous and + arduous tasks...." + +The ambition of the Japanese people has been, as already stated, to be +recognized as an equal by the Great Powers. With this object in view, +they have spared no efforts to introduce what they considered superior +in the Western civilization, although it may perhaps be doubted whether +in their eagerness they have always been wise. _They have always +resented any discrimination against them as an Asiatic people_, not +merely protesting against it, knowing that such would not avail much, +but making every endeavour to remove reasons or excuses for it. Formerly +there were troops stationed to guard several legations; foreign postal +service was not entirely in the hands of the Japanese government for a +long time; these and other indignities against the sovereignty of the +nation were gradually removed by proving that they were not necessary. +Then there was the question of the extra-territorial jurisdiction; an +embassy was sent to Europe and America as early as 1871 with a view to +the revision of treaties in order to do away with this _imperium in +imperio_, that being the date originally fixed for the revision; the +embassy, however, failed in its object but was not altogether fruitless, +for it was then clearly seen that it would be necessary to revise +thoroughly the system of laws and entirely to reorganize the law courts +before Occidental nations could be induced to forgo this privilege. +These measures were necessary in any case as a consequence of the +introduction of the Western methods and ideas, but they were hastened by +the fact of their being a necessary preliminary to the revision of +treaties. When the new code of laws was brought before the Diet at its +first session, and there was a great opposition against it in the House +of Peers on account of its many defects and especially of its ignoring +many established usages, the chief argument in its favour, or at least +one that had a great influence with many who were unacquainted with +technical points, was that it was necessary for the revision of treaties +and that the defects, if any, could be afterwards amended at leisure. +These preparations on the part of the government, however, took a long +time, and in the meantime the whole nation, or at least the more +intelligent part of it, was chafing impatiently under what was +considered a national indignity. The United States, by being the first +to agree to its abandonment, although this agreement was rendered +nugatory by a conditional clause, added to the stock of goodwill with +which the Japanese have always regarded the Americans on account of +their attitude towards them. When at last the consummation so long and +ardently desired was attained, great was the joy with which it was +greeted, for now it was felt that Japan was indeed on terms of equality +with Occidental nations. Great Britain, by being the first to conclude +the revised treaty--an act due to the remarkable foresight of her +statesmen in spite of the opposition of their countrymen in Japan--did +much to bring about the cordial feeling of the Japanese towards the +British, which made them welcome with such enthusiasm the Anglo-Japanese +alliance. The importance of this last as a powerful instrument for the +preservation of peace in the extreme East has been, and always will be, +appreciated at its full value by the more intelligent and thoughtful +among the Japanese; but by the mass of the people it was received with +great acclamation, owing partly to the already existing good feeling +towards the British, but also in a large measure because it was felt +that the fact that Great Britain should leave its "splendid isolation" +to enter into this alliance proclaimed in the clearest possible way that +Japan had entered on terms of full equality among the brotherhood of +nations, and that thenceforth there could be no ground for that +discrimination against them as an Asiatic nation which had been so +galling to the Japanese people. + +There have been, and there still are being made, many charges against +the Japanese government and people. While admitting that some of them +may be founded on facts, it is permissible to point out that traits and +acts of a few individuals have often been generalized to be the national +characteristic or the result of a fixed policy, while in many cases such +charges are due to misunderstandings arising from want of thorough +knowledge of each other's language, customs, usages, ideas, &c. Take the +principle of "the open door," for instance; the Japanese government has +been charged in several instances with acting contrary to it. It is +natural that where (as in China) competition is very keen between men of +different nationalities, individuals should sometimes feel aggrieved and +make complaints of unfairness against the government of their +competitors; it is also natural that people at home should listen to and +believe in those charges made against the Japanese by their countrymen +in the East, while unfortunately the Japanese, being so far away and +often unaware of them, have not a ready means of vindicating themselves; +but subsequent investigations have always shown those charges to be +either groundless or due to misunderstandings, and it may be asserted +that in no case has the charge been substantiated that the Japanese +government has knowingly, deliberately, of _malice prepense_ been guilty +of breach of faith in violating the principle of "the open door" to +which it has solemnly pledged itself. That it has often been accused by +the Japanese subjects of weakness _vis-à-vis_ foreign powers to the +detriment of their interests, is perhaps a good proof of its fairness. + +The Japanese have often been charged with looseness of commercial +morality. This charge is harder to answer than the last, for it cannot +be denied that there have been many instances of dishonesty on the part +of Japanese tradesmen or employees; _tu quoque_ is never a valid +argument, but there are black sheep everywhere, and there were special +reasons why foreigners should have come in contact with many such in +their dealings with the Japanese. In days before the Restoration, +merchants and tradesmen were officially classed as the lowest of four +classes, the samurai, the farmers, the artisans and the merchants; +practically, however, rich merchants serving as bankers and employers of +others were held in high esteem, even by the samurai. Yet it cannot be +denied that the position of the last three was low compared with that of +the samurai; their education was not so high, and although of course +there was the same code of morality for them all, there was no such high +standard of honour as was enjoined upon the samurai by the bushido or +"the way of samurai." Now, when foreign trade was first opened, it was +naturally not firms with long-established credit and methods that first +ventured upon the new field of business--some few that did failed owing +to their want of experience--it was rather enterprising and adventurous +spirits with little capital or credit who eagerly flocked to the newly +opened ports to try their fortune. It was not to be expected that all or +most of those should be very scrupulous in their dealings with the +foreigners; the majority of those adventurers failed, while a few of the +abler men, generally those who believed in and practised honesty as the +best policy, succeeded and came to occupy an honourable position as +business men. It is also asserted that foreigners, or at least some of +them, did not scruple to take unfair advantage of the want of experience +on the part of their Japanese customers to impose upon them methods +which they would not have followed except in the East; it may be that +such methods were necessary or were deemed so in dealing with those +adventurers, but it is a fact that it afterwards took a long time and +great effort on the part of Japanese traders to break through some +usages and customs which were established in earlier days and which they +deemed derogatory to their credit or injurious to their interests. +Infringement of patent rights and fraudulent imitation of trade-marks +have with some truth also been charged against the Japanese; about this +it is to be remarked that although the principles of morality cannot +change, their applications may be new; patents and trade-marks are +something new to the Japanese, and it takes time to teach that their +infringement should be regarded with the same moral censure as stealing. +The government has done everything to prevent such practices by enacting +and enforcing laws against them, and nowadays they are not so common. Be +that as it may, such a state of affairs as that mentioned above is now +passing away almost entirely; commerce and trade are now regarded as +highly honourable professions, merchants and business men occupy the +highest social positions, several of them having been lately raised to +the peerage, and are as honourable a set of men as can be met anywhere. +It is however to be regretted that in introducing Western business +methods, it has not been quite possible to exclude some of their evils, +such as promotion of swindling companies, tampering with members of +legislature, and so forth. + +The Japanese have also been considered in some quarters to be a +bellicose nation. No sooner was the war with Russia over than they were +said to be ready and eager to fight with the United States. This is +another misrepresentation arising from want of proper knowledge of +Japanese character and feelings. Although it is true that within the +quarter of a century preceding 1909 Japan was engaged in two sanguinary +wars, not to mention the Boxer affair, in which owing to her proximity +to the scene of the disturbances she had to take a prominent part, yet +neither of these was of her own seeking; in both cases she had to fight +or else submit to become a mere cipher in the world, if indeed she could +have preserved her existence as an independent state. The Japanese, far +from being a bellicose people, deliberately cut off all intercourse with +the outside world in order to avoid international troubles, and remained +absolutely secluded from the world and at profound peace within their +own territory for two centuries and a half. Besides, the Japanese have +always regarded the Americans with a special goodwill, due no doubt to +the steady liberal attitude of the American government and people +towards Japan and Japanese, and they look upon the idea of war between +Japan and the United States as ridiculous. + +Restrictions upon Japanese emigrants to the United States and to +Australia are irritating to the Japanese, because it is a discrimination +against them as belonging to the "yellow" race, whereas it has been +their ambition to raise themselves above the level of the Eastern +nations to an equality with the Western nations, although they cannot +change the colour of their skin. When a Japanese even of the highest +rank and standing has to obtain a permit from an American immigrant +officer before he can enter American territory, is it not natural that +he and his countrymen should resent this discrimination as an indignity? +But they have too much good sense to think or even dream of going to war +upon such a matter; on the contrary, the Japanese government agreed in +1908 to limit the number of emigrants in order to avoid complications. + +It may be repeated that it has ever been the ambition of the Japanese +people to take rank with the Great Powers of the world, and to have a +voice in the council of nations; they demand that they shall not be +discriminated against because of the colour of their skin, but that they +shall rather be judged by their deeds. With this aim, they have made +great efforts: where charges brought against them have any foundation in +fact, they have endeavoured to make reforms; where they are false or due +to misunderstandings they have tried to live them down, trusting to time +for their vindication. They are willing to be judged by the intelligent +and impartial world: a fair field and no favour is what they claim, and +think they have a right to claim, from the world. (K.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The latest edition of von Wemckstern's _Bibliography of + the Japanese Empire_ contains the names of all important books and + publications relating to Japan, which have now become very numerous. A + general reference must suffice here to Captain F. Brinkley's _Japan_ + (12 vols., 1904); the works of B. H. Chamberlain, _Things Japanese_ + (5th ed., 1905, &c.); W. G. Aston, _Hist. of Jap. Literature, &c._, + and Lafcadio Hearn, _Japan: an Interpretation_ (1904), &c., as the + European authors with intimate knowledge of the country who have done + most to give accurate and illuminating expression to its development. + See also _Fifty Years of New Japan_, an encyclopaedic account of the + national development in all its aspects, compiled by Count Shigenobu + Okuma (2 vols., 1907, 1908; Eng. ed. by Marcus B. Huish, 1909). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The Taira and the Minamoto both traced their descent from + imperial princes; the Tokugawa were a branch of the Minamoto. + + [2] Daimyo ("great name") was the title given to a feudal chief. + + [3] Neither the Liberals nor the Progressists had a working majority + in the house of representatives, nor could the ranks of either have + furnished men qualified to fill all the administrative posts. + + [4] The following expression of the Japanese point of view, by a + statesman of the writer's authority and experience, may well + supplement the general account of the progress of Japan and its + inclusion among the great civilized powers of the world.--(ED. + _E. B._) + + + + +JAPANNING, the art of coating surfaces of metal, wood, &c., with a +variety of varnishes, which are dried and hardened on in stoves or hot +chambers. These drying processes constitute the main distinguishing +features of the art. The trade owes its name to the fact that it is an +imitation of the famous lacquering of Japan (see JAPAN: _Art_), which, +however, is prepared with entirely different materials and processes, +and is in all respects much more brilliant, durable and beautiful than +any ordinary japan work. Japanning is done in clear transparent +varnishes, in black and in body colours; but black japan is the most +characteristic and common style of work. The varnish for black japan +consists essentially of pure natural asphaltum with a proportion of gum +animé dissolved in linseed oil and thinned with turpentine. In thin +layers such a japan has a rich dark brown colour; it only shows a +brilliant black in thicker coatings. For fine work, which has to be +smoothed and polished, several coats of black are applied in succession, +each being separately dried in the stove at a heat which may rise to +about 300° F. Body colours consist of a basis of transparent varnish +mixed with the special mineral paints of the desired colours or with +bronze powders. The transparent varnish used by japanners is a copal +varnish which contains less drying oil and more turpentine than is +contained in ordinary painters' oil varnish. Japanning produces a +brilliant polished surface which is much more durable and less easily +affected by heat, moisture or other influences than any ordinary painted +and varnished work. It may be regarded as a process intermediate between +ordinary painting and enamelling. It is very extensively applied in the +finishing of ordinary iron-mongery goods and domestic iron-work, deed +boxes, clock dials and papier-mâché articles. The process is also +applied to blocks of slate for making imitation of black and other +marbles for chimneypieces, &c., and in a modified form is employed for +preparing enamelled, japan or patent leather. + + + + +JAPHETH ([Hebrew: Yefeth]), in the Bible, the youngest son of Noah[1] +according to the Priestly Code (c. 450 B.C.); but in the earlier +tradition[2] the second son, also the "father" of one of the three +groups into which the nations of the world are divided.[3] In Gen. ix. +27, Noah pronounces the following blessing on Japheth-- + + "God enlarge (Heb. _yapht_) Japheth (Heb. _yepheth_), + And let him dwell in the tents of Shem; + And let Canaan be his servant." + +This is probably an ancient oracle independent alike of the flood story +and the genealogical scheme in Gen. x. Shem is probably Israel; Canaan, +of course, the Canaanites; by analogy, Japheth should be some third +element of the population of Palestine--the Philistines or the +Phoenicians have been suggested. The sense of the second line is +doubtful, it may be "let God dwell" or "let Japheth dwell"; on the +latter view Japheth appears to be in friendly alliance with Shem. The +words might mean that Japheth was an intruding invader, but this is not +consonant with the tone of the oracle. Possibly Japheth is only present +in Gen. ix. 20-27 through corruption of the text, Japheth may be an +accidental repetition of yapht "may he enlarge," misread as a proper +name. + +In Gen. x. Japheth is the northern and western division of the nations; +being perhaps used as a convenient title under which to group the more +remote peoples who were not thought of as standing in ethnic or +political connexion with Israel or Egypt. Thus of his descendants, +Gomer, Magog,[4] Tubal, Meshech, Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah are +peoples who are located with more or less certainty in N.E. Asia Minor, +Armenia and the lands to the N.E. of the Black Sea; Javan is the +Ionians, used loosely for the seafaring peoples of the West, including +Tarshish (Tartessus in Spain), Kittim (Cyprus), Rodanim[5] (Rhodes). +There is no certain identification of Tiras and Elishah. + + The similarity of the name Japheth to the Titan Iapetos of Greek + mythology is probably a mere accident. A place Japheth is mentioned in + Judith ii. 25, but it is quite unknown. + + In addition to commentaries and dictionary articles, see E. Meyer, + _Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme_, pp. 219 sqq. (W. H. Be.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. 13, x. 1; cf. 1 Chron. i. 4. + + [2] Gen. ix. 27, x. 2, J. c. 850-750 B.C. In ix. 18 Ham is an + editorial addition. + + [3] Gen. x. 1-5; cf. I Chron. i. 5-7. For the significance of the + genealogies in Gen. x. see HAM. + + [4] See GOMER, GOG. + + [5] So we should read with 1 Chron. i. 7 (LXX.) for Dodanim. + + + + +JAR, a vessel of simple form, made of earthenware, glass, &c., with a +spoutless mouth, and usually without handles. The word came into English +through Fr. _jarre_ or Span, _jarra_, from Arab, _jarrah_, the +earthenware vessel of Eastern countries, used to contain water, oil, +wine, &c. The simple electrical condenser known as a _Leyden Jar_ (q.v.) +was so called because of the early experiments made in the science of +electricity at Leiden. In the sense of a harsh vibrating sound, a sudden +shock or vibrating movement, hence dissension, quarrel or petty strife, +"jar" is onomatopoeic in origin; it is also seen in the name of the bird +night-jar (also known as the goat-sucker). In the expression "on the +jar" or "ajar," of a door or window partly open, the word is another +form of _chare_ or _char_, meaning turn or turning, which survives in +charwoman, one who works at a turn, a job and _chore_, a job, spell of +work. + + + + +JARGON, in its earliest use a term applied to the chirping and +twittering of birds, but since the 15th century mainly confined to any +language, spoken or written, which is either unintelligible to the user +or to the hearer. It is particularly applied by uninstructed hearers or +readers to the language full of technical terminology used by +scientific, philosophic and other writers. The word is O. Fr., and +Cotgrave defines it as "gibridge (gibberish), fustian language." It is +cognate with Span. _gerigonza_, and Ital. _gergo_, _gergone_, and +probably related to the onomatopoeic O. Fr. _jargouiller_, to chatter. +The root is probably seen in Lat. _garrire_, to chatter. + + + + +JARGOON, or Jargon (occasionally in old writings _jargounce_ and +_jacounce_), a name applied by modern mineralogists to those zircons +which are fine enough to be cut as gem-stones, but are not of the red +colour which characterizes the hyacinth or jacinth. The word is related +to Arab _zargun_ (zircon). Some of the finest jargoons are green, others +brown and yellow, whilst some are colourless. The colourless jargoon may +be obtained by heating certain coloured stones. When zircon is heated it +sometimes changes in colour, or altogether loses it, and at the same +time usually increases in density and brilliancy. The so-called Matura +diamonds, formerly sent from Matara (or Matura), in Ceylon, were +decolorized zircons. The zircon has strong refractive power, and its +lustre is almost adamantine, but it lacks the fire of the diamond. The +specific gravity of zircon is subject to considerable variation in +different varieties; thus Sir A. H. Church found the sp. gr. of a fine +leaf-green jargoon to be as low as 3.982, and that of a pure white +jargoon as high as 4.705. Jargoon and tourmaline, when cut as gems, are +sometimes mistaken for each other, but the sp. gr. is distinctive, since +that of tourmaline is only 3 to 3.2. Moreover, in tourmaline the +dichroism is strongly marked, whereas in jargoon it is remarkably +feeble. The refractive indices of jargoon are much higher than those of +tourmaline (see ZIRCON). (F. W. R.*) + + + + +JARIR IBN 'ATIYYA UL-KHATFI (d. 728), Arabian poet, was born in the +reign of the caliph 'Ali, was a member of the tribe Kulaib, a part of +the Tamim, and lived in Irak. Of his early life little is known, but he +succeeded in winning the favour of Hajjaj, the governor of Irak (see +CALIPHATE). Already famous for his verse, he became more widely known by +his feud with Farazdaq and Akhtal. Later he went to Damascus and visited +the court of Abdalmalik ('Abd ul-Malik) and that of his successor, +Walid. From neither of these did he receive a warm welcome. He was, +however, more successful with Omar II., and was the only poet received +by the pious caliph. + + His verse, which, like that of his contemporaries, is largely satire + and eulogy, was published in 2 vols. (Cairo, 1896). (G. W. T.) + + + + +JARKENT, a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of +Semiryechensk, 70 m. W.N.W. of Kulja and near to the Ili river. Pop. +(1897), 16,372. + + + + +JARNAC, a town of western France in the department of Charente, on the +right bank of the river Charente, and on the railway 23 m. W. of +Angoulême, between that city and Cognac. Pop. (1906), 4493. The town is +well built; and an avenue, planted with poplar trees, leads to a +handsome suspension bridge. The church contains an interesting ogival +crypt. There are communal colleges for both sexes. Brandy, wine and +wine-casks are made in the town. Jarnac was in 1569 the scene of a +battle in which the Catholics defeated the Protestants. A pyramid marks +the spot where Louis, Prince de Condé, one of the Protestant generals, +was slain. Jarnac gave its name to an old French family, of which the +best known member is Gui Chabot, comte de Jarnac (d. c. 1575), whose +lucky backstroke in his famous duel with Châteigneraie gave rise to the +proverbial phrase _coup de jarnac_, signifying an unexpected blow. + + + + +JARO, a town of the province of Iloílo, Panay, Philippine Islands, on +the Jaro river, 2 m. N.W. of the town of Iloílo, the capital. Pop. +(1903), 10,681. It lies on a plain in the midst of a rich agricultural +district, has several fine residences, a cathedral, a curious +three-tiered tower, a semi-weekly paper and a monthly periodical. Jaro +was founded by the Spanish in 1584. From 1903 until February 1908 it was +part of the town or municipality of Iloílo. + + + + +JAROSITE, a rare mineral species consisting of hydrous potassium and +aluminium sulphate, and belonging to the group of isomorphous +rhombohedral minerals enumerated below:-- + + Alunite K2 [Al(OH)2]6 (SO4)4 + Jarosite K2 [Fe(OH)2]6 (SO4)4 + Natrojarosite Na2 [Fe(OH)2]6 (SO4)4 + Plumbojarosite Pb [Fe(OH)2]8 (SO4)4 + +Jarosite usually occurs as drusy incrustations of minute indistinct +crystals with a yellowish-brown colour and brilliant lustre. Hardness 3; +sp. gr. 3.15. The best specimens, consisting of crystalline crusts on +limonite, are from the Jaroso ravine in the Sierra Almagrera, province +of Almeria, Spain, from which locality the mineral receives its name. It +has been also found, often in association with iron ores, at a few other +localities. A variety occurring as concretionary or mulberry-like forms +is known as moronolite (from Gr. [Greek: môron], "mulberry," and [Greek: +líthos], "stone"); it is found at Monroe in Orange county, New York. The +recently discovered species natrojarosite and plumbojarosite occur as +yellowish-brown glistening powders consisting wholly of minute crystals, +and are from Nevada and New Mexico respectively. (L. J. S.) + + + + +JARRAH WOOD (an adaptation of the native name _Jerryhl_), the product of +a large tree (_Eucalyptus marginata_) found in south-western Australia, +where it is said to cover an area of 14,000 sq. m. The trees grow +straight in the stem to a great size, and yield squared timber up to 40 +ft. length and 24 in. diameter. The wood is very hard, heavy (sp. gr. +1.010) and close-grained, with a mahogany-red colour, and sometimes +sufficient "figure" to render it suitable for cabinet-makers' use. The +timber possesses several useful characteristics; and great expectations +were at first formed as to its value for ship-building and general +constructive purposes. These expectations have not, however, been +realized, and the exclusive possession of the tree has not proved that +source of wealth to western Australia which was at one time expected. +Its greatest merit for ship-building and marine purposes is due to the +fact that it resists, better than any other timber, the attacks of the +_Teredo navalis_ and other marine borers, and on land it is equally +exempt, in tropical countries, from the ravages of white ants. When +felled with the sap at its lowest point and well seasoned, the wood +stands exposure in the air, earth or sea remarkably well, on which +account it is in request for railway sleepers, telegraph poles and piles +in the British colonies and India. The wood, however, frequently shows +longitudinal blisters, or lacunae, filled with resin, the same as may be +observed in spruce fir timber; and it is deficient in fibre, breaking +with a short fracture under comparatively moderate pressure. It has been +classed at Lloyds for ship-building purposes in line three, table A, of +the registry rules. + + + + +JARROW, a port and municipal borough in the Jarrow parliamentary +division of Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne, 6½ m. below +Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), +34,295. The parish church of St Paul was founded in 685, and retains +portions of pre-Norman work. The central tower is Norman, and there are +good Decorated and Perpendicular details in the body of the church. +Close by are the scattered ruins of the monastery begun by the pious +Biscop in 681, and consecrated with the church by Ceolfrid in 685. +Within the walls of this monastery the Venerable Bede spent his life +from childhood; and his body was at first buried within the church, +whither, until it was removed under Edward the Confessor to Durham, it +attracted many pilgrims. The town is wholly industrial, devoted to +ship-building, chemical works, paper mills and the neighbouring +collieries. It owes its development from a mere pit village very largely +to the enterprise of Sir Charles Mark Palmer (q.v.). Jarrow Slake, a +river bay, 1 m. long by ½ m. broad, contains the Tyne docks of the +North-Eastern railway company. A great quantity of coal is shipped. +Jarrow was incorporated in 1875, and the corporation consists of a +mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 783 acres. + + + + +JARRY, NICOLAS, one of the best-known 17th century French calligraphers. +He was born at Paris about 1620, and was officially employed by Louis +XIV. His most famous work is the _Guirlande de Julie_ (1641). He died +some time before 1674. + + + + +JARVIS, JOHN WESLEY (1780-1840), American artist, nephew of the great +John Wesley, was born at South Shields, England, and was taken to the +United States at the age of five. He was one of the earliest American +painters to give serious attention to the study of anatomy. He lived at +first in Philadelphia, afterwards establishing himself in New York, +where he enjoyed great popularity, though his conviviality and eccentric +mode of life affected his work. He visited Baltimore, Charleston and New +Orleans, entertaining much and painting portraits of prominent people, +particularly in New Orleans, where General Andrew Jackson was one of his +sitters. He had for assistants at different times both Sully and Inman. +He affected singularity in dress and manners, and his _mots_ were the +talk of the day. But his work deteriorated, and he died in great poverty +in New York City. Examples of his painting are in the collection of the +New York Historical Society. + + + + +JASHAR, BOOK OF, in Hebrew _Sepher ha-yashar_, a Hebrew composition +mentioned as though well-known in Josh. x. 13 and 2 Sam. i. 18. From +these two passages it seems to have been a book of songs relating to +important events, but no early collection of the kind is now extant, nor +is anything known of it. Various speculations have been put forward as +to the name: (1) that it means the book of the upright, i.e. Israel or +distinguished Israelites, the root being the same as in Jeshurun; (2) +that Jashar ([Hebrew: yashar]) is a transposition of shîr ([Hebrew: +shir], song); (3) that it should be pointed Yashir ([Hebrew: yashir], +sing; cf. Exod. xv. 1) and was so called after its first word. None of +these is very convincing, though support may be found for them all in +the versions. The Septuagint favours (1) by its rendering [Greek: epi +bibliou tou euthous] in Samuel (it omits the words in Joshua); the +Vulgate has _in libro justorum_ in both places; the Syriac in Samuel has +_Ashir_, which suggests a Hebrew reading _ha-shir_ (the song), and in +Joshua it translates "book of praises." The Targum on both passages has +"book of the law," an explanation which is followed by the chief Jewish +commentators, making the incidents the fulfilment of passages in the +Pentateuch. Since it contained the lament of David (2 Sam. i. 18) it +cannot have been completed till after his time. If Wellhausen's +restoration of 1 Kings viii. 12 be accepted (from Septuagint 1 Kings +viii. 53, [Greek: en bibliô tês ôdês]) where the reference is to the +building of the Temple, the book must have been growing in the time of +Solomon. The attempt of Donaldson[1] to reconstruct it is largely +subjective and uncritical. + + In later times when it became customary to compose midrashic works + under well-known names, a book of Jashar naturally made its + appearance. It need hardly be remarked that this has nothing whatever + to do with the older book. It is an anonymous elaboration in Hebrew of + the early part of the biblical narrative, probably composed in the + 12th century. The fact that its legendary material is drawn from + Arabic sources, as well as from Talmud, Midrash and later Jewish + works, would seem to show that the writer lived in Spain, or, + according to others, in south Italy. The first edition appeared at + Venice in 1625, and it has been frequently printed since. It was + translated into English by (or for) M. M. Noah (New York, 1840). A + work called _The Book of ... Jasher, translated ... by Alcuin_ (1751; + 2nd ed., Bristol, 1829), has nothing to do with this or with any + Hebrew original, but is a mere fabrication by the printer, Jacob Hive, + who put it forward as the book "mentioned in Holy Scripture." + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--M. Heilprin, _Historical Poetry of the Ancient Hebrews_ + (New York, 1879), i. 128-131; Mercati, "Una congettura sopra il libro + del Giusto," in _Studi e Testi_ (5, Roma, 1901). On the medieval work + see Zunz, _Gottesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden_ (Frankfurt a. M., + 1892), 2nd ed., p. 162. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Jashar: fragmenta archetypa carminum Hebraicorum_ (Berlin, + 1854). Cf. Perowne's _Remarks_ on it (Lond. 1855). + + + + +JASHPUR, a tributary state of India, in the Central Provinces, having +been transferred from Bengal in 1905. The country is divided almost +equally into high and low lands. The Uparghat plateau on the east rises +2200 ft. above sea-level, and the hills above it reach their highest +point in Ranijula (3527 ft.). The only river of importance is the Ib, in +the bed of which diamonds are found, while from time immemorial its +sands have been washed for gold. Jashpur iron, smelted by the Kols, is +highly prized. Jungles of _sál_ forests abound, harbouring elephant, +bison and other wild beasts. Jungle products include lac, silk cocoons +and beeswax, which are exported. Area 1948 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 132,114; +estimated revenue £8000. + + + + +JASMIN, JACQUES (1798-1864), Provençal poet, was born at Agen on the 6th +of March 1798, his family name being Boé. His father, who was a tailor, +had a certain facility for making doggerel verses, which he sang or +recited at fairs and such-like popular gatherings; and Jacques, who used +generally to accompany him, was thus early familiarized with the part +which he afterwards so successfully filled himself. When sixteen years +of age he found employment at a hairdresser's shop, and subsequently +started a similar business of his own on the Gravier at Agen. In 1825 he +published his first volume of _Papillotos_ ("Curl Papers"), containing +poems in French (a language he used with a certain sense of restraint), +and in the familiar Agen _patois_--the popular speech of the working +classes--in which he was to achieve all his literary triumphs. Jasmin +was the most famous forerunner in Provençal literature (q.v.) of Mistral +and the _Félibrige_. His influence in rehabilitating, for literary +purposes, his native dialect, was particularly exercised in the public +recitals of his poems to which he devoted himself. His poetic gift, and +his flexible voice and action, fitted him admirably for this double rôle +of troubadour and jongleur. In 1835 he recited his "Blind Girl of +Castel-Cuillé" at Bordeaux, in 1836 at Toulouse; and he met with an +enthusiastic reception in both those important cities. Most of his +public recitations were given for benevolent purposes, the proceeds +being contributed by him to the restoration of the church of Vergt and +other good works. Four successive volumes of _Papillotos_ were published +during his lifetime, and contained amongst others the following +remarkable poems, quoted in order: "The Charivari," "My Recollections" +(supplemented after an interval of many years), "The Blind Girl," +"Françounetto," "Martha the Simple," and "The Twin Brothers." With the +exception of "The Charivari," these are all touching pictures of humble +life--in most cases real episodes--carefully elaborated by the poet till +the graphic descriptions, full of light and colour, and the admirably +varied and melodious verse, seem too spontaneous and easy to have cost +an effort. Jasmin was not a prolific writer, and, in spite of his +impetuous nature, would work a long time at one poem, striving to +realize every feeling he wished to describe, and give it its most lucid +and natural expression. A verse from his spirited poem, "The Third of +May," written in honour of Henry IV., and published in the first volume +of _Papillotos_, is engraved on the base of the statue erected to that +king at Nérac. In 1852 Jasmin's works were crowned by the Académie +Française, and a pension was awarded him. The medal struck on the +occasion bore the inscription: _Au poëte moral et populaire_. His title +of "Maistre ès Jeux" is a distinction only conferred by the academy of +Toulouse on illustrious writers. Pius IX. sent him the insignia of a +knight of St Gregory the Great, and he was made chevalier of the Legion +of Honour. He spent the latter years of his life on a small estate which +he had bought near Agen and named "Papillotos," and which he describes +in _Ma Bigno_ ("My Vine"). Though invited to represent his native city, +he refused to do so, preferring the pleasures and leisure of a country +life, and wisely judging that he was no really eligible candidate for +electoral honours. He died on the 4th of October 1864. His last poem, an +answer to Renan, was placed between his folded hands in his coffin. + + + + +JASMINE, or JESSAMINE, botanically _Jasminum_, a genus of shrubs or +climbers constituting the principal part of the tribe Jasminoideae of +the natural order Oleaceae, and comprising about 150 species, of which +40 or more occur in the gardens of Britain. The plants of the genus are +mostly natives of the warmer regions of the Old World; there is one +South American species. The leaves are pinnate or ternate, or sometimes +apparently simple, consisting of one leaflet, articulated to the +petiole. The flowers, usually white or yellow, are arranged in terminal +or axillary panicles, and have a tubular 5- or 8-cleft calyx, a +cylindrical corolla-tube, with a spreading limb, two included stamens +and a two-celled ovary. + +The name is derived from the Persian _yásmín_. Linnaeus obtained a +fancied etymology from [Greek: ia], violets, and [Greek: osmê], smell, +but the odour of its flowers bears no resemblance to that of the violet. +The common white jasmine, _Jasminum officinale_, one of the best known +and most highly esteemed of British hardy ligneous climbers, is a native +of northern India and Persia, introduced about the middle of the 16th +century. In the centre and south of Europe it is thoroughly +acclimatized. Although it grows to the height of 12 and sometimes 20 +ft., its stem is feeble and requires support; its leaves are opposite, +pinnate and dark green, the leaflets are in three pairs, with an odd +one, and are pointed, the terminal one larger and with a tapering point. +The fragrant white flowers bloom from June to October; and, as they are +found chiefly on the young shoots, the plant should only be pruned in +the autumn. Varieties with golden and silver-edged leaves and one with +double flowers are known. + +[Illustration: _Jasminum grandiflorum_; flower, natural size.] + + The zambak or Arabian jasmine, _J. Sambac_, is an evergreen + white-flowered climber, 6 or 8 ft. high, introduced into Britain in + the latter part of the 17th century. Two varieties introduced somewhat + later are respectively 3-leaved and double-flowered, and these, as + well as that with normal flowers, bloom throughout the greater part of + the year. On account of their exquisite fragrance the flowers are + highly esteemed in the East, and are frequently referred to by the + Persian and Arabian poets. An oil obtained by boiling the leaves is + used to anoint the head for complaints of the eye, and an oil obtained + from the roots is used medicinally to arrest the secretion of milk. + The flowers of one of the double varieties are held sacred to Vishnu, + and used as votive offerings in Hindu religious ceremonies. The + Spanish, or Catalonian jasmine, _J. grandiflorum_, a native of the + north-west Himalaya, and cultivated both in the old and new world, is + very like _J. officinale_, but differs in the size of the leaflets; + the branches are shorter and stouter, and the flowers very much + larger, and reddish underneath. By grafting it on two-year-old plants + of _J. officinale_, an erect bush about 3 ft. high is obtained, + requiring no supports. In this way it is very extensively cultivated + at Cannes and Grasse, in the south of France; the plants are set in + rows, fully exposed to the sun; they come into full bearing the second + year after grafting; the blossoms, which are very large and intensely + fragrant, are produced from July till the end of October, but those of + August and September are the most odoriferous. + + The aroma is extracted by the process known as _enfleurage_, i.e. + absorption by a fatty body, such as purified lard or olive oil. Square + glass trays framed with wood about 3 in. deep are spread over with + grease about half an inch thick, in which ridges are made to + facilitate absorption, and sprinkled with freshly gathered flowers, + which are renewed every morning during the whole time the plant + remains in blossom; the trays are piled up in stacks to prevent the + evaporation of the aroma; and finally the pomade is scraped off the + glass, melted at as low a temperature as possible, and strained. When + oil is employed as the absorbent, coarse cotton cloths previously + saturated with the finest olive oil are laid on wire-gauze frames, and + repeatedly covered in the same manner with fresh flowers; they are + then squeezed under a press, yielding what is termed _huile antique au + jasmin_. Three pounds of flowers will perfume 1 lb. of grease--this is + exhausted by maceration in 1 pt. of rectified spirit to form the + "extract." An essential oil is distilled from jasmine in Tunis and + Algeria, but its high price prevents its being used to any extent. The + East Indian oil of jasmine is a compound largely contaminated with + sandalwood-oil. + + The distinguishing characters of _J. odoratissimum_, a native of the + Canary Islands and Madeira, consist principally in the alternate, + obtuse, ternate and pinnate leaves, the 3-flowered terminal peduncles + and the 5-cleft yellow corolla with obtuse segments. The flowers have + the advantage of retaining when dry their natural perfume, which is + suggestive of a mixture of jasmine, jonquil and orange-blossom. In + China _J. paniculatum_ is cultivated as an erect shrub, known as + _sieu-hing-hwa_; it is valued for its flowers, which are used with + those of _J. Sambac_, in the proportion of 10 lb. of the former to 30 + lb. of the latter, for scenting tea--40 lb. of the mixture being + required for 100 lb. of tea. _J. angustifolium_ is a beautiful + evergreen climber 10 to 12 ft. high, found in the Coromandel forests, + and introduced into Britain during the present century. Its leaves are + of a bright shining green; its large terminal flowers are white with a + faint tinge of red, fragrant and blooming throughout the year. + + In Cochin China a decoction of the leaves and branches of _J. + nervosum_ is taken as a blood-purifier; and the bitter leaves of _J. + floribundum_ (called in Abyssinia _habbez-zelim_) mixed with kousso is + considered a powerful anthelmintic, especially for tapeworm; the + leaves and branches are added to some fermented liquors to increase + their intoxicating quality. In Catalonia and in Turkey the wood of the + jasmine is made into long, slender pipe-stems, highly prized by the + Moors and Turks. Syrup of jasmine is made by placing in a jar + alternate layers of the flowers and sugar, covering the whole with wet + cloths and standing it in a cool place; the perfume is absorbed by the + sugar, which is converted into a very palatable syrup. The important + medicinal plant known in America as the "Carolina jasmine" is not a + true jasmine (see GELSEMIUM). + + Other hardy species commonly cultivated in gardens are the low or + Italian yellow-flowered jasmine, _J. humile_, an East Indian species + introduced and now found wild in the south of Europe, an erect shrub 3 + or 4 ft. high, with angular branches, alternate and mostly ternate + leaves, blossoming from June to September; the common yellow jasmine, + _J. fruticans_, a native of southern Europe and the Mediterranean + region, a hardy evergreen shrub, 10 to 12 ft. high, with weak, slender + stems requiring support, and bearing yellow, odourless flowers from + spring to autumn; and _J. nudiflorum_ (China), which bears its bright + yellow flowers in winter before the leaves appear. It thrives in + almost any situation and grows rapidly. + + + + +JASON ([Greek: Iasôn]), in Greek legend, son of Aeson, king of Iolcus in +Thessaly. He was the leader of the Argonautic expedition (see +ARGONAUTS). After he returned from it he lived at Corinth with his wife +Medea (q.v.) for many years. At last he put away Medea, in order to +marry Glauce (or Creusa), daughter of the Corinthian king Creon. To +avenge herself, Medea presented the new bride with a robe and +head-dress, by whose magic properties the wearer was burnt to death, and +slew her children by Jason with her own hand. A later story represents +Jason as reconciled to Medea (Justin, xlii. 2). His death was said to +have been due to suicide through grief, caused by Medea's vengeance +(Diod. Sic. iv. 55); or he was crushed by the fall of the poop of the +ship "Argo," under which, on the advice of Medea, he had laid himself +down to sleep (argument of Euripides' _Medea_). The name (more correctly +Iason) means "healer," and Jason is possibly a local hero of Iolcus to +whom healing powers were attributed. The ancients regarded him as the +oldest navigator, and the patron of navigation. By the moderns he has +been variously explained as a solar deity; a god of summer; a god of +storm; a god of rain, who carries off the rain-giving cloud (the golden +fleece) to refresh the earth after a long period of drought. Some regard +the legend as a chthonian myth, Aea (Colchis) being the under-world in +the Aeolic religious system from which Jason liberates himself and his +betrothed; others, in view of certain resemblances between the story of +Jason and that of Cadmus (the ploughing of the field, the sowing of the +dragon's teeth, the fight with the Sparti, who are finally set fighting +with one another by a stone hurled into their midst), associate both +with Demeter the corn-goddess, and refer certain episodes to practices +in use at country festivals, e.g. the stone throwing, which, like the +[Greek: ballêtys] at the Eleusinia and the [Greek: lithobolia] at +Troezen (Pausanias ii. 30, 4 with Frazer's note) was probably intended +to secure a good harvest by driving away the evil spirits of +unfruitfulness. + + See articles by C. Seeliger in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and + by F. Durrbach in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des + antiquités_; H. D. Müller, _Mythologie der griechischen Stämme_ + (1861), ii. 328, who explains the name Jason as "wanderer"; W. + Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (1884), pp. 75, 130; O. + Crusius, _Beiträge zur griechischen Mythologie una + Religionsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1886). + +_Later Versions of the Legend._--_Les fais et prouesses du noble et +vaillant chevalier Jason_ was composed in the middle of the 15th century +by Raoul Lefèvre on the basis of Benoît's _Roman de Troie_, and +presented to Philip of Burgundy, founder of the order of the Golden +Fleece. The manners and sentiments of the 15th century are made to +harmonize with the classical legends after the fashion of the Italian +pre-Raphaelite painters, who equipped Jewish warriors with knightly +lance and armour. The story is well told; the digressions are few; and +there are many touches of domestic life and natural sympathy. The first +edition is believed to have been printed at Bruges in 1474. + + Caxton translated the book under the title of _A Boke of the hoole Lyf + of Jason_, at the command of the duchess of Burgundy. A Flemish + translation appeared at Haarlem in 1495. The Benedictine Bernard de + Montfaucon (1655-1741) refers to a MS. by Guido delle Colonne, + _Historia Medeae et Jasonis_ (unpublished). + + The _Histoire de la Thoison d'Or_ (Paris, 1516) by Guillaume Fillastre + (1400-1473), written about 1440-1450, is an historical compilation + dealing with the exploits of the _très chrétiennes maisons_ of France, + Burgundy and Flanders. + + + + +JASON OF CYRENE, a Hellenistic Jew, who lived about 100 B.C. and wrote a +history of the times of the Maccabees down to the victory over Nicanor +(175-161 B.C.). This work is said to have been in five books and formed +the basis of the present 2 Macc. (see ch. ii. 19-32). + + + + +JASPER, an opaque compact variety of quartz, variously coloured and +often containing argillaceous matter. The colours are usually red, +brown, yellow or green, and are due to admixture with compounds of iron, +either oxides or silicates. Although the term jasper is now restricted +to opaque quartz it is certain that the ancient _jaspis_ or [Greek: +iaspis] was a stone of considerable translucency. The jasper of +antiquity was in many cases distinctly green, for it is often compared +with the emerald and other green objects. Jasper is referred to in the +_Niebelungenlied_ as being clear and green. Probably the jasper of the +ancients included stones which would now be classed as chalcedony, and +the emerald-like jasper may have been akin to our chrysoprase. The +Hebrew word _yashefeh_ may have designated a green jasper (cf. Assyrian +_yashpu_). Professor Flinders Petrie has suggested that the _odem_, the +first stone on the High Priest's breastplate, translated "sard," was a +red jasper, whilst _tarshish_, the tenth stone, may have been a yellow +jasper (Hastings's _Dict. Bible_, 1902). + + Many varieties of jasper are recognized. Riband jasper is a form in + which the colours are disposed in bands, as in the well-known + ornamental stone from Siberia, which shows a regular alternation of + dark red and green stripes. Egyptian jasper is a brown jasper, + occurring as nodules in the Lybian desert and in the Nile valley, and + characterized by a zonal arrangement of light and dark shades of + colour. Agate-jasper is a variety intermediate between true jasper and + chalcedony. Basanite, lydite, or Lydian stone, is a velvet-black + flinty jasper, used as a touchstone for testing the purity of precious + metals by their streak. Porcelain jasper is a clay indurated by + natural calcination. (F. W. R.*) + + + + +JASSY (_Iasii_), also written JASII, JASCHI and YASSY, the capital of +the department of Jassy, Rumania; situated on the left bank of the river +Bahlui, an affluent of the Jijia, about 10 m. W. of the Pruth and the +Russian frontier. Pop. (1900), 78,067. Jassy communicates by rail with +Galatz on the Danube, Kishinev in Bessarabia, and Czernowitz in +Bukowina. The surrounding country is one of uplands and woods, among +which rise the monasteries of Cetatuia, Frumoasa, and Galata with its +mineral springs, the water-cure establishment of Rapide and the great +seminary of Socola. Jassy itself stands pleasantly amid vineyards and +gardens, partly on two hills, partly in the hollow between. Its +primitive houses of timber and plaster were mostly swept away after +1860, when brick or stone came into general use, and good streets were +cut among the network of narrow, insanitary lanes. Jassy is the seat of +the metropolitan of Moldavia, and of a Roman Catholic archbishop. +Synagogues and churches abound. The two oldest churches date from the +reign of Stephen the Great (1458-1504); perhaps the finest, however, are +the 17th-century metropolitan, St Spiridion and Trei Erarchi, the last a +curious example of Byzantine art, erected in 1639 or 1640 by Basil the +Wolf, and adorned with countless gilded carvings on its outer walls and +twin towers. The St Spiridion Foundation (due to the liberality of +Prince Gregory Ghika in 1727, and available for the sick of all +countries and creeds) has an annual income of over £80,000, and +maintains hospitals and churches in several towns of Moldavia, besides +the baths at Slanic in Walachia. The main hospital in Jassy is a large +building, and possesses a maternity institution, a midwifery school, a +chemical institute, an inoculating establishment, &c. A society of +physicians and naturalists has existed in Jassy since the early part of +the 19th century, and a number of periodicals are published. Besides the +university, founded by Prince Cuza in 1864, with faculties of +literature, philosophy, law, science and medicine, there are a military +academy and schools of art, music and commerce; a museum, a fine hall +and a theatre; the state library, where the chief records of Rumanian +history are preserved; an appeal court, a chamber of commerce and +several banks. The city is the headquarters of the 4th army corps. It +has an active trade in petroleum, salt, metals, timber, cereals, fruit, +wine, spirits, preserved meat, textiles, clothing, leather, cardboard +and cigarette paper. + +The inscription by which the existence of a _Jassiorum municipium_ in +the time of the Roman Empire is sought to be proved, lies open to grave +suspicion; but the city is mentioned as early as the 14th century, and +probably does derive its name from the Jassians, or Jazygians, who +accompanied the Cumanian invaders. It was often visited by the Moldavian +court. About 1564, Prince Alexander Lapusneanu, after whom one of the +chief streets is named, chose Jassy for the Moldavian capital, instead +of Suceava (now Suczawa, in Bukowina). It was already famous as a centre +of culture. Between 1561 and 1563 an excellent school and a Lutheran +church were founded by the Greek adventurer, Jacob Basilicus (see +RUMANIA: _History_). In 1643 the first printed book published in +Moldavia was issued from a press established by Basil the Wolf. He also +founded a school, the first in which the mother-tongue took the place of +Greek. Jassy was burned by the Tatars in 1513, by the Turks in 1538, and +by the Russians in 1686. By the Peace of Jassy the second Russo-Turkish +War was brought to a close in 1792. A Greek insurrection under Ypsilanti +in 1821 led to the storming of the city by the Turks in 1822. In 1844 +there was a severe conflagration. For the loss caused to the city in +1861 by the removal of the seat of government to Bucharest the +constituent assembly voted £148,150, to be paid in ten annual +instalments, but no payment was ever made. + + + + +JATAKA, the technical name, in Buddhist literature, for a story of one +or other of the previous births of the Buddha. The word is also used for +the name of a collection of 547 of such stories included, by a most +fortunate conjuncture of circumstances, in the Buddhist canon. This is +the most ancient and the most complete collection of folk-lore now +extant in any literature in the world. As it was made at latest in the +3rd century B.C., it can be trusted not to give any of that modern or +European colouring which renders suspect much of the folk-lore collected +by modern travellers. + +Already in the oldest documents, drawn up by the disciples soon after +the Buddha's death, he is identified with certain ancient sages of +renown. That a religious teacher should claim to be successor of the +prophets of old is not uncommon in the history of religions. But the +current belief in metempsychosis led, or enabled, the early Buddhists to +make a much wider claim. It was not very long before they gradually +identified their master with the hero of each of the popular fables and +stories of which they were so fond. The process must have been complete +by the middle of the 3rd century B.C.; for we find at that date +illustrations of the Jatakas in the bas-reliefs on the railing round the +Bharahat tope with the titles of the Jataka stories inscribed above them +in the characters of that period.[1] The hero of each story is made into +a Bodhisatta; that is, a being who is destined, after a number of +subsequent births, to become a Buddha. This rapid development of the +Bodhisatta theory is the distinguishing feature in the early history of +Buddhism, and was both cause and effect of the simultaneous growth of +the Jataka book. In adopting the folk-lore and fables already current in +India, the Buddhists did not change them very much. The stories as +preserved to us, are for the most part Indian rather than Buddhist. The +ethics they inculcate or suggest are milk for babes; very simple in +character and referring almost exclusively to matters common to all +schools of thought in India, and indeed elsewhere. Kindness, purity, +honesty, generosity, worldly wisdom, perseverance, are the usual virtues +praised; the higher ethics of the Path are scarcely mentioned. These +stories, popular with all, were especially appreciated by that school of +Buddhists that laid stress on the Bodhisatta theory--a school that +obtained its chief support, and probably had its origin, in the extreme +north-west of India and in the highlands of Asia. That school adopted, +from the early centuries of our era, the use of Sanskrit, instead of +Pali, as the means of literary expression. It is almost impossible, +therefore, that they would have carried the canonical Pali book, +voluminous as it is, into Central Asia. Shorter collections of the +original stories, written in Sanskrit, were in vogue among them. One +such collection, the Jataka-mala, by Arya Sura (6th century), is still +extant. Of the existence of another collection, though the Sanskrit +original has not yet been found, we have curious evidence. In the 6th +century a book of Sanskrit fables was translated into Pahlavi, that is, +old Persian (see Bidpai). In succeeding centuries this work was +retranslated into Arabic and Hebrew, thence into Latin and Greek and all +the modern languages of Europe. The book bears a close resemblance to +the earlier chapters of a late Sanskrit fable book called, from its +having five chapters, the _Pancha tantra_, or Pentateuch. + +The introduction to the old Jataka book gives the life of the historical +Buddha. That introduction must also have reached Persia by the same +route. For in the 8th century St John of Damascus put the story into +Greek under the title of _Barlaam and Josaphat_. This story became very +popular in the West. It was translated into Latin, into seven European +languages, and even into Icelandic and the dialect of the Philippine +Islands. Its hero, that is the Buddha, was canonized as a Christian +saint; and the 27th of November was officially fixed as the date for his +adoration as such. + + The book popularly known in Europe as _Aesop's Fables_ was not written + by Aesop. It was put together in the 14th century at Constantinople by + a monk named Planudes, and he drew largely for his stories upon those + in the Jataka book that had reached Europe along various channels. The + fables of Babrius and Phaedrus, written respectively in the 1st + century before, and in the 1st century after, the Christian era, also + contain Jataka stories known in India in the 4th century B.C. A great + deal has been written on this curious question of the migration of + fables. But we are still very far from being able to trace the + complete history of each story in the Jataka book, or in any one of + the later collections. For India itself the record is most incomplete. + We have the original Jataka book in text and translation. The history + of the text of the Pancha tantra, about a thousand years later, has + been fairly well traced out. But for the intervening centuries + scarcely anything has been done. There are illustrations, in the + bas-reliefs of the 3rd century B.C., of Jatakas not contained in the + Jataka book. Another collection, the _Cariyâ pitaka_, of about the + same date, has been edited, but not translated. Other collections both + in Pali and Sanskrit are known to be extant in MS; and a large number + of Jataka stories, not included in any formal collection, are + mentioned, or told in full, in other works. + + AUTHORITIES.--V. Fausböll, _The Jataka_, Pali text (7 vols., London, + 1877-1897), (Eng. trans., edited by E. B. Cowell, 6 vols., Cambridge, + 1895-1907); _Cariyâ pitaka_, edited by R. Morris for the Pali Text + Society (London, 1882); H. Kern, _Jataka-mala_, Sanskrit text + (Cambridge, Mass., 1891), (Eng. trans. by J. S. Speyer, Oxford, 1895); + Rhys Davids, _Buddhist Birth Stories_ (with full bibliographical + tables) (London, 1880); _Buddhist India_ (chap. xi. on the Jataka + Book) (London, 1903); E. Kuhn, _Barlaam und Joasaph_ (Munich, 1893); + A. Cunningham, _The Stupa of Bharhut_ (London, 1879). (T. W. R. D.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A complete list of these inscriptions will be found in Rhys + Davids's _Buddhist India_, p. 209. + + + + +JATH, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay, ranking +as one of the southern Mahratta jagirs. With the small state of +Daphlapur, which is an integral part of it, it forms the Bijapur Agency, +under the collector of Bijapur district. Area, including Daphlapur, 980 +sq. m. Pop. (1901), 68,665, showing a decline of 14% in the decade. +Estimated revenue £24,000; tribute £700. Agriculture and cattle-breeding +are carried on; there are no important manufactures. The chief, whose +title is deshmukh, is a Mahratta of the Daphle family. The town of JATH +is 92 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. (1901), 5404. + + + + +JÁTIVA (formerly written XATIVA), or SAN FELIPE DE JÁTIVA, a town of +eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia, on the right bank of the +river Albaida, a tributary of the Júcar, and at the junction of the +Valencia-Murcia and Valencia-Albacete railways. Pop. (1900), 12,600. +Játiva is built on the margin of a fertile and beautiful plain, and on +the southern slopes of the Monte Bernisa, a hill with two peaks, each +surmounted by a castle. With its numerous fountains, and spacious +avenues shaded with elms or cypresses, the town has a clean and +attractive appearance. Its collegiate church, dating from 1414, but +rebuilt about a century later in the Renaissance style, was formerly a +cathedral, and is the chief among many churches and convents. The +town-hall and a church on the castle hill are partly constructed of +inscribed Roman masonry, and several houses date from the Moorish +occupation. There is a brisk local trade in grain, fruit, wine, oil and +rice. + +Játiva was the Roman Saetabis, afterwards Valeria Augusta, of +Carthaginian or Iberian origin. Pliny (23-79) and Martial (c. 40-102) +mention the excellence of its linen cloth. Under the Visigoths (c. +483-711) it became an episcopal see; but early in the 8th century it was +captured by the Moors, under whom it attained great prosperity, and +received its present name. It was reconquered by James I. of Aragon +(1213-1276). During the 15th and 16th centuries, Játiva was the home of +many members of the princely house of Borgia or Borja, who migrated +hither from the town of Borja in the province of Saragossa. Alphonso +Borgia, afterwards Pope Calixtus III., and Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards +Pope Alexander VI., were natives of Játiva, born respectively in 1378 +and 1431. The painter Jusepe Ribera was also born here in 1588. Owing to +its gallant defence against the troops of the Archduke Charles in the +war of the Spanish succession, Játiva received the additional name of +San Felipe from Philip V. (1700-1746). + + + + +JATS, or JUTS, a people of north-western India, who numbered altogether +more than 7 millions in 1901. They form a considerable proportion of the +population in the Punjab, Rajputana and the adjoining districts of the +United Provinces, and are also widely scattered through Sind and +Baluchistan. Some writers have identified the Juts with the ancient +Getae, and there is strong reason to believe them a degraded tribe of +Rajputs, whose Scythic origin has also been maintained. Hindu legends +point to a prehistoric occupation of the Indus valley by this people, +and at the time of the Mahommedan conquest of Sind (712) they, with a +cognate tribe called Meds, constituted the bulk of the population. They +enlisted under the banner of Mahommed bin Kasim, but at a later date +offered a vigorous resistance to the Arab invaders. In 836 they were +overthrown by Amran, who imposed on them a tribute of dogs, and used +their arms to vanquish the Meds. In 1025, however, they had gathered +audacity, not only to invade Mansura, and compel the abjuration of the +Mussulman amir, but to attack the victorious army of Mahmud, laden with +the spoil of Somnath. Chastisement duly ensued: a formidable flotilla, +collected at Multan, shattered in thousands the comparatively +defenceless Jat boats on the Indus, and annihilated their national +pretensions. It is not until the decay of the Mogul Empire that the Jats +again appear in history. One branch of them, settled south of Agra, +mainly by bold plundering raids founded two dynasties which still exist +at Bharatpur (q.v.) and Dholpur (q.v.). Another branch, settled +north-west of Delhi, who adopted the Sikh religion, ultimately made +themselves dominant throughout the Punjab (q.v.) under Ranjit Singh, and +are now represented in their original home by the Phulkian houses of +Patiala (q.v.), Jind (q.v.) and Nabha (q.v.). It is from this latter +branch that the Sikh regiments of the Indian army are recruited. The +Jats are mainly agriculturists and cattle breeders. In their settlements +on the Ganges and Jumna, extending as far east as Bareilly, they are +divided into two great clans, the Dhe and the Hele; while in the Punjab +there are said to be one hundred different sections. Their religion +varies with locality. In the Punjab they have largely embraced Sikh +tenets, while in Sind and Baluchistan they are Mahommedans. In +appearance they are not ill-favoured though extremely dark; they have +good teeth, and large beards, sometimes stained with indigo. Their +inferiority of social position, however, to some extent betrays itself +in their aspect, and tends to be perpetuated by their intellectual +apathy. + + + + +JAUBERT, PIERRE AMÉDÉE ÉMILIEN PROBE (1779-1847), French Orientalist, +was born at Aix in Provence on the 3rd of June 1779. He was one of the +most distinguished pupils of Silvestre de Sacy, whose funeral _Discours_ +he pronounced in 1838. Jaubert acted as interpreter to Napoleon in Egypt +in 1798-1799, and on his return to Paris held various posts under +government. In 1802 he accompanied Sebastiani on his Eastern mission; +and in 1804 he was at Constantinople. Next year he was despatched to +Persia to arrange an alliance with the shah; but on the way he was +seized and imprisoned in a dry cistern for four months by the pasha of +Bayazid. The pasha's death freed Jaubert, who successfully accomplished +his mission, and rejoined Napoleon at Warsaw in 1807. On the eve of +Napoleon's downfall he was appointed chargé d'affaires at +Constantinople. The restoration ended his diplomatic career, but in 1818 +he undertook a journey with government aid to Tibet, whence he succeeded +in introducing into France 400 Kashmir goats. The rest of his life +Jaubert spent in study, in writing and in teaching. He became professor +of Persian in the collège de France, and director of the école des +langues orientales, and in 1830 was elected member of the Académie des +Inscriptions. In 1841 he was made a peer of France and councillor of +state. He died in Paris on the 28th of January, 1847. + + Besides articles in the _Journal asiatique_, he published _Voyage en + Arménie et en Perse_ (1821; the edition of 1860 has a notice of + Jaubert, by M. Sédillot) and _Éléments de la grammaire turque_ + (1823-1834). See notices in the _Journal asiatique_, Jan. 1847, and + the _Journal des débats_, Jan. 30, 1847. + + + + +JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANÇOIS, MARQUIS DE (1757-1852), French politician, +was born on the 14th of November 1757 at Tournon (Seine-et-Marne) of a +Protestant family, protected by the prince de Condé, whose regiment he +entered. He adopted revolutionary ideas and became colonel of his +regiment. In the Assembly, to which he was returned in 1791 by the +department of Seine-et-Marne, he voted generally with the minority, and +his views being obviously too moderate for his colleagues he resigned in +1792 and was soon after arrested on suspicion of being a reactionary. +Mme de Staël procured his release from P. L. Manuel just before the +September massacres. He accompanied Talleyrand on his mission to +England, returning to France after the execution of Louis XVI. He lived +in retirement until the establishment of the Consulate, when he entered +the tribunate, of which he was for some time president. In 1803 he +entered the senate, and next year became attached to the household of +Joseph Bonaparte. Presently his imperialist views cooled, and at the +Restoration he became minister of state and a peer of France. At the +second Restoration he was for a brief period minister of marine, but +held no further office. He devoted himself to the support of the +Protestant interest in France. A member of the upper house throughout +the reign of Louis Philippe, he was driven into private life by the +establishment of the Second Republic, but lived to see the _Coup d'état_ +and to rally to the government of Louis Napoleon, dying in Paris on the +5th of February 1852. + + + + +JAUER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 13 m. by +rail S. of Leignitz, on the Wüthende Neisse. Pop. (1900), 13,024. St +Martin's (Roman Catholic) church dates from 1267-1290, and the +Evangelical church from 1655. A new town-hall was erected in 1895-1898. +Jauer manufactures leather, carpets, cigars, carriages and gloves, and +is specially famous for its sausages. The town was first mentioned in +1242, and was formerly the capital of a principality embracing about +1200 sq. m., now occupied by the circles of Jauer, Bunzlau, Löweberg, +Hirschberg and Schönau. From 1392 to 1741 it belonged to the kings of +Bohemia, being taken from Maria Theresa by Frederick the Great. Jauer +was formerly the prosperous seat of the Silesian linen trade, but the +troubles of the Thirty Years' War, in the course of which it was burned +down three times, permanently injured this. + + See Schönaich, _Die alte Fürstentumshauptstadt Jauer_ (Jauer, 1903). + + + + +JAUHARI (ABU NASR ISMA^EIL IBN HAMMAD UL-JAUHARI) (d. 1002 or 1010), +Arabian lexicographer, was born at Farab on the borders of Turkestan. He +studied language in Farab and Bagdad, and later among the Arabs of the +desert. He then settled in Damghan and afterwards at Nishapur, where he +died by a fall from the roof of a house. His great work is the _Kitab +us-Sahah fil-Lugha_, an Arabic dictionary, in which the words are +arranged alphabetically according to the last letter of the root. He +himself had only partially finished the last recension, but the work was +completed by his pupil, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Salih ul-Warraq. + + An edition was begun by E. Scheidius with a Latin translation, but one + part only appeared at Harderwijk (1776). The whole has been published + at Tebriz (1854) and at Cairo (1865), and many abridgments and Persian + translations have appeared; cf. C. Brockelmann, _Geschichte der + arabischen Literatur_ (Weimar, 1898), i. 128 seq. (G. W. T.) + + + + +JAUNDICE (Fr. _jaunisse_, from _jaune_, yellow), or ICTERUS (from its +resemblance to the colour of the golden oriole, of which Pliny relates +that if a jaundiced person looks upon it he recovers but the bird dies), +a term in medicine applied to a yellow coloration of the skin and other +parts of the body, depending in most instances on some derangement +affecting the liver. This yellow colour is due to the presence in the +blood of bile or of some of the elements of that secretion. Jaundice, +however, must be regarded more as a symptom of some morbid condition +previously existing than as a disease _per se_. + +Cases with jaundice may be divided into three groups. + +1. _Obstructive Jaundice._--Any obstruction of the passage of bile from +the liver into the intestinal canal is sooner or later followed by the +appearance of jaundice, which in such circumstances is due to the +absorption of bile into the blood. The obstruction is due to one of the +following causes: (1) Obstruction by foreign bodies within the bile +duct, e.g. gallstones or parasites; (2) inflammation of the duodenum or +the lining membrane of the duct; (3) stricture or obliteration of the +duct; (4) a tumour growing from the duct; (5) pressure on the duct from +without, from the liver or other organ, or tumours arising from them. +Obstructions from these causes may be partial or complete, and the +degree of jaundice will vary accordingly, but it is to be noted that +extensive organic disease of the liver may exist without the evidence of +obstructive jaundice. + +The effect upon the liver of impediments to the outflow of bile such as +those above indicated is in the first place an increase in its size, the +whole biliary passages and the liver cells being distended with retained +bile. This enlargement, however, speedily subsides when the obstruction +is removed, but should it persist the liver ultimately shrinks and +undergoes atrophy in its whole texture. The bile thus retained is +absorbed into the system, and shows itself by the yellow staining seen +to a greater or less extent in all the tissues and many of the fluids of +the body. The kidneys, which in such circumstances act in some measure +vicariously to the liver and excrete a portion of the retained bile, +are apt to become affected in their structure by the long continuance of +jaundice. + +The symptoms of obstructive jaundice necessarily vary according to the +nature of the exciting cause, but there generally exists evidence of +some morbid condition before the yellow coloration appears. Thus, if the +obstruction be due to an impacted gallstone in the common or hepatic +duct, there will probably be the symptoms of intense suffering +characterizing hepatic colic (see COLIC). In the cases most frequently +seen--those, namely, arising from simple catarrh of the bile ducts due +to gastro-duodenal irritation spreading through the common duct--the +first sign to attract attention is the yellow appearance of the white of +the eye, which is speedily followed by a similar colour on the skin over +the body generally. The yellow tinge is most distinct where the skin is +thin, as on the forehead, breast, elbows, &c. It may be also well seen +in the roof of the mouth, but in the lips and gums the colour is not +observed till the blood is first pressed from them. The tint varies, +being in the milder cases faint, in the more severe a deep saffron +yellow, while in extreme degrees of obstruction it may be of dark brown +or greenish hue. The colour can scarcely, if at all, be observed in +artificial light. + +The urine exhibits well marked and characteristic changes in jaundice +which exist even before any evidence can be detected on the skin or +elsewhere. It is always of dark brown colour resembling porter, but +after standing in the air it acquires a greenish tint. Its froth is +greenish-yellow, and it stains with this colour any white substance. It +contains not only the bile colouring matter but also the bile acids. The +former is detected by the play of colours yielded on the addition of +nitric acid, the latter by the purple colour, produced by placing a +piece of lump sugar in the urine tested, and adding thereto a few drops +of strong sulphuric acid. + +The contents of the bowels also undergo changes, being characterized +chiefly by their pale clay colour, which is in proportion to the amount +of hepatic obstruction, and to their consequent want of admixture with +bile. For the same reason they contain a large amount of unabsorbed +fatty matter, and have an extremely offensive odour. + +Constitutional symptoms always attend jaundice with obstruction. The +patient becomes languid, drowsy and irritable, and has generally a slow +pulse. The appetite is usually but not always diminished, a bitter taste +in the mouth is complained of, while flatulent eructations arise from +the stomach. Intolerable itching of the skin is a common accompaniment +of jaundice, and cutaneous eruptions or boils are occasionally seen. +Yellow vision appears to be present in some very rare cases. Should the +jaundice depend on advancing organic disease of the liver, such as +cancer, the tinge becomes gradually deeper, and the emaciation and +debility more marked towards the fatal termination, which in such cases +is seldom long postponed. Apart from this, however, jaundice from +obstruction may exist for many years, as in those instances where the +walls of the bile ducts are thickened from chronic catarrh, but where +they are only partially occluded. In the common cases of acute catarrhal +jaundice recovery usually takes place in two or three weeks. + +The treatment of this form of jaundice bears reference to the cause +giving rise to the obstruction. In the ordinary cases of simple +catarrhal jaundice, or that following the passing of gallstones, a light +nutritious diet (milk, soups, &c., avoiding saccharine and farinaceous +substances and alcoholic stimulants), along with counter-irritation +applied over the right side and the use of laxatives and cholagogues, +will be found to be advantageous. Diaphoretics and diuretics to promote +the action of the skin and kidneys are useful in jaundice. In the more +chronic forms, besides the remedies above named, the waters of Carlsbad +are of special efficacy. In cases other than acute catarrhal, operative +interference is often called for, to remove the gallstones, tumour, &c., +causing the obstruction. + +2. _Toxaemic Jaundice_ is observed to occur as a symptom in certain +fevers, e.g. yellow fever, ague, and in pyaemia also as the effect of +certain poisons, such as phosphorus, and the venom of snake-bites. +Jaundice of this kind is almost always slight, and neither the urine nor +the discharges from the bowels exhibit changes in appearance to such a +degree as in the obstructive variety. Grave constitutional symptoms are +often present, but they are less to be ascribed to the jaundice than to +the disease with which it is associated. + +3. _Hereditary Jaundice._--Under this group there are the jaundice of +new-born infants, which varies enormously in severity; the cases in +which a slight form of jaundice obtains in several members of the same +family, without other symptoms, and which may persist for years; and +lastly the group of cases with hypertrophic cirrhosis. + + The name _malignant jaundice_ is sometimes applied to that very fatal + form of disease otherwise termed acute yellow atrophy of the liver + (see ATROPHY). + + + + +JAUNPUR, a city and district of British India, in the Benares division +of the United Provinces. The city is on the left bank of the river +Gumti, 34 m. N.W. from Benares by rail. Pop. (1901), 42,771. Jaunpur is +a very ancient city, the former capital of a Mahommedan kingdom which +once extended from Budaun and Etawah to Behar. It abounds in splendid +architectural monuments, most of which belong to the period when the +rulers of Jaunpur were independent of Delhi. The fort of Feroz Shah is +in great part completely ruined, but there remain a fine gateway of the +16th century, a mosque dating from 1376, and the _hammams_ or baths of +Ibrahim Shah. Among other buildings may be mentioned the Atala Masjid +(1408) and the ruined Jinjiri Masjid, mosques built by Ibrahim, the +first of which has a great cloistered court and a magnificent façade; +the Dariba mosque constructed by two of Ibrahim's governors; the Lal +Darwaza erected by the queen of Mahmud; the Jama Masjid (1438-1478) or +great mosque of Husain, with court and cloisters, standing on a raised +terrace, and in part restored in modern times; and finally the splendid +bridge over the Gumti, erected by Munim Khan, Mogul governor in +1569-1573. During the Mutiny of 1857 Jaunpur formed a centre of +disaffection. The city has now lost its importance, the only industries +surviving being the manufacture of perfumes and papier-mâché articles. + +The DISTRICT OF JAUNPUR has an area of 1551 sq. m. It forms part of the +wide Gangetic plain, and its surface is accordingly composed of a thick +alluvial deposit. The whole country is closely tilled, and no waste +lands break the continuous prospect of cultivated fields. It is divided +into two unequal parts by the sinuous channel of the Gumti, a tributary +of the Ganges, which flows past the city of Jaunpur. Its total course +within the district is about 90 m., and it is nowhere fordable. It is +crossed by two bridges, one at Jaunpur and the other 2 m. lower down. +The Gumti is liable to sudden inundations during the rainy season, owing +to the high banks it has piled up at its entrance into the Ganges, which +act as dams to prevent the prompt outflow of its flooded waters. These +inundations extend to its tributary the Sai. Much damage was thus +effected in 1774; but the greatest recorded flood took place in +September 1871, when 4000 houses in the city were swept away, besides +9000 more in villages along its banks. The other rivers are the Sai, +Barna, Pili and Basohi. Lakes are numerous in the north and south; the +largest has a length of 8 m. Pop. (1901), 1,202,920, showing a decrease +of 5% in the decade. Sugar-refining is the principal industry. The +district is served by the line of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway from +Benares to Fyzabad, and by branches of this and of the Bengal & +North-Western systems. + +In prehistoric times Jaunpur seems to have formed a portion of the +Ajodhya principality, and when it first makes an appearance in authentic +history it was subject to the rulers of Benares. With the rest of their +dominions it fell under the yoke of the Mussulman invaders in 1194. From +that time the district appears to have been ruled by a prince of the +Kanauj dynasty, as a tributary of the Mahommedan suzerain. In 1388 Malik +Sarwar Khwaja was sent by Mahommed Tughlak to govern the eastern +province. He fixed his residence at Jaunpur, made himself independent of +the Delhi court, and assumed the title of Sultan-us-Shark, or "eastern +emperor." For nearly a century the Sharki dynasty ruled at Jaunpur, and +proved formidable rivals to the sovereigns of Delhi. The last of the +dynasty was Sultan Husain, who passed his life in a fierce and chequered +struggle for supremacy with Bahlol Lodi, then actual emperor at Delhi. +At length, in 1478, Bahlol succeeded in defeating his rival in a series +of decisive engagements. He took the city of Jaunpur, but permitted the +conquered Husain to reside there, and to complete the building of his +great mosque, the Jama Masjid, which now forms the chief ornament of the +town. Many other architectural works in the district still bear witness +to its greatness under its independent Mussulman rulers. In 1775 the +district was made over to the British by the Treaty of Lucknow. From +that time nothing occurred which calls for notice till the Mutiny. On +the 5th of June 1857, when the news of the Benares revolt reached +Jaunpur, the sepoys mutinied. The district continued in a state of +complete anarchy till the arrival of the Gurkha force from Azamgarh in +September. In November the surrounding country was lost again, and it +was not till May 1858 that the last smouldering embers of disaffection +were stifled by the repulse of the insurgent leader at the hands of the +people themselves. + + See A. Führer, _The Shargi Architecture of Jaunpur_ (1889). + + + + +JAUNTING-CAR, a light two-wheeled carriage for a single horse, in its +commonest form with seats for four persons placed back to back, with the +foot-boards projecting over the wheels. It is the typical conveyance for +persons in Ireland (see CAR). The first part of the word is generally +taken to be identical with the verb "to jaunt," now only used in the +sense of to go on a short pleasure excursion, but in its earliest uses +meaning to make a horse caracole or prance, hence to jolt or bump up and +down. It would apparently be a variant of "jaunce," of the same meaning, +which is supposed to be taken from O. Fr. _jancer_. Skeat takes the +origin of jaunt and jaunce to be Scandinavian, and connects them with +the Swedish dialect word _ganta_, to romp; and he finds cognate bases in +such words as "jump," "high jinks." The word "jaunty," sprightly, +especially used of anything done with an easy nonchalant air, is a +corruption of "janty," due to confusion with "jaunt." "Janty," often +spelt in the 17th and 18th centuries "janté" or "jantee," represents the +English pronunciation of Fr. _gentil_, well-bred, neat, spruce. + + + + +JAUREGUI, JUAN (1562-1582), a Biscayan by birth, was in 1582 in the +service of a Spanish merchant, Gaspar d'Anastro, who was resident at +Antwerp. Tempted by the reward of 80,000 ducats offered by Philip II. of +Spain for the assassination of William the Silent, prince of Orange, but +being himself without courage to undertake the task, d'Anastro, with the +help of his cashier Venero, persuaded Jauregui to attempt the murder for +the sum of 2877 crowns. On Sunday the 18th of March 1582, as the prince +came out of his dining-room Jauregui offered him a petition, and William +had no sooner taken it into his hand than Jauregui fired a pistol at his +head. The ball pierced the neck below the right ear and passed out at +the left jaw-bone; but William ultimately recovered. The assassin was +killed on the spot. + + + + +JAURÉGUIBERRY, JEAN BERNARD (1815-1887), French admiral, was born at +Bayonne on the 26th of August 1815. He entered the navy in 1831, was +made a lieutenant in 1845, commander in 1856, and captain in 1860. After +serving in the Crimea and in China, and being governor of Senegal, he +was promoted to rear-admiral in 1869. He served on land during the +second part of the Franco-German War of 1870-71, in the rank of +auxiliary general of division. He was present at Coulmiers, Villépion +and Loigny-Poupry, in command of a division, and in Chanzy's retreat +upon Le Mans and the battle at that place in command of a corps. He was +the most distinguished of the many naval officers who did good service +in the military operations. On the 9th of December he had been made +vice-admiral, and in 1871 he commanded the fleet at Toulon; in 1875 he +was a member of the council of admiralty; and in October 1876 he was +appointed to command the evolutionary squadron in the Mediterranean. In +February 1879 he became minister of the navy in the Waddington cabinet, +and on the 27th of May following was elected a senator for life. He was +again minister of the navy in the Freycinet cabinet in 1880. A fine +example of the fighting French seaman of his time, Jauréguiberry died at +Paris on the 21st of October 1887. + + + + +JÁUREGUI Y AGUILAR, JUAN MARTÍNEZ DE (1583-1641), Spanish poet, was +baptized at Seville on the 24th of November 1583. In due course he +studied at Rome, returning to Spain shortly before 1610 with a double +reputation as a painter and a poet. A reference in the preface to the +_Novelas exemplares_ has been taken to mean that he painted the portrait +of Cervantes, who, in the second part of _Don Quixote_, praises the +translation of Tasso's _Aminta_ published at Rome in 1607. Jáuregui's +_Rimas_ (1618), a collection of graceful lyrics, is preceded by a +controversial preface which attracted much attention on account of its +outspoken declaration against _culteranismo_. Through the influence of +Olivares, he was appointed groom of the chamber to Philip IV., and gave +an elaborate exposition of his artistic doctrines in the _Discurso +poético contra el hablar culto y oscuro_ (1624), a skilful attack on the +new theories, which procured for its author the order of Calatrava. It +is plain, however, that the shock of controversy had shaken Jáuregui's +convictions, and his poem _Orfeo_ (1624) is visibly influenced by +Góngora. Jáuregui died at Madrid on the 11th of January 1641, leaving +behind him a translation of the _Pharsalia_ which was not published till +1684. This rendering reveals Jáuregui as a complete convert to the new +school, and it has been argued that, exaggerating the affinities between +Lucan and Góngora--both of Cordovan descent--he deliberately translated +the thought of the earlier poet into the vocabulary of the later master. +This is possible; but it is at least as likely that Jáuregui +unconsciously yielded to the current of popular taste, with no other +intention than that of conciliating the public of his own day. + + + + +JAURÈS, JEAN LÉON (1859- ), French Socialist leader, was born at +Castres (Tarn) on the 3rd of September 1859. He was educated at the +lycée Louis-le-Grand and the école normale supérieure, and took his +degree as associate in philosophy in 1881. After teaching philosophy for +two years at the lycée of Albi (Tarn), he lectured at the university of +Toulouse. He was elected republican deputy for the department of Tarn in +1885. In 1889, after unsuccessfully contesting Castres, he returned to +his professional duties at Toulouse, where he took an active interest in +municipal affairs, and helped to found the medical faculty of the +university. He also prepared two theses for his doctorate in philosophy, +_De primis socialismi germanici lineamentis apud Lutherum, Kant, Fichte +et Hegel_ (1891), and _De la réalité du monde sensible_. In 1902 he gave +energetic support to the miners of Carmaux who went out on strike in +consequence of the dismissal of a socialist workman, Calvignac; and in +the next year he was re-elected to the chamber as deputy for Albi. +Although he was defeated at the elections of 1898 and was for four years +outside the chamber, his eloquent speeches made him a force in politics +as an intellectual champion of socialism. He edited the _Petite +République_, and was one of the most energetic defenders of Captain +Alfred Dreyfus. He approved of the inclusion of M. Millerand, the +socialist, in the Waldeck-Rousseau ministry, though this led to a split +with the more revolutionary section led by M. Guesde. In 1902 he was +again returned as deputy for Albi, and during the Combes administration +his influence secured the coherence of the radical-socialist coalition +known as the _bloc_. In 1904 he founded the socialist paper, +_L'Humanité_. The French socialist groups held a congress at Rouen in +March 1905, which resulted in a new consolidation; the new party, headed +by MM. Jaurès and Guesde, ceased to co-operate with the radicals and +radical-socialists, and became known as the unified socialists, pledged +to advance a collectivist programme. At the general elections of 1906 M. +Jaurès was again elected for the Tarn. His ability and vigour were now +generally recognized; but the strength of the socialist party, and the +practical activity of its leader, still had to reckon with the equally +practical and vigorous liberalism of M. Clemenceau. The latter was able +to appeal to his countrymen (in a notable speech in the spring of 1906) +to rally to a radical programme which had no socialist Utopia in view; +and the appearance in him of a strong and practical radical leader had +the result of considerably diminishing the effect of the socialist +propaganda. M. Jaurès, in addition to his daily journalistic activity, +published _Les preuves; affaire Dreyfus_ (1900); _Action socialiste_ +(1899); _Études socialistes_ (1902), and, with other collaborators, +_Histoire socialiste_ (1901), &c. + + + + +JAVA, one of the larger islands of that portion of the Malay Archipelago +which is distinguished as the Sunda Islands. It lies between 105° 12´ +40´´ (St Nicholas Point) and 114° 35´ 38´´ E. (Cape Seloko) and between +5° 52´ 34´´ and 8° 46´ 46´´ S. It has a total length of 622 m. from +Pepper Bay in the west to Banyuwangi in the east, and an extreme breadth +of 121 m. from Cape Bugel in Japara to the coast of Jokjakarta, +narrowing towards the middle to about 55 m. Politically and commercially +it is important as the seat of the colonial government of the Dutch East +Indies, all other parts of the Dutch territory being distinguished as +the Outer Possessions (_Buitenbezittungens_). According to the +triangulation survey (report published in 1901) the area of Java proper +is 48,504 sq. m.; of Madura, the large adjacent and associated island, +1732; and of the smaller islands administratively included with Java and +Madura 1416, thus making a total of 50,970 sq. m. The more important of +these islands are the following: Pulau Panaitan or Princes Island +(_Prinseneiland_), 47 sq. m., lies in the Sunda Strait, off the +south-western peninsula of the main island, from which it is separated +by the Behouden Passage. The Thousand Islands are situated almost due N. +of Batavia. Of these five were inhabited in 1906 by about 1280 seafarers +from all parts and their descendants. The Karimon Java archipelago, to +the north of Semarang, numbers twenty-seven islands with an area of 16 +sq. m. and a population of about 800 (having one considerable village on +the main island). Bavian[1] (Bawian), 100 m. N. of Surabaya, is a ruined +volcano with an area of 73 sq. m. and a population of about 44,000. +About a third of the men are generally absent as traders or coolies. In +Singapore and Sumatra they are known as Boyans. They are devout +Mahommedans and many of them make the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Sapudi +and Kangean archipelagoes are eastward continuations of Madura. The +former, thirteen in all, with an area of 58 sq. m. and 53,000 +inhabitants, export cattle, dried fish and trepang; and many of the male +population work as day labourers in Java or as lumbermen in Sumbawa, +Flores, &c. The main island of the Kangians has an area of 19 sq. m.; +the whole group 23 sq. m. It is best known for its limestone caves and +its buffaloes. Along the south coast the islands are few and +small--Klapper or Deli, Trouwers or Tingal, Nusa Kembangan, Sempu and +Nusa Barung. + +[Illustration: Map of Java.] + +From Sumatra on the W., Java is separated by the Sunda Strait, which at +the narrowest is only 14 m. broad, but widens elsewhere to about 50 m. +On the E. the strait of Bali, which parts it from the island of that +name, is at the northern end not more than 1½ m. across. Through the +former strong currents run for the greater part of the day throughout +the year, outwards from the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean. In the strait +of Bali the currents are perhaps even stronger and are extremely +irregular. Pilots with local knowledge are absolutely necessary for +vessels attempting either passage. In spite of the strength of the +currents the Sunda Strait is steadily being diminished in width, and the +process if continued must result in a restoration of that junction of +Sumatra and Java which according to some authorities formerly +existed.[2] + +In general terms Java may be described as one of the breakwater islands +of the Indian Ocean--part of the mountainous rim (continuous more or +less completely with Sumatra) of the partially submerged plateau which +lies between the ocean on the S. and the Chinese Sea on the N., and has +the massive island of Borneo as its chief subaerial portion. While the +waves and currents of the ocean sweep away most of the products of +denudation along the south coast or throw a small percentage back in the +shape of sandy downs, the Java Sea on the north--not more than 50 +fathoms deep--allows them to settle and to form sometimes with +extraordinary rapidity broad alluvial tracts.[3] + + It is customary and obvious to divide Java into three divisions, the + middle part of the island narrowing into a kind of isthmus, and each + of the divisions thus indicated having certain structural + characteristics of its own. West Java, which consists of Bantam, + Krawang and the Preanger Regencies, has an area of upwards of 18,000 + sq. m. In this division the highlands lie for the most part in a + compact mass to the south and the lowlands form a continuous tract to + the north. The main portion of the uplands consists of the Preanger + Mountains, with the plateaus of Bandong, Pekalongan, Tegal, Badung and + Gurut, encircled with volcanic summits. On the borders of the + Preanger, Batavia and Bantam are the Halimon Mountains (the Blue + Mountains of the older travellers), reaching their greatest altitudes + in the volcanic summits of Gedeh and Salak. To the west lie the + highlands of Bantam, which extending northward cut off the northern + lowlands from the Sunda Strait. Middle Java is the smallest of the + three divisions, having an area of not much more than 13,200 sq. m. It + comprises Tegal, Pekalongan, Banyumas, Bagelen, Kedu, Jokjakarta, + Surakarta, and thus not only takes in the whole of the isthmus but + encroaches on the broad eastern portion of the island. In the isthmus + mountains are not so closely massed in the south nor the plains so + continuous on the north. The watershed culminating in Slamet lies + almost midway between the ocean and the Java Sea, and there are + somewhat extensive lowlands in the south. In that part of middle Java + which physically belongs to eastern Java there is a remarkable series + of lowlands stretching almost right across the island from Semarang in + the north to Jokjakarta in the south. Eastern Java comprises Rembang, + Madiun, Kediri, Surabaya, Pasuruan and Besuki, and has an area of + about 17,500 sq. m. In this division lowlands and highlands are + intermingled in endless variety except along the south coast, where + the watershed-range forms a continuous breakwater from Jokjakarta to + Besuki. The volcanic eminences, instead of rising in lines or groups, + are isolated. + + For its area Java is one of the most distinctly volcanic regions of + the world. Volcanic forces made it, and volcanic forces have continued + to devastate and fertilize it. According to R. D. M. Verbeek about 125 + volcanic centres can be distinguished, a number which may be increased + or diminished by different methods of classification. It is usual to + arrange the volcanoes in the following groups: westernmost Java 11 + (all extinct); Preanger 50 (5 active); Cheribon 2 (both extinct); + Slamet 2 (1 active); middle Java 16 (2 active); Murio 2 (both + extinct); Lavu 2 (extinct); Wilis 2 (extinct); east Java 21 (5 + active). The active volcanoes of the present time are Gedeh, + Tangkuban, Prahu, Gutar, Papandayan, Galung-gung, Slamet, Sendor, + Merapi,[4] Kalut (or Klut), Bromo, Semeru, Lamongan, Raung, but the + activity of many of these is trifling, consisting of slight ejections + of steam and scoriae. + + The plains differ in surface and fertility, according to their + geological formation. Built up of alluvium and diluvium, the plains of + the north coast-lands in western and middle Java are at their lowest + levels, near the mouths of rivers and the sea, in many cases marshy + and abounding in lakes and coral remains, but for the rest they are + fertile and available for culture. The plains, too, along the south + coast of middle Java--of Banyumas and Bagelen--contain many morasses + as well as sandy stretches and dunes impeding the outlet of the + rivers. They are, nevertheless, available for the cultivation more + particularly of rice, and are thickly peopled. In eastern Java, again, + the narrow coast plains are to be distinguished from the wider plains + lying between the parallel chains of limestone and between the + volcanoes. The narrow plains of the north coast are constituted of + yellow clay and tuffs containing chalk, washed down by the rivers from + the mountain chains and volcanoes. Like the western plains, they, too, + are in many cases low and marshy, and fringed with sand and dunes. The + plains, on the other hand, at some distance from the sea, or lying in + the interior of eastern Java, such as Surakarta, Madiun, Kediri, + Pasuruan, Probolinggo and Besuki, owe their formation to the volcanoes + at whose bases they lie, occupying levels as high as 1640 ft. down to + 328 ft. above the sea, whence they decline to the lower plains of the + coast. Lastly, the plains of Lusi, Solo and Brantas, lying between the + parallel chains in Japara, Rembang and Surabaya, are in part the + product of rivers formerly flowing at a higher level of 30 to 60 or 70 + ft., in part the product of the sea, dating from a time when the + northern part of the above-named residencies was an island, such as + Madura, the mountains of which are the continuation of the north + parallel chain, is still. + + The considerable rivers of western Java all have their outlets on the + north coast, the chief among them being the Chi (Dutch Tji) Tarum and + the Chi Manuk. They are navigable for native boats and rafts, and are + used for the transport of coffee and salt. On the south coast the Chi + Tanduwi, on the east of the Preanger, is the only stream available as + a waterway, and this only for a few miles above its mouth. In middle + Java, also, the rivers discharging at the north coast--the Pamali, + Chomal, &c.--are serviceable for the purposes of irrigation and + cultivation, but are navigable only near their mouths. The rivers of + the south coast--Progo, Serayu, Bogowonto, and Upak, enriched by rills + from the volcanoes--serve abundantly to irrigate the plains of + Bagelen, Banyumas, &c. Their stony beds, shallows and rapids, and the + condition of their mouths lessen, however, their value as waterways. + More navigable are the larger rivers of eastern Java. The Solo is + navigable for large praus, or native boats, as far up as Surakarta, + and above that town for lighter boats, as is also its affluent the + Gentung. The canal constructed in 1893 at the lower part of this + river, and alterations effected at its mouth, have proved of important + service both in irrigating the plain and facilitating the river's + outlet into the sea. The Brantas is also navigable in several parts. + The smaller rivers of eastern Java are, however, much in the condition + of those of western Java. They serve less as waterways than as + reservoirs for the irrigation of the fertile plains through which they + flow. + + The north coast of Java presents everywhere a low strand covered with + nipa or mangrove, morasses and fishponds, sandy stretches and low + dunes, shifting river-mouths and coast-lines, ports and roads, + demanding continual attention and regulation. The south coast is of a + different make. The dunes of Banyumas, Bagelen, and Jokjakarta, ranged + in three ridges, rising to 50 ft. high, and varying in breadth from + 300 to over 1600 ft., liable, moreover, to transformation from tides + and the east monsoon, oppose everywhere, also in Preanger and Besuki, + a barrier to the discharge of the rivers and the drainage of the + coast-lands. They assist the formation of lagoons and morasses. At + intervals in the dune coast, running in the direction of the limestone + mountains, there tower up steep inaccessible masses of land, showing + neither ports nor bays, hollowed out by the sea, rising in + perpendicular walls to a height of 160 ft. above sea-level. Sometimes + two branches project at right angles from the chain on to the coast, + forming a low bay between the capes or ends of the projecting + branches, from 1000 to 1600 ft. high. Such a formation occurs + frequently along the coast of Besuki, presenting a very irregular + coast-line. Of course the north coast is of much greater commercial + importance than the south coast. + + _Geology._--With the exception of a few small patches of schist, + supposed to be Cretaceous, the whole island, so far as is known, is + covered by deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary age. The ancient + "schist formation," which occurs in Sumatra, Borneo, &c., does not + rise to the surface anywhere in Java itself, but it is visible in the + island of Karimon Java off the north coast. The Cretaceous schists + have yielded fossils only at Banjarnegara, where a limestone with + Orbitolina is interstratified with them. They are succeeded + unconformably by Eocene deposits, consisting of sandstones with + coal-seams and limestones containing Nummulites, Alveolina and + Orthophragmina; and these beds are as limited in extent as the + Cretaceous schists themselves. Sedimentary deposits of Upper Tertiary + age are widely spread, covering about 38% of the surface. They consist + of breccias, marls and limestones containing numerous fossils, and are + for the most part Miocene but probably include a part of the Pliocene + also. They were laid down beneath the sea, but have since been folded + and elevated to considerable heights. Fluviatile deposits of late + Pliocene age have been found in the east of Java, and it was in these + that the remarkable anthropoid ape or ape-like man, _Pithecanthropus + erectus_ of Dubois, was discovered. The Quaternary deposits lie + horizontally upon the upturned edges of the Tertiary beds. They are + partly marine and partly fluviatile, the marine deposits reaching to a + height of some 350 ft. above the sea and thus indicating a + considerable elevation of the island in recent times. + + The volcanic rocks of Java are of great importance and cover about 28% + of the island. The eruptions began in the middle of the Tertiary + period, but did not attain their maximum until Quaternary times, and + many of the volcanoes are still active. Most of the cones seem to lie + along faults parallel to the axis of the island, or on short cross + fractures. The lavas and ashes are almost everywhere andesites and + basalts, with a little obsidian. Some of the volcanoes, however, have + erupted leucite rocks. Similar rocks, together with phonolite, occur + in the island of Bavian.[5] + + _Climate._--Our knowledge of the climate of Batavia, and thus of that + of the lowlands of western Java, is almost perfect; but, rainfall + excepted, our information as to the climate of Java as a whole is + extremely defective. The dominant meteorological facts are simple and + obvious: Java lies in the tropics, under an almost vertical sun, and + thus has a day of almost uniform length throughout the year.[6] It is + also within the perpetual influence of the great atmospheric movements + passing between Asia and Australia; and is affected by the + neighbourhood of vast expanses of sea and land (Borneo and Sumatra). + There are no such maxima of temperature as are recorded from the + continents. The highest known at Batavia was 96° F. in 1877 and the + lowest 66° in the same year. The mean annual temperature is 79°. The + warmest months are May and October, registering 79.5° and 79.46° + respectively; the coldest January and February with 77.63° and 77.7° + respectively. The daily range is much greater; at one o'clock the + thermometer has a mean height of 84°; after two o'clock it declines to + about 73° at six o'clock; the greatest daily amplitude is in August + and the least in January and February. Eastern Java and the inland + plains of middle Java are said to be hotter, but scientific data are + few. A very slight degree of elevation above the seaboard plains + produces a remarkable difference in the climate, not so much in its + mere temperature as in its influence on health. The dwellers in the + coast towns are surprised at the invigorating effects of a change to + health resorts from 300 to 1200 ft. above sea-level; and at greater + elevations it may be uncomfortably cold at night, with chilly mists + and occasional frosts. The year is divided into two seasons by the + prevailing winds: the rainy season, that of the west monsoon, lasting + from November to March, and the dry season, that of the east monsoon, + during the rest of the year; the transition from one monsoon to + another--the "canting" of the monsoons--being marked by + irregularities. On the whole, the east monsoon blows steadily for a + longer period than the west. The velocity of the wind is much less + than in Europe--not more in the annual mean at Batavia than 3 ft. per + second, against 12 to 18 ft. in Europe. The highest velocity ever + observed at Batavia was 25 ft. Wind-storms are rare and hardly ever + cyclonic. There are as a matter of course a large number of purely + local winds, some of them of a very peculiar kind, but few of these + have been scientifically dealt with. Thunder-storms are extremely + frequent; but the loss of life from lightning is probably diminished + by the fact that the palm-trees are excellent conductors. At night the + air is almost invariably still. The average rainfall at Batavia is + 72.28 in. per annum, of which 51.49 in. are contributed by the west + monsoon. The amount varies considerably from year to year: in 1889, + 1891 and 1897 there were about 47.24 in.; in 1868 and 1877 nearly + 51.17, and in 1872 and 1882 no less than 94.8. There are no long + tracts of unbroken rainfall and no long periods of continuous drought. + The rainfall is heaviest in January, but it rains only for about + one-seventh of the time. Next in order come February, March and + December. August, the driest month, has from three to five days of + rain, though the amount is usually less than an inch and not more than + one and a half inches. The popular description of the rain falling not + in drops but streams was proved erroneous by J. Wiesner's careful + observations (see _Kais. Akad. d. Wiss. Math. Naturw. Cl._ Bd. xiv., + Vienna, 1895), which have been confirmed by A. Woeikof + ("Regensintensität und Regendauer in Batavia" in _Z. für Met._, 1907). + The greatest rainfall recorded in an hour (4.5 in.) is enormously + exceeded by records even in Europe. From observations taken for the + meteorological authorities at a very considerable number of stations, + J. H. Boeseken constructed a map in 1900 (_Tijdschr. v. h. Kon. Ned. + Aardr. Gen._, 1900; reproduced in Veth, _Java_, iii. 1903). Among the + outstanding facts are the following. The south coasts of both eastern + and middle Java have a much heavier rainfall than the north. Majalenka + has an annual fall of 175 in. In western Java the maximal district + consists of a great ring of mountains from Salak and Gedeh in the west + to Galung-gung in the east, while the enclosed plateau-region of + Chanjur Bandung and Garut are not much different from the seaboard. + The whole of middle Java, with the exception of the north coast, has a + heavy rainfall. At Chilachap the annual rainfall is 151.43 in., 87.8 + in. of which is brought by the south-east monsoon. The great belt + which includes the Slamet and the Dieng, and the country on the south + coast between Chilachap and Parigi, are maximal. In comparison the + whole of eastern Java, with the exception of the mountains from Wilis + eastward to Ijen, has a low record which reaches its lowest along the + north coast.[7] + + _Fauna._--In respect of its fauna Java differs from Borneo, Sumatra + and the Malay Peninsula far more than these differ among themselves; + and, at the same time, it shows a close resemblance to the Malay + Peninsula, on the one hand, and to the Himalayas on the other. Of the + 176 mammals of the whole Indo-Malayan region the greater number occur + in Java. Of these 41 are found on the continent of Asia, 8 are common + to Java and Borneo, and 6 are common to Java and Sumatra (see M. + Weber, _Das Indo-Malay Archipelago und die Geschichte seiner + Thierwelt_, Jena, 1902). No genus and only a few species are confined + to the island. Of the land-birds only a small proportion are peculiar. + The elephant, the tapir, the bear, and various other genera found in + the rest of the region are altogether absent. The Javanese rhinoceros + (_Rhinoceros sundaicus_; _sarak_ in Javanese, _badak_ in Sundanese), + the largest of the mammals on the island, differs from that of Sumatra + in having one horn instead of two. It ranges over the highest + mountains, and its regular paths, worn into deep channels, may be + traced up the steepest slopes and round the rims of even active + volcanoes. Two species of wild swine, _Sus vittatus_ and _Sus + verrucosus_, are exceedingly abundant, the former in the hot, the + latter in the temperate, region; and their depredations are the cause + of much loss to the natives, who, however, being Mahommedans, to whom + pork is abhorrent, do not hunt them for the sake of their flesh. Not + much less than the rhinoceros is the banteng (_Bibos banteng_ or + _sundaicus_) found in all the uninhabited districts between 2000 and + 7000 ft. of elevation. The kidang or muntjak (_Cervulus muntjac_) and + the rusa or russa (_Rusa hippelaphus_ or _Russa russa_) are the + representatives of the deer kind. The former is a delicate little + creature occurring singly or in pairs both in the mountains and in the + coast districts; the latter lives in herds of fifty to a hundred in + the grassy opens, giving excellent sport to the native hunters. + Another species (_Russa kuhlii_) exists in Bavian. The kantjil + (_Tragulus javanicus_) is a small creature allied to the musk-deer but + forming a genus by itself. It lives in the high woods, for the most + part singly, seldom in pairs. It is one of the most peculiar of the + Javanese mammals. The royal tiger, the same species as that of India, + is still common enough to make a tiger-hunt a characteristic Javanese + scene. The leopard (_Felis pardus_) is frequent in the warm regions + and often ascends to considerable altitudes. Black specimens + occasionally occur, but the spots are visible on inspection; and the + fact that in the Amsterdam zoological gardens a black leopard had one + of its cubs black and the other normally spotted shows that this is + only a case of melanism. In the tree-tops the birds find a dangerous + enemy in the matjan rembak, or wild cat (_Felis minuta_), about the + size of a common cat. The dog tribe is represented by the fox-like + adjag (_Cuon_ or _Canis sutilans_) which hunts in ferocious packs; and + by a wild dog, _Canis tenggeranus_, if this is not now exterminated. + The Cheiroptera hold a prominent place in the fauna, the principal + genera being _Pteropus_, _Cynonycteris_, _Cynopterus_ and + _Macroglossus_. Remarkable especially for size is the kalong, or + flying fox, _Pteropus edulis_, a fruit-eating bat, which may be seen + hanging during the day in black clusters asleep on the trees, and in + the evening hastening in long lines to the favourite feeding grounds + in the forest. The damage these do to the young coco-nut trees, the + maize and the sugar-palms leads the natives to snare and shoot them; + and their flesh is a favourite food with Europeans, who prefer to + shoot them by night as, if shot by day, they often cling after death + to the branches. Smaller kinds of bats are most abundant, perhaps the + commonest being _Scotophilus Temminckii_. In certain places they + congregate in myriads, like sea-fowl on the cliffs, and their + excrement produces extensive guano deposits utilized by the people of + Surakarta and Madiun. The creature known to the Europeans as the + flying-cat and to the natives as the kubin is the _Galeopithecus + volans_ or _variagatus_--a sort of transition from the bats to the + lemuroids. Of these last Java has several species held in awe by the + natives for their supposed power of fascination. The apes are + represented by the wou-wou (_Hylobates leuciscus_), the lutung, and + kowi (_Semnopithecus maurus_ and _pyrrhus_), the surili + (_Semnopithecus mitratus_), and the munyuk (_Cercocebus_, or _Macacus, + cynamolgos_), the most generally distributed of all. From sunrise to + sunset the wou-wou makes its presence known, especially in the second + zone where it congregates in the trees, by its strange cry, at times + harsh and cacophonous, at times weird and pathetic. The lutung or + black ape also prefers the temperate region, though it is met with as + high as 7000 ft. above the sea and as low as 2000. The _Cercocebus_ or + grey ape keeps for the most part to the warm coast lands. Rats + (including the brown Norway rat, often called _Mus javanicus_, as if + it were a native; a great plague); mice in great variety; porcupines + (_Acanthion javanicum_); squirrels (five species) and flying squirrels + (four species) represent the rodents. A hare, _Lepus nigricollis_, + originally from Ceylon, has a very limited habitat; the Insectivora + comprise a shrew-mouse (_Rachyura indica_), two species of tupaya and + _Hylomys suillus_ peculiar to Java and Sumatra. The nearest relation + to the bears is _Arctictis binturong_. _Mydaus meliceps_ and _Helictis + orientalis_ represent the badgers. In the upper part of the mountains + occurs _Mustela Henrici_, and an otter (_Aonyx leptonyx_) in the + streams of the hot zone. The coffee rat (_Paradoxurus + hermaphroditus_), a civet cat (_Viverricida indica_), the Javanese + ichneumon (_Herpestes javanicus_), and _Priodon gracilis_ may also be + mentioned. + + In 1820, 176 species of birds were known in Java; by 1900 Vorderman + and O. Finsch knew 410. Many of these are, of course, rare and occupy + a limited habitat far from the haunts of man. Others exist in myriads + and are characteristic features in the landscape. Water-fowl of many + kinds, ducks, geese, storks, pelicans, &c., give life to sea-shore and + lake, river and marsh. Snipe-shooting is a favourite sport. Common + night-birds are the owl (_Strix flammea_) and the goat-sucker + (_Caprimulgus affinis_). Three species of hornbill, the year-bird of + the older travellers (_Buceros plicatus_, _lunatus_ and _albirostris_) + live in the tall trees of the forest zone. The Javanese peacock is a + distinct species (_Pavo muticus_ or _spiciferus_), and even exceeds + the well-known Indian species in the splendour of its plumage. _Gallus + Bankiva_ is famous as the reputed parent of all barn-door fowls; + _Gallus furcatus_ is an exquisitely beautiful bird and can be trained + for cock-fighting. Of parrots two species only are known: _Palaeornis + Alexandri_ or _javanicus_ and the pretty little grass-green _Curyllis + pusilla_, peculiar to Java. As talkers and mimics they are beaten by + the _Gracula javanensis_, a favourite cage-bird with the natives. A + cuckoo, _Chrysococcyx basalis_, may be heard in the second zone. The + grass-fields are the foraging-grounds of swarms of weaver-birds + (_Plocula javanensis_ and _Ploccus baya_). They lay nearly as heavy a + toll on the rice-fields as the gelatiks (_Munia oryzivora_), which are + everywhere the rice-growers' principal foe. Hawks and falcons make + both an easy prey. The _Nictuarinas_ or honey-birds (eight species) + take the place of the humming-bird, which they rival in beauty and + diminutiveness, ranging from the lowlands to an altitude of 4000 ft. + In the upper regions the birds, like the plants, are more like those + of Europe, and some of them--notably the kanchilan (_Hyloterpe + Philomela_)--are remarkable for their song. The edible-nest swallow + (_Collocalia fuciphaga_) builds in caves in many parts of the + island.[8] + + As far back as 1859 P. Bleeker credited Java with eleven hundred + species of fish; and naturalists are perpetually adding to the + number.[9] In splendour and grotesqueness of colouring many kinds, as + is well known, look rather like birds than fish. In the neighbourhood + of Batavia about three hundred and eighty species are used as food by + the natives and the Chinese, who have added to the number by the + introduction of the goldfish, which reaches a great size. The sea fish + most prized by Europeans is _Lates calcarifer_ (a perch). Of more than + one hundred species of snakes about twenty-four species (including + the cobra di capella) are poisonous and these are responsible for the + deaths of between one hundred and two hundred persons per annum. + Adders and lizards are abundant. Geckos are familiar visitants in the + houses of the natives. There are two species of crocodiles. + + As in other tropical-rain forest lands the variety and abundance of + insects are amazing. At sundown the air becomes resonant for hours + with their myriad voices. The _Coleoptera_ and the _Lepidoptera_ form + the glory of all great collections for their size and magnificence. Of + butterflies proper five hundred species are known. Of the beetles one + of the largest and handsomest is _Chalcosoma atlas_. Among the spiders + (a numerously represented order) the most notable is a bird-killing + species, _Selene scomia javanensis_. In many parts the island is + plagued with ants, termites and mosquitoes. Crops of all kinds are + subject to disastrous attacks of creeping and winged foes--many still + unidentified (see especially Snellen van Hollenhoven, _Essai d'une + faune entomologique de l'Archipel Indo-néerlandais_). Of still lower + forms of life the profusion is no less perplexing. Among the worms the + _Perichaeta musica_ reaches a length of about twenty inches and + produces musical sounds. The shell of the _Tridacna gigas_ is the + largest anywhere known. + + _Flora._--For the botanist Java is a natural paradise, affording him + the means of studying the effects of moisture and heat, of + air-currents and altitudes, without the interference of superincumbent + arctic conditions. The botanic gardens of Buitenzorg have long been + famous for their wealth of material, the ability with which their + treasures have been accumulated and displayed, their value in + connexion with the economic development of the island and the + extensive scientific literature published by their directors.[10] + There is a special establishment at Chibodas open to students of all + nations for the investigation on the spot of the conditions of the + primeval forest. Hardly any similar area in the world has a flora of + richer variety than Java. It is estimated that the total number of the + species of plants is about 5000; but this is probably under the mark + (De Candolle knew of 2605 phanerogamous species), and new genera and + species of an unexpected character are from time to time discovered. + The lower parts of the island are always in the height of summer. The + villages and even the smaller towns are in great measure concealed by + the abundant and abiding verdure; and their position in the landscape + is to be recognized mainly by their groves, orchards and cultivated + fields. The amount and distribution of heat and moisture at the + various seasons of the year form the dominant factors in determining + the character of the vegetation. Thus trees which are evergreen in + west Java are deciduous in the east of the island, some dropping their + leaves (e.g. _Tetrameles nudiflora_) at the very time they are in + bloom or ripening their fruit. This and other contrasts are + graphically described from personal observation by A. F. W. Schimper + in his _Pflanzen-Geographie auf physiologischer Grundlage_ (Jena, + 1898). The abundance of epiphytes, orchids, pitcher-plants, mosses and + fungi is a striking result of the prevalent humidity; and many trees + and plants indeed, which in drier climates root in the soil, derive + sufficient moisture from their stronger neighbours. Of orchids J. J. + Smith records 562 species (100 genera), but the flowers of all except + about a score are inconspicuous. This last fact is the more remarkable + because, taken generally, the Javanese vegetation differs from that of + many other tropical countries by being abundantly and often gorgeously + floriferous. Many of the loftiest trees crown themselves with blossoms + and require no assistance from the climbing plants that seek, as it + were, to rival them in their display of colour. Shrubs, too, and + herbaceous plants often give brilliant effects in the savannahs, the + deserted clearings, the edges of the forest and the sides of the + highways. The _lantana_, a verbenaceous alien introduced, it is said, + from Jamaica by Lady Raffles, has made itself aggressively conspicuous + in many parts of the island, more especially in the Preanger and + middle Java, where it occupies areas of hundreds of acres. + + The effect of mere altitude in the distribution of the flora was long + ago emphasized by Friedrich Junghuhn, the Humboldt of Java, who + divided the island into four vertical botanical zones--a division + which has generally been accepted by his successors, though, like all + such divisions, it is subject to many modifications and exceptions. + The forest, or hot zone, extends to a height of 2000 ft. above the + sea; the second, that of moderate heat, has its upper limit at about + 4500; the third, or cool, zone reaches 7500; and the fourth, or + coldest, comprises all that lies beyond. The lowest zone has, of + course, the most extensive area; the second is only a fiftieth and the + third a five-thousandth of the first; and the fourth is an + insignificant remainder. The lowest is the region of the true tropical + forest, of rice-fields and sugar-plantations, of coco-nut palms, + cotton, sesamum, cinnamon and tobacco (though this last has a wide + altitudinal range). Many parts of the coast (especially on the north) + are fringed with mangrove (_Rhizophora mucronata_), &c., and species + of _Bruguiera_; the downs have their characteristic flora--convolvulus + and _Spinifex squarrosus_ catching the eye for very different + reasons. Farther inland along the seaboard appear the nipa dwarf palm + (_Nipa fruticans_), the _Alsbonia scholaris_ (the wood of which is + lighter than cork), Cycadacea, tree-ferns, screw pines (_Pandanus_), + &c. In west Java the gebang palm (_Corypha gebanga_) grows in clumps + and belts not far from but never quite close to the coast; and in east + Java a similar position is occupied by the lontar (_Borassus + flabelliformis_), valuable for its timber, its sago and its sugar, and + in former times for its leaves, which were used as a writing-material. + The fresh-water lakes and ponds of this region are richly covered with + Utricularia and various kinds of lotus (_Nymphaea lotus_, _N. + stellata_, _Nelumbium speciosum_, &c.) interspersed with _Pista + stratiotes_ and other floating plants. Vast prairies are covered with + the silvery alang-alang grass broken by bamboo thickets, clusters of + trees and shrubs (_Butea frondosa_, _Emblica officinalis_, &c.) and + islands of the taller erigedeh or glagah (_Saccharum spontaneum_). + Alang-alang (_Imperata arundinacea_, Cyr. var. Bentham) grows from 1 + to 4 ft. in height. It springs up wherever the ground is cleared of + trees and is a perfect plague to the cultivator. It cannot hold its + own, however, with the ananas, the kratok (_Phaseolus lunatus_) or the + lantana; and, in the natural progress of events, the forest resumes + its sway except where the natives encourage the young growth of the + grass by annually setting the prairies on fire. The true forest, which + occupies a great part of this region, changes its character as we + proceed from west to east. In west Java it is a dense rain-forest in + which the struggle of existence is maintained at high pressure by a + host of lofty trees and parasitic plants in bewildering profusion. The + preponderance of certain types is remarkable. Thus of the Moraceae + there are in Java (and mostly here) seven genera with ninety-five + species, eighty-three of which are _Ficus_ (see S. H. Koorders and T. + Valeton, "Boomsoorten op Java" in _Bijdr. Mede. Dep. Landbower_ + (1906). These include the so-called waringin, several kinds of figs + planted as shade-trees in the parks of the nobles and officials. The + Magnoliaceae and Anonaceae are both numerously represented. In middle + Java the variety of trees is less, a large area being occupied by + teak. In eastern Java the character of the forest is mainly determined + by the abundance of the Casuarina or Chimoro (_C. montana_ and _C. + Junghuhniana_). Another species, _C. equisetifolia_, is planted in + west Java as an ornamental tree. These trees are not crowded together + and encumbered with the heavy parasitic growths of the rain-forest; + but their tall stems are often covered with multitudes of small + vermilion fungi. Wherever the local climate has sufficient humidity, + the true rain-forest claims its own. The second of Junghuhn's zones is + the region of, more especially, tea, cinchona and coffee plantations, + of maize and the sugar palm (areng). In the forest the trees are + richly clad with ferns and enormous fungi; there is a profusion of + underwood (_Pavetta macrophylla Javanica_ and _salicifolia_; several + species of _Lasianthus_, _Boehmarias_, _Strobilanthus_, &c.), of woody + lianas and ratans, of tree ferns (especially Alsophila). Between the + bushes the ground is covered with ferns, lycopods, tradescantias, + Bignoniaceae, species of _Aeschynanthus_. Of the lianas the largest is + _Plectocomia elongata_; one specimen of which was found to have a + length of nearly 790 ft. One of the fungi, _Telephora princeps_, is + more than a yard in diameter. The trees are of different species from + those of the hot zone even when belonging to the same genus; and new + types appear mostly in limited areas. The third zone, which consists + mainly of the upper slopes of volcanic mountains, but also comprises + several plateaus (the Dieng, parts of the Tengger, the Ijen) is a + region of clouds and mists. There are a considerable number of lakes + and swamps in several parts of the region, and these have a luxuriant + environment of grasses, Cyperaceae, Characeae and similar forms. The + taller trees of the region--oaks, chestnuts, various Lauraceae, and + four or five species of _Podocarpus_--with some striking exceptions, + _Astronia spectabilis_, &c., are less floriferous than those of the + lower zones; but the shrubs (_Rhododendron javanicum_, _Ardisia + javanica_, &c.), herbs and parasites more than make up for this + defect. There is little cultivation, except in the Tengger, where the + natives grow maize, rye and tobacco, and various European vegetables + (cabbage, potatoes, &c.), with which they supply the lowland markets. + In western Java one of the most striking features of the upper parts + of this temperate region is what Schimper calls the "absolute dominion + of mosses," associated with the "elfin forest," as he quaintly calls + it, a perfect tangle of "low, thick, oblique or even horizontal + stems," almost choked to leaflessness by their grey and ghostly + burden. Much of the lower vegetation begins to have a European aspect; + violets, primulas, thalictrums, ranunculus, vacciniums, equisetums, + rhododendrons (_Rhod. retusum_). The _Primula imperialis_, found only + on the Pangerango, is a handsome species, prized by specialists. In + the fourth or alpine zone occur such distinctly European forms as + _Artemisia vulgaris_, _Plantago major_, _Solanum nigrum_, _Stellaria + media_; and altogether the alpine flora contains representatives of no + fewer than thirty-three families. A characteristic shrub is _Anaphalis + javanica_, popularly called the Javanese edelweiss, which "often + entirely excludes all other woody plants."[11] The tallest and noblest + of all the trees in the island is the rasamala or liquid-ambar + (_Altingia excelsa_), which, rising with a straight clean trunk, + sometimes 6 ft. in diameter at the base, to a height of 100 to 130 + ft., spreads out into a magnificent crown of branches and foliage. + When by chance a climbing plant has joined partnership with it, the + combination of blossoms at the top is one of the finest colour effects + of the forest. The rasamala, however, occurs only in the Preanger and + in the neighbouring parts of Bantam and Buitenzorg. Of the other trees + that may be classified as timber--from 300 to 400 species--many attain + noble proportions. It is sufficient to mention _Calophyllum + inophyllum_, which forms fine woods in the south of Bantam, _Mimusops + acuminata_, _Irna glabra_, _Dalbergia latifolia_ (sun wood, English + black-wood) in middle and east Java; the rare but splendid + _Pithecolobium Junghuhnianum_; _Schima Noronhae_, _Bischofia + javanica_, _Pterospermum javanicum_ (greatly prized for + ship-building), and the upas-tree. From the economic point of view all + these hundreds of trees are of less importance than _Tectona grandis_, + the jati or teak, which, almost to the exclusion of all others, + occupies about a third of the government forest-lands. It grows best + in middle and eastern Java, preferring the comparatively dry and hot + climate of the plains and lower hills to a height of about 2000 ft. + above the sea, and thriving best in more or less calciferous soils. In + June it sheds its leaves and begins to bud again in October. + Full-grown trees reach a height of 100 to 150 ft. In 1895 teak (with a + very limited quantity of other timber) was felled to the value of + about £101,800, and in 1904 the corresponding figure was about + £119,935. + + That an island which has for so long maintained a dense and growing + population in its more cultivable regions should have such extensive + tracts of primeval or quasi-primeval forest as have been above + indicated would be matter of surprise to one who did not consider the + simplicity of the life of the Javanese. They require but little fuel; + and both their dwellings and their furniture are mostly constructed of + bamboo supplemented with a palm or two. They destroy the forest mainly + to get room for their rice-fields and pasture for their cattle. In + doing this, however, they are often extremely reckless and wasteful; + and if it had not been for the unusual humidity of the climate their + annual fires would have resulted in widespread conflagrations. As it + is, many mountains are now bare which within historic times were + forested to the top; but the Dutch government has proved fully alive + to the danger of denudation. The state has control of all the woods + and forests of the island with the exception of those of the Preanger, + the "particular lands," and Madura; and it has long been engaged in + replanting with native trees and experimenting with aliens from other + parts of the world--_Eucalyptus globulus_, the juar, _Cassia florida_ + from Sumatra, the surian (_Cedrela febrifuga_), &c. The greatest + success has been with cinchona. + + Left to itself Java would soon clothe itself again with even a richer + natural vegetation than it had when it was first occupied by man. The + open space left by the demolition of the fortifications on Nusa + Kambangan was in twenty-eight years densely covered by thousands of + shrubs and trees of about twenty varieties, many of the latter 80 ft. + high. Resident Snijthoff succeeded about the close of the 19th century + in re-afforesting a large part of Mount Muriå by the simple expedient + of protecting the territory he had to deal with from all encroachments + by natives.[12] + +_Population._--The population of Java (including Madura, &c.) was +30,098,008 in 1905. In 1900 it was 28,746,688; in 1890, 23,912,564; and +in 1880, 19,794,505. The natives consist of the Javanese proper, the +Sundanese and the Madurese. All three belong to the Malay stock. Between +Javanese and Sundanese the distinction is mainly due to the influence of +the Hindus on the former and the absence of this on the latter. Between +Javanese and Madurese the distinction is rather to be ascribed to +difference of natural environment. The Sundanese have best retained the +Malay type, both in physique and fashion of life. They occupy the west +of the island. The Madurese area, besides the island of Madura and +neighbouring isles, includes the eastern part of Java itself. The +residencies of Tegal, Pekalongan, Banyumas, Bagelen, Kedu, Semarang, +Japara, Surakarta, Jokjakarta, Rembang, Madiun, Kediri and Surabaya have +an almost purely Javanese population. The Javanese are the most numerous +and civilized of the three peoples. + +The colour of the skin in all three cases presents various shades of +yellowish-brown; and it is observed that, owing perhaps to the Hindu +strain, the Javanese are generally darker than the Sundanese. The eyes +are always brown or black, the hair of the head black, long, lank and +coarse. Neither breast nor limbs are provided with hair, and there is +hardly even the suggestion of a beard. In stature the Sundanese is less +than the Javanese proper, being little over 5 ft. in average height, +whereas the Javanese is nearly 5½ ft.; at the same time the Sundanese is +more stoutly built. The Madurese is as tall as the Javanese, and as +stout as the Sundanese. The eye is usually set straight in the head in +the Javanese and Madurese; among the Sundanese it is often oblique. The +nose is generally flat and small, with wide nostrils, although among the +Javanese it not infrequently becomes aquiline. The lips are thick, yet +well formed; the teeth are naturally white, but often filed and stained. +The cheek-bones are well developed, more particularly with the Madurese. +In expressiveness of countenance the Javanese and Madurese are far in +advance of the Sundanese. The women are not so well made as the men, and +among the lower classes especially soon grow absolutely ugly. In the +eyes of the Javanese a golden yellow complexion is the perfection of +female beauty. To judge by their early history, the Javanese must have +been a warlike and vigorous people, but now they are peaceable, docile, +sober, simple and industrious. + +One million only out of the twenty-six millions of natives are +concentrated in towns, a fact readily explained by their sources of +livelihood. The great bulk of the population is distributed over the +country in villages usually called by Europeans dessas, from the Low +Javanese word _déså_ (High Javanese _dusun_). Every dessa, however small +(and those containing from 100 to 1000 families are exceptionally +large), forms an independent community; and no sooner does it attain to +any considerable size than it sends off a score of families or so to +form a new dessa. Each lies in the midst of its own area of cultivation. +The general enceinte is formed by an impervious hedge of bamboos 40 to +70 ft. high. Within this lie the houses, each with its own enclosure, +which, even when the fields are the communal property, belongs to the +individual householder. The capital of a district is only a larger +dessa, and that of a regency has the same general type, but includes +several kampongs or villages. The bamboo houses in the strictly Javanese +districts are always built on the ground; in the Sunda lands they are +raised on piles. Some of the well-to-do, however, have stone houses. The +principal article of food is rice; a considerable quantity of fish is +eaten, but little meat. Family life is usually well ordered. The upper +class practise polygamy, but among the common people a man has generally +only one wife. The Javanese are nominally Mahommedans, as in former +times they were Buddhists and Brahmins; but in reality, not only such +exceptional groups as the Kalangs of Surakarta and Jokjakarta and the +Baduwis or nomad tribes of Bantam, but the great mass of the people must +be considered as believers rather in the primitive animism of their +ancestors, for their belief in Islam is overlaid with superstition. As +we ascend in the social scale, however, we find the name of Mahommedan +more and more applicable; and consequently in spite of the paganism of +the populace the influence of the Mahommedan "priests" (this is their +official title in Dutch) is widespread and real. Great prestige attaches +to the pilgrimage to Mecca, which was made by 5068 persons from Java in +1900. In every considerable town there is a mosque. Christian missionary +work is not very widely spread. + + _Languages._--In spite of Sundanese, Madurese and the intrusive Malay, + Javanese has a right to the name. It is a rich and cultivated language + which has passed through many stages of development and, under + peculiar influences, has become a linguistic complex of an almost + unique kind. Though it is customary and convenient to distinguish New + Javanese from Kavi or Old Javanese, just as it was customary to + distinguish English from Anglo-Saxon, there is no break of historical + continuity. Kavi (Basa Kavi, i.e. the language of poetry) may be + defined as the form spoken and written before the founding of + Majapahit; and middle Javanese, still represented by the dialect of + Banyumas, north Cheribon, north Krawang and north Bantam, as the form + the language assumed under the Majapahit court influence; while New + Javanese is the language as it has developed since the fall of that + kingdom. Kavi continued to be a literary language long after it had + become archaic. It contains more Sanskrit than any other language of + the archipelago. New Javanese breaks up into two great varieties, so + different that sometimes they are regarded as two distinct languages. + The nobility use one form, Kråmå; the common people another, Ngoko, + the "thouing" language (cf. Fr. _tutoyant_, Ger. _dutzend_); but each + class understands the language of the other class. The aristocrat + speaks to the commonalty in the language of the commoner; the + commoner speaks to the aristocracy in the language of the aristocrat; + and, according to clearly recognized etiquette, every Javanese plays + the part of aristocrat or commoner towards those whom he addresses. To + speak Ngoko to a superior is to insult him; to speak Kråmå to an equal + or inferior is a mark of respect. In this way Dipå Negårå showed his + contempt for the Dutch General de Kock. The ordinary Javanese thinks + in Ngoko; the children use it to each other, and so on. Between the + two forms there is a kind of compromise, the Madya, or middle form of + speech, employed by those who stand to each other on equal or friendly + footing or by those who feel little constraint of etiquette. For every + idea expressed in the language Kråmå has one vocable, the Ngoko + another, the two words being sometimes completely different and + sometimes differing only in the termination, the beginning or the + middle. Thus every Javanese uses, as it were, two or even three + languages delicately differentiated from each other. How this state of + affairs came about is matter of speculation. Almost certainly the + existence side by side of two peoples, speaking each its own tongue, + and occupying towards each other the position intellectually and + politically of superior and inferior, had much to do with it. But + Professor Kern thinks that some influence must also be assigned to + _pamela_ or _pantang_, word-taboo--certain words being in certain + circumstances regarded as of evil omen--a superstition still + lingering, e.g. even among the Shetland fishermen (see G. A. F. Hazeu, + _De taal pantangs_). It has sometimes been asserted that Kråmå + contains more Sanskrit words than Ngoko does; but the total number in + Kråmå does not exceed 20; and sometimes there is a Sanskrit word in + Ngoko which is not in Kråmå. There is a village Kråmå which is not + recognized by the educated classes: Kråmå inggil, with a vocabulary of + about 300 words, is used in addressing the deity or persons of exalted + rank. The Basa Kedaton or court language is a dialect used by all + living at court except royalties, who use Ngoko. Among themselves the + women of the court employ Kråmå or Madya, but they address the men in + Basa Kedaton.[13] + + _Literature._--Though a considerable body of Kavi literature is still + extant, nothing like a history of it is possible. The date and + authorship of most of the works are totally unknown. The first place + may be assigned to the _Brata Yuda_ (Sansk., _Bharata Yudha_, the + conflict of the Bharatas), an epic poem dealing with the struggle + between the Pandåwås and the Koråwas for the throne of Ngastina + celebrated in parwas 5-10 of the _Mahabharata_. To the conception, + however, of the modern Javanese it is a purely native poem; its kings + and heroes find their place in the native history and serve as + ancestors to their noble families. (Cohen Stuart published the modern + Javanese version with a Dutch translation and notes, _Bråtå-Joedå_, + &c., Samarang, 1877. The Kavi text was lithographed at the Hague by S. + Lankhout.) Of greater antiquity probably is the _Ardjunå Wiwåhå_ (or + marriage festival of Ardjuna), which Professor Kern thinks may be + assigned to the first half of the 11th century of the Christian era. + The name indicates its _Mahabharata_ origin. (Friederich published the + Kavi text from a Bali MS., and _Wiwåhå Djarwa en Bråtå Joedo Kawi_, + lithographed facsimiles of two palm-leaf MSS., Batavia, 1878. Djarwa + is the name of the poetic diction of modern Javanese.) The oldest poem + of which any trace is preserved is probably the mythological _Kåndå_ + (i.e. tradition); the contents are to some extent known from the + modern Javanese version. In the literature of modern Javanese there + exists a great variety of so-called _babads_ or chronicles. It is + sufficient to mention the "history" of Baron Sakender, which appears + to give an account--often hardly recognizable--of the settlement of + Europeans in Java (Cohen Stuart published text and translation, + Batavia, 1851; J. Veth gives an analysis of the contents), and the + _Babad Tanah Djawi_ (the Hague, 1874, 1877), giving the history of the + island to 1647 of the Javanese era. Even more numerous are the + _wayangs_ or puppet-plays which usually take their subjects from the + Hindu legends or from those relating to the kingdoms of Majapahit and + Pajajaram (see e.g. H. C. Humme, _Abiåså, een Javaansche toneelstuk_, + the Hague, 1878). In these plays grotesque figures of gilded leather + are moved by the performer, who recites the appropriate speeches and, + as occasion demands, plays the part of chorus. + + Several Javanese specimens are also known of the beast fable, which + plays so important a part in Sanskrit literature (W. Palmer van den + Broek, _Javaansche Vertellingen, bevattende de lotgevallen van een + kantjil, een reebok_, &c., the Hague, 1878). To the Hindu-Javanese + literature there naturally succeeded a Mahommedan-Javanese literature + consisting largely of translations or imitations of Arabic originals; + it comprises religious romances, moral exhortations and mystical + treatises in great variety.[14] + + _Arts._--In mechanic arts the Javanese are in advance of the other + peoples of the archipelago. Of thirty different crafts practised among + them, the most important are those of the blacksmith or cutler, the + carpenter, the kris-sheath maker, the coppersmith, the goldsmith and + the potter. Their skill in the working of the metals is the more + noteworthy as they have to import the raw materials. The most esteemed + product of the blacksmith's skill is the kris; every man and boy above + the age of fourteen wears one at least as part of his ordinary dress, + and men of rank two and sometimes four. In the finishing and adornment + of the finer weapons no expense is spared; and ancient krises of good + workmanship sometimes fetch enormous prices. The Javanese gold and + silver work possesses considerable beauty, but there is nothing equal + to the filigree of Sumatra; the brass musical instruments are of + exceptional excellence. Both bricks and tiles are largely made, as + well as a coarse unglazed pottery similar to that of Hindustan; but + all the finer wares are imported from China. Cotton spinning, weaving + and dyeing are carried on for the most part as purely domestic + operations by the women. The usual mode of giving variety of colour is + by weaving in stripes with a succession of different coloured yarns, + but another mode is to cover with melted wax or damar the part of the + cloth not intended to receive the dye. This process is naturally a + slow one, and has to be repeated according to the number of colours + required. As a consequence the _battiks_, as the cloths thus treated + are called, are in request by the wealthier classes. For the most part + quiet colours are preferred. To the Javanese of the present day the + ancient buildings of the Hindu periods are the work of supernatural + power. Except when employed by his European master he seldom builds + anything more substantial than a bamboo or timber framework; but in + the details of such erections he exhibits both skill and taste. When + Europeans first came to the island they found native vessels of large + size well entitled to the name of ships; and, though ship-building + proper is now carried on only under the direction of Europeans, + boat-building is a very extensive native industry along the whole of + the north coast--the boats sometimes reaching a burden of 50 tons. The + only one of the higher arts which the Javanese have carried to any + degree of perfection is music; and in regard to the value of their + efforts in this direction Europeans differ greatly. The orchestra + (_gamelan_) consists of wind, string and percussion instruments, the + latter being in preponderancy to the other two. (Details of the + instruments will be found in Raffles' _Java_, and a description of a + performance in the _Tour du monde_, 1880.) + + _Chief Towns and Places of Note._--The capital of Java and of the + Dutch East India possessions is Batavia (q.v.), pop. 115,567. At + Meester Cornelis (pop. 33,119), between 6 and 7 m. from Batavia on the + railway to Buitenzorg, the battle was fought in 1811 which placed Java + in the hands of the British. In the vicinity lies Depok, originally a + Christian settlement of freed slaves, but now with about 3000 + Mahommedan inhabitants and only 500 Christians. The other chief towns, + from west to east through the island, are as follows: Serang (pop. + 5600) bears the same relation to Bantam, about 6 m. distant, which New + Batavia bears to Old Batavia, its slight elevation of 100 ft. above + the sea making it fitter for European occupation. Anjer (Angerlor, + Anger) lies 96 m. from Batavia by rail on the coast at the narrowest + part of the Sunda Strait; formerly European vessels were wont to call + there for fresh provisions and water. Pandeglang (pop. 3644), 787 ft. + above sea-level, is known for its hot and cold sulphur springs. About + 17 m. west of Batavia lies Tangerang (pop. 13,535), a busy place with + about 2800 or 3000 Chinese among its inhabitants. Buitenzorg (q.v.) is + the country-seat of the governor-general, and its botanic gardens are + famous. Krawang, formerly chief town of the residency of that + name--the least populous of all--has lost its importance since + Purwakerta (pop. 6862) was made the administrative centre. At Wanyasa + in the neighbourhood the first tea plantations were attempted on a + large scale. + + The Preanger regencies--Bandung, Chanjur, Sukabumi, Sumedang, Garut + and Tasikmalaya--constitute the most important of all the residencies, + though owing to their lack of harbour on the south and the intractable + nature of much of their soil they have not shared in the prosperity + enjoyed by many other parts of the island. Bandung, the chief town + since 1864, lies 2300 ft. above sea-level, 109 m. south of Batavia by + rail; it is a well-built and flourishing place (pop. 28,965; Europeans + 1522, Chinese 2650) with a handsome resident's house (1867), a large + mosque (1867), a school for the sons of native men of rank, the most + important quinine factory in the island, and a race-course where in + July a good opportunity is afforded of seeing both the life of + fashionable and official Java and the customs and costumes of the + common people. The district is famous for its waterfalls, one of the + most remarkable of which is where the Chi Tarum rushes through a + narrow gully to leap down from the Bandung plateau. In the + neighbourhood is the great military camp of Chimahi. Chanjur, formerly + the chief town, in spite of its loss of administrative position still + has a population of 13,599. From Sukabumi (pop. 12,112; 569 + Europeans), a pleasant health resort among the hills at an altitude of + 1965 ft., tourists are accustomed to visit Wijnkoopers Bay for the + sake of the picturesque shore scenery. Chichalengka became after 1870 + one of the centres of the coffee industry. Sumedang has only 8013 + inhabitants, having declined since the railway took away the highway + traffic: it is exceeded both by Garut (10,647) and by Tasikmalaya + (9196), but it is a beautiful place well known to sportsmen for its + proximity to the Rancha Ekek swamp, where great snipe-shooting matches + are held every year. For natural beauty few parts of Java can compare + with the plain of Tasikmalaya, itself remarkable, in a country of + trees, for its magnificent avenues. N.E. of the Preanger lies the + residency of Cheribon[15] (properly Chi Rebon, the shrimp river). The + chief town (pop. 24,564) is one of the most important places on the + north coast, though the unhealthiness of the site has caused Europeans + to settle at Tangkil, 2 m. distant. The church (1842), the regent's + residence, and the great prison are among the principal buildings; + there are also extensive salt warehouses. The native part of the town + is laid out more regularly than is usual, and the Chinese quarter + (pop. 3352) has the finest Chinese temple in Java. The palaces of the + old sultans of Cheribon are less extensive than those of Surakarta and + Jokjakarta. Though the harbour has to be kept open by constant + dredging the roadstead is good all the year round. A strange pleasure + palace of Sultan Supeh, often described by travellers, lies about 2 m. + off near Sunya Raja. Mundu, a village 4 m. south-east of Cheribon, is + remarkable as the only spot on the north coast of the island visited + by the ikan prut or belly-fish, a species about as large as a cod, + caught in thousands and salted by the local fishermen. Indramayu, + which lies on both banks of the Chi Manuk about 8 m. from the coast, + is mentioned under the name of Dermayo as a port for the rice of the + district and the coffee of the Preanger. The coffee trade is extinct + but the rice trade is more flourishing than ever, and the town has + 13,400 inhabitants, of whom 2200 are Chinese. It might have a great + commercial future if money could be found for the works necessary to + overcome the disadvantage of its position--the roads being safe only + during the east monsoon and the river requiring to be deepened and + regulated. Tegal has long been one of the chief towns of Java: + commerce, native trade and industry, and fisheries are all well + represented and the sugar factories give abundant employment to the + inhabitants. The harbour has been the object of various improvements + since 1871. The whole district is densely populated (3100 to the sq. + m.) and the town proper with its 16,665 inhabitants is surrounded by + extensive kampongs (Balapulang, Lebaksiu, &c.). In Pekalongan (pop. + 38,211) and Batang (21,286) the most important industry is the + production of battiks and stamped cloths; there are also iron-works + and sugar factories. The two towns are only some 5 m. apart. The + former has a large mosque, a Protestant church, an old fort and a + large number of European houses. The Chinese quarters consist of neat + stone or brick buildings. Pekalongan smoked ducks are well known. + Brebes (13,474) on the Pamali is an important trade centre. Banyumas + (5000) is the seat of a resident; it is exceeded by Purwokerto + (12,610), Purbalinggo (12,094) and Chilachap (12,000). This last + possesses the best harbour on the south coast, and but for malaria + would have been an important place. It was chosen as the seat of a + great military establishment but had to be abandoned, the fort being + blown up in 1893. Semarang (pop. 89,286, of whom 4800 are Europeans + and 12,372 Chinese) lies on the Kali Ngaran near the centre of the + north coast. Up to 1824 the old European town was surrounded by a wall + and ditch. It was almost the exact reproduction of a Dutch town + without the slightest accommodation to the exigencies of the climate, + the streets narrow and irregular. The modern town is well laid out. + Among the more noteworthy buildings of Semarang are the old Prince of + Orange fort, the resident's house, the Roman Catholic church, the + Protestant church, the mosque, the military hospital. A new impulse to + the growth of the town was given by the opening of the railway to + Surakarta and Jokjakarta in 1875. As a seaport the place is + unfortunately situated. The river has long been silted up; the + roadstead is insecure in the west monsoon. After many delays an + artificial canal, begun in 1858, became available as a substitute for + the river; but further works are necessary. A second great canal to + the east, begun in 1896, helps to prevent inundations and thus improve + the healthiness of the town. Demak, 13 m. N.E. of Semarang, though + situated in a wretched region of swamps and having only 5000 + inhabitants, is famous in ancient Javanese history. The mosque, + erected by the first sultan of Demak, was rebuilt in 1845; only a + small part of the old structure has been preserved, but as a sanctuary + it attracts 6000 or 7000 pilgrims annually. To visit Demak seven times + has the same ceremonial value as the pilgrimage to Mecca. The tombs of + several of the sultans are still extant. Salatiga ("three stones," + with allusion to three temples now destroyed) was in early times one + of the resting places of ambassadors proceeding to the court of + Mataram, and in the European history of Java its name is associated + with the peace of 1755 and the capitulation of 1811. It is the seat of + a cavalry and artillery camp. Its population, about 10,000, seems to + be declining. Ambarawa with its railway station is, on the other hand, + rapidly increasing. Its population of 14,745 includes 459 Europeans. + About a mile to the N. lies the fortress of Willem I. which Van den + Bosch meant to make the centre of the Javanese system of defensive + works; the Banyubiru military camp is in the neighbourhood. Kendal + (15,000) is a centre of the sugar industry. Kudus (31,000; 4300 + Chinese) has grown to be one of the most important inland towns. Its + cloth and battik pedlars are known throughout the island and the + success of their enterprise is evident in the style of their houses. A + good trade is also carried on in cattle, kapok, copra, pottery and all + sorts of small wares. The mosque in the old town has interesting + remains of Majapahit architecture; and the tomb of Pangeran Kudus is a + noted Mahommedan sanctuary. A steam tramway leads northward towards, + but does not reach Japara, which in the 17th century was the chief + port of the kingdom of Mataram and retained its commercial importance + till the Dutch Company removed its establishment to Semarang. In 1818 + Daendels transferred its resident to Pati. Ungaran, 1026 ft. above the + sea, was a place of importance as early as the 17th century, and in + modern times has become known as a sanatorium. Rembang, a well-built + coast town and the seat of a resident, has grown rapidly to have a + population of 29,538 with 210 Europeans. Very similar to each other + are Surakarta or Solo and Jokjakarta, the chief towns of the + quasi-independent states or Vorstenlanden. Surakarta (pop. 109,459; + Chinese 5159, Europeans 1913) contains the palace (Kraton, locally + called the Bata bumi) of the susuhunan (which the Dutch translated as + emperor), the dalem of Prince Mangku Negårå, the residences of the + Solo nobles, a small Dutch fort (Vastenburg), a great mosque, an old + Dutch settlement, and a Protestant church. Here the susuhunan lives in + Oriental pomp and state. To visitors there are few more interesting + entertainments than those afforded by the celebration of the 31st of + August (the birthday of the queen of the Netherlands) or of the New + Year and the Puasa festivals, with their wayungs, ballet-dancers, and + so on. Jokjakarta (35 m. S.) has been a great city since Mangku Bumi + settled there in 1755. The Kraton has a circuit of 3½ m., and is a + little town in itself with the palace proper, the residences of the + ladies of the court and kampongs for the hereditary smiths, + carpenters, sculptors, masons, payong-makers, musical instrument + makers, &c., &c., of his highness. The independent Prince Paku Alam + has a palace of his own. As in Surakarta there are an old Dutch town + and a fort. The Jogka market is one of the most important of all Java, + especially for jewelry. The total population is 72,235 with 1424 + Europeans. To the south-east lies Pasar Gedeh, a former capital of + Mataram, with tombs of the ancient princes in the Kraton, a favourite + residence of wealthy Javanese traders. Surabaya (q.v.), on the strait + of Madura, is the largest commercial town in Java. Its population + increased from 118,000 in 1890 to 146,944 in 1900 (8906 Europeans). To + the north lies Grissee or Gresih (25,688 inhabitants) with a fairly + good harbour and of special interest in the early European history of + Java. Inland is the considerable town of Lamongan (12,485 + inhabitants). Fifteen m. S. by rail lies Sidoarjo (10,207; 185 + Europeans), the centre of one of the most densely populated districts + and important as a railway junction. In the neighbourhood is the + populous village of Mojosari. Pasuruan was until modern times one of + the chief commercial towns in Java, the staple being sugar. Since the + opening of the railway to Surabaya it has greatly declined, and its + warehouses and dwelling-houses are largely deserted. The population is + 27,152 with 663 Europeans. Probolinggo (called by the natives Banger) + is a place of 13,240 inhabitants. The swampy tracts in the vicinity + are full of fishponds. The baths of Banyubiru (blue water) to the + south have Hindu remains much visited by devotees. Pasirian in the far + south of the residency is a considerable market town and the terminus + of a branch railway. Besuki, the easternmost of all the residencies, + contains several places of some importance; the chief town Bondowoso + (8289); Besuki, about the same size, but with no foreign trade; + Jember, a small but rapidly increasing place, and Banyuwangi (17,559). + This last was at one time the seat of the resident, now the eastern + terminus of the railway system, and is a seaport on the Bali Strait + with an important office of the telegraph company controlling + communication with Port Darwin and Singapore. It has a very mingled + population, besides Javanese and Madurese, Chinese and Arabs, + Balinese, Buginese and Europeans. The chief town of Kediri (10,489) is + the only residency town in the interior traversed by a navigable + river, and is exceeded by Tulungagung; and the residency of Madiun has + two considerable centres of population: Madiun (21,168) and Ponorogo + (16,765). + + _Agriculture._--About 40% of the soil of Java is under cultivation. + Bantam and Besuki have each 16% of land under cultivation; Krawang, + 21%; Preanger, 23%; Rembang, 30%; Japara, 62%; Surabaya, 65%; Kedu, + 66%; Samarang, 67%. Proceeding along the south coast from its west + end, we find that in Bantam all the land cultivated on its south shore + amounts to at most but 5% of that regency; in Preanger and Banyumas, + as far as Chilachap, the land under cultivation amounts at a maximum + to 20%. East of Surakarta the percentages of land on the south coast + under cultivation decline from 30 to 20 and 10. East of the residency + of Probolinggo the percentage of land cultivated on the south coast + sinks to as low as 2. On the north coast, in Krawang and Rembang, with + their morasses and double chains of chalk, there are districts with + only 20% and 10% of the soil under cultivation. In the residencies, on + the other hand, of Batavia, Cheribon, Tegal, Samarang, Japara, + Surabaya and Pasuruan, there are districts having 80% to 90% of soil, + and even more, under cultivation. + + The agricultural products of Java must be distinguished into those + raised by the natives for their own use and those raised for the + government and private proprietors. The land assigned to the natives + for their own culture and use amounts to about 9,625,000 acres. In + western Java the prevailing crop is rice, less prominently cultivated + in middle Java, while in eastern Java and Madura other articles of + food take the first rank. The Javanese tell strange legends concerning + the introduction of rice, and observe various ceremonies in connexion + with its planting, paying more regard to them than to the proper + cultivation of the cereal. The agricultural produce grown on the lands + of the government and private proprietors, comprising an area of about + 3½ million acres, consists of sugar, cinchona, coffee, tobacco, tea, + indigo, &c. The Javanese possess buffaloes, ordinary cattle, horses, + dogs and cats. The buffalo was probably introduced by the Hindus. As + in agricultural products, so also in cattle-rearing, western Java is + distinguished from middle and eastern Java. The average distribution + of buffaloes is 106 per 1000 inhabitants, but it varies considerably + in different districts, being greatest in western Java. The fact that + rice is the prevailing culture in the west, while in eastern Java + other plants constitute the chief produce, explains the larger number + of buffaloes found in western Java, these animals being more in + requisition in the culture of rice. The ordinary cattle are of mixed + race; the Indian zebu having been crossed with the banting and with + European cattle of miscellaneous origin. The horses, though small, are + of excellent character, and their masters, according to their own + ideas, are extremely particular in regard to purity of race. Riding + comes naturally to the Javanese; horse-races and tournays have been in + vogue among them from early times. + + Coffee is an alien in Java. Specimens brought in 1696 from Cannanore + on the Malabar coast perished in an earthquake and floods in 1699; the + effective introduction of the precious shrub was due to Hendrik + Zwaardekron (see N. P. van den Berg, "Voortbrenging en verbruck van + koffie," _Tijdschrift v. Nijverh. en Landb._ 1879; and the article + "Koffie" in _Encyc. Ned. Ind._ Wiji kawih is mentioned in a Kavi + inscription of A.D. 856, and the bean-broth in David Tappen's list of + Javanese beverages, 1667-1682, may have been coffee). The first + consignment of coffee (894 lb.) to the Netherlands was made in + 1711-1712, but it was not till after 1721 that the yearly exports + reached any considerable amount. The aggregate quantity sold in the + home market from 1711 to 1791 was 2,036,437 piculs, or on an average + about 143 tons per annum; and this probably represented nearly the + whole production of the island. By the beginning of the 19th century + the annual production was about 7143 tons and after the introduction + of the Van den Bosch system of forced culture a further augmentation + was effected. The forced culture system was, in 1909, however, of + little importance. Official reports show that from 1840 to 1873 the + amount ranged from 5226 tons to 7354. During the ten years 1869 to + 1878 the average crop of the plantations under state control was 5226 + tons, that of the private planters about 810. The government has shown + a strange reluctance to surrender the old-fashioned monopoly, but the + spirit of private enterprise has slowly gained the day. Though the + appearance of the coffee blight (_Hemileia vastatrix_) almost ruined + the industry the planters did not give in. An immune variety was + introduced from Liberia, and scientific methods of treatment have been + adopted in dealing with the plantations. In 1887, a record year, the + value of the coffee crop reached £3,083,333, and at its average it was + about £1,750,000 between 1886 and 1895. The value was only £1,166,666 + in 1896. The greatest difficulties are the uncertainties both of the + crop and of its marketable value. The former is well shown in the + figures for 1903 to 1905; government 17,900, 3949 and 3511 tons, and + private planters 22,395, 15,311 and 21,395 tons. Liberia coffee is + still produced in much smaller quantity than Java coffee; the latter + on an average of these three years 21,360 tons; the former 7409. + + The cultivation of sugar has been long carried on in Java, and since + the decline of the coffee plantations it has developed into the + leading industry of the island. There are experimental stations at + Pasuruan, Pekalongan and elsewhere, where attempts are made to + overcome the many diseases to which the cane is subject. Many of the + mills are equipped with high-class machinery and produce sugar of + excellent colour and grain. In 1853-1857 the average crop was 98,094 + tons; in 1869-1873, 170,831, and in 1875-1880, 204,678. By 1899-1900 + the average had risen to 787,673 tons; and the crops for 1904 and 1905 + were respectively 1,064,935 and 1,028,357 tons. Prices fluctuate, but + the value of the harvest of 1905 was estimated at about £15,000,000. + + The cultivation of indigo shows a strange vitality. Under the culture + system the natives found this the most oppressive of all the state + crops. The modern chemist at one time seemed to have killed the + industry by his synthetic substitute, but in every year between 1899 + and 1904 Java exported between one million and one and a half million + pounds of the natural product. Japan and Russia were the largest + buyers. As blue is a favourite colour with the Javanese proper a large + quantity is used at home. + + Tea was first introduced to Java by the Japanese scholar von Siebold + in 1826. The culture was undertaken by the state in 1829 with plants + from China, but in 1842 they handed it over to contractors, whose + attempts to increase their profits by delivering an inferior article + ultimately led to the abandonment of the contract system in 1860. In + the meantime the basis of a better state of the industry had been laid + by the Dutch tea-taster J. J. L. L. Jacobsen of the Nederlandsch + Handel Maatschappij, who introduced not only fresh stock, but expert + growers from China in 1852-1853. The tea-planters (often taking + possession of the abandoned coffee-plantations) have greatly improved + the quality of their products. Assam tea was introduced in 1878, and + this has rapidly extended its area. The exports increased from + 12,110,724 lb. in 1898 to 25,772,564 in 1905. More than half the total + goes to the Netherlands; the United Kingdom ranks next, and, far + behind both, Russia. + + In 1854 the government introduced the culture of cinchona with free + labour, and it had considerable success under F. Junghuhn and his + successors, though the varieties grown were of inferior quality. Later + seed of the best cinchona was obtained, and under skilful management + Java has become the chief producer of quinine in the world. Cacao is + produced in the Preanger regencies, Pekalongan, Semarang, Pasuruan, + Besuki, Kediri and Surakarta. In 1903, a record year, 1,101,835 piculs + (about 6540 tons) were produced. _Broussonetia papyrifera_ is grown + for the sake of its bark, so well known in Japan (Jap. _kodsu_) as a + paper material. The ground-nut (the widely spread _Arachis hypogaea_ + from South America), locally known as kachang china or tanah, is + somewhat extensively grown. The oil is exported to Holland, where it + is sold as Delft salad oil. Tapioca has long been cultivated, + especially in the Preanger. The industry is mainly in the hands of the + Chinese, and the principal foreign purchasers are English biscuit + manufacturers. The kapok is a tree from tropical America which, + growing freely in any soil, is extensively used throughout Java along + the highways as a support for telegraph and telephone wires, and + planted as a prop in pepper and cubeb plantations. The silky fibre + contained in its long capsuloid fruits is known as cotton wool; and + among other uses it serves almost as well as cork for filling + life-belts; and the oil from its seed is employed to adulterate + ground-nut oil. The quantity of wool exported nearly trebled between + 1890 and 1896, in the latter year the total sent to Holland, + Australia, Singapore, &c., amounting to 38,586 bales. The rapid + exhaustion of the natural supply of india-rubber and gutta-percha + began to attract the attention of government in the latter decades of + the 19th century. Extensive experiments have been made in the + cultivation of _Ficus elastica_ (the karet of the natives), _Castilloa + elastica_, and _Hevea brasiliensis_. The planting of gutta-percha + trees was begun about 1886, and a regular system introduced in the + Preanger in 1901. The _Palaquium oblongifolium_ plantations at Blavan, + Kemutuk and Sewang in Banyumas have also been brought under official + control. Java tobacco, amounting to about 35,200,000 lb. a year, is + cultivated almost exclusively in eastern Java. Among other products + which are of some importance as articles of export may be mentioned + nutmegs, mace, pepper, hides, arrack and copra. + + _Particular Lands._--At different times down to 1830 the government + disposed of its lands in full property to individuals who, acquiring + complete control of the inhabitants as well as of the soil, continued + down to the 19th century to act as if they were independent of all + superior authority. In this way more than 1½ millions of the people + were subject not to the state but to "stock companies, absentee + landlords and Chinese." According to the _Regeerings Almanak_ (1906) + these "particular lands," as they are called, were distributed as + follows: Bantam 21, Batavia 36, Meester Cornelis 163, Tangerang 80, + Buitenzorg 61, Semarang 32, Surabaya 46, Krawang and Demak 3 each, + Cheribon 2, and Pekalongan, Kendal and Pasuruan 1 each. In Meester + Cornelis no fewer than 297,912 persons were returned in 1905 as living + on these lands. Of the 168 estates there are not 20 that grow anything + but grass, rice and coconuts. In Buitenzorg (thanks probably to the + Botanic Gardens) matters are better: tea, coffee, cinchona and + india-rubber appearing amongst the objects of cultivation; and, in + general, it must be noted that these estates have often natural + difficulties to contend against far beyond their financial strength. + + _Minerals._--Of all the great islands of the archipelago Java is the + poorest in metallic ores. Gold and silver are practically nonexistent. + Manganese is found in Jokjakarta and various other parts. A concession + for working the magnetic iron sands in the neighbourhood of Chilachap + was granted in 1904. Coal occurs in thin strata and small pockets in + many parts (Bantam, Rembang, Jokjakarta, &c.); and in 1905 a + concession was granted to a company to work the coal-beds at Bajah + close to the harbour of Wijnkoopers Bay, a port of call of the + Koninklijk Paketvaart Maatschappij. The discovery by De Groot in 1863 + of petroleum added a most important industry to the list of the + resources of Java. The great Dort Petroleum Company, now centred at + Amsterdam, was founded in 1887. The production of this company alone + rose from 79,179 _kisten_ or cases (each 8.14 gall.) in 1891 to + 1,642,780 in 1890, and to 1,967,124 in 1905. In 1904 there were no + fewer than 36 concessions for petroleum. At the same time there is a + larger importation of oil from Sumatra as well as from America and + Russia. Sulphur is regularly worked in the Gunong Slamet, G. Sindoro, + G. Sumbing, and in the crater of the Tangkuban Prahu as well as in + other places in the Preanger regencies and in Pasuruan. Brine-wells + exist in various parts. The bledegs (salt-mud wells) of Grobogan in + the Solo Valley, Semarang, are best known. They rise from Miocene + strata and yield iodine and bromine products as well as common salt. + The natives of the district are allowed to extract the salt for their + own use, but elsewhere (except in Jokjakarta) the manufacture of salt + is a government monopoly and confined to the districts of Sumenep, + Panekasan and Sampang in Madura, where from 3000 to 4000 people are + hereditarily engaged in extracting salt from sea water, delivering it + to the government at the rate of 10 fl. (nearly 17s.) per koyang (3700 + lb.). The distribution of this salt (rough-grained, greyish and highly + hygroscopic) is extremely unsatisfactory. The waste was so great that + in 1901 the government paid a prize of about £835 (10,000 fl.) to Karl + Boltz von Bolzberg for an improved method of packing. Between 1888 and + 1892 the annual amount delivered was 71,405 tons; in the next five + years it rose to 89,932; and between 1898 and 1902 sank again to + 88,856. The evil effects of this monopoly have been investigated by J. + E. de Meyer, "Zout als middel van belasting," _De Ind. Gids._ (1905). + The scarcity of salt has led to a great importation of salted fish + from Siam (upwards of 6600 tons in 1902). + + _Communications._--Roads and railways for the most part follow the + fertile plains and table-lands along the coast and between the + volcanic areas. The principal railways are the Semarang-Jokjakarta and + Batavia-Buitenzorg lines of the Netherlands-Indian railway company, + and the Surabaya-Pasuruan, Bangil-Mulang, Sidoarjo-Paron, + Kertosono-Tulung Agung, Buitenzorg-Chianjur, Surakarta-Madiun, + Pasuruan-Probolinggo, Jokjakarta-Chilachap and other lines of the + government. The earliest lines, between Batavia and Buitenzorg and + between Semarang and the capitals of the sultanates, were built about + 1870 by a private company with a state guarantee. Since 1875, when Dr + van Goltstein, then a cabinet minister and afterwards Dutch minister + in London, had an act passed for the construction of state railways in + Java, their progress has become much more rapid. In addition, several + private companies have built either light railways or tramways, such + as that between Semarang and Joana, and the total length of all lines + was 2460 in 1905. There are some 3500 miles of telegraph line, and + cables connect Java with Madura, Bali and Sumatra, and Port Darwin in + Australia. Material welfare was promoted by the establishment of lines + of steamships between Java and the other islands, all belonging to a + Royal Packet Company, established in 1888 under a special statute, and + virtually possessing a monopoly on account of the government mail + contracts. + + _Administration._--Each village (dessa) forms an independent + community, a group of dessas forms a district, a group of districts a + department and a group of departments a residency, of which there are + seventeen. At the head of each residency is a resident, with an + assistant resident and a controller, all Dutch officials. The + officials of the departments and districts are natives appointed by + the government; those of the dessa are also natives, elected by the + inhabitants and approved by the resident. In the two sultanates of + Surakarta and Jokjakarta the native sultans govern under the + supervision of the residents. (For the colonial administration of + Netherlands India see MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.) + +_History._--The origin of the name Java is very doubtful. It is not +improbable that it was first applied either to Sumatra or to what was +known of the Indian Archipelago--the insular character of the several +parts not being at once recognized. Jawa Dwipa, or "land of millet," may +have been the original form and have given rise both to the Jaba diu of +Ptolemy and to the Je-pho-thi of Fahien, the Chinese pilgrim of the +4th-5th century. The oldest form of the name in Arabic is apparently +Zábej. The first epigraphic occurrence of Jawa is in an inscription of +1343. In Marco Polo the name is the common appellation of all the Sunda +islands. The Jawa of Ibn Batuta is Sumatra; Java is his Mul Jáwa (i.e. +possibly "original Java"). Jåwå is the modern Javanese name (in the +court speech Jawi), sometimes with Nusa, "island," or Tanah, "country," +prefixed. + +It is impossible to extract a rational historical narrative from the +earlier _babads_ or native chronicles, and even the later are destitute +of any satisfactory chronology. The first great era in the history is +the ascendancy of the Hindus, and that breaks up into three periods--a +period of Buddhism, a period of aggressive Sivaism, and a period of +apparent compromise. Of the various Hindu states that were established +in the island, that of Majapahit was the most widely dominant down to +the end of the 15th century; its tributaries were many, and it even +extended its sway into other parts of the archipelago. The second era of +Javanese history is the invasion of Islam in the beginning of the 15th +century; and the third is the establishment of European and more +particularly of Dutch influence and authority in the island. About 1520 +the Portuguese entered into commercial relationship with the natives, +but at the close of the same century the Dutch began to establish +themselves. At the time when the Dutch East India company began to fix +its trading factories on the coast towns, the chief native state was +Mataram, which had in the 16th century succeeded to the overlordship +possessed by the house of Demak--one of the states that rose after the +fall of Majapahit. The emperors of Java, as the princes of Mataram are +called in the early accounts, had their capital at Kartasura, now an +almost deserted place, 6 m. west of Surakarta. At first and for long the +company had only forts and little fragments of territory at Jakatra +(Batavia), &c.; but in 1705 it obtained definite possession of the +Preanger by treaty with Mataram; and in 1745 its authority was extended +over the whole north-east coast, from Cheribon to Banyuwangi. In 1755 +the kingdom of Mataram was divided into the two states of Surakarta and +Jokjakarta, which still retain a shadow of independence. The kingdom of +Bantam was finally subjugated in 1808. By the English occupation of the +island (1811-1818) the European ascendancy was rather strengthened than +weakened; the great Java war (1825-1830), in which Dipå Negårå, the last +Javanese prince, a clever, bold and unscrupulous leader, struggled to +maintain his claim to the whole island, resulted in the complete success +of the Dutch. To subdue him and his following, however, taxed all the +resources of the Dutch Indian army for a period of five years, and cost +it the loss of 15,000 officers and soldiers, besides millions of +guilders. Nor did his great influence die with him when his adventurous +career came to a close in 1855 at Macassar. Many Javanese, who dream of +a restoration of their ancient empire, do not believe even yet that Dipå +Negårå is dead. They are readily persuaded by fanatical hadjis that +their hero will suddenly appear to drive away the Dutch and claim his +rightful heritage. Several times there have been political troubles in +the native states of central Java, in which Dipå Negårå's name was used, +notably in 1883, when many rebellious chieftains were exiled. Similar +attempts at revolt had been made before, mainly in 1865 and 1870, but +none so serious perhaps as that in 1849, in which a son and a brother of +Dipå Negårå were implicated, aiming to deliver and reinstate him. All +such attempts proved as futile there as others in different parts of +Java, especially in Bantam, where the trouble of 1850 and 1888 had a +religious origin, and in the end they directly contributed to the +consolidation of Dutch sway. Being the principal Dutch colony in the +Malay Archipelago, Java was the first to benefit from the material +change which resulted from the introduction of the Grondwet or +Fundamental Law of 1848 in Holland. The main changes were of an +economical character, but the political developments were also +important. Since 1850 Dutch authority has steadily advanced, principally +at the expense of the semi-independent sultanates in central Java, which +had been allowed to remain after the capture and exile of Dipå Negårå. +The power of the sultans of Jokjakarta and Surakarta has diminished; in +1863 Dutch authority was strengthened in the neighbouring island of +Madura, and Bantam has lost every vestige of independence. The +strengthening of the Dutch power has largely resulted from a more +statesmanlike and more generous treatment of the natives, who have been +educated to regard the _orang blanda_, or white man, as their protector +against the native rulers. Thus, in 1866, passports for natives +travelling in Java were abolished by the then governor-general, Dr Sloet +van de Beele, who also introduced many reforms, reducing the _corvée_ in +the government plantations to a minimum, and doing away with the +monopoly of fisheries. Six years later a primary education system for +the natives, and a penal code, whose liberal provisions seemed framed +for Europeans, were introduced. + + _Antiquities._--Ordinary traces of early human occupation are few in + Java. The native bamboo buildings speedily perish. Stone weapons are + occasionally found. But remains of the temples and monastic buildings + of the Hindu period are numerous and splendid, and are remarkable as + representing architecture which reached a high standard without the + use of mortar, supporting columns or arches. Chandis (i.e. temples, + though the word originally meant a depository for the ashes of a + saint) are not found in western Java. They exist in two great zones: + one in middle Java, one in eastern Java, each with its own + distinguishing characteristics, both architectural and religious. The + former begins in the Dyeng plateau, in the east of Banyumas, and + extends into the east of Bagelen, Kedu and the neighbouring districts + of Semarang, northern Jokjakarta, and the western corner of Surakarta. + The latter lies mainly in Surabaya, Kediri and Pasuruan. A + considerable number of ruins also exist in Probolinggo. Farther east + they grow scarce. There is none in Madura. The remains of Macham Putih + in Banyuwangi are possibly of non-Hindu origin. In the regency of + Kendal (Semarang), to the north of Kedu, the place-names show that + temples once existed.[16] Some of them are Sivaite, some Buddhist, + some astoundingly composite. None of the Buddhist buildings shows + traces of the older Himaryana form of the creed. The greatest of all + is a perfect sculptural exposition of the Mahayana doctrine. As to the + period during which these temples were erected, authorities are not + agreed. Ijzerman assigns the central Java groups to between the 8th + and the 10th centuries. The seven-storeyed vihara (monastery) + mentioned in the famous Menang-Kabu inscription (Sumatra) as founded + by Maharaja Dhiraya Adityadharma in A.D. 656 is by some supposed to be + Boro-Budur. A copper plate of 840 refers to Dyeng (Dehyang) as one of + the sacred mountains of Java. One thing seems certain, that the + temples of the eastern zone are of much more recent origin than most, + at least, of the central zone. They are generally distinguished by the + characteristics of a decadent and more voluptuous age, and show that + the art of the time had become less Indian and more Javanese, with + traces of influences derived from the more eastern East. At the same + time it must be noted that even in Boro Budur there are non-Indian + elements in the decoration, indicating that the Hindu architect + employed native artists and to some extent left them a free hand. + + In his standard work on _Indian and Eastern Architecture_ (London, + 1876), James Fergusson asserted that the Javanese temples are in the + Chalukyan style. But J. W. Ijzerman in an elaborate paper in the + _Album-Kern_ contends that the learned historian of architecture was + misled by basing his opinion mainly on inaccurate drawings reproduced + by Raffles. The Javanese temples, with the solitary exception of + Chandi Bima in the Dyeng, are Dravidian and not Chalukyan. The very + temples quoted by Fergusson, when more carefully examined, disprove + his statement: a fact not without its bearing on the history of the + Hindu immigration. + + The wonderful scenery of the Dyeng plateau was already, in all + probability, an object of superstitious awe to the aboriginal + inhabitants of Java; and thus it would catch the attention of the + earliest Hindu settlers. The old crater floor is full of traces of + human occupation; though, in spite of the tradition of the existence + of a considerable town, no sepulchral relics of the inhabitants have + been discovered. There still remain five groups of temples--some well + preserved, some mere heaps of stone--to prove the devotion their + builders bore to Siva, his consort Durga, and Ganesha their son. The + Arjuno group, in the middle of the plateau, consists of Chandi Arjuno + (with its chapel or priests' residence, Ch. Semar), Ch. Srikahdi, Ch. + Puntadeva and Ch. Sembadro, each a simple square chamber with a + portico reached by a flight of steps. The second group, Ch. Daravati + and Ch. Parakesit, lies to the north-east. The third, now a ruined + mound, lies to the east. The fourth, to the north-west, is a group of + seven small temples of which Ch. Sanchaki is the most important, with + a square ground plan and an octagon roof with a second circular + storey. Of the fifth group, in the south, only one temple remains--the + Chandi Bima--a small, beautiful and exceptionally interesting + building, in "the form of a pyramid, the ribs of which stand out much + more prominently than the horizontal lines of the niche-shaped + ornaments which rest each on its lotus cushion." How this happens to + be the one Chalukyan temple amid hundreds is a problem to be solved. + The plateau lies 6500 ft. above the sea, and roads and stairways, + locally known as Buddha roads, lead up from the lowlands of Bagelen + and Pekalongan. The stairway between Lake Menjur and Lake Chebong + alone consisted of 4700 steps. The width of the roadway, however, is + only some three or four feet. A remarkable subterranean tunnel still + exists, which served to drain the plateau. + + Of all the Hindu temples of Java the largest and most magnificent is + Boro-Budur, which ranks among the architectural marvels of the world. + It lies in the residency of Kedu, a little to the west of the Progo, a + considerable stream flowing south to the Indian Ocean. The place is + best reached by taking the steam-tram from Magelang or Jokjakarta to + the village of Muntilam Passar, where a conveyance may be hired. + Strictly speaking, Boro-Budur is not a temple but a hill, rising about + 150 ft. above the plain, encased with imposing terraces constructed of + hewn lava-blocks and crowded with sculptures. The lowest terrace now + above ground forms a square, each side 497 ft. long. About 50 ft. + higher there is another terrace of similar shape. Then follow four + other terraces of more irregular contour. The structure is crowned by + a dome or cupola 52 ft. in diameter surrounded by sixteen smaller + bell-shaped cupolas. Regarded as a whole, the main design, to quote Mr + Sewell, may be described as "an archaic Indian temple, considerably + flattened and consisting of a series of terraces, surmounted by a + quasi-stupa capped by a dagoba." It was discovered by the engineer J. + W. Ijzerman in 1885 that the basement of the structure had been + earthed up before the building was finished, and that the lowest + retaining wall was completely concealed by the embankment. The + architects had evidently found that their temple was threatened with a + destructive subsidence; and, while the sculptors were still busy with + the decoration of the lower façades, they had to abandon their work. + But the unfinished bas-reliefs were carefully protected by clay and + blocks of stone and left in position; and since 1896 they are + gradually but systematically being exhumed and photographed by the + Dutch archaeologists, who, however, have to proceed with caution, + filling up one portion of the embankment before they go on to deal + with another. The subjects treated in this lowest enceinte are of the + most varied description, forming a picture-gallery of landscapes, + scenes of outdoor and domestic life, mingled with mythological and + religious designs. Among the genre class appear men shooting birds + with blow-pipe or bow and arrow, fishermen with rod or net, a man + playing a bagpipe, and so on. It would seem as if the architect had + intended gradually to wean the devotees from the things of this world. + When once they began to ascend from stage to stage of the temple-hill + they were introduced to the realities of religion; and by the time + they reached the dagoba they had passed through a process of + instruction and were ready, with enlightened eyes, to enter and behold + the image of Buddha, symbolically left imperfect, as beyond the power + of human art to realize or portray. From basement to summit the whole + hill is a great picture bible of the Mahayana creed. + + If the statues and bas-reliefs of Boro-Budur were placed side by side + they would extend for 3 m. The eye of the spectator, looking up from + the present ground-level, is caught, says Mr Sewell, by the rows of + life-size Buddhas that adorn the retaining walls of the several + terraces and the cage-like shrines on the circular platforms. All the + great figures on the east side represent Akshobhya, the Dhyani Buddha + of the East. His right hand is in the Chumisparsa mudra (pose) + touching the earth in front of the right knee--"I swear by the earth." + All the statues on the south side are Ratnasam Chavu in the varada + mudra--the right hand displayed upwards--"I give you all." On the west + side the statues represent Amitabha in the dhyana or padinasama mudra, + the right hand resting palm upwards on the left, both being on the + lap--the attitude of meditation. Those on the north represent + Amogasiddhi in the abhaya mudra, the right hand being raised and + displayed, palm outwards--"Fear not, all is well." + + Other remarkable groups of Hindu temples exist near the village of + Prambanan[17] (less correctly Brambanan) in Surakarta, but not far + from the borders of Jokjakarta, with a station on the railway between + the two chief towns. The village has been named after the temples, + Prambanan signifying the place of teachers. The whole ecclesiastical + settlement was surrounded by three lines of wall, of which only the + inmost is now visible above ground. Between the second and third walls + are 157 small temples, and in the central enclosure are the ruins of + six larger temples in a double row with two smaller ones at the side. + The middle temple of the western row is the main building, full of + statues of purely Sivaite character--Siva as Guru or teacher, Siva as + Kala or Time the Destroyer, Durga, Ganesha, and so on. But, just as + many churches in Christendom are called not after the Christ but after + the Virgin, so this is known as Lara (i.e. Virgin) Janggrang from the + popular name of Durga. In the southern temple of the row is a very + fine figure of a four-armed Brahma; in the northern there was a Vishnu + with attendant figures. Of the other row the middle temple is again + the largest, with Siva, his nandi or bull, and other symbolic + sculptures. To the north lies the extraordinary cluster of temples + which, though it does not deserve its popular name of Chandi Sewu, the + thousand shrines, consists of at least 240 small buildings gathered + round a great central temple, richly adorned, though roofless and + partially ruined since the earthquake of 1867. Among the more + noteworthy figures are those of the huge and ungainly guardians of the + temple kneeling at the four main gateways of each of the principal + buildings. Colonel Yule pointed out that there are distinct traces of + a fine coat of stucco on the exterior and the interior of the + buildings, and he compared in this respect "the cave walls of Ellora, + the great idols at Bamian, and the Doric order at Selinus." Other + temples in the same neighbourhood as Chandi Sewu are Ch. Lumbung, Ch. + Kali Bening (Baneng), with a monstrous Kala head as the centre of the + design on the southern side, Ch. Kalong and Ch. Plaosan. Tradition + assigns these temples to 1266-1296. + + Of the temples of the eastern zone the best known is Chandi Jago (or + Tumpang), elaborately described in the Archaeological Commission's + monograph. According to the _Pararaton_, a native chronicle (published + in the _Verhand. v. h. Bat. Gen. v. K. en W._, 1896), it belongs to + the 13th century, containing the tomb of Rangavuni or Vishnuvardhana, + who died in 1272-1273. The shrine proper occupies the third of three + platforms, the lowest of which forms a square of 45 to 46 ft. each + side. The building fronts the west, and is constructed of an andesitic + tuff of inferior quality and dark colour. Of distinctly Buddhistic + influence there is no trace. The makara (elephant-fish head) is + notably absent. The sculptures which run round the base and along the + sides of the platforms or terraces are of the most elaborate and + varied description--kings on thrones, dwarfs, elephants, supernatural + beings, diabolical and grotesque, tree-monsters, palaces, temples, + courtyards, lakes, gardens, forests--all are represented. In one place + appears a Chinese--or Burmese-looking seven-roofed pagoda; in another, + a tall temple strangely split down the centre, with a flight of steps + running up the fissure. The inscriptions are in the Devanagari + character. In the same neighbourhood are Ch. Singossari, Ch. Kidal, + &c. Another of the most beautiful of the eastern temples is Ch. + Jabung, mentioned in 1330. It is built of red brick; and its + distinctly Javanese origin is suggested by the frequency of the + snake-motif still characteristic of modern Javanese art. It may be + added that a comparison of the several buildings of the zone affords + an interesting study in the development of the pilaster as a + decorative rather than structural element. + + At Panabaram, near Blitar, Kediri, is another group of stone temples + and other buildings. The chief temple is remarkable for the richness + of its sculptures, which are peculiarly delicate and spirited in their + details. The decoration of the mere robes of one of the free-standing + stairway-guardians consists of scroll-work, interspersed with birds + and animals rendered in a non-Indian style, reminiscent of Chinese or + Japanese work. It has been described as one of the most beautiful + pieces of sculpture in all the East. + + Sculptures from the temples are scattered far and wide throughout + Java, and it is one of the greatest difficulties of the archaeologist + to determine the origin of many of the most interesting specimens. + This, too, is often the case with those that have found their way to + the museums of Java and Europe (Batavia, Leiden, Haarlem, Berlin, + &c.). Minor relics of the past are to be found alike in the palaces of + the nobles and the huts of the highland peasants. Zodiac cups of + copper or bronze dating from the 12th or 13th century are in daily use + among the Tenggerese. The musical instruments used by the musicians of + the native courts are often prized on account of their great + antiquity. + + As many of the Chinese came from China centuries ago and have not + ceased to hold intercourse with their native country, the houses of + the wealthier men among them are often rich in ancient specimens of + Chinese art. The special exhibition organized by Henri Borel and other + enthusiasts showed how much of value in this matter might be brought + together in spite of the reluctance of the owners to commit the + sacrilege of exposing to public gaze the images of their ancestral + gods and heroes. Borel has given exquisite examples of images of + Kwan-yin (the Chinese Virgin-Goddess), of Buddhas, of the ghoulish god + of literature, of Lie-tai-Peh (the Chinese poet who has gone to live + in the planet Venus), &c., in illustration of his papers in _L'Art + flamand et hollandais_, pt. v. (1900), a translation of his monograph + published at Batavia. + + AUTHORITIES.--Besides the special works quoted _passim_, see Sir + Stamford Raffles, _History of Java_ (London, 1830); F. Junghuhn, + _Java: seine Gestalt, Pflanzendecke, und innere Bauart_ (Ger. trans. + by J. K. Hasskarl, Leipzig, 1854-1857); P. J. Veth, _Java, + Geographisch, ethnologisch, historisch_ (2nd ed., Haarlem, 1896-1903), + a masterly compendium originally based largely on Junghuhn's + descriptions; L. van Deventer, _Geschiedenis der Nederlanders op Java_ + (2nd ed., Haarlem, 1895); L. W. C. van den Berg, _Le Hadhramout et les + colonies arabes dans l'archipel indien_ (Batavia, 1886); E. R. + Scidmore, _Java, the Garden of the East_ (New York, 1898); J. + Chailley-Bert, _Java et ses habitants_ (Paris, 1900); C. Day, _The + Policy and Administration of the Dutch in Java_ (London, 1904); E. S. + de Klerck, _De Java-Oorlog van_ 1825-1830 (Batavia, 1905); + _Encyclopaedie v. N. Indië_, art. "Java;" _Guide à travers + l'Exposition de Paris_ (The Hague, 1900), with articles by specialists + on each department of the Dutch colonies, more particularly Java; + _Koloniale Verslagen en Regeerings-almanak van N. Indië_, being + official publications of the Dutch and Dutch East-Indian Government + (see also MALAY ARCHIPELAGO). (H. A. W.; O. J. R. H.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] It must be observed that Bavian, &c., are mere conventional + appendices to Java. + + [2] H. B. Guppy (_R. S. G. Soc. Magazine_, 1889) holds that there is + no sufficient proof of this connexion but gives interesting details + of the present movement. + + [3] See G. F. Tijdeman's map of the depths of the sea in the eastern + part of the Indian archipelago in M. Weber's _Siboga Expedition_, + 1903. The details of the coast forms of the island have been studied + by J. F. Snelleman and J. F. Niermeyer in a paper in the Veth + _Feestbundel_, utilizing _inter alia_ Guppy's observations. + + [4] This Merapi must be carefully distinguished from Merapi the Fire + Mountain of Sumatra. + + [5] R. D. M. Verbeek and R. Fennema, _Description géologique de Java + et Madoura_ (2 vols. and atlas, Amsterdam, 1896; also published in + Dutch)--a summary with map was published by Verbeek in _Peterm. + Mitt._ xliv. (1898), 24-33, pl. 3. Also K. Martin, _Die Eintheilung + der versteinerungsführenden Sedimente von Java_, Samml. Geol. + Reichsmus. Leiden, ser. i., vol. vi. (1899-1902), 135-245. + + [6] On the 16th of November the sun rises at 5.32 and sets at 5.57; + on the 16th of July it rises at 6.12 and sets at 5.57. The longest + day is in December and the shortest in June, while on the other hand + the sun is highest in February and October and lowest in June and + December. + + [7] S. Figei. _Regenwaarnemingen in Nederlandsch Indië_ (1902). + + [8] See J. C. Konigsberger, "De vogels Java en hunne oeconomische + betukenis," _Med. int. s. Lands Plantentuin_. + + [9] See especially M. Weber, _Siboga Expedition_. + + [10] The _Annales de Buitenzorg_, with their _Icones bogorienses_, + are universally known; the _Teysmannia_ is named after a former + director. A history of the gardens was published by Dr Treub, + _Festboek van's Lands Plantentuin_ (1891). + + [11] Bertha Hoola van Nooten published _Fleurs, fruits et feuillages + de la flore et de la pomone de l'île de Java_ in 1863, but the book + is difficult of access. Excellent views of characteristic aspects of + the vegetation will be found in Karsten and Schenck, + _Vegetationsbilder_ (1903). + + [12] It is interesting to compare this with the natural + "reflorization" of Krakatoa. See Penzig, _Ann. jard. de Buitenzorg_, + vol. viii. (1902); and W. Botting in _Nature_ (1903). + + [13] See Walbreken, _De Taalsvorten in het Javaansh_; and G. A. + Wilken, _Handboek voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch + Indie_, edited by C. M. Pleyte (1893). + + [14] See Van den Berg's account of the MSS. of the Batavian Society + (the Hague, 1877); and a series of papers by C. Poensen in _Meded. + van wege het Ned. Zendelinggenootschap_ (1880). + + [15] Cheribon is the form employed by the Dutch: an exception to + their usual system, in which Tj- takes the place of the Ch- used in + this article. + + [16] See R. Verbeek, "Liget der oudheden van Java," in _Verhand. v. + h. Bat. Gen._, xlvi., and his _Oudheidkundige kaart van Java_. R. + Sewell's "Antiquarian notes in Java," in _Journal of the Royal + Asiatic Society_ (1906), give the best conspectus available for + English readers. W. B. Worsfold, _A Visit to Java_ (London, 1893), + has a good sketch of what was then known, revised by Professor W. + Rhys Davids; but whoever wishes full information must refer to Dutch + authorities. These are numerous but difficult of access. + + [17] The chief authorities on Prambanan are J. W. Ijzerman, + _Beschrijving der oudheden nabij de Grens der residenties Soerakarta + en Djogjakarta_ (Batavia, 1891, with photographs and atlas); and J. + Groneman, _Tjandi Parambanan op Midden Java_; see also _Guide à + travers l'exposition des Pays-Bas_ (The Hague, 1900), No. 174, sqq. + + + + +JAVELIN, a spear, particularly one light enough to be thrown, a dart. +The javelin was often provided with a thong to help in casting (see +SPEAR). Javelin-throwing is one of the contests in the athletic section +at the international Olympic games. Formerly the sheriff of a county or +borough had a body of men armed with javelins, and known as javelin-men, +who acted as a bodyguard for the judges when they went on assize. Their +duties are now performed by the ordinary police. The word itself is an +adaptation of Fr. _javeline_. There are several words in Celtic and +Scandinavian languages and in Old English, meaning a spear or dart, that +seem to be connected with _javel_, the base form in French; thus Welsh +_gaflach_, Irish _gabhla_, O. Norwegian _gaflok_, O. E. _gafeluc_, later +in the form _gavelock_, cf. O. Norman-Fr. _gavelot_, _javelot_, Ital. +_giavelotto_. The origin seems to be Celtic, and the word is cognate +with Ir. _gafa_, a hook, fork, gaff; the root is seen in "gable" (q.v.), +and in the German _Gabel_, fork. The change in meaning from fork, forked +end of a spear, to the spear itself is obscure. + + + + +JAW (Mid. Eng. _jawe_, _jowe_ and _geowe_, O. Eng. _cheowan_, connected +with "chaw" and "chew," and in form with "jowl"), in anatomy, the term +for the upper maxillary bone, and the mandible or lower maxillary bone +of the skull; it is sometimes loosely applied to all the lower front +parts of the skull (q.v.). + + + + +JAWALIQI, ABU MANSUR MAUHUB UL-JAWALIQI (1073-1145), Arabian grammarian, +was born at Bagdad, where he studied philology under Tibrizi and became +famous for his handwriting. In his later years he acted as imam to the +caliph Moqtafi. His chief work is the _Kitab ul-Mu'arrab_, or +"Explanation of Foreign Words used in Arabic." + + The text was edited from an incomplete manuscript by E. Sachau + (Leipzig, 1867). Many of the lacunae in this have been supplied from + another manuscript by W. Spitta in the _Journal of the German Oriental + Society_, xxxiii. 208 sqq. Another work, written as a supplement to + the _Durrat ul-Ghawwas_ of Hariri (q.v.), has been published as "Le + Livre des locutions vicieuses," by H. Derenbourg in _Morgenländische + Forschungen_ (Leipzig, 1875), pp. 107-166. (G. W. T.) + + + + +JAWHAR, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of Bombay, +situated among the lower ranges of the western Ghats. Area 310 sq. m. +Pop. (1901), 47,538. The estimated revenue is £11,000; there is no +tribute. The chief, who is a Koli by caste, traces back his descent to +1343. The leading exports are teak and rice. The principal village is +that of Jawhar (pop. 3567). + + + + +JAWORÓW, a town in Galicia, Austria, 30 m. W. of Lemberg. Pop. (1900), +10,090. It has a pottery, a brewery, a distillery and some trade in +agricultural produce. Not far from it is the watering-place of Szkto +with sulphur springs. The town was a favourite residence of John +Sobieski, who there received the congratulations of the pope and the +Venetian republic on his success against the Turks at Vienna (1683). At +Jaworów Peter the Great was betrothed to Catherine I. + + + + +JAY, JOHN (1745-1829), American statesman, the descendant of a Huguenot +family, and son of Peter Jay, a successful New York merchant, was born +in New York City on the 12th of December 1745. On graduating at King's +College (now Columbia University) in 1764, Jay entered the office of +Benjamin Kissam, an eminent New York lawyer. In 1768 he was admitted to +the bar, and rapidly acquired a lucrative practice. In 1774 he married +Sarah, youngest daughter of William Livingston, and was thus brought +into close relations with one of the most influential families in New +York. Like many other able young lawyers, Jay took an active part in the +proceedings that resulted in the independence of the United States, +identifying himself with the conservative element in the Whig or patriot +party. He was sent as a delegate from New York City to the Continental +Congress at Philadelphia in September 1774, and though almost the +youngest member, was entrusted with drawing up the address to the people +of Great Britain. Of the second congress, also, which met at +Philadelphia on the 10th of May 1775, Jay was a member; and on its +behalf he prepared an address to the people of Canada and an address to +the people of Jamaica and Ireland. In April 1776, while still retaining +his seat in the Continental Congress, Jay was chosen as a member of the +third provincial congress of New York; and his consequent absence from +Philadelphia deprived him of the honour of affixing his signature to the +Declaration of Independence. As a member of the fourth provincial +congress he drafted a resolution by which the delegates of New York in +the Continental Congress were authorized to sign the Declaration of +Independence. In 1777 he was chairman of the committee of the convention +which drafted the first New York state constitution. After acting for +some time as one of the council of safety (which administered the state +government until the new constitution came into effect), he was made +chief justice of New York state, in September 1777. A clause in the +state constitution prohibited any justice of the Supreme Court from +holding any other post save that of delegate to Congress on a "special +occasion," but in November 1778 the legislature pronounced the +secession of what is now the state of Vermont from the jurisdiction of +New Hampshire and New York to be such an occasion, and sent Jay to +Congress charged with the duty of securing a settlement of the +territorial claims of his state. He took his seat in congress on the 7th +of December, and on the 10th was chosen president in succession to Henry +Laurens. + +On the 27th of September 1779 Jay was appointed minister plenipotentiary +to negotiate a treaty between Spain and the United States. He was +instructed to endeavour to bring Spain into the treaty already existing +between France and the United States by a guarantee that Spain should +have the Floridas in case of a successful issue of the war against Great +Britain, reserving, however, to the United States the free navigation of +the Mississippi. He was also to solicit a subsidy in consideration of +the guarantee, and a loan of five million dollars. His task was one of +extreme difficulty. Although Spain had joined France in the war against +Great Britain, she feared to imperil her own colonial interests by +directly encouraging and aiding the former British colonies in their +revolt against their mother country, and she had refused to recognize +the United States as an independent power. Jay landed at Cadiz on the +22nd of January 1780, but was told that he could not be received in a +formally diplomatic character. In May the king's minister, Count de +Florida Bianca, intimated to him that the one obstacle to a treaty was +the question of the free navigation of the Mississippi, and for months +following this interview the policy of the court was clearly one of +delay. In February 1781 Congress instructed Jay that he might make +concessions regarding the navigation of the Mississippi, if necessary; +but further delays were interposed, the news of the surrender of +Yorktown arrived, and Jay decided that any sacrifice to obtain a treaty +was no longer advisable. His efforts to procure a loan were not much +more successful, and he was seriously embarrassed by the action of +Congress in drawing bills upon him for large sums. Although by +importuning the Spanish minister, and by pledging his personal +responsibility, Jay was able to meet some of the bills, he was at last +forced to protest others; and the credit of the United States was saved +only by a timely subsidy from France. + +In 1781 Jay was commissioned to act with Franklin, John Adams, Jefferson +and Henry Laurens in negotiating a peace with Great Britain. He arrived +in Paris on the 23rd of June 1782, and jointly with Franklin had +proceeded far with the negotiations when Adams arrived late in October. +The instructions of the American negotiators were as follows:-- + + "You are to make the most candid and confidential communications upon + all subjects to the ministers of our generous ally, the king of + France; to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce + without their knowledge and concurrence; and ultimately to govern + yourselves by their advice and opinion, endeavouring in your whole + conduct to make them sensible how much we rely on his majesty's + influence for effectual support in every thing that may be necessary + to the present security, or future prosperity, of the United States of + America." + +Jay, however, in a letter written to the president of Congress from +Spain, had expressed in strong terms his disapproval of such dependence +upon France, and, on arriving in Paris, he demanded that Great Britain +should treat with his country on an equal footing by first recognizing +its independence, although the French minister, Count de Vergennes, +contended that an acknowledgment of independence as an effect of the +treaty was as much as could reasonably be expected. Finally, owing +largely to Jay, who suspected the good faith of France, the American +negotiators decided to treat independently with Great Britain. The +provisional articles, which were so favourable to the United States as +to be a great surprise to the courts of France and Spain, were signed on +the 30th of November 1782, and were adopted with no important change as +the final treaty on the 3rd of September 1783. + +On the 24th of July 1784 Jay landed in New York, where he was presented +with the freedom of the city and elected a delegate to Congress. On the +7th of May Congress had already chosen him to be secretary for foreign +affairs, and in December Jay resigned his seat in Congress and accepted +the secretaryship. He continued to act in this capacity until 1790, when +Jefferson became secretary of state under the new constitution. In the +question of this constitution Jay had taken a keen interest, and as an +advocate of its ratification he wrote over the name "Publius," five +(Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 64) of the famous series of papers known +collectively as the _Federalist_ (see HAMILTON, ALEXANDER). He published +anonymously (though without succeeding in concealing the authorship) _An +Address to the People of New York_, in vindication of the constitution; +and in the state convention at Poughkeepsie he ably seconded Hamilton in +securing its ratification by New York. In making his first appointments +to federal offices President Washington asked Jay to take his choice; +Jay chose that of chief justice of the Supreme Court, and held this +position from September 1789 to June 1795. The most famous case that +came before him was that of _Chisolm_ v. _Georgia_, in which the +question was, Can a state be sued by a citizen of another state? Georgia +argued that it could not be so sued, on the ground that it was a +sovereign state, but Jay decided against Georgia, on the ground that +sovereignty in America resided with the people. This decision led to the +adoption of the eleventh amendment to the federal constitution, which +provides that no suit may be brought in the federal courts against any +state by a citizen of another state or by a citizen or subject of any +foreign state. In 1792 Jay consented to stand for the governorship of +New York State, but a partisan returning-board found the returns of +three counties technically defective, and though Jay had received an +actual majority of votes, his opponent, George Clinton, was declared +elected. + +Ever since the War of Independence there had been friction between Great +Britain and the United States. To the grievances of the United States, +consisting principally of Great Britain's refusal to withdraw its troops +from the forts on the north-western frontier, as was required by the +peace treaty of 1783, her refusal to make compensation for negroes +carried away by the British army at the close of the War of Independence, +her restrictions on American commerce, and her refusal to enter into any +commercial treaty with the United States, were added, after war broke out +between France and Great Britain in 1793, the anti-neutral naval policy +according to which British naval vessels were authorized to search +American merchantmen and impress American seamen, provisions were treated +as contraband of war, and American vessels were seized for no other +reason than that they had on board goods which were the property of the +enemy or were bound for a port which though not actually blockaded was +declared to be blockaded. The anti-British feeling in the House of +Representatives became so strong that on the 7th of April 1794 a +resolution was introduced to prohibit commercial intercourse between the +United States and Great Britain until the north-western posts should be +evacuated and Great Britain's anti-neutral naval policy should be +abandoned. Thereupon Washington, fearing that war might result, appointed +Jay minister extraordinary to Great Britain to negotiate a new treaty, +and the Senate confirmed the appointment by a vote of 18 to 8, although +the non-intercourse resolution which came from the house a few days later +was defeated in the senate only by the casting vote of Vice-President +John Adams. Jay landed at Falmouth in June 1794, signed a treaty with +Lord Grenville on the 19th of November, and disembarked again at New York +on the 28th of May 1795. The treaty, known in history as Jay's Treaty, +provided that the north-western posts should be evacuated by the 1st of +June 1796, that commissioners should be appointed to settle the +north-east and the north-west boundaries, and that the British claims for +British debts as well as the American claims for compensation for illegal +seizures should be referred to commissioners. More than one-half of the +clauses in the treaty related to commerce, and although they contained +rather small concessions to the United States, they were about as much as +could reasonably have been expected in the circumstances. One clause, the +operation of which was limited to two years from the close of the +existing war, provided that American vessels not exceeding 70 tons burden +might trade with the West Indies, but should carry only American +products there and take away to American ports only West Indian products; +moreover, the United States was to export in American vessels no +molasses, sugar, coffee, cocoa or cotton to any part of the world. Jay +consented to this prohibition under the impression that the articles +named were peculiarly the products of the West Indies, not being aware +that cotton was rapidly becoming an important export from the southern +states. The operation of the other commercial clauses was limited to +twelve years. By them the United States was granted limited privileges of +trade with the British East Indies; some provisions were made for +reciprocal freedom of trade between the United States and the British +dominions in Europe; some articles were specified under the head of +"contraband of war"; it was agreed that whenever provisions were seized +as contraband they should be paid for, and that in cases of the capture +of a vessel carrying contraband goods such goods only and not the whole +cargo should be seized; it was also agreed that no vessel should be +seized merely because it was bound for a blockaded port, unless it +attempted to enter the port after receiving notice of the blockade. The +treaty was laid before the Senate on the 8th of June 1795, and, with the +exception of the clause relating to trade with the West Indies, was +ratified on the 24th by a vote of 20 to 10. As yet the public was +ignorant of its contents, and although the Senate had enjoined secrecy on +its members even after the treaty had been ratified, Senator Mason of +Virginia gave out a copy for publication only a few days later. The +Republican party, strongly sympathizing with France and strongly +disliking Great Britain, had been opposed to Jay's mission, and had +denounced Jay as a traitor and guillotined him in effigy when they heard +that he was actually negotiating. The publication of the treaty only +added to their fury. They filled newspapers with articles denouncing it, +wrote virulent pamphlets against it, and burned Jay in effigy. The +British flag was insulted. Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting in New +York while speaking in defence of the treaty, and Washington was grossly +abused for signing it. In the House of Representatives the Republicans +endeavoured to prevent the execution of the treaty by refusing the +necessary appropriations, and a vote (29th of April, 1795) on a +resolution that it ought to be carried into effect stood 49 to 49; but on +the next day the opposition was defeated by a vote of 51 to 48. Once in +operation, the treaty grew in favour. Two days before landing on his +return from the English mission, Jay had been elected governor of New +York state; notwithstanding his temporary unpopularity, he was re-elected +in April 1798. With the close of this second term of office in 1801, he +ended his public career. Although not yet fifty-seven years old, he +refused all offers of office and retiring to his estate near Bedford in +Westchester county, N.Y., spent the rest of his life in rarely +interrupted seclusion. In politics he was throughout inclined toward +Conservatism, and after the rise of parties under the federal government +he stood with Alexander Hamilton and John Adams as one of the foremost +leaders of the Federalist party, as opposed to the Republicans or +Democratic-Republicans. From 1821 until 1828 he was president of the +American Bible Society. He died on the 17th of May 1829. The purity and +integrity of his life are commemorated in a sentence by Daniel Webster: +"When the spotless ermine of the judicial robe fell on John Jay, it +touched nothing less spotless than itself." + + See _The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay_ (4 vols., New + York, 1890-1893), edited by H. P. Johnston; William Jay, _Life of John + Jay with Selections from his Correspondence and Miscellaneous Papers_ + (2 vols., New York, 1833); William Whitelocke, _Life and Times of John + Jay_ (New York, 1887); and George Pellew, _John Jay_ (Boston, 1890), + in the "American Statesmen Series." + +John Jay's son, WILLIAM JAY (1789-1858), was born in New York City on +the 16th of June 1789, graduated from Yale in 1807, and soon afterwards +assumed the management of his father's large estate in Westchester +county, N.Y. He was actively interested in peace, temperance and +anti-slavery movements. He took a prominent part in 1816 in founding +the American Bible Society; was a judge of Westchester county from 1818 +to 1843, when he was removed from office by the party in power in New +York, which hoped, by sacrificing an anti-slavery judge, to gain +additional strength in the southern states; joined the American +anti-slavery society in 1834, and held several important offices in this +organization. In 1840, however, when it began to advocate measures which +he deemed too radical, he withdrew his membership, but with his pen he +continued his labours on behalf of the slave, urging emancipation in the +district of Columbia and the exclusion of slavery from the Territories, +though deprecating any attempt to interfere with slavery in the states. +He was a member of the American peace society and was its president for +several years. His pamphlet, _War and Peace: the Evils of the First with +a Plan for Securing the Last_, advocating international arbitration, was +published by the English Peace Society in 1842, and is said to have +contributed to the promulgation, by the powers signing the Treaty of +Paris in 1856, of a protocol expressing the wish that nations, before +resorting to arms, should have recourse to the good offices of a +friendly power. Among William Jay's other writings, the most important +are _The Life of John Jay_ (2 vols., 1833) and a _Review of the Causes +and Consequences of the Mexican War_ (1849). He died at Bedford on the +14th of October 1858. + + See Bayard Tuckerman, _William Jay and the Constitutional Movement for + the Abolition of Slavery_ (New York, 1893). + +William Jay's son, JOHN JAY (1817-1894), also took an active part in the +anti-slavery movement. He was a prominent member of the free soil party, +and was one of the organizers of the Republican party in New York. He +was United States minister to Austria-Hungary in 1869-1875, and was a +member, and for a time president, of the New York civil service +commission appointed by Governor Cleveland in 1883. + + + + +JAY, WILLIAM (1769-1853), English Nonconformist divine, was born at +Tisbury in Wiltshire on the 6th of May 1769. He adopted his father's +trade of stone-mason, but gave it up in 1785 in order to enter the Rev. +Cornelius Winter's school at Marlborough. During the three years that +Jay spent there, his preaching powers were rapidly developed. Before he +was twenty-one he had preached nearly a thousand times, and in 1788 he +had for a while occupied Rowland Hill's pulpit in London. Wishing to +continue his reading he accepted the humble pastorate of Christian +Malford, near Chippenham, where he remained about two years. After one +year at Hope chapel, Clifton, he was called to the ministry of Argyle +Independent chapel in Bath; and on the 30th of January 1791 he began the +work of his life there, attracting hearers of every religious +denomination and of every rank, and winning for himself a wide +reputation as a brilliant pulpit orator, an earnest religious author, +and a friendly counsellor. Sheridan declared him to be the most manly +orator he had ever heard. A long and honourable connexion of sixty-two +years came to an end in January 1853, and he died on the 27th of +December following. + + The best-known of Jay's works are his _Morning and Evening Exercises_: + _The Christian contemplated_: _The Domestic Minister's Assistant_; and + his _Discourses_. He also wrote a _Life of Rev. Cornelius Winter_, and + _Memoirs of Rev. John Clarke_. An edition of Jay's _Works_ in 12 + vols., 8vo, revised by himself, was issued in 1842-1844, and again in + 1856. A new edition, in 8 vols., 8vo, was published in 1876. See + _Autobiography_ (1854); S. Wilson's _Memoir of Jay_ (1854); S. Newth + in _Pulpit Memorials_ (1878). + + + + +JAY (Fr. _géai_), a well-known and very beautiful European bird, the +_Corvus glandarius_ of Linnaeus, the _Garrulus glandarius_ of modern +ornithologists. To this species are more or less closely allied numerous +birds inhabiting the Palaearctic and Indian regions, as well as the +greater part of America, but not occurring in the Antilles, in the +southern portion of the Neotropical Region, or in the Ethiopian or +Australian. All these birds are commonly called jays, and form a group +of the crows or _Corvidae_, which may fairly be considered a sub-family, +_Garrulinae_. Indeed there are, or have been, systematists who would +elevate the jays to the rank of a family _Garrulidae_--a proceeding +which seems unnecessary. Some of them have an unquestionable +resemblance to the pies, if the group now known by that name can be +satisfactorily severed from the true _Corvinae_. In structure the jays +are not readily differentiated from the pies; but in habit they are much +more arboreal, delighting in thick coverts, seldom appearing in the +open, and seeking their food on or under trees. They seem also never to +walk or run when on the ground, but always to hop. The body-feathers are +commonly loose and soft; and, gaily coloured as are most of the species, +in few of them has the plumage the metallic glossiness it generally +presents in the pies, while the proverbial beauty of the "jay's wing" is +due to the vivid tints of blue--turquoise and cobalt, heightened by bars +of jet-black, an indication of the same style of ornament being +observable in the greater number of the other forms of the group, and in +some predominating over nearly the whole surface. Of the many genera +that have been proposed by ornithologists, perhaps about nine may be +deemed sufficiently well established. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1--European Jay.] + +The ordinary European jay, _Garrulus glandarius_ (fig. 1), has suffered +so much persecution in the British Islands as to have become in many +districts a rare bird. In Ireland it seems now to be indigenous to the +southern half of the island only; in England generally, it is far less +numerous than formerly; and in Scotland its numbers have decreased with +still greater rapidity. There is little doubt that it would have been +exterminated but for its stock being supplied in autumn by immigration, +and for its shy and wary behaviour, especially at the breeding-season, +when it becomes almost wholly mute, and thereby often escapes detection. +No truthful man, however much he may love the bird, will gainsay the +depredations on fruit and eggs that it at times commits; but the +gardeners and gamekeepers of Britain, instead of taking a few simple +steps to guard their charge from injury, deliberately adopt methods of +wholesale destruction--methods that in the case of this species are only +too easy and too effectual--by proffering temptation to trespass which +it is not in jay-nature to resist, and accordingly the bird runs great +chance of total extirpation. Notwithstanding the war carried on against +the jay, its varied cries and active gesticulations show it to be a +sprightly bird, and at a distance that renders its beauty-spots +invisible, it is yet rendered conspicuous by its cinnamon-coloured body +and pure white tail-coverts, which contrast with the deep black and rich +chestnut that otherwise mark its plumage, and even the young at once +assume a dress closely resembling that of the adult. The nest, generally +concealed in a leafy tree or bush, is carefully built, with a lining +formed of fine roots neatly interwoven. Herein from four to seven eggs, +of a greenish-white closely freckled, so as to seem suffused with light +olive, are laid in March or April, and the young on quitting it +accompany their parents for some weeks. + +Though the common jay of Europe inhabits nearly the whole of this +quarter of the globe south of 64° N. lat., its territory in the east of +Russia is also occupied by _G. brandti_, a kindred form, which replaces +it on the other side of the Ural, and ranges thence across Siberia to +Japan; and again on the lower Danube and thence to Constantinople the +nearly allied _G. krynicki_ (which alone is found in southern Russia, +Caucasia and Asia Minor) shares its haunts with it.[1] It also crosses +the Mediterranean to Algeria and Morocco; but there, as in southern +Spain, it is probably but a winter immigrant. The three forms just named +have the widest range of any of the genus. Next to them come _G. +atricapillus_, reaching from Syria to Baluchistan, _G. japonicus_, the +ordinary jay of southern Japan, and _G. sinensis_, the Chinese bird. +Other forms have a much more limited area, as _G. cervicalis_, the local +and resident jay of Algeria, _G. hyrcanus_, found on the southern shores +of the Caspian Sea, and _G. taevanus_, confined to the island of +Formosa. The most aberrant of the true jays is _G. lidthi_, a very rare +species, which seems to come from some part of Japan (_vide_ Salvadori, +_Atti Accad. Torino_, vii. 474), though its exact locality is not known. + +Leaving the true jays of the genus _Garrulus_, it is expedient next to +consider those of a group named, in 1831, _Perisoreus_ by Prince C. L. +Bonaparte (_Saggio_, &c., _Anim. Vertebrati_, p. 43) and _Dysornithia_ +by Swainson (_F. B.-Americana_, ii. 495).[2] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--American Blue Jay.] + +This group contains two species--one the Lanius infaustus of Linnaeus +and the Siberian jay of English writers, which ranges throughout the +pine-forests of the north of Europe and Asia, and the second the _Corvus +canadensis_ of the same author, or Canada jay, occupying a similar +station in America. The so-called Siberian jay is one of the most +entertaining birds in the world. Its versatile cries and actions, as +seen and heard by those who penetrate the solitude of the northern +forests it inhabits, can never be forgotten by one who has had +experience of them, any more than the pleasing sight of its +rust-coloured tail, which an occasional gleam of sunshine will light up +into a brilliancy quite unexpected by those who have only surveyed the +bird's otherwise gloomy appearance in the glass-case of a museum. It +seems scarcely to know fear, obtruding itself on the notice of any +traveller who invades its haunts, and, should he halt, making itself at +once a denizen of his bivouac. In confinement it speedily becomes +friendly, but suitable food for it is not easily found. Linnaeus seems +to have been under a misapprehension when he applied to it the trivial +epithet it bears; for by none of his countrymen is it deemed an unlucky +bird, but rather the reverse. In fact, no one can listen to the cheery +sound of its ordinary calls with any but a hopeful feeling. The Canada +jay, or "whisky-jack" (the corruption probably of a Cree name), seems to +be of a similar nature, but it presents a still more sombre coloration, +its nestling plumage,[3] indeed, being thoroughly corvine in appearance +and suggestive of its being a pristine form. + +As though to make amends for the dull plumage of the species last +mentioned, North America offers some of the most brilliantly coloured +of the sub-family, and the common blue jay[4] of Canada and the eastern +states of the Union, _Cyanurus cristatus_ (fig. 2), is one of the most +conspicuous birds of the Transatlantic woods. The account of its habits +by Alexander Wilson is known to every student of ornithology, and +Wilson's followers have had little to do but supplement his history with +unimportant details. In this bird and its many allied forms, coloration, +though almost confined to various tints of blue, seems to reach its +climax, but want of space forbids more particular notice of them, or of +the members of the other genera _Cyanocitta_, _Cyanocorax_, _Xanthura_, +_Psilorhinus_, and more, which inhabit various parts of the Western +continent. It remains, however, to mention the genus Cissa, including +many beautiful forms belonging to the Indian region, and among them the +_C. speciosa_ and _C. sinensis_, so often represented in Oriental +drawings, though doubts may be expressed whether these birds are not +more nearly related to the pies than to the jays. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Further information will possibly show that these districts are + not occupied at the same season of the year by the two forms. + + [2] Recent writers have preferred the former name, though it was only + used sub-generically by its author, who assigned to it no characters, + which the inventor of the latter was careful to do, regarding it at + the same time as a genus. + + [3] In this it was described and figured (_F. B. Americana_, ii. 296, + pl. 55) as a distinct species, _G. brachyrhynchus_. + + [4] The birds known as blue jays in India and Africa are rollers + (q.v.). + + + + +JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. _jalousie_, formed from _jaloux_, jealous, +Low Lat. _zelosus_, Gr. [Greek: zêlos], ardour, zeal, from the root seen +in [Greek: zéein], to boil, ferment; cf. "yeast"), originally a +condition of zealous emulation, and hence, in the usual modern sense, of +resentment at being (or believing that one is or may be) supplanted or +preferred in the love or affection of another, or in the enjoyment of +some good regarded as properly one's own. Jealousy is really a form of +envy, but implies a feeling of personal claim which in envy or +covetousness is wanting. The jealousy of God, as in Exod. xx. 5, "For I, +the Lord thy God, am a jealous God," has been defined by Pusey (_Minor +Prophets_, 1860) as the attribute "whereby he does not endure the love +of his creatures to be transferred from him." "Jealous," by etymology, +is however, only another form of "zealous," and the identity is +exemplified by such expressions as "I have been very jealous for the +Lord God of Hosts" (1 Kings xix. 10). A kind of glass, thick, ribbed and +non-transparent, was formerly known as "jealous-glass," and this +application is seen in the borrowed French word _jalousie_, a blind or +shutter, made of slats of wood, which slope in such a way as to admit +air and a certain amount of light, while excluding rain and sun and +inspection from without. + + + + +JEAN D'ARRAS, a 15th-century _trouvère_, about whose personal history +nothing is known, was the collaborator with Antoine du Val and Fouquart +de Cambrai in the authorship of a collection of stories entitled +_Évangiles de quenouille_. They purport to record the narratives of a +group of ladies at their spinning, who relate the current theories on a +great variety of subjects. The work dates from the middle of the 15th +century and is of considerable value for the light it throws on medieval +manners. + + There were many editions of this book in the 15th and 16th centuries, + one of which was printed by Wynkyn de Worde in English, as _The + Gospelles of Dystaves_. A modern edition (Collection Jannet) has a + preface by Anatole France. + +Another _trouvère_, JEAN D'ARRAS who flourished in the second half of +the 14th century, wrote, at the request of John, duke of Berry, a long +prose romance entitled _Chronique de la princesse_. It relates with many +digressions the antecedents and life of the fairy Mélusine (q.v.). + + + + +JEAN DE MEUN, or DE MEUNG (c. 1250-c. 1305), whose original name was +Jean Clopinel or Chopinel, was born at Meun-sur-Loire. Tradition asserts +that he studied at the university of Paris. At any rate he was, like his +contemporary, Rutebeuf, a defender of Guillaume de Saint-Amour and a +bitter critic of the mendicant orders. Most of his life seems to have +been spent in Paris, where he possessed, in the Rue Saint-Jacques, a +house with a tower, court and garden, which was described in 1305 as the +house of the late Jean de Meung, and was then bestowed by a certain Adam +d'Andely on the Dominicans. Jean de Meun says that in his youth he +composed songs that were sung in every public place and school in +France. In the enumeration of his own works he places first his +continuation of the _Roman de la rose_ of Guillaume de Lorris (q.v.). +The date of this second part is generally fixed between 1268 and 1285 +by a reference in the poem to the death of Manfred and Conradin, +executed (1268) by order of Charles of Anjou (d. 1285) who is described +as the present king of Sicily. M. F. Guillon (_Jean Clopinel_, 1903), +however, considering the poem primarily as a political satire, places it +in the last five years of the 13th century. Jean de Meun doubtless +edited the work of his predecessor, Guillaume de Lorris, before using it +as the starting-point of his own vast poem, running to 19,000 lines. The +continuation of Jean de Meun is a satire on the monastic orders, on +celibacy, on the nobility, the papal see, the excessive pretensions of +royalty, and especially on women and marriage. Guillaume had been the +servant of love, and the exponent of the laws of "courtoisie"; Jean de +Meun added an "art of love," exposing with brutality the vices of women, +their arts of deception, and the means by which men may outwit them. +Jean de Meun embodied the mocking, sceptical spirit of the _fabliaux_. +He did not share in current superstitions, he had no respect for +established institutions, and he scorned the conventions of feudalism +and romance. His poem shows in the highest degree, in spite of the +looseness of its plan, the faculty of keen observation, of lucid +reasoning and exposition, and it entitles him to be considered the +greatest of French medieval poets. He handled the French language with +an ease and precision unknown to his predecessors, and the length of his +poem was no bar to its popularity in the 13th and 14th centuries. Part +of its vogue was no doubt due to the fact that the author, who had +mastered practically all the scientific and literary knowledge of his +contemporaries in France, had found room in his poem for a great amount +of useful information and for numerous citations from classical authors. +The book was attacked by Guillaume de Degulleville in his _Pèlerinage de +la vie humaine_ (c. 1330), long a favourite work both in England and +France; by John Gerson, and by Christine de Pisan in her _Épître au dieu +d'amour_; but it also found energetic defenders. + + Jean de Meun translated in 1284 the treatise, _De re militari_, of + Vegetius into French as _Le livre de Vegèce de l'art de chevalerie_[1] + (ed. Ulysse Robert, _Soc. des anciens textes fr._, 1897). He also + produced a spirited version, the first in French, of the letters of + Abelard and Hèloïse. A 14th-century MS. of this translation in the + Bibliothèque Nationale has annotations by Petrarch. His translation of + the _De consolatione philosophiae_ of Boëtius is preceded by a letter + to Philip IV. in which he enumerates his earlier works, two of which + are lost--_De spirituelle amitié_ from the _De spirituali amicitia_ of + Aelred of Rievaulx (d. 1166), and the _Livre des merveilles + d'Hirlande_ from the _Topographia Hibernica_, or _De Mirabilibus + Hiberniae_ of Giraldus Cambrensis (Giraud de Barry). His last poems + are doubtless his _Testament_ and _Codicille_. The _Testament_ is + written in quatrains in monorime, and contains advice to the different + classes of the community. + + See also Paulin Paris in _Hist. lit. de la France_, xxviii. 391-439, + and E. Langlois in _Hist. de la langue et de la lit. française_, ed. + L. Petit de Julleville, ii. 125-161 (1896); and editions of the _Roman + de la rose_ (q.v.). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Jean de Meun's translation formed the basis of a rhymed version + (1290) by Jean Priorat of Besançon, _Li abreyance de l'ordre de + chevalerie_. + + + + +JEANNETTE, a borough of Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about +27 m. E. by S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 3296; (1900), 5865 (1340 +foreign-born); (1910), 8077. It is served by the Pennsylvania railroad, +and is connected with Pittsburg and Uniontown by electric railway. It is +supplied with natural gas and is primarily a manufacturing centre, its +principal manufactures being glass, table-ware and rubber goods. +Jeannette was founded in 1888, and was incorporated as a borough in +1889. + + + + +JEANNIN, PIERRE (1540-1622), French statesman, was born at Autun. A +pupil of the great jurist Jacques Cujas at Bourges, he was an advocate +at Dijon in 1569 and became councillor and then president of the +_parlement_ of Burgundy. He opposed in vain the massacre of St +Bartholomew in his province. As councillor to the duke of Mayenne he +sought to reconcile him with Henry IV. After the victory of +Fontaine-Française (1595), Henry took Jeannin into his council and in +1602 named him intendant of finances. He took part in the principal +events of the reign, negotiated the treaty of Lyons with the duke of +Savoy (see HENRY IV.), and the defensive alliance between France and +the United Netherlands in 1608. As superintendent of finances under +Louis XIII., he tried to establish harmony between the king and the +queen-mother. + + See Berger de Xivrey, _Lettres missives de Henri IV._ (in the + _Collection inédite pour l'histoire de France_), t. v. (1850); + P(ierre) S(aumaise), _Eloge sur la vie de Pierre Janin_ (Dijon, 1623); + Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, t. x. (May 1854). + + + + +JEBB, JOHN (1736-1786), English divine, was educated at Cambridge, where +he was elected fellow of Peterhouse in 1761, having previously been +second wrangler. He was a man of independent judgment and warmly +supported the movement of 1771 for abolishing university and clerical +subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles. In his lectures on the Greek +Testament he is said to have expressed Socinian views. In 1775 he +resigned his Suffolk church livings, and two years afterwards graduated +M.D. at St Andrews. He practised medicine in London and was elected +F.R.S. in 1779. + +Another JOHN JEBB (1775-1833), bishop of Limerick, is best known as the +author of _Sacred Literature_ (London, 1820). + + + + +JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE (1841-1905), English classical scholar, +was born at Dundee on the 27th of August 1841. His father was a +well-known barrister, and his grandfather a judge. He was educated at +Charterhouse and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He won the Porson and +Craven scholarships, was senior classic in 1862, and became fellow and +tutor of his college in 1863. From 1869 to 1875 he was public orator of +the university; professor of Greek at Glasgow from 1875 to 1889, and at +Cambridge from 1889 till his death on the 9th of December 1905. In 1891 +he was elected member of parliament for Cambridge University; he was +knighted in 1900. Jebb was acknowledged to be one of the most brilliant +classical scholars of his time, a humanist in the best sense, and his +powers of translation from and into the classical languages were +unrivalled. A collected volume, _Translations into Greek and Latin_, +appeared in 1873 (ed. 1909). He was the recipient of many honorary +degrees from European and American universities, and in 1905 was made a +member of the Order of Merit. He married in 1874 the widow of General A. +J. Slemmer, of the United States army, who survived him. + + Jebb was the author of numerous publications, of which the following + are the most important: The _Characters_ of Theophrastus (1870), text, + introduction, English translation and commentary (re-edited by J. E. + Sandys, 1909); _The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeus_ (2nd ed., + 1893), with companion volume, _Selections from the Attic Orators_ (2nd + ed., 1888); _Bentley_ (1882); _Sophocles_ (3rd ed., 1893) the seven + plays, text, English translation and notes, the promised edition of + the fragments being prevented by his death; _Bacchylides_ (1905), + text, translation, and notes; _Homer_ (3rd ed., 1888), an introduction + to the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_; _Modern Greece_ (1901); _The Growth and + Influence of Classical Greek Poetry_ (1893). His translation of the + _Rhetoric_ of Aristotle was published posthumously under the + editorship of J. E. Sandys (1909). A selection from his _Essays and + Addresses_, and a subsequent volume, _Life and Letters of Sir Richard + Claverhouse Jebb_ (with critical introduction by A. W. Verrall) were + published by his widow in 1907; see also an appreciative notice by J. + E. Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. (1908). + + + + +JEBEIL (anc. _Gebal-Byblus_), a town of Syria pleasantly situated on a +slight eminence near the sea, about 20 m. N. of Beirut. It is surrounded +by a wall 1½ m. in circumference, with square towers at the angles, and +a castle at the south-east corner. Numerous broken granite columns in +the gardens and vineyards that surround the town, with the number of +ruined houses within the walls, testify to its former importance. The +stele of Jehawmelek, king of Gebal, found here, is one of the most +important of Phoenician monuments. The small port is almost choked up +with sand and ruins. Pop. 3000, all Moslems. + +The inhabitants of the Phoenician Gebal and Greek Byblus were renowned +as stonecutters and ship-builders. Arrian (ii. 20. 1) represents Enylus, +king of Byblus, as joining Alexander with a fleet, after that monarch +had captured the city. Philo of Byblus makes it the most ancient city of +Phoenicia, founded by Cronus, i.e. the Moloch who appears from the stele +of Jehawmelek to have been with Baalit the chief deity of the city. +According to Plutarch (_Mor._ 357), the ark with the corpse of Osiris +was cast ashore at Byblus, and there found by Isis. The orgies of +Adonis in the temple of Baalit (Aphrodite Byblia) are described by +Lucian, _De Dea Syr._, cap. vi. The river Adonis is the Nahr al-Ibrahim, +which flows near the town. The crusaders, after failing before it in +1099, captured "Giblet" in 1103, but lost it again to Saladin in 1189. +Under Mahommedan rule it has gradually decayed. (D. G. H.) + + + + +JEBEL (plur. _jibal_), also written GEBEL with hard _g_ (plur. _gibal_), +an Arabic word meaning a mountain or a mountain chain. It is frequently +used in place-names. The French transliteration of the word is _djebel_. +_Jebeli_ signifies a mountaineer. The pronunciation with a hard _g_ +sound is that used in the Egyptian dialect of Arabic. + + + + +JEDBURGH, a royal and police burgh and county-town of Roxburghshire, +Scotland. Pop. of police burgh (1901), 3136. It is situated on Jed +Water, a tributary of the Teviot, 56¼ m. S.E. of Edinburgh by the North +British railway, via Roxburgh and St Boswells (49 m. by road), and 10 m. +from the border at Catcleuch Shin, a peak of the Cheviots, 1742 ft. +high. Of the name Jedburgh there have been many variants, the earliest +being Gedwearde (800), Jedwarth (1251), and Geddart (1586), while +locally the word is sometimes pronounced Jethart. The town is situated +on the left bank of the Jed, the main streets running at right angles +from each side of the central market-place. Of the renowned group of +Border abbeys--Jedburgh, Melrose, Dryburgh and Kelso--that of Jedburgh +is the stateliest. In 1118, according to tradition, but more probably as +late as 1138, David, prince of Cumbria, here founded a priory for +Augustinian monks from the abbey of St Quentin at Beauvais in France, +and in 1147, after he had become king, erected it into an abbey +dedicated to the Virgin. Repeatedly damaged in Border warfare, it was +ruined in 1544-45 during the English invasion led by Sir Ralph Evers (or +Eure). The establishment was suppressed in 1559, the revenues being +temporarily annexed to the Crown. After changing owners more than once, +the lands were purchased in 1637 by the 3rd earl of Lothian. Latterly +five of the bays at the west end had been utilized as the parish church, +but in 1873-1875 the 9th marquess of Lothian built a church for the +service of the parish, and presented it to the heritors in exchange for +the ruined abbey in order to prevent the latter from being injured by +modern additions and alterations. + + The abbey was built of Old Red sandstone, and belongs mostly to the + end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries. The + architecture is mixed, and the abbey is a beautiful example of the + Norman and Transition styles. The total length is 235 ft., the nave + being 133½ ft. long and 59½ ft. wide. The west front contains a great + Norman porch and a fine wheel window. The nave, on each side, has nine + pointed arches in the basement storey, nine round arches in the + triforium, and thirty-six pointed arches in the clerestory, through + which an arcade is carried on both sides. The tower, at the + intersection of the nave and transepts, is of unusually massive + proportions, being 30 ft. square and fully 100 ft. high; the network + baluster round the top is modern. With the exception of the north + piers and a small portion of the wall above, which are Norman, the + tower dates from the end of the 15th century. The whole of the south + transept has perished. The north transept, with early Decorated + windows, has been covered in and walled off, and is the burial-ground + of the Kerrs of Fernihirst, ancestors of the marquess of Lothian. The + earliest tombstone is dated 1524; one of the latest is the recumbent + effigy, by G. F. Watts, R.A., of the 8th marquess of Lothian + (1832-1870). All that is left of the choir, which contains some very + early Norman work, is two bays with three tiers on each side, + corresponding to the design of the nave. It is supposed that the + aisle, with Decorated window and groined roof, south of the chancel, + formed the grammar school (removed from the abbey in 1751) in which + Samuel Rutherford (1600-1661), principal of St Mary's College, St + Andrews, and James Thomson, author of The _Seasons_, were educated. + The door leading from the south aisle into a herbaceous garden, + formerly the cloister, is an exquisite copy of one which had become + greatly decayed. It was designed by Sir Rowand Anderson, under whose + superintendence restoration in the abbey was carried out. + +The castle stood on high ground at the south end of the burgh, or +"town-head." Erected by David I., it was one of the strongholds ceded to +England in 1174, under the treaty of Falaise, for the ransom of William +the Lion. It was, however, so often captured by the English that it +became a menace rather than a protection, and the townsfolk demolished +it in 1409. It had occasionally been used as a royal residence, and was +the scene, in November 1285, of the revels held in celebration of the +marriage (solemnized in the abbey) of Alexander III. to Joleta, or +Yolande, daughter of the count of Dreux. The site was occupied in 1823 +by the county prison, now known as the castle, a castellated structure +which gradually fell into disuse and was acquired by the corporation in +1890. A house exists in Backgate in which Mary Queen of Scots resided in +1566, and one in Castlegate which Prince Charles Edward occupied in +1745. + +The public buildings include the grammar school (built in 1883 to +replace the successor of the school in the abbey), founded by William +Turnbull, bishop of Glasgow (d. 1454), the county buildings, the free +library and the public hall, which succeeded to the corn exchange +destroyed by fire in 1898, a loss that involved the museum and its +contents, including the banners captured by the Jethart weavers at +Bannockburn and Killiecrankie. The old market cross still exists, and +there are two public parks. The chief industry is the manufacture of +woollens (blankets, hosiery), but brewing, tanning and iron-founding are +carried on, and fruit (especially pears) and garden produce are in +repute. Jedburgh was made a royal burgh in the reign of David I., and +received a charter from Robert I. and another, in 1566, from Mary Queen +of Scots. Sacked and burned time after time during the Border strife, it +was inevitable that the townsmen should become keen fighters. Their cry +of "Jethart's here!" was heard wherever the fray waxed most fiercely, +and the Jethart axe of their invention--a steel axe on a 4-ft. +pole--wrought havoc in their hands. + +"Jethart or Jeddart justice," according to which a man was hanged first +and tried afterwards, seems to have been a hasty generalization from a +solitary fact--the summary execution in James VI.'s reign of a gang of +rogues at the instance of Sir George Home, but has nevertheless passed +into a proverb. + +Old Jeddart, 4 m. S. of the present town, the first site of the burgh, +is now marked by a few grassy mounds, and of the great Jedburgh forest, +only the venerable oaks, the "Capon Tree" and the "King of the Woods" +remain. Dunion Hill (1095 ft.), about 2 m. south-west of Jedburgh, +commands a fine view of the capital of the county. + + + + +JEEJEEBHOY (JIJIBHAI), SIR JAMSETJEE (JAMSETJI), Bart. (1783-1859), +Indian merchant and philanthropist, was born in Bombay in 1783, of poor +but respectable parents, and was left an orphan in early life. At the +age of sixteen, with a smattering of mercantile education and a bare +pittance, he commenced a series of business travels destined to lead him +to fortune and fame. After a preliminary visit to Calcutta, he undertook +a voyage to China, then fraught with so much difficulty and risk that it +was regarded as a venture betokening considerable enterprise and +courage; and he subsequently initiated a systematic trade with that +country, being himself the carrier of his merchant wares on his passages +to and fro between Bombay and Canton and Shanghai. His second return +voyage from China was made in one of the East India Company's fleet, +which, under the command of Sir Nathaniel Dance, defeated the French +squadron under Admiral Linois (Feb. 15, 1804). On his fourth return +voyage from China, the Indiaman in which he sailed was forced to +surrender to the French, by whom he was carried as a prisoner to the +Cape of Good Hope, then a neutral Dutch possession; and it was only +after much delay, and with great difficulty, that he made his way to +Calcutta in a Danish ship. Nothing daunted, he undertook yet another +voyage to China, which was more successful than any of the previous +ones. By this time he had fairly established his reputation as a +merchant possessed of the highest spirit of enterprise and considerable +wealth, and thenceforward he settled down in Bombay, where he directed +his commercial operations on a widely extended scale. By 1836 his firm +was large enough to engross the energies of his three sons and other +relatives; and he had amassed what at that period of Indian mercantile +history was regarded as fabulous wealth. An essentially self-made man, +having experienced in early life the miseries of poverty and want, in +his days of affluence Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy developed an active instinct +of sympathy with his poorer countrymen, and commenced that career of +private and public philanthropy which is his chief title to the +admiration of mankind. His liberality was unbounded, and the absorbing +occupation of his later life was the alleviation of human distress. To +his own community he gave lavishly, but his benevolence was mainly +cosmopolitan. Hospitals, schools, homes of charity, pension funds, were +founded or endowed by him, while numerous public works in the shape of +wells, reservoirs, bridges, causeways, and the like, not only in Bombay, +but in other parts of India, were the creation of his bounty. The total +of his known benefactions amounted at the time of his death, which took +place in 1859, to over £230,000. It was not, however, the amount of his +charities so much as the period and circumstances in which they were +performed that made his benevolent career worthy of the fame he won. In +the first half of the 19th century the various communities of India were +much more isolated in their habits and their sympathies than they are +now. Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy's unsectarian philanthropy awakened a common +understanding and created a bond between them which has proved not only +of domestic value but has had a national and political significance. His +services were recognized first in 1842 by the bestowal of a knighthood +upon him, and in 1858 by that of a baronetcy. These were the very first +distinctions of their kind conferred by Queen Victoria upon a British +subject in India. + +His title devolved in 1859 on his eldest son CURSETJEE, who, by a +special Act of the Viceroy's Council in pursuance of a provision in the +letters-patent, took the name of Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy as second +baronet. At his death in 1877 his eldest son, MENEKJEE, became Sir +Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, the third baronet. Both had the advantage of a +good English education, and continued the career of benevolent activity +and devoted loyalty to British rule which had signalized the life-work +of the founder of the family. They both visited England to do homage to +their sovereign; and their public services were recognized by their +nomination to the order of the Star of India, as well as by appointment +to the Legislative Councils of Calcutta and Bombay. + +On the death of the third baronet, the title devolved upon his brother, +COWSAJEE (1853-1908), who became Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, fourth +baronet, and the recognized leader of the Parsee community all over the +world. He was succeeded by his son RUSTOMJEE (b. 1878), who became Sir +Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, fifth baronet. + +Since their emigration from Persia, the Parsee community had never had a +titular chief or head, its communal funds and affairs being managed by a +public body, more or less democratic in its constitution, termed the +Parsee panchayat. The first Sir Jamsetjee, by the hold that he +established on the community, by his charities and public spirit, +gradually came to be regarded in the light of its chief; and the +recognition which he was the first in India to receive at the hands of +the British sovereign finally fixed him and his successors in the +baronetcy in the position and title of the official Parsee leader. + (M. M. Bh.) + + + + +JEFFERIES, RICHARD (1848-1887), English naturalist and author, was born +on the 6th of November 1848, at the farmhouse of Coate about 2½ m. from +Swindon, on the road to Marlborough. He was sent to school, first at +Sydenham and then at Swindon, till the age of fifteen or so, but his +actual education was at the hands of his father, who gave him his love +for Nature and taught him how to observe. For the faculty of +observation, as Jefferies, Gilbert White, and H. D. Thoreau have +remarked, several gifts are necessary, including the possession of long +sight and quick sight, two things which do not always go together. To +them must be joined trained sight and the knowledge of what to expect. +The boy's father first showed him what there was to look for in the +hedge, in the field, in the trees, and in the sky. This kind of training +would in many cases be wasted: to one who can understand it, the book of +Nature will by-and-by offer pages which are blurred and illegible to the +city-bred lad, and even to the country lad the power of reading them +must be maintained by constant practice. To live amid streets or in the +working world destroys it. The observer must live alone and always in +the country; he must not worry himself about the ways of the world; he +must be always, from day to day, watching the infinite changes and +variations of Nature. Perhaps, even when the observer can actually read +this book of Nature, his power of articulate speech may prove inadequate +for the expression of what he sees. But Jefferies, as a boy, was more +than an observer of the fields; he was bookish, and read all the books +that he could borrow or buy. And presently, as is apt to be the fate of +a bookish boy who cannot enter a learned profession, he became a +journalist and obtained a post on the local paper. He developed literary +ambitions, but for a long time to come was as one beating the air. He +tried local history and novels; but his early novels, which were +published at his own risk and expense, were, deservedly, failures. In +1872, however, he published a remarkable letter in _The Times_, on "The +Wiltshire Labourer," full of original ideas and of facts new to most +readers. This was in reality the turning-point in his career. In 1873, +after more false starts, Jefferies returned to his true field of work, +the life of the country, and began to write for _Fraser's Magazine_ on +"Farming and Farmers." He had now found himself. The rest of his history +is that of continual advance, from close observation becoming daily more +and more close, to that intimate communion with Nature with which his +later pages are filled. The developments of the later period are +throughout touched with the melancholy that belongs to ill-health. For, +though in his prose poem called "The Pageant of Summer" the writer seems +absolutely revelling in the strength of manhood that belongs to that +pageant, yet, in the _Story of My Heart_, written about the same time, +we detect the mind that is continually turned to death. He died at +Goring, worn out with many ailments, on the 14th of August 1887. The +best-known books of Richard Jefferies are: _The Gamekeeper at Home_ +(1878); _The Story of My Heart_ (1883); _Life of the Fields_ (1884), +containing the best paper he ever wrote, "The Pageant of Summer"; +_Amaryllis at the Fair_ (1884), in which may be found the portraits of +his own people; and _The Open Air_. He stands among the scanty company +of men who address a small audience, for whom he read aloud these pages +of Nature spoken of above, which only he, and the few like unto him, can +decipher. + + See Sir Walter Besant, _Eulogy of Richard Jefferies_ (1888); H. S. + Salt, _Richard Jefferies: a Study_ (1894); Edward Thomas, _Richard + Jefferies, his Life and Work_ (1909). (W. Be.) + + + + +JEFFERSON, JOSEPH (1820-1905), American actor, was born in Philadelphia +on the 20th of February 1829. He was the third actor of this name in a +family of actors and managers, and the most famous of all American +comedians. At the age of three he appeared as the boy in Kotzebue's +_Pizarro_, and throughout his youth he underwent all the hardships +connected with theatrical touring in those early days. After a +miscellaneous experience, partly as actor, partly as manager, he won his +first pronounced success in 1858 as Asa Trenchard in Tom Taylor's _Our +American Cousin_ at Laura Keene's theatre in New York. This play was the +turning-point of his career, as it was of Sothern's. The naturalness and +spontaneity of humour with which he acted the love scenes revealed a +spirit in comedy new to his contemporaries, long used to a more +artificial convention; and the touch of pathos which the part required +revealed no less to the actor an unexpected power in himself. Other +early parts were Newman Noggs in _Nicholas Nickleby_, Caleb Plummer in +_The Cricket on the Hearth_, Dr Pangloss in _The Heir at Law_, Salem +Scudder in _The Octoroon_, and Bob Acres in _The Rivals_, the last being +not so much an interpretation of the character as Sheridan sketched it +as a creation of the actor's. In 1859 Jefferson made a dramatic version +of the story of _Rip Van Winkle_ on the basis of older plays, and acted +it with success at Washington. The play was given its permanent form by +Dion Boucicault in London, where (1865) it ran 170 nights, with +Jefferson in the leading part. Jefferson continued to act with +undiminished popularity in a limited number of parts in nearly every +town in the United States, his Rip Van Winkle, Bob Acres, and Caleb +Plummer being the most popular. He was one of the first to establish the +travelling combinations which superseded the old system of local stock +companies. With the exception of minor parts, such as the First +Gravedigger in _Hamlet_, which he played in an "all star combination" +headed by Edwin Booth, Jefferson created no new character after 1865; +and the success of Rip Van Winkle was so pronounced that he has often +been called a one-part actor. If this was a fault, it was the public's, +who never wearied of his one masterpiece. Jefferson died on the 23rd of +April 1905. No man in his profession was more honoured for his +achievements or his character. He was the friend of many of the leading +men in American politics, art and literature. He was an ardent fisherman +and lover of nature, and devoted to painting. Jefferson was twice +married: to an actress, Margaret Clements Lockyer (1832-1861), in 1850, +and in 1867 to Sarah Warren, niece of William Warren the actor. + + Jefferson's _Autobiography_ (New York, 1889) is written with admirable + spirit and humour, and its judgments with regard to the art of the + actor and of the playwright entitle it to a place beside Cibber's + _Apology_. See William Winter, _The Jeffersons_ (1881), and _Life of + Joseph Jefferson_ (1894); Mrs. E. P. Jefferson, _Recollections of + Joseph Jefferson_ (1909). + + + + +JEFFERSON, THOMAS (1743-1826), third president of the United States of +America, and the most conspicuous apostle of democracy in America, was +born on the 13th of April 1743, at Shadwell, Albemarle county, Virginia. +His father, Peter Jefferson (1707-1757), of early Virginian yeoman +stock, was a civil engineer and a man of remarkable energy, who became a +justice of the peace, a county surveyor and a burgess, served the Crown +in inter-colonial boundary surveys, and married into one of the most +prominent colonial families, the Randolphs. Albemarle county was then in +the frontier wilderness of the Blue Ridge, and was very different, +socially, from the lowland counties where a few broad-acred families +dominated an open-handed, somewhat luxurious and assertive aristocracy. +Unlike his Randolph connexions, Peter Jefferson was a whig and a +thorough democrat; from him, and probably, too, from the Albemarle +environment, his son came naturally by democratic inclinations. + +Jefferson carried with him from the college of William and Mary at +Williamsburg, in his twentieth year, a good knowledge of Latin, Greek +and French (to which he soon added Spanish, Italian and Anglo-Saxon), +and a familiarity with the higher mathematics and natural sciences only +possessed, at his age, by men who have a rare natural taste and ability +for those studies. He remained an ardent student throughout life, able +to give and take in association with the many scholars, American and +foreign, whom he numbered among his friends and correspondents. With a +liberal Scotsman, Dr William Small, then of the faculty of William and +Mary and later a friend of Erasmus Darwin, and George Wythe (1726-1806), +a very accomplished scholar and leader of the Virginia bar, Jefferson +was an habitual member, while still in college, of a _partie carrée_ at +the table of Francis Fauquier (c. 1720-1768), the accomplished +lieutenant-governor of Virginia. Jefferson was an expert violinist, a +good singer and dancer, proficient in outdoor sports, and an excellent +horseman. Thorough-bred horses always remained to him a necessary +luxury. When it is added that Fauquier was a passionate gambler, and +that the gentry who gathered every winter at Williamsburg, the seat of +government of the province, were ruinously addicted to the same +weakness, and that Jefferson had a taste for racing, it does credit to +his early strength of character that of his social opportunities he took +only the better. He never used tobacco, never played cards, never +gambled, and was never party to a personal quarrel. + +Soon after leaving college he entered Wythe's law office, and in 1767, +after five years of close study, was admitted to the bar. His thorough +preparation enabled him to compete from the first with the leading +lawyers of the colony, and his success shows that the bar had no rewards +that were not fairly within his reach. As an advocate, however, he did +not shine; a weakness of voice made continued speaking impossible, and +he had neither the ability nor the temperament for oratory. To his legal +scholarship and collecting zeal Virginia owed the preservation of a +large part of her early statutes. He seems to have lacked interest in +litigiousness, which was extraordinarily developed in colonial +Virginia; and he saw and wished to reform the law's abuses. It is +probable that he turned, therefore, the more willingly to politics; at +any rate, soon after entering public life he abandoned practice (1774). + +The death of his father had left him an estate of 1900 acres, the income +from which (about £400) gave him the position of an independent country +gentleman; and while engaged in the law he had added to his farms after +the ambitious Virginia fashion, until, when he married in his thirtieth +year, there were 5000 acres all paid for; and almost as much more[1] +came to him in 1773 on the death of his father-in-law. On the 1st of +January 1772, Jefferson married Martha Wayles Skelton (1749-1782), a +childless widow of twenty-three, very handsome, accomplished, and very +fond of music. Their married life was exceedingly happy, and Jefferson +never remarried after her early death. Of six children born from their +union, two daughters alone survived infancy. Jefferson was emotional and +very affectionate in his home, and his generous and devoted relations +with his children and grandchildren are among the finest features of his +character. + +Jefferson began his public service as a justice of the peace and parish +vestryman; he was chosen a member of the Virginia house of burgesses in +1769 and of every succeeding assembly and convention of the colony until +he entered the Continental Congress in 1775. His forceful, facile pen +gave him great influence from the first; but though a foremost member of +several great deliberative bodies, he can fairly be said never to have +made a speech. He hated the "morbid rage of debate" because he believed +that men were never convinced by argument, but only by reflection, +through reading or unprovocative conversation; and this belief guided +him through life. Moreover it is very improbable that he could ever have +shone as a public speaker, and to this fact unfriendly critics have +attributed, at least in part, his abstention from debate. The house of +burgesses of 1769, and its successors in 1773 and 1774, were dissolved +by the governor (see VIRGINIA) for their action on the subject of +colonial grievances and inter-colonial co-operation. Jefferson was +prominent in all; was a signer of the Virginia agreement of +non-importation and economy (1769); and was elected in 1774 to the first +Virginia convention, called to consider the state of the colony and +advance inter-colonial union. Prevented by illness from attending, +Jefferson sent to the convention elaborate resolutions, which he +proposed as instructions to the Virginia delegates to the Continental +Congress that was to meet at Philadelphia in September. In the direct +language of reproach and advice, with no disingenuous loading of the +Crown's policy upon its agents, these resolutions attacked the errors of +the king, and maintained that "the relation between Great Britain and +these colonies was exactly the same as that of England and Scotland +after the accession of James and until the Union; and that our +emigration to this country gave England no more rights over us than the +emigration of the Danes and Saxons gave to the present authorities of +their mother country over England." This was cutting at the common root +of allegiance, emigration and colonization; but such radicalism was too +thorough-going for the immediate end. The resolutions were published, +however, as a pamphlet, entitled _A Summary View of the Rights of +America_, which was widely circulated. In England, after receiving such +modifications--attributed to Burke--as adapted it to the purposes of the +opposition, this pamphlet ran through many editions, and procured for +its author, as he said, "the honour of having his name inserted in a +long list of proscriptions enrolled in a bill of attainder commenced in +one of the two houses of parliament, but suppressed in embryo by the +hasty course of events." It placed Jefferson among the foremost leaders +of revolution, and procured for him the honour of drafting, later, the +Declaration of Independence, whose historical portions were, in large +part, only a revised transcript of the _Summary View_. In June 1775 he +took his seat in the Continental Congress, taking with him fresh +credentials of radicalism in the shape of Virginia's answer, which he +had drafted, to Lord North's conciliatory propositions. Jefferson soon +drafted the reply of Congress to the same propositions. Reappointed to +the next Congress, he signalized his service by the authorship of the +Declaration of Independence (q.v.). Again reappointed, he surrendered +his seat, and after refusing a proffered election to serve as a +commissioner with Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane in France, he +entered again, in October 1776, the Virginia legislature, where he +considered his services most needed. + +The local work to which Jefferson attributed such importance was a +revision of Virginia's laws. Of the measures proposed to this end he +says: "I considered four, passed or reported, as forming a system by +which every trace would be eradicated of ancient or future aristocracy, +and a foundation laid for a government truly republican"--the repeal of +the laws of entail; the abolition of primogeniture and the unequal +division of inheritances (Jefferson was himself an eldest son); the +guarantee of freedom of conscience and relief of the people from +supporting, by taxation, an established church; and a system of general +education. The first object was embodied in law in 1776, the second in +1785, the third[2] in 1786 (supplemented 1799, 1801). The last two were +parts of a body of codified laws prepared (1776-1779) by Edmund +Pendleton,[3] George Wythe, and Jefferson, and principally by Jefferson. +Not so fortunate were Jefferson's ambitious schemes of education. +District, grammar and classical schools, a free state library and a +state college, were all included in his plan. He was the first American +statesman to make education by the state a fundamental article of +democratic faith. His bill for elementary education he regarded as the +most important part of the code, but Virginia had no strong middle +class, and the planters would not assume the burden of educating the +poor. At this time Jefferson championed the natural right of +expatriation, and gradual emancipation of the slaves. His earliest +legislative effort, in the five-day session of 1769, had been marked by +an effort to secure to masters freedom to manumit their slaves without +removing them from the state. It was unsuccessful, and the more radical +measure he now favoured was even more impossible of attainment; but a +bill he introduced to prohibit the importation of slaves was passed in +1778--the only important change effected in the slave system of the +state during the War of Independence. Finally he endeavoured, though +unsuccessfully, to secure the introduction of juries into the courts of +chancery, and--a generation and more before the fruition of the labours +of Romilly and his co-workers in England--aided in securing a +humanitarian revision of the penal code,[4] which, though lost by one +vote in 1785, was sustained by public sentiment, and was adopted in +1796. Jefferson is of course not entitled to the sole credit for all +these services: Wythe, George Mason and James Madison, in particular, +were his devoted lieutenants, and--after his departure for France--the +principals in the struggle; moreover, an approving public opinion must +receive large credit. But Jefferson was throughout the chief inspirer +and foremost worker. + +In 1779, at almost the gloomiest stage of the war in the southern +states, Jefferson succeeded Patrick Henry as the governor of Virginia, +being the second to hold that office after the organization of the state +government. In his second term (1780-1781) the state was overrun by +British expeditions, and Jefferson, a civilian, was blamed for the +ineffectual resistance. Though he cannot be said to have been eminently +fitted for the task that devolved upon him in such a crisis, most of the +criticism of his administration was undoubtedly grossly unjust. His +conduct being attacked, he declined renomination for the governorship, +but was unanimously returned by Albemarle as a delegate to the state +legislature; and on the day previously set for legislative inquiry on a +resolution offered by an impulsive critic, he received, by unanimous +vote of the house, a declaration of thanks and confidence. He wished +however to retire permanently from public life, a wish strengthened by +the illness and death of his wife. At this time he composed his _Notes +on Virginia_, a semi-statistical work full of humanitarian liberalism. +Congress twice offered him an appointment as one of the +plenipotentiaries to negotiate peace with England, but, though he +accepted the second offer, the business was so far advanced before he +could sail that his appointment was recalled. During the following +winter (1783) he was again in Congress, and headed the committee +appointed to consider the treaty of peace. In the succeeding session his +service was marked by a report, from which resulted the present monetary +system of the United States (the fundamental idea of its decimal basis +being due, however, to Gouverneur Morris); and by the honour of +reporting the first definitely formulated plan for the government of the +western territories,[5] that embodied in the ordinance of 1784. He was +already particularly associated with the great territory north-west of +the Ohio; for Virginia had tendered to Congress in 1781, while Jefferson +was governor, a cession of her claims to it, and now in 1784 formally +transferred the territory by act of Jefferson and his fellow delegates +in congress: a consummation for which he had laboured from the +beginning. His anti-slavery opinions grew in strength with years (though +he was somewhat inconsistent in his attitude on the Missouri question in +1820-1821). Not only justice but patriotism as well pleaded with him the +cause of the negroes,[6] for he foresaw the certainty that the race must +some day, in some way, be freed, and the dire political dangers involved +in the institution of slavery; and could any feasible plan of +emancipation have been suggested he would have regarded its cost as a +mere bagatelle. + +From 1784 to 1789 Jefferson was in France, first under an appointment to +assist Benjamin Franklin and John Adams in negotiating treaties of +commerce with European states, and then as Franklin's successor +(1785-1789) as minister to France.[7] In these years he travelled widely +in western Europe. Though the commercial principles of the United States +were far too liberal for acceptance, as such, by powers holding colonies +in America, Jefferson won some specific concessions to American trade. +He was exceedingly popular as a minister. The criticism is even to-day +current with the uninformed that Jefferson took his manners,[8] morals, +"irreligion" and political philosophy from his French residence; and it +cannot be wholly ignored. It may therefore be said that there is nothing +except unsubstantiated scandal to contradict the conclusion, which +various evidence supports, that Jefferson's morals were pure. His +religious views and political beliefs will be discussed later. His +theories had a deep and broad basis in English whiggism; and though he +may well have found at least confirmation of his own ideas in French +writers--and notably in Condorcet--he did not read sympathetically the +writers commonly named, Rousseau and Montesquieu; besides, his democracy +was seasoned, and he was rather a teacher than a student of +revolutionary politics when he went to Paris. The _Notes on Virginia_ +were widely read in Paris, and undoubtedly had some influence in +forwarding the dissolution of the doctrines of divine rights and passive +obedience among the cultivated classes of France. Jefferson was deeply +interested in all the events leading up to the French Revolution, and +all his ideas were coloured by his experience of the five seething years +passed in Paris. On the 3rd of June 1789 he proposed to the leaders of +the third estate a compromise between the king and the nation. In July +he received the extraordinary honour of being invited to assist in the +deliberations of the committee appointed by the national assembly to +draft a constitution. This honour his official position compelled him, +of course, to decline; for he sedulously observed official proprieties, +and in no way gave offence to the government to which he was accredited. + +When Jefferson left France it was with the intention of soon returning; +but President Washington tendered him the secretaryship of state in the +new federal government, and Jefferson reluctantly accepted. His only +essential objection to the constitution--the absence of a bill of +rights--was soon met, at least partially, by amendments. Alexander +Hamilton (q.v.) was secretary of the treasury. These two men, antipodal +in temperament and political belief, clashed in irreconcilable +hostility, and in the conflict of public sentiment, first on the +financial measures of Hamilton, and then on the questions with regard to +France and Great Britain, Jefferson's sympathies being predominantly +with the former, Hamilton's with the latter, they formed about +themselves the two great parties of Democrats and Federalists. The +schools of thought for which they stood have since contended for mastery +in American politics: Hamilton's gradually strengthened by the +necessities of stronger administration, as time gave widening amplitude +and increasing weight to the specific powers--and so to Hamilton's great +doctrine of the "implied powers"--of the general government of a growing +country; Jefferson's rooted in colonial life, and buttressed by the +hopes and convictions of democracy. + +The most perplexing questions treated by Jefferson as secretary of state +arose out of the policy of neutrality adopted by the United States +toward France, to whom she was bound by treaties and by a heavy debt of +gratitude. Separation from European politics--the doctrine of "America +for Americans" that was embodied later in the Monroe declaration--was a +tenet cherished by Jefferson as by other leaders (not, however, +Hamilton) and by none cherished more firmly, for by nature he was +peculiarly opposed to war, and peace was a fundamental part of his +politics. However deep, therefore, his French sympathies, he drew the +same safe line as did Washington between French politics and American +politics,[9] and handled the Genet complications to the satisfaction of +even the most partisan Federalists. He expounded, as a very high +authority has said, "with remarkable clearness and power the nature and +scope of neutral duty," and gave a "classic" statement of the doctrine +of recognition.[10] + +But the French question had another side in its reaction on American +parties.[11] Jefferson did not read excesses in Paris as warnings +against democracy, but as warnings against the abuses of monarchy; nor +did he regard Bonaparte's _coup d'état_ as revealing the weakness of +republics, but rather as revealing the danger of standing armies; he did +not look on the war of the coalitions against France as one of mere +powers, but as one between forms of government; and though the immediate +fruits of the Revolution belied his hopes, as they did those of ardent +humanitarians the world over, he saw the broad trend of history, which +vindicated his faith that a successful reformation of government in +France would insure "a general reformation through Europe, and the +resurrection to a new life of their people." Each of these statements +could be reversed as regards Hamilton. It is the key to an understanding +of the times to remember that the War of Independence had disjointed +society; and democracy--which Jefferson had proclaimed in the +Declaration of Independence, and enthroned in Virginia--after +strengthening its rights by the sword, had run to excesses, particularly +in the Shays' rebellion, that produced a conservative reaction. To this +reaction Hamilton explicitly appealed in the convention of 1787; and of +this reaction various features of the constitution, and Hamiltonian +federalism generally, were direct fruits. Moreover, independently of +special incentives to the alarmist and the man of property, the opinions +of many Americans turned again, after the war, into a current of +sympathy for England, as naturally as American commerce returned to +English ports. Jefferson, however, far from America in these years and +unexposed to reactionary influences, came back with undiminished fervour +of democracy, and the talk he heard of praise for England, and fearful +recoil before even the beginning of the revolution in France, +disheartened him, and filled him with suspicion.[12] Hating as he did +feudal class institutions and Tudor-Stuart traditions of arbitrary +rule,[13] his attitude can be imagined toward Hamilton's oft-avowed +partialities--and Jefferson assumed, his intrigues--for British +class-government with its eighteenth-century measure of corruption. In +short, Hamilton took from recent years the lesson of the evils of lax +government; whereas Jefferson clung to the other lesson, which crumbling +colonial governments had illustrated, that governments derived their +strength (and the Declaration had proclaimed that they derived their +just rights) from the will of the governed. Each built his system +accordingly: the one on the basis of order, the other on +individualism--which led Jefferson to liberty alike in religion and in +politics. The two men and the fate of the parties they led are +understandable only by regarding one as the leader of reaction, the +other as in line with the American tendencies. The educated classes +characteristically furnished Federalism with a remarkable body of +alarmist leaders; and thus it happened that Jefferson, because, with +only a few of his great contemporaries, he had a thorough trust and +confidence in the people, became the idol of American democracy. + +As Hamilton was somewhat officious and very combative, and Jefferson, +although uncontentious, very suspicious and quite independent, both men +holding inflexibly to opinions, cabinet harmony became impossible when +the two secretaries had formed parties about them and their differences +were carried into the newspapers;[14] and Washington abandoned perforce +his idea "if parties did exist to reconcile them." Partly from +discontent with a position in which he did not feel that he enjoyed the +absolute confidence of the president,[15] and partly because of the +embarrassed condition of his private affairs, Jefferson repeatedly +sought to resign, and finally on the 31st of December 1793, with +Washington's reluctant consent, gave up his portfolio and retired to his +home at Monticello, near Charlottesville. + +Here he remained improving his estate (having refused a foreign mission) +until elected vice-president in 1796. Jefferson was never truly happy +except in the country. He loved gardening, experimented enthusiastically +in varieties and rotations of crops and kept meteorological tables with +diligence. For eight years he tabulated with painful accuracy the +earliest and latest appearance of thirty-seven vegetables in the +Washington market. When abroad he sought out varieties of grasses, +trees, rice and olives for American experiment, and after his return +from France received yearly for twenty-three years, from his old friend +the superintendent of the _Jardin des plantes_, a box of seeds, which he +distributed to public and private gardens throughout the United States. +Jefferson seems to have been the first discoverer of an exact formula +for the construction of mould-boards of least resistance for ploughs. He +managed to make practical use of his calculus about his farms, and seems +to have been remarkably apt in the practical application of mechanical +principles. + +In the presidential election of 1796 John Adams, the Federalist +candidate, received the largest number of electoral votes, and +Jefferson, the Republican candidate, the next largest number, and under +the law as it then existed the former became president and the latter +vice-president. Jefferson re-entered public life with reluctance, though +doubtless with keen enough interest and resolution. He had rightly +measured the strength of his followers, and was waiting for the +government to "drift into unison" with the republican sense of its +constituents, predicting that President Adams would be "overborne" +thereby. This prediction was speedily fulfilled. At first the reign of +terror and the X. Y. Z. disclosures strengthened the Federalists, until +these, mistaking the popular resentment against France for a reaction +against democracy--an equivalence in their own minds--passed the alien +and sedition laws. In answer to those odious measures Jefferson and +Madison prepared and procured the passage of the Kentucky and Virginia +resolutions. These resolutions later acquired extraordinary and +pernicious prominence in the historical elaboration of the +states'-rights doctrine. It is, however, unquestionably true, that as a +startling protest against measures "to silence," in Jefferson's words, +"by force and not by reason the complaints or criticisms, just or +unjust, of our citizens against the conduct of our agents," they served, +in this respect, a useful purpose; and as a counterblast against +Hamiltonian principles of centralization they were probably, at that +moment, very salutary; while even as pieces of constitutional +interpretation it is to be remembered that they did not contemplate +nullification by any single state, and, moreover, are not to be judged +by constitutional principles established later by courts and war. The +Federalist party had ruined itself, and it lost the presidential +election of 1800. The Republican candidates, Jefferson and Aaron Burr +(q.v.), receiving equal votes, it devolved upon the House of +Representatives, in accordance with the system which then obtained, to +make one of the two president, the other vice-president. Party feeling +in America has probably never been more dangerously impassioned than in +the three years preceding this election; discount as one will the +contrary obsessions of men like Fisher Ames, Hamilton and Jefferson, the +time was fateful. Unable to induce Burr to avow Federalist principles, +influential Federalists, in defiance of the constitution, contemplated +the desperate alternative of preventing an election, and appointing an +extra-constitutional (Federalist) president _pro tempore_. Better +counsels, however, prevailed; Hamilton used his influence in favour of +Jefferson as against Burr, and Jefferson became president, entering upon +his duties on the 4th of March 1801. Republicans who had affiliated with +the Federalists at the time of the X. Y. Z. disclosures returned; very +many of the Federalists themselves Jefferson placated and drew over. +"Believing," he wrote, "that (excepting the ardent monarchists) all our +citizens agreed in ancient whig principles"--or, as he elsewhere +expressed it, in "republican forms"--"I thought it advisable to define +and declare them, and let them see the ground on which we can rally." +This he did in his inaugural, which, though somewhat rhetorical, is a +splendid and famous statement of democracy.[16] His conciliatory policy +produced a mild schism in his own party, but proved eminently wise, and +the state elections of 1801 fulfilled his prophecy of 1791 that the +policy of the Federalists would leave them "all head and no body." In +1804 he was re-elected by 162 out of 176 votes. + +Jefferson's administrations were distinguished by the simplicity that +marked his conduct in private life. He eschewed the pomp and ceremonies, +natural inheritances from English origins, that had been an innocent +setting to the character of his two noble predecessors. His dress was of +"plain cloth" on the day of his inauguration. Instead of driving to the +Capitol in a coach and six, he walked without a guard or servant from +his lodgings--or, as a rival tradition has it, he rode, and hitched his +horse to a neighbouring fence--attended by a crowd of citizens. Instead +of opening Congress with a speech to which a formal reply was expected, +he sent in a written message by a private hand. He discontinued the +practice of sending ministers abroad in public vessels. Between himself +and the governors of states he recognized no difference in rank. He +would not have his birthday celebrated by state balls. The weekly levée +was practically abandoned. Even such titles as "Excellency," +"Honourable," "Mr" were distasteful to him. It was formally agreed in +cabinet meeting that "when brought together in society, all are +perfectly equal, whether foreign or domestic, titled or untitled, in or +out of office." Thus diplomatic grades were ignored in social precedence +and foreign relations were seriously compromised by dinner-table +complications. One minister who appeared in gold lace and dress sword +for his first, and regularly appointed, official call on the president, +was received--as he insisted with studied purpose--by Jefferson in +negligent undress and slippers down at the heel. All this was in part +premeditated system[17]--a part of Jefferson's purpose to republicanize +the government and public opinion, which was the distinguishing feature +of his administration; but it was also simply the nature of the man. In +the company he chose by preference, honesty and knowledge were his only +tests. He knew absolutely no social distinctions in his willingness to +perform services for the deserving. He held up to his daughter as an +especial model the family of a poor but gifted mechanic as one wherein +she would see "the best examples of rational living." "If it be +possible," he said, "to be certainly conscious of anything, I am +conscious of feeling no difference between writing to the highest and +lowest being on earth." + +Jefferson's first administration was marked by a reduction of the army, +navy, diplomatic establishment and, to the uttermost, of governmental +expenses; some reduction of the civil service, accompanied by a large +shifting of offices to Republicans; and, above all, by the Louisiana +Purchase (q.v.), following which Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, +sent by Jefferson, conducted their famous exploring expedition across +the continent to the Pacific (see LEWIS, MERIWETHER). Early in his term +he carried out a policy he had urged upon the government when minister +to France and when vice-president, by dispatching naval forces to coerce +Tripoli into a decent respect for the trade of his country--the first in +Christendom to gain honourable immunity from tribute or piracy in the +Mediterranean. The Louisiana Purchase, although the greatest +"inconsistency" of his career, was also an illustration, in +corresponding degree, of his essential practicality, and one of the +greatest proofs of his statesmanship. It was the crowning achievement of +his administration. It is often said that Jefferson established the +"spoils system" by his changes in the civil service. He was the +innovator, because for the first time there was opportunity for +innovation. But mere justice requires attention to the fact that +incentive to that innovation, and excuse for it, were found in the +absolute one-party monopoly maintained by the Federalists. Moreover, +Jefferson's ideals were high; his reasons for changes were in general +excellent; he at least so far resisted the great pressure for +office--producing by his resistance dissatisfaction within his party--as +not to have lowered, apparently, the personnel of the service; and there +were no such blots on his administration as President Adams's "midnight +judges." Nevertheless, his record here was not clear of blots, showing a +few regrettable inconsistencies.[18] Among important but secondary +measures of his second administration were the extinguishment of Indian +titles, and promotion of Indian emigration to lands beyond the +Mississippi; reorganization of the militia; fortification of the +seaports; reduction of the public debt; and a simultaneous reduction of +taxes. But his second term derives most of its historical interest from +the unsuccessful efforts to convict Aaron Burr of treasonable acts in +the south-west, and from the efforts made to maintain, without war, the +rights of neutrals on the high seas. In his diplomacy with Napoleon and +Great Britain Jefferson betrayed a painful incorrigibility of optimism. +A national policy of "growling before fighting"--later practised +successfully enough by the United States--was not then possible; and one +writer has very justly said that what chiefly affects one in the whole +matter is the pathos of it--"a philosopher and a friend of peace +struggling with a despot of superhuman genius, and a Tory cabinet of +superhuman insolence and stolidity" (Trent). It is possible to regard +the embargo policy dispassionately as an interesting illustration of +Jefferson's love of peace. The idea--a very old one with Jefferson--was +not entirely original; in essence it received other attempted +applications in the Napoleonic period--and especially in the continental +blockade. Jefferson's statesmanship had the limitations of an agrarian +outlook. The extreme to which he carried his advocacy of diplomatic +isolation, his opposition to the creation of an adequate navy,[19] his +estimate of cities as "sores upon the body politic," his prejudice +against manufactures, trust in farmers, and political distrust of the +artisan class, all reflect them. + +When, on the 4th of March 1809, Jefferson retired from the presidency, +he had been almost continuously in the public service for forty years. +He refused to be re-elected for a third time, though requested by the +legislatures of five states to be a candidate; and thus, with +Washington's prior example, helped to establish a precedent deemed by +him to be of great importance under a democratic government. His +influence seemed scarcely lessened in his retirement. Madison and +Monroe, his immediate successors--neighbours and devoted friends, whom +he had advised in their early education and led in their maturer +years--consulted him on all great questions, and there was no break of +principles in the twenty-four years of the "Jeffersonian system." +Jefferson was one of the greatest political managers his country has +known. He had a quick eye for character, was genuinely amiable, +uncontentious, tactful, masterful; and it may be assumed from his +success that he was wary or shrewd to a degree. It is true, moreover, +that, unless tested by a few unchanging principles, his acts were often +strikingly inconsistent; and even when so tested, not infrequently +remain so in appearance. Full explanations do not remove from some +important transactions in his political life an impression of +indirectness. But reasonable judgment must find very unjust the stigma +of duplicity put upon him by the Federalists. Measured by the records of +other men equally successful as political leaders, there seems little of +this nature to criticize severely. Jefferson had the full courage of his +convictions. Extreme as were his principles, his pertinacity in adhering +to them and his independence of expression were quite as extreme. There +were philosophic and philanthropic elements in his political faith which +will always lead some to class him as a visionary and fanatic; but +although he certainly indulged at times in dreams at which one may still +smile, he was not, properly speaking, a visionary; nor can he with +justice be stigmatized as a fanatic. He felt fervently, was not afraid +to risk all on the conclusions to which his heart and his mind led him, +declared himself with openness and energy; and he spoke and even wrote +his conclusions, how ever bold or abstract, without troubling to detail +his reasoning or clip his off-hand speculations. Certain it is that +there is much in his utterances for a less robust democracy than his own +to cavil at.[20] Soar, however, as he might, he was essentially not a +doctrinaire, but an empiricist; his mind was objective. Though he +remained, to the end, firm in his belief that there had been an active +monarchist party,[21] this obsession did not carry him out of touch with +the realities of human nature and of his time. He built with surety on +the colonial past, and had a better reasoned view of the actual future +than had any of his contemporaries. + +Events soon appraised the ultra-Federalist judgment of American +democracy, so tersely expressed by Fisher Ames as "like death ... only +the dismal passport to a more dismal hereafter"; and, with it, appraised +Jefferson's word in his first inaugural for those who, "in the full tide +of successful experiment," were ready to abandon a government that had +so far kept them "free and firm, on the visionary fear that it might by +possibility lack energy to preserve itself." Time soon tested, too, his +principle that that government must prove the strongest on earth "where +every man ... would meet invasions of the public order as his own +personal concern." He summed up as follows the difference between +himself and the Hamiltonian group: "One feared most the ignorance of the +people; the other the selfishness of rulers independent of them." +Jefferson, in short, had unlimited faith in the honesty of the people; a +large faith in their common sense; believed that all is to be won by +appealing to the reason of voters; that by education their ignorance can +be eliminated; that human nature is indefinitely perfectible; that +majorities rule, therefore, not only by virtue of force (which was +Locke's ultimate justification of them), but of right.[22] His +importance as a maker of modern America can scarcely be overstated, for +the ideas he advocated have become the very foundations of American +republicanism. His administration ended the possibility, probability or +certainty--measure it as one will--of the development of Federalism in +the direction of class government; and the party he formed, inspired by +the creed he gave it, fixed the democratic future of the nation. And by +his own labours he had vindicated his faith in the experiment of +self-government. + +Jefferson's last years were devoted to the establishment of the +university of Virginia at Charlottesville, near his home. He planned the +buildings, gathered its faculty--mainly from abroad--and shaped its +organization. Practically all the great ideas of aim, administration and +curriculum that dominated American universities at the end of the 19th +century were anticipated by him. He hoped that the university might be a +dominant influence in national culture, but circumstances crippled it. +His educational plans had been maturing in his mind since 1776. His +financial affairs in these last years gave him grave concern. His fine +library of over 10,000 volumes was purchased at a low price by Congress +in 1815, and a national contribution ($16,500) just before his death +enabled him to die in peace. Though not personally extravagant, his +salary, and the small income from his large estates, never sufficed to +meet his generous maintenance of his representative position; and after +his retirement from public life the numerous visitors to Monticello +consumed the remnants of his property. He died on the 4th of July 1826, +the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, on the same +day as John Adams. He chose for his tomb the epitaph: "Here was buried +Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of American Independence, of +the statute of Virginia for religious freedom, and father of the +university of Virginia." + + Jefferson was about 6 ft. in height, large-boned, slim, erect and + sinewy. He had angular features, a very ruddy complexion, sandy hair, + and hazel-flecked, grey eyes. Age lessened the unattractiveness of his + exterior. In later years he was negligent in dress and loose in + bearing. There was grace, nevertheless, in his manners; and his frank + and earnest address, his quick sympathy (yet he seemed cold to + strangers), his vivacious, desultory, informing talk, gave him an + engaging charm. Beneath a quiet surface he was fairly aglow with + intense convictions and a very emotional temperament. Yet he seems to + have acted habitually, in great and little things, on system. His + mind, no less trenchant and subtle than Hamilton's, was the most + impressible, the most receptive, mind of his time in America. The + range of his interests is remarkable. For many years he was president + of the American philosophical society. Though it is a biographical + tradition that he lacked wit, Molière and _Don Quixote_ seem to have + been his favourites; and though the utilitarian wholly crowds + romanticism out of his writings, he had enough of that quality in + youth to prepare to learn Gaelic in order to translate Ossian, and + sent to Macpherson for the originals! His interest in art was + evidently intellectual. He was singularly sweet-tempered, and shrank + from the impassioned political bitterness that raged about him; bore + with relative equanimity a flood of coarse and malignant abuse of his + motives, morals, religion,[23] personal honesty and decency; cherished + very few personal animosities; and better than any of his great + antagonists cleared political opposition of ill-blooded personality. + In short, his kindness of heart rose above all social, religious or + political differences, and nothing destroyed his confidence in men and + his sanguine views of life. + + AUTHORITIES.--See the editions of Jefferson's _Writings_ by H. A. + Washington (9 vols., New York, 1853-1854), and--the best--by Paul + Leicester Ford (10 vols., New York, 1892-1899); letters in + Massachusetts Historical Society, _Collections_, series 7, vol. i.; S. + E. Forman, _The Letters and Writings of Thomas Jefferson, including + all his Important Utterances on Public Questions_ (1900); J. P. Foley, + _The Jefferson Cyclopaedia_ (New York, 1900); the _Memoir, + Correspondence_, &c., by T. J. Randolph (4 vols., Charlottesville, + Va., 1829); biographies by James Schouler ("Makers of America Series," + New York, 1893); John T. Morse ("American Statesmen Series," Boston, + 1883); George Tucker (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1837); James Parton + (Boston, 1874); and especially that by Henry S. Randall (3 vols., New + York, 1853), a monumental work, although marred by some special + pleading, and sharing Jefferson's implacable opinions of the + "Monocrats." See also Henry Adams, _History of the United States + 1801-1817_, vols. 1-4 (New York, 1889-1890); Herbert B. Adams, _Thomas + Jefferson and the University of Virginia_ (U. S. bureau of education, + Washington, 1888); Sarah N. Randolph, _Domestic Life of Thomas + Jefferson_ (New York, 1871); and an illuminating appreciation by W. P. + Trent, in his _Southern Statesmen of the Old Régime_ (New York, 1897); + that by John Fiske, Essays, _Historical and Literary_, vol. i. (New + York, 1902), has slighter merits. (F. S. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] It was embarrassed with a debt, however, of £3749, which, owing + to conditions caused by the War of Independence, he really paid three + times to his British creditors (not counting destruction on his + estates, of equal amount, ordered by Lord Cornwallis). This greatly + reduced his income for a number of years. + + [2] The first law of its kind in Christendom, although not the + earliest practice of such liberty in America. + + [3] George Mason and Thomas L. Lee were members of the commission, + but they were not lawyers, and did little actual work on the + revision. + + [4] Capital punishment was confined to treason and murder; the former + was not to be attended by corruption of blood, drawing, or + quartering; all other felonies were made punishable by confinement + and hard labour, save a few to which was applied, against Jefferson's + desire, the principle of retaliation. + + [5] This plan applied to the south-western as well as to the + north-western territory, and was notable for a provision that slavery + should not exist therein after 1800. This provision was defeated in + 1784, but was adopted in 1787 for the north-western territory--a step + which is very often said to have saved the Union in the Civil War; + the south-western territory (out of which were later formed + Mississippi, Alabama, &c.) being given over to slavery. Thus the + anti-slavery clause of the ordinance of 1784 was not adopted; and it + was preceded by unofficial proposals to the same end; yet to it + belongs rightly some special honour as blazoning the way for federal + control of slavery in the territories, which later proved of such + enormous consequence. Jefferson in the first draft of the Ordinance + of 1784, suggested the names to be given to the states eventually to + be formed out of the territory concerned. For his suggestions he has + been much ridiculed. The names are as follows: Illinoia, Michigania, + Sylvania, Polypotamia, Assenisipia, Charronesus, Pelisipia, Saratoga, + Metropotamia and Washington. + + [6] He owned at one time above 150 slaves. His overseers were under + contract never to bleed them; but he manumitted only a few at his + death. + + [7] During this time he assisted in negotiating a treaty of amity and + commerce with Prussia (1785) and one with Morocco (1789), and + negotiated with France a "convention defining and establishing the + functions and privileges of consuls and vice-consuls" (1788). + + [8] Patrick Henry humorously declaimed before a popular audience that + Jefferson, who favoured French wine and cookery, had "abjured his + native victuals." + + [9] Jefferson did not sympathize with the temper of his followers who + condoned the zealous excesses of Genet, and in general with the + "misbehaviour" of the democratic clubs; but, as a student of English + liberties, he could not accept Washington's doctrine that for a + self-created permanent body to declare "this act unconstitutional, + and that act pregnant with mischiefs" was "a stretch of arrogant + presumption" which would, if unchecked, "destroy the country." + + [10] John Basset Moore, _American Diplomacy_ (New York, 1905). + + [11] Compare C. D. Hazen, _Contemporary American opinion of the + French Revolution_ (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1897). + + [12] It was at this period of his life that Jefferson gave expression + to some of the opinions for which he has been most severely + criticized and ridiculed. For the Shays' rebellion he felt little + abhorrence, and wrote: "A little rebellion now and then is a good + thing ... an observation of this truth should render honest + republican governors so mild in their punishment of rebellions as not + to discourage them too much. It is a medicine necessary for the sound + health of government" (_Writings_, Ford ed., iv. 362-363). Again, + "Can history produce an instance of rebellion so honorably + conducted?... God forbid that we should ever be twenty years without + such a rebellion.... What signify a few lives lost in a century or + two? The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the + blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure" (Ibid. iv. + 467). Again he says: "Societies exist under three forms--(1) without + government, as among our Indians; (2) under governments wherein the + will of every one has a just influence.... (3) under governments of + force.... It is a problem not clear in my mind that the first + condition is not the best." (Ibid. iv. 362.) + + [13] He turned law students from Blackstone's toryism to Coke on + Littleton; and he would not read Walter Scott, so strong was his + aversion to that writer's predilection for class and feudalism. + + [14] Hamilton wrote for the papers himself; Jefferson never did. A + talented clerk in his department, however, Philip Freneau, set up an + anti-administration paper. It was alleged that Jefferson appointed + him for the purpose, and encouraged him. Undoubtedly there was + nothing in the charge. The Federalist outcry could only have been + silenced by removal of Freneau, or by disclaimers or admonitions, + which Jefferson did not think it incumbent upon himself--or, since he + thought Freneau was doing good, desirable for him--to make. + + [15] Contrary to the general belief that Hamilton dominated + Washington in the cabinet, there is the president's explicit + statement that "there were as many instances" of his deciding against + as in favour of the secretary of the treasury. + + [16] See also Jefferson to E. Gerry, 26th of January 1799 + (_Writings_, vii. 325), and to Dupont de Nemours (x. 23). Cf. + Hamilton to J. Dayton, 1799 (_Works_, x. 329). + + [17] In 1786 he suggested to James Monroe that the society of friends + he hoped to gather in Albemarle might, in sumptuary matters, "set a + good example" to a country (i.e. Virginia) that "needed" it. + + [18] See C. R. Fish, _The Civil Service and the Patronage_ (Harvard + Historical Studies, New York, 1905), ch. 2. + + [19] Jefferson's dislike of a navy was due to his desire for an + economical administration and for peace. Shortly after his + inauguration he expressed a desire to lay up the larger men of war in + the eastern branch of the Potomac, where they would require only "one + set of plunderers to take care of them." To Thomas Paine he wrote in + 1807: "I believe that gunboats are the only _water_ defence which can + be useful to us and protect us from the ruinous folly of a navy." + (_Works_, Ford ed., ix. 137.) The gunboats desired by Jefferson were + small, cheap craft equipped with one or two guns and kept on shore + under sheds until actually needed, when they were to be launched and + manned by a sort of naval militia. A large number of these boats were + constructed and they afforded some protection to coasting vessels + against privateers, but in bad weather, or when employed against a + frigate, they were worse than useless, and Jefferson's "gunboat + system" was admittedly a failure. + + [20] See e.g. his letters in 1787 on the Shays' rebellion, and his + speculations on the doctrine that one generation may not bind another + by paper documents. With the latter may be compared present-day + movements like the initiative and referendum, and not a few + discussions of national debts. Jefferson's distrust of governments + was nothing exceptional for a consistent individualist. + + [21] In his last years he carefully sifted and revised his + contemporary notes evidencing, as he believed, the existence of such + a party, and they remain as his _Ana_ (chiefly Hamiltoniana). The + only just judgment of these notes is to be obtained by looking at + them, and by testing his suspicions with the letters of Hamilton, + Ames, Oliver Wolcott, Theodore Sedgwick, George Cabot and the other + Hamiltonians. Such a comparison measures also the relative judgment, + temper and charity of these writers and Jefferson. It must still + remain true, however, that Jefferson's _Ana_ present him in a far + from engaging light. + + [22] "Jefferson, in 1789, wrote some such stuff about the will of + majorities, as a New Englander would lose his rank among men of sense + to avow."--Fisher Ames (Jan. 1800). + + [23] He was classed as a "French infidel" and atheist. His attitude + toward religion was in fact deeply reverent and sincere, but he + insisted that religion was purely an individual matter, "evidenced, + as concerns the world by each one's daily life," and demanded + absolute freedom of private judgment. He looked on Unitarianism with + much sympathy and desired its growth. "I am a Christian," he wrote in + 1823, "in the only sense in which he (Jesus) wished any one to be; + sincerely attached to his doctrines in preference to all others; + ascribing to himself every human excellence, and believing he never + claimed any other." + + + + +JEFFERSON CITY (legally and officially the City of Jefferson), the +capital of Missouri, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Cole county, on the +Missouri river, near the geographical centre of the state, about 125 m. +W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890), 6742; (1900), 9664, of whom 786 were +foreign-born and 1822 were negroes; (1910 census), 11,850. It is served +by the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago & Alton, and the Missouri, Kansas & +Texas railways. Its site is partly in the bottom-lands of the river and +partly on the steep banks at an elevation of about 600 ft. above the +sea. A steel bridge spans the river. The state capitol, an imposing +structure built on a bluff above the river, was built in 1838-1842 and +enlarged in 1887-1888; it was first occupied in 1840 by the legislature, +which previously had met (after 1837) in the county court house. Other +prominent buildings are the United States court house and post office, +the state supreme court house, the county court house, the state +penitentiary, the state armoury and the executive mansion. The +penitentiary is to a large extent self-supporting; in 1903-1904 the +earnings were $3493.80 in excess of the costs, but in 1904-1906 the +costs exceeded the earnings by $9044. Employment is furnished for the +convicts on the penitentiary premises by incorporated companies. The +state law library here is one of the best of the kind in the country, +and the city has a public library. In the city is Lincoln Institute, a +school for negroes, founded in 1866 by two regiments of negro infantry +upon their discharge from the United States army, opened in 1868, taken +over by the state in 1879, and having sub-normal, normal, college, +industrial and agricultural courses. Coal and limestone are found near +the city. In 1905 the total value of the factory product was $3,926,632, +an increase of 28.2% since 1900. The original constitution of Missouri +prescribed that the capital should be on the Missouri river within 40 m. +of the mouth of the Osage, and a commission selected in 1821 the site of +Jefferson City, on which a town was laid out in 1822, the name being +adopted in honour of Thomas Jefferson. The legislature first met here in +1826; Jefferson City became the county-seat in 1828, and in 1839 was +first chartered as a city. The constitutional conventions of 1845 and +1875, and the state convention which issued the call for the National +Liberal Republican convention at Cincinnati in 1872, met here, and so +for some of its sessions did the state convention of 1861-1863. In June +1861 Jefferson City was occupied by Union forces, and in +September-October 1864 it was threatened by Confederate troops under +General Sterling Price. + + + + +JEFFERSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Clark county, Indiana, +U.S.A., situated on the N. bank of the Ohio river, opposite Louisville, +Kentucky, with which it is connected by several bridges. Pop. (1890), +10,666; (1900), 10,774, of whom 1818 were of negro descent and 615 were +foreign-born; (1910 census), 10,412. It is served by the Baltimore & +Ohio South-western, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and +the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by three +inter-urban electric lines. It is attractively situated on bluffs above +the river, which at this point has a descent (known as the falls of the +Ohio) of 26 ft. in 2 m. This furnishes good water power for +manufacturing purposes both at Jeffersonville and at Louisville. The +total value of the factory product in 1905 was $4,526,443, an increase +of 20% since 1900. The Indiana reformatory (formerly the Southern +Indiana penitentiary) and a large supply dépôt of the United States army +are at Jeffersonville. General George Rogers Clark started (June 24, +1778) on his expedition against Kaskaskia and Vincennes from Corn Island +(now completely washed away) opposite what is now Jeffersonville. In +1786 the United States government established Fort Finney (built by +Captain Walter Finney), afterwards re-named Fort Steuben, on the site of +the present city; but the fort was abandoned in 1791, and the actual +beginning of Jeffersonville was in 1802, when a part of the Clark grant +(the site of the present city) was transferred by its original owner, +Lieut. Isaac Bowman, to three trustees, under whose direction a town was +laid out. Jeffersonville was incorporated as a town in 1815, and was +chartered as a city in 1839. + + + + +JEFFREY, FRANCIS JEFFREY, LORD (1773-1850), Scottish judge and literary +critic, son of a depute-clerk in the Court of Session, was born at +Edinburgh on the 23rd of October 1773. After attending the high school +for six years, he studied at the university of Glasgow from 1787 to May +1789, and at Queen's College, Oxford, from September 1791 to June 1792. +He had begun the study of law at Edinburgh before going to Oxford, and +now resumed his studies there. He became a member of the speculative +society, where he measured himself in debate with Scott, Brougham, +Francis Horner, the marquess of Lansdowne, Lord Kinnaird and others. He +was admitted to the Scotch bar in December 1794, but, having abandoned +the Tory principles in which he had been educated, he found that his +Whig politics seriously prejudiced his legal prospects. In consequence +of his lack of success at the bar he went to London in 1798 to try his +fortune as a journalist, but without success; he also made more than one +vain attempt to obtain an office which would have secured him the +advantage of a small but fixed salary. His marriage with Catherine +Wilson in 1801 made the question of a settled income even more pressing. +A project for a new review was brought forward by Sydney Smith in +Jeffrey's flat in the presence of H. P. Brougham (afterwards Lord +Brougham), Francis Horner and others; and the scheme resulted in the +appearance on the 10th of October 1802 of the first number of the +_Edinburgh Review_. At the outset the _Review_ was not under the charge +of any special editor. The first three numbers were, however, +practically edited by Sydney Smith, and on his leaving for England the +work devolved chiefly on Jeffrey, who, by an arrangement with Constable, +the publisher, was eventually appointed editor at a fixed salary. Most +of those associated in the undertaking were Whigs; but, although the +general bias of the Review was towards social and political reforms, it +was at first so little of a party organ that for a time it numbered Sir +Walter Scott among its contributors; and no distinct emphasis was given +to its political leanings until the publication in 1808 of an article by +Jeffrey himself on the work of Don Pedro Cevallos on the _French +Usurpation of Spain_. This article expressed despair of the success of +the British arms in Spain, and Scott at once withdrew his subscription, +the _Quarterly_ being soon afterwards started in opposition. According +to Lord Cockburn the effect of the first number of the _Edinburgh +Review_ was "electrical." The English reviews were at that time +practically publishers' organs, the articles in which were written by +hackwriters instructed to praise or blame according to the publishers' +interests. Few men of any standing consented to write for them. The +_Edinburgh Review_, on the other hand, enlisted a brilliant and +independent staff of contributors, guided by the editor, not the +publisher. They received sixteen guineas a sheet (sixteen printed +pages), increased subsequently to twenty-five guineas in many cases, +instead of the two guineas which formed the ordinary London reviewer's +fee. Further, the review was not limited to literary criticism. It +constituted itself the accredited organ of moderate Whig public opinion. +The particular work which provided the starting-point of an article was +in many cases merely the occasion for the exposition, always brilliant +and incisive, of the author's views on politics, social subjects, ethics +or literature. These general principles and the novelty of the method +ensured the success of the undertaking even after the original circle of +exceptionally able men who founded it had been dispersed. It had a +circulation, great for those days, of 12,000 copies. The period of +Jeffrey's editorship extended to about twenty-six years, ceasing with +the ninety-eighth number, published in June 1829, when he resigned in +favour of Macvey Napier. + +Jeffrey's own contributions, according to a list which has the sanction +of his authority, numbered two hundred, all except six being written +before his resignation of the editorship. Jeffrey wrote with great +rapidity, at odd moments of leisure and with little special preparation. +Great fluency and ease of diction, considerable warmth of imagination +and moral sentiment, and a sharp eye to discover any oddity of style or +violation of the accepted canons of good taste, made his criticisms +pungent and effective. But the essential narrowness and timidity of his +general outlook prevented him from detecting and estimating latent +forces, either in politics or in matters strictly intellectual and +moral; and this lack of understanding and sympathy accounts for his +distrust and dislike of the passion and fancy of Shelley and Keats, and +for his praise of the half-hearted and elegant romanticism of Rogers and +Campbell. (For his treatment of the lake poets see WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM.) + +A criticism in the fifteenth number of the _Review_ on the morality of +Moore's poems led in 1806 to a duel between the two authors at Chalk +Farm. The proceedings were stopped by the police, and Jeffrey's pistol +was found to contain no bullet. The affair led to a warm friendship, +however, and Moore contributed to the _Review_, while Jeffrey made ample +amends in a later article on _Lalla Rookh_ (1817). + +Jeffrey's wife had died in 1805, and in 1810 he became acquainted with +Charlotte, daughter of Charles Wilkes of New York, and great-niece of +John Wilkes. When she returned to America, Jeffrey followed her, and +they were married in 1813. Before returning to England they visited +several of the chief American cities, and his experience strengthened +Jeffrey in the conciliatory policy he had before advocated towards the +States. Notwithstanding the increasing success of the _Review_, Jeffrey +always continued to look to the bar as the chief field of his ambition. +As a matter of fact, his literary reputation helped his professional +advancement. His practice extended rapidly in the civil and criminal +courts, and he regularly appeared before the general assembly of the +Church of Scotland, where his work, though not financially profitable, +increased his reputation. As an advocate his sharpness and rapidity of +insight gave him a formidable advantage in the detection of the +weaknesses of a witness and the vulnerable points of his opponent's +case, while he grouped his own arguments with an admirable eye to +effect, especially excelling in eloquent closing appeals to a jury. +Jeffrey was twice, in 1820 and 1822, elected lord rector of the +university of Glasgow. In 1829 he was chosen dean of the faculty of +advocates. On the return of the Whigs to power in 1830 he became lord +advocate, and entered parliament as member for the Perth burghs. He was +unseated, and afterwards returned for Malton, a borough in the interest +of Lord Fitzwilliam. After the passing of the Scottish Reform Bill, +which he introduced in parliament, he was returned for Edinburgh in +December 1832. His parliamentary career, which, though not brilliantly +successful, had won him high general esteem, was terminated by his +elevation to the judicial bench as Lord Jeffrey in May 1834. In 1842 he +was moved to the first division of the Court of Session. On the +disruption of the Scottish Church he took the side of the seceders, +giving a judicial opinion in their favour, afterwards reversed by the +house of lords. He died at Edinburgh on the 26th of January 1850. + + Some of his contributions to the _Edinburgh Review_ appeared in four + volumes in 1844 and 1845. This selection includes the essay on + "Beauty" contributed to the _Ency. Brit._ The _Life of Lord Jeffrey, + with a Selection from his Correspondence_, by Lord Cockburn, appeared + in 1852 in 2 vols. See also the _Selected Correspondence of Macvey + Napier_ (1877); the sketch of Jeffrey in Carlyle's _Reminiscences_, + vol. ii. (1881); and an essay by Lewis E. Gates in _Three Studies in + Literature_ (New York, 1899). + + + + +JEFFREYS, GEORGE JEFFREYS, 1ST BARON (1648-1689), lord chancellor of +England, son of John Jeffreys, a Welsh country gentleman, was born at +Acton Park, his father's seat in Denbighshire, in 1648. His family, +though not wealthy, was of good social standing and repute in Wales; his +mother, a daughter of Sir Thomas Ireland of Bewsey, Lancashire, was "a +very pious good woman." He was educated at Shrewsbury, St Paul's and +Westminster schools, at the last of which he was a pupil of Busby, and +at Trinity College, Cambridge; but he left the university without taking +a degree, and entered the Inner Temple as a student in May 1663. From +his childhood Jeffreys displayed exceptional talent, but on coming to +London he occupied himself more with the pleasures of conviviality than +with serious study of the law. Though he never appears to have fallen +into the licentious immorality prevalent at that period, he early became +addicted to hard drinking and boisterous company. But as the records of +his early years, and indeed of his whole life, are derived almost +exclusively from vehemently hostile sources, the numerous anecdotes of +his depravity cannot be accepted without a large measure of scepticism. +He was a handsome, witty and attractive boon-companion, and in the +taverns of the city he made friends among attorneys with practice in the +criminal courts. Thus assisted he rose so rapidly in his profession that +within three years of his call to the bar in 1668, he was elected common +serjeant of the city of London. Such advancement, however, was not to be +attained even in the reign of Charles II. solely by the aid of +disreputable friendships. Jeffreys had remarkable aptitude for the +profession of an advocate--quick intelligence, caustic humour, copious +eloquence. His powers of cross-examination were masterly; and if he was +insufficiently grounded in legal principles to become a profound lawyer, +nothing but greater application was needed in the opinion of so hostile +a critic as Lord Campbell, to have made him the rival of Nottingham and +Hale. Jeffreys could count on the influence of respectable men of +position in the city, such as Sir Robert Clayton and his own namesake +Alderman Jeffreys; and he also enjoyed the personal friendship of the +virtuous Sir Matthew Hale. In 1667 Jeffreys had married in circumstances +which, if improvident, were creditable to his generosity and sense of +honour; and his domestic life, so far as is known, was free from the +scandal common among his contemporaries. While holding the judicial +office of common serjeant, he pursued his practice at the bar. With a +view to further preferment he now sought to ingratiate himself with the +court party, to which he obtained an introduction possibly through +William Chiffinch, the notorious keeper of the king's closet. He at once +attached himself to the king's mistress, the duchess of Portsmouth; and +as early as 1672 he was employed in confidential business by the court. +His influence in the city of London, where opposition to the government +of Charles II. was now becoming pronounced, enabled Jeffreys to make +himself useful to Danby. In September 1677 he received a knighthood, and +his growing favour with the court was further marked by his appointment +as solicitor-general to James, duke of York; while the city showed its +continued confidence in him by electing him to the post of recorder in +October 1678. + +In the previous month Titus Oates had made his first revelations of the +alleged popish plot, and from this time forward Jeffreys was prominently +identified, either as advocate or judge, with the memorable state trials +by which the political conflict between the Crown and the people was +waged during the remainder of the 17th century. The popish plot, +followed by the growing agitation for the exclusion of the duke of York +from the succession, widened the breach between the city and the court. +Jeffreys threw in his lot with the latter, displaying his zeal by +initiating the movement of the "abhorrers" (q.v.) against the +"petitioners" who were giving voice to the popular demand for the +summoning of parliament. He was rewarded with the coveted office of +chief justice of Chester on the 30th of April 1680; but when parliament +met in October the House of Commons passed a hostile resolution which +induced him to resign his recordership, a piece of pusillanimity that +drew from the king the remark that Jeffreys was "not parliament-proof." +Jeffreys nevertheless received from the city aldermen a substantial +token of appreciation for his past services. In 1681 he was created a +baronet. In June 1683 the first of the Rye House conspirators were +brought to trial. Jeffreys was briefed for the crown in the prosecution +of Lord William Howard; and, having been raised to the bench as lord +chief justice of the king's bench in September, he presided at the +trials of Algernon Sidney in November 1683 and of Sir Thomas Armstrong +in the following June. In the autumn of 1684 Jeffreys, who had been +active in procuring the surrender of municipal charters to the crown, +was called to the cabinet, having previously been sworn of the privy +council. In May 1685 he had the satisfaction of passing sentence on +Titus Oates for perjury in the plot trials; and about the same time +James II. rewarded his zeal with a peerage as Baron Jeffreys of Wem, an +honour never before conferred on a chief justice during his tenure of +office. Jeffreys had for some time been suffering from stone, which +aggravated the irritability of his naturally violent temper; and the +malady probably was in some degree the cause of the unmeasured fury he +displayed at the trial of Richard Baxter (q.v.) for seditious libel--if +the unofficial _ex parte_ report of the trial, which alone exists, is to +be accepted as trustworthy. + +In August 1685 Jeffreys opened at Winchester the commission known in +history as the "bloody assizes," his conduct of which has branded his +name with indelible infamy. The number of persons sentenced to death at +these assizes for complicity in the duke of Monmouth's insurrection is +uncertain. The official return of those actually executed was 320; many +hundreds more were transported and sold into slavery in the West Indies. +In all probability the great majority of those condemned were in fact +concerned in the rising, but the trials were in many cases a mockery of +the administration of justice. Numbers were cajoled into pleading +guilty; the case for the prisoners seldom obtained a hearing. The +merciless severity of the chief justice did not however exceed the +wishes of James II.; for on his return to London Jeffreys received from +the king the great seal with the title of lord chancellor. For the next +two years he was a strenuous upholder of prerogative, though he was less +abjectly pliant than has sometimes been represented. There is no reason +to doubt the sincerity of his attachment to the Church of England; for +although the king's favour was capricious Jeffreys never took the easy +and certain path to secure it that lay through apostasy; and he even +withstood James on occasion, when the latter pushed his Catholic zeal to +extremes. Though it is true that he accepted the presidency of the +ecclesiastical commission, Burnet's statement that it was Jeffreys who +suggested that institution to James is probably incorrect; and he was so +far from having instigated the prosecution of the seven bishops in 1688, +as has been frequently alleged, that he disapproved of the proceedings +and rejoiced secretly at the acquittal. But while he watched with +misgiving the king's preferment of Roman Catholics, he made himself the +masterful instrument of unconstitutional prerogative in coercing the +authorities of Cambridge University, who in 1687 refused to confer +degrees on a Benedictine monk, and the fellows of Magdalen College, +Oxford, who declined to elect as their president a disreputable nominee +of the king. + +Being thus conspicuously identified with the most tyrannical measures of +James II., Jeffreys found himself in a desperate plight when on the 11th +of December 1688 the king fled from the country on the approach to +London of William of Orange. The lord chancellor attempted to escape +like his master; but in spite of his disguise as a common seaman he was +recognized in a tavern at Wapping--possibly, as Roger North relates, by +an attorney whom Jeffreys had terrified on some occasion in the court of +chancery--and was arrested and conveyed to the Tower. The malady from +which he had long suffered had recently made fatal progress, and he died +in the Tower on the 18th of April 1689. He was succeeded in the peerage +by his son, John (2nd Baron Jeffreys of Wem), who died without male +issue in 1702, when the title became extinct. + +It is impossible to determine precisely with what justice tradition has +made the name of "Judge Jeffreys" a byword of infamy. The Revolution, +which brought about his fall, handed over his reputation at the same +time to the mercy of his bitterest enemies. They alone have recorded his +actions and appraised his motives and character. Even the adherents of +the deposed dynasty had no interest in finding excuse for one who served +as a convenient scapegoat for the offences of his master. For at least +half a century after his death no apology for Lord Jeffreys would have +obtained a hearing; and none was attempted. With the exception therefore +of what is to be gathered from the reports of the state trials, all +knowledge of his conduct rests on testimony tainted by undisguised +hostility. Innumerable scurrilous lampoons vilifying the hated +instrument of James's tyranny, but without a pretence of historic value, +flooded the country at the Revolution; and these, while they fanned the +undiscriminating hatred of contemporaries who remembered the judge's +severities, and perpetuated that hatred in tradition, have not been +sufficiently discounted even by modern historians like Macaulay and Lord +Campbell. The name of Jeffreys has therefore been handed down as that of +a coarse, ignorant, dissolute, foul-mouthed, inhuman bully, who +prostituted the seat of justice. That there was sufficient ground for +the execration in which his memory was long held is not to be gainsaid. +But the portrait has nevertheless been blackened overmuch. An occasional +significant admission in his favour may be gleaned even from the +writings of his enemies. Thus Roger North declares that "in matters +indifferent," i.e. where politics were not concerned, Jeffreys became +the seat of justice better than any other that author had seen in his +place. Sir J. Jekyll, master of the rolls, told Speaker Onslow that +Jeffreys "had great parts and made a great chancellor in the business of +his court. In mere private matters he was thought an able and upright +judge wherever he sat." His keen sense of humour, allied with a spirit +of inveterate mockery and an exuberant command of pungent eloquence, led +him to rail and storm at prisoners and witnesses in grossly unseemly +fashion. But in this he did not greatly surpass most of his +contemporaries on the judicial bench, and it was a failing from which +even the dignified and virtuous Hale was not altogether exempt. The +intemperance of Jeffreys which shocked North, certainly did not exceed +that of Saunders; in violence he was rivalled by Scroggs; though accused +of political apostasy, he was not a shameless renegade like Williams; +and there is no evidence that in pecuniary matters he was personally +venal, or that in licentiousness he followed the example set by Charles +II. and most of his courtiers. Some of his actions that have incurred +the sternest reprobation of posterity were otherwise estimated by the +best of his contemporaries. His trial of Algernon Sidney, described by +Macaulay and Lord Campbell as one of the most heinous of his iniquities, +was warmly commended by Dr William Lloyd, who was soon afterwards to +become a popular idol as one of the illustrious seven bishops (see +letter from the bishop of St Asaph in H. B. Irving's _Life of Judge +Jeffreys_, p. 184). Nor was the habitual illegality of his procedure on +the bench so unquestionable as many writers have assumed. Sir James +Stephen inclined to the opinion that no actual abuse of law tainted the +trials of the Rye House conspirators, or that of Alice Lisle, the most +prominent victim of the "bloody assizes." The conduct of the judges in +Russell's trial was, he thinks, "moderate and fair in general"; and the +trial of Sidney "much resembled that of Russell." The same high +authority pronounces that the trial of Lord Delamere in the House of +Lords was conducted by Jeffreys "with propriety and dignity." And if +Jeffreys judged political offenders with cruel severity, he also crushed +some glaring abuses; conspicuous examples of which were the frauds of +attorneys who infested Westminster Hall, and the systematic kidnapping +practised by the municipal authorities of Bristol. Moreover, if any +value is to be attached to the evidence of physiognomy, the traditional +estimate of the character of Jeffreys obtains no confirmation from the +refinement of his features and expression as depicted in Kneller's +portrait in the National Portrait Gallery of London. But even though the +popular notion requires to be thus modified in certain respects, it +remains incontestable that Jeffreys was probably on the whole the worst +example of a period when the administration of justice in England had +sunk to the lowest degradation, and the judicial bench had become the +too willing tool of an unconstitutional and unscrupulous executive. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief contemporary authorities for the life of + Jeffreys are Bishop Burnet's _History of my own Time_ (1724), and see + especially the edition "with notes by the Earls of Dartmouth and + Hardwick Speaker Onslow and Dean Swift" (Oxford Univ. Press, 1833); + Roger North's _Life of the Right Hon. Francis North, Baron of + Guildford_ (1808) and _Autobiography_ (ed. by Augustus Jessopp, 1887); + _Ellis Correspondence, Verney Papers_ (Hist. MSS. Comm.), _Hatton + Correspondence_ (Camden Soc. pub.); the earl of Ailesbury's _Memoirs_; + Evelyn's _Diary_. The only trustworthy information as to the judicial + conduct and capacity of Jeffreys is to be found in the reports of the + _State Trials_, vols. vii.-xii.; and cf. Sir J. F. Stephen's _History + of the Criminal Law of England_ (1883). For details of the "bloody + assizes," see _Harl. MSS._, 4689; George Roberts, _The Life, + Progresses and Rebellion of James Duke of Monmouth_, vol. ii. (1844); + also many pamphlets, lampoons, &c., in the British Museum, as to which + see the article on "Sources of History for Monmouth's Rebellion and + the Bloody Assizes," by A. L. Humphreys, in _Proceedings of the + Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural Hist. Soc._ (1892). Later + accounts are by H. W. Woolrych, _Memoirs of the Life of Judge + Jeffreys_ (1827); Lord Campbell, _The Lives of the Lord Chancellors_ + (1845), 1st series, vol. iii.; E. Foss, _The Judges of England_ + (1864), vol. vii.; Henry Roscoe, _Lives of Eminent British Lawyers_ + (1830); Lord Macaulay, _History of England_ (1848; and many subsequent + editions). Most of these works, and especially those by Macaulay and + Campbell, are uncritical in their hostility to Jeffreys, and are based + for the most part on untrustworthy authorities. The best modern work + on the subject, though unduly favourable to Jeffreys, is H. B. + Irving's _Life of Judge Jeffreys_ (1898), the appendix to which + contains a full bibliography. (R. J. M.) + + + + +JEHOIACHIN (Heb. "Yah[weh] establisheth"), in the Bible, son of +Jehoiakim and king of Judah (2 Kings xxiv. 8 sqq.; 2 Chron, xxxvi. 9 +seq.). He came to the throne at the age of eighteen in the midst of the +Chaldean invasion of Judah, and is said to have reigned three months. He +was compelled to surrender to Nebuchadrezzar and was carried off to +Babylon (597 B.C.). This was the First Captivity, and from it Ezekiel +(one of the exiles) dates his prophecies. Eight thousand people of the +better class (including artisans, &c.) were removed, the Temple was +partially despoiled (see Jer. xxvii. 18-20; xxiii.v. 3 seq.),[1] and +Jehoiachin's uncle Mattaniah (son of Josiah) was appointed king. +Jehoiachin's fate is outlined in Jer. xxii. 20-30 (cf. xxvii. 20). +Nearly forty years later, Nebuchadrezzar II. died (562 B.C.) and +Evil-Merodach (Amil-Marduk) his successor released the unfortunate +captive and gave him precedence over the other subjugated kings who were +kept prisoners in Babylon. With this gleam of hope for the unhappy +Judaeans both the book of Kings and the prophecies of Jeremiah conclude +(2 Kings xxv. 27-30; Jer. lii. 31-34). + + See, further, JEREMIAH (especially chaps. xxiv., xxvii. seq.), and + JEWS, § 17. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] 2 Kings xxiv. 13 seq. gives other numbers and a view of the + disaster which is more suitable for the Second Captivity. (See + ZEDEKIAH.) + + + + +JEHOIAKIM (Heb. "Yah[weh] raiseth up"), in the Bible, son of Josiah +(q.v.) and king of Judah (2 Kings xxiii. 34-xxiv. 6). On the defeat of +Josiah at Megiddo his younger brother Jehoahaz (or Shallum) was chosen +by the Judaeans, but the Egyptian conquerer Necho summoned him to his +headquarters at Riblah (south of Hamath on the Orontes) and removed him +to Egypt, appointing in his stead Eliakim, whose name ("El [God] raiseth +up") was changed to its better-known synonym, Jehoiakim. For a time +Jehoiakim remained under the protection of Necho and paid heavy tribute; +but with the rise of the new Chaldean Empire under Nebuchadrezzar II., +and the overthrow of Egypt at the battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.) a +vital change occurred. After three years of allegiance the king +revolted. Invasions followed by Chaldeans, Syrians, Moabites and +Ammonites, perhaps the advance troops despatched by the Babylonian +king; the power of Egypt was broken and the whole land came into the +hands of Nebuchadrezzar. It was at the close of Jehoiakim's reign, +apparently just before his death, that the enemy appeared at the gates +of Jerusalem, and although he himself "slept with his fathers" his young +son was destined to see the first captivity of the land of Judah (597 +B.C.). (See JEHOIACHIN.) + + Which "three years" (2 Kings xxiv. 1) are intended is disputed; it is + uncertain whether Judah suffered in 605 B.C. (Berossus in Jos. _c. + Ap._ i. 19) or was left unharmed (Jos. _Ant._ x. 6. 1); perhaps + Nebuchadrezzar made his first inroad against Judah in 602 B.C. because + of its intrigue with Egypt (H. Winckler, _Keilinschrift. u. d. alte + Test._, pp. 107 seq.), and the three years of allegiance extends to + 599. The chronicler's tradition (2 Chron. xxxvi. 5-8) speaks of + Jehoiakim's captivity, apparently confusing him with Jehoiachin. The + Septuagint, however, still preserves there the record of his peaceful + death, in agreement with the earlier source in 2 Kings, but against + the prophecy of Jeremiah (xxii. 18 seq., xxxvi. 30), which is accepted + by Jos. _Ant._ x. 6. 3. The different traditions can scarcely be + reconciled. Nothing certain is known of the marauding bands sent + against Jehoiakim; for Syrians (_Aram_) one would expect Edomites + (_Edom_), but see Jer. xxxv. 11; some recensions of the Septuagint + even include the "Samaritans"! (For further references to this reign + see especially JEREMIAH; see also JEWS: _History_, § 17.) + (S. A. C.) + + + + +JEHOL ("hot stream"), or CH'ENG-TE-FU, a city of China, formerly the +seat of the emperor's summer palace, near 118° E. and 41° N., about 140 +m. N.E. of Peking, with which it is connected by an excellent road. Pop. +(estimate), 10,000. It is a flourishing town, and consists of one great +street, about 2 m. long, with smaller streets radiating in all +directions. The people are well-to-do and there are some fine shops. The +palace, called Pi-shu-shan-chuang, or "mountain lodge for avoiding +heat," was built in 1703 on the plan of the palace of Yuen-ming-yuen +near Peking. A substantial brick wall 6 m. in circuit encloses several +well-wooded heights and extensive gardens, rockeries, pavilions, +temples, &c. Jehol was visited by Lord Macartney on his celebrated +mission to the emperor K'ienlung in 1793; and it was to Jehol that the +emperor Hienfeng retired when the allied armies of England and France +occupied Peking in 1860. In the vicinity of Jehol are numerous Lama +monasteries and temples, the most remarkable being Potala-su, built on +the model of the palace of the grand lama of Tibet at Potala. + + + + +JEHORAM, or JORAM (Heb. "Yah[weh] is high"), the name of two Biblical +characters. + +1. The son of Ahab, and king of Israel in succession to his brother +Ahaziah.[1] He maintained close relations with Judah, whose king came to +his assistance against Moab which had revolted after Ahab's death (2 +Kings i. 1; iii.). The king in question is said to have been +Jehoshaphat; but, according to Lucian's recension, it was Ahaziah, +whilst i. 17 would show that it was Jehoram's namesake (see 2). The +result of the campaign appears to have been a defeat for Israel (see on +the incidents EDOM, ELISHA, MOAB). The prophetical party were throughout +hostile to Jehoram (with his reform iii. 2 contrast x. 27), and the +singular account of the war of Benhadad king of Syria against the king +of Israel (vi. 24-vii.) shows the feeling against the reigning dynasty. +But whether the incidents in which Elisha and the unnamed king of Israel +appear originally belonged to the time of Jehoram is very doubtful, and +in view of the part which Elisha took in securing the accession of Jehu, +it has been urged with much force that they belong to the dynasty of the +latter, when the high position of the prophet would be perfectly +natural.[2] The briefest account is given of Jehoram's alliance with +Ahaziah (son of 2 below) against Hazael of Syria, at Ramoth-Gilead (2 +Kings viii. 25-29), and the incident--with the wounding of the Israelite +king in or about the critical year 842 B.C.--finds a noteworthy parallel +in the time of Jehoshaphat and Ahab (1 Kings xxii. 29-36) at the period +of the equally momentous events in 854 (see AHAB). See further JEHU. + +2. The son of Jehoshaphat and king of Judah. He married Athaliah the +daughter of Ahab, and thus was brother-in-law of 1. above, and +contemporary with him (2 Kings i. 17). In his days Edom revolted, and +this with the mention of Libnah's revolt (2 Kings viii. 20 sqq.) +suggests some common action on the part of Philistines and Edomites. The +chronicler's account of his life (2 Chron. xxi-xxii. 1) presupposes +this, but adds many remarkable details: he began his reign by massacring +his brethren (cf. Jehu son of Jehoshaphat, and his bloodshed, 2 Kings +ix. seq.); for his wickedness he received a communication from Elijah +foretelling his death from disease (cf. Elijah and Ahaziah of Israel, 2 +Kings i.); in a great invasion of Philistines and Arabian tribes he lost +all his possessions and family, and only Jehoahaz (i.e. Ahaziah) was +saved.[3] His son Ahaziah reigned only for a year (cf. his namesake of +Israel); he is condemned for his Israelite sympathies, and met his end +in the general butchery which attended the accession of Jehu (2 Kings +viii. 25 sqq.; 2 Chron. xxii. 3 seq., 7; with 2 Kings ix. 27 seq., note +the variant tradition in 2 Chron. xxii. 8 seq., and the details which +the LXX. (Lucian) appends to 2 Kings x.). (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] 2 Kings i. 17 seq.; see Lucian's reading (cf. Vulg. and Pesh.). + Apart from the allusion 1 Kings xxii. 49 (see 2 Chron. xx. 35), and + the narrative in 2 Kings i. (see ELIJAH), nothing is known of this + Ahaziah. Notwithstanding his very brief reign (1 Kings xxii. 51; 2 + Kings iii. 1), the compiler passes the usual hostile judgment (1 + Kings xxii. 52 seq.); see KINGS (BOOKS). The chronology in 1 Kings + xxii. 51 is difficult; if Lucian's text (twenty-fourth year of + Jehoshaphat) is correct, Jehoram 1 and 2 must have come to their + respective thrones at almost the same time. + + [2] In vii. 6 the hostility of Hittites and Mizraim (q.v.) points to + a period _after_ 842 B.C. (See JEWS, § 10 seq.) + + [3] These details are scarcely the invention of the chronicler; see + CHRONICLES, and EXPOSITOR, Aug. 1906, p. 191. + + + + +JEHOSHAPHAT (Heb. "Yahweh judges"), in the Bible, son of Asa, and king +of Judah, in the 9th century B.C. During his period close relations +subsisted between Israel and Judah; the two royal houses were connected +by marriage (see ATHALIAH; JEHORAM, 2), and undertook joint enterprise +in war and commerce. Jehoshaphat aided Ahab in the battle against +Benhadad at Ramoth-Gilead in which Ahab was slain (1 Kings xxii.; 2 +Chron. xviii.; cf. the parallel incident in 2 Kings viii. 25-29), and +trading journeys to Ophir were undertaken by his fleet in conjunction no +doubt with Ahab as well as with his son Ahaziah (2 Chron. xx. 35 sqq.; 1 +Kings xxii. 47 sqq.). The chronicler's account of his war against Moab, +Ammon and Edomite tribes (2 Chron. xx.), must rest ultimately upon a +tradition which is presupposed in the earlier source (1 Kings xxii. 47), +and the disaster to the ships at Ezion-Geber at the head of the Gulf of +Akaba preceded, if it was not the introduction to, the great revolt in +the days of Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram, where, again, the details in 2 +Chron. xxi. must rely in the first instance upon an old source. Apart +from what is said of Jehoshaphat's legislative measures (2 Chron. xix. 4 +sqq.; cf. the meaning of his name above), an account is preserved of his +alliance with Jehoram of Israel against Moab (2 Kings iii.), on which +see JEHORAM; MOAB. The "valley of Jehoshaphat" (Joel iii. 12) has been +identified by tradition (as old as Eusebius) with the valley between +Jerusalem and the mount of Olives. (S. A. C.) + + + + +JEHOVAH (YAHWEH[1]), in the Bible, the God of Israel. "Jehovah" is a +modern mispronunciation of the Hebrew name, resulting from combining the +consonants of that name, _Jhvh_, with the vowels of the word _adonay_, +"Lord," which the Jews substituted for the proper name in reading the +scriptures. In such cases of substitution the vowels of the word which +is to be read are written in the Hebrew text with the consonants of the +word which is not to be read. The consonants of the word to be +substituted are ordinarily written in the margin; but inasmuch as Adonay +was regularly read instead of the ineffable name Jhvh, it was deemed +unnecessary to note the fact at every occurrence. When Christian +scholars began to study the Old Testament in Hebrew, if they were +ignorant of this general rule or regarded the substitution as a piece of +Jewish superstition, reading what actually stood in the text, they would +inevitably pronounce the name Jehovah. It is an unprofitable inquiry who +first made this blunder; probably many fell into it independently. The +statement still commonly repeated that it originated with Petrus +Galatinus (1518) is erroneous; Jehova occurs in manuscripts at least as +early as the 14th century. + +The form Jehovah was used in the 16th century by many authors, both +Catholic and Protestant, and in the 17th was zealously defended by +Fuller, Gataker, Leusden and others, against the criticisms of such +scholars as Drusius, Cappellus and the elder Buxtorf. It appeared in the +English Bible in Tyndale's translation of the Pentateuch (1530), and is +found in all English Protestant versions of the 16th century except that +of Coverdale (1535). In the Authorized Version of 1611 it occurs in +Exod. vi. 3; Ps. lxxxiii. 18; Isa. xii. 2; xxvi. 4, beside the compound +names Jehovah-jireh, Jehovah-nissi, Jehovah-shalom; elsewhere, in +accordance with the usage of the ancient versions, Jhvh is represented +by Lord (distinguished by capitals from the title "Lord," Heb. +_adonay_). In the Revised Version of 1885 Jehovah is retained in the +places in which it stood in the A. V., and is introduced also in Exod. +vi. 2, 6, 7, 8; Ps. lxviii. 20; Isa. xlix. 14; Jer. xvi. 21; Hab. iii. +19. The American committee which cooperated in the revision desired to +employ the name Jehovah wherever Jhvh occurs in the original, and +editions embodying their preferences are printed accordingly. + +Several centuries before the Christian era the name Jhvh had ceased to +be commonly used by the Jews. Some of the later writers in the Old +Testament employ the appellative Elohim, God, prevailingly or +exclusively; a collection of Psalms (Ps. xlii.-lxxxiii.) was revised by +an editor who changed the Jhvh of the authors into Elohim (see e.g. xlv. +7; xlviii. 10; l. 7; li. 14); observe also the frequency of "the Most +High," "the God of Heaven," "King of Heaven," in Daniel, and of "Heaven" +in First Maccabees. The oldest Greek versions (Septuagint), from the +third century B.C., consistently use [Greek: Kyrios], "Lord," where the +Hebrew has Jhvh, corresponding to the substitution of Adonay for Jhvh in +reading the original; in books written in Greek in this period (e.g. +Wisdom, 2 and 3 Maccabees), as in the New Testament, [Greek: Kyrios] +takes the place of the name of God. Josephus, who as a priest knew the +pronunciation of the name, declares that religion forbids him to divulge +it; Philo calls it ineffable, and says that it is lawful for those only +whose ears and tongues are purified by wisdom to hear and utter it in a +holy place (that is, for priests in the Temple); and in another passage, +commenting on Lev. xxiv. 15 seq.: "If anyone, I do not say should +blaspheme against the Lord of men and gods, but should even dare to +utter his name unseasonably, let him expect the penalty of death."[2] + +Various motives may have concurred to bring about the suppression of the +name. An instinctive feeling that a proper name for God implicitly +recognizes the existence of other gods may have had some influence; +reverence and the fear lest the holy name should be profaned among the +heathen were potent reasons; but probably the most cogent motive was the +desire to prevent the abuse of the name in magic. If so, the secrecy had +the opposite effect; the name of the god of the Jews was one of the +great names in magic, heathen as well as Jewish, and miraculous efficacy +was attributed to the mere utterance of it. + +In the liturgy of the Temple the name was pronounced in the priestly +benediction (Num. vi. 27) after the regular daily sacrifice (in the +synagogues a substitute--probably Adonay--was employed);[3] on the Day +of Atonement the High Priest uttered the name ten times in his prayers +and benediction. In the last generations before the fall of Jerusalem, +however, it was pronounced in a low tone so that the sounds were lost in +the chant of the priests.[4] + +After the destruction of the Temple (A.D. 70) the liturgical use of the +name ceased, but the tradition was perpetuated in the schools of the +rabbis.[5] It was certainly known in Babylonia in the latter part of the +4th century,[6] and not improbably much later. Nor was the knowledge +confined to these pious circles; the name continued to be employed by +healers, exorcists and magicians, and has been preserved in many places +in magical papyri. The vehemence with which the utterance of the name is +denounced in the Mishna--"He who pronounces the Name with its own +letters has no part in the world to come!"[7]--suggests that this misuse +of the name was not uncommon among Jews. + +The Samaritans, who otherwise shared the scruples of the Jews about the +utterance of the name, seem to have used it in judicial oaths to the +scandal of the rabbis.[8] + +The early Christian scholars, who inquired what was the true name of the +God of the Old Testament, had therefore no great difficulty in getting +the information they sought. Clement of Alexandria (d. c. 212) says that +it was pronounced [Greek: Iaoue].[9] Epiphanius (d. 404), who was born +in Palestine and spent a considerable part of his life there, gives +[Greek: Iabe] (one cod. [Greek: Iaue]).[10] Theodoret (d. c. 457),[11] +born in Antioch, writes that the Samaritans pronounced the name [Greek: +Iabe] (in another passage, [Greek: Iabai]), the Jews [Greek: Aia].[12] +The latter is probably not Jhvh but _Ehyeh_ (Exod. iii. 14), which the +Jews counted among the names of God; there is no reason whatever to +imagine that the Samaritans pronounced the name Jhvh differently from +the Jews. This direct testimony is supplemented by that of the magical +texts, in which [Greek: Iabe zebyth] (Jahveh Sebaoth), as well as +[Greek: Iaba], occurs frequently.[13] In an Ethiopic list of magical +names of Jesus, purporting to have been taught by him to his disciples, +_Yawe_ is found.[14] Finally, there is evidence from more than one +source that the modern Samaritan priests pronounce the name _Yahweh_ or +_Yahwa_.[15] + +There is no reason to impugn the soundness of this substantially +consentient testimony to the pronunciation Yahweh or Jahveh, coming as +it does through several independent channels. It is confirmed by +grammatical considerations. The name Jhvh enters into the composition of +many proper names of persons in the Old Testament, either as the initial +element, in the form Jeho- or Jo- (as in Jehoram, Joram), or as the +final element, in the form _-jahu_ or _-jah_ (as in Adonijahu, +Adonijah). These various forms are perfectly regular if the divine name +was Yahweh, and, taken altogether, they cannot be explained on any other +hypothesis. Recent scholars, accordingly, with but few exceptions, are +agreed that the ancient pronunciation of the name was Yahweh (the first +h sounded at the end of the syllable). + +Genebrardus seems to have been the first to suggest the pronunciation +_Iahué_,[16] but it was not until the 19th century that it became +generally accepted. + +Jahveh or Yahweh is apparently an example of a common type of Hebrew +proper names which have the form of the 3rd pers. sing, of the verb. +e.g. Jabneh (name of a city), Jabin, Jamlek, Jiptah (Jephthah), &c. Most +of these really are verbs, the suppressed or implicit subject being +_'el_, "_numen_, god," or the name of a god; cf. Jabneh and Jabne-el, +Jiptah and Jiptah-el. + +The ancient explanations of the name proceed from Exod. iii. 14, 15, +where "Yahweh[17] hath sent me" in v. 15 corresponds to "Ehyeh hath sent +me" in v. 14, thus seeming to connect the name Yahweh with the Hebrew +verb _hayah_, "to become, to be." The Palestinian interpreters found in +this the promise that God would be with his people (cf. v. 12) in +future oppressions as he was in the present distress, or the assertion +of his eternity, or eternal constancy; the Alexandrian translation +[Greek: 'Egô eimi ho ôn ... 'Ho ôn apestalken me pros hymas], +understands it in the more metaphysical sense of God's absolute being. +Both interpretations, "He (who) is (always the same)," and "He (who) is +(absolutely, the truly existent)," import into the name all that they +profess to find in it; the one, the religious faith in God's unchanging +fidelity to his people, the other, a philosophical conception of +absolute being which is foreign both to the meaning of the Hebrew verb +and to the force of the tense employed. Modern scholars have sometimes +found in the name the expression of the aseity[18] of God; sometimes of +his reality, in contrast to the imaginary gods of the heathen. Another +explanation, which appears first in Jewish authors of the middle ages +and has found wide acceptance in recent times, derives the name from the +causative of the verb; He (who) causes things to be, gives them being; +or calls events into existence, brings them to pass; with many +individual modifications of interpretation--creator, life-giver, +fulfiller of promises. A serious objection to this theory in every form +is that the verb _hayah_, "to be," has no causative stem in Hebrew; to +express the ideas which these scholars find in the name Yahweh the +language employs altogether different verbs. + +This assumption that Yahweh is derived from the verb "to be," as seems +to be implied in Exod. iii. 14 seq., is not, however, free from +difficulty. "To be" in the Hebrew of the Old Testament is not _hawah_, +as the derivation would require, but _hayah_; and we are thus driven to +the further assumption that _hawah_ belongs to an earlier stage of the +language, or to some older speech of the forefathers of the Israelites. +This hypothesis is not intrinsically improbable--and in Aramaic, a +language closely related to Hebrew, "to be" actually is _hawa_--but it +should be noted that in adopting it we admit that, using the name Hebrew +in the historical sense, Yahweh is not a Hebrew name. And, inasmuch as +nowhere in the Old Testament, outside of Exod. iii., is there the +slightest indication that the Israelites connected the name of their God +with the idea of "being" in any sense, it may fairly be questioned +whether, if the author of Exod. iii. 14 seq., intended to give an +etymological interpretation of the name Yahweh,[19] his etymology is any +better than many other paronomastic explanations of proper names in the +Old Testament, or than, say, the connexion of the name [Greek: Apollôn] +with [Greek: apolouôn], [Greek: apolyôn] in Plato's _Cratylus_, or the +popular derivation from [Greek: apollymi]. + +A root _hawah_ is represented in Hebrew by the nouns _howah_ (Ezek., +Isa. xlvii. 11) and _hawwah_ (Ps., Prov., Job) "disaster, calamity, +ruin."[20] The primary meaning is probably "sink down, fall," in which +sense--common in Arabic--the verb appears in Job xxxvii. 6 (of snow +falling to earth). A Catholic commentator of the 16th century, +Hieronymus ab Oleastro, seems to have been the first to connect the name +"Jehova" with _howah_ interpreting it _contritio, sive pernicies_ +(destruction of the Egyptians and Canaanites); Daumer, adopting the same +etymology, took it in a more general sense: Yahweh, as well as Shaddai, +meant "Destroyer," and fitly expressed the nature of the terrible god +whom he identified with Moloch. + +The derivation of Yahweh from _hawah_ is formally unimpeachable, and is +adopted by many recent scholars, who proceed, however, from the primary +sense of the root rather than from the specific meaning of the nouns. +The name is accordingly interpreted, He (who) falls (baetyl, [Greek: +baitylos], meteorite); or causes (rain or lightning) to fall (storm +god); or casts down (his foes, by his thunderbolts). It is obvious that +if the derivation be correct, the significance of the name, which in +itself denotes only "He falls" or "He fells," must be learned, if at +all, from early Israelitish conceptions of the nature of Yahweh rather +than from etymology. + +A more fundamental question is whether the name Yahweh originated among +the Israelites or was adopted by them from some other people and +speech.[21] The biblical author of the history of the sacred +institutions (P) expressly declares that the name Yahweh was unknown to +the patriarchs (Exod. vi. 3), and the much older Israelite historian (E) +records the first revelation of the name to Moses (Exod. iii. 13-15), +apparently following a tradition according to which the Israelites had +not been worshippers of Yahweh before the time of Moses, or, as he +conceived it, had not worshipped the god of their fathers under that +name. The revelation of the name to Moses was made at a mountain sacred +to Yahweh (the mountain of God) far to the south of Palestine, in a +region where the forefathers of the Israelites had never roamed, and in +the territory of other tribes; and long after the settlement in Canaan +this region continued to be regarded as the abode of Yahweh (Judg. v. 4; +Deut. xxxiii. 2 sqq.; 1 Kings xix. 8 sqq. &c.). Moses is closely +connected with the tribes in the vicinity of the holy mountain; +according to one account, he married a daughter of the priest of Midian +(Exod. ii. 16 sqq.; iii. 1); to this mountain he led the Israelites +after their deliverance from Egypt; there his father-in-law met him, and +extolling Yahweh as "greater than all the gods," offered (in his +capacity as priest of the place?) sacrifices, at which the chief men of +the Israelites were his guests; there the religion of Yahweh was +revealed through Moses, and the Israelites pledged themselves to serve +God according to its prescriptions. It appears, therefore, that in the +tradition followed by the Israelite historian the tribes within whose +pasture lands the mountain of God stood were worshippers of Yahweh +before the time of Moses; and the surmise that the name Yahweh belongs +to their speech, rather than to that of Israel, has considerable +probability. One of these tribes was Midian, in whose land the mountain +of God lay. The Kenites also, with whom another tradition connects +Moses, seem to have been worshippers of Yahweh. It is probable that +Yahweh was at one time worshipped by various tribes south of Palestine, +and that several places in that wide territory (Horeb, Sinai, Kadesh, +&c.) were sacred to him; the oldest and most famous of these, the +mountain of God, seems to have lain in Arabia, east of the Red Sea. From +some of these peoples and at one of these holy places, a group of +Israelite tribes adopted the religion of Yahweh, the God who, by the +hand of Moses, had delivered them from Egypt.[22] + +The tribes of this region probably belonged to some branch of the great +Arab stock, and the name Yahweh has, accordingly, been connected with +the Arabic _hawa_, "the void" (between heaven and earth), "the +atmosphere," or with the verb _hawa_, cognate with Heb. _hawah_, "sink, +glide down" (through space); _hawwa_ "blow" (wind). "He rides through +the air, He blows" (Wellhausen), would be a fit name for a god of wind +and storm. There is, however, no certain evidence that the Israelites in +historical times had any consciousness of the primitive significance of +the name. + +The attempts to connect the name Yahweh with that of an Indo-European +deity (Jehovah-Jove, &c.), or to derive it from Egyptian or Chinese, may +be passed over. But one theory which has had considerable currency +requires notice, namely, that Yahweh, or Yahu, Yaho,[23] is the name of +a god worshipped throughout the whole, or a great part, of the area +occupied by the Western Semites. In its earlier form this opinion rested +chiefly on certain misinterpreted testimonies in Greek authors about a +god [Greek: Iaô], and was conclusively refuted by Baudissin; recent +adherents of the theory build more largely on the occurrence in various +parts of this territory of proper names of persons and places which +they explain as compounds of Yahu or Yah.[24] The explanation is in most +cases simply an assumption of the point at issue; some of the names have +been misread; others are undoubtedly the names of Jews. There remain, +however, some cases in which it is highly probable that names of +non-Israelites are really compounded with Yahweh. The most conspicuous +of these is the king of Hamath who in the inscriptions of Sargon +(722-705 B.C.) is called Yaubi'di and Ilubi'di (compare +Jehoiakim-Eliakim). Azriyau of Jaudi, also, in inscriptions of +Tiglath-Pileser (745-728 B.C.), who was formerly supposed to be Azariah +(Uzziah) of Judah, is probably a king of the country in northern Syria +known to us from the Zenjirli inscriptions as Ja'di. + +Friedrich Delitzsch brought into notice three tablets, of the age of the +first dynasty of Babylon, in which he read the names of _Ya-a'-ve-ilu_, +_Ya-ve-ilu_, and _Ya-u-um-ilu_ ("Yahweh is God"), and which he regarded +as conclusive proof that Yahweh was known in Babylonia before 2000 B.C.; +he was a god of the Semitic invaders in the second wave of migration, +who were, according to Winckler and Delitzsch, of North Semitic stock +(Canaanites, in the linguistic sense).[25] We should thus have in the +tablets evidence of the worship of Yahweh among the Western Semites at a +time long before the rise of Israel. The reading of the names is, +however, extremely uncertain, not to say improbable, and the +far-reaching inferences drawn from them carry no conviction. In a tablet +attributed to the 14th century B.C. which Sellin found in the course of +his excavations at Tell Ta'annuk (the Taanach of the O.T.) a name occurs +which may be read Ahi-Yawi (equivalent to Hebrew Ahijah);[26] if the +reading be correct, this would show that Yahweh was worshipped in +Central Palestine before the Israelite conquest. The reading is, +however, only one of several possibilities. The fact that the full form +Yahweh appears, whereas in Hebrew proper names only the shorter Yahu and +Yah occur, weighs somewhat against the interpretation, as it does +against Delitzsch's reading of his tablets. + +It would not be at all surprising if, in the great movements of +populations and shifting of ascendancy which lie beyond our historical +horizon, the worship of Yahweh should have been established in regions +remote from those which it occupied in historical times; but nothing +which we now know warrants the opinion that his worship was ever general +among the Western Semites. + +Many attempts have been made to trace the West Semitic Yahu back to +Babylonia. Thus Delitzsch formerly derived the name from an Akkadian +god, I or Ia; or from the Semitic nominative ending, Yau;[27] but this +deity has since disappeared from the pantheon of Assyriologists. The +combination of Yah with Ea, one of the great Babylonian gods, seems to +have a peculiar fascination for amateurs, by whom it is periodically +"discovered." Scholars are now agreed that, so far as Yahu or Yah occurs +in Babylonian texts, it is as the name of a foreign god. + +Assuming that Yahweh was primitively a nature god, scholars in the 19th +century discussed the question over what sphere of nature he originally +presided. According to some he was the god of consuming fire; others saw +in him the bright sky, or the heaven; still others recognized in him a +storm god, a theory with which the derivation of the name from Heb. +_hawah_ or Arab. _hawa_ well accords. The association of Yahweh with +storm and fire is frequent in the Old Testament; the thunder is the +voice of Yahweh, the lightning his arrows, the rainbow his bow. The +revelation at Sinai is amid the awe-inspiring phenomena of tempest. +Yahweh leads Israel through the desert in a pillar of cloud and fire; he +kindles Elijah's altar by lightning, and translates the prophet in a +chariot of fire. See also Judg. v. 4 seq.; Deut. xxxiii. 1; Ps. xviii. +7-15; Hab. iii. 3-6. The cherub upon which he rides when he flies on the +wings of the wind (Ps. xviii. 10) is not improbably an ancient +mythological personification of the storm cloud, the genius of tempest +(cf. Ps. civ. 3). In Ezekiel the throne of Yahweh is borne up on +Cherubim, the noise of whose wings is like thunder. Though we may +recognize in this poetical imagery the survival of ancient and, if we +please, mythical notions, we should err if we inferred that Yahweh was +originally a departmental god, presiding specifically over +meteorological phenomena, and that this conception of him persisted +among the Israelites till very late times. Rather, as the god--or the +chief god--of a region and a people, the most sublime and impressive +phenomena, the control of the mightiest forces of nature are attributed +to him. As the God of Israel Yahweh becomes its leader and champion in +war; he is a warrior, mighty in battle; but he is not a god of war in +the specific sense. + +In the inquiry concerning the nature of Yahweh the name Yahweh Sebaoth +(E.V., The LORD of Hosts) has had an important place. The hosts have by +some been interpreted of the armies of Israel (see 1 Sam. xvii. 45, and +note the association of the name in the Books of Samuel, where it first +appears, with the ark, or with war); by others, of the heavenly hosts, +the stars conceived as living beings, later, perhaps, the angels as the +court of Yahweh and the instruments of his will in nature and history +(Ps. lxxxix.); or of the forces of the world in general which do his +bidding, cf. the common Greek renderings, [Greek: Kyrios tôn dynameôn] +and [Greek: K. pantokratôr], (Universal Ruler). It is likely that the +name was differently understood in different periods and circles; but in +the prophets the hosts are clearly superhuman powers. In many passages +the name seems to be only a more solemn substitute for the simple +Yahweh, and as such it has probably often been inserted by scribes. +Finally, Sebaoth came to be treated as a proper name (cf. Ps. lxxx. 5, +8, 20), and as such is very common in magical texts. + + LITERATURE.--Reland, _Decas exercitationum philologicarum de vera + pronuntiatione nominis Jehova_, 1707; Reinke, + "Philologisch-historische Abhandlung über den Gottesnamen Jehova," in + _Beiträge zur Erklärung des Alten Testaments_, III. (1855); Baudissin, + "Der Ursprung des Gottesnamens [Greek: Iaô]," in _Studien zur + semitischen Religionsgeschichte_, I. (1876), 179-254; Driver, "Recent + Theories on the Origin and Nature of the Tetragrammaton," in _Studia + Biblica_, I. (1885), 1-20; Deissmann, "Griechische Transkriptionen des + Tetragrammaton," in _Bibelstudien_ (1895), 1-20; Blau, _Das + altjüdische Zauberwesen_, 1898. See also HEBREW RELIGION. + (G. F. Mo.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This form, _Yahweh_, as the correct one, is generally used in the + separate articles throughout this work. + + [2] See Josephus, Ant. ii. 12, 4; Philo, _Vita Mosis_, iii. 11 (ii. + §114, ed. Cohn and Wendland); ib. iii. 27 (ii. §206). The Palestinian + authorities more correctly interpreted Lev. xxiv. 15 seq., not of the + mere utterance of the name, but of the use of the name of God in + blaspheming God. + + [3] _Siphrê_, Num. §§ 39, 43; _M. Sotah_, iii. 7; _Sotah_, 38_a_. The + tradition that the utterance of the name in the daily benedictions + ceased with the death of Simeon the Just, two centuries or more + before the Christian era, perhaps arose from a misunderstanding of + _Menahoth_, 109_b_; in any case it cannot stand against the testimony + of older and more authoritative texts. + + [4] _Yoma_, 39b; _Jer. Yoma_, iii. 7; _Kiddushin_, 71_a_. + + [5] R. Johanan (second half of the 3rd century), _Kiddushin_, 71a. + + [6] Kiddushin, l.c. = _Pesahim_, 50a. + + [7] _M. Sanhedrin_, x. 1; Abba Saul, end of 2nd century. + + [8] _Jer. Sanhedrin_, x. 1; R. Mana, 4th century. + + [9] _Strom._ v. 6. Variants: [Greek: Ia oue, Ia ouai]; cod. L. + [Greek: Iaou]. + + [10] _Panarion_, Haer. 40, 5; cf. Lagarde, _Psalter juxta Hebraeos_, + 154. + + [11] _Quaest._ 15 in Exod.; _Fab. haeret. compend._ v. 3, _sub fin_. + + [12] [Greek: Aïa] occurs also in the great magical papyrus of Paris, + 1. 3020 (Wessely, _Denkschrift. Wien. Akad._, Phil. Hist. Kl., XXXVI. + p. 120), and in the Leiden Papyrus, xvii. 31. + + [13] See Deissmann, _Bibelstudien_, 13 sqq. + + [14] See Driver, _Studia Biblica_, I. 20. + + [15] See Montgomery, _Journal of Biblical Literature_, xxv. + (1906),49-51. + + [16] _Chronographia_, Paris, 1567 (ed. Paris, 1600, p. 79 seq.). + + [17] This transcription will be used henceforth. + + [18] _A-se-itas_, a scholastic Latin expression for the quality of + existing by oneself. + + [19] The critical difficulties of these verses need not be discussed + here. See W. R. Arnold, "The Divine Name in Exodus iii. 14," _Journal + of Biblical Literature_, XXIV. (1905), 107-165. + + [20] Cf. also _hawwah_, "desire," Mic. vii. 3; Prov. x. 3. + + [21] See HEBREW RELIGION. + + [22] The divergent Judaean tradition, according to which the + forefathers had worshipped Yahweh from time immemorial, may indicate + that Judah and the kindred clans had in fact been worshippers of + Yahweh before the time of Moses. + + [23] The form _Yahu_, or _Yaho_, occurs not only in composition, but + by itself; see _Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assuan_, B 4, 6, 11; E + 14; J 6. This is doubtless the original of [Greek: Iaô], frequently + found in Greek authors and in magical texts as the name of the God of + the Jews. + + [24] See a collection and critical estimate of this evidence by + Zimmern, _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament_, 465 sqq. + + [25] _Babel und Bibel_, 1902. The enormous, and for the most part + ephemeral, literature provoked by Delitzsch's lecture cannot be cited + here. + + [26] _Denkschriften d. Wien. Akad._, L. iv. p. 115 seq. (1904). + + [27] _Wo lag das Paradies?_ (1881), pp. 158-166. + + + + +JEHU, son of Jehoshaphat and grandson of Nimshi, in the Bible, a general +of Ahab and Jehoram, and, later, king of Israel. Ahaziah son of Jehoram +of Judah and Jehoram brother of Ahaziah of Israel had taken joint action +against the Aramaeans of Damascus who were attacking Ramoth-Gilead under +Hazael. Jehoram had returned wounded to his palace at Jezreel, whither +Ahaziah had come down to visit him. Jehu, meanwhile, remained at the +seat of war, and the prophet Elisha sent a messenger to anoint him king. +The general at once acknowledged the call, "drove furiously" to Jezreel, +and, having slain both kings, proceeded to exterminate the whole of the +royal family (2 Kings ix., x.). A similar fate befell the royal princes +of Judah (see ATHALIAH), and thus, for a time at least, the new king +must have had complete control over the two kingdoms (cf. 2 Chron. xxii. +9). Israelite historians viewed these events as a great religious +revolution inspired by Elijah and initiated by Elisha, as the overthrow +of the worship of Baal, and as a retribution for the cruel murder of +Naboth the Jezreelite (see JEZEBEL). A vivid description is given of the +destruction of the prophets of Baal at the temple in Samaria (2 Kings x. +27; contrast iii. 2). While Jehu was supported by the Rechabites in his +reforming zeal, a similar revolt against Baalism in Judah is ascribed to +the priest Jehoiada (see JOASH). In the tragedies of the period it seems +clear that Elisha's interest in both Jehu and the Syrian Hazael (2 Kings +viii. 7 sqq.) had some political significance, and in opposition to the +"Deuteronomic" the commendation in 2 Kings x. 28 sqq., Hosea's +denunciation (i. 4) indicates the judgment which was passed upon Jehu's +bloodshed in other circles. + +In the course of an expedition against Hazael in 842 Shalmaneser II. of +Assyria received tribute of silver and gold from Ya-u-a son of Omri,[1] +Tyre and Sidon; another attack followed in 839. For some years after +this Assyria was unable to interfere, and war broke out between Damascus +and Israel. The Israelite story, which may perhaps be supplemented from +Judaean sources (see JOASH), records a great loss of territory on the +east of the Jordan (2 Kings x. 32 seq.). Under Jehu's successor Jehoahaz +there was continual war with Hazael and his son Benhadad, but relief was +obtained by his grandson Joash, and the land recovered complete +independence under Jeroboam. + + Jehu is also the name of a prophet of the time of Baasha and + Jehoshaphat (1 Kings xvi.; 2 Chron. xix., xx.). (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] I.e. either descendant of, or from the same district as, Omri + (see Hogg, _Ency. Bib._ col. 2291). The Assyrian king's sculpture, + depicting the embassy and its gifts, is the so-called "black obelisk" + now in the British Museum (Nimroud Central Gallery, No. 98; _Guide to + Bab. and Ass. Antiq._, 1900, p. 24 seq., pl. ii.). + + + + +JEKYLL, SIR JOSEPH (1663-1738), English lawyer and master of the rolls, +son of John Jekyll, was born in London, and after studying at the Middle +Temple was called to the bar in 1687. He rapidly rose to be chief +justice of Chester (1697), serjeant-at-law and king's serjeant (1700), +and a knight. In 1717 he was made master of the rolls. A Whig in +politics, he sat in parliament for various constituencies from 1697 to +the end of his life, and took an active part there in debating +constitutional questions with much learning, though, according to Lord +Hervey (_Mem._ 1, 474), with little "approbation." He was censured by +the House of Commons for accepting a brief for the defence of Lord +Halifax in a prosecution ordered by the house. He was one of the +managers of the impeachment of the Jacobite earl of Wintoun in 1715, and +of Harley (Lord Oxford) in 1717. In later years he supported Walpole. He +became very unpopular in 1736 for his introduction of the "gin act," +taxing the retailing of spirituous liquors, and his house had to be +protected from the mob. Pope has an illusion to "Jekyll or some odd +Whig, Who never changed his principle or wig" (_Epilogue to the +Satires_). Jekyll was also responsible for the Mortmain Act of 1736, +which was not superseded till 1888. He died without issue in 1738. + +His great-nephew JOSEPH JEKYLL (d. 1837) was a lawyer, politician and +wit, who excited a good deal of contemporary satire, and who wrote some +_jeux d'esprit_ which were well-known in his time. His _Letters of the +late Ignatius Sancho, an African_, was published in 1782. In 1894 his +correspondence was edited, with a memoir, by the Hon. Algernon Bourke. + + + + +JELLACHICH, JOSEF, COUNT (1801-1859), Croatian statesman, was born on +the 16th of October 1801 at Pétervárad. He entered the Austrian army +(1819), fought against the Bosnians in 1845, was made ban of Croatia, +Slavonia and Dalmatia in 1848 on the petition of the Croatians, and was +simultaneously raised to the rank of lieutenant-general by the emperor. +As ban, Jellachich's policy was directed to preserving the Slav kingdoms +for the Habsburg monarchy by identifying himself with the nationalist +opposition to Magyar ascendancy, while at the same time discouraging the +extreme "Illyrism" advocated by Lodovik Gáj (1809-1872). Though his +separatist measures at first brought him into disfavour at the imperial +court, their true objective was soon recognized, and, with the triumph +of the more violent elements of the Hungarian revolution, he was hailed +as the most conspicuous champion of the unity of the empire, and was +able to bring about that union of the imperial army with the southern +Slavs by which the revolution in Vienna and Budapest was overthrown (see +AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: _History_). He began the war of independence in +September 1848 by crossing the Drave at the head of 40,000 Croats. After +the bloody battle of Buda he concluded a three days' truce with the +Hungarians to enable him to assist Prince Windischgrätz to reduce +Vienna, and subsequently fought against the Magyars at Schwechát. During +the winter campaign of 1848-49 he commanded, under Windischgrätz, the +Austrian right wing, capturing Magyar-Ovar and Raab, and defeating the +Magyars at Mór. After the recapture of Buda he was made +commander-in-chief of the southern army. At first he gained some +successes against Bem (q.v.), but on the 14th of July 1849 was routed by +the Hungarians at Hegyes and driven behind the Danube. He took no part +in the remainder of the war, but returned to Agram to administer +Croatia. In 1853 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army sent +against Montenegro, and in 1855 was created a count. He died on the 20th +of May 1859. His _Gedichte_ were published at Vienna in 1851. + + See the anonymous _The Croatian Revolution_ of the Year 1848 (Croat.), + Agram, 1898. (R. N. B.) + + + + +JELLINEK, ADOLF (1821-1893), Jewish preacher and scholar, was born in +Moravia. After filling clerical posts in Leipzig, he became _Prediger_ +(preacher) in Vienna in 1856. He was associated with the promoters of +the New Learning within Judaism, and wrote on the history of the +Kabbala. His bibliographies (each bearing the Hebrew title _Qontres_) +were useful compilations. But his most important work lay in three other +directions. (1) _Midrashic._ Jellinek published in the six parts of his +_Beth ha-Midrasch_ (1853-1878) a large number of smaller _Midrashi_, +ancient and medieval homilies and folk-lore records, which have been of +much service in the recent revival of interest in Jewish apocalyptic +literature. A translation of these collections of Jellinek into German +was undertaken by A. Wuensche, under the general title _Aus Israels +Lehrhalle_. (2) _Psychological._ Before the study of ethnic psychology +had become a science, Jellinek devoted attention to the subject. There +is much keen analysis and original investigation in his two essays _Der +jüdische Stamm_ (1869) and _Der jüdische Stamm in nicht-jüdischen +Sprüch-wörtern_ (1881-1882). It is to Jellinek that we owe the +oft-repeated comparison of the Jewish temperament to that of women in +its quickness of perception, versatility and sensibility. (3) +_Homiletic._ Jellinek was probably the greatest synagogue orator of the +19th century. He published some 200 sermons, in most of which are +displayed unobtrusive learning, fresh application of old sayings, and a +high conception of Judaism and its claims. Jellinek was a powerful +apologist and an accomplished homilist, at once profound and ingenious. + +His son, GEORGE JELLINEK, was appointed professor of international law +at Heidelberg in 1891. Another son, MAX HERMANN JELLINEK, was made +assistant professor of philology at Vienna in 1892. + +A brother of Adolf, HERMANN JELLINEK (b. 1823), was executed at the age +of 26 on account of his association with the Hungarian national movement +of 1848. One of Hermann Jellinek's best-known works was _Uriel Acosta_. +Another brother, MORITZ JELLINEK (1823-1883), was an accomplished +economist, and contributed to the Academy of Sciences essays on the +price of cereals and on the statistical organization of the country. He +founded the Budapest tramway company (1864) and was also president of +the corn exchange. + + See _Jewish Encyclopedia_, vii. 92-94. For a character sketch of Adolf + Jellinek see S. Singer, _Lectures and Addresses_ (1908), pp. 88-93; + Kohut, _Berühmte israelitische Männer und Frauen_. (I. A.) + + + + +JEMAPPES, a town in the province of Hainaut, Belgium, near Mons, famous +as the scene of the battle at which Dumouriez, at the head of the French +Revolutionary Army, defeated the Austrian army (which was greatly +outnumbered) under the duke of Saxe-Teschen and Clerfayt on the 6th of +November 1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). + + + + +JENA, a university town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Saxe-Weimar, +on the left bank of the Saale, 56 m. S.W. from Leipzig by the +Grossberigen-Saalfeld and 12 m. S.E. of Weimar by the Weimar-Gera lines +of railway. Pop. (1905), 26,355. Its situation in a broad valley +environed by limestone hills is somewhat dreary. To the north lies the +plateau, descending steeply to the valley, famous as the scene of the +battle of Jena. The town is surrounded by promenades occupying the site +of the old fortifications; it contains in addition to the medieval +market square, many old-fashioned houses and quaint narrow streets. +Besides the old university buildings, the most interesting edifices are +the 15th-century church of St Michael, with a tower 318 ft. high, +containing an altar, beneath which is a doorway leading to a vault, and +a bronze statue of Luther, originally destined for his tomb; the +university library, in which is preserved a curious figure of a dragon; +and the bridge across the Saale, as long as the church steeple is high, +the centre arch of which is surmounted by a stone carved head of a +malefactor. Across the river is the "mountain," or hill, whence a fine +view is obtained of the town and surroundings, and hard by the +Fuchs-Turm (Fox tower) celebrated for student orgies, while in the +centre of the town is the house of an astronomer, Weigel, with a deep +shaft through which the stars can be seen in the day time. Thus the +seven marvels of Jena are summed up in the Latin lines:-- + + _Ara, caput, draco, mons, pons, vulpecula turris, + Weigeliana domus; septem miracula Jenae._ + +There must also be mentioned the university church, the new university +buildings, which occupy the site of the ducal palace (Schloss) where +Goethe wrote his _Hermann und Dorothea_, the Schwarzer Bär Hotel, where +Luther spent the night after his flight from the Wartburg, and four +towers and a gateway which now alone mark the position of the ancient +walls. The town has of late years become a favourite residential resort +and has greatly extended towards the west, where there is a colony of +pleasant villas. Its chief prosperity centres, however, in the +university. In 1547 the elector John Frederick the Magnanimous of +Saxony, while a captive in the hands of the emperor Charles V., +conceived the plan of founding a university at Jena, which was +accordingly established by his three sons. After having obtained a +charter from the emperor Ferdinand I., it was inaugurated on the 2nd of +February 1558. It was most numerously attended about the middle of the +18th century; but the most brilliant professoriate was under the duke +Charles Augustus, Goethe's patron (1787-1806), when Fichte, Hegel, +Schelling, Schlegel and Schiller were on its teaching staff. Founded as +a home for the new religious opinions of the 16th century, it has ever +been in the forefront of German universities in liberally accepting new +ideas. It distances perhaps every other German university in the extent +to which it carries out what are popularly regarded as the +characteristics of German student-life--duelling and the passion for +_Freiheit_. At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th +century, the opening of new universities, co-operating with the +suspicions of the various German governments as to the democratic +opinions which obtained at Jena, militated against the university, which +has never regained its former prosperity. In 1905 it was attended by +about 1100 students, and its teaching staff (including _privatdocenten_) +numbered 112. Amongst its numerous auxiliaries may be mentioned the +library, with 200,000 volumes, the observatory, the meteorological +institute, the botanical garden, seminaries of theology, philology and +education, and well equipped clinical, anatomical and physical +institutes. There are also veterinary and agricultural colleges in +connexion with the university. The manufactures of Jena are not +considerable. The book trade has of late years revived, and there are +several printing establishments. + +Jena appears to have possessed municipal rights in the 13th century. At +the beginning of the 14th century it was in the possession of the +margraves of Meissen, from whom it passed in 1423 to the elector of +Saxony. Since 1485 it has remained in the Ernestine line of the house of +Saxony. In 1662 it fell to Bernhard, youngest son of William duke of +Weimar, and became the capital of a small separate duchy. Bernhard's +line having become extinct in 1690, Jena was united with Eisenach, and +in 1741 reverted with that duchy to Weimar. In more modern times Jena +has been made famous by the defeat inflicted in the vicinity, on the +14th of October 1806, by Napoleon upon the Prussian army under the +prince of Hohenlohe (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). + + See Schreiber and Färber, _Jena von seinem Ursprung bis zur neuesten + Zeit_ (2nd ed., 1858); Ortloff, _Jena und Umgegend_ (3rd ed., 1875); + Leonhardt, _Jena als Universität und Stadt_ (Jena, 1902); Ritter, + _Führer durch Jena und Umgebung_ (Jena, 1901); Biedermann, _Die + Universität Jena_ (Jena, 1858); and the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Jena_ + edited by J. E. A. Martin and O. Devrient (1888-1903). + + + + +JENATSCH, GEORG (1596-1639), Swiss political leader, one of the most +striking figures in the troubled history of the Grisons in the 17th +century, was born at Samaden (capital of the Upper Engadine). He studied +at Zürich and Basel, and in 1617 became the Protestant pastor of +Scharans (near Thusis). But almost at once he plunged into active +politics, taking the side of the Venetian and Protestant party of the +Salis family, as against the Spanish and Romanist policy supported by +the rival family, that of Planta. He headed the "preachers" who in 1618 +tortured to death the arch-priest Rusca, of Sondrio, and outlawed the +Plantas. As reprisals, a number of Protestants were massacred at Tirano +(1620), in the Valtellina, a very fertile valley, of considerable +strategical importance (for through it the Spaniards in Milan could +communicate by the Umbrail Pass with the Austrians in Tirol), which then +fell into the hands of the Spanish. Jenatsch took part in the murder +(1621) of Pompey Planta, the head of the rival party, but later with his +friends was compelled to fly the country, giving up his position as a +pastor, and henceforth acting solely as a soldier. He helped in the +revolt against the Austrians in the Prättigau (1622), and in the +invasion of the Valtellina by a French army (1624), but the peace made +(1626) between France and Spain left the Valtellina in the hands of the +pope, and so destroyed Jenatsch's hopes. Having killed his colonel, +Ruinelli, in a duel, Jenatsch had once more to leave his native land, +and took service with the Venetians (1629-1630). In 1631 he went to +Paris, and actively supported Richelieu's schemes for driving the +Spaniards out of the Valtellina, which led to the successful campaign of +Rohan (1635), one of whose firmest supporters was Jenatsch. But he soon +saw that the French were as unwilling as the Spaniards to restore the +Valtellina to the Grisons (which had seized it in 1512). So he became a +Romanist (1635), and negotiated secretly with the Spaniards and +Austrians. He was the leader of the conspiracy which broke out in 1637, +and resulted in the expulsion of Rohan and the French from the Grisons. +This treachery on Jenatsch's part did not, however, lead to the freeing +of the Valtellina from the Spaniards, and once more he tried to get +French support. But on the 24th of January 1639 he was assassinated at +Coire by the Plantas; later in the same year the much coveted valley was +restored by Spain to the Grisons, which held it till 1797. Jenatsch's +career is of general historical importance by reason of the long +conflict between France and Spain for the possession of the Valtellina, +which forms one of the most bloody episodes in the Thirty Years' War. + (W. A. B. C.) + + See biography by E. Haffter (Davos, 1894). + + + + +JENGHIZ KHAN (1162-1227), Mongol emperor, was born in a tent on the +banks of the river Onon. His father Yesukai was absent at the time of +his birth, in a campaign against a Tatar chieftain named Temuchin. The +fortune of war favoured Yesukai, who having slain his enemy returned to +his encampment in triumph. Here he was met by the news that his wife +Yulun had given birth to a son. On examining the child he observed in +its clenched fist a clot of coagulated blood like a red stone. In the +eyes of the superstitious Mongol this circumstance referred to his +victory over the Tatar chieftain, and he therefore named the infant +Temuchin. The death of Yesukai, which placed Temuchin at the age of +thirteen on the Mongol throne, was the signal also for the dispersal of +several tribes whose allegiance the old chieftain had retained by his +iron rule. When remonstrated with by Temuchin, the rebels replied: "The +deepest wells are sometimes dry, and the hardest stone is sometimes +broken; why should we cling to thee?" But Yulun was by no means willing +to see her son's power melt away; she led those retainers who remained +faithful against the deserters, and succeeded in bringing back fully one +half to their allegiance. With this doubtful material, Temuchin +succeeded in holding his ground against the plots and open hostilities +of the neighbouring tribes, more especially of the Naimans, Keraits and +Merkits. With one or other of these he maintained an almost unceasing +warfare until 1206, when he felt strong enough to proclaim himself the +ruler of an empire. He therefore summoned the notables of his kingdom +to an assembly on the banks of the Onon, and at their unanimous request +adopted the name and title of Jenghiz Khan (Chinese, Chêng-sze, or +"perfect warrior"). At this time there remained to him but one open +enemy on the Mongolian steppes, Polo the Naiman khan. Against this chief +he now led his troops, and in one battle so completely shattered his +forces that Kushlek, the successor of Polo, who was left dead upon the +field, fled with his ally Toto, the Merkit khan, to the river Irtysh. + +Jenghiz Khan now meditated an invasion of the empire of the Kin Tatars, +who had wrested northern China from the Sung dynasty. As a first step he +invaded western Hia, and, having captured several strongholds, retired +in the summer of 1208 to Lung-ting to escape the great heat of the +plains. While there news reached him that Toto and Kushlek were +preparing for war. In a pitched battle on the river Irtysh he overthrew +them completely. Toto was amongst the slain, and Kushlek fled for refuge +to the Khitan Tatars. Satisfied with his victory, Jenghiz again directed +his forces against Hia. After having defeated the Kin army under the +leadership of a son of the sovereign, he captured the Wu-liang-hai Pass +in the Great Wall, and penetrated as far as Ning-sia Fu in Kansuh. With +unceasing vigour he pushed on his troops, and even established his sway +over the province of Liaotung. Several of the Kin commanders, seeing how +persistently victory attended his banners, deserted to him, and +garrisons surrendered at his bidding. Having thus secured a firm footing +within the Great Wall, he despatched three armies in the autumn of 1213 +to overrun the empire. The right wing, under his three sons, Juji, +Jagatai and Ogotai, marched towards the south; the left wing, under his +brothers Hochar, Kwang-tsin Noyen and Chow-tse-te-po-shi, advanced +eastward towards the sea; while Jenghiz and his son Tule with the centre +directed their course in a south-easterly direction. Complete success +attended all three expeditions. The right wing advanced as far as Honan, +and after having captured upwards of twenty-eight cities rejoined +headquarters by the great western road. Hochar made himself master of +the country as far as Liao-si; and Jenghiz ceased his triumphal career +only when he reached the cliffs of the Shantung promontory. But either +because he was weary of the strife, or because it was necessary to +revisit his Mongolian empire, he sent an envoy to the Kin emperor in the +spring of the following year (1214), saying, "All your possessions in +Shantung and the whole country north of the Yellow River are now mine +with the solitary exception of Yenking (the modern Peking). By the +decree of heaven you are now as weak as I am strong, but I am willing to +retire from my conquests; as a condition of my doing so, however, it +will be necessary that you distribute largess to my officers and men to +appease their fierce hostility." These terms of safety the Kin emperor +eagerly accepted, and as a peace offering he presented Jenghiz with a +daughter of the late emperor, another princess of the imperial house, +500 youths and maidens, and 3000 horses. No sooner, however, had Jenghiz +passed beyond the Great Wall than the Kin emperor, fearing to remain any +longer so near the Mongol frontier, moved his court to K'ai-fêng Fu in +Honan. This transfer of capital appearing to Jenghiz to indicate a +hostile attitude, he once more marched his troops into the doomed +empire. + +While Jenghiz was thus adding city to city and province to province in +China, Kushlek, the fugitive Naiman chief, was not idle. With +characteristic treachery he requested permission from his host, the +Khitan khan, to collect the fragments of his army which had been +scattered by Jenghiz at the battle on the Irtysh, and thus having +collected a considerable force he leagued himself with Mahommed, the +shah of Khwarizm, against the confiding khan. After a short but decisive +campaign the allies remained masters of the position, and the khan was +compelled to abdicate the throne in favour of the late guest. + +With the power and prestige thus acquired, Kushlek prepared once again +to measure swords with the Mongol chief. On receiving the news of his +hostile preparations, Jenghiz at once took the field, and in the first +battle routed the Naiman troops and made Kushlek a prisoner. His +ill-gotten kingdom became an apanage of the Mongol Empire. Jenghiz now +held sway up to the Khwarizm frontier. Beyond this he had no immediate +desire to go, and he therefore sent envoys to Mahommed, the shah, with +presents, saying, "I send thee greeting; I know thy power and the vast +extent of thine empire; I regard thee as my most cherished son. On my +part thou must know that I have conquered China and all the Turkish +nations north of it; thou knowest that my country is a magazine of +warriors, a mine of silver, and that I have no need of other lands. I +take it that we have an equal interest in encouraging trade between our +subjects." This peaceful message was well received by the shah, and in +all probability the Mongol armies would never have appeared in Europe +but for an unfortunate occurrence. Shortly after the despatch of this +first mission Jenghiz sent a party of traders into Transoxiana who were +seized and put to death as spies by Inaljuk, the governor of Otrar. As +satisfaction for this outrage Jenghiz demanded the extradition of the +offending governor. Far from yielding to this summons, however, Mahommed +beheaded the chief of the Mongol envoys, and sent the others back +without their beards. This insult made war inevitable, and in the spring +of 1219 Jenghiz set out from Karakorum on a campaign which was destined +to be as startling in its immediate results as its ulterior effects were +far-reaching. The invading force was in the first instance divided into +two armies: one commanded by Jenghiz's second son Jagatai was directed +to march against the Kankalis, the northern defenders of the Khwarizm +empire; and the other, led by Juji, his eldest son, advanced by way of +Sighnak against Jand (Jend). Against this latter force Mahommed led an +army of 400,000 men, who were completely routed, leaving it is said +160,000 dead upon the field. With the remnant of his host Mahommed fled +to Samarkand. Meanwhile Jagatai marched down upon the Syr Daria +(Jaxartes) by the pass of Taras and invested Otrar, the offending city. +After a siege of five months the citadel was taken by assault, and +Inaljuk and his followers were put to the sword. The conquerors levelled +the walls with the ground, after having given the city over to pillage. +At the same time a third army besieged and took Khojent on the Jaxartes; +and yet a fourth, led by Jenghiz and his youngest son Tule, advanced in +the direction of Bokhara. Tashkent and Nur surrendered on their +approach, and after a short siege Bokhara fell into their hands. On +entering the town Jenghiz ascended the steps of the principal mosque, +and shouted to his followers, "The hay is cut; give your horses fodder." +No second invitation to plunder was needed; the city was sacked, and the +inhabitants either escaped beyond the walls or were compelled to submit +to infamies which were worse than death. As a final act of vengeance the +town was fired, and before the last of the Mongols left the district, +the great mosque and certain palaces were the only buildings left to +mark the spot where the "centre of science" once stood. From the ruins +of Bokhara Jenghiz advanced along the valley of the Sogd to Samarkand, +which, weakened by treachery, surrendered to him, as did also Balkh. But +in neither case did submission save either the inhabitants from +slaughter or the city from pillage. Beyond this point Jenghiz went no +farther westward, but sent Tule, at the head of 70,000 men, to ravage +Khorasan, and two flying columns under Chepe and Sabutai Bahadar to +pursue after Mahommed who had taken refuge in Nishapur. Defeated and +almost alone, Mahommed fled before his pursuers to the village of Astara +on the shore of the Caspian Sea, where he died of an attack of pleurisy, +leaving his empire to his son Jelaleddin (Jalal ud-din). Meanwhile Tule +carried his arms into the fertile province of Khorasan, and after having +captured Nessa by assault appeared before Merv. By an act of atrocious +treachery the Mongols gained possession of the city, and, after their +manner, sacked and burnt the town. From Merv Tule marched upon Nishapur, +where he met with a most determined resistance. For four days the +garrison fought desperately on the walls and in the streets, but at +length they were overpowered, and, with the exception of 400 artisans +who were sent into Mongolia, every man, woman and child was slain. Herat +escaped the fate which had overtaken Merv and Nishapur by opening its +gates to the Mongols. At this point of his victorious career Tule +received an order to join Jenghiz before Talikhan in Badakshan, where +that chieftain was preparing to renew his pursuit of Jelaleddin, after a +check he had sustained in an engagement fought before Ghazni. As soon as +sufficient reinforcements arrived Jenghiz advanced against Jelaleddin, +who had taken up a position on the banks of the Indus. Here the Turks, +though far outnumbered, defended their ground with undaunted courage, +until, beaten at all points, they fled in confusion. Jelaleddin, seeing +that all was lost, mounted a fresh horse and jumped into the river, +which flowed 20 ft. below. With admiring gaze Jenghiz watched the +desperate venture of his enemy, and even saw without regret the dripping +horseman mount the opposite bank. From the Indus Jenghiz sent in pursuit +of Jelaleddin, who fled to Delhi, but failing to capture the fugitive +the Mongols returned to Ghazni after having ravaged the provinces of +Lahore, Peshawar and Melikpur. At this moment news reached Jenghiz that +the inhabitants of Herat had deposed the governor whom Tule had +appointed over the city, and had placed one of their own choice in his +room. To punish this act of rebellion Jenghiz sent an army of 80,000 men +against the offending city, which after a siege of six months was taken +by assault. For a whole week the Mongols ceased not to kill, burn and +destroy, and 1,600,000 persons are said to have been massacred within +the walls. Having consummated this act of vengeance, Jenghiz returned to +Mongolia by way of Balkh, Bokhara and Samarkand. + +Meanwhile Chepe and Sabutai marched through Azerbeijan, and in the +spring of 1222 advanced into Georgia. Here they defeated a combined +force of Lesghians, Circassians and Kipchaks, and after taking Astrakhan +followed the retreating Kipchaks to the Don. The news of the approach of +the mysterious enemy of whose name even they were ignorant was received +by the Russian princes at Kiev with dismay. At the instigation, however, +of Mitislaf, prince of Galicia, they assembled an opposing force on the +Dnieper. Here they received envoys from the Mongol camp, whom they +barbarously put to death. "You have killed our envoys," was the answer +made by the Mongols; "well, as you wish for war you shall have it. We +have done you no harm. God is impartial; He will decide our quarrel." In +the first battle, on the river Kaleza, the Russians were utterly routed, +and fled before the invaders, who, after ravaging Great Bulgaria +retired, gorged with booty, through the country of Saksin, along the +river Aktuba, on their way to Mongolia. + +In China the same success had attended the Mongol arms as in western +Asia. The whole of the country north of the Yellow river, with the +exception of one or two cities, was added to the Mongol rule, and, on +the death of the Kin emperor Süan Tsung in 1223, the Kin empire +virtually ceased to be, and Jenghiz's frontiers thus became conterminous +with those of the Sung emperors who held sway over the whole of central +and southern China. After his return from Central Asia, Jenghiz once +more took the field in western China. While on this campaign the five +planets appeared in a certain conjunction, which to the superstitiously +minded Mongol chief foretold that evil was awaiting him. With this +presentiment strongly impressed upon him he turned his face homewards, +and had advanced no farther than the Si-Kiang river in Kansuh when he +was seized with an illness of which he died a short time afterwards +(1227) at his travelling palace at Ha-lao-tu, on the banks of the river +Sale in Mongolia. By the terms of his will Ogotai was appointed his +successor, but so essential was it considered to be that his death +should remain a secret until Ogotai was proclaimed that, as the funeral +procession moved northwards to the great ordu on the banks of the +Kerulen, the escort killed every one they met. The body of Jenghiz was +then carried successively to the ordus of his several wives, and was +finally laid to rest in the valley of Kilien. + +Thus ended the career of one of the greatest conquerors the world has +ever seen. Born and nurtured as the chief of a petty Mongolian tribe, he +lived to see his armies victorious from the China Sea to the banks of +the Dnieper; and, though the empire which he created ultimately +dwindled away under the hands of his degenerate descendants, leaving not +a wrack behind, we have in the presence of the Turks in Europe a +consequence of his rule, since it was the advance of his armies which +drove their Osmanli ancestors from their original home in northern Asia, +and thus led to their invasion of Bithynia under Othman, and finally +their advance into Europe under Amurath I. + + See Sir H. H. Howorth, _The History of the Mongols_; Sir Robert K. + Douglas, _The Life of Jenghiz Khan_. (R. K. D.) + + + + +JENKIN, HENRY CHARLES FLEEMING (1833-1885), British engineer, was born +near Dungeness on the 25th of March 1833, his father (d. 1885) being a +naval commander, and his mother (d. 1885) a novelist of some literary +repute, her best books perhaps being _Cousin Stella_ (1859) and _Who +breaks, pays_ (1861). Fleeming Jenkin was educated at first in Scotland, +but in 1846 the family went to live abroad, owing to financial straits, +and he studied at Genoa University, where he took a first-class degree +in physical science. In 1851 he began his engineering career as +apprentice in an establishment at Manchester, and subsequently he +entered Newall's submarine cable works at Birkenhead. In 1859 he began, +in concert with Sir William Thomson (afterwards Lord Kelvin), to work on +problems respecting the making and use of cables, and the importance of +his researches on the resistance of gutta-percha was at once recognized. +From this time he was in constant request in connexion with submarine +telegraphy, and he became known also as an inventor. In partnership with +Thomson, he made a large income as a consulting telegraph engineer. In +1865 he was elected F.R.S., and was appointed professor of engineering +at University College, London. In 1868 he obtained the same +professorship at Edinburgh University, and in 1873 he published a +textbook of _Magnetism and Electricity_, full of original work. He was +author of the article "Bridges" in the ninth edition of this +encyclopaedia. His influence among the Edinburgh students was +pronounced, and R. L. Stevenson's well-known _Memoir_ is a sympathetic +tribute to his ability and character. The meteoric charm of his +conversation is well described in Stevenson's essay on "Talk and +Talkers," under the name of Cockshot. Jenkin's interests were by no +means confined to engineering, but extended to the arts and literature; +his miscellaneous papers, showing his critical and unconventional views, +were issued posthumously in two volumes (1887). In 1882 Jenkin invented +an automatic method of electric transport for goods--"telpherage"--but +the completion of its details was prevented by his death on the 12th of +June 1885. A telpher line on his system was subsequently erected at +Glynde in Sussex. He was also well known as a sanitary reformer, and +during the last ten years of his life he did much useful work in +inculcating more enlightened ideas on the subject both in Edinburgh and +other places. + + + + +JENKINS, SIR LEOLINE (1623-1685), English lawyer and diplomatist, was +the son of a Welsh country gentleman. He was born in 1623 and was +educated at Jesus College, Oxford, of which he was elected a fellow at +the Restoration in 1660, having been an ardent royalist during the civil +war and commonwealth; and in 1661 he became head of the college. In the +same year he was made registrar of the consistory court of Westminster; +in 1664 deputy judge of the court of arches; about a year later judge of +the admiralty court; in 1689 judge of the prerogative court of +Canterbury. In these offices Jenkins did enduring work in elucidating +and establishing legal principles, especially in relation to +international law and admiralty jurisdiction. He was selected to draw up +the claim of Charles II. to succeed to the property of his mother, +Henrietta Maria, on her death in August 1666, and while in Paris for +this purpose he succeeded in defeating the rival claim of the duchess of +Orleans, being rewarded by a knighthood on his return. In 1673, on being +elected member for Hythe, Jenkins resigned the headship of Jesus +College. He was one of the English representatives at the congress of +Cologne in 1673, and at the more important congress of Nijmwegen in +1676-1679. He was made a privy councillor in February 1680 and became +secretary of state in April of the same year, in which office he was the +official leader of the opposition to the Exclusion Bill, though he was +by no means a pliant tool in the hands of the court. He resigned office +in 1684, and died on the 1st of September 1685. He left most of his +property to Jesus College, Oxford, including his books, which he +bequeathed to the college library, built by himself; and he left some +important manuscripts to All Souls College, where they are preserved. +Jenkins left his impress on the law of England in the Statute of Frauds, +and the Statute of Distributions, of which he was the principal author, +and of which the former profoundly affected the mercantile law of the +country, while the latter regulated the inheritance of the personal +property of intestates. He was never married. + + See William Wynne, _Life of Sir Leoline Jenkins_ (2 vols., London, + 1724), which contains a number of his diplomatic despatches, letters, + speeches and other papers. See also Sir William Temple, _Works_, vol. + ii. (4 vols., 1770); Anthony à Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_ (Fasti) + edited by P. Bliss (4 vols., London, 1813-1820), and _History and + Antiquities of the University of Oxford_, edited by J. Gutch (Oxford, + 1792-1796). + + + + +JENKINS, ROBERT (fl. 1731-1745), English master mariner, is known as the +protagonist of the "Jenkins's ear" incident, which, magnified in England +by the press and the opposition, became a contributory cause of the war +between England and Spain (1739). Bringing home the brig "Rebecca" from +the West Indies in 1731, Jenkins was boarded by a Spanish guarda-costa, +whose commander rifled the holds and cut off one of his ears. On +arriving in England Jenkins stated his grievance to the king, and a +report was furnished by the commander-in-chief in the West Indies +confirming his account. At first the case created no great stir, but in +1738 he repeated his story with dramatic detail before a committee of +the House of Commons, producing what purported to be the ear that had +been cut off. Afterwards it was suggested that he might have lost the +ear in the pillory. + + Jenkins was subsequently given the command of a ship in the East India + Company's service, and later became supervisor of the company's + affairs at St Helena. In 1741 he was sent from England to that island + to investigate charges of corruption brought against the acting + governor, and from May 1741 until March 1742 he administered the + affairs of the island. Thereafter he resumed his naval career, and is + stated in an action with a pirate vessel to have preserved his own + vessel and three others under his care (see T. H. Brooke, _History of + the Island of St Helena_ (London, 2nd ed., 1824), and H. R. Janisch, + _Extracts from the St Helena Records_, 1885). + + + + +JENKS, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE (1856- ), American economist, was born in St +Clair, Michigan, on the 2nd of September 1856. He graduated at the +university of Michigan in 1878; taught Greek, Latin and German in Mt. +Morris College, Illinois; studied in Germany, receiving the degree of +Ph.D. from the university of Halle in 1885; taught political science and +English literature at Knox College, Galesburg, Ill., in 1886-1889; was +professor of political economy and social science at Indiana State +University in 1889-1891; and was successively professor of political, +municipal and social institutions (1891-1892), professor of political +economy and civil and social institutions (1892-1901), and after 1901 +professor of political economy and politics at Cornell University. In +1899-1901 he served as an expert agent of the United States industrial +commission on investigation of trusts and industrial combinations in the +United States and Europe, and contributed to vols. i., viii. and xiii. +of this commission's report (1900 and 1901), vol. viii. being a report, +written wholly by him, on industrial combinations in Europe. In +1901-1902 he was special commissioner of the United States war +department on colonial administration, and wrote a _Report on Certain +Economic Questions in the English and Dutch Colonies in the Orient_, +published (1902) by the bureau of insular affairs; and in 1903 he was +adviser to the Mexican ministry of finance on projected currency +changes. In 1903-1904 he was a member of the United States commission on +international exchange, in especial charge of the reform of currency in +China; in 1905 he was special representative of the United States with +the imperial Chinese special mission visiting the United States. In 1907 +he became a member of the United States immigration commission. Best +known as an expert on "trusts," he has written besides on elections, +ballot reform, proportional representation, on education (especially as +a training for citizenship), on legislation regarding highways, &c. + + His principal published works are _Henry C. Carey als Nationalökonom_ + (Halle a. S., 1885); _The Trust Problem_ (1900; revised 1903); _Great + Fortunes_ (1906); _Citizenship and the Schools_ (1906); and + _Principles of Politics_ (1909). + + + + +JENNÉ, a city of West Africa, formerly the capital of the Songhoi +empire, now included in the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger. +Jenné is situated on a marigot or natural canal connecting the Niger and +its affluent the Bani or Mahel Balevel, and is within a few miles of the +latter stream. It lies 250 m. S.W. of Timbuktu in a straight line. The +city is surrounded by channels connected with the Bani but in the dry +season it ceases to be an island. On the north is the Moorish quarter; +on the north-west, the oldest part of the city, stood the citadel, +converted by the French since 1893 into a modern fort. The market-place +is midway between the fort and the commercial harbour. The old mosque, +partially destroyed in 1830, covered a large area in the south-west +portion of the city. It was built on the site of the ancient palace of +the Songhoi kings. The architecture of many of the buildings bears a +resemblance to Egyptian, the façades of the houses being adorned with +great buttresses of pylonic form. There is little trace of the influence +of Moorish or Arabian art. The buildings are mostly constructed of clay +made into flat long bricks. Massive clay walls surround the city. The +inhabitants are great traders and the principal merchants have +representatives at Timbuktu and all the chief places on the Niger. The +boats built at Jenné are famous throughout the western Sudan. + +Jenné is believed to have been founded by the Songhoi in the 8th +century, and though it has passed under the dominion of many races it +has never been destroyed. Jenné seems to have been at the height of its +power from the 12th to the 16th century, when its merchandise was found +at every port along the west coast of Africa. From this circumstance it +is conjectured that Jenné (Guinea) gave its name to the whole coast (see +GUINEA). Subsequently, under the control of Moorish, Tuareg and Fula +invaders, the importance of the city greatly declined. With the advent +of the French, commerce again began to flourish. + + See F. Dubois, _Tombouctou la mystérieuse_ (Paris, 1897), in which + several chapters are devoted to Jenné; also SONGHOI; TIMBUKTU; and + SENEGAL. + + + + +JENNER, EDWARD (1749-1823), English physician and discoverer of +vaccination, was born at Berkeley, Gloucestershire, on the 17th of May +1749. His father, the Rev. Stephen Jenner, rector of Rockhampton and +vicar of Berkeley, came of a family that had been long established in +that county, and was possessed of considerable landed property; he died +when Edward was only six years old, but his eldest son, the Rev. Stephen +Jenner, brought his brother up with paternal care and tenderness. Edward +received his early education at Wotton-under-Edge and Cirencester, where +he already showed a strong taste for natural history. The medical +profession having been selected for him, he began his studies under +Daniel Ludlow, a surgeon of Sodbury near Bristol; but in his +twenty-first year he proceeded to London, where he became a favourite +pupil of John Hunter, in whose house he resided for two years. During +this period he was employed by Sir Joseph Banks to arrange and prepare +the valuable zoological specimens which he had brought back from Captain +Cook's first voyage in 1771. He must have acquitted himself +satisfactorily in this task, since he was offered the post of naturalist +in the second expedition, but declined it as well as other advantageous +offers, preferring rather to practise his profession in his native +place, and near his eldest brother, to whom he was much attached. He was +the principal founder of a local medical society, to which he +contributed several papers of marked ability, in one of which he +apparently anticipated later discoveries concerning rheumatic +inflammations of the heart. He maintained a correspondence with John +Hunter, under whose direction he investigated various points in biology, +particularly the hibernation of hedgehogs and habits of the cuckoo; his +paper on the latter subject was laid by Hunter before the Royal Society, +and appeared in the _Phil. Trans._ for 1788. He also devoted +considerable attention to the varied geological character of the +district in which he lived, and constructed the first balloon seen in +those parts. He was a great favourite in general society, from his +agreeable and instructive conversation, and the many accomplishments he +possessed. Thus he was a fair musician, both as a part singer and as a +performer on the violin and flute, and a very successful writer, after +the fashion of that time, of fugitive pieces of verse. In 1788 he +married Catherine Kingscote, and in 1792 he obtained the degree of +doctor of medicine from St Andrews. + +Meanwhile the discovery that is associated with his name had been slowly +maturing in his mind. When only an apprentice at Sodbury, his attention +had been directed to the relations between cow-pox and small-pox in +connexion with a popular belief which he found current in +Gloucestershire, as to the antagonism between these two diseases. During +his stay in London he appears to have mentioned the thing repeatedly to +Hunter, who, being engrossed by other important pursuits, was not so +strongly persuaded as Jenner was of its possible importance, yet spoke +of it to his friends and in his lectures. After he began practice in +Berkeley, Jenner was always accustomed to inquire what his professional +brethren thought of it; but he found that, when medical men had noticed +the popular report at all, they supposed it to be based on imperfect +induction. His first careful investigation of the subject dated from +about 1775, and five years elapsed before he had succeeded in clearing +away the most perplexing difficulties by which it was surrounded. He +first satisfied himself that two different forms of disease had been +hitherto confounded under the term cow-pox, only one of which protected +against small-pox, and that many of the cases of failure were to be thus +accounted for; and his next step was to ascertain that the true cow-pox +itself only protects when communicated at a particular stage of the +disease. At the same time he came to the conclusion that "the grease" of +horses is the same disease as cow-pox and small-pox, each being modified +by the organism in which it was developed. For many years, cow-pox being +scarce in his county, he had no opportunity of inoculating the disease, +and so putting his discovery to the test, but he did all he could in the +way of collecting information and communicating what he had ascertained. +Thus in 1788 he carried a drawing of the cow-pox, as seen on the hands +of a milkmaid, to London, and showed it to Sir E. Home and others, who +agreed that it was "an interesting and curious subject." At length, on +the 14th of May 1796, he was able to inoculate James Phipps, a boy about +eight years old, with matter from cow-pox vesicles on the hand of Sarah +Nelmes. On the 1st of the following July the boy was carefully +inoculated with variolous matter, but (as Jenner had predicted) no +small-pox followed. The discovery was now complete, but Jenner was +unable to repeat his experiment until 1798, owing to the disappearance +of cow-pox from the dairies. He then repeated his inoculations with the +utmost care, and prepared a pamphlet (_Inquiry into the Cause and +Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae_) which should announce his discovery +to the world. Before publishing it, however, he thought it well to visit +London, so as to demonstrate the truth of his assertions to his friends; +but he remained in London nearly three months, without being able to +find any person who would submit to be vaccinated. Soon after he had +returned home, however, Henry Cline, surgeon of St Thomas's Hospital, +inoculated some vaccine matter obtained from him over the diseased +hip-joint of a child, thinking the counter-irritation might be useful, +and found the patient afterwards incapable of acquiring small-pox. In +the autumn of the same year, Jenner met with the first opposition to +vaccination; and this was the more formidable because it proceeded from +J. Ingenhousz, a celebrated physician and man of science. But meanwhile +Cline's advocacy of vaccination brought it much more decidedly before +the medical profession, of whom the majority were prudent enough to +suspend their judgment until they had more ample information. But +besides these there were two noisy and troublesome factions, one of +which opposed vaccination as a useless and dangerous practice, while the +other endangered its success much more by rash and self-seeking +advocacy. At the head of the latter was George Pearson, who in November +1798 published a pamphlet speculating upon the subject, before even +seeing a case of cow-pox, and afterwards endeavoured, by lecturing on +the subject and supplying the virus, to put himself forward as the chief +agent in the cause. The matter which he distributed, which had been +derived from cows that were found to be infected in London, was found +frequently to produce, not the slight disease described by Jenner, but +more or less severe eruptions resembling small-pox. Jenner concluded at +once that this was due to an accidental contamination of the vaccine +with variolous matter, and a visit to London in the spring of 1799 +convinced him that this was the case. In the course of this year the +practice of vaccination spread over England, being urged principally by +non-professional persons of position; and towards its close attempts +were made to found institutions for gratuitous vaccination and for +supplying lymph to all who might apply for it. Pearson proposed to +establish one of these in London, without Jenner's knowledge, in which +he offered him the post of honorary corresponding physician! On learning +of this scheme to supplant him, and to carry on an institution for +public vaccination on principles which he knew to be partly erroneous, +Jenner once more visited London early in 1800, when he had influence +enough to secure the abandonment of the project. He was afterwards +presented to the king, the queen and the prince of Wales, whose +encouragement materially aided the spread of vaccination in England. +Meanwhile it had made rapid progress in the United States, where it was +introduced by Benjamin Waterhouse, then professor of physic at Harvard, +and on the continent of Europe, where it was at first diffused by De +Carro of Vienna. In consequence of the war between England and France, +the discovery was later in reaching Paris; but, its importance once +realized, it spread rapidly over France, Spain and Italy. + +A few of the incidents connected with its extension may be mentioned. +Perhaps the most striking is the expedition which was sent out by the +court of Spain in 1803, for the purpose of diffusing cow-pox through all +the Spanish possessions in the Old and New Worlds, and which returned in +three years, having circumnavigated the globe, and succeeded beyond its +utmost expectations. Clergymen in Geneva and Holland urged vaccination +upon their parishioners from the pulpit; in Sicily, South America and +Naples religious processions were formed for the purpose of receiving +it; the anniversary of Jenner's birthday, or of the successful +vaccination of James Phipps, was for many years celebrated as a feast in +Germany; and the empress of Russia caused the first child operated upon +to receive the name of Vaccinov, and to be educated at the public +expense. About the close of the year 1801 Jenner's friends in +Gloucestershire presented him with a small service of plate as a +testimonial of the esteem in which they held his discovery. This was +intended merely as a preliminary to the presenting of a petition to +parliament for a grant. The petition was presented in 1802, and was +referred to a committee, of which the investigations resulted in a +report in favour of the grant, and ultimately in a vote of £10,000. + +Towards the end of 1802 steps were taken to form a society for the +proper spread of vaccination in London, and the Royal Jennerian Society +was finally established, Jenner returning to town to preside at the +first meeting. This institution began very prosperously, more than +twelve thousand persons having been inoculated in the first eighteen +months, and with such effect that the deaths from small-pox, which for +the latter half of the 18th century had averaged 2018 annually, fell in +1804 to 622. Unfortunately the chief resident inoculator soon set +himself up as an authority opposed to Jenner, and this led to such +dissensions as caused the society to die out in 1808. + +Jenner was led, by the language of the chancellor of the exchequer when +his grant was proposed, to attempt practice in London, but after a +year's trial he returned to Berkeley. His grant was not paid until 1804, +and then, after the deduction of about £1000 for fees, it did little +more than pay the expenses attendant upon his discovery. For he was so +thoroughly known everywhere as the discoverer of vaccination that, as he +himself said, he was "the vaccine clerk of the whole world." At the +same time he continued to vaccinate gratuitously all the poor who +applied to him on certain days, so that he sometimes had as many as +three hundred persons waiting at his door. Meanwhile honours began to +shower upon him from abroad: he was elected a member of almost all the +chief scientific societies on the continent of Europe, the first being +that of Göttingen, where he was proposed by J. F. Blumenbach. But +perhaps the most flattering proof of his influence was derived from +France. On one occasion, when he was endeavouring to obtain the release +of some of the unfortunate Englishmen who had been detained in France on +the sudden termination of the Peace of Amiens, Napoleon was about to +reject the petition, when Josephine uttered the name of Jenner. The +emperor paused and exclaimed: "Ah, we can refuse nothing to that name." +Somewhat later he did the same service to Englishmen confined in Mexico +and in Austria; and during the latter part of the great war persons +before leaving England would sometimes obtain certificates signed by him +which served as passports. In his own country his merits were less +recognized. His applications on behalf of French prisoners in England +were less successful; he never shared in any of the patronage at the +disposal of the government, and was even unable to obtain a living for +his nephew George. + +In 1806 Lord Henry Petty (afterwards the marquess of Lansdowne) became +chancellor of the exchequer, and was so convinced of the inadequacy of +the former parliamentary grant that he proposed an address to the Crown, +praying that the college of physicians should be directed to report upon +the success of vaccination. Their report being strongly in its favour, +the then chancellor of the exchequer (Spencer Perceval) proposed that a +sum of £10,000 without any deductions should be paid to Jenner. The +anti-vaccinationists found but one advocate in the House of Commons; and +finally the sum was raised to £20,000. Jenner, however, at the same time +had the mortification of learning that government did not intend to take +any steps towards checking small-pox inoculation, which so persistently +kept up that disease. About the same time a subscription for his benefit +was begun in India, where his discovery had been gratefully received, +but the full amount of this (£7383) only reached him in 1812. + +The Royal Jennerian Society having failed, the national vaccine +establishment was founded, for the extension of vaccination, in 1808. +Jenner spent five months in London for the purpose of organizing it, but +was then obliged, by the dangerous illness of one of his sons, to return +to Berkeley. He had been appointed director of the institution; but he +had no sooner left London than Sir Lucas Pepys, president of the college +of physicians, neglected his recommendations, and formed the board out +of the officials of that college and the college of surgeons. Jenner at +once resigned his post as director, though he continued to give the +benefit of his advice whenever it was needed, and this resignation was a +bitter mortification to him. In 1810 his eldest son died, and Jenner's +grief at his loss, and his incessant labours, materially affected his +health. In 1813 the university of Oxford conferred on him the degree of +M.D. It was believed that this would lead to his election into the +college of physicians, but that learned body decided that he could not +be admitted until he had undergone an examination in classics. This +Jenner at once refused; to brush up his classics would, he said, "be +irksome beyond measure. I would not do it for a diadem. That indeed +would be a bauble; I would not do it for John Hunter's museum." + +He visited London for the last time in 1814, when he was presented to +the Allied Sovereigns and to most of the principal personages who +accompanied them. In the next year his wife's death was the signal for +him to retire from public life: he never left Berkeley again, except for +a day or two, as long as he lived. He found sufficient occupation for +the remainder of his life in collecting further evidence on some points +connected with his great discovery, and in his engagements as a +physician, a naturalist and a magistrate. In 1818 a severe epidemic of +small-pox prevailed, and fresh doubts were thrown on the efficacy of +vaccination, in part apparently owing to the bad quality of the vaccine +lymph employed. This caused Jenner much annoyance, which was relieved by +an able defence of the practice, written by Sir Gilbert Blane. But this +led him, in 1821, to send a circular letter to most of the medical men +in the kingdom inquiring into the effect of other skin diseases in +modifying the progress of cow-pox. A year later he published his last +work, _On the Influence of Artificial Eruptions in Certain Diseases_; +and in 1823 he presented his last paper--"On the Migration of Birds"--to +the Royal Society. On the 24th of January 1823 he retired to rest +apparently as well as usual, and next morning rose and came down to his +library, where he was found insensible on the floor, in a state of +apoplexy, and with the right side paralysed. He never rallied, and died +on the following morning. + +A public subscription was set on foot, shortly after his death, by the +medical men of his county, for the purpose of erecting some memorial in +his honour, and with much difficulty a sufficient sum was raised to +enable a statue to be placed in Gloucester Cathedral. In 1850 another +attempt was made to set up a monument to him; this appears to have +failed, but at length, in 1858, a statue of him was erected by public +subscription in London. + + Jenner's life was written by the intimate friend of his later years, + Dr John Baron of Gloucester (2 vols., 1827, 1838). See also + Vaccination. + + + + +JENNER, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1815-1898), English physician, was born at +Chatham on the 30th of January 1815, and educated at University College, +London. He became M.R.C.S. in 1837, and F.R.C.P. in 1852, and in 1844 +took the London M.D. In 1847 he began at the London fever hospital +investigations into cases of "continued" fever which enabled him finally +to make the distinction between typhus and typhoid on which his +reputation as a pathologist principally rests. In 1849 he was appointed +professor of pathological anatomy at University College, and also +assistant physician to University College Hospital, where he afterwards +became physician (1854-1876) and consulting physician (1879), besides +holding similar appointments at other hospitals. He was also +successively Holme professor of clinical medicine and professor of the +principles and practice of medicine at University College. He was +president of the college of physicians (1881-1888); he was elected +F.R.S. in 1864, and received honorary degrees from Oxford, Cambridge and +Edinburgh. In 1861 he was appointed physician extraordinary, and in 1862 +physician in ordinary, to Queen Victoria, and in 1863 physician in +ordinary to the prince of Wales; he attended both the prince consort and +the prince of Wales in their attacks of typhoid fever. In 1868 he was +created a baronet. As a consultant Sir William Jenner had a great +reputation, and he left a large fortune when he died, at Bishop's +Waltham, Hants, on the 11th of December 1898, having then retired from +practice for eight years owing to failing health. + + + + +JENNET, a small Spanish horse; the word is sometimes applied in English +to a mule, the offspring of a she-ass and a stallion. Jennet comes, +through Fr. _genet_, from Span, _jinete_, a light horseman who rides _à +la gineta_, explained as "with his legs tucked up." The name is taken to +be a corruption of the Arabic Zenata, a Berber tribe famed for its +cavalry. English and French transferred the word from the rider to his +horse, a meaning which the word has only acquired in Spain in modern +times. + + + + +JENOLAN CAVES, a series of remarkable caverns in Roxburgh county, New +South Wales, Australia; 113 m. W. by N. of Sydney, and 36 m. from +Tarana, which is served by railway. They are the most celebrated of +several similar groups in the limestone of the country; they have not +yielded fossils of great interest, but the stalactitic formations, +sometimes pure white, are of extraordinary beauty. The caves have been +rendered easily accessible to visitors and lighted by electricity. + + + + +JENSEN, WILHELM (1837- ), German author, was born at Heiligenhafen in +Holstein on the 15th of February 1837, the son of a local Danish +magistrate, who came of old patrician Frisian stock. After attending the +classical schools at Kiel and Lübeck, Jensen studied medicine at the +universities of Kiel, Würzburg and Breslau. He, however, abandoned the +medical profession for that of letters, and after engaging for some +years in individual private study proceeded to Munich, where he +associated with men of letters. After a residence in Stuttgart +(1865-1869), where for a short time he conducted the _Schwäbische +Volks-Zeitung_, he became editor in Flensburg of the _Norddeutsche +Zeitung_. In 1872 he again returned to Kiel, lived from 1876 to 1888 in +Freiburg im Breisgau, and since 1888 has been resident in Munich. + + Jensen is perhaps the most fertile of modern German writers of + fiction, more than one hundred works having proceeded from his pen; + but only comparatively few of them have caught the public taste; such + are the novels, _Karin von Schweden_ (Berlin, 1878); _Die braune + Erica_ (Berlin, 1868); and the tale, _Die Pfeifer von Dusenbach, Eine + Geschichte aus dem Elsass_ (1884). Among others may be mentioned: + _Barthenia_ (Berlin, 1877); _Götz und Gisela_ (Berlin, 1886); + _Heimkunft_ (Dresden, 1894); _Aus See und Sand_ (Dresden, 1897); _Luv + und Lee_ (Berlin, 1897); and the narratives, _Aus den Tagen der Hansa_ + (Leipzig, 1885); _Aus stiller Zeit_ (Berlin, 1881-1885); and _Heimath_ + (1901). Jensen also published some tragedies, among which _Dido_ + (Berlin, 1870) and _Der Kampf für's Reich_ (Freiburg im Br., 1884) may + be mentioned. + + + + +JENYNS, SOAME (1704-1787), English author, was born in London on the 1st +of January 1704, and was educated at St John's College, Cambridge. In +1742 he was chosen M.P. for Cambridgeshire, in which his property lay, +and he afterwards sat for the borough of Dunwich and the town of +Cambridge. From 1755 to 1780 he was one of the commissioners of the +board of trade. He died on the 18th of December 1787. + +For the measure of literary repute which he enjoyed during his life +Jenyns was indebted as much to his wealth and social standing as to his +accomplishments and talents, though both were considerable. His poetical +works, the _Art of Dancing_ (1727) and _Miscellanies_ (1770), contain +many passages graceful and lively though occasionally verging on +licence. The first of his prose works was his _Free Inquiry into the +Nature and Origin of Evil_ (1756). This essay was severely criticized on +its appearance, especially by Samuel Johnson in the _Literary Magazine_. +Johnson, in a slashing review--the best paper of the kind he ever +wrote--condemned the book as a slight and shallow attempt to solve one +of the most difficult of moral problems. Jenyns, a gentle and amiable +man in the main, was extremely irritated by his failure. He put forth a +second edition of his work, prefaced by a vindication, and tried to take +vengeance on Johnson after his death by a sarcastic epitaph.[1] In 1776 +Jenyns published his _View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian +Religion_. Though at one period of his life he had affected a kind of +deistic scepticism, he had now returned to orthodoxy, and there seems no +reason to doubt his sincerity, questioned at the time, in defending +Christianity on the ground of its total variance with the principles of +human reason. The work was deservedly praised in its day for its +literary merits, but is so plainly the production of an amateur in +theology that as a scientific treatise it is valueless. + + A collected edition of the works of Jenyns appeared in 1790, with a + biography by Charles Nalson Cole. There are several references to him + in Boswell's _Johnson_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Two lines will suffice:-- + + Boswell and Thrale, retailers of his wit, + Will tell you how he wrote, and talk'd, and cough'd, and spit. + + + + +JEOPARDY, a term meaning risk or danger of death, loss or other injury. +The word, in Mid. Eng. _juparti_, _jeupartie_, &c., was adapted from O. +Fr. _ju_, later _jeu_, and _parti_, even game, in medieval Latin _jocus +partitus_. This term was originally used of a problem in chess or of a +stage in any other game at which the chances of success or failure are +evenly divided between the players. It was thus early transformed to any +state of uncertainty. + + + + +JEPHSON, ROBERT (1736-1803), British dramatist, was born in Ireland. +After serving for some years in the British army, he retired with the +rank of captain, and lived in England, where he was the friend of +Garrick, Reynolds, Goldsmith, Johnson, Burke, Burney and Charles +Townshend. His appointment as master of the horse to the lord-lieutenant +of Ireland took him back to Dublin. He published, in the _Mercury_ +newspaper a series of articles in defence of the lord-lieutenant's +administration which were afterwards collected and issued in book form +under the title of _The Bachelor, or Speculations of Jeoffry Wagstaffe_. +A pension of £300, afterwards doubled, was granted him, and he held his +appointment under twelve succeeding viceroys. From 1775 he was engaged +in the writing of plays. Among others, his tragedy _Braganza_ was +successfully performed at Drury Lane in 1775, _Conspiracy_ in 1796, _The +Law of Lombardy_ in 1779, and _The Count of Narbonne_ at Covent Garden +in 1781. In 1794 he published an heroic poem _Roman Portraits_, and _The +Confessions of Jacques Baptiste Couteau_, a satire on the excesses of +the French Revolution. He died at Blackrock, near Dublin, on the 31st of +May 1803. + + + + +JEPHTHAH, one of the judges of Israel, in the Bible, was an illegitimate +son of Gilead, and, being expelled from his father's house by his lawful +brethren, took refuge in the Syrian land of Tob, where he gathered +around him a powerful band of homeless men like himself. The Ammonites +pressing hard on his countrymen, the elders of Gilead called for his +help, which he consented to give on condition that in the event of +victory he should be made their head (Judg. xi. 1-xii. 7). His name is +best known in history and literature in connexion with his vow, which +led to the sacrifice of his daughter on his successful return. The +reluctance shown by many writers in accepting the plain sense of the +narrative on this point proceeds to a large extent on unwarranted +assumptions as to the stage of ethical development which had been +reached in Israel in the period of the judges, or at the time when the +narrative took shape. The annual lamentation of the women for her death +suggests a mythical origin (see Adonis). Attached to the narrative is an +account of a quarrel between Jephthah and the Ephraimites. The latter +were defeated, and their retreat was cut off by the Gileadites, who had +seized the fords of the Jordan. As the fugitives attempted to cross they +were bidden to say "shibboleth" ("flood" or "ear of corn"), and those +who said "sibboleth" (the Ephraimites apparently being unused to _sh_), +were at once put to death. In this way 42,000 of the tribe were +killed.[1] + + The loose connexion between this and the main narrative, as also the + lengthy speech to the children of Ammon (xi. 14-27), which really + relates to Moab, has led some writers to infer that two distinct + heroes and situations have been combined. See further the commentaries + on the Book of Judges (q.v.), and Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._, art. + "Jephthah." (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Similarly a Syrian story tells how the Druses came to slay + Ibrahim Pasha's troops, and desiring to spare the Syrians ordered the + men to say _gamal_ (camel). As the Syrians pronounce the _g_ soft, + and the Egyptians the _g_, hard, the former were easily identified. + Other examples from the East will be found in H. C. Kay, _Yaman_, p. + 36, and in S. Lane-Poole, _History of Egypt in the Middle Ages_, p. + 300. Also, at the Sicilian Vespers (March 13, 1282) the French were + made to betray themselves by their pronunciation of _ceci_ and + _ciceri_ (Ital. _c_ like _tch_; Fr. _c_ like _s_). + + + + +JERAHMEEL, (Heb. "May God pity"), in the Bible, a clan which with Caleb, +the Kenites and others, occupied the southern steppes of Palestine, +probably in the district around Arad, about 17 m. S. of Hebron. It was +on friendly terms with David during his residence at Ziklag (1 Sam. xxx. +29), and it was apparently in his reign that the various elements of the +south were united and were reckoned to Israel. This is expressed in the +chronicler's genealogies which make Jerahmeel and Caleb descendants of +Judah (see DAVID; JUDAH). + + On the names in 1 Chron. ii. see S. A. Cook, _Ency. Bib._, col. 2363 + seq. Peleth (v. 33) may be the origin of the Pelethites (2 Sam. viii. + 18; xv. 18; xx. 7), and since the name occurs in the revolt of Korah + (Num. xvi. 1), it is possible that Jerahmeel, like Caleb and the + Kenites, had moved northwards from Kadesh. Samuel (q.v.) was of + Jerahmeel (1 Sam. i. 1; Septuagint), and the consecutive Jerahmeelite + names Nathan and Zabad (1 Chron. ii. 36) have been associated with the + prophet and officer (Zabud, 1 Kings iv. 5) of the times of David and + Solomon respectively. The association of Samuel and Nathan with this + clan, if correct, is a further illustration of the importance of the + south for the growth of biblical history (see KENITES and RECHABITES). + The _Chronicles of Jerahmeel_ (M. Gaster, _Oriental Translation Fund_, + 1899) is a late production containing a number of apocryphal Jewish + legends of no historical value. (S. A. C.) + + + + + +JERBA, an island off the coast of North Africa in the Gulf of Gabes, +forming part of the regency of Tunisia. It is separated from the +mainland by two narrow straits, and save for these channels blocks the +entrance to a large bight identified with the Lake Triton of the Romans. +The western strait, opening into the Gulf of Gabes, is a mile and a half +broad; the eastern strait is wider, but at low water it is possible to +cross to the mainland by the Tarik-el-Jemil (road of the camel). The +island is irregular in outline, its greatest length and breadth being +some 20 m., and its area 425 sq. m. It contains neither rivers nor +springs, but is supplied with water by wells and cisterns. It is flat +and well wooded with date palms and olive trees. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000, +the bulk of the inhabitants being Berbers. Though many of them have +adopted Arabic a Berber idiom is commonly spoken. An affinity exists +between the Berbers of Jerba and the Beni Mzab. About 3000 Jews live +apart in villages of their own, and some 400 Europeans, chiefly Maltese +and Greeks, are settled in the island. Jerba has a considerable +reputation for the manufacture of the woollen tissues interwoven with +silk which are known as burnous stuffs; a market for the sale of sponges +is held from November till March; and there is a considerable export +trade in olives, dates, figs and other fruits. The capital, trading +centre and usual landing-place are at Haumt-es-Suk (market quarter) on +the north side of the island (pop. 2500). Here are a medieval fort, +built by the Spaniards in 1284, and a modern fort, garrisoned by the +French. Gallala, to the south, is noted for the manufacture of a kind of +white pottery, much prized. At El Kantara (the bridge) on the eastern +strait, and formerly connected with the mainland by a causeway, are +extensive ruins of a Roman city--probably those of Meninx, once a +flourishing seaport. + +Jerba is the Lotophagitis or Lotus-eaters' Island of the Greek and Roman +geographers, and is also identified with the Brachion of Scylax. The +modern name appears as early as the 4th century in Sextus Aurelius +Victor. In the middle ages the possession of Jerba was contested by the +Normans of Sicily, the Spaniards and the Turks, the Turks proving +victorious. In 1560 after the destruction of the Spanish fleet off the +coast of the island by Piali Pasha and the corsair Dragut the Spanish +garrison at Haumt-es-Suk was exterminated, and a pyramid, 10 ft. broad +at the base and 20 ft. high, was built of their skulls and other bones. +In 1848 this pyramid was pulled down at the instance of the Christian +community, and the bones were buried in the Catholic cemetery. In +general, from the Arab invasion in the 7th century Jerba shared the +fortunes of Tunisia. + + See H. Barth, _Wanderungen durch die Küstenl. des Mittelmeeres_ + (Berlin, 1849); and H. von Maltzan, _Reise in Tunis und Tripolis_ + (Leipzig, 1870). + + + + +JERBOA, properly the name of an Arabian and North African jumping rodent +mammal, _Jaculus aegyptius_ (also known as _Jaculus_, or _Dipus_, +_jaculus_) typifying the family _Jaculidae_ (or _Dipodidae_), but in a +wider sense applied to most of the representatives of that family, which +are widely distributed over the desert and semi-desert tracts of the Old +World, although unknown in Africa south of the Sahara. In all the more +typical members of the family the three middle metatarsals of the long +hind-legs are fused into a cannon-bone; and in the true jerboas of the +genus _Jaculus_ the two lateral toes, with their supporting metatarsals, +are lost, although they are present in the alactagas (_Alactaga_), in +which, however, as in certain allied genera, only the three middle toes +are functional. As regards the true jerboas, there is a curious +resemblance in the structure of their hind-legs to that obtaining among +birds. In both groups, for instance, the lower part of the hind-leg is +formed by a long, slender cannon-bone, or metatarsus, terminating +inferiorly in triple condyles for the three long and sharply clawed +toes, the resemblance being increased by the fact that in both cases the +small bone of the leg (fibula) is fused with the large one (tibia). It +may also be noticed that in mammals and birds which hop on two legs, +such as jerboas, kangaroos, thrushes and finches, the proportionate +length of the thigh-bone or femur to the tibia and foot (metatarsus and +toes) is constant, being 2 to 5; in animals, on the other hand, such as +hares, horses and frogs, which use all four feet, the corresponding +lengths are 4 to 7. The resemblance between the jerboa's and the bird's +skeleton is owing to adaptation to a similar mode of existence. In the +young jerboa the proportion of the femur to the rest of the leg is the +same as in ordinary running animals. Further, at an early stage of +development the fibula is a complete and separate bone, while the three +metatarsals, which subsequently fuse together to form the cannon-bone, +are likewise separate. In addition to their long hind and short fore +limbs, jerboas are mostly characterized by their silky coats--of a fawn +colour to harmonize with their desert surroundings--their large eyes, +and long tails and ears. As is always the case with large-eared animals, +the tympanic bullae of the skull are of unusually large size; the size +varying in the different genera according to that of the ears. (For the +characteristics of the family and of its more important generic +representatives, see RODENTIA.) + + In the Egyptian jerboa the length of the body is 8 in., and that of + the tail, which is long, cylindrical and covered with short hair + terminated by a tuft, 10 in. The five-toed front limbs are extremely + short, while the hind pair are six times as long. When about to + spring, this jerboa raises its body by means of the hinder + extremities, and supports itself at the same time upon its tail, while + the fore-feet are so closely pressed to the breast as to be scarcely + visible, which doubtless suggested the name _Dipus_, or two-footed. It + then leaps into the air and alights upon its four feet, but + instantaneously erecting itself, it makes another spring, and so on in + such rapid succession as to appear as if rather flying than running. + It is a gregarious animal, living in considerable colonies in burrows, + which it excavates with its nails and teeth in the sandy soil of Egypt + and Arabia. In these it remains during great part of the day, emerging + at night in search of the herbs on which it feeds. It is exceedingly + shy, and this, together with its extraordinary agility, renders it + difficult to capture. The Arabs, however, succeed by closing up all + the exits from the burrows with a single exception, by which the + rodents are forced to escape, and over which a net is placed for their + capture. When confined, they will gnaw through the hardest wood in + order to make their escape. The Persian jerboa (_Alactaga indica_) is + also a nocturnal burrowing animal, feeding chiefly on grain, which it + stores up in underground repositories, closing these when full, and + only drawing upon them when the supply of food above ground is + exhausted (see also JUMPING MOUSE). (R. L.*) + + + + +JERDAN, WILLIAM (1782-1869), Scottish journalist, was born on the 16th +of April 1782, at Kelso, Scotland. During the years between 1799 and +1806 he spent short periods in a country lawyer's office, a London West +India merchant's counting-house, an Edinburgh solicitor's chambers, and +held the position of surgeon's mate on board H.M. guardship "Gladiator" +in Portsmouth Harbour, under his uncle, who was surgeon. He went to +London in 1806, and became a newspaper reporter. He was in the lobby of +the House of Commons on the 11th of May 1812 when Spencer Perceval was +shot, and was the first to seize the assassin. By 1812 he had become +editor of _The Sun_, a semi-official Tory paper; he occasionally +inserted literary articles, then quite an unusual proceeding; but a +quarrel with the chief proprietor brought that engagement to a close in +1817. He passed next to the editor's chair of the _Literary Gazette_, +which he conducted with success for thirty-four years. Jerdan's position +as editor brought him into contact with many distinguished writers. An +account of his friends, among whom Canning was a special intimate, is to +be found in his _Men I have Known_ (1866). When Jerdan retired in 1850 +from the editorship of the _Literary Gazette_ his pecuniary affairs were +far from satisfactory. A testimonial of over £900 was subscribed by his +friends; and in 1853 a government pension of 100 guineas was conferred +on him by Lord Aberdeen. He published his _Autobiography_ in 1852-1853, +and died on the 11th of July 1869. + + + + +JEREMIAH, in the Bible, the last pre-exilic prophet (fl. 626-586 B.C.?), +son of Hilkiah. + +_Early Days of Jeremiah._--There must anciently have existed one or more +prose works on Jeremiah and his times, written partly to do honour to +the prophet, partly to propagate those views respecting Israel's past +with which the name of Jeremiah was associated. Some fragments of this +work (or these works) have come down to us; they greatly add to the +popularity of the Book of Jeremiah. Strict historical truth we must not +ask of them, but they do give us what was believed concerning Jeremiah +in the following age, and we must believe that the personality so +honoured was an extraordinary one. We have also a number of genuine +prophecies which admit us into Jeremiah's inner nature. These are our +best authorities, but they are deficient in concrete facts. By birth +Jeremiah was a countryman; he came of a priestly family whose estate lay +at Anathoth "in the land of Benjamin" (xxxii. 3; cf. i. 1). He came +forward as a prophet in the thirteenth year of Josiah (626 B.C.), still +young but irresistibly impelled. Unfortunately the account of the call +and of the object of the divine caller come to us from a later hand (ch. +i.), but we can well believe that the concrete fact which the prophetic +call illuminated was an impending blow to the state (i. 13-16; cf. ch. +iv.). What the blow exactly was is disputed,[1] but it is certain that +Jeremiah saw the gathering storm and anticipated its result, while the +statesmen were still wrapped in a false security. Five years later came +the reform movement produced by the "finding" of the "book of the law" +in the Temple in 621 B.C. (2 Kings xxii. 8), and some critics have +gathered from Jer. xi. 1-8 that Jeremiah joined the ranks of those who +publicly supported this book in Jerusalem and elsewhere. To others this +view appears in itself improbable. How can a man like Jeremiah have +advocated any such panacea? He was indeed not at first a complete +pessimist, but to be a preacher of Deuteronomy required a sanguine +temper which a prophet of the school of Isaiah could not possess. +Besides, there is a famous passage (viii. 8, see R.V.) in which Jeremiah +delivers a vehement attack upon the "scribes" (or, as we might render, +"bookmen") and their "false pen." If, as Wellhausen and Duhm suppose, +this refers to Deuteronomy (i.e. the original Deuteronomy), the +incorrectness of the theory referred to is proved. And even if we think +that the phraseology of viii. 8 applies rather to a body of writings +than to a single book, yet there is no good ground (xi. 1-8 and xxxiv. +12 being of doubtful origin) for supposing that Jeremiah would have +excepted Deuteronomy from his condemnation. + +_Stages of his Development._--At first our prophet was not altogether a +pessimist. He aspired to convince the better minds that the only hope +for Israelites, as well as for Israel, lay in "returning" to the true +Yahweh, a deity who was no mere national god, and was not to be cajoled +by the punctual offering of costly sacrifices. When Jeremiah wrote iv. +1-4 he evidently considered that the judgment could even then be +averted. Afterwards he became less hopeful, and it was perhaps a closer +acquaintance with the manners of the capital that served to +disillusionize him. He began his work at Anathoth, but v. 1-5 (as Duhm +points out) seems to come from one who has just now for the first time +"run to and fro in the streets of Jerusalem," observing and observed. +And what is the result of his expedition? That he cannot find a single +just and honest man; that high and low, rich and poor, are all ignorant +of the true method of worshipping God ("the way of Yahweh," v. 4). It +would seem as if Anathoth were less corrupt than the capital, the moral +state of which so shocked Jeremiah. And yet he does not really go beyond +the great city-prophet Isaiah who calls the men of Jerusalem "a people +of Gomorrah" (i. 10). With all reverence, an historical student has to +deduct something from both these statements. It is true that commercial +prosperity had put a severe strain on the old morality, and that contact +with other peoples, as well as the course of political history, had +appeared to lower the position of the God of Israel in relation to other +gods. Still, some adherents of the old Israelitish moral and religious +standards must have survived, only they were not to be found in the +chief places of concourse, but as a rule in coteries which handed on the +traditions of Amos and Isaiah in sorrowful retirement. + +_Danger of Book Religion._--Probably, too, even in the highest class +there were some who had a moral sympathy with Jeremiah; otherwise we can +hardly account for the contents of Deuteronomy, at least if the book +"found" in the Temple at all resembled the central portion of our +Deuteronomy. And the assumption seems to be confirmed by the respectful +attitude of certain "elders of the land" in xxvi. 17 sqq., and of the +"princes" in xxxvi. 19, 25, towards Jeremiah, which may, at any rate in +part, have been due to the recent reform movement. If therefore Jeremiah +aimed at Deuteronomy in the severe language of viii. 8, he went too far. +History shows that book religion has special dangers of its own.[2] +Nevertheless the same incorruptible adviser also shows that book +religion may be necessary as an educational instrument, and a compromise +between the two types of religion is without historical precedent. + +_Reaction: Opposition to Jeremiah._--This, however, could not as yet be +recognized by the friends of prophecy, even though it seemed for a time +as if the claims of book religion were rebuffed by facts. The death of +the pious king Josiah at Megiddo in 608 B.C. dashed the high hopes of +the "book-men," but meant no victory for Jeremiah. Its only result for +the majority was a falling back on the earlier popular cultus of the +Baals, and on the heathen customs introduced, or reintroduced, by +Josiah's grandfather, Manasseh. Would that we possessed the section of +the prophet's biography which described his attitude immediately after +the news of the battle of Megiddo! Let us, however, be thankful for what +we have, and notably for the detailed narratives in chs. xxvi. and +xxxvi. The former is dated in the beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim, +though Wellhausen suspects that the date is a mistake, and that the real +occasion was the death of Josiah. The one clear-sighted patriot saw the +full meaning of the tragedy of Megiddo, and for "prophesying against +this city"--secured, as men thought, by the Temple (vii. 4)--he was +accused by "the priests, the prophets, and all the people" of high +treason. But the divinity which hedged a prophet saved him. The +"princes," supported by certain "elders" and by "the people" (quick to +change their leaders), succeeded in quashing the accusation and setting +the prophet free. No king, be it observed, is mentioned. The latter +narrative is still more exciting. In the fourth year of Jehoiakim (= the +first of Nebuchadrezzar, xxv. 1) Jeremiah was bidden to write down "all +the words that Yahweh had spoken to him against Jerusalem (so LXX.), +Judah and all the nations from the days of Josiah onwards" (xxxvi. 2). +So at least the authors of Jeremiah's biography tell us. They add that +in the next year Jeremiah's scribe Baruch read the prophecies of +Jeremiah first to the people assembled in the Temple, then to the +"princes," and then to the king, who decided his own future policy by +burning Baruch's roll in the brazier. We cannot, however, bind ourselves +to this tradition. Much more probably the prophecy was virtually a new +one (i.e. even if some old passages were repeated yet the setting was +new), and the burden of the prophecy was "The king of Babylon shall come +and destroy this land."[3] We cannot therefore assent to the judgment +that "we have, at least as regards [the] oldest portions [of the book] +information considerably more specific than is usual in the case of the +writings of the prophets."[4] + +_Fall of the State._--Under Zedekiah the prophet was less fortunate. +Such was the tension of feeling that the "princes," who were formerly +friendly to Jeremiah, now took up an attitude of decided hostility to +him. At last they had him consigned to a miry dungeon, and it was the +king who (at the instance of the Cushite Ebed-melech) intervened for his +relief, though he remained a prisoner in other quarters till the fall of +Jerusalem (586 B.C.). Nebuchadrezzar, who is assumed to have heard of +Jeremiah's constant recommendations of submission, gave him the choice +either of going to Babylon or of remaining in the country (chs. xxxviii. +seq.). He chose the latter and resided with Gedaliah, the native +governor, at Mizpah. On the murder of Gedaliah he was carried to Mizraim +or Egypt, or perhaps to the land of Mizrim in north Arabia--against his +will (chs. xl.-xliii.). How far all this is correct we know not. The +graphic style of a narrative is no sufficient proof of its truth. +Conceivably enough the story of Jeremiah's journey to Egypt (or Mizrim) +may have been imagined to supply a background for the artificial +prophecies ascribed to Jeremiah in chs. xlvi.-li. A legend in Jerome and +Epiphanius states that he was stoned to death at Daphnae, but the +biography, though not averse from horrors, does not mention this. + +_A Patriot?_--Was Jeremiah really a patriot? The question has been +variously answered. He was not a Phocion, for he never became the tool +of a foreign power. To say with Winckler[5] that he was "a decided +adherent of the Chaldean party" is to go beyond the evidence. He did +indeed counsel submission, but only because his detachment from party +gave him a clearness of vision (cf. xxxviii. 17, 18) which the +politicians lacked. How he suffered in his uphill course he has told us +himself (xv. 10-21). In after ages the oppressed people saw in his love +for Israel and his patient resignation their own realized ideal. "And +Onias said, This is the lover of the brethren, he who prayeth much for +the people and the holy city, Jeremiah the prophet of God" (2 Macc. xv. +14). And in proportion as the popular belief in Jeremiah rose, fresh +prophecies were added to the book (notably those of the new covenant and +of the restoration of the people after seventy years) to justify it. +Professor N. Schmidt has gone further into the character of this +sympathetic prophet, _Ency. Bib._ "Jeremiah," § 5. + + _Jeremiah's Prophecies._--It has been said above that our best + authorities are Jeremiah's own prophecies. Which may these be? Before + answering we must again point out (see also ISAIAH) that the records + of the pre-exilic prophets came down in a fragmentary form, and that + these fragments needed much supplementing to adapt them to the use of + post-exilic readers. In Jeremiah, as in Isaiah, we must constantly ask + to what age do the phraseology, the ideas and the implied + circumstances most naturally point? According to Duhm there are many + passages in which metre (see also AMOS) may also be a factor in our + critical conclusions. Jeremiah, he thinks, always uses the same metre. + Giesebrecht, on the other hand, maintains that there are passages + which are certainly Jeremiah's, but which are not in what Duhm calls + Jeremiah's metre; Giesebrecht also, himself rather conservative, + considers Duhm remarkably free with his emendations. There has also to + be considered whether the text of the poetical passages has not often + become corrupt, not only from ordinary causes but through the + misunderstanding and misreading of north Arabian names on the part of + late scribes and editors, the danger to Judah from north Arabia being + (it is held) not less in pre-exilic times than the danger from Assyria + and Babylonia, so that references to north Arabia are only to be + expected. To bring educated readers into touch with critical workers + it is needful to acquaint them with these various points, the neglect + of any one of which may to some extent injure the results of + criticism. + + It is a new stage of criticism on which we have entered, so that no + single critic can be reckoned as _the_ authority on Jeremiah. But + since the results of the higher criticism depend on the soundness and + thoroughness of the criticism called "lower," and since Duhm has the + advantage of being exceptionally free from that exaggerated respect + for the letters of the traditional text which has survived the + destruction of the old superstitious veneration for the vowel-points, + it may be best to give the student his "higher critical" results, + dated 1901. Let us premise, however, that the portions mentioned in + the 9th edition of the _Ency. Brit._ as having been "entirely or in + part denied," to Jeremiah, viz. x. 1-16; xxx.; xxxiii.; l.-li. and + lii., are still regarded in their present form as non-Jeremianic. The + question which next awaits decision is whether any part of the booklet + on foreign nations (xxv., xlvi.-li.) can safely be regarded as + Jeremianic. Giesebrecht still asserts the genuineness of xxv. 15-24 + (apart from glosses), xlvii. (in the main) and xlix. 7, 8, 10, 11. + Against these views see N. Schmidt, _Ency. Bib._, col. 2384. + + Let us now listen to Duhm, who analyses the book into six groups of + passages. These are (a) i.-xxv., the "words of Jeremiah." (i. 1); (b) + xxvi.-xxix., passages from Baruch's biography of Jeremiah; (c) + xxx.-xxxi., the book of the future of Israel and Judah; (d) + xxxii.-xlv., from Baruch; (e) xlvi.-li., the prophecies "concerning + the nations";[6] (f) lii., historical appendix. Upon examining these + groups we find that besides a prose letter (ch. xxix.), about sixty + poetical pieces may be Jeremiah's. A: Anathoth passages before 621, + (a) ii. 2b, 3, 14-28; ii. 29-37; iii. 1-5; iii. 12b, 13, 19, 20; iii. + 21-25; iv. i, 3, 4; these form a cycle, (b) xxxi. 2-6; 15-20; 21, 22; + another cycle. (c) iv. 5-8; 11b, 12a, 13, 15-17a; 19-21; 23-26; 29-31; + visions and "auditions" of the impending invasion. B: Jerusalem + passages. (d) v. 1-6a; 6b-9; 10-17; vi. 1-5; 6b-8; 9-14; 16, 17, 20; + 22-26a; 27-30; vii. 28, 29; viii. 4-7a; 8, 9, 13; 14-17; viii. 18-23; + ix. 1-8; 9 (short song); 16-18; 19-21; x. 19, 20, 22; reign of Josiah, + strong personal element. (e) xxii. 10 (Jehoahaz). xxii. 13-17; + probably too xi. 15, 16; xii. 7-12 (Jehoiakim). xxii. 18, 19, perhaps + too xxii. 6b, 7; 20-23; and the cycle xiii. 15, 16; 17; 18, 19; 20, + 21a, 22-25a, 26, 27 (later, Jehoiakim). xxii. 24; xxii. 28 + (Jehoiachin). (f) Later poems. xiv. 2-10; xv. 5-9; xvi. 5-7; xviii. + 13-17; xxiii. 9-12; 13-15; xi. 18-20; xv. 10-12; 15-19a, and 20, 21; + xvii. 9, 10, 14, 16, 17; xviii. 18-20; xx. 7-11; xx. 14-18; xiv. 17, + 18; xvii. 1-4; xxxviii. 24; assigned to the close of Zedekiah's time. + + _Two Recensions of the Text._--It has often been said that we have + virtually two recensions of the text, that represented by the + Septuagint and the Massoretic text, and critics have taken different + sides, some for one and some for the other. "Recension," however, is a + bad term; it implies that the two texts which undeniably exist were + the result of revising and editing according to definite critical + principles. Such, however, is not the case. It is true that "there are + (in the LXX.) many omissions of words, sentences, verses and whole + passages, in fact, that altogether about 2700 words are wanting, or + the eighth part of the Massoretic text" (Bleek). It may also be + admitted that the scribes who produced the Hebrew basis of the + Septuagint version, conscious of the unsettled state of the text, did + not shrink from what they considered a justifiable simplification. But + we must also grant that those from whom the "written" Hebrew text + proceeds allowed themselves to fill up and to repeat without any + sufficient warrant. In each case in which there is a genuine + difference of reading between the two texts, it is for the critic to + decide; often, however, he will have to seek to go behind what both + the texts present in order to constitute a truer text than either. + Here is the great difficulty of the future. We may add to the credit + of the Septuagint that the position given to the prophecies on "the + nations" (chs. xlvi.-li. in our Bible) in the Septuagint is probably + more original than that in the Massoretic text. On this point see + especially Schmidt, _Ency. Bib._ "Jeremiah (Book)" §§ 6 and 21; + Davidson, Hastings's _Dict. Bible_, ii. 573b-575; Driver, + _Introduction_ (8th ed.), pp. 269, 270. + + The best German commentary is that of Cornill (1905). A skilful + translation by Driver, with notes intended for ordinary students + (1906) should also be mentioned. (T. K. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Davidson (Hast., _D.B._, ii. 570 b) mentions two views. (1) The + foe might be "a creation of his moral presentiment and assigned to + the north as the cloudy region of mystery." (2) The more usual view + is that the Scythians (see Herod, i. 76, 103-106; iv. 1 ) are meant. + Neither of these views is satisfactory. The passage v. 15-17 is too + definite for (1), and as for (2), the idea of a threatened Scythian + invasion lacks a sufficient basis. Those who hold (2) have to suppose + that original references to the Scythians were retouched under the + impression of Chaldean invasions. Hence Cheyne's theory of a north + Arabian invasion from the land of Zaphon = Zibeon (Gen. xxxvi. 2, + 14), i.e. Ishmael. Cf. N. Schmidt, _Ency. Bib._, Zibeon, "Scythians," + § 8; Cheyne, _Critica Biblica_, part i. (Isaiah and Jeremiah). + + [2] Cf. Ewald, _The Prophets_, Eng. trans., iii. 63, 64. + + [3] Cheyne, _Ency. Brit._ (9th ed.,), "Jeremiah," suggests after + Grätz that the roll simply contained ch. xxv., omitting the most + obvious interpolations. Against this view see N. Schmidt, _Ency. + Bib._, "Jeremiah (Book)," § 8, who, however, accepts the negative + part of Cheyne's arguments. + + [4] Driver, _Introd. to the Lit. of the O.T._ (6), p. 249. + + [5] In Helmolt's _Weltgeschichte_, iii. 211. + + [6] li. 59-64a, however, is a specimen of imaginative "Midrashic" + history. See Giesebrecht's monograph. + + + + +JEREMY, EPISTLE OF, an apocryphal book of the Old Testament. This letter +purports to have been written by Jeremiah to the exiles who were already +in Babylon or on the way thither. The author was a Hellenistic Jew, and +not improbably a Jew of Alexandria. His work, which shows little +literary skill, was written with a serious practical purpose. He veiled +his fierce attack on the idol gods of Egypt by holding up to derision +the idolatry of Babylon. The fact that Jeremiah (xxix. 1 sqq.) was known +to have written a letter of this nature naturally suggested to a +Hellenist, possibly of the 1st century B.C. or earlier, the idea of a +second epistolary undertaking, and other passages of Jeremiah's prophecy +(x. 1-12; xxix. 4-23) may have determined also its general character and +contents. + +The writer warned the exiles that they were to remain in captivity for +seven generations; that they would there see the worship paid to idols, +from all participation in which they were to hold aloof; for that idols +were nothing save the work of men's hands, without the powers of speech, +hearing or self-preservation. They could not bless their worshippers +even in the smallest concerns of life; they were indifferent to moral +qualities, and were of less value than the commonest household objects, +and finally, "with rare irony, the author compared an idol to a +scarecrow (v. 70), impotent to protect, but deluding to the imagination" +(MARSHALL). + + The date of the epistle is uncertain. It is believed by some scholars + to be referred to in 2 Macc. ii. 2, which says that Jeremiah charged + the exiles "not to forget the statutes of the Lord, neither to be led + astray in their minds when they saw images of gold and silver and the + adornment thereof." But the reference is disputed by Fritzsche, + Gifford, Shürer and others. The epistle was included in the Greek + canon. There was no question of its canonicity till the time of + Jerome, who termed it a pseudepigraph. + + See Fritzsche, _Handb. zu den Apok._, 1851; Gifford, in _Speaker's + Apoc._ ii. 286-303; Marshall, in Hastings' _Dict. Bible_, ii. 578-579. + (R. H. C.) + + + + +JERÉZ DE LA FRONTERA (formerly XERES), a town of southern Spain, in the +province of Cadiz, near the right bank of the river Guadalete, and on +the Seville-Cadiz railway, about 7 m. from the Atlantic coast. Pop. +(1900), 63,473. Jeréz is built in the midst of an undulating plain of +great fertility. Its whitewashed houses, clean, broad streets, and +squares planted with trees extend far beyond the limits formerly +enclosed by the Moorish walls, almost entirely demolished. The principal +buildings are the 15th-century church of San Miguel, the 17th-century +collegiate church with its lofty bell-tower, the 16th-century town-hall, +superseded, for official purposes, by a modern edifice, the bull-ring, +and many hospitals, charitable institutions and schools, including +academies of law, medicine and commerce. But the most characteristic +features of Jeréz are the huge _bodegas_, or wine-lodges, for the +manufacture and storage of sherry, and the vineyards, covering more than +150,000 acres, which surround it on all sides. The town is an important +market for grain, fruit and livestock, but its staple trade is in wine. +Sherry is also produced in other districts, but takes its name, formerly +written in English as _sherris_ or _xeres_, from Jeréz. The demand for +sherry diminished very greatly during the last quarter of the 19th +century, especially in England, which had been the chief consumer. In +1872 the sherry shipped from Cadiz to Great Britain alone was valued at +£2,500,000; in 1902 the total export hardly amounted to one-fifth of +this sum. The wine trade, however, still brings a considerable profit, +and few towns of southern Spain display greater commercial activity than +Jeréz. In the earlier part of the 18th century the neighbourhood +suffered severely from yellow fever; but it was rendered comparatively +healthy when in 1869 an aqueduct was opened to supply pure water. +Strikes and revolutionary disturbances have frequently retarded business +in more recent years. + +Jeréz has been variously identified with the Roman Municipium Seriense; +with Asido, perhaps the original of the Moorish Sherish; and with Hasta +Regia, a name which may survive in the designation of La Mesa de Asta, a +neighbouring hill. Jeréz was taken from the Moors by Ferdinand III. of +Castile (1217-1252); but it was twice recaptured before Alphonso X. +finally occupied it in 1264. Towards the close of the 14th century it +received the title _de la Frontera_, i.e. "of the frontier," common to +several towns on the Moorish border. + + + + +JERÉZ DE LOS CABALLEROS, a town of south-western Spain, in the province +of Badajoz, picturesquely situated on two heights overlooking the river +Ardila, a tributary of the Guadiana, 12 m. E. of the Portuguese +frontier. Pop. (1900), 10,271. The old town is surrounded by a Moorish +wall with six gates; the newer portion is well and regularly built, and +planted with numerous orange and other fruit trees. Owing to the lack of +railway communication Jeréz is of little commercial importance; its +staple trade is in agricultural produce, especially in ham and bacon +from the large herds of swine which are reared in the surrounding oak +forests. The town is said to have been founded by Alphonso IX. of Leon +in 1229; in 1232 it was extended by his son St Ferdinand, who gave it to +the knights templar. Hence the name _Jeréz de los Caballeros_, "Jeréz of +the knights." + + + + +JERICHO ([Hebrew: Yricho, Yricho], once [Hebrew: Yrichoa], a word of +disputed meaning, whether "fragrant" or "moon [-god] city"), an +important town in the Jordan valley some 5 m. N. of the Dead Sea. The +references to it in the Pentateuch are confined to rough geographical +indications of the latitude of the trans-Jordanic camp of the Israelites +in Moab before their crossing of the river. This was the first Canaanite +city to be attacked and reduced by the victorious Israelites. The story +of its conquest is His Sundays were spent in the catacombs in +discovering graves of the martyrs and deciphering inscriptions. Pope +Liberius baptized him in 360; three years later the news of the death of +the emperor Julian came to Rome, and Christians felt relieved from a +great dread. + +When his student days were over Jerome returned to Strido, but did not +stay there long. His character was formed. He was a scholar, with a +scholar's tastes and cravings for knowledge, easily excited, bent on +scholarly discoveries. From Strido he went to Aquileia, where he formed +some friendships among the monks of the large monastery, notably with +Rufinus, with whom he was destined to quarrel bitterly over the question +of Origen's orthodoxy and worth as a commentator; for Jerome was a man +who always sacrificed a friend to an opinion, and when he changed sides +in a controversy expected his acquaintances to follow him. From Aquileia +he went to Gaul (366-370), visiting in turn the principal places in that +country, from Narbonne and Toulouse in the south to Treves on the +north-east frontier. He stayed some time at Treves studying and +observing, and it was there that he first began to think seriously upon +sacred things. From Treves he returned to Strido, and from Strido to +Aquileia. He settled down to literary work in Aquileia (370-373) and +composed there his first original tract, _De muliere septies percussa_, +in the form of a letter to his friend Innocentius. Some dispute caused +him to leave Aquileia suddenly; and with a few companions, Innocentius, +Evagrius, and Heliodorus being among them, he started for a long tour in +the East. The epistle to Rufinus (3rd in Vallarsi's enumeration) tells +us the route. They went through Thrace, visiting Athens, Bithynia, +Galatia, Pontus, Cappadocia and Cilicia, to Antioch, Jerome observing +and making notes as they went. He was interested in the theological +disputes and schisms in Galatia, in the two languages spoken in Cilicia, +&c. At Antioch the party remained some time. Innocentius died of a +fever, and Jerome was dangerously ill. This illness induced a spiritual +change, and he resolved to renounce whatever kept him back from God. His +greatest temptation was the study of the literature of pagan Rome. In a +dream Christ reproached him with caring more to be a Ciceronian than a +Christian. He disliked the uncouth style of the Scriptures. "O Lord," he +prayed, "thou knowest that whenever I have and study secular MSS. I deny +thee," and he made a resolve henceforth to devote his scholarship to the +Holy Scripture. "David was to be henceforth his Simonides, Pindar and +Alcaeus, his Flaccus, Catullus and Severus." Fortified by these resolves +he betook himself to a hermit life in the wastes of Chalcis, S.E. from +Antioch (373-379). Chalcis was the Thebaid of Syria. Great numbers of +monks, each in solitary cell, spent lonely lives, scorched by the sun, +ill-clad and scantily fed, pondering on portions of Scripture or copying +MSS. to serve as objects of meditation. Jerome at once set himself to +such scholarly work as the place afforded. He discovered and copied +MSS., and began to study Hebrew. There also he wrote the life of St Paul +of Thebes, probably an imaginary tale embodying the facts of the monkish +life around him. Just then the Meletian schism, which arose over the +relation of the orthodox to Arian bishops and to those baptized by +Arians, distressed the church at Antioch (see MELETIUS OF ANTIOCH), and +Jerome as usual eagerly joined the fray. Here as elsewhere he had but +one rule to guide him in matters of doctrine and discipline--the +practice of Rome and the West; for it is singular to see how Jerome, who +is daringly original in points of scholarly criticism, was a ruthless +partisan in all other matters; and, having discovered what was the +Western practice, he set tongue and pen to work with his usual +bitterness (_Altercatio luciferiani et orthodoxi_). + +At Antioch in 379 he was ordained presbyter. From there he went to +Constantinople, where he met with the great Eastern scholar and +theologian Gregory of Nazianzus, and with his aid tried to perfect +himself in Greek. The result of his studies there was the translation of +the _Chronicon_ of Eusebius, with a continuation[1] of twenty-eight +homilies of Origen on Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and of nine homilies of +Origen on the visions of Isaiah. + +In 381 Meletius died, and Pope Damasus interfered in the dispute at +Antioch, hoping to end it. Jerome was called to Rome in 382 to give help +in the matter, and was made secretary during the investigation. His work +brought him into intercourse with this great pontiff, who soon saw what +he could best do, and how his vast scholarship might be made of use to +the church. Damasus suggested to him to revise the "Old Latin" +translation of the Bible; and to this task he henceforth devoted his +great abilities. At Rome were published the Gospels (with a dedication +to Pope Damasus, an explanatory introduction, and the canons of +Eusebius), the rest of the New Testament and the version of the Psalms +from the Septuagint known as the _Psalterium romanum_, which was +followed (c. 388) by the _Psalterium gallicanum_, based on the Hexaplar +Greek text. These scholarly labours, however, did not take up his whole +time, and it was almost impossible for Jerome to be long anywhere +without getting into a dispute. He was a zealous defender of that +monastic life which was beginning to take such a large place in the +church of the 4th century, and he found enthusiastic disciples among the +Roman ladies. A number of widows and maidens met together in the house +of Marcella to study the Scriptures with him; he taught them Hebrew, and +preached the virtues of the celibate life. His arguments and +exhortations may be gathered from many of his epistles and from his +tract _Adversus Helvidium_, in which he defends the perpetual virginity +of Mary against Helvidius, who maintained that she bore children to +Joseph. His influence over these ladies alarmed their relatives and +excited the suspicions of the regular priesthood and of the populace, +but while Pope Damasus lived Jerome remained secure. Damasus died, +however, in 384, and was succeeded by Siricius, who did not show much +friendship for Jerome. He found it expedient to leave Rome, and set out +for the East in 385. His letters (especially Ep. 45) are full of +outcries against his enemies and of indignant protestations that he had +done nothing unbecoming a Christian, that he had taken no money, nor +gifts great nor small, that he had no delight in silken attire, +sparkling gems or gold ornaments, that no matron moved him unless by +penitence and fasting, &c. His route is given in the third book _In +Rufinum_; he went by Rhegium and Cyprus, where he was entertained by +Bishop Epiphanius, to Antioch. There he was joined by two wealthy Roman +ladies, Paula, a widow, and Eustochium, her daughter, one of Jerome's +Hebrew students. They came accompanied by a band of Roman maidens vowed +to live a celibate life in a nunnery in Palestine. Accompanied by these +ladies Jerome made the tour of Palestine, carefully noting with a +scholar's keenness the various places mentioned in Holy Scripture. The +results of this journey may be traced in his translation with +emendations of the book of Eusebius on the situation and names of Hebrew +places, written probably three years afterwards, when he had settled +down at Bethlehem. From Palestine Jerome and his companions went to +Egypt, remaining some time in Alexandria, and they visited the convents +of the Nitrian desert. Jerome's mind was evidently full of anxiety about +his translation of the Old Testament, for we find him in his letters +recording the conversations he had with learned men about disputed +readings and doubtful renderings; the blind Didymus of Alexandria, whom +he heard interpreting Hosea, appears to have been most useful. When they +returned to Palestine they all settled at Bethlehem, where Paula built +four monasteries, three for nuns and one for monks. She was at the head +of the nunneries until her death in 404, when Eustochium succeeded her; +Jerome presided over the fourth monastery. Here he did most of his +literary work and, throwing aside his unfinished plan of a translation +from Origen's Hexaplar text, translated the Old Testament directly from +the Hebrew, with the aid of Jewish scholars. He mentions a rabbi from +Lydda, a rabbi from Tiberias, and above all rabbi Ben Anina, who came to +him by night secretly for fear of the Jews. Jerome was not familiar +enough with Hebrew to be able to dispense with such assistance, and he +makes the synagogue responsible for the fully narrated in the first +seven chapters of Joshua. There must be some little exaggeration in the +statement that Jericho was totally destroyed; a hamlet large enough to +be enumerated among the towns of Benjamin (Josh. xviii. 21) must have +remained; but that it was small is shown by the fact that it was deemed +a suitable place for David's ambassadors to retire to after the +indignities put upon them by Hanun (2 Sam. x. 5; 1 Chron. xix. 5). Its +refortification was due to a Bethelite named Hiel, who endeavoured to +avert the curse of Joshua by offering his sons as sacrifices at certain +stages of the work (1 Kings xvi. 34). After this event it grew again +into importance and became the site of a college of prophets (2 Kings +ii. 4 sqq.) for whom Elisha "healed" its poisonous waters. The principal +spring in the neighbourhood of Jericho still bears (among the foreign +residents) the name of Elisha; the natives call it, Ain es-Sultan, or +"Sultan's spring." To Jericho the victorious Israelite marauders +magnanimously returned their Judahite captives at the bidding of the +prophet Oded (2 Chron. xxviii. 15). Here was fought the last fight +between the Babylonians and Zedekiah, wherein the kingdom of Judah came +to an end (2 Kings xxv. 5; Jer. xxxix. 5, lii. 8). In the New Testament +Jericho is connected with the well-known stories of Bar-Timaeus (Matt. +xx. 29; Mark x. 46; Luke xviii. 35) and Zacchaeus (Luke xix. 1) and with +the good Samaritan (Luke x. 30). + + The extra-Biblical history of Jericho is as disastrous as are the + records preserved in the Scriptures. Bacchides, the general of the + Syrians, captured and fortified it (1. Macc. ix. 50), Aristobulus + (Jos. _Ant._ XIV. i. 2) also took it, Pompey (ib. XIV. iv. 1) encamped + here on his way to Jerusalem. Before Herod its inhabitants ran away + (ib. XIV. xv. 3) as they did before Vespasian (_Wars_, IV. viii. 2). + The reason of this lack of warlike quality was no doubt the enervating + effect of the great heat of the depression in which the city lies, + which has the same effect on the handful of degraded humanity that + still occupies the ancient site. + + Few places in Palestine are more fertile. It was the city of palm + trees of the ancient record of the Israelite invasion preserved in + part in Judg. i. 16; and Josephus speaks of its fruitfulness with + enthusiasm (_Wars_ IV. 8, 3). Even now with every possible hindrance + in the way of cultivation it is an important centre of fruit-growing. + + The modern er-Riha is a poor squalid village of, it is estimated, + about 300 inhabitants. It is not built exactly on the ancient site. + Indeed, the site of Jericho has shifted several times. The mound of + Tell es-Sultan, near "Elisha's Fountain," north of the modern village, + no doubt covers the Canaanite town. There are two later sites, of + Roman or Herodian date, one north, the other west, of this. It was + probably the crusaders who established the modern site. An old tower + attributed to them is to be seen in the village, and in the + surrounding mountains are many remains of early monasticism. + Aqueducts, ruined sugar-mills, and other remains of ancient industry + abound in the neighbourhood. The whole district is the private + property of the sultan of Turkey. In 1907-8 the Canaanite Jericho was + excavated under the direction of Prof. Sellin of Vienna. + + See "The German Excavations at Jericho," _Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart. + Statem._ (1910), pp. 54-68. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Cf. Schoene's critical edition (Berlin, 1866, 1875). + + + + +JERKIN, a short close-fitting jacket, made usually of leather, and +without sleeves, the typical male upper garment of the 16th and 17th +centuries. The origin of the word is unknown. The Dutch word _jurk_, a +child's frock, often taken as the source, is modern, and represents +neither the sound nor the sense of the English word. In architecture the +term "jerkin-roofed" is applied, probably with some obscure connexion +with the garment, to a particular form of gable end, the gable being cut +off half way up the roof and sloping back like a "hipped roof" to the +edge. + + + + +JEROBOAM (Heb. _yarob'am_, apparently "Am ['the clan,' here perhaps a +divine name] contends"; LXX. [Greek: ieroboam]), the name of two kings +in the Bible. + +1. The first king of (north) Israel after the disruption (see SOLOMON). +According to the traditions of his early life (1 Kings xi. 26 sqq. and +LXX.), he was an Ephraimite who for his ability was placed over the +forced levy of Ephraim and Manasseh. Having subsequently incurred +Solomon's suspicions he fled to Shishak, king of Egypt, and remained +with him until Rehoboam's accession. When the latter came to be made +king at Shechem, the old religious centre (see ABIMELECH), hopes were +entertained that a more lenient policy would be introduced. But +Rehoboam refused to depart from Solomon's despotic rule, and was +tactless enough to send Adoniram, the overseer of the _corvée_. He was +stoned to death, and Rehoboam realizing the temper of the people fled to +Jerusalem and prepared for war. Jeroboam became the recognized leader of +the northern tribes.[1] Conflicts occurred (1 Kings xiv. 30), but no +details are preserved except the late story of Rehoboam's son Abijah in +2 Chron. xiii. Jeroboam's chief achievement was the fortification of +Shechem (his new capital) and of Penuel in east Jordan. To counteract +the influence of Jerusalem he established golden calves at Dan and +Bethel, an act which to later ages was as gross a piece of wickedness as +his rebellion against the legitimate dynasty of Judah. No notice has +survived of Shishak's invasion of Israel (see REHOBOAM), and after a +reign of twenty-two years Jeroboam was succeeded by Nadab, whose violent +death two years later brought the whole house of Jeroboam to an end. + + The history of the separation of Judah and Israel in the 10th century + B.C. was written from a strong religious standpoint at a date + considerably later than the event itself. The visit of Ahijah to + Shiloh (xi. 29-39), to announce symbolically the rending of the + kingdom, replaces some account of a rebellion in which Jeroboam + "lifted up his hand" (v. 27) against Solomon. To such an account, not + to the incident of Ahijah and the cloak, his flight (v. 40) is the + natural sequel. The story of Ahijah's prophecy against Jeroboam (ch. + xiv.) is not in the original LXX., but another version of the same + narrative appears at xii. 24 (LXX.), in which there is no reference to + a previous promise to Jeroboam through Ahijah, but the prophet is + introduced as a new character. Further, in this version (xii. 24) the + incident of the tearing of the cloak is related of Shemaiah and placed + at the convention of Shechem. Shemaiah is the prophet who counselled + Rehoboam to refrain from war (xii. 21-24); the injunction is opposed + to xiv. 30, but appears to be intended to explain Rehoboam's failure + to overcome north Israel. (See W. R. Smith, _Old Test. in Jewish + Church_ (2nd ed.), 117 sqq.; Winckler, _Alte Test. Untersuch._ 12 + sqq., and J. Skinner, _Century Bible: Kings_, pp. 443 sqq.) + +2. JEROBOAM, son of Joash (2) a contemporary of Azariah king of Judah. +He was one of the greatest of the kings of Israel. He succeeded in +breaking the power of Damascus, which had long been devastating his +land, and extended his kingdom from Hamath on the Orontes to the Dead +Sea. The brief summary of his achievements preserved in 2 Kings xiv. 23 +sqq. may be supplemented by the original writings of Amos and Hosea.[2] +There appears to be an allusion in Amos vi. 13 to the recovery of +Ashteroth-Karnaim and Lodebar in E. Jordan, and the conquest of Moab +(Isa. xv. seq.) is often ascribed to this reign. After a period of +prosperity, internal disturbances broke out and the northern kingdom +hastened to its fall. Jeroboam was succeeded by his son Zechariah, who +after six months was killed at Ibleam (so read in 2 Kings xv. 10; cp. +ix. 27, murder of Ahaziah) by Shallum the son of Jabesh--i.e. possibly +of Jabesh-Gilead--who a month later fell to Menahem (q.v.). + (S. A. C.) + + See, further, JEWS §§ 7, 9 and §§ 12, 13. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] On the variant traditions in the Hebrew text and the Septuagint, + see the commentaries on Kings. + + [2] See also JONAH. In 2 Kings xiv. 28, "Hamath, _which had belonged_ + to Judah" (R.V.) is incorrect; Winckler (_Keilinschrift. u. Alte + Test._, 2nd ed., 262) suspects a reference to Israel's overlordship + in Judah; Burney (_Heb. Text of Kings_) reads: "how he fought with + Damascus and how he turned away the wrath of Yahweh from Israel"; see + also _Ency. Bib._ col. 2406 n. 4, and the commentaries. + + + + +JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. +340-420), was born at Strido (modern Strigau?), a town on the border of +Dalmatia fronting Pannonia, destroyed by the Goths in A.D. 377. What is +known of Jerome has mostly been recovered from his own writings. He +appears to have been born about 340; his parents were Christians, +orthodox though living among people mostly Arians and wealthy. He was at +first educated at home, Bonosus, a life-long friend, sharing his +youthful studies, and was afterwards sent to Rome. Donatus taught him +grammar and explained the Latin poets. Victorinus taught him rhetoric. +He attended the law-courts, and listened to the Roman advocates pleading +in the Forum. He went to the schools of philosophy, and heard lectures +on Plato, Diogenes, Clitomachus and Carneades; the conjunction of names +show how philosophy had become a dead tradition. accuracy of his +version: "Let him who would challenge aught in this translation," he +says, "ask the Jews." The result of all this labour was the Latin +translation of the Scriptures which, in spite of much opposition from +the more conservative party in the church, afterwards became the Vulgate +or authorized version; but the Vulgate as we have it now is not exactly +Jerome's Vulgate, for it suffered a good deal from changes made under +the influence of the older translations; the text became very corrupt +during the middle ages, and in particular all the Apocrypha, except +Tobit and Judith, which Jerome translated from the Chaldee, were added +from the older versions. (See BIBLE: _O.T. Versions_.) + +Notwithstanding the labour involved in translating the Scriptures, +Jerome found time to do a great deal of literary work, and also to +indulge in violent controversy. Earlier in life he had a great +admiration for Origen, and translated many of his works, and this lasted +after he had settled at Bethlehem, for in 389 he translated Origen's +homilies on Luke; but he came to change his opinion and wrote violently +against two admirers of the great Alexandrian scholar, John, bishop of +Jerusalem, and his own former friend Rufinus. + +At Bethlehem also he found time to finish _Didymi de spiritu sancto +liber_, a translation begun at Rome at the request of Pope Damasus, to +denounce the revival of Gnostic heresies by Jovinianus and Vigilantius +(_Adv. Jovinianum lib. II._ and _Contra Vigilantium liber_), and to +repeat his admiration of the hermit life in his _Vita S. Hilarionis +eremitae_, in his _Vita Malchi monachi captivi_, in his translations of +the Rule of St Pachomius (the Benedict of Egypt), and in his _S. +Pachomii et S. Theodorici epistolae et verba mystica_. He also wrote at +Bethlehem _De viris illustribus sive de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis_, a +church history in biographies, ending with the life of the author; _De +nominibus Hebraicis_, compiled from Philo and Origen; and _De situ et +nominibus locorum Hebraicorum_.[1] At the same place, too, he wrote +_Quaestiones Hebraicae_ on Genesis,[2] and a series of commentaries on +Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, the Twelve Minor Prophets, Matthew +and the Epistles of St Paul. About 394 Jerome came to know Augustine, +for whom he held a high regard. He engaged in the Pelagian controversy +with more than even his usual bitterness (_Dialogi contra pelagianos_); +and it is said that the violence of his invective so provoked his +opponents that an armed mob attacked the monastery, and that Jerome was +forced to flee and to remain in concealment for nearly two years. He +returned to Bethlehem in 418, and after a lingering illness died on the +30th of September 420. + +Jerome "is one of the few Fathers to whom the title of Saint appears to +have been given in recognition of services rendered to the Church rather +than for eminent sanctity. He is the great Christian scholar of his age, +rather than the profound theologian or the wise guide of souls." His +great work was the Vulgate, but his achievements in other fields would +have sufficed to distinguish him. His commentaries are valuable because +of his knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, his varied interests, and his +comparative freedom from allegory. To him we owe the distinction between +canonical and apocryphal writings; in the _Prologus Galeatus_ prefixed +to his version of Samuel and Kings, he says that the church reads the +Apocrypha "for the edification of the people, not for confirming the +authority of ecclesiastical doctrines." He was a pioneer in the fields +of patrology and of biblical archaeology. In controversy he was too fond +of mingling personal abuse with legitimate argument, and this weakness +mars his letters, which were held in high admiration in the early middle +ages, and are valuable for their history of the man and his times. +Luther in his _Table Talk_ condemns them as dealing only with fasting, +meats, virginity, &c. "If he only had insisted upon the works of faith +and performed them! But he teaches nothing either about faith, or love, +or hope, or the works of faith." + + Editions of the complete works: Erasmus (9 vols., Basel, 1516-1520); + Mar. Victorius, bishop of Rieti (9 vols., Rome, 1565-1572); F. + Calixtus and A. Tribbechovius (12 vols., Frankfort and Leipzig, + 1684-1690); J. Martianay (5 vols., incomplete Benedictine ed., Paris, + 1693-1706); D. Vallarsi (11 vols., Verona, 1734-1742), the best; + Migne, _Patrol. Ser. Lat._ (xxii.-xxix.). The _De viris illust._ was + edited by Herding in 1879. A selection is given in translation by W. + H. Fremantle, "Select Library of Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers," 2nd + series, vol. vi. (New York, 1893). Biographies are prefixed to most of + the above editions. See also lives by F. Z. Collombet (Paris and + Lyons, 1844); O. Zöckler (Gotha, 1865); E. L. Cutts (London, 1878); C. + Martin (London, 1888); P. Largent (Paris, 1898); F. W. Farrar, _Lives + of the Fathers_, ii. 150-297 (Edinburgh, 1889). Additional literature + is cited in Hauck-Herzog's _Realencyk. für prot. Theol._ viii. 42. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Compare the critical edition of these two works in Lagarde's + _Onomastica sacra_ (Götting. 1870). + + [2] See Lagarde's edition appended to his _Genesis Graece_ (Leipzig, + 1868). + + + + +JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859- ), English author, was born on the 2nd of +May 1859. He was educated at the philological school, Marylebone, +London; and was by turns clerk, schoolmaster and actor, before he +settled down to journalism. He made his reputation as a humorist in 1889 +with _Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow_ and _Three Men in a Boat_, and +from 1892 to 1897 he was co-editor of the _Idler_ with Robert Barr. At +the same time he was also the editor of _To-Day_. A one-act play of his, +_Barbara_, was produced at the Globe theatre in 1886, and was followed +by many others, among them _Sunset_ (1888), _Wood Barrow Farm_ (1891), +_The Passing of the Third Floor Back_ (1907). Among his later books are +_Letters to Clorinda_ (1898), _The Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow_ +(1898), _Three Men on the Bummel_ (1900), _Tommy and Co._ (1904), _They +and I_ (1909). + + + + +JEROME OF PRAGUE (d. 1416), an early Bohemian church-reformer and friend +of John Hus. Jerome's part in the Hussite movement was formerly much +over-rated. Very little is known of his early years. He is stated to +have belonged to a noble Bohemian family[1] and to have been a few years +younger than Hus. After beginning his studies at the university of +Prague, where he never attempted to obtain any ecclesiastical office, +Jerome proceeded to Oxford in 1398. There he became greatly impressed by +the writings of Wycliffe, of whose _Dialogus_ and _Trialogus_ he made +copies. Always inclined to a roving life, he soon proceeded to the +university of Paris and afterwards continued his studies at Cologne and +Heidelberg, returning to Prague in 1407. In 1403 he is stated to have +undertaken a journey to Jerusalem. At Paris his open advocacy of the +views of Wycliffe brought him into conflict with John Gerson, chancellor +of the university. In Prague Jerome soon attracted attention by his +advanced and outspoken opinions. He gave great offence also by +exhibiting a portrait of Wycliffe in his room. Jerome was soon on terms +of friendship with Hus, and took part in all the controversies of the +university. When in 1408 a French embassy arrived at Kutná Hora, the +residence of King Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and proposed that the papal +schism should be terminated by the refusal of the temporal authorities +further to recognize either of the rival popes, Wenceslaus summoned to +Kutná Hora the members of the university. The Bohemian _magistri_ spoke +strongly in favour of the French proposals, while the Germans maintained +their allegiance to the Roman pope, Gregory XII. The reorganization of +the university was also discussed, and as Wenceslaus for a time favoured +the Germans, Hus and Jerome, as leaders of the Bohemians, incurred the +anger of the king, who threatened them with death by fire should they +oppose his will. + +In 1410 Jerome, who had incurred the hostility of the archbishop of +Prague by his speeches in favour of Wycliffe's teaching, went to Ofen, +where King Sigismund of Hungary resided, and, though a layman, preached +before the king denouncing strongly the rapacity and immorality of the +clergy. Sigismund shortly afterwards received a letter from the +archbishop of Prague containing accusations against Jerome. He was +imprisoned by order of the king, but does not appear to have been +detained long in Hungary. Appearing at Vienna, he was again brought +before the ecclesiastical authorities. He was accused of spreading +Wycliffe's doctrines, and his general conduct at Oxford, Paris, Cologne, +Prague and Ofen was censured. Jerome vowed that he would not leave +Vienna till he had cleared himself from the accusation of heresy. +Shortly afterwards he secretly left Vienna, declaring that this promise +had been forced on him. He went first to Vöttau in Moravia, and then to +Prague. In 1412 the representatives of Pope Gregory XII. publicly +offered indulgences for sale at Prague, wishing to raise money for the +pope's campaign against King Ladislaus of Naples, an adherent of the +antipope of Avignon. Contrary to the wishes of the archbishop of Prague +a meeting of the members of the university took place, at which both Hus +and Jerome spoke strongly against the sale of indulgences. The fiery +eloquence of Jerome, which is noted by all contemporary writers, +obtained for him greater success even than that of Hus, particularly +among the younger students, who conducted him in triumph to his +dwelling-place. Shortly afterwards Jerome proceeded to Poland--it is +said on the invitation of King Wladislaus. His courtly manners and his +eloquence here also caused him to become very popular, but he again met +with strong opposition from the Roman Church. While travelling with the +grand-duke Lithold of Lithuania Jerome took part in the religious +services of the Greek Orthodox Church. + +During his stay in northern Europe Jerome received the news that Hus had +been summoned to appear before the council of Constance. He wrote to his +friend advising him to do so and adding that he would also proceed there +to afford him assistance. Contrary to the advice of Hus he arrived at +Constance on the 4th of April 1415. Advised to fly immediately to +Bohemia, he succeeded in reaching Hirschau, only 25 m. from the Bohemian +frontier. He was here arrested and brought back in chains to Constance, +where he was examined by judges appointed by the council. His courage +failed him in prison and, to regain his freedom, he renounced the +doctrines of Wycliffe and Hus. He declared that Hus had been justly +executed and stated in a letter addressed on the 12th of August 1415 to +Lacek, lord of Kravâr--the only literary document of Jerome that has +been preserved--that "the dead man (Hus) had written many false and +harmful things." Full confidence was not placed in Jerome's recantation. +He claimed to be heard at a general meeting of the council, and this was +granted to him. He now again maintained all the theories which he had +formerly advocated, and, after a trial that lasted only one day, he was +condemned to be burnt as a heretic. The sentence was immediately carried +out on the 30th of May 1416, and he met his death with fortitude. As +Poggio Bracciolini writes, "none of the Stoics with so constant and +brave a soul endured death, which he (Jerome) seemed rather to long +for." The eloquence of the Italian humanist has bestowed a not entirely +merited aureole on the memory of Jerome of Prague. + + See all works dealing with Hus; and indeed all histories of Bohemia + contain detailed accounts of the career of Jerome. _The Lives of John + Wicliffe, Lord Cobham, John Huss, Jerome of Prague and Zizka_ by + William Gilpin (London, 1765) still has a certain value. (L.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The statement that Jerome's family name was Faulfiss, is founded + on a misunderstood passage of Aeneas Sylvius, _Historica Bohemica_. + Aeneas Sylvius names as one of the early Bohemian reformers a man + "_genere nobilis, ex domo quam Putridi Piscis vacant_." This was + erroneously believed to refer to Jerome. + + + + +JERROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM (1803-1857), English dramatist and man of +letters, was born in London on the 3rd of January 1803. His father, +Samuel Jerrold, actor, was at that time lessee of the little theatre of +Wilsby near Cranbrook in Kent, but in 1807 he removed to Sheerness. +There, among the bluejackets who swarmed in the port during the war with +France, Douglas grew into boyhood. He occasionally took a child's part +on the stage, but his father's profession had little attraction for the +boy. In December 1813 he joined the guardship "Namur," where he had Jane +Austen's brother as captain, and he served as a midshipman until the +peace of 1815. He saw nothing of the war save a number of wounded +soldiers from Waterloo; but till his dying day there lingered traces of +his early passion for the sea. The peace of 1815 ruined Samuel Jerrold; +there was no more prize money. On the 1st of January 1816 he removed +with his family to London, where the ex-midshipman began the world again +as a printer's apprentice, and in 1819 became a compositor in the +printing-office of the _Sunday Monitor_. Several short papers and copies +of verses by him had already appeared in the sixpenny magazines, and +one evening he dropped into the editor's box a criticism of the opera +_Der Freischütz_. Next morning he received his own copy to set up, +together with a flattering note from the editor, requesting further +contributions from the anonymous author. Thenceforward Jerrold was +engaged in journalism. In 1821 a comedy that he had composed in his +fifteenth year was brought out at Sadler's Wells theatre, under the +title _More Frightened than Hurt_. Other pieces followed, and in 1825 he +was engaged for a few pounds weekly to produce dramas and farces to the +order of Davidge of the Coburg theatre. In the autumn of 1824 the +"little Shakespeare in a camlet cloak," as he was called, married Mary +Swann; and, while he was engaged with the drama at night, he was +steadily pushing his way as a journalist. For a short while he was part +proprietor of a small Sunday newspaper. In 1829, through a quarrel with +the exacting Davidge, Jerrold left the Coburg; and his three-act +melodrama, _Black-eyed Susan; or, All in the Downs_, was brought out by +R. W. Elliston at the Surrey theatre. The success of the piece was +enormous. With its free gallant sea-flavour, it took the town by storm, +and "all London went over the water to see it." Elliston made a fortune +by the piece; T. P. Cooke, who played William, made his reputation; +Jerrold received about £60 and was engaged as dramatic author at five +pounds a week. But his fame as a dramatist was achieved. In 1830 it was +proposed that he should adapt something from the French for Drury Lane. +"No," was his reply, "I shall come into this theatre as an original +dramatist or not at all." _The Bride of Ludgate_ (December 8, 1831) was +the first of a number of his plays produced at Drury Lane. The other +patent houses threw their doors open to him also (the Adelphi had +already done so); and in 1836 Jerrold became co-manager of the Strand +theatre with W. J. Hammond, his brother-in-law. The venture was not +successful, and the partnership was dissolved. While it lasted Jerrold +wrote his only tragedy, _The Painter of Ghent_, and himself appeared in +the title-rôle, without any very marked success. He continued to write +sparkling comedies till 1854, the date of his last piece, _The Heart of +Gold_. + +Meanwhile he had won his way to the pages of numerous +periodicals--before 1830 of the second-rate magazines only, but after +that to those of more importance. He was a contributor to the _Monthly +Magazine, Blackwood's,_ the _New Monthly_, and the _Athenaeum_. To +_Punch_, the publication which of all others is associated with his +name, he contributed from its second number in 1841 till within a few +days of his death. He founded and edited for some time, though with +indifferent success, the _Illuminated Magazine, Jerrold's Shilling +Magazine_, and _Douglas Jerrold's Weekly Newspaper;_ and under his +editorship _Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper_ rose from almost nonentity to a +circulation of 182,000. The history of his later years is little more +than a catalogue of his literary productions, interrupted now and again +by brief visits to the Continent or to the country. Douglas Jerrold died +at his house, Kilburn Priory, in London, on the 8th of June 1857. + +Jerrold's figure was small and spare, and in later years bowed almost to +deformity. His features were strongly marked and expressive from the +thin humorous lips to the keen blue eyes gleaming from beneath the +shaggy eyebrows. He was brisk and active, with the careless bluffness of +a sailor. Open and sincere, he concealed neither his anger nor his +pleasure; to his simple frankness all polite duplicity was distasteful. +The cynical side of his nature he kept for his writings; in private life +his hand was always open. In politics Jerrold was a Liberal, and he gave +eager sympathy to Kossuth, Mazzini and Louis Blanc. In social politics +especially he took an eager part; he never tired of declaiming against +the horrors of war, the luxury of bishops, and the iniquity of capital +punishment. + +Douglas Jerrold is now perhaps better known from his reputation as a +brilliant wit in conversation than from his writings. As a dramatist he +was very popular, though his plays have not kept the stage. He dealt +with rather humbler forms of social life than had commonly been +represented on the boards. He was one of the first and certainly one of +the most successful of those who in defence of the native English drama +endeavoured to stem the tide of translation from the French, which +threatened early in the 19th century altogether to drown original native +talent. His skill in construction and his mastery of epigram and +brilliant dialogue are well exemplified in his comedy, _Time Works +Wonders_ (Haymarket, April 26, 1845). The tales and sketches which form +the bulk of Jerrold's collected works vary much in skill and interest; +but, although there are evident traces of their having been composed +from week to week, they are always marked by keen satirical observation +and pungent wit. + + Among the best known of his numerous works are: _Men of Character_ + (1838), including "Job Pippin: The man who couldn't help it," and + other sketches of the same kind; _Cakes and Ale_ (2 vols., 1842), a + collection of short papers and whimsical stories; some more serious + novels--_The Story of a Feather_ (1844), _The Chronicles of + Clovernook_ (1846), _A Man made of Money_ (1849); and _St Giles and St + James_ (1851); and various series of papers reprinted from + _Punch--Punch's Letters to his Son_ (1843), _Punch's Complete + Letter-writer_ (1845), and the famous _Mrs Caudle's Curtain Lectures_ + (1846). + + See W. B. Jerrold, _Life and Remains of Douglas Jerrold_ (1859). A + collected edition of his writings appeared in 1851-1854, and _The + Works of Douglas Jerrold_, with a memoir by his son, W. B. Jerrold, in + 1863-1864; but neither is complete. Among the numerous selections from + his tales and witticisms are two edited by his grandson, Walter + Jerrold, _Bons Mots of Charles Dickens and Douglas Jerrold_ (new ed. + 1904), and _The Essays of Douglas Jerrold_ (1903), illustrated by H. + M. Brock. See also _The Wit and Opinions of Douglas Jerrold_ (1858), + edited by W. B. Jerrold. + +His eldest son, WILLIAM BLANCHARD JERROLD (1826-1884), English +journalist and author, was born in London on the 23rd of December 1826, +and abandoning the artistic career for which he was educated, began +newspaper work at an early age there. He was appointed Crystal Palace +commissioner to Sweden in 1853, and wrote _A Brage-Beaker with the +Swedes_ (1854) on his return. In 1855 he was sent to the Paris +exhibition as correspondent for several London papers, and from that +time he lived much in Paris. In 1857 he succeeded his father as editor +of _Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper_, a post which he held for twenty-six +years. During the Civil War in America he strongly supported the North, +and several of his leading articles were reprinted and placarded in New +York by the federal government. He was the founder and president of the +English branch of the international literary association for the +assimilation of copyright laws. Four of his plays were successfully +produced on the London stage, the popular farce _Cool as a Cucumber_ +(Lyceum 1851) being the best known. His French experiences resulted in a +number of books, most important of which is his _Life of Napoleon III_. +(1874). He was occupied in writing the biography of Gustave Doré, who +had illustrated several of his books, when he died on the 10th of March +1884. + + Among his books are _A Story of Social Distinction_ (1848), _Life and + Remains of Douglas Jerrold_ (1859), _Up and Down in the World_ (1863), + _The Children of Lutetia_ (1864), _Cent per Cent_ (1871), _At Home in + Paris_ (1871), _The Best of all Good Company_ (1871-1873), and _The + Life of George Cruikshank_ (1882). + + + + +JERRY, a short form of the name Jeremiah, applied to various common +objects, and more particularly to a machine for finishing cloth. The +expression "jerry-built" is applied to houses built badly and of +inferior materials, and run up by a speculative builder. There seems to +be no foundation for the assertion that this expression was occasioned +by the work of a firm of Liverpool builders named Jerry. + + + + +JERSEY, EARLS OF. Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1656-1711), son of Sir Edward +Villiers (1620-1689), of Richmond, Surrey, was created Baron Villiers +and Viscount Villiers in 1691 and earl of Jersey in 1697. His +grandfather, Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1585-1626), master of the mint and +president of Munster, was half-brother of George Villiers, 1st duke of +Buckingham, and of Christopher Villiers, 1st earl of Anglesey; his +sister was Elizabeth Villiers, the mistress of William III., and +afterwards countess of Orkney. Villiers was knight-marshal of the royal +household in succession to his father; master of the horse to Queen +Mary; and lord chamberlain to William III. and Queen Anne. In 1696 he +represented his country at the congress of Ryswick; he was ambassador +at the Hague, and after becoming an earl was ambassador in Paris. In +1699 he was made secretary of state for the southern department, and on +three occasions he was one of the lords justices of England. In 1704 he +was dismissed from office by Anne, and after this event he was concerned +in some of the Jacobite schemes. He died on the 25th of August 1711. The +2nd earl was his son William (c. 1682-1721), an adherent of the exiled +house of Stuart, and the 3rd earl was the latter's son William (d. +1769), who succeeded his kinsman John Fitzgerald (c. 1692-1766) as 6th +Viscount Grandison. The 3rd earl's son, George Bussy, the 4th earl +(1735-1805), held several positions at the court of George III., and on +account of his courtly manners was called the "prince of Maccaronies." +The 4th earl's son, George, 5th earl of Jersey (1773-1859), one of the +most celebrated fox-hunters of his time and a successful owner of +racehorses, married Sarah Sophia (1785-1867), daughter of John Fane, +10th earl of Westmorland, and granddaughter of Robert Child, the banker. +She inherited her grandfather's great wealth, including his interest in +Child's bank, and with her husband took the name of Child-Villiers. +Since this time the connexions of the earls of Jersey with Child's bank +has been maintained. Victor Albert George Child-Villiers (b. 1845) +succeeded his father George Augustus (1808-1859), 6th earl, who had only +held the title for three weeks, as 7th earl of Jersey in 1859. This +nobleman was governor of New South Wales from 1890 to 1893. + + + + +JERSEY, the largest of the Channel Islands, belonging to Great Britain. +Its chief town, St Helier, on the south coast of the island, is in 49° +12´ N., 2° 7´ W., 105 m. S. by E. of Portland Bill on the English coast, +and 24 m. from the French coast to the east. Jersey is the southernmost +of the more important islands of the group. It is of oblong form with a +length of 10 m. from east to west and an extreme breadth of 6¼ m. The +area is 28,717 acres, or 45 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 52,576. + +The island reaches its greatest elevation (nearly 500 ft.) in the north, +the land rising sharply from the north coast, and displaying bold and +picturesque cliffs towards the sea. The east, south and west coasts +consist of a succession of large open bays, shallow and rocky, with +marshy or sandy shores separated by rocky headlands. The principal bays +are Grève au Lançons, Grève de Lecq, St John's and Bouley Bays on the +north coast; St Catherine's and Grouville Bays on the east; St +Clement's, St Aubin's and St Brelade's Bays on the south; and St Ouen's +Bay, the wide sweep of which occupies nearly the whole of the west +coast. The sea in many places has encroached greatly on the land, and +sand drifts have been found troublesome, especially on the west coast. +The surface of the country is broken by winding valleys having a general +direction from north to south, and as they approach the south uniting so +as to form small plains. The lofty hedges which bound the small +enclosures into which Jersey is divided, the trees and shrubberies which +line the roads and cluster round the uplands and in almost every nook of +the valleys unutilized for pasturage or tillage, give the island a +luxuriant appearance, neutralizing the bare effect of the few sandy +plains and sand-covered hills. Fruits and flowers indigenous to warm +climates grow freely in the open air. The land, under careful +cultivation, is rich and productive, the soil being generally a deep +loam, especially in the valleys, but in the west shallow, light and +sandy. The subsoil is usually gravel, but in some parts an unfertile +clay. Some two-thirds of the total area is under cultivation, great +numbers of cattle being pastured, and much market gardening practised. +The potato crop is very large. The peasants take advantage of every bit +of wall and every isolated nook of ground for growing fruit trees. +Grapes are ripened under glass; oranges can be grown in sheltered +situations, but the most common fruits are apples, which are used for +cider, and pears. A manure of burnt sea-weed (vraic) is generally used. +The pasturage is very rich, and is much improved by the application of +this manure to the surface. The breed of cattle is kept pure by +stringent laws against the importation of foreign animals. The milk is +used almost exclusively to manufacture butter. The cattle are always +housed in winter, but remain out at night from May till October. There +was formerly a small black breed of horses peculiar to the island, but +horses are now chiefly imported from France or England. Pigs are kept +principally for local consumption, and only a few sheep are reared. Fish +are not so plentiful as round the shores of Guernsey, but mackerel, +turbot, cod, mullet and especially the conger eel are abundant at the +Minquiers. There is a large oyster bed between Jersey and France, but +partly on account of over-dredging the supply is not so abundant as +formerly. There is a great variety of other shell fish. The fisheries, +ship-building and boat-building employ many of the inhabitants. Kelp and +iodine are manufactured from sea-weed. The principal exports are +granite, fruit and vegetables (especially potatoes), butter and cattle; +and the chief imports coal and articles of human consumption. +Communications with England are maintained principally from Southampton +and Weymouth, and there are regular steamship services from Granville +and St Malo on the French coast. The Jersey railway runs west from St +Helier round St Aubin's Bay to St Aubin, and continues to Corbière at +the south-western extremity of the island; and the Jersey eastern +railway follows the southern and eastern coasts to Gorey. The island is +intersected with a network of good roads. + +Jersey is under a distinct and in several respects different form of +administrative government from Guernsey and the smaller islands included +in the bailiwick of Guernsey. For its peculiar constitution, system of +justice, ecclesiastical arrangements and finance, see CHANNEL ISLANDS. +There are twelve parishes, namely St Helier, Grouville, St Brelade, St +Clement, St John, St Laurence, St Martin, St Mary, St Ouen, St Peter, St +Saviour and Trinity. The population of the island nearly doubled between +1821 and 1901, but decreased from 54,518 to 52,576 between 1891 and +1901. + +The history of Jersey is treated under CHANNEL ISLANDS. Among objects of +antiquarian interest, a cromlech near Mont Orgueil is the finest of +several examples. St Brelade's church, probably the oldest in the +island, dates from the 12th century; among the later churches St +Helier's, of the 14th century, may be mentioned. There are also some +very early chapels, considered to date from the 10th century or earlier; +among these may be noted the Chapelle-ès-Pêcheurs at St Brelade's, and +the picturesque chapel in the grounds of the manor of Rozel. The castle +of Mont Orgueil, of which there are considerable remains, is believed to +be founded upon the site of a Roman stronghold, and a "Caesar's fort" +still forms a part of it. + + + + +JERSEY CITY, a city and the county-seat of Hudson county, New Jersey, +U.S.A., on a peninsula between the Hudson and Hackensack rivers at the +N. and between New York and Newark bays at the S., opposite lower +Manhattan Island. Pop. (1890), 163,003; (1900), 206,433, of whom 58,424 +were foreign-born (19,314 Irish, 17,375 German, 4642 English, 3832 +Italian, 1694 Russian, 1690 Scottish, 1643 Russian Poles, 1445 Austrian) +and 3704 were negroes; (1910 census) 267,779. It is the eastern terminus +of the Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley, the West Shore, the Central of +New Jersey, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Northern of New Jersey (operated +by the Erie), the Erie, the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the New +Jersey & New York (controlled by the Erie) railways, the first three +using the Pennsylvania station; and of the little-used Morris canal. +Jersey City is served by several inter-urban electric railways and by +the tunnels of the Hudson & Manhattan railroad company to Dey St. and to +33rd St. and 6th Ave., New York City, and it also has docks of several +lines of Transatlantic and coast steamers. The city occupies a land area +of 14.3 sq. m. and has a water-front of about 12 m. Bergen Hill, a +southerly extension of the Palisades, extends longitudinally through it +from north to south. At the north end this hill rises on the east side +precipitously to a height of nearly 200 ft.; on the west and south sides +the slope is gradual. On the crest of the hill is the fine Hudson County +Boulevard, about 19 m. long and 100 ft. wide, extending through the city +and county from north to south and passing through West Side Park, a +splendid county park containing lakes and a 70-acre playground. The +water-front, especially on the east side, is given up to manufacturing +and shipping establishments. In the hill section are the better +residences, most of which are wooden and detached. + + The principal buildings are the city hall and the court house. There + are nine small city parks with an aggregate area of 39.1 acres. The + city has a public library containing (1907) 107,600 volumes and an + historical museum. At the corner of Bergen Ave. and Forrest St. is the + People's Palace, given in 1904 by Joseph Milbank to the First + Congregational church and containing a library and reading-room, a + gymnasium, bowling alleys, a billiard-room, a rifle-range, a + roof-garden, and an auditorium and theatre; kindergarten classes are + held and an employment bureau is maintained. Among the educational + institutions are the German American school, Hasbrouck institute, St + Aloysius academy (Roman Catholic) and St Peter's college (Roman + Catholic); and there are good public schools. Grain is shipped to and + from Jersey City in large quantities, and in general the city is an + important shipping port; being included, however, in the port of New + York, no separate statistics are available. There are large + slaughtering establishments, and factories for the refining of sugar + and for the manufacture of tobacco goods, soap and perfumery, lead + pencils, iron and steel, railway cars, chemicals, rubber goods, silk + goods, dressed lumber, and malt liquors. The value of the city's + manufactured products increased from $37,376,322 in 1890 to + $77,225,116 in 1900, or 106.6%; in 1905 the factory product alone was + valued at $75,740,934, an increase of only 3.9% over the factory + product in 1900, this small rate of increase being due very largely to + a decline in the value of the products of the sugar and molasses + refining industry. The value of the wholesale slaughtering and + meat-packing product decreased from $18,551,783 in 1880 and + $11,356,511 in 1890 to $6,243,217 in 1900--of this $5,708,763 + represented wholesale slaughtering alone; in 1905 the wholesale + slaughtering product was valued at $7,568,739. + +In 1908 the assessed valuation of the city was $267,039,754. The city is +governed by a board of aldermen and a mayor (elected biennially), who +appoints most of the officials, the street and water board being the +principal exception. + +Jersey City when first incorporated was a small sandy peninsula (an +island at high tide) known as Paulus Hook, directly opposite the lower +end of Manhattan Island. It had been a part of the Dutch patroonship of +Pavonia granted to Michael Pauw in 1630. In 1633 the first buildings +were erected, and for more than a century the Hook was occupied by a +small agricultural and trading community. In 1764 a new post route +between New York and Philadelphia passed through what is now the city, +and direct ferry communication began with New York. Early in the War of +Independence Paulus Hook was fortified by the Americans, but soon after +the battle of Long Island they abandoned it, and on the 23rd of +September 1776 it was occupied by the British. On the morning of the +19th of August 1779 the British garrison was surprised by Major Henry +Lee ("Light Horse Harry"), who with about 500 men took 159 prisoners and +lost only 2 killed and 3 wounded, one of the most brilliant exploits +during the War of Independence. In 1804 Paulus Hook, containing 117 +acres and having about 15 inhabitants, passed into the possession of +three enterprising New York lawyers, who laid it out as a town and +formed an association for its government, which was incorporated as the +"associates of the Jersey company." In 1820 the town was incorporated as +the City of Jersey, but it remained a part of the township of Bergen +until 1838, when it was reincorporated as a distinct municipality. In +1851 the township of Van Vorst, founded in 1804 between Paulus Hook and +Hoboken, was annexed. In 1870 there were two annexations: to the south, +the town of Bergen, the county-seat, which was founded in 1660; to the +north-west, Hudson City, which had been separated from the township of +North Bergen in 1852 and incorporated as a city in 1855. The town of +Greenville, to the south, was annexed in 1873. + + + + +JERUSALEM (Heb. [Hebrew: Yerushalaïm] _Yerushalaïm_, pronounced as a +dual), the chief city of Palestine. Letters found at Tell el-Amarna in +Egypt, written by an early ruler of Jerusalem, show that the name +existed under the form _Urusalim_, i.e. "City of Salim" or "City of +Peace," many years before the Israelites under Joshua entered Canaan. +The emperor Hadrian, when he rebuilt the city, changed the name to Aelia +Capitolina. The Arabs usually designate Jerusalem by names expressive of +holiness, such as Beit el Makdis and El Mukaddis or briefly El Kuds, +i.e. the Sanctuary. + + _Natural Topography._--Jerusalem is situated in 31° 47´ N. and 35° 15´ + E., in the hill country of southern Palestine, close to the watershed, + at an average altitude of 2500 ft. above the Mediterranean, and 3800 + ft. above the level of the Dead Sea. The city stands on a rocky + plateau, which projects southwards from the main line of hills. On the + east the valley of the Kidron separates this plateau from the ridge of + the Mount of Olives, which is 100 to 200 ft. higher, while the Wadi Er + Rababi bounds Jerusalem on the west and south, meeting the Valley of + Kidron near the lower pool of Siloam. Both valleys fall rapidly as + they approach the point of junction, which lies at a depth of more + than 600 ft. below the general valley of the plateau. The latter, + which covers an area of about 1000 acres, has at the present time a + fairly uniform surface and slopes gradually from the north to the + south and east. Originally, however, its formation was very different, + as it was intersected by a deep valley, called Tyropoeon by Josephus, + which, starting from a point N.W. of the Damascus gate, followed a + course first south-east and then west of south, and joined the two + main valleys of Kidron and Er Rababi at Siloam. Another shorter valley + began near the present Jaffa gate and, taking an easterly direction, + joined the Tyropoeon; while a third ravine passed across what is now + the northern part of the Haram enclosure and fell into the valley of + the Kidron. The exact form of these three interior valleys, which had + an important influence on the construction and history of the city, is + still imperfectly known, as they are to a great extent obliterated by + vast accumulations of rubbish, which has filled them up in some places + to a depth of more than 100 ft. Their approximate form was only + arrived at by excavations made during the later years of the 19th + century. The limited knowledge which we possess of the original + features of the ground within the area of the city makes a + reconstruction of the topographical history of the latter a difficult + task; and, as a natural result, many irreconcilable theories have been + suggested. The difficulty is increased by the fact that the + geographical descriptions given in the Old Testament the Apocrypha and + the writings of Josephus are very short, and, having been written for + those who were acquainted with the places, convey insufficient + information to historians of the present day, when the sites are so + greatly altered. All that can be done is to form a continuous account + in accord with the ancient histories, and with the original formation + of the ground, so far as this has been identified by modern + exploration. But the progress of exploration and excavation may render + this subject to further modification. + + The geological formation of the plateau consists of thin beds of hard + silicious chalk, locally called _misse_, which overlie a thick bed of + soft white limestone, known by the name of _meleke_. Both descriptions + of rock yielded good material for building; while in the soft _meleke_ + tanks, underground chambers, tombs, &c., were easily excavated. In + ancient times a brook flowed down the valley of the Kidron, and it is + possible that a stream flowed also through the Tyropoeon valley. The + only known spring existing at present within the limits of the city is + the "fountain of the Virgin," on the western side of the Kidron + valley, but there may have been others which are now concealed by the + accumulations of rubbish. Cisterns were also used for the storage of + rain water, and aqueducts, of which the remains still exist (see + AQUEDUCTS _ad init._), were constructed for the conveyance of water + from a distance. Speaking generally, it is probable that the water + supply of Jerusalem in ancient times was better than it is at present. + +_History._--The early history of Jerusalem is very obscure. The Tell +el-Amarna letters show that, long before the invasion by Joshua, it was +occupied by the Egyptians, and was probably a stronghold of considerable +importance, as it formed a good strategical position in the hill country +of southern Palestine. We do not know how the Egyptians were forced to +abandon Jerusalem; but, at the time of the Israelite conquest, it was +undoubtedly in the hands of the Jebusites, the native inhabitants of the +country. The exact position of the Jebusite city is unknown; some +authorities locate it on the western hill, now known as Zion; some on +the eastern hill, afterwards occupied by the Temple and the city of +David; while others consider it was a double settlement, one part being +on the western, and the other on the eastern hill, separated from one +another by the Tyropoeon valley. The latter view appears to be the most +probable, as, according to the Biblical accounts, Jerusalem was partly +in Judah and partly in Benjamin, the line of demarcation between the two +tribes passing through the city. According to this theory, the part of +Jerusalem known as Jebus was situated on the western hill, and the +outlying fort of Zion on the eastern hill. The men of Judah and Benjamin +did not succeed in getting full possession of the place, and the +Jebusites still held it when David became king of Israel. Some years +after his accession David succeeded after some difficulty in taking +Jerusalem. He established his royal city on the eastern hill close to +the site of the Jebusite Zion, while Jebus, the town on the western side +of the Tyropoeon valley, became the civil city, of which Joab, David's +leading general, was appointed governor. David surrounded the royal city +with a wall and built a citadel, probably on the site of the Jebusite +fort of Zion, while Joab fortified the western town. North of the city +of David, the king, acting under divine guidance, chose a site for the +Temple of Jehovah, which was erected with great magnificence by Solomon. +The actual site occupied by this building has given rise to much +controversy, though all authorities are agreed that it must have stood +on some part of the area now known as the Haram. James Fergusson was of +opinion that the Temple stood near the south-western corner. As, +however, it was proved by the explorations of Sir Charles Warren in +1869-1870 that the Tyropoeon valley passed under this corner, and that +the foundations must have been of enormous depth, Fergusson's theory +must be regarded as untenable (see also SEPULCHRE, HOLY). On the whole +it is most likely that the Temple was erected by Solomon on the same +spot as is now occupied by the Dome of the Rock, commonly known as the +Mosque of Omar, and, regard being had to the levels of the ground, it is +possible that the Holy of Holies, the most sacred chamber of the Temple, +stood over the rock which is still regarded with veneration by the +Mahommedans. Solomon greatly strengthened the fortifications of +Jerusalem, and was probably the builder of the line of defence, called +by Josephus the first or old wall, which united the cities on the +eastern and western hills. The kingdom reached its highest point of +importance during the reign of Solomon, but, shortly after his death, it +was broken up by the rebellion of Jeroboam, who founded the separate +kingdom of Israel with its capital at Shechem. Two tribes only, Judah +and Benjamin, with the descendants of Levi, remained faithful to +Rehoboam, the son of Solomon. Jerusalem thus lost much of its +importance, especially after it was forced to surrender to Shishak, king +of Egypt, who carried off a great part of the riches which had been +accumulated by Solomon. The history of Jerusalem during the succeeding +three centuries consists for the most part of a succession of wars +against the kingdom of Israel, the Moabites and the Syrians. Joash, king +of Israel, captured the city from Amaziah, king of Judah, and destroyed +part of the fortifications, but these were rebuilt by Uzziah, the son of +Amaziah, who did much to restore the city to its original prosperity. In +the reign of Hezekiah, the kingdom of Judah became tributary to the +Assyrians, who attempted the capture of Jerusalem. Hezekiah improved the +defences and arranged for a good water supply, preparatory to the siege +by Sennacherib, the Assyrian general. The siege failed and the Assyrians +retired. Some years later Syria was again invaded by the Egyptians, who +reduced Judah to the position of a tributary state. In the reign of +Zedekiah, the last of the line of kings, Jerusalem was captured by +Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, who pillaged the city, destroyed the +Temple, and ruined the fortifications (see JEWS, § 17). A number of the +principal inhabitants were carried captive to Babylon, and Jerusalem was +reduced to the position of an insignificant town. Nebuchadrezzar placed +in the city a garrison which appears to have been quartered on the +western hill, while the eastern hill on which were the Temple and the +city of David was left more or less desolate. We have no information +regarding Jerusalem during the period of the captivity, but fortunately +Nehemiah, who was permitted to return and rebuild the defences about 445 +B.C., has given a fairly clear description of the line of the wall which +enables us to obtain a good idea of the extent of the city at this +period. The Temple had already been partially rebuilt by Zedekiah and +his companions, but on a scale far inferior to the magnificent building +of King Solomon, and Nehemiah devoted his attention to the +reconstruction of the walls. Before beginning the work, he made a +preliminary reconnaissance of the fortifications on the south of the +town from the Valley Gate, which was near the S.E. corner, to the pool +of Siloam and valley of the Kidron. He then allotted the reconstruction +of wall and gates to different parties of workmen, and his narrative +describes the portion of wall upon which each of these was employed.[1] + + It is clear from his account that the lines of fortifications included + both the eastern and western hills. North of the Temple enclosure + there was a gate, known as the Sheep Gate, which must have opened into + the third valley mentioned above, and stood somewhere near what is now + the north side of the Haram enclosure, but considerably south of the + present north wall of the latter. To the west of the Sheep Gate there + were two important towers in the wall, called respectively Meah and + Hananeel. The tower Hananeel is specially worthy of notice as it stood + N.W. of the Temple and probably formed the basis of the citadel built + by Simon Maccabaeus, which again was succeeded by the fortress of + Antonia, constructed by Herod the Great, and one of the most important + positions at the time of the siege by Titus. At or near the tower + Hananeel the wall turned south along the east side of the Tyropoeon + valley, and then again westward, crossing the valley at a point + probably near the remarkable construction known as Wilson's arch. A + gate in the valley, known as the Fish Gate, opened on a road which, + leading from the north, went down the Tyropoeon valley to the southern + part of the city. Westward of this gate the wall followed the south + side of the valley which joined the Tyropoeon from the west as far as + the north-western corner of the city at the site of the present Jaffa + Gate and the so-called tower of David. In this part of the wall there + were apparently two gates facing north, i.e. the Old Gate and the Gate + of Ephraim, 400 cubits from the corner.[2] At the corner stood the + residence of the Babylonian governor, near the site upon which King + Herod afterwards built his magnificent palace. From the corner at the + governor's house, the wall went in a southerly direction and turned + south-east to the Valley Gate, remains of which were discovered by F. + J. Bliss and fully described in his _Excavations in Jerusalem in + 1894-1897_. From the Valley Gate the wall took an easterly course for + a distance of 1000 cubits to the Dung Gate, near which on the east was + the Fountain Gate, not far from the lower pool of Siloam. Here was the + most southerly point of Jerusalem, and the wall turning hence to the + north followed the west side of the valley of the Kidron, enclosing + the city of David and the Temple enclosure, and finally turning west + at some point near the site of the Golden Gate joined the wall, + already described, at the Sheep Gate. Nehemiah mentions a number of + places on the eastern hill, including the tomb of David, the positions + of which cannot with our present knowledge be fixed with any + certainty. + +After the restoration of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah, a +considerable number of Jews returned to the city, but we know +practically nothing of its history for more than a century until, in 332 +B.C., Alexander the Great conquered Syria. The gates of Jerusalem were +opened to him and he left the Jews in peaceful occupation. But his +successors did not act with similar leniency; when the city was captured +by Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, twelve years later, the fortifications +were partially demolished and apparently not again restored until the +period of the high priest Simon II., who repaired the defences and also +the Temple buildings. In 168 B.C. Antiochus Epiphanes captured +Jerusalem, destroyed the walls, and devastated the Temple, reducing the +city to a worse position than it had occupied since the time of the +captivity. He built a citadel called the Acra to dominate the town and +placed in it a strong garrison of Greeks. The position of the Acra is +doubtful, but it appears most probable that it stood on the eastern hill +between the Temple and the city of David, both of which it commanded. +Some writers place it north of the Temple on the site afterwards +occupied by the fortress of Antonia, but such a position is not in +accord with the descriptions either in Josephus or in the books of the +Maccabees, which are quite consistent with each other. Other writers +again have placed the Acra on the eastern side of the hill upon which +the church of the Holy Sepulchre now stands, but as this point was +probably quite outside the city at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, and +is at too great a distance from the Temple, it can hardly be accepted. +But the site which has been already indicated at the N.E. corner of the +present Mosque el Aksa meets the accounts of the ancient authorities +better than any other. At this point in the Haram enclosure there is an +enormous underground cistern, known as the Great Sea, and this may +possibly have been the source of water supply for the Greek garrison. +The oppression of Antiochus led to a revolt of the Jews under the +leadership of the Maccabees, and Judas Maccabaeus succeeded in capturing +Jerusalem after severe fighting, but could not get possession of the +Acra, which caused much trouble to the Jews, who erected a wall between +it and the Temple, and another wall to cut it off from the city. The +Greeks held out for a considerable time, but had finally to surrender, +probably from want of food, to Simon Maccabaeus, who demolished the Acra +and cut down the hill upon which it stood so that it might no longer be +higher than the Temple, and that there should be no separation between +the latter and the city. Simon then constructed a new citadel, north of +the Temple, to take the place of the Acra, and established in Judaea the +Asmonean dynasty, which lasted for nearly a century, when the Roman +republic began to make its influence felt in Syria. In 65 B.C. Jerusalem +was captured by Pompey after a difficult siege. The Asmonean dynasty +lasted a few years longer, but finally came to an end when Herod the +Great, with the aid of the Romans, took possession of Jerusalem and +became the first king of the Idumaean dynasty. Herod again raised the +city to the position of an important capital, restoring the +fortifications, and rebuilding the Temple from its foundations. He also +built the great fortress of Antonia, N.W. of the Temple, on the site of +the citadel of the Asmoneans, and constructed a magnificent palace for +himself on the western hill, defended by three great towers, which he +named Mariamne, Hippicus and Phasaelus. At some period between the time +of the Maccabees and of Herod, a second or outer wall had been built +outside and north of the first wall, but it is not possible to fix an +accurate date to this line of defence, as the references to it in +Josephus are obscure. Herod adorned the town with other buildings and +constructed a theatre and gymnasium. He doubled the area of the +enclosure round the Temple, and there can be little doubt that a great +part of the walls of the Haram area date from the time of Herod, while +probably the tower of David, which still exists near the Jaffa Gate, is +on the same foundation as one of the towers adjoining his palace. +Archelaus, Herod's successor, had far less authority than Herod, and the +real power of government at Jerusalem was assumed by the Roman +procurators, in the time of one of whom, Pontius Pilate, Jesus Christ +was condemned to death and crucified outside Jerusalem. The places of +his execution and burial are not certainly known (see SEPULCHRE, HOLY). + +Herod Agrippa, who succeeded to the kingdom, built a third or outer wall +on the north side of Jerusalem in order to enclose and defend the +buildings which had gradually been constructed outside the old +fortifications. The exact line of this third wall is not known with +certainty, but it probably followed approximately the same line as the +existing north wall of Jerusalem. Some writers have considered that it +extended a considerable distance farther to the north, but of this there +is no proof, and no remains have as yet been found which would support +the opinion. The wall of Herod Agrippa was planned on a grand scale, but +its execution was stopped by the Romans, so that it was not completed at +the time of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus. The writings of Josephus +give a good idea of the fortifications and buildings of Jerusalem at the +time of the siege, and his accurate personal knowledge makes his account +worthy of the most careful perusal. He explains clearly how Titus, +beginning his attack from the north, captured the third or outer wall, +then the second wall, and finally the fortress of Antonia, the Temple, +and the upper city. After the capture, Titus ordered the Temple to be +demolished and the fortifications to be levelled, with the exception of +the three great towers at Herod's palace. It is, however, uncertain how +far the order was carried out, and it is probable that the outer walls +of the Temple enclosure were left partially standing and that the +defences on the west and south of the city were not completely levelled. +When Titus and his army withdrew from Jerusalem, the 10th legion was +left as a permanent Roman garrison, and a fortified camp for their +occupation was established on the western hill. We have no account of +the size or position of this camp, but a consideration of the site, and +a comparison with other Roman camps in various parts of Europe, make it +probable that it occupied an area of about 50 acres, extending over what +is now known as the Armenian quarter of the town, and that it was +bounded on the north by the old or first wall, on the west also by the +old wall, on the south by a line of defence somewhat in the same +position as the present south wall where it passes the Zion Gate, and on +the east by an entrenchment running north and south parallel to the +existing thoroughfare known as David Street. For sixty years the Roman +garrison were left in undisturbed occupation, but in 132 the Jews rose +in revolt under the leadership of Bar-Cochebas or Barcochba, and took +possession of Jerusalem. After a severe struggle, the revolt was +suppressed by the Roman general, Julius Severus, and Jerusalem was +recaptured and again destroyed. According to some writers, this +devastation was even more complete than after the siege by Titus. About +130 the emperor Hadrian decided to rebuild Jerusalem, and make it a +Roman colony. The new city was called Aelia Capitolina. The exact size +of the city is not known, but it probably extended as far as the present +north wall of Jerusalem and included the northern part of the western +hill. A temple dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus was erected on the site +of the Temple, and other buildings were constructed, known as the +Theatre, the Demosia, the Tetranymphon, the Dodecapylon and the Codra. +The Jews were forbidden to reside in the city, but Christians were +freely admitted. The history of Jerusalem during the period between the +foundation of the city of Aelia by the emperor Hadrian and the accession +of Constantine the Great in 306 is obscure, but no important change +appears to have been made in the size or fortifications of the city, +which continued as a Roman colony. In 326 Constantine, after his +conversion to Christianity, issued orders to the bishop Macarius to +recover the site of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, and the tomb in +which his body was laid (see SEPULCHRE, HOLY). After the holy sites had +been determined, Constantine gave orders for the construction of two +magnificent churches, the one over the tomb and the other over the place +where the cross was discovered. The present church of the Holy Sepulchre +stands on the site upon which one of the churches of Constantine was +built, but the second church, the Basilica of the Cross, has completely +disappeared. The next important epoch in building construction at +Jerusalem was about 460, when the empress Eudocia visited Palestine and +expended large sums oh the improvement of the city. The walls were +repaired by her orders, and the line of fortifications appears to have +been extended on the south so as to include the pool of Siloam. A church +was built above the pool, probably at the same time, and, after having +completely disappeared for many centuries, it was recovered by F. J. +Bliss when making his exploration of Jerusalem. The empress also erected +a large church in honour of St Stephen north of the Damascus Gate, and +is believed to have been buried therein. The site of this church was +discovered in 1874, and it has since been rebuilt. In the 6th century +the emperor Justinian erected a magnificent basilica at Jerusalem, in +honour of the Virgin Mary, and attached to it two hospitals, one for the +reception of pilgrims and one for the accommodation of the sick poor. +The description given by Procopius does not indicate clearly where this +church was situated. A theory frequently put forward is that it stood +within the Haram area near the Mosque of el Aksa, but it is more +probable that it was on Zion, near the traditional place of the +Coenaculum or last supper, where the Mahommedan building known as the +tomb of David now stands. In 614 Chosroes II., the king of Persia, +captured Jerusalem, devastated many of the buildings, and massacred a +great number of the inhabitants. The churches at the Holy Sepulchre were +much damaged, but were partially restored by the monk Modestus, who +devoted himself with great energy to the work. After a severe struggle +the Persians were defeated by the emperor Heraclius, who entered +Jerusalem in triumph in 629 bringing with him the holy cross, which had +been carried off by Chosroes. At this period the religion of Mahomet was +spreading over the east, and in 637 the caliph Omar marched on +Jerusalem, which capitulated after a siege of four months. Omar behaved +with great moderation, restraining his troops from pillage and leaving +the Christians in possession of their churches. A wooden mosque was +erected near the site of the Temple, which was replaced by the Mosque +of Aksa, built by the amir Abdalmalik (Abd el Malek), who also +constructed the Dome of the Rock, known as the Mosque of Omar, in 688. +The Mahommedans held Jerusalem until 1099, when it was captured by the +crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon, and became the capital of the Latin +Kingdom of Jerusalem (see CRUSADES, vol. viii. p. 401) until 1187, when +Saladin reconquered it, and rebuilt the walls. Since that time, except +from 1229 to 1239, and from 1243 to 1244, the city has been held by the +Mahommedans. It was occupied by the Egyptian sultans until 1517, when +the Turks under Selim I. occupied Syria. Selim's successor, Suleiman the +Magnificent, restored the fortifications, which since that time have +been little altered. + + _Modern Jerusalem._--Jerusalem is the chief town of a sanjak, governed + by a _mutessarif_, who reports directly to the Porte. It has the usual + executive and town councils, upon which the recognized religious + communities, or _millets_, have representatives; and it is garrisoned + by infantry of the V. army corps. The city is connected with its port, + Jaffa, by a carriage road, 41 m., and by a metre-gauge railway, 54 m., + which was completed in 1892, and is worked by a French company. There + are also carriage roads to Bethlehem, Hebron and Jericho, and a road + to Nablus was in course of construction in 1909. Prior to 1858, when + the modern building period commenced, Jerusalem lay wholly within its + 16th-century walls, and even as late as 1875 there were few private + residences beyond their limits. At present Jerusalem without the walls + covers a larger area than that within them. The growth has been + chiefly towards the north and north-west; but there are large suburbs + on the west, and on the south-west near the railway station on the + plain of Rephaim. The village of Siloam has also increased in size, + and the western slopes of Olivet are being covered with churches, + monasteries and houses. Amongst the most marked features of the change + that has taken place since 1875 are the growth of religious and + philanthropic establishments; the settlement of Jewish colonies from + Bokhara, Yemen and Europe; the migration of Europeans, old Moslem + families, and Jews from the city to the suburbs; the increased + vegetation, due to the numerous gardens and improved methods of + cultivation; the substitution of timber and red tiles for the vaulted + stone roofs which were so characteristic of the old city; the striking + want of beauty, grandeur, and harmony with their environment exhibited + by most of the new buildings; and the introduction of wheeled + transport, which, cutting into the soft limestone, has produced mud + and dust to an extent previously unknown. To facilitate communication + between the city and its suburbs, the Bab ez-Zahire, or Herod's Gate, + and a new gate, near the north-west angle of the walls, have been + opened; and a portion of the wall, adjoining the Jaffa Gate, has been + thrown down, to allow free access for carriages. Within the city the + principal streets have been roughly paved, and iron bars placed across + the narrow alleys to prevent the passage of camels. Without the walls + carriage roads have been made to the mount of Olives, the railway + station, and various parts of the suburbs, but they are kept in bad + repair. Little effort has been made to meet the increased sanitary + requirements of the larger population and wider inhabited area. There + is no municipal water-supply, and the main drain of the city + discharges into the lower pool of Siloam, which has become an open + cesspit. In several places the débris within the walls is saturated + with sewage, and the water of the Fountain of the Virgin, and of many + of the old cisterns, is unfit for drinking. Amongst the more important + buildings for ecclesiastical and philanthropic purposes erected to the + north of the city since 1860 are the Russian cathedral, hospice and + hospital; the French hospital of St Louis, and hospice and church of + St Augustine; the German schools, orphanages and hospitals; the new + hospital and industrial school of the London mission to the Jews; the + Abyssinian church; the church and schools of the Church missionary + society; the Anglican church, college and bishop's house; the + Dominican monastery, seminary and church of St Stephen; the Rothschild + hospital and girls' school; and the industrial school and workshops of + the Alliance Israélite. On the mount of Olives are the Russian church, + tower and hospice, near the chapel of the Ascension; the French + Paternoster church; the Carmelite nunnery; and the Russian church of + St Mary Magdalene, near Gethsemane. South of the city are the Armenian + monastery of Mount Zion and Bishop Gobat's school. On the west side + are the institution of the sisters of St Vincent; the Ratisbon school; + the Montefiore hospice; the British ophthalmic hospital of the knights + of St John; the convent and church of the Clarisses; and the Moravian + leper hospital. Within the city walls are the Latin Patriarchal church + and residence; the school of the Frères de la Doctrine Chrétienne; the + schools and printing house of the Franciscans; the Coptic monastery; + the German church of the Redeemer, and hospice; the United Armenian + church of the Spasm; the convent and school of the Soeurs de Zion; the + Austrian hospice; the Turkish school and museum; the monastery and + seminary of the Frères de la Mission Algérienne, with the restored + church of St Anne, the church, schools and hospital of the London + mission to the Jews; the Armenian seminary and Patriarchal buildings; + the Rothschild hospital; and Jewish hospices and synagogues. The + climate is naturally good, but continued neglect of sanitary + precautions has made the city unhealthy. During the summer months the + heat is tempered by a fresh sea-breeze, and there is usually a sharp + fall of temperature at night; but in spring and autumn the east and + south-east winds, which blow across the heated depression of the Ghor, + are enervating and oppressive. A dry season, which lasts from May to + October, is followed by a rainy season, divided into the early winter + and latter rains. Snow falls two years out of three, but soon melts. + The mean annual temperature is 62.8° F., the maximum 112°, and the + minimum 25°. The mean monthly temperature is lowest (47.2°) in + February, and highest (76.3°) in August. The mean annual rainfall + (1861 to 1899) is 26.06 in. The most unhealthy period is from 1st May + to 31st October, when there are, from time to time, outbreaks of + typhoid, small-pox, diphtheria and other epidemics. The unhealthiness + of the city is chiefly due to want of proper drainage, impure + drinking-water, miasma from the disturbed rubbish heaps, and + contaminated dust from the uncleansed roads and streets. The only + industry is the manufacture of olive-wood and mother-of-pearl goods + for sale to pilgrims and for export. The imports (see Joppa) are + chiefly food, clothing and building material. The population in 1905 + was about 60,000 (Moslems 7000, Christians 13,000, Jews 40,000). + During the pilgrimage season it is increased by about 15,000 + travellers and pilgrims. + + AUTHORITIES.--Pal. Exp. Fund Publications--Sir C. Warren, _Jerusalem, + Memoir_ (1884); Clermont-Ganneau, _Archaeol. Researches_ (vol. i., + 1899); Bliss, _Excavns. at Jerusalem_ (1898); Conder, _Latin Kingdom + of Jerusalem_ (1897), and _The City of Jerusalem_ (1909), an + historical survey over 4000 years; Le Strange, _Pal. under the + Moslems_ (1890); Fergusson, _Temples of the Jews_ (1878); Hayter + Lewis, _Holy Places of Jerusalem_(1888); _Churches of Constantine at + Jerusalem_ (1891); Guthe, "Ausgrabungen in Jer.," in _Zeitschrift d. + D. Pal. Vereins_ (vol. v.); Tobler, _Topographie von Jerusalem_ + (Berlin, 1854); Dritte Wanderung (1859); Sepp, _Jerusalem und das + heilige Land_ (1873); Röhricht, _Regesta Regni Hierosolymitani; + Bibliotheca Geographica Palaestinae_ (1890); De Vogüé, _Le Temple de + Jérusalem_ (1864); Sir C. W. Wilson, _Golgotha and the Holy Sepulchre_ + (1906); publications of the Pal. Pilgrims' Text Society and of the + _Société de l'Orient latin_; papers in _Quarterly Statements_ of the + P. E. Fund, the _Zeitschrift d. D. Pal. Vereins_, Clermont-Ganneau's + _Recueil d'archéologie orientale and Études d'arch. orientale_, and + the _Revue Biblique_; Baedeker's _Handbook to Palestine and Syria_ + (1906); Mommert, _Die hl. Grabeskirche zu Jerusalem_ (1898); _Golgotha + und das hl. Grab zu Jerusalem_ (1900); Couret, _La Prise de Jérusm. + par les Perses, 614_. (Orléans, 1896--Plans, Ordnance Survey, revised + ed.; Ordnance Survey revised by Dr Schick in _Z.D.P.V._ xviii., 1895). + (C. W. W.; C. M. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The sites shown on the plan are tentative, and cannot be regarded + as certain; see Nehemiah ii. 12-15, iii. 1-32, xii. 37-39. + + [2] See 2 Kings xiv. 13. + + + + +JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672). By far the most important of the many synods +held at Jerusalem (see Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, 2nd ed., vi. +1357 sqq.) is that of 1672; and its confession is the most vital +statement of faith made in the Greek Church during the past thousand +years. It refutes article by article the confession of Cyril Lucaris, +which appeared in Latin at Geneva in 1629, and in Greek, with the +addition of four "questions," in 1633. Lucaris, who died in 1638 as +patriarch of Constantinople, had corresponded with Western scholars and +had imbibed Calvinistic views. The great opposition which arose during +his lifetime continued after his death, and found classic expression in +the highly venerated confession of Petrus Mogilas, metropolitan of Kiev +(1643). Though this was intended as a barrier against Calvinistic +influences, certain Reformed writers, as well as Roman Catholics, +persisted in claiming the support of the Greek Church for sundry of +their own positions. Against the Calvinists the synod of 1672 therefore +aimed its rejection of unconditional predestination and of justification +by faith alone, also its advocacy of what are substantially the Roman +doctrines of transubstantiation and of purgatory; the Oriental hostility +to Calvinism had been fanned by the Jesuits. Against the Church of Rome, +however, there was directed the affirmation that the Holy Ghost proceeds +from the Father and not from both Father and Son; this rejection of the +_filioque_ was not unwelcome to the Turks. Curiously enough, the synod +refused to believe that the heretical confession it refuted was actually +by a former patriarch of Constantinople; yet the proofs of its +genuineness seem to most scholars overwhelming. In negotiations between +Anglican and Russian churchmen the confession of Dositheus[1] usually +comes to the front. + + TEXTS.--The confession of Dositheus, or the eighteen decrees of the + Synod of Jerusalem, appeared in 1676 at Paris as _Synodus + Bethlehemitica_; a revised text in 1678 as _Synodus Jerosolymitana_; + Hardouin, _Acta conciliorum_, vol. xi.; Kimmel, _Monumenta fidei + ecclesiae orientalis_ (Jena, 1850; critical edition); P. Schaff, _The + Creeds of Christendom_, vol. ii. (text after Hardouin and Kimmel, with + Latin translation); _The Acts and Decrees of the Synod of Jerusalem + translated from the Greek, with notes_, by J. N. W. B. Robertson + (London, 1899); J. Michalcescu, _Die Bekenntnisse und die wichtigsten + Glaubenszeugnisse der griechisch-orientalischen Kirche_ (Leipzig, + 1904; Kimmel's text with introductions). LITERATURE.--_The Doctrine of + the Russian Church ..._ translated by R. W. Blackmore (Aberdeen, + 1845), p. xxv. sqq.; Schaff, i. § 17; Wetzer and Welte, + _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.) vi. 1359 seq.; Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed.), viii. 703-705; Michalcescu, 123 sqq. + (See COUNCILS.) (W. W. R.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Patriarch of Jerusalem (1669-1707), who presided over the synod. + + + + +JESI (anc. _Aesis_), a town and episcopal see of the Marches, Italy, in +the province of Ancona, from which it is 17 m. W. by S. by rail, 318 ft. +above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 23,285. The place took its ancient name +from the river Aesis (mod. Esino), upon the left bank of which it lies. +It still retains its picturesque medieval town walls. The Palazzo del +Comune is a fine, simple, early Renaissance building (1487-1503) by +Francesco di Giorgio Martini; the walls are of brick and the window and +door-frames of stone, with severely restrained ornamentation. The +courtyard with its loggie was built by Andrea Sansovino in 1519. The +library contains some good pictures by Lorenzo Lotto. The castle was +built by Baccio Pontelli (1488), designer of the castle at Ostia +(1483-1486). Jesi was the birthplace of the emperor Frederic II. (1194), +and also of the musical composer, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi +(1710-1736). The river Aesis formed the boundary of Italy proper from +about 250 B.C. to the time of Sulla (c. 82 B.C.); and, in Augustus' +division of Italy, that between Umbria (the 6th region) and Picenum (the +5th). The town itself was a colony, of little importance, except, +apparently, as a recruiting ground for the Roman army. + + + + +JESSE, in the Bible, the father of David (q.v.), and as such often +regarded as the first in the genealogy of Jesus Christ (cf. Isa. xi. 1, +10). Hence the phrase "tree of Jesse" is applied to a design +representing the descent of Jesus from the royal line of David, formerly +a favourite ecclesiastical ornament. From a recumbent figure of Jesse +springs a tree bearing in its branches the chief figures in the line of +descent, and terminating in the figure of Jesus, or of the Virgin and +Child. There are remains of such a tree in the church of St Mary at +Abergavenny, carved in wood, and supposed to have once stood behind the +high altar. Jesse candelabra were also made. At Laon and Amiens there +are sculptured Jesses over the central west doorways of the cathedrals. +The design was chiefly used in windows. The great east window at Wells +and the window at the west end of the nave at Chartres are fine +examples. There is a 16th-century Jesse window from Mechlin in St +George's, Hanover Square, London. The Jesse window in the choir of +Dorchester Abbey, Oxfordshire, is remarkable in that the tree forms the +central mullion, and many of the figures are represented as statuettes +on the branches of the upper tracery; other figures are in the stained +glass; the whole gives a beautiful example of the combination of glass +and carved stonework in one design. + + + + +JESSE, EDWARD (1780-1868), English writer on natural history, was born +on the 14th of January 1780, at Hutton Cranswick, Yorkshire, where his +father was vicar of the parish. He became clerk in a government office +in 1798, and for a time was secretary to Lord Dartmouth, when president +of the Board of Control. In 1812 he was appointed commissioner of +hackney coaches, and later he became deputy surveyor-general of the +royal parks and palaces. On the abolition of this office he retired on a +pension, and he died at Brighton on the 28th of March 1868. + + The result of his interest in the habits and characteristics of + animals was a series of pleasant and popular books on natural history, + the principal of which are _Gleanings in Natural History_ (1832-1835); + _An Angler's Rambles_ (1836); _Anecdotes of Dogs_ (1846); and + _Lectures on Natural History_ (1863). He also edited Izaak Walton's + _Compleat Angler_, Gilbert White's _Selborne_, and L. Ritchie's + _Windsor Castle_, and wrote a number of handbooks to places of + interest, including Windsor and Hampton Court. + + + + +JESSE, JOHN HENEAGE (1815-1874), English historian, son of Edward Jesse, +was educated at Eton, and afterwards became a clerk in the secretary's +department of the admiralty. He died in London on the 7th of July 1874. +His poem on Mary Queen of Scots was published about 1831, and was +followed by a collection of poems entitled _Tales of the Dead_. He also +wrote a drama, _Richard III._, and a fragmentary poem entitled _London_. +None of these ventures achieved any success, but his numerous historical +works are written with vivacity and interest, and, in their own style, +are an important contribution to the history of England. They include +_Memoirs of the Court of England during the Reign of the Stuarts_ +(1840), _Memoirs of the Court of England from the Revolution of 1688 to +the Death of George II._ (1843), _George Selwyn and his Contemporaries_ +(1843, new ed. 1882), _Memoirs of the Pretenders and their Adherents_ +(1845), _Memoirs of Richard the Third and his Contemporaries_ (1861), +and _Memoirs of the Life and Reign of King George the Third_ (1867). The +titles of these works are sufficiently indicative of their character. +They are sketches of the principal personages and of the social details +of various periods in the history of England rather than complete and +comprehensive historical narratives. In addition to these works Jesse +wrote _Literary and Historical Memorials of London_ (1847), _London and +its Celebrities_ (1850), and a new edition of this work as _London: its +Celebrated Characters and Remarkable Places_ (1871). His _Memoirs of +Celebrated Etonians_ appeared in 1875. + + A collected edition containing most of his works in thirty volumes was + published in London in 1901. + + + + +JESSEL, SIR GEORGE (1824-1883), English judge, was born in London on the +13th of February 1824. He was the son of Zadok Aaron Jessel, a Jewish +coral merchant. George Jessel was educated at a school for Jews at Kew, +and being prevented by then existing religious disabilities from +proceeding to Oxford or Cambridge, went to University College, London. +He entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn in 1842, and a year later took +his B.A. degree at the university of London, becoming M.A. and gold +medallist in mathematics and natural philosophy in 1844. In 1846 he +became a fellow of University College, and in 1847 he was called to the +bar at Lincoln's Inn. His earnings during his first three years at the +bar were 52, 346, and 795 guineas, from which it will be seen that his +rise to a tolerably large practice was rapid. His work, however, was +mainly conveyancing, and for long his income remained almost stationary. +By degrees, however, he got more work, and was called within the bar in +1865, becoming a bencher of his Inn in the same year and practising in +the Rolls Court. Jessel entered parliament as Liberal member for Dover +in 1868, and although neither his intellect nor his oratory was of a +class likely to commend itself to his fellow-members, he attracted +Gladstone's attention by two learned speeches on the Bankruptcy Bill +which was before the house in 1869, with the result that in 1871 he was +appointed solicitor-general. His reputation at this time stood high in +the chancery courts; on the common law side he was unknown, and on the +first occasion upon which he came into the court of Queen's bench to +move on behalf of the Crown, there was very nearly a collision between +him and the bench. His forceful and direct method of bringing his +arguments home to the bench was not modified in his subsequent practice +before it. His great powers were fully recognized; his business in +addition to that on behalf of the Crown became very large, and his +income for three years before he was raised to the bench amounted to +nearly £25,000 per annum. In 1873 Jessel succeeded Lord Romilly as +master of the rolls. From 1873 to 1881 Jessel sat as a judge of first +instance in the rolls court, being also a member of the court of appeal. +In November 1874 the first Judicature Act came into effect, and in 1881 +the Judicature Act of that year made the master of the rolls the +ordinary president of the first court of appeal, relieving him of his +duties as a judge of first instance. In the court of appeal Jessel +presided almost to the day of his death. For some time before 1883 he +suffered from diabetes with chronic disorder of the heart and liver, but +struggled against it; on the 16th of March 1883 he sat in court for the +last time, and on the 21st of March he died at his residence in London, +the immediate cause of death being cardiac syncope. + +As a judge of first instance Jessel was a revelation to those accustomed +to the proverbial slowness of the chancery courts and of the master of +the rolls who preceded him. He disposed of the business before him with +rapidity combined with correctness of judgment, and he not only had no +arrears himself, but was frequently able to help other judges to clear +their lists. His knowledge of law and equity was wide and accurate, and +his memory for cases and command of the principles laid down in them +extraordinary. In the rolls court he never reserved a judgment, not even +in the Epping Forest case (_Commissioners of Sewers_ v. _Glasse_, L.R. +19 Eq.; _The Times_, 11th November 1874), in which the evidence and +arguments lasted twenty-two days (150 witnesses being examined in court, +while the documents went back to the days of King John), and in the +court of appeal he did so only twice, and then in deference to the +wishes of his colleagues. The second of these two occasions was the case +of _Robarts_ v. _The Corporation of London_ (49 _Law Times_ 455; _The +Times_, 10th March 1883), and those who may read Jessel's judgment +should remember that, reviewing as it does the law and custom on the +subject, and the records of the city with regard to the appointment of a +remembrancer from the 16th century, together with the facts of the case +before the court, it occupied nearly an hour to deliver, but was +nevertheless delivered without notes--this, too, on the 9th of March +1883, when the judge who uttered it was within a fortnight of his death. +Never during the 19th century was the business of any court performed so +rapidly, punctually, and satisfactorily as it was when Jessel presided. +He was master of the rolls at a momentous period of legal history. The +Judicature Acts, completing the fusion of law and equity, were passed +while he was judge of first instance, and were still new to the courts +when he died. His knowledge and power of assimilating knowledge of all +subjects, his mastery of every branch of law with which he had to +concern himself, as well as of equity, together with his willingness to +give effect to the new system, caused it to be said when he died that +the success of the Judicature Acts would have been impossible without +him. His faults as a judge lay in his disposition to be intolerant of +those who, not able to follow the rapidity of his judgment, endeavoured +to persist in argument after he had made up his mind; but though he was +peremptory with the most eminent counsel, young men had no cause to +complain of his treatment of them. + +Jessel sat on the royal commission for the amendment of the Medical +Acts, taking an active part in the preparation of its report. He +actively interested himself in the management of London University, of +which he was a fellow from 1861, and of which he was elected +vice-chancellor in 1880. He was one of the commissioners of patents, and +trustee of the British Museum. He was also chairman of the committee of +judges which drafted the new rules rendered necessary by the Judicature +Acts. He was treasurer of Lincoln's Inn in 1883, and vice-president of +the council of legal education. He was also a fellow of the Royal +Society. Jessel's career marks an epoch on the bench, owing to the +active part taken by him in rendering the Judicature Acts effective, and +also because he was the last judge capable of sitting in the House of +Commons, a privilege of which he did not avail himself. He was the first +Jew who, as solicitor-general, took a share in the executive government +of his country, the first Jew who was sworn a regular member of the +privy council, and the first Jew who took a seat on the judicial bench +of Great Britain; he was also, for many years after being called to the +bar, so situated that any one might have driven him from it, because, +being a Jew, he was not qualified to be a member of the bar. In person +Jessel was a stoutish, square-built man of middle height, with dark +hair, somewhat heavy features, a fresh ruddy complexion, and a large +mouth. He married in 1856 Amelia, daughter of Joseph Moses, who survived +him together with three daughters and two sons, the elder of whom, +Charles James (b. 1860), was made a baronet shortly after the death of +his distinguished father and in recognition of his services. + + See _The Times_, March 23, 1883; E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_ + (1904). + + + + +JESSORE, a town and district of British India, in the Presidency +division of Bengal. The town is on the Bhairab river, with a railway +station 75 m. N.E. of Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 8054. + +The DISTRICT OF JESSORE has an area of 2925 sq. m. Pop. (1901), +1,813,155, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade. The district forms +the central portion of the delta between the Hugli and the united Ganges +and Brahmaputra. It is a vast alluvial plain intersected by rivers and +watercourses, which in the southern portion spread out into large +marshes. The northern part is verdant, with extensive groves of +date-palms; villages are numerous and large; and the people are +prosperous. In the central portion the population is sparse, the only +part suitable for dwellings being the high land on the banks of rivers. +The principal rivers are the Madhumati or Haringhata (which forms the +eastern boundary of the district), with its tributaries the Nabaganga, +Chitra, and Bhairab; the Kumar, Kabadak, Katki, Harihar, Bhadra and +Atharabanka. Within the last century the rivers in the interior of +Jessore have ceased to be true deltaic rivers; and, whereas the northern +portion of the district formerly lay under water for several months +every year, it is now reached only by unusual inundations. The tide +reaches as far north as the latitude of Jessore town. Jessore is the +centre of sugar manufacture from date palms. The exports are sugar, +rice, pulse, timber, honey, shells, &c.; the imports are salt, English +goods, and cloth. The district is crossed by the Eastern Bengal railway, +but the chief means of communication are waterways. + +British administration was completely established in the district in +1781, when the governor-general ordered the opening of a court at Murali +near Jessore. Before that, however, the fiscal administration had been +in the hands of the English, having been transferred to the East India +company with that of the rest of Bengal in 1765. The changes in +jurisdiction in Jessore have been very numerous. After many transfers +and rectifications, the district was in 1863 finally constituted as it +at present stands. The rajas of Jessore or Chanchra trace their origin +to Bhabeswar Rai, a soldier in the army of Khan-i-Azam, an imperial +general, who deprived Raja Pratapaditya, the popular hero of the +Sundarbans, of several fiscal divisions, and conferred them on +Bhabeswar. But Manohar Rai (1649-1705) is regarded as the principal +founder of the family. The estate when he inherited it was of moderate +size, but he acquired one _pargana_ after another, until, at his death, +the property was by far the largest in the neighbourhood. + + + + +JESTER, a provider of "jests" or amusements, a buffoon, especially a +professional fool at a royal court or in a nobleman's household (see +FOOL). The word "jest," from which "jester" is formed, is used from the +16th century for the earlier "gest," Lat. _gesta_, or _res gestae_, +things done, from _gerere_, to do, hence deeds, exploits, especially as +told in history, and so used of the metrical and prose romances and +chronicles of the middle ages. The word became applied to satirical +writings and to any long-winded empty tale, and thence to a joke or +piece of fun, the current meaning of the word. + + + + +JESUATI, a religious order founded by Giovanni Colombini of Siena in +1360. Colombini had been a prosperous merchant and a senator in his +native city, but, coming under ecstatic religious influences, abandoned +secular affairs and his wife and daughter (after making provision for +them), and with a friend of like temperament, Francesco Miani, gave +himself to a life of apostolic poverty, penitential discipline, hospital +service and public preaching. The name Jesuati was given to Colombini +and his disciples from the habit of calling loudly on the name of Jesus +at the beginning and end of their ecstatic sermons. The senate banished +Colombini from Siena for imparting foolish ideas to the young men of the +city, and he continued his mission in Arezzo and other places, only to +be honourably recalled home on the outbreak of a devastating pestilence. +He went out to meet Urban V. on his return from Avignon to Rome in 1367, +and craved his sanction for the new order and a distinctive habit. +Before this was granted Colombini had to clear the movement of a +suspicion that it was connected with the heretical sect of Fraticelli, +and he died on the 31st of July 1367, soon after the papal approval had +been given. The guidance of the new order, whose members (all lay +brothers) gave themselves entirely to works of mercy, devolved upon +Miani. Their rule of life, originally a compound of Benedictine and +Franciscan elements, was later modified on Augustinian lines, but traces +of the early penitential idea persisted, e.g. the wearing of sandals and +a daily flagellation. Paul V. in 1606 arranged for a small proportion of +clerical members, and later in the 17th century the Jesuati became so +secularized that the members were known as the Aquavitae Fathers, and +the order was dissolved by Clement IX. in 1668. The female branch of the +order, the Jesuati sisters, founded by Caterina Colombini (d. 1387) in +Siena, and thence widely dispersed, more consistently maintained the +primitive strictness of the society and survived the male branch by 200 +years, existing until 1872 in small communities in Italy. + + + + +JESUITS, the name generally given to the members of the Society of +Jesus, a religious order in the Roman Catholic Church, founded in 1539. +This Society may be defined, in its original conception and well-avowed +object, as a body of highly trained religious men of various degrees, +bound by the three personal vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, +together with, in some cases, a special vow to the pope's service, with +the object of labouring for the spiritual good of themselves and their +neighbours. They are declared to be mendicants and enjoy all the +privileges of the other mendicant orders. They are governed and live by +constitutions and rules, mostly drawn up by their founder, St Ignatius +of Loyola, and approved by the popes. Their proper title is "Clerks +Regulars of the Society of Jesus," the word _Societas_ being taken as +synonymous with the original Spanish term, _Compañia_; perhaps the +military term _Cohors_ might more fully have expressed the original idea +of a band of spiritual soldiers living under martial law and discipline. +The ordinary term "Jesuit" was given to the Society by its avowed +opponents; it is first found in the writings of Calvin and in the +registers of the Parlement of Paris as early as 1552. + +_Constitution and Character._--The formation of the Society was a +masterpiece of genius on the part of a man (see LOYOLA) who was quick to +realize the necessity of the moment. Just before Ignatius was +experiencing the call to conversion, Luther had begun his revolt against +the Roman Church by burning the papal bull of excommunication on the +10th of December 1520. But while Luther's most formidable opponent was +thus being prepared in Spain, the actual formation of the Society was +not to take place for eighteen years. Its conception seems to have +developed very slowly in the mind of Ignatius. It introduced a new idea +into the Church. Hitherto all regulars made a point of the choral office +in choir. But as Ignatius conceived the Church to be in a state of war, +what was desirable in days of peace ceased when the life of the cloister +had to be exchanged for the discipline of the camp; so in the sketch of +the new society which he laid before Paul III., Ignatius laid down the +principle that the obligation of the breviary should be fulfilled +privately and separately and not in choir. The other orders, too, were +bound by the idea of a constitutional monarchy based on the democratic +spirit. Not so with the Society. The founder placed the general for life +in an almost uncontrolled position of authority, giving him the faculty +of dispensing individuals from the decrees of the highest legislative +body, the general congregations. Thus the principle of military +obedience was exalted to a degree higher than that existing in the older +orders, which preserved to their members certain constitutional rights. + + The soldier-mind of Ignatius can be seen throughout the constitutions. + Even in the spiritual labours which the Society shares with the other + orders, its own ways of dealing with persons and things result from + the system of training which succeeds in forming men to a type that is + considered desirable. But it must not be thought that in practice the + rule of the Society and the high degree of obedience demanded result + in mere mechanism. By a system of check and counter check devised in + the constitutions the power of local superiors is modified, so that in + practice the working is smooth. Ignatius knew that while a high ideal + was necessary for every society, his followers were flesh and blood, + not machines. He made it clear from the first that the Society was + everything and the individual nothing, except so far as he might prove + a useful instrument for carrying out the Society's objects. Ignatius + said to his secretary Polanco that "in those who offered themselves + he looked less to purely natural goodness than to firmness of + character and ability for business, for he was of opinion that those + who were not fit for public business were not adapted for filling + offices in the Society." He further declared that even exceptional + qualities and endowments in a candidate were valuable in his eyes only + on the condition of their being brought into play, or held in + abeyance, strictly at the command of a superior. Hence his teaching on + obedience. His letter on this subject, addressed to the Jesuits of + Coimbra in 1553, is still one of the standard formularies of the + Society, ranking with those other products of his pen, the _Spiritual + Exercises_ and the _Constitutions_. In this letter Ignatius clothes + the general with the powers of a commander-in-chief in time of war, + giving him the absolute disposal of all members of the Society in + every place and for every purpose. He pushes the claim even further, + requiring, besides entire outward submission to command, also the + complete identification of the inferior's will with that of the + superior. He lays down that the superior is to be obeyed simply as + such and as standing in the place of God, without reference to his + personal wisdom, piety or discretion; that any obedience which falls + short of making the superior's will one's own, in inward affection as + well as in outward effect, is lax and imperfect; that going beyond the + letter of command, even in things abstractly good and praiseworthy, is + disobedience, and that the "sacrifice of the intellect" is the third + and highest grade of obedience, well pleasing to God, when the + inferior not only wills what the superior wills, but thinks what he + thinks, submitting his judgment, so far as it is possible for the will + to influence and lead the judgment. This _Letter on Obedience_ was + written for the guidance and formation of Ignatius's own followers; it + was an entirely domestic affair. But when it became known beyond the + Society the teaching met with great opposition, especially from + members of other orders whose institutes represented the normal days + of peace rather than those of war. The letter was condemned by the + Inquisitions of Spain and Portugal; and it tasked all the skill and + learning of Bellarmine as its apologist, together with the whole + influence of the Society, to avert what seemed to be a probable + condemnation at Rome. + + The teaching of the _Letter_ must be understood in the living spirit + of the Society. Ignatius himself lays down the rule that an inferior + is bound to make all necessary representations to his superior so as + to guide him in imposing a precept of obedience. When a superior knows + the views of his inferior and still commands, it is because he is + aware of other sides of the question which appear of greater + importance than those that the inferior has brought forward. Ignatius + distinctly excepts the case where obedience in itself would be sinful: + "In all things _except sin_ I ought to do the will of my superior and + not my own." There may be cases where an inferior judges that what is + commanded is sinful. What is to be done? Ignatius says: "When it seems + to me that I am commanded by my superior to do a thing against which + my conscience revolts as sinful and my superior judges otherwise, it + is my duty to yield my doubts to him unless I am otherwise constrained + by evident reasons. ... If submissions do not appease my conscience I + must impart my doubts to two or three persons of discretion and abide + by their decision." From this it is clear that only in _doubtful_ + cases concerning sin should an inferior try to submit his judgment to + that of his superior, who _ex officio_ is held to be not only one who + would not order what is clearly sinful, but also a competent judge who + knows and understands, better than the inferior, the nature and aspect + of the command. As the Jesuit obedience is based on the law of God, it + is clearly impossible that he should be bound to obey in what is + directly opposed to the divine service. A Jesuit lives in obedience + all his life, though the yoke is not galling nor always felt. He can + accept no dignity or office which will make him independent of the + Society; and even if ordered by the pope to accept the cardinalate or + the episcopate, he is still bound, if not to obey, yet to listen to + the advice of those whom the general deputes to counsel him in + important matters. + + The Jesuits had to find their principal work in the world and in + direct and immediate contact with mankind. To seek spiritual + perfection in a retired life of contemplation and prayer did not seem + to Ignatius to be the best way of reforming the evils which had + brought about the revolt from Rome. He withdrew his followers from + this sort of retirement, except as a mere temporary preparation for + later activity; he made habitual intercourse with the world a prime + duty; and to this end he rigidly suppressed all such external + peculiarities of dress or rule as tended to put obstacles in the way + of his followers acting freely as emissaries, agents or missionaries + in the most various places and circumstances. Another change he + introduced even more completely than did the founders of the Friars. + The Jesuit has no home: the whole world is his parish. Mobility and + cosmopolitanism are of the very essence of the Society. As Ignatius + said, the ancient monastic communities were the infantry of the + Church, whose duty was to stand firmly in one place on the + battlefield; the Jesuits were to be her light horse, capable of going + anywhere at a moment's notice, but especially apt and designed for + scouting and skirmishing. To carry out this view, it was one of his + plans to send foreigners as superiors or officers to the Jesuit houses + in each country, requiring of these envoys, however, invariably to use + the language of their new place of residence and to study it both in + speaking and writing till entire mastery of it had been acquired--thus + by degrees making all the parts of his system mutually + interchangeable, and so largely increasing the number of persons + eligible to fill any given post without reference to locality. But + subsequent experience has, in practice, modified this interchange, as + far as local government goes, though the central government of the + Society is always cosmopolitan. + +Next we must consider the machinery by which the Society is constituted +and governed so as to make its spirit a living energy and not a mere +abstract theory. The Society is distributed into six grades: novices, +scholastics, temporal coadjutors (lay brothers), spiritual coadjutors, +professed of the three vows, and professed of the four vows. No one can +become a postulant for admission to the Society until fourteen years +old, unless by special dispensation. The novice is classified according +as his destination is the priesthood or lay brotherhood, while a third +class of "indifferents" receives such as are reserved for further +inquiry before a decision of this kind is made. The novice has first to +undergo a strict retreat, practically in solitary confinement, during +which he receives from a director the _Spiritual Exercises_ and makes a +general confession of his whole life; after which the first novitiate of +two years' duration begins. In this period of trial the real character +of the man is discerned, his weak points are noted and his will is +tested. Prayer and the practices of asceticism, as means to an end, are +the chief occupations of the novice. He may leave or be dismissed at any +time during the two years; but at the end of the period if he is +approved and destined for the priesthood, he is advanced to the grade of +scholastic and takes the following simple vows in the presence of +certain witnesses, but not to any person:-- + + "Almighty Everlasting God, albeit everyway most unworthy in Thy holy + sight, yet relying on Thine infinite kindness and mercy and impelled + by the desire of serving Thee, before the Most Holy Virgin Mary and + all Thy heavenly host, I, N., vow to Thy divine Majesty Poverty, + Chastity and Perpetual Obedience to the Society of Jesus, and promise + that I will enter the same Society to live in it perpetually, + understanding all things according to the Constitutions of the + Society. I humbly pray from Thine immense goodness and clemency, + through the Blood of Jesus Christ, that Thou wilt deign to accept this + sacrifice in the odour of sweetness; and as Thou hast granted me to + desire and to offer this, so wilt Thou bestow abundant grace to fulfil + it." + +The scholastic then follows the ordinary course of an undergraduate at a +university. After passing five years in arts he has, while still keeping +up his own studies, to devote five or six years more to teaching the +junior classes in various Jesuit schools or colleges. About this period +he takes his simple vows in the following terms:-- + + "I, _N._, promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and the + whole heavenly host, and to thee, Reverend Father General of the + Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, and to thy successors (or + to thee, Reverend Father _M._ in place of the General of the Society + of Jesus and his successors holding the place of God), Perpetual + Poverty, Chastity and Obedience; and according to it a peculiar care + in the education of boys, according to the manner expressed in the + Apostolic Letter and Constitutions of the said Society." + +The lay brothers leave out the clause concerning education. The +scholastic does not begin the study of theology until he is twenty-eight +or thirty, and then passes through a four or six years' course. Only +when he is thirty-four or thirty-six can he be ordained a priest and +enter on the grade of a spiritual coadjutor. A lay brother, before he +can become a temporal coadjutor for the discharge of domestic duties, +must pass ten years before he is admitted to vows. Sometimes after +ordination the priest, in the midst of his work, is again called away to +a third year's novitiate, called the tertianship, as a preparation for +his solemn profession of the three vows. His former vows were simple and +the Society was at liberty to dismiss him for any canonical reason. The +formula of the famous Jesuit vow is as follows:-- + + "I, _N._, promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and the + whole heavenly host, and to all standing by; and to thee, Reverend + Father General of the Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, and + to thy successors (or to thee, Reverend Father _M._ in place of the + General of the Society of Jesus and his successors holding the place + of God), Perpetual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience; and according to + it a peculiar care in the education of boys according to the form of + life contained in the Apostolic Letters of the Society of Jesus and in + its Constitutions." + +Immediately after the vows the Jesuit adds the following simple vows: +(1) that he will never act nor consent that the provisions in the +constitutions concerning poverty should be changed; (2) that he will not +directly nor indirectly procure election or promotion for himself to any +prelacy or dignity in the Society; (3) that he will not accept or +consent to his election to any dignity or prelacy outside the Society +unless forced thereunto by obedience; (4) that if he knows of others +doing these things he will denounce them to the superiors; (5) that if +elected to a bishopric he will never refuse to hear such advice as the +general may deign to send him and will follow it if he judges it is +better than his own opinion. The professed is now eligible to certain +offices in the Society, and he may remain as a professed father of the +three vows for the rest of his life. The highest class, who constitute +the real core of the Society, whence all its chief officers are taken, +are the professed of the four vows. This grade can seldom be reached +until the candidate is in his forty-fifth year, which involves a +probation of thirty-one years in the case of those who have entered on +the novitiate at the earliest legal age. The number of these select +members is small in comparison with the whole Society; the exact +proportion varies from time to time, the present tendency being to +increase the number. The vows of this grade are the same as the last +formula, with the addition of the following important clause:-- + + "Moreover I promise the special obedience to the Sovereign Pontiff + concerning missions, as is contained in the same Apostolic Letter and + Constitutions." + +These various members of the Society are distributed in its novitiate +houses, its colleges, its professed houses and its mission residences. +The question has been hotly debated whether, in addition to these six +grades, there be not a seventh answering in some degree to the +tertiaries of the Franciscan and Dominican orders, but secretly +affiliated to the Society and acting as its emissaries in various lay +positions. This class was styled in France "Jesuits of the short robe," +and there is some evidence in support of its actual existence under +Louis XV. The Jesuits themselves deny the existence of any such body, +and are able to adduce the negative disproof that no provision for it is +to be found in their constitutions. On the other hand there are clauses +therein which make the creation of such a class perfectly feasible if +thought expedient. An admitted instance is the case of Francisco Borgia, +who in 1548, while still duke of Gandia, was received into the Society. +What has given colour to the idea is that certain persons have made vows +of obedience to individual Jesuits; as Thomas Worthington, rector of the +Douai seminary, to Father Robert Parsons; Ann Vaux to Fr. Henry Garnet, +who told her that he was not indeed allowed to receive her vows, but +that she might make them if she wished and then receive his direction. +The archaeologist George Oliver of Exeter was, according to Foley's +_Records of the English Province_, the last of the secular priests of +England who vowed obedience to the Society before its suppression. + +The general lives permanently at Rome and holds in his hands the right +to appoint, not only to the office of provincial over each of the head +districts into which the Society is mapped, but to the offices of each +house in particular. There is no standard of electoral right in the +Society except in the election of the general himself. By a minute and +frequent system of official and private reports he is informed of the +doings and progress of every member of the Society and of everything +that concerns it throughout the world. Every Jesuit has not only the +right but the duty in certain cases of communicating, directly and +privately, with his general. While the general thus controls everything, +he himself is not exempt from supervision on the part of the Society. A +consultative council is imposed upon him by the general congregation, +consisting of the assistants of the various nations, a _socius_, or +adviser, to warn him of mistakes, and a confessor. These he cannot +remove nor select; and he is bound, in certain circumstances, to listen +to their advice, although he is not obliged to follow it. Once elected +the general may not refuse the office, nor abdicate, nor accept any +dignity or office outside of the Society; on the other hand, for certain +definite reasons, he may be suspended or even deposed by the authority +of the Society, which can thus preserve itself from destruction. No such +instance has occurred, although steps were once taken in this direction +in the case of a general who had set himself against the current +feeling. + + It is said that the general of the Jesuits is independent of the pope; + and his popular name, "the black pope," has gone to confirm this idea. + But it is based on an entirely wrong conception of the two offices. + The suppression of the Society by Clement XIV. in 1773 was an + object-lesson in the supremacy of the pope. The Society became very + numerous and, from time to time, received extraordinary privileges + from popes, who were warranted by the necessities of the times in + granting them. A great number of influential friends, also, gathered + round the fathers who, naturally, sought in every way to retain what + had been granted. Popes who thought it well to bring about certain + changes, or to withdraw privileges that were found to have passed + their intentions or to interfere unduly with the rights of other + bodies, often met with loyal resistances against their proposed + measures. Resistance up to a certain point is lawful and is not + disobedience, for every society has the right of self-preservation. In + cases where the popes insisted, in spite of the representations of the + Jesuits, their commands were obeyed. Many of the popes were distinctly + unfavourable to the Society, while others were as friendly, and often + what one pope did against them the next pope withdrew. Whatever was + done in times when strong divergence of opinion existed, and whatever + may have been the actions of individuals who, even in so highly + organized a body as the Society of Jesus, cannot always be + successfully controlled by their superiors, yet the ultimate result on + the part of the Society has always been obedience to the pope, who + authorized, protected and privileged them, and on whom they ultimately + depend for their very existence. + +Thus constituted, with a skilful union of strictness and freedom, of +complex organization with a minimum of friction in working, the Society +was admirably devised for its purpose of introducing a new power into +the Church and the world. Its immediate services to the Church were +great. The Society did much, single-handed, to roll back the tide of +Protestant advance when half of Europe, which had not already shaken off +its allegiance to the papacy, was threatening to do so. The honours of +the reaction belong to the Jesuits, and the reactionary spirit has +become their tradition. They had the wisdom to see and to admit, in +their correspondence with their superiors, that the real cause of the +Reformation was the ignorance, neglect and vicious lives of so many +priests. They recognized, as most earnest men did, that the difficulty +was in the higher places, and that these could best be touched by +indirect methods. At a time when primary or even secondary education had +in most places become a mere effete and pedantic adherence to obsolete +methods, they were bold enough to innovate, both in system and material. +Putting fresh spirit and devotion into the work, they not merely taught +and catechized in a new, fresh and attractive manner, besides +establishing free schools of good quality, but provided new school books +for their pupils which were an enormous advance on those they found in +use; so that for nearly three centuries the Jesuits were accounted the +best schoolmasters in Europe, as they were, till their forcible +suppression in 1901, confessedly the best in France. The Jesuit teachers +conciliated the goodwill of their pupils by mingled firmness and +gentleness. Although the method of the _Ratio Studiorum_ has ceased to +be acceptable, yet it played in its time as serious a part in the +intellectual development of Europe as did the method of Frederick the +Great in modern warfare. Bacon succinctly gives his opinion of the +Jesuit teaching in these words: "As for the pedagogical part, the +shortest rule would be, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for nothing +better has been put in practice" (_De Augmentis_, vi. 4). In instruction +they were excellent; but in education, or formation of character, +deficient. Again, when most of the continental clergy had sunk, more or +less, into the moral and intellectual slough which is pictured for us in +the writings of Erasmus and the _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_ (see +HUTTEN, ULRICH VON), the Jesuits won back respect for the clerical +calling by their personal culture and the unimpeachable purity of their +lives. These qualities they have carefully maintained; and probably no +large body of men in the world has been so free from the reproach of +discreditable members or has kept up, on the whole, an equally high +average of intelligence and conduct. As preachers, too, they delivered +the pulpit from the bondage of an effete scholasticism and reached at +once a clearness and simplicity of treatment such as the English pulpit +scarcely begins to exhibit till after the days of Tillotson; while in +literature and theology they count a far larger number of respectable +writers than any other religious society can boast. It is in the mission +field, however, that their achievements have been most remarkable. +Whether toiling among the teeming millions in Hindustan and China, +labouring amongst the Hurons and Iroquois of North America, governing +and civilizing the natives of Brazil and Paraguay in the missions and +"reductions," or ministering, at the hourly risk of his life to his +fellow-Catholics in England under Elizabeth and the Stuarts, the Jesuit +appears alike devoted, indefatigable, cheerful and worthy of hearty +admiration and respect. + +Nevertheless, two startling and indisputable facts meet the student who +pursues the history of the Society. The first is the universal suspicion +and hostility it has incurred--not merely from the Protestants whose +avowed foe it has been, not yet from the enemies of all clericalism and +dogma, but from every Catholic state and nation in the world. Its chief +enemies have been those of the household of the Roman Catholic faith. +The second fact is the ultimate failure which seems to dog all its most +promising schemes and efforts. These two results are to be observed +alike in the provinces of morals and politics. The first cause of the +opposition indeed redounds to the Jesuits' credit, for it was largely +due to their success. Their pulpits rang with a studied eloquence; their +churches, sumptuous and attractive, were crowded; and in the +confessional their advice was eagerly sought in all kinds of +difficulties, for they were the fashionable professors of the art of +direction. Full of enthusiasm and zeal, devoted wholly to their Society, +they were able to bring in numbers of rich and influential persons to +their ranks; for, with a clear understanding of the power of wealth, +they became, of set purpose, the apostles of the rich and influential. +The Jesuits felt that they were the new men, the men of the time; so +with a perfect confidence in themselves they went out to set the Church +to rights. It was no wonder that success, so well worked for and so well +deserved, failed to win the approval or sympathy of those who found +themselves supplanted. Old-fashioned men, to whom the apostles' advice +to "do all to the glory of God" seemed sufficient, mistrusted those who +professed to go beyond all others and adopted as their motto the famous +_Ad majorem Dei gloriam_, "To the greater glory of God." But, besides +this, the _esprit de corps_ which is necessary for every body of men +was, it was held, carried to an excess and made the Jesuits intolerant +of any one or anything if not of "ours." The novelties too which they +introduced into the conception of the religious life, naturally, were +displeasing to the older orders, who felt like old aristocratic families +towards a newly rich or purse-proud upstart. The Society, or rather its +members, were too aggressive and self-assertive to be welcomed; and a +certain characteristic, which soon began to manifest itself in an +impatience of episcopal control, showed that the quality of "Jesuitry," +usually associated with the Society, was singularly lacking in their +dealings with opponents. Their political attitude also alienated many. +Many of the Jesuits could not separate religion from politics. To say +this is only to assert that they were not clearer-minded than most men +of their age. But unfortunately they invariably took the wrong side and +allowed themselves to be made the tools of men who saw farther and more +clearly than they did. They had their share, direct or indirect, in the +embroiling of states, in concocting conspiracies and in kindling wars. +They were also responsible by their theoretical teachings in theological +schools, where cases were considered and treated in the abstract, for +not a few assassinations of the enemies of the cause. Weak minds heard +tyrannicide discussed and defended in the abstract; and it was no +wonder that, when opportunity served, the train that had been heedlessly +laid by speculative professors was fired by rash hands. What professors +like Suarez taught in the calm atmosphere of the lecture hall, what +writers like Mariana upheld and praised, practical men took as +justification for deeds of blood. There is no evidence that any Jesuit +took a direct part in political assassinations; however, indirectly, +they may have been morally responsible. They were playing with edged +tools and often got wounded through their own carelessness. Other +grievances were raised by their perpetual meddling in politics, e.g. +their large share in fanning the flames of political hatred against the +Huguenots under the last two Valois kings; their perpetual plotting +against England in the reign of Elizabeth; their share in the Thirty +Years' War and in the religious miseries of Bohemia; their decisive +influence in causing the revocation of the edict of Nantes and the +expulsion of the Protestants from France; the ruin of the Stuart cause +under James II., and the establishment of the Protestant succession. In +a number of cases where the evidence against them is defective, it is at +least an unfortunate coincidence that there is always direct proof of +some Jesuit having been in communication with the actual agents engaged. +They were the stormy petrels of politics. Yet the Jesuits, as a body, +should not be made responsible for the doings of men who, in their +political intrigues, were going directly against the distinct law of the +Society, which in strict terms, and under heavy penalties, forbade them +to have anything to do with such matters. The politicians were +comparatively few in number, though unfortunately they held high rank; +and their disobedience to the rule besmirched the name of the society +and destroyed the good work of the other Jesuits who were faithfully +carrying out their own proper duties. + +A far graver cause for uneasiness was given by the Jesuits' activity in +the region of doctrine and morals. Here the charges against them are +precise, early, numerous and weighty. Their founder himself was +arrested, more than once, by the Inquisition and required to give +account of his belief and conduct. But St Ignatius, with all his +powerful gifts of intellect, was entirely practical and ethical in his +range, and had no turn whatever for speculation, nor desire to discuss, +much less to question, any of the received dogmas of the Church. He +gives it as a rule of orthodoxy to be ready to say that black is white +if the Church says so. He was therefore acquitted on every occasion, and +applied each time for a formally attested certificate of his orthodoxy, +knowing well that, in default of such documents, the fact of his arrest +as a suspected heretic would be more distinctly recollected by opponents +than that of his honourable dismissal from custody. His followers, +however, have not been so fortunate. On doctrinal questions indeed, +though their teaching on grace, especially in the form given to it by +Molina (q.v.), ran contrary to the accepted teaching on the subject by +the Augustinians, Dominicans and other representative schools; yet by +their pertinacity they gained for their views a recognized and +established position. A special congregation of cardinals and +theologians known as _de auxiliis_ was summoned by the pope to settle +the dispute, for the _odium theologicum_ had risen to a desperate height +between the representatives of the old and the new theology; but after +many years they failed to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion, and the +pope, instead of settling the dispute, was only able to impose mutual +silence on all opponents. Among those who held out stiffly against the +Jesuits on the subject of grace were the Jansenists, who held that they +were following the special teaching of St Augustine, known _par +excellence_ as the doctor of grace. The Jesuits and the Jansenists soon +became deadly enemies; and in the ensuing conflict both parties accused +each other of flinging scruples to the wind. (See JANSENISM.) + +But the accusations against the Jesuit system of moral theology and +their action as guides of conduct have had a more serious effect on +their reputation. It is undeniable that some of their moral writers were +lax in their teaching; and conscience was strained to the snapping +point. The Society was trying to make itself all things to all men. +Propositions extracted from Jesuit moral theologians have again and +again been condemned by the pope and declared untenable. Many of these +can be found in Viva's _Condemned Propositions_. As early as 1554 the +Jesuits were censured by the Sorbonne, chiefly at the instance of +Eustache de Bellay, bishop of Paris, as being dangerous in matters of +faith. Melchor Cano, a Dominican, one of the ablest divines of the 16th +century, never ceased to lift up his testimony against them, from their +first beginnings till his own death in 1560; and, unmollified by the +bribe of the bishopric of the Canaries, which their interest procured +for him, he succeeded in banishing them from the university of +Salamanca. Carlo Borromeo, to whose original advocacy they owed much, +especially in the council of Trent, found himself attacked in his own +cathedral pulpit and interfered with in his jurisdiction. He withdrew +his protection and expelled them from his colleges and churches; and he +was followed in 1604 in this policy by his cousin and successor Cardinal +Federigo Borromeo. St Theresa learnt, in after years, to mistrust their +methods, although she was grateful to them for much assistance in the +first years of her work. The credit of the Society was seriously damaged +by the publication, at Cracow, in 1612, of the _Monita Secreta_. This +book, which is undoubtedly a forgery, professes to contain the +authoritative secret instructions drawn up by the general Acquaviva and +given by the superiors of the Society to its various officers and +members. A bold caricature of Jesuit methods, the book has been ascribed +to John Zaorowsky or to Cambilone and Schloss, all ex-Jesuits, and it is +stated to have been discovered in manuscript by Christian of Brunswick +in the Jesuit college at Prague. It consists of suggestions and methods +for extending the influence of the Jesuits in various ways, for securing +a footing in fresh places, for acquiring wealth, for creeping into +households and leading silly rich widows captive and so forth, all +marked with ambition, craft and unscrupulousness. It had a wide success +and popularity, passing through several editions, and even to this day +it is used by controversialists as unscrupulous as the original writers. +It may, perhaps, represent the actions of some individuals who allowed +their zeal to outrun their discretion, but surely no society which +exists for good and is marked by so many worthy men could systematically +have conducted its operations in such a manner. Later on a formidable +assault was made on Jesuit moral theology in the famous _Provincial +Letters_ of Blaise Pascal (q.v.), eighteen in number, issued under the +pen-name of Louis de Montalte, from January 1656 to March 1657. Their +wit, irony, eloquence and finished style have kept them alive as one of +the great French classics--a destiny more fortunate than that of the +kindred works by Antoine Arnauld, _Théologie morale des Jésuites_, +consisting of extracts from writings of members of the Society, and +_Morale pratique des Jésuites_, made up of narratives professing to set +forth the manner in which they carried out their own maxims. But, like +most controversial writers, the authors were not scrupulous in their +quotations, and by giving passages divorced from their contexts often +entirely misrepresented their opponents. The immediate reply on the part +of the Jesuits, _The Discourses of Cleander and Eudoxus_ by Père Daniel, +could not compete with Pascal's work in brilliancy, wit or style; +moreover, it was unfortunate enough to be put upon the Index of +prohibited books in 1701. The reply on behalf of the Society to Pascal's +charges of lax morality, apart from mere general denials, is broadly as +follows:-- + + (1) St Ignatius himself, the founder of the Society, had a special + aversion from untruthfulness in all its forms, from quibbling, + equivocation or even studied obscurity of language, and it would be + contrary to the spirit of conformity with his example and institutions + for his followers to think and act otherwise. Hence, any who practised + equivocation were, so far, unfaithful to the Society. (2) Several of + the cases cited by Pascal are mere abstract hypotheses, many of them + now obsolete, argued simply as intellectual exercises, but having no + practical bearing whatever. (3) Even such as do belong to the sphere + of actual life are of the nature of counsel to spiritual physicians, + how to deal with exceptional maladies; and were never intended to fix + the standard of moral obligation for the general public. (4) The + theory that they were intended for this latter purpose and do + represent the normal teaching of the Society becomes more untenable in + exact proportion as this immorality is insisted on, because it is a + matter of notoriety that the Jesuits themselves have been singularly + free from personal, as distinguished from corporate, evil repute; and + no one pretends that the large number of lay-folk whom they have + educated or influenced exhibit greater moral inferiority than others. + +The third of these replies is the most cogent as regards Pascal, but the +real weakness of his attack lies in that nervous dread of appeal to +first principles and their logical result which has been the besetting +snare of Gallicanism. Pascal, at his best, has mistaken the part for the +whole; he charges to the Society what, at the most, are the doings of +individuals; and from these he asserts the degeneration of the body from +its original standard; whereas the stronger the life and the more +extensive the natural development, side by side will exist marks of +degeneration; and a society like the Jesuits has no difficulty in +asserting its life independently of such excrescences or, in time, in +freeing itself from them. + + A charge persistently made against the Society is that it teaches that + the end justifies the means. And the words of Busembaum, whose + _Medulla theologiae_ has gone through more than fifty editions, are + quoted in proof. True it is that Busembaum uses these words: _Cui + licitus est finis etiam licent media_. But on turning to his work (ed. + Paris 1729, p. 584, or Lib. vi. Tract vi. cap. ii., _De sacramentis_, + dubium ii.) it will be found that the author is making no universal + application of an old legal maxim; but is treating of a particular + subject (concerning certain lawful liberties in the marital relation) + beyond which his words cannot be forced. The sense in which other + Jesuit theologians--e.g. Paul Laymann (1575-1635), in his _Theologia + moralis_ (Munich, 1625), and Ludwig Wagemann (1713-1792), in his + _Synopsis theologiae moralis_ (Innsbruck, 1762)--quote the axiom is an + equally harmless piece of common sense. For instance, if it is lawful + to go on a journey by railway it is lawful to take a ticket. No one + who put forth that proposition would be thought to mean that it is + lawful to defraud the company by stealing a ticket; for the _proviso_ + is always to be understood, that the means employed should, in + themselves, not be bad but good or at least indifferent. So when + Wagemann says tersely _Finis determinat probitatem actus_ he is + clearly referring to acts which in themselves are indifferent, i.e. + indeterminate. For instance: shooting is an indifferent act, neither + good nor bad in itself. The morality of any specified shooting depends + upon what is shot, and the circumstances attending that act: shooting + a man in self-defence is, as a moral act, on an entirely different + plane to shooting a man in murder. It has never been proved, and never + can be proved, although the attempt has frequently been made, that the + Jesuits ever taught the nefarious proposition ascribed to them, which + would be entirely subversive of all morality. Again, the doctrine of + probabilism is utterly misunderstood. It is based on an accurate + conception of law. Law to bind must be clear and definite; if it be + not so, its obligation ceases and liberty of action remains. No + probable opinion can stand against a clear and definite law; but when + a law is doubtful in its application, in certain circumstances, so is + the obligation of obedience: and as a doubtful law is, for practical + purposes, no law at all, so it superinduces no obligation. Hence a + probable opinion is one, founded on reason and held on serious + grounds, that the law does not apply to certain specified cases; and + that the law-giver therefore did not intend to bind. It is the + principle of equity applied to law. In moral matters a probable + opinion, that is one held on no trivial grounds but by unprejudiced + and solid thinkers, has no place where the voice of conscience is + clear, distinct and formed. + +Two causes have been at work to produce the universal failure of the +great Society in all its plans and efforts. First stands its lack of +really great intellects. It has had its golden age. No society can keep +up to its highest level. Nothing can be wider of the truth than the +popular conception of the ordinary Jesuit as a being of almost +superhuman abilities and universal knowledge. The Society, numbering as +it does so many thousands, and with abundant means of devoting men to +special branches of study, has, without doubt, produced men of great +intelligence and solid learning. The average member, too, on account of +his long and systematic training, is always equal and often superior to +the average member of any other equally large body, besides being +disciplined by a far more perfect drill. But it takes great men to carry +out great plans; and of really great men, as the outside world knows and +judges, the Society has been markedly barren from almost the first. +Apart from its founder and his early companion, St Francis Xavier, there +is none who stands in the very first rank. Laynez and Acquaviva were +able administrators and politicians; the Bollandists (q.v.) were +industrious workers and have developed a critical spirit from which much +good can be expected; Francisco Suarez, Leonhard Lessius and Cardinal +Franzelin were some of the leading Jesuit theologians; Cornelius a +Lapide (1567-1637) represents their old school of scriptural studies, +while their new German writers are the most advanced of all orthodox +higher critics; the French Louis Bourdaloue (q.v.), the Italian Paolo +Segneri (1624-1694), and the Portuguese Antonio Vieyra (1608-1697) +represent their best pulpit orators; while of the many mathematicians +and astronomers produced by the Society Angelo Secchi, Ruggiero Giuseppe +Boscovich and G. B. Beccaria are conspicuous, and in modern times +Stephen Joseph Perry (1833-1889), director of the Stonyhurst College +observatory, took a high rank among men of science. Their boldest and +most original thinker, Denis Petau, so many years neglected, is now, by +inspiring Cardinal Newman's _Essay on the Development of Christian +Doctrine_, producing a permanent influence over the current of human +thought. The Jesuits have produced no Aquinas, no Anselm, no Bacon, no +Richelieu. Men whom they trained, and who broke loose from their +teaching, Pascal, Descartes, Voltaire, have powerfully affected the +philosophical and religious beliefs of great masses of mankind; but +respectable mediocrity is the brand on the long list of Jesuit names in +the catalogues of Alegambe and De Backer. This is doubtless due in great +measure to the destructive process of scooping out the will of the +Jesuit novice, to replace it with that of his superior (as a watchmaker +might fit a new movement into a case), and thereby tending, in most +cases, to annihilate those subtle qualities of individuality and +originality which are essential to genius. Men of the higher stamp will +either refuse to submit to the process and leave the Society, or run the +danger of coming forth from the mill with their finest qualities +pulverized and useless. In accordance with the spirit of its founder, +who wished to secure uniformity in the judgment of his followers even in +points left open by the Church ("Let us all think the same way, let us +all speak in the same manner if possible"), the Society has shown itself +to be impatient of those who think or write in a way different from what +is current in its ranks. + + Nor is this all. The _Ratio Studiorum_, devised by Acquaviva and still + obligatory in the colleges of the Society, lays down rules which are + incompatible with all breadth and progress in the higher forms of + education. True to the anti-speculative and traditional side of the + founder's mind, it prescribes that, even where religious topics are + not in question, the teacher is not to permit any novel opinions or + discussions to be mooted; nor to cite or allow others to cite the + opinions of an author not of known repute; nor to teach or suffer to + be taught anything contrary to the prevalent opinions of acknowledged + doctors current in the schools. Obsolete and false opinions are not to + be mentioned at all, even for refutation, nor are objections to + received teaching to be dwelt on at any length. The result is that the + Jesuit emerges from his schools without any real knowledge of any + other method of thought than that which his professors have instilled + into him. The professor of Biblical Literature is always to support + and defend the Vulgate and can never prefer the marginal readings from + the Hebrew and Greek. The Septuagint, as far as it is incorrupt, is to + be held not less authentic than the Vulgate. In philosophy Aristotle + is always to be followed, and St Thomas Aquinas generally, care being + taken to speak respectfully of him even when abandoning his opinions, + though now it is customary for the Jesuit teachers to explain him in + their own sense. _De vera mente D. Thomas_ is no unfamiliar expression + in their books. It is not wonderful, under such a method of training, + fixed as it has been in minute detail for more than three hundred + years, that highly cultivated commonplaces should be the inevitable + average result; and that in proportion as Jesuit power has become + dominant in Christendom, especially in ecclesiastical circles, the + same doom of intellectual sterility and consequent loss of influence + with the higher and thoughtful classes, has separated the part from + the whole. The initial mistake in the formation of character is that + the Jesuits have aimed at educating lay boys in the same manner as + they consider advisable for their own novices, for whom obedience and + direction is the one thing necessary; whereas for lay people the right + use of liberty and initiative are to be desired. + +The second cause which has blighted the efforts of the Society is the +lesson, too faithfully learnt and practised, of making its corporate +interests the first object at all times and in all places. Men were +quick to see that Jesuits did not aim at co-operation with the other +members of the Church but directly or indirectly at mastery. The most +brilliant exception to this rule is found in some of the missions of the +Society and notably in that of St Francis Xavier (q.v.). But he quitted +Europe in 1541 before the new society, especially under Laynez, had +hardened into its final mould; and he never returned. His work, so far +as can be gathered from contemporary accounts, was not done on true +Jesuit lines as they afterwards developed, though the Society has reaped +all the credit; and it is even possible that, had he succeeded the +founder as general, the institute might not have received that political +and self-seeking turn which Laynez, as second general, gave at the +critical moment. + + It would almost seem that careful selection was made of the men of the + greatest piety and enthusiasm, whose unworldliness made them less apt + for diplomatic intrigues, to break new ground in the various missions + where their success would throw lustre on the Society and their + scruples need never come into play. But such men are not to be found + easily; and, as they died off, the tendency was to fill their places + with more ordinary characters, whose aim was to increase the power and + resources of the body. Hence the condescension to heathen rites in + Hindustan and China, and the attempted subjugation of the English + Catholic clergy. The first successes of the Indian mission were + entirely among the lower classes; but when in Madura, in 1606, Robert + de Nobili, a nephew of Bellarmine, to win the Brahmins, adopted their + dress and mode of life--a step sanctioned by Gregory XV. in 1623 and + by Clement XI. in 1707--the fathers who followed his example pushed + the new caste-feeling so far as absolutely to refuse the ministrations + and sacraments to the pariahs, lest the Brahmin converts should take + offence--an attempt which was reported to Rome and was vainly censured + by the breves of Innocent X. in 1645, Clement IX. in 1669, Clement + XII. in 1734 and 1739, and Benedict XIV. in 1745. The Chinese rites, + assailed with equal unsuccess by one pope after another, were not + finally put down until 1744 by a bull of Benedict XIV. For Japan, + where their side of the story is that best known, we have a remarkable + letter, printed by Lucas Wadding in the _Annales minorum_, addressed + to Paul V. by Soleto, a Franciscan missionary, who was martyred in + 1624, in which he complains to the pope that the Jesuits + systematically postponed the spiritual welfare of the native + Christians to their own convenience and advantage; while as regards + the test of martyrdom, no such result had followed on their teaching, + but only on that of the other orders who had undertaken missionary + work in Japan. Yet soon many Jesuit martyrs in Japan were to shed a + new glory on the Society (see JAPAN: _Foreign Intercourse_). Again, + even in Paraguay, the most promising of all Jesuit undertakings, the + evidence shows that the fathers, though civilizing the Guarani + population just sufficiently to make them useful and docile servants, + happier no doubt than they were before or after, stopped there. While + the mission was begun on the rational principle of governing races + still in their childhood by methods adapted to that stage in their + mental development, yet for one hundred and fifty years the + "reductions" were conducted in the same manner, and when the hour of + trial came the Jesuit civilization fell like a house of cards. + +These examples are sufficient to explain the final collapse of so many +promising efforts. The individual Jesuit might be, and often was, a +hero, saint and martyr, but the system which he was obliged to +administer was foredoomed to failure; and the suppression which came in +1773 was the natural result of forces and elements they had set in +antagonism without the power of controlling. + +The influence of the Society since its restoration in 1814 has not been +marked with greater success than in its previous history. It was natural +after the restoration that an attempt should be made to pick up again +the threads that were dropped; but soon they came to realize the truth +of the saying of St Ignatius: "The Society shall adapt itself to the +times and not the times to the Society." The political conditions of +Europe have completely changed, and constitutionalism is unfavourable to +that personal influence which, in former times, the Jesuits were able to +bring to bear upon the heads of states. In Europe they confine +themselves mainly to educational and ecclesiastical politics, although +both Germany and France have followed the example of Portugal and +refuse, on political grounds, to allow them to be in these countries. It +would appear as though some of the Jesuits had not, even yet, learnt the +lesson that meddling with politics has always been their ruin. The main +cause of any difficulty that may exist to-day with the Society is that +the Jesuits are true to the teaching of that remarkable panegyric, the +_Imago primi saeculi Societatis_ (probably written by John Tollenarius +in 1640), by identifying the Church with their own body, and being +intolerant of all who will not share this view. Their power is still +large in certain sections of the ecclesiastical world, but in secular +affairs it is small. Moreover within the church itself there is a strong +and growing feeling that the interests of Catholicism may necessitate a +second and final suppression of the Society. Cardinal Manning, a keen +observer of times and influences, was wont to say:--"The work of 1773 +was the work of God: and there is another 1773 coming." But, if this +come, it will be due not to the pressure of secular governments, as in +the 18th century, but to the action of the Church itself. The very +nations which have cast out the Society have shown no disposition to +accept its own estimate and identify it with the Church; while the +Church itself is not conscious of depending upon the Society. To the +Church the Jesuits have been what the Janissaries were to the Ottoman +Empire, at first its defenders and its champions, but in the end its +taskmasters. + +_History._--The separate article on Loyola tells of his early years, his +conversion, and his first gathering of companions. It was not until +November 1537, when all hope of going to the Holy Land was given up, +that any outward steps were taken to form these companions into an +organized body. It was on the eve of their going to Rome, for the second +time, that the fathers met Ignatius at Vicenza and it was determined to +adopt a common rule and, at the suggestion of Ignatius, the name of the +Company of Jesus. Whatever may have been his private hopes and +intentions, it was not until he, Laynez and Faber (Pierre Lefevre), in +the name of their companions, were sent to lay their services at the +feet of the pope that the history of the Society really begins. + + On their arrival at Rome the three Jesuits were favourably received by + Paul III., who at once appointed Faber to the chair of scripture and + Laynez to that of scholastic theology in the university of the + Sapienza. But they encountered much opposition and were even charged + with heresy; when this accusation had been disposed of, there were + still difficulties in the way of starting any new order. Despite the + approval of Cardinal Contarini and the goodwill of the pope (who is + said to have exclaimed on perusing the scheme of Ignatius, "The finger + of God is here"), there was a strong and general feeling that the + regular system had broken down and could not be wisely developed + farther. Cardinal Guidiccioni, one of the commission of three + appointed to examine the draft constitution, was known to advocate the + abolition of all existing orders, save four which were to be + remodelled and put under strict control. That very year, 1538, a + commission of cardinals, including Reginald Pole, Contarini, Sadolet, + Caraffa (afterwards Paul IV.), Fregoso and others, had reported that + the conventual orders, which they had to deal with, had drifted into + such a state that they should all be abolished. Not only so, but, when + greater strictness of rule and of enclosure seemed the most needful + reforms in communities that had become too secular in tone, the + proposal of Ignatius, to make it a first principle that the members of + his institute should mix freely in the world and be as little marked + off as possible externally from secular clerical life and usages, ran + counter to all tradition and prejudice, save that Caraffa's then + recent order of Theatines, which had some analogy with the proposed + Society, had taken some steps in the same direction. + + Ignatius and his companions, however, had but little doubt of ultimate + success, and so bound themselves, on the 15th of April 1539, to obey + any superior chosen from amongst their body, and added on the 4th of + May certain other rules, the most important of which was a vow of + special allegiance to the pope for mission purposes to be taken by all + the members of the society. But Guidiccioni, on a careful study of the + papers, changed his mind; it is supposed that the cause of this change + was in large measure the strong interest in the new scheme exhibited + by John III., king of Portugal, who instructed his ambassador to press + it on the pope and to ask Ignatius to send some priests of his Society + for mission work in Portugal and its Indian possessions. Francis + Xavier and Simon Rodriguez were sent to the king in March 1540. + Obstacles being cleared away, Paul III., on the 27th of September + 1540, issued his bull _Regimini militantis ecclesiae_, by which he + confirmed the new Society (the term "order" does not belong to it), + but limited the members to sixty, a restriction which was removed by + the same pope in the bull _Injunctum nobis_ of the 14th of March 1543. + In the former bull, the pope gives the text of the formula submitted + by Ignatius as the scheme of the proposed society, and in it we get + the founder's own ideas: "... This Society, instituted to this special + end, namely, to offer spiritual consolation for the advancement of + souls in life and Christian doctrine, for the propagation of the faith + by public preaching and the ministry of the word of God, spiritual + exercises and works of charity and, especially, by the instruction of + children and ignorant people in Christianity, and by the spiritual + consolation of the faithful in Christ in hearing confessions...." In + this original scheme it is clearly marked out "that this entire + Society and all its members fight for God under the faithful + obedience of the most sacred lord, the pope, and the other Roman + pontiffs his successors"; and Ignatius makes particular mention that + each member should "be bound by a special vow," beyond that formal + obligation under which all Christians are of obeying the pope, "so + that whatsoever the present and other Roman pontiffs for the time + being shall ordain, pertaining to the advancement of souls and the + propagation of the faith, to whatever provinces he shall resolve to + send us, we are straightway bound to obey, as far as in us lies, + without any tergiversation or excuse, whether he send us among the + Turks or to any other unbelievers in being, even to those parts called + India, or to any heretics or schismatics or likewise to any + believers." Obedience to the general is enjoined "in all things + pertaining to the institute of the Society ... and in him they shall + acknowledge Christ as though present, and as far as is becoming shall + venerate him"; poverty is enjoined, and this rule affects not only the + individual but the common sustentation or care of the Society, except + that in the case of colleges revenues are allowed "to be applied to + the wants and necessities of the students"; and the private recitation + of the Office is distinctly mentioned. On the other hand, the + perpetuity of the general's office during his life was no part of the + original scheme. + +On the 7th of April 1541, Ignatius was unanimously chosen general. His +refusal of this post was overruled, so he entered on his office on the +13th of April; and two days after, the newly constituted Society took +its formal corporate vows in the basilica of San Paolo _fuori le mura_. +Scarcely was the Society launched when its members dispersed in various +directions to their new tasks. Alfonso Salmeron and Pasquier-Brouet, as +papal delegates, were sent on a secret mission to Ireland to encourage +the native clergy and people to resist the religious changes introduced +by Henry VIII.; Nicholas Bobadilla went to Naples; Faber, first to the +diet of Worms and then to Spain; Laynez and Claude le Jay to Germany, +while Ignatius busied himself at Rome in good works and in drawing up +the constitutions and completing the _Spiritual Exercises_. Success +crowned these first efforts; and the Society began to win golden +opinions. The first college was founded at Coimbra in 1542 by John III. +of Portugal and put under the rectorship of Rodriguez. It was designed +as a training school to feed the Indian mission of which Francis Xavier +had already taken the oversight, while a seminary at Goa was the second +institution founded outside Rome in connexion with the Society. Both +from the original scheme and from the foundation at Coimbra it is clear +that the original idea of the colleges was to provide for the education +of future Jesuits. In Spain, national pride in the founder aided the +Society's cause almost as much as royal patronage did in Portugal; and +the third house was opened in Gandia under the protection of its duke, +Francisco Borgia, a grandson of Alexander VI. In Germany, the Jesuits +were eagerly welcomed as the only persons able to meet the Lutherans on +equal terms. Only in France, among the countries which still were united +with the Roman Church, was their advance checked, owing to political +distrust of their Spanish origin, together with the hostility of the +Sorbonne and the bishop of Paris. However, after many difficulties, they +succeeded in getting a footing through the help of Guillaume du Prat, +bishop of Clermont (d. 1560), who founded a college for them in 1545 in +the town of Billom, besides making over to them his house at Paris, the +hôtel de Clermont, which became the nucleus of the afterwards famous +college of Louis-le-Grand, while a formal legalization was granted to +them by the states-general at Poissy in 1561. In Rome, Paul III.'s +favour did not lessen. He bestowed on them the church of St Andrea and +conferred at the same time the valuable privilege of making and altering +their own statutes; besides the other points, in 1546, which Ignatius +had still more at heart, as touching the very essence of his institute, +namely, exemption from ecclesiastical offices and dignities and from the +task of acting as directors and confessors to convents of women. The +former of these measures effectually stopped any drain of the best +members away from the society and limited their hopes within its bounds, +by putting them more freely at the general's disposal, especially as it +was provided that the final vows could not be annulled, nor could a +professed member be dismissed, save by the joint action of the general +and the pope. The regulation as to convents seems partly due to a desire +to avoid the worry and expenditure of time involved in the discharge of +such offices and partly to a conviction that penitents living in +enclosure, as all religious persons then were, would be of no effective +use to the Society; whereas the founder, against the wishes of several +of his companions, laid much stress on the duty of accepting the post of +confessor to kings, queens and women of high rank when opportunity +presented itself. And the year 1546 is notable in the annals of the +Society as that in which it embarked on its great educational career, +especially by the annexation of free day-schools to all its colleges. + + The council of Trent, in its first period, seemed to increase the + reputation of the Society; for the pope chose Laynez, Faber and + Salmeron to act as his theologians in that assembly, and in this + capacity they had no little influence in framing its decrees. When the + council reassembled under Pius IV., Laynez and Salmeron again attended + in the same capacity. It is sometimes said that the council formally + approved of the Society. This is impossible; for as the Society had + received the papal approval, that of the council would have been + impertinent as well as unnecessary. St Charles Borromeo wrote to the + presiding cardinals, on the 11th of May 1562, saying that, as France + was disaffected to the Jesuits whom the pope wished to see established + in every country, Pius IV. desired, when the council was occupying + itself about regulars, that it should make some honourable mention of + the Society in order to recommend it. This was done in the + twenty-fifth session (cap. XVI., d.r.) when the decree was passed that + at the end of the time of probation novices should either be professed + or dismissed; and the words of the council are: "By these things, + however, the Synod does not intend to make any innovation or + prohibition, so as to hinder the religious order of Clerks of the + Society of Jesus from being able to serve God and His Church, in + accordance with their pious institute approved of by the Holy + Apostolic See." + +In 1548 the Society received a valuable recruit in the person of +Francisco Borgia, duke of Gandia, afterwards thrice general, while two +important events marked 1550--the foundation of the Collegio Romano and +a fresh confirmation of the Society by Julius III. The German college, +for the children of poor nobles, was founded in 1552; and in the same +year Ignatius firmly settled the discipline of the Society by putting +down, with promptness and severity, some attempts at independent action +on the part of Rodriguez at Coimbra--this being the occasion of the +famous letter on obedience; while 1553 saw the despatch of a mission to +Abyssinia with one of the fathers as patriarch, and the first rift +within the lute when the pope thought that the Spanish Jesuits were +taking part with the emperor against the Holy See. Paul IV. (whose +election alarmed the Jesuits, for they had not found him very friendly +as cardinal) was for a time managed with supreme tact by Ignatius, whom +he respected personally. In 1556, the founder died and left the Society +consisting of forty-five professed fathers and two thousand ordinary +members, distributed over twelve provinces, with more than a hundred +colleges and houses. + + After the death of the first general there was an interregnum of two + years, with Laynez as vicar. During this long period he occupied + himself with completing the constitutions by incorporating certain + declarations, said to be Ignatian, which explained and sometimes + completely altered the meaning of the original text. Laynez was an + astute politician and saw the vast capabilities of the Society over a + far wider field than the founder contemplated; and he prepared to give + it the direction that it has since followed. In some senses, this + learned and consummately clever man may be looked upon as the real + founder of the Society as history knows it. Having carefully prepared + the way, he summoned the general congregation from which he emerged as + second general in 1556. As soon as Ignatius had died Paul IV. + announced his intention of instituting reforms in the Society, + especially in two points: the public recitation of the office in choir + and the limitation of the general's office to a term of three years. + Despite all the protests and negotiations of Laynez, the pope remained + obstinate; and there was nothing but to submit. On the 8th of + September 1558, two points were added to the constitutions: that the + generalship should be triennial and not perpetual, although after the + three years the general might be confirmed; and that the canonical + hours should be observed in choir after the manner of the other + orders, but with that moderation which should seem expedient to the + general. Taking advantage of this last clause, Laynez applied the new + law to two houses only, namely, Rome and Lisbon, the other houses + contenting themselves with singing vespers on feast days; and as soon + as Paul IV. died, Laynez, acting on advice, quietly ignored for the + future the orders of the late pope. He also succeeded in increasing + further the already enormous powers of the general. Laynez took a + leading part in the colloquy of Poissy in 1561 between the Catholics + and Huguenots; and obtained a legal footing from the states-general + for colleges of the Society in France. He died in 1564, leaving the + Society increased to eighteen provinces with a hundred and thirty + colleges, and was succeeded by Francisco Borgia. During the third + generalate, Pius V. confirmed all the former privileges, and in the + amplest form extended to the Society, as being a mendicant institute, + all favours that had been or might afterwards be granted to such + mendicant bodies. It was a trifling set-off that in 1567 the pope + again enjoined the fathers to keep choir and to admit only the + professed to priests' orders, especially as Gregory XIII. rescinded + both these injunctions in 1573; and indeed, as regards the hours, all + that Pius V. was able to obtain was the nominal concession that the + breviary should be recited in choir in the professed houses only, and + that not of necessity by more than two persons at a time. Everard + Mercurian, a Fleming, and a subject of Spain, succeeded Borgia in + 1573, being forced on the Society by the pope, in preference to + Polanco, Ignatius's secretary and the vicar-general, who was rejected + partly as a Spaniard and still more because he was a "New Christian" + of Jewish origin and therefore objected to in Spain itself. During his + term of office there took place the troubles in Rome concerning the + English college and the subsequent Jesuit rule over that institution; + and in 1580 the first Jesuit mission, headed by the redoubtable Robert + Parsons and the saintly Edmund Campion, set out for England. This + mission, on one side, carried on an active propaganda against + Elizabeth in favour of Spain; and on the other, among the true + missionaries, was marked with devoted zeal and heroism even to the + ghastly death of traitors. Claude Acquaviva, the fifth general, held + office from 1581 to 1615, a time almost coinciding with the high tide + of the successful reaction, chiefly due to the Jesuits. He was an + able, strong-willed man, and crushed what was tantamount to a + rebellion in Spain. It was during this struggle that Mariana, the + historian and the author of the famous _De rege_ in which he defends + tyrannicide, wrote his treatise _On the Defects in the Government of + the Society_. He confessed freely that the Society had faults and that + there was a great deal of unrest among the members; and he mentioned + among the various points calling for reform the education of the + novices and students; the state of the lay brother and the possessions + of the Society; the spying system, which he declared to be carried so + far that, if the general's archives at Rome should be searched, not + one Jesuit's character would be found to escape; the monopoly of the + higher offices by a small clique; and the absence of all encouragement + and recompense for the best men of the Society. + +It was chiefly during the generalship of Acquaviva that the Society +began to gain an evil reputation which eclipsed its good report. In +France the Jesuits joined, if they did not originate, the league against +Henry of Navarre. Absolution was refused by them to those who would not +join in the Guise rebellion, and Acquaviva is said to have tried to stop +them, but in vain. The assassination of Henry III. in the interests of +the league and the wounding of Henry IV. in 1594 by Chastel, a pupil of +theirs, revealed the danger that the whole Society was running by the +intrigues of a few men. The Jesuits were banished from France in 1594, +but were allowed to return by Henry IV. under conditions; as Sully has +recorded, the king declared his only motive to be the expediency of not +driving them into a corner with possible disastrous results to his life, +and because his only hope of tranquillity lay in appeasing them and +their powerful friends. In England the political schemings of Parsons +were no small factors in the odium which fell on the Society at large; +and his determination to capture the English Catholics as an apanage of +the Society, to the exclusion of all else, was an object lesson to the +rest of Europe of a restless ambition and lust of domination which were +to find many imitators. The political turn which was being given by some +to the Society, to the detriment of its real spiritual work, evoked the +fears of the wiser heads of the body; and in the fifth general +congregation held in 1593-1594 it was decreed: "Whereas in these times +of difficulty and danger it has happened through the fault of certain +individuals, through ambition and intemperate zeal, that our institute +has been ill spoken of in divers places and before divers sovereigns ... +it is severely and strictly forbidden to all members of the Society to +interfere in any manner whatever in public affairs even though they be +thereto invited; or to deviate from the institute through entreaty, +persuasion or any other motive whatever." It would have been well had +Acquaviva enforced this decree; but Parsons was allowed to keep on with +his work, and other Jesuits in France for many years after directed, to +the loss of religion, affairs of state. In 1605 took place in England +the Gunpowder Plot, in which Henry Garnet, the superior of the Society +in England, was implicated. That the Jesuits were the instigators of +the plot there is no evidence, but they were in close touch with the +conspirators, of whose designs Garnet had a general knowledge. There is +now no reasonable doubt that he and other Jesuits were legally +accessories, and that the condemnation of Garnet as a traitor was +substantially just (see GARNET, HENRY). + + It was during Acquaviva's generalship that Philip II. of Spain + complained bitterly of the Society to Sixtus V., and encouraged him in + those plans of reform (even to changing the name) which were only cut + short by the pope's death in 1590, and also that the long protracted + discussions on grace, wherein the Dominicans contended against the + Jesuits, were carried on at Rome with little practical result, by the + Congregation _de auxiliis_, which sat from 1598 till 1607. The _Ratio + Studiorum_ took its shape during this time. The Jesuit influence at + Rome was supported by the Spanish ambassador; but when Henry IV. "went + to Mass," the balance inclined to the side of France, and the Spanish + monopoly became a thing of the past. Acquaviva saw the expulsion of + the Jesuits from Venice in 1606 for siding with Paul V. when he placed + the republic under interdict, but did not live to see their recall, + which took place at the intercession of Louis XIV. in 1657. He also + had to banish Parsons from Rome, by order of Clement VIII., who was + wearied with the perpetual complaints made against that intriguer. + Gregory XIV., by the bull _Ecclesiae Christi_ (July 28, 1591), again + confirmed the Society, and granted that Jesuits might, for true cause, + be expelled from the body without any form of trial or even + documentary procedure, besides denouncing excommunications against + every one, save the pope or his legates, who directly or indirectly + infringed the constitutions of the Society or attempted to bring about + any change therein. + + Under Vitelleschi, the next general, the Society celebrated its first + centenary on the 25th of September 1639, the hundredth anniversary of + the verbal approbation given to the scheme by Paul III. During this + hundred years the Society had grown to thirty-six provinces, with + eight hundred houses containing some fifteen thousand members. In 1640 + broke out the great Jansenist controversy, in which the Society took + the leading part on one side and finally secured the victory. In this + same year, considering themselves ill-used by Olivarez, prime minister + of Philip IV. of Spain, the Jesuits powerfully aided the revolution + which placed the duke of Braganza on the throne of Portugal; and their + services were rewarded for nearly one hundred years with the practical + control of ecclesiastical and almost of civil affairs in that kingdom. + + The Society also gained ground steadily in France; for, though held in + check by Richelieu and little more favoured by Mazarin, yet from the + moment that Louis XIV. took the reins, their star was in the + ascendant, and Jesuit confessors, the most celebrated of whom were + François de La Chaise (q.v.) and Michel Le Tellier (1643-1719), guided + the policy of the king, not hesitating to take his side in his quarrel + with the Holy See, which nearly resulted in a schism, nor to sign the + Gallican articles. Their hostility to the Huguenots forced on the + revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, and their war against their + Jansenist opponents did not cease till the very walls of Port Royal + were demolished in 1710, even to the very abbey church itself, and the + bodies of the dead taken with every mark of insult from their graves + and literally flung to the dogs to devour. But while thus gaining + power in one direction, the Society was losing it in another. The + Japanese mission had vanished in blood in 1651; and though many + Jesuits died with their converts bravely as martyrs for the faith, yet + it is impossible to acquit them of a large share in the causes of that + overthrow. It was also about this same period that the grave scandal + of the Chinese and Malabar rites began to attract attention in Europe, + and to make thinking men ask seriously whether the Jesuit missionaries + in those parts taught anything which could fairly be called + Christianity at all. When it was remembered, too, that they had + decided, at a council held at Lima, that it was inexpedient to impose + any act of Christian devotion except baptism, on the South American + converts, without the greatest precautions, on the ground of + intellectual difficulties, it is not wonderful that this doubt was not + satisfactorily cleared up, notably in face of the charges brought + against the Society by Bernardin de Cardonas, bishop of Paraguay, and + the saintly Juan de Palafox (q.v.), bishop of Angelopolis in Mexico. + + But "the terrible power in the universal church, the great riches and + the extraordinary prestige" of the Society, which Palafox complained + had raised it "above all dignities, laws, councils and apostolic + constitutions," carried with them the seeds of rapid and inevitable + decay. A succession of devout but incapable generals, after the death + of Acquaviva, saw the gradual secularization of tone by the flocking + in of recruits of rank and wealth desirous to share in the glories and + influence of the Society, but not well adapted to increase them. The + general's supremacy received a shock when the eleventh general + congregation appointed Oliva as vicar, with the right of succession + and powers that practically superseded those of the general Goswin + Nickel, whose infirmities, it is said, did not permit him to govern + with the necessary application and vigour; and an attempt was made to + depose Tirso Gonzalez, the thirteenth general, whose views on + probabilism diverged from those favoured by the rest of the Jesuits. + Though the political weight of the Society continued to increase in + the cabinets of Europe, it was being steadily weakened internally. The + Jesuits abandoned the system of free education which had won them so + much influence and honour; by attaching themselves exclusively to the + interests of courts, they lost favour with the middle and lower + classes; and above all, their monopoly of power and patronage in + France, with the fatal use they had made of it, drew down the + bitterest hostility upon them. It was to their credit, indeed, that + the encyclopaedists attacked them as the foremost representatives of + Christianity, but they are accountable in no small degree in France, + as in England, for alienating the minds of men from the religion for + which they professed to work. + +But the most fatal part of the policy of the Society was its activity, +wealth and importance as a great trading firm with branch houses +scattered over the richest countries of the world. Its founder, with a +wise instinct, had forbidden the accumulation of wealth; its own +constitutions, as revised in the 84th decree of the sixth general +congregation, had forbidden all pursuits of a commercial nature, as also +had various popes; but nevertheless the trade went on unceasingly, +necessarily with the full knowledge of the general, unless it be pleaded +that the system of obligatory espionage had completely broken down. The +first muttering of the storm which was soon to break was heard in a +breve issued in 1741 by Benedict XIV., wherein he denounced the Jesuit +offenders as "disobedient, contumacious, captious and reprobate +persons," and enacted many stringent regulations for their better +government. The first serious attack came from a country where they had +been long dominant. In 1753 Spain and Portugal exchanged certain +American provinces with each other, which involved a transfer of +sovereign rights over Paraguay; but it was also provided that the +populations should severally migrate also, that the subjects of each +crown might remain the same as before. The inhabitants of the +"reductions," whom the Jesuits had trained in the use of European arms +and discipline, naturally rose in defence of their homes, and attacked +the troops and authorities. Their previous docility and their entire +submission to the Jesuits left no possible doubt as to the source of the +rebellion, and gave the enemies of the Jesuits a handle against them +that was not forgotten. In 1757 Carvalho, marquis of Pombal, prime +minister of Joseph I. of Portugal, and an old pupil of the Jesuits at +Coimbra, dismissed the three Jesuit chaplains of the king and named +three secular priests in their stead. He next complained to Benedict +XIV. that the trading operations of the Society hampered the commercial +prosperity of the nation, and asked for remedial measures. The pope, who +knew the situation, committed a visitation of the Society to Cardinal +Saldanha, an intimate friend of Pombal, who issued a severe decree +against the Jesuits and ordered the confiscation of all their +merchandise. But at this juncture Benedict XIV., the most learned and +able pope of the period, was succeeded by a pope strongly in favour of +the Jesuits, Clement XIII. Pombal, finding no help from Rome, adopted +other means. The king was fired at and wounded on returning from a visit +to his mistress on the 3rd of September 1758. The duke of Aveiro and +other high personages were tried and executed for conspiracy; while some +of the Jesuits, who had undoubtedly been in communication with them, +were charged, on doubtful evidence, with complicity in the attempted +assassination. Pombal charged the whole Society with the possible guilt +of a few, and, unwilling to wait the dubious issue of an application to +the pope for licence to try them in the civil courts, whence they were +exempt, issued on the 1st of September 1759 a decree ordering the +immediate deportation of every Jesuit from Portugal and all its +dependencies and their suppression by the bishops in the schools and +universities. Those in Portugal were at once shipped, in great misery, +to the papal states, and were soon followed by those in the colonies. In +France, Madame de Pompadour was their enemy because they had refused her +absolution while she remained the king's mistress; but the immediate +cause of their ruin was the bankruptcy of Father Lavalette, the Jesuit +superior in Martinique, a daring speculator, who failed, after trading +for some years, for 2,400,000 francs and brought ruin upon some French +commercial houses of note. Lorenzo Ricci, then general of the Society, +repudiated the debt, alleging lack of authority on Lavalette's part to +pledge the credit of the Society, and he was sued by the creditors. +Losing his cause, he appealed to the parlement of Paris, and it, to +decide the issue raised by Ricci, required the constitutions of the +Jesuits to be produced in evidence, and affirmed the judgment of the +courts below. But the publicity given to a document scarcely known till +then raised the utmost indignation against the Society. A royal +commission, appointed by the duc de Choiseul to examine the +constitutions, convoked a private assembly of fifty-one archbishops and +bishops under the presidency of Cardinal de Luynes, all of whom except +six voted that the unlimited authority of the general was incompatible +with the laws of France, and that the appointment of a resident vicar, +subject to those laws, was the only solution of the question fair on all +sides. Ricci replied with the historical answer, _Sint ut sunt, aut non +sint_; and after some further delay, during which much interest was +exerted in their favour, the Jesuits were suppressed by an edict in +November 1764, but suffered to remain on the footing of secular priests, +a grace withdrawn in 1767, when they were expelled from the kingdom. In +the very same year, Charles III. of Spain, a monarch known for personal +devoutness, convinced, on evidence not now forthcoming, that the Jesuits +were plotting against his authority, prepared, through his minister +D'Aranda, a decree suppressing the Society in every part of his +dominions. Sealed despatches were sent to every Spanish colony, to be +opened on the same day, the 2nd of April 1767, when the measure was to +take effect in Spain itself, and the expulsion was relentlessly carried +out, nearly six thousand priests being deported from Spain alone, and +sent to the Italian coast, whence, however, they were repelled by the +orders of the pope and Ricci himself, finding a refuge at Corte in +Corsica, after some months' suffering in overcrowded vessels at sea. The +general's object may probably have been to accentuate the harshness with +which the fathers had been treated, and so to increase public sympathy, +but the actual result of his policy was blame for the cruelty with which +he enhanced their misfortunes, for the poverty of Corsica made even a +bare subsistence scarcely procurable for them there. The Bourbon courts +of Naples and Parma followed the example of France and Spain; Clement +XIII. retorted with a bull launched at the weakest adversary, and +declaring the rank and title of the duke of Parma forfeit. The Bourbon +sovereigns threatened to make war on the pope in return (France, indeed, +seizing on the county of Avignon), and a joint note demanding a +retractation, and the abolition of the Jesuits, was presented by the +French ambassador at Rome on the 10th of December 1768 in the name of +France, Spain and the two Sicilies. The pope, a man of eighty-two, died +of apoplexy, brought on by the shock, early in 1769. Cardinal Lorenzo +Ganganelli, a conventual Franciscan, was chosen to succeed him, and took +the name of Clement XIV. He endeavoured to avert the decision forced +upon him, but, as Portugal joined the Bourbon league, and Maria Theresa +with her son the emperor Joseph II. ceased to protect the Jesuits, there +remained only the petty kingdom of Sardinia in their favour, though the +fall of Choiseul in France raised the hopes of the Society for a time. +The pope began with some preliminary measures, permitting first the +renewal of lawsuits against the Society, which had been suspended by +papal authority, and which, indeed, had in no case been ever successful +at Rome. He then closed the Collegio Romano, on the plea of its +insolvency, seized the houses at Frascati and Tivoli, and broke up the +establishments in Bologna and the Legations. Finally on the 21st of July +1773 the famous breve _Dominus ac Redemptor_ appeared, suppressing the +Society of Jesus. This remarkable document opens by citing a long series +of precedents for the suppression of religious orders by the Holy See, +amongst which occurs the ill-omened instance of the Templars. It then +briefly sketches the objects and history of the Jesuits themselves. It +speaks of their defiance of their own constitution, expressly revived by +Paul V., forbidding them to meddle in politics; of the great ruin to +souls caused by their quarrels with local ordinaries and the other +religious orders, their condescension to heathen usages in the East, and +the disturbances, resulting in persecutions of the Church, which they +had stirred up even in Catholic countries, so that several popes had +been obliged to punish them. Seeing then that the Catholic sovereigns +had been forced to expel them, that many bishops and other eminent +persons demanded their extinction, and that the Society had ceased to +fulfil the intention of its institute, the pope declares it necessary +for the peace of the Church that it should be suppressed, extinguished, +abolished and abrogated for ever, with all its houses, colleges, schools +and hospitals; transfers all the authority of its general or officers to +the local ordinaries; forbids the reception of any more novices, +directing that such as were actually in probation should be dismissed, +and declaring that profession in the Society should not serve as a title +to holy orders. Priests of the Society are given the option of either +joining other orders or remaining as secular clergy, under obedience to +the ordinaries, who are empowered to grant or withhold from them +licences to hear confessions. Such of the fathers as are engaged in the +work of education are permitted to continue, on condition of abstaining +from lax and questionable doctrines apt to cause strife and trouble. The +question of missions is reserved, and the relaxations granted to the +Society in such matters as fasting, reciting the hours and reading +heretical books, are withdrawn; while the breve ends with clauses +carefully drawn to bar any legal exceptions that might be taken against +its full validity and obligation. It has been necessary to cite these +heads of the breve because the apologists of the Society allege that no +motive influenced the pope save the desire of peace at any price, and +that he did not believe in the culpability of the fathers. The +categorical charges made in the document rebut this plea. The pope +followed up this breve by appointing a congregation of cardinals to take +possession of the temporalities of the Society, and armed it with +summary powers against all who should attempt to retain or conceal any +of the property. He also threw Lorenzo Ricci, the general, into prison, +first in the English college and then in the castle of St Angelo, where +he died in 1775, under the pontificate of Pius VI., who, though not +unfavourable to the Society, and owing his own advancement to it, dared +not release him, probably because his continued imprisonment was made a +condition by the powers who enjoyed a right of veto in papal elections. +In September 1774 Clement XIV. died after much suffering, and the +question has been hotly debated ever since whether poison was the cause +of his death. But the latest researches have shown that there is no +evidence to support the theory of poison. Salicetti, the pope's +physician, denied that the body showed signs of poisoning, and Tanucci, +Neapolitan ambassador at Rome, who had a large share in procuring the +breve of suppression, entirely acquits the Jesuits, while F. Theiner, no +friend to the Society, does the like. + +At the date of this suppression, the Society had 41 provinces and 22,589 +members, of whom 11,295 were priests. Far from submitting to the papal +breve, the ex-Jesuits, after some ineffectual attempts at direct +resistance, withdrew into the territories of the free-thinking +sovereigns of Russia and Prussia, Frederick II. and Catherine II., who +became their active friends and protectors; and the fathers alleged as a +principle, in so far as their theology is concerned, that no papal bull +is binding in a state whose sovereign has not approved and authorized +its publication and execution. Russia formed the headquarters of the +Society, and two forged breves were speedily circulated, being dated +June 9 and June 29, 1774, approving their establishment in Russia, and +implying the repeal of the breve of suppression. But these are +contradicted by the tenor of five genuine breves issued in September +1774 to the archbishop of Gnesen, and making certain assurances to the +ex-Jesuits, on condition of their complete obedience to the injunctions +already laid on them. The Jesuits also pleaded a verbal approbation by +Pius VI., technically known as an _Oraculum vivae vocis_, but this is +invalid for purposes of law unless reduced to writing and duly +authenticated. + +They elected three Poles successively as generals, taking, however, only +the title of vicars, till on the 7th of March 1801 Pius VII. granted +them liberty to reconstitute themselves in north Russia, and permitted +Kareu, then vicar, to exercise full authority as general. On the 30th of +July 1804 a similar breve restored the Jesuits in the Two Sicilies, at +the express desire of Ferdinand IV., the pope thus anticipating the +further action of 1814, when, by the constitution _Sollicitudo omnium +Ecclesiarum_, he revoked the action of Clement XIV., and formally +restored the Society to corporate legal existence, yet not only omitted +any censure of his predecessor's conduct, but all vindication of the +Jesuits from the heavy charges in the breve _Dominus ac Redemptor_. In +France, even after their expulsion in 1765, they had maintained a +precarious footing in the country under the partial disguise and names +of "Fathers of the Faith" or "Clerks of the Sacred Heart," but were +obliged by Napoleon I. to retire in 1804. They reappeared under their +true name in 1814, and obtained formal licence in 1822, but became the +objects of so much hostility that Charles X. deprived them by ordinance +of the right of instruction, and obliged all applicants for licences as +teachers to make oath that they did not belong to any community +unrecognized by the laws. They were dispersed again by the revolution of +July 1830, but soon reappeared and, though put to much inconvenience +during the latter years of Louis Philippe's reign, notably in 1845, +maintained their footing, recovered the right to teach freely after the +revolution of 1848, and gradually became the leading educational and +ecclesiastical power in France, notably under the Second Empire, till +they were once more expelled by the Ferry laws of 1880, though they +quietly returned since the execution of those measures. They were again +expelled by the Law of Associations of 1901. In Spain they came back +with Ferdinand VII., but were expelled at the constitutional rising in +1820, returning in 1823, when the duke of Angoulême's army replaced +Ferdinand on his throne; they were driven out once more by Espartero in +1835, and have had no legal position since, though their presence is +openly tolerated. In Portugal, ranging themselves on the side of Dom +Miguel, they fell with his cause, and were exiled in 1834. There are +some to this day in Lisbon under the name of "Fathers of the Faith." +Russia, which had been their warmest patron, drove them from St +Petersburg and Moscow in 1813, and from the whole empire in 1820, mainly +on the plea of attempted proselytizing in the imperial army. Holland +drove them out in 1816, and, by giving them thus a valid excuse for +aiding the Belgian revolution of 1830, secured them the strong position +they have ever since held in Belgium; but they have succeeded in +returning to Holland. They were expelled from Switzerland in 1847-1848 +for the part they were charged with in exciting the war of the +Sonderbund. In south Germany, inclusive of Austria and Bavaria, their +annals since their restoration have been uneventful; but in north +Germany, owing to the footing Frederick II. had given them in Prussia, +they became very powerful, especially in the Rhine provinces, and, +gradually moulding the younger generation of clergy after the close of +the War of Liberation, succeeded in spreading Ultramontane views amongst +them, and so leading up to the difficulties with the civil government +which issued in the Falk laws, and their own expulsion by decree of the +German parliament (June 19, 1872). Since then many attempts have been +made to procure the recall of the Society to the German Empire, but +without success, although as individuals they are now allowed in the +country. In Great Britain, whither they began to straggle over during +the revolutionary troubles at the close of the 18th century, and where, +practically unaffected by the clause directed against them in the +Emancipation Act of 1829, their chief settlement has been at Stonyhurst +in Lancashire, an estate conferred on them by Thomas Weld in 1795, they +have been unmolested; but there has been little affinity to the order in +the British temperament, and the English province has consequently never +risen to numerical or intellectual importance in the Society. In Rome +itself, its progress after the restoration was at first slow, and it was +not till the reign of Leo XII. (1823-1829) that it recovered its place +as the chief educational body there. It advanced steadily under Gregory +XVI., and, though it was at first shunned by Pius IX., it secured his +entire confidence after his return from Gaeta in 1849, and obtained from +him a special breve erecting the staff of its literary journal, the +_Civiltà Cattolica_, into a perpetual college under the general of the +Jesuits, for the purpose of teaching and propagating the faith in its +pages. How, with this pope's support throughout his long reign, the +gradual filling of nearly all the sees of Latin Christendom with bishops +of their own selection, and their practical capture, directly or +indirectly, of the education of the clergy in seminaries, they contrived +to stamp out the last remains of independence everywhere, and to crown +the Ultramontane triumph with the Vatican Decrees, is matter of familiar +knowledge. Leo XIII., while favouring them somewhat, never gave them his +full confidence; and by his adhesion to the Thomist philosophy and +theology, and his active work for the regeneration and progress of the +older orders, he made another suppression possible by destroying much of +their prestige. But the usual sequence has been observed under Pius X., +who appeared to be greatly in favour of the Society and to rely upon +them for many of the measures of his pontificate. + +The Society has been ruled by twenty-five generals and four vicars from +its foundation to the present day (1910). Of all the various +nationalities represented in the Society, neither France, its original +cradle, nor England, has ever given it a head, while Spain, Italy, +Holland, Belgium, Germany and Poland, were all represented. The numbers +of the Society are not accurately known, but are estimated at about +20,000, in all parts of the world; and of these the English, Irish and +American Jesuits are under 3000. + + The generals of the Jesuits have been as follow:-- + + 1. Ignatius de Loyola (Spaniard) 1541-1556 + 2. Diego Laynez (Spaniard) 1558-1565 + 3. Francisco Borgia (Spaniard) 1565-1572 + 4. Everard Mercurian (Belgian) 1573-1580 + 5. Claudio Acquaviva (Neapolitan) 1581-1615 + 6. Mutio Vitelleschi (Roman) 1615-1645 + 7. Vincenzio Caraffa (Neapolitan) 1646-1649 + 8. Francesco Piccolomini (Florentine) 1649-1651 + 9. Alessandro Gottofredi (Roman) 1652 + 10. Goswin Nickel (German) 1652-1664 + 11. Giovanni Paolo Oliva (Genoese) vicar-general and + coadjutor, 1661; general 1664-1681 + 12. Charles de Noyelle (Belgian) 1682-1686 + 13. Tirso Gonzalez (Spaniard) 1687-1705 + 14. Michele Angelo Tamburini (Modenese) 1706-1730 + 15. Franz Retz (Bohemian) 1730-1750 + 16. Ignazio Visconti (Milanese) 1751-1755 + 17. Alessandro Centurioni (Genoese) 1755-1757 + 18. Lorenzo Ricci (Florentine) 1758-1775 + _a_. Stanislaus Czerniewicz (Pole), vicar-general 1782-1785 + _b_. Gabriel Lienkiewicz (Pole), " 1785-1798 + _c_. Franciscus Xavier Kareu (Pole), (general in + Russia, 7th March 1801) 1799-1802 + _d_. Gabriel Gruber (German) 1802-1805 + 19. Thaddaeus Brzozowski (Pole) 1805-1820 + 20. Aloysio Fortis (Veronese) 1820-1829 + 21. Johannes Roothaan (Dutchman) 1829-1853 + 22. Peter Johannes Beckx (Belgian) 1853-1884 + 23. Antoine Anderledy (Swiss) 1884-1892 + 24. Luis Martin (Spanish) 1892-1906 + 25. Francis Xavier Wernz (German) 1906- + + The bibliography of Jesuitism is of enormous extent, and it is + impracticable to cite more than a few of the most important works. + They are as follows: _Institutum Societatis Jesu_ (7 vols., Avignon, + 1830-1838); Orlandini, _Historia Societatis Jesu_ (Antwerp, 1620); + _Imago primi saeculi Societatis Jesu_ (Antwerp, 1640); Nieremberg, + _Vida de San Ignacio de Loyola_ (9 vols., fol., Madrid, 1645-1736); + Genelli, _Life of St Ignatius of Loyola_ (London, 1872); Backer, + _Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus_ (7 vols., Paris, + 1853-1861); Crétineau Joly, _Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus_ (6 + vols., Paris, 1844); Guettée, _Histoire des Jésuites_ (3 vols., Paris, + 1858-1859); Wolff, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Jesuiten_ (4 vols., + Zürich, 1789-1792); Gioberti, _Il Gesuita moderno_ (Lausanne, 1846); + F. Parkman, _Pioneers of France in the New World_ and _The Jesuits in + North America_ (Boston, 1868); _Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, + écrites des missions étrangères, avec les Annales de la propagation de + la foi_ (40 vols., Lyons, 1819-1854); Saint-Priest, _Histoire de la + chute des Jésuites au XVIII^e Siècle_ (Paris, 1844); Ranke, _Römische + Päpste_ (3 vols., Berlin, 1838); E. Taunton, _History of the Jesuits + in England_ (London, 1901); Thomas Hughes, S.J., _History of the + Society of Jesus in North America_ (London and New York, 1907); R. G. + Thwaites, _Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents_ (73 vols. Cleveland, + 1896-1901). (R. F. L.; E. Tn.) + + + + +JESUP, MORRIS KETCHUM (1830-1908), American banker and philanthropist, +was born at Westport, Connecticut, on the 21st of June 1830. In 1842 he +went to New York City, where after some experience in business he +established a banking house in 1852. In 1856 he organized the banking +firm of M. K. Jesup & Company, which after two reorganizations became +Cuyler, Morgan & Jesup. He became widely known as a financier, retiring +from active business in 1884. He was best known, however, as a +munificent patron of scientific research, a large contributor to the +needs of education, and a public-spirited citizen of wide interests, who +did much for the betterment of social conditions in New York. He +contributed largely to the funds for the Arctic expeditions of Commander +Robert E. Peary, becoming president of the Peary Arctic Club in 1899. To +the American museum of natural history, in New York City, he gave large +sums in his lifetime and bequeathed $1,000,000. He was president of the +New York chamber of commerce from 1899 until 1907, and was the largest +subscriber to its new building. To his native town he gave a fine public +library. He died in New York City on the 22nd of January 1908. + + + + +JESUS CHRIST. To write a summary account of the life of Christ, though +always involving a grave responsibility, was until recent years a +comparatively straightforward task; for it was assumed that all that was +needed, or could be offered, was a chronological outline based on a +harmony of the four canonical Gospels. But to-day history is not +satisfied by this simple procedure. Literary criticism has analysed the +documents, and has already established some important results; and many +questions are still in debate, the answers to which must affect our +judgment of the historical value of the existing narratives. It seems +therefore consonant alike with prudence and reverence to refrain from +attempting to combine afresh into a single picture the materials +derivable from the various documents, and to endeavour instead to +describe the main contents of the sources from which our knowledge of +the Lord Jesus Christ as an historical personage is ultimately drawn, +and to observe the picture of Him which each writer in turn has offered +to us. + + The chief elements of the evidence with which we shall deal are the + following:-- + + 1. First, because earliest in point of time, the references to the + Lord Jesus Christ in the earliest Epistles of St Paul. + + 2. The Gospel according to St Mark. + + 3. A document, no longer extant, which was partially incorporated into + the Gospels of St Matthew and St Luke. + + 4. Further information added by St Matthew's Gospel. + + 5. Further information added by St Luke's Gospel. + + 6. The Gospel according to St John. + + With regard to traditional sayings or doings of our Lord, which were + only written down at a later period, it will suffice to say that those + which have any claim to be genuine are very scanty, and that their + genuineness has to be tested by their correspondence with the great + bulk of information which is derived from the sources already + enumerated. The fictitious literature of the second and third + centuries, known as the Apocryphal Gospels, offers no direct evidence + of any historical value at all: it is chiefly valuable for the + contrast which it presents to the grave simplicity of the canonical + Gospels, and as showing how incapable a later age was of adding + anything to the Gospel history which was not palpably absurd. + +1. _Letters of St Paul._--In the order of chronology we must give the +first place to the earliest letters of St Paul. The first piece of +Christian literature which has an independent existence and to which we +can fix a date is St Paul's first Epistle to the Thessalonians. +Lightfoot dates it in 52 or 53; Harnack places it five years earlier. We +may say, then, that it was written some twenty years after the +Crucifixion. St Paul is not an historian; he is not attempting to +describe what Jesus Christ said or did. He is writing a letter to +encourage a little Christian society which he, a Jew, had founded in a +distant Greek city; and he reminds his readers of many things which he +had told them when he was with them. The evidence, to be collected from +his epistles generally must not detain us here, but we may glance for a +moment at this one letter, because it contains what appears to be the +first mention of Jesus Christ in the literature of the world. Those who +would get a true history cannot afford to neglect their earliest +documents. Now the opening sentence of this letter is as follows: "Paul +and Silvanus and Timothy to the Church of the Thessalonians in God the +Father and the Lord Jesus Christ: Grace to you, and peace." Three men +with Greek or Latin names are writing to some kind of assembly in a city +of Macedonia. The writers are Jews, to judge by their salutation of +"peace," and by their mention of "God the Father," and of the assembly +or society as being "in" Him. But what is this new name which is placed +side by side with the Divine Name--"in God the Father and the Lord Jesus +Christ"? An educated Greek, who knew something (as many at that time +did) of the Greek translation of the ancient Hebrew Scriptures, if he +had picked up this letter before he had ever heard the name of Jesus +Christ, would have been deeply interested in these opening words. He +would have known that "Jesus" was the Greek form of Joshua; that +"Christ" was the Greek rendering of Messiah, or Anointed, the title of +the great King for whom the Jews were looking; he might further have +remembered that "the Lord" is the expression which the Greek Old +Testament constantly uses instead of the ineffable name of God, which we +now call "Jehovah" (q.v.). Who, then, he might well ask is this Jesus +Christ who is lifted to this unexampled height? For it is plain that +Jesus Christ stands in some close relation to "God the Father," and that +on the ground of that relation a society has been built up, apparently +by Jews, in a Greek city far distant from Palestine. He would learn +something as he read on; for the letter makes a passing reference to the +foundation of the society, and to the expansion of its influence in +other parts of Greece; to the conversion of its members from heathenism, +and to the consequent sufferings at the hands of their heathen +neighbours. The writers speak of themselves as "apostles," or +messengers, of Christ; they refer to similar societies "in Christ +Jesus," which they call "churches of God," in Judaea, and they say that +these also suffer from the Jews there, who had "killed the Lord Jesus" +some time before. But they further speak of Jesus as "raised from the +dead," and they refer to the belief which they had led the society to +entertain, that He would come again "from heaven to deliver them from +the coming wrath." Moreover, they urge them not to grieve for certain +members of the society who have already died, saying that, "if we +believe that Jesus died and rose again," we may also be assured that +"the dead in Christ will rise" and will live for ever with Him. Thus the +letter assumes that its readers already have considerable knowledge as +to "the Lord Jesus Christ," and as to His relation to "God the Father," +a knowledge derived from teaching given in person on a former visit. The +purpose of the letter is not to give information as to the past, but to +stimulate its readers to perseverance by giving fresh teaching as to the +future. Historically it is of great value as showing how widely within +twenty or twenty-five years of the Crucifixion a religion which +proclaimed developed theological teaching as to "the Lord Jesus Christ" +had spread in the Roman Empire. We may draw a further conclusion from +this and other letters of St Paul before we go on. St Paul's missionary +work must have created a demand. Those who had heard him and read his +letters would want to know more than he had told them of the earthly +life of the Lord Jesus. They would wish to be able to picture Him to +their minds; and especially to understand what could have led to His +being put to death by the Romans at the requisition of the Jews. St Paul +had not been one of his personal disciples in Galilee or Jerusalem; he +had no memories to relate of His miracles and teaching. Some written +account of these was an obvious need. And we may be sure that any such +narrative concerning One who was so deeply reverenced would be most +carefully scrutinized at a time when many were still living whose +memories went back to the period of Our Lord's public ministry. One such +narrative we now proceed to describe. + +2. _St Mark's Gospel._--The Gospel according to St Mark was written +within fifteen years of the first letter of St Paul to the +Thessalonians--i.e. about 65. It seems designed to meet the requirements +of Christians living far away from Palestine. The author was not an +eye-witness of what he relates, but he writes with the firm security of +a man who has the best authority behind him. The characteristics of his +work confirm the early belief that St Mark wrote this Gospel for the +Christians of Rome under the guidance of St Peter. It is of the first +importance that we should endeavour to see this book as a whole; to gain +the total impression which it makes on the mind; to look at the picture +of Jesus Christ which it offers. That picture must inevitably be an +incomplete representation of Him; it will need to be supplemented by +other pictures which other writers have drawn. But it is important to +consider it by itself, as showing us what impress the Master had made on +the memory of one disciple who had been almost constantly by His side. + + + Beginning of Christ's Mission. + +The book opens thus: "The beginning of the Gospel of Jesus Christ." This +"beginning" is shown to be itself rooted in the past. Hebrew prophets +had foretold that God would send a "messenger"; that a voice would be +heard saying, "Prepare the way of the Lord." And so, in fact, John came, +baptizing in the wilderness and turning the heart of the nation back to +God. But John was only a forerunner. He was himself a prophet, and his +prophecy was this, "He that is stronger than I am is coming after me." +Then, we read, "Jesus came." St Mark introduces Him quite abruptly, just +as he had introduced John; for he is writing for those who already know +the outlines of the story. "Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee." He was +baptized by John, and as He came out of the water He had a vision of the +opened heavens and the Holy Spirit, like a dove, descending upon Him; +and He heard a Voice saying, "Thou art My Son, the Beloved: in Thee I am +well pleased." He then passed away into the wilderness, where He was +tempted by Satan and fed by angels. Then He begins His work; and from +the very first we feel that He fulfils John's sign: He is strong. His +first words are words of strength; "the time is fulfilled"--that is to +say, all the past has been leading up to this great moment; "the kingdom +of God is at hand"--that is to say, all your best hopes are on the point +of being fulfilled; "repent, and believe the Gospel"--that is to say, +turn from your sins and accept the tidings which I bring you. It is but +a brief summary of what He must have said; but we feel its strength. He +does not hesitate to fix all eyes upon Himself. Then we see Him call two +brothers who are fishermen. "Come after Me," He says, "and I will make +you fishers of men." They dropped their nets and went after Him, and so +did two other brothers, their partners; for they all felt the power of +this Master of men: He was strong. He began to teach in the synagogue; +they were astonished at His teaching, for he spoke with authority. He +was interrupted by a demoniac, but He quelled the evil spirit by a word; +He was stronger than the power of evil. When the sun set the Sabbath was +at an end, and the people could carry out their sick into the street +where He was; and He came forth and healed them all. The demoniacs +showed a strange faculty of recognition, and cried that He was "the holy +one of God," and "the Christ," but He silenced them at once. The next +morning He was gone. He had sought a quiet spot for prayer. Peter, one +of those fishermen whom He had called, whose wife's mother had been +healed the day before, found Him and tried to bring Him back. "All men +are seeking Thee," he pleaded. "Let us go elsewhere" was the quiet reply +of one who could not be moved by popular enthusiasm. Once again, we +observe, He fulfils John's sign: He is strong. This is our first sight +of Jesus Christ. The next shows us that this great strength is united to +a most tender sympathy. To touch a leper was forbidden, and the offence +involved ceremonial defilement. Yet when a leper declared that Jesus +could heal him, if only He would, "He put forth His hand and touched +him." The act perfected the leper's faith, and he was healed +immediately. But he disobeyed the command to be silent about the matter, +and the result was that Jesus could not openly enter into the town, but +remained outside in the country. It is the first shadow that falls +across His path; His power finds a check in human wilfulness. Presently +He is in Capernaum again. He heals a paralysed man, but not until He has +come into touch, as we say, with him also, by reaching his deepest need +and declaring the forgiveness of his sins. This declaration disturbs the +rabbis, who regard it as a blasphemous usurpation of Divine authority. +But He claims that "the Son of Man hath authority on earth to forgive +sins." The title which He thus adopts must be considered later. + + + Attitude towards Religious Tradition. + +We may note, as we pass on, that He has again, in the exercise of His +power and His sympathy, come into conflict with the established +religious tradition. This freedom from the trammels of convention +appears yet again when he claims as a new disciple a publican, a man +whose calling as a tax-gatherer for the Roman government made him odious +to every patriotic Jew. Publicans were classed with open sinners; and +when Jesus went to this man's house and met a company of his fellows the +rabbis were scandalized: "Why eateth your Master with publicans and +sinners?" The gentle answer of Jesus showed His sympathy even with those +who opposed Him: "The doctor," He said, "must go to the sick." And +again, when they challenged His disciples for not observing the regular +fasts, He gently reminded them that they themselves relaxed the +discipline of fasting for a bridegroom's friends. And He added, in +picturesque and pregnant sayings, that an old garment could not bear a +new patch, and that old wine-skins could not take new wine. Such +language was at once gentle and strong; without condemning the old, it +claimed liberty for the new. To what lengths would this liberty go? The +sacred badge of the Jews' religion, which marked them off from other men +all the world over, was their observance of the Sabbath. It was a +national emblem, the test of religion and patriotism. The rabbis had +fenced the Sabbath round with minute commands, lest any Jews should even +seem to work on the Sabbath day. Thus, plucking and rubbing the ears of +corn was counted a form of reaping and threshing. The hungry disciples +had so transgressed as they walked through the fields of ripe corn. +Jesus defended them by the example of David, who had eaten the +shewbread, which only priests might eat, and had given it to his hungry +men. Necessity absolves from ritual restrictions. And he went farther, +and proclaimed a principle: "The Sabbath was made for man, and not man +for the Sabbath, so that the Son of Man is lord even of the Sabbath." +For a second time, in justifying His position, He used the expression +"the Son of Man." The words might sound to Jewish ears merely as a +synonym for "man." For Himself, and possibly for some others, they +involved a reference, as appears later, to the "one like to a son of +man" in Daniel's prophecy of the coming kingdom. They emphasized His +relation to humanity as a whole, in contrast to such narrower titles as +"Son of Abraham" or "Son of David." They were fitted to express a wider +mission than that of a merely Jewish Messiah: He stood and spoke for +mankind. The controversy was renewed when a man with a withered hand +appeared in the synagogue on the Sabbath, and the rabbis watched to see +whether Jesus would heal him. For the first time, we read that Jesus was +angry. They were wilfully blind, and they would rather not see good done +than see it done in a way that contradicted their teachings and +undermined their influence. After a sharp remonstrance, He healed the +man by a mere word. And they went out to make a compact with the +followers of the worldly Herod to kill Him, and so to stave off a +religious revolution which might easily have been followed by political +trouble. + + + Recapitulation. + +Up to this point what have we seen? On the stage of Palestine, an +outlying district of the Roman Empire, the home of the Jewish nation, +now subject but still fired with the hope of freedom and even of +universal domination under the leadership of a divinely anointed King, a +new figure has appeared. His appearance has been announced by a +reforming prophet, who has summoned the nation to return to its God, and +promised that a stronger than himself is to follow. In fulfilment of +this promise, who is it that has come? Not a rough prophet in the desert +like John, not a leader striking for political freedom, not a pretender +aiming at the petty throne of the Herods, not even a great rabbi, +building on the patriotic foundation of the Pharisees who had secured +the national life by a new devotion to the ancient law. None of these, +but, on the contrary, an unknown figure from the remote hills of +Galilee, standing on the populous shores of its lake, proclaiming as a +message from God that the highest hopes were about to be fulfilled, +fastening attention on Himself by speaking with authority and attaching +a few followers to His person, exhibiting wonderful powers of healing as +a sign that He has come to fulfil all needs, manifesting at the same +time an unparalleled sympathy, and setting quietly aside every religious +convention which limited the outflow of this sympathy; and as the result +of all this arousing the enthusiasm of astonished multitudes and evoking +the opposition and even the murderous resentment of the religious guides +of the nation. Of His teaching we have heard nothing, except in the +occasional sentences by which He justified some of His unexpected +actions. No party is formed, no programme is announced, no doctrine is +formulated; without assuming the title of Messiah, He offers Himself as +the centre of expectation, and seems to invite an unlimited confidence +in His person. This, then, in brief summary, is what we have seen: the +natural development of an historical situation, a march of events +leading rapidly to a climax; an unexampled strength and an unexampled +sympathy issuing inevitably in an unexampled liberty; and then the +forces of orthodox religion combining with the forces of worldly +indifference in order to suppress a dangerous innovator. Yet the writer +who in a few pages presents us with so remarkable a representation shows +no consciousness at all of artistic treatment. He tells a simple tale in +the plainest words: he never stops to offer a comment or to point a +moral. The wonder of it all is not in the writing, but in the subject +itself. We feel that we have here no skilful composition, but a bare +transcript of what occurred. And we feel besides that such a narrative +as this is the worthy commencement of an answer to the question with +which its readers would have come to it: What was the beginning of the +Gospel? How did the Lord Jesus speak and act? and why did He arouse such +malignant enmity amongst His own people? + +We have followed St Mark's narrative up to the point at which it became +clear that conciliatory argument could have no effect upon the Jewish +religious leaders. The controversy about the Sabbath had brought their +dissatisfaction to a climax. Henceforth Jesus was to them a +revolutionary, who must, by any means, be suppressed. After this +decisive breach a new period opens. Jesus leaves Capernaum, never again, +it would seem, to appear in its synagogue. Henceforward He was to be +found, with His disciples, on the shore of the lake, where vast +multitudes gathered round Him, drawn not only from Galilee and Judaea, +but also from the farther districts north and east of these. He would +take refuge from the crowds in a boat, which carried Him from shore to +shore; and His healing activity was now at its height. Yet in the midst +of this popular enthusiasm He knew that the time had come to prepare for +a very different future, and accordingly a fresh departure was made when +He selected twelve of His disciples for a more intimate companionship, +with a view to a special mission: "He appointed twelve that they might +be with Him, and that He might send them forth to preach and to have +power to cast out the devils." The excitement and pressure of the crowds +was at this time almost overwhelming, and the relatives of Jesus +endeavoured to restrain Him; "for they said, He is mad." The scribes +from Jerusalem offered a more sinister explanation, saying that He was +possessed by the prince of the devils, and that this was why He was able +to control all the evil spirits. He answered them first in figurative +language, speaking of the certain downfall of a kingdom or a family +divided against itself, and of the strong man's house which could not be +looted unless the strong man were first bound. Then followed the +tremendous warning, that to assign His work to Satan, and so to call +good evil, was to blaspheme against the Holy Spirit--the one sin which +admitted of no forgiveness. Presently, when He was told that His mother +and brethren were calling for Him, He disclaimed their interference by +pointing to a new circle of family relationship, consisting of all those +who "do the will of God." + + + Christ's Teaching. + +Again we find Him teaching by the lake, and the pressure of the +multitude is still so great that He sits in a boat while they line the +shore. For the first time we are allowed to hear how He taught them. He +gives them a parable from nature--the sower's three kinds of failure, +compensated by the rich produce of the good soil. At the close He utters +the pregnant saying: "He that hath ears to hear let him hear." When His +disciples afterwards asked for an explanation, He prefaced it by saying +that the inner circle only were intended to understand. The disciples +might learn that the message would often prove fruitless, but that +nevertheless an abundant harvest would result. For the light was +intended to shine, and the hidden was meant to be revealed. Another +parable compared the kingdom of God to seed which, when once planted, +must inevitably germinate; the process was secret and slow, but the +harvest was certain. Again, it was like the tiny mustard-seed which grew +out of all proportion to its original size, till the birds could shelter +in its great branches. These enigmatic speeches were all that the +multitudes got, but the disciples in private were taught their lesson of +hope. As we review this teaching it is very remarkable. The world of +common things is seen to be a lesson-book of the kingdom of God to those +who have eyes to read it. What that kingdom is to be we are not told; we +are only taught that its coming is secret, slow and certain. If nature +in its ordinary processes was thus seen to be full of significance, the +disciples were also to learn that it was under His control. As the boat +from which He had been teaching passed to the other side, the tired +Teacher slept. A sudden storm terrified the disciples, and they roused +Him in alarm. He stilled the storm with a word and rebuked their want of +faith. "Who then is this," they whispered with awe, "that even the wind +and the sea obey Him?" On the opposite hills a solitary spectator had +watched the rise and the lull of the tempest, a fierce demoniac who +dwelt among the tombs on the mountain-side. He believed himself to be +possessed by a regiment of demons. When Jesus bade them go forth, he +begged that they might be allowed to enter into a herd of swine which +was hard by. His request was granted, and the swine rushed over a steep +place into the lake. It is worth while to note that while most of the +cures which Jesus had performed appear to have belonged to this class, +this particular case is described as an exceptionally severe one, and +the visible effect of the removal of his tormentors may have greatly +helped to restore the man's shattered personality. + +We must not attempt to trace in detail the whole of St Mark's story. We +have followed it long enough to see its directness and simplicity, to +observe the naturalness with which one incident succeeds another, and to +watch the gradual manifestation of a personality at once strong and +sympathetic, wielding extraordinary powers, which are placed wholly at +the service of others, and refusing to be hindered from helping men by +the ordinary restrictions of social or religious custom. And we have +seen as the consequence of all this the development of an historical +situation in which the leaders of current orthodoxy ally themselves with +the indifferentism which accepts existing political conditions in order +to put down a disturber of the peace. We must now be content with a +broader survey of the course of events. + + + Healing Powers. + +Two notable cures were wrought on the western side of the lake--the +healing of the woman with the issue and the raising of Jairus's +daughter. In each of these cures prominence is given to the requirement +and the reward of faith--that is to say, of personal confidence in the +Healer: "Thy faith hath made thee whole." "Fear not, only believe." +After this Jesus passed away from the enthusiastic crowds by the lake to +visit His own Nazareth, and to find there a strange incredulity in +regard to one whom the villagers knew as the carpenter. Once more we +come across a mysterious limitation of His powers: "He could not do +there any miracle," save the cure of a few sick folk; and He marvelled +because of their want of faith. The moment had now come when the twelve +disciples were to be entrusted with a share of His healing power and +with the proclamation of repentance. While they are journeying two and +two in various directions St Mark takes occasion to tell us the current +conjectures as to who Jesus really was. Some thought him Elijah or one +of the ancient prophets returned to earth--a suggestion based on popular +tradition; others said He was John the Baptist risen from the dead--the +superstition of Herod who had put him to death. When the disciples +returned, Jesus took them apart for rest; but the crowds reassembled +when they found Him again near the lake, and His yearning compassion for +these shepherdless sheep led Him to give them an impressive sign that He +had indeed come to supply all human needs. Hitherto His power had gone +forth to individuals, but now He fed five thousand men from the scanty +stock of five loaves and two fishes. That night He came to His disciples +walking upon the waters, and in the period which immediately followed +there was once more a great manifestation of healing power. + + + Opposition of the Scribes. + +We have heard nothing for some time of any opposition; but now a fresh +conflict arose with certain scribes who had come down from Jerusalem, +and who complained that the disciples neglected the ceremonial washing +of their hands before meals. Jesus replied with a stern rebuke, +addressing the questioners as hypocrites, and exposing the falsity of a +system which allowed the breach of fundamental commandments in order +that traditional regulations might be observed. He then turned from them +to the multitude, and uttered a saying which in effect annulled the +Jewish distinction between clean and unclean meats. This was a direct +attack on the whole Pharisaic position. The controversy was plainly +irreconcilable, and Jesus withdrew to the north, actually passing +outside the limits of the Holy Land. He desired to remain unknown, and +not to extend His mission to the heathen population, but the +extraordinary faith and the modest importunity of a Syrophenician woman +induced Him to heal her daughter. Then He returned by a circuitous route +to the Sea of Galilee. His return was marked by another miraculous +feeding of the multitude, and also by two healing miracles which present +unusual features. In both the patient was withdrawn from the multitude +and the cure was wrought with the accompaniment of symbolic actions. +Moreover, in one case Jesus is described as groaning before He spoke; in +the other the cure was at first incomplete; and both of the men were +strictly charged to observe silence afterwards. It cannot be a mere +coincidence that these are the last cures which St Mark records as +performed in Galilee. + + + Messianic Teaching. + +In fact the Galilean ministry is now closed. Jesus retires northwards to +Caesarea Philippi, and appears henceforth to devote Himself entirely to +the instruction of his disciples, who needed to be prepared for the +fatal issue which could not long be delayed. He begins by asking them +the popular opinion as to His Person. The suggestions are still the +same--John the Baptist, or Elijah, or some other of the prophets. But +when He asked their own belief, Peter replied, "Thou art the Christ." He +warned them not to make this known; and He proceeded to give them the +wholly new teaching that the Son of Man must suffer and be killed, +adding that after three days He must rise again. Peter took Him aside +and urged Him not to speak so. But He turned to the other disciples and +openly rebuked Peter. And then, addressing a yet wider circle, He +demanded of those who should follow Him a self-sacrifice like His own. +He even used the metaphor of the cross which was carried by the sufferer +to the place of execution. Life, he declared, could only be saved by +voluntary death. He went on to demand an unswerving loyalty to Himself +and His teaching in the face of a threatening world; and then He +promised that some of those who were present should not die before they +had seen the coming of the kingdom of God. We have had no hint of such +teaching as this in the whole of the Galilean ministry. Jesus had stood +forth as the strong healer and helper of men; it was bewildering to hear +Him speak of dying. He had promised to fulfil men's highest +expectations, if only they would not doubt His willingness and power. He +had been enthusiastically reverenced by the common people, though +suspected and attacked by the religious leaders. He had spoken of "the +will of God" as supreme, and had set aside ceremonial traditions. He had +announced the nearness of the kingdom of God, but had described it only +in parables from nature. He had adopted the vague title of the "Son of +Man," but had refrained from proclaiming Himself as the expected +Messiah. At last the disciples had expressed their conviction that He +was the Christ, and immediately He tells them that He goes to meet +humiliation and death as the necessary steps to a resurrection and a +coming of the Son of Man in the glory of His Father. It was an amazing +announcement and He plainly added that their path like His own lay +through death to life. The dark shadows of this picture of the future +alone could impress their minds, but a week later three of them were +allowed a momentary vision of the light which should overcome the +darkness. They saw Jesus transfigured in a radiance of glory: Elijah +appeared with Moses, and they talked with Jesus. A cloud came over them, +and a Voice, like that of the Baptism, proclaimed "This is My Son, the +Beloved: hear ye Him." They were bidden to keep the vision secret till +the Son of Man should have risen from the dead. It was in itself a +foretaste of resurrection, and the puzzled disciples remembered that the +scribes declared that before the resurrection Elijah would appear. Their +minds were confused as to what resurrection was meant. Jesus told them +that Elijah had in fact come; and He also said that the Scriptures +foretold the sufferings of the Son of Man. But the situation was wholly +beyond their grasp, and the very language of St Mark at this point seems +to reflect the confusion of their minds. + +The other disciples, in the meantime, had been vainly endeavouring to +cure a peculiarly violent case of demoniacal possession. Jesus Himself +cast out the demon, but not before the suffering child had been rendered +seemingly lifeless by a final assault. Then they journeyed secretly +through Galilee towards Judaea and the eastern side of the Jordan. On +the way Jesus reinforced the new lesson of self-renunciation. He offered +the little children as the type of those to whom the kingdom of God +belonged; and He disappointed a young and wealthy aspirant to His +favour, amazing His disciples by saying that the kingdom of God could +hardly be entered by the rich; he who forsook all should have all, and +more than all; the world's estimates were to be reversed--the first +should be last and the last first. They were now journeying towards +Jerusalem, and the prediction of the Passion was repeated. James and +John, who had witnessed the Transfiguration, and who were confident of +the coming glory, asked for the places nearest to their Master, and +professed their readiness to share His sufferings. When the other ten +were aggrieved Jesus declared that greatness was measured by service, +not by rank; and that the Son of Man had come not to be served but to +serve, and to give His life to ransom many other lives. As they came up +from the Jordan valley and passed through Jericho, an incident occurred +which signalized the beginning of the final period. A blind man appealed +to Jesus as "the Son of David," and was answered by the restoration of +his sight; and when, a little later, Jesus fulfilled an ancient prophecy +by mounting an ass and riding into Jerusalem, the multitudes snouted +their welcome to the returning "kingdom of David." Hitherto He had not +permitted any public recognition of His Messiahship, but now He entered +David's city in lowly but significant pomp as David's promised heir. + + + Entry into Jerusalem. + +Two incidents illustrate the spirit of judgment with which He approached +the splendid but apostate city. On His arrival He had carefully observed +the condition of the Temple, and had retired to sleep outside the city. +On the following morning, finding no fruit on a fig-tree in full leaf, +He said, "Let no man eat fruit of thee henceforth for ever." It was a +parable of impending doom. Then, when He entered the Temple, He swept +away with a fiery zeal the merchants and merchandise which had turned +God's House into "a robbers' den." The act was at once an assertion of +commanding authority and an open condemnation of the religious rulers +who had permitted the desecration. Its immediate effect was to make new +and powerful enemies; for the chief priests, as well as their rivals the +scribes, were now inflamed against Him. At the moment they could do +nothing, but the next day they formally demanded whence He derived His +right so to act. When they refused to answer His question as to the +authority of John the Baptist, He in turn refused to tell them His own. +But He uttered a parable which more than answered them. The owner of the +vineyard, who had sent his servants and last of all his only son, would +visit their rejection and murder on the wicked husbandmen. He added a +reminder that the stone which the builders refused was, after all, the +Divine choice. They were restrained from arresting Him by fear of the +people, to whom the meaning of the parable was plain. They therefore +sent a joint deputation of Pharisees and Herodians to entrap Him with a +question as to the Roman tribute, in answering which He must either lose +His influence with the people or else lay Himself open to a charge of +treason. When they were baffled, the Sadducees, to whose party the chief +priests belonged, sought in vain to pose Him with a problem as to the +resurrection of the dead; and after that a more honest scribe confessed +the truth of His teaching as to the supremacy of love to God and man +over all the sacrificial worship of the Temple, and was told in reply +that he was not far from the kingdom of God. Jesus Himself now put a +question as to the teaching of the scribes which identified the Messiah +with "the Son of David"; and then He denounced those scribes whose pride +and extortion and hypocrisy were preparing for them a terrible doom. +Before He left the Temple, never to return, one incident gave Him pure +satisfaction. His own teaching that all must be given for God was +illustrated by the devotion of a poor widow who cast into the treasury +the two tiny coins which were all that she had. As He passed out He +foretold, in words which corresponded to the doom of the fig-tree, the +utter demolition of the imposing but profitless Temple; and presently He +opened up to four of His disciples a vision of the future, warning them +against false Christs, bidding them expect great sorrows, national and +personal, declaring that the gospel must be proclaimed to all the +nations, and that after a great tribulation the Son of Man should +appear, "coming with the clouds of heaven." The day and the hour none +knew, neither the angels nor the Son, but only the Father: it was the +duty of all to watch. + + + Final Scenes. + +We now come to the final scenes. The passover was approaching, and plots +were being laid for His destruction. He Himself spoke mysteriously of +His burial, when a woman poured a vase of costly ointment upon His head. +To some this seemed a wasteful act; but He accepted it as a token of the +love which gave all that was in its power, and He promised that it +should never cease to illustrate His Gospel. Two of the disciples were +sent into Jerusalem to prepare the Passover meal. During the meal Jesus +declared that He should be betrayed by one of their number. Later in the +evening He gave them bread and wine, proclaiming that these were His +body and His blood--the tokens of His giving Himself to them, and of a +new covenant with God through His death. As they withdrew to the Mount +of Olives He foretold their general flight, but promised that when He +was risen He would go before them into Galilee. Peter protested +faithfulness unto death, but was told that he would deny his Master +three times that very night. Then coming to a place called Gethsemane, +He bade the disciples wait while He should pray; and taking the three +who had been with Him at the Transfiguration He told them to tarry near +Him and to watch. He went forward, and fell on the ground, praying that +"the cup might be taken away" from Him, but resigning Himself to His +Father's will. Presently Judas arrived with a band of armed men, and +greeted his Master with a kiss--the signal for His arrest. The disciples +fled in panic, after one of them had wounded the high priest's servant. +Only a nameless young man tried to follow, but he too fled when hands +were laid upon him. Before the high priest Jesus was charged, among +other accusations, with threatening to destroy the Temple; but the +matter was brought to an issue when He was plainly asked if He were "the +Christ, the Son of the Blessed One." He answered that He was, and He +predicted that they should see the fulfilment of Daniel's vision of the +Son of Man sitting on the right hand of power. Thereupon He was +condemned to death for manifest blasphemy, and a scene of cruel mockery +followed. Meanwhile Peter in the court below had been sitting with the +servants, and in his anxiety to escape recognition had thrice declared +that he did not know Jesus. Thus the night passed, and in the morning +Jesus was taken to Pilate, for the Jewish council had no power to +execute their decree of death. Pilate's question, "Art Thou the King of +the Jews?" shows the nature of the accusation which was thought likely +to tell with the Roman governor. He had already in bonds one leader of +revolution, whose hands were stained with blood--a striking contrast to +the calm and silent figure who stood before him. At this moment a crowd +came up to ask the fulfilment of his annual act of grace, the pardon of +a prisoner at the Passover. Pilate, discerning that it was the envy of +the rulers which sought to destroy an inconvenient rival, offered "the +King of the Jews" as the prisoner to be released. But the chief priests +succeeded in making the people ask for Barabbas and demand the +crucifixion of Jesus. Pilate fulfilled his pledge by giving them the man +of their choice, and Jesus, whom he had vainly hoped to release on a +satisfactory pretext, he now condemned to the shameful punishments of +scourging and crucifixion; for the cross, as Jesus had foreseen, was the +inevitable fate of a Jewish pretender to sovereignty. The Roman soldiers +mocked "the King of the Jews" with a purple robe and a crown of thorns. +As they led Him out they forced the cross, which the sufferer commonly +carried, upon the shoulders of one Simon of Cyrene, whose son's +Alexander and Rufus are here mentioned--probably as being known to St +Mark's readers; at any rate, it is interesting to note that, in writing +to the Christians at Rome, St Paul a few years earlier had sent a +greeting to "Rufus and his mother." Over the cross, which stood between +two others, was the condemnatory inscription, "The King of the Jews." +This was the Roman designation of Him whom the Jewish rulers tauntingly +addressed as "the King of Israel." The same revilers, with a deeper +truth than they knew, summed up the mystery of His life and death when +they said, "He saved others, Himself He cannot save." + +A great darkness shrouded the scene for three hours, and then, in His +native Aramaic, Jesus cried in the words of the Psalm, "My God, My God, +why has Thou forsaken Me?" One other cry He uttered, and the end came, +and at that moment the veil of the Temple was rent from top to +bottom--an omen of fearful import to those who had mocked Him, even on +the cross, as the destroyer of the Temple, who in three days should +build it anew. The disciples of Jesus do not appear as spectators of the +end, but only a group of women who had ministered to His needs in +Galilee, and had followed Him up to Jerusalem. These women watched His +burial, which was performed by a Jewish councillor, to whom Pilate had +granted the body after the centurion had certified the reality of the +unexpectedly early death. The body was placed in a rock-hewn tomb, and a +great stone was rolled against the entrance. Sunset brought on the +Jewish sabbath, but the next evening the women brought spices to anoint +the body, and at sunrise on the third day they arrived at the tomb, and +saw that the stone was rolled away. They entered and found a young man +in a white robe, who said, "He is risen, He is not here," and bade them +say to His disciples and Peter, "He goeth before you into Galilee; there +ye shall see Him, as He said unto you." In terror they fled from the +tomb, "and they said nothing to any man, for they feared...." + +So with a broken sentence the narrative ends. The document is imperfect, +owing probably to the accidental loss of its last leaf. In very early +times attempts were made to furnish it with a fitting close; but neither +of the supplements which we find in manuscripts can be regarded as +coming from the original writer. If we ask what must, on grounds of +literary probability, have been added before the record was closed, we +may content ourselves here with saying that some incident must certainly +have been narrated which should have realized the twice-repeated promise +that Jesus would be seen by His disciples in Galilee. + +3. _Document used by St Matthew and St Luke._--We pass on now to compare +with this narrative of St Mark another very early document which no +longer exists in an independent form, but which can be partially +reconstructed from the portions of it which have been embodied in the +Gospels of St Matthew and St Luke. + +When we review St Mark's narrative as a whole we are struck, first of +all, with its directness and simplicity. It moves straightforward upon a +well-defined path. It shows us the Lord Jesus entering on the mission +predicted by the Baptist without declaring Himself to be the Messiah; +attracting the multitudes in Galilee by His healing power and His +unbounded sympathy, and at the same time awakening the envy and +suspicion of the leaders of religion; training a few disciples till they +reach the conviction that He is the Christ, and then, but not till then, +admitting them into the secret of His coming sufferings, and preparing +them for a mission in which they also must sacrifice themselves; then +journeying to Jerusalem to fulfil the destiny which He foresaw, +accepting the responsibility of the Messianic title, only to be +condemned by the religious authorities as a blasphemer and handed over +to the Roman power as a pretender to the Jewish throne. That is the +story in its barest outline. It is adequate to its presumed purpose of +offering to distant Gentile converts a clear account of their Master's +earthly work, and of the causes which led to His rejection by His own +people and to His death by Roman crucifixion. The writer makes no +comment on the wonderful story which he tells. Allusions to Jewish +customs are, indeed, explained as they occur, but apart from this the +narrative appears to be a mere transcript of remembered facts. The +actors are never characterized; their actions are simply noted down; +there is no praise and no blame. To this simplicity and directness of +narrative we may in large measure attribute the fact that when two later +evangelists desired to give fuller accounts of our Lord's life they both +made this early book the basis of their work. In those days there was no +sense of unfairness in using up existing materials in order to make a +more complete treatise. Accordingly so much of St Mark's Gospel has been +taken over word for word in the Gospels of St Luke and St Matthew that, +if every copy of it had perished, we could still reconstruct large +portions of it by carefully comparing their narratives. They did not +hesitate, however, to alter St Mark's language where it seemed to them +rough or obscure, for each of them had a distinctive style of his own, +and St Luke was a literary artist of a high order. Moreover, though they +both accepted the general scheme of St Mark's narrative, each of them +was obliged to omit many incidents in order to find room for other +material which was at their disposal, by which they were able to +supplement the deficiencies of the earlier book. The most conspicuous +deficiency was in regard to our Lord's teaching, of which, as we have +seen, St Mark had given surprisingly little. Here they were happily in a +position to make a very important contribution. + +For side by side with St Mark's Gospel there was current in the earliest +times another account of the doings and sayings of Jesus Christ. Our +knowledge of it to-day is entirely derived from a comparison of the two +later evangelists who embodied large portions of it, working it in and +out of the general scheme which they derived from St Mark, according as +each of them thought most appropriate. St Luke appears to have taken it +over in sections for the most part without much modification; but in St +Matthew's Gospel its incidents seldom find an independent place; the +sayings to which they gave rise are often detached from their context +and grouped with sayings of a similar character so as to form +considerable discourses, or else they are linked on to sayings which +were uttered on other occasions recorded by St Mark. It is probable that +many passages of St Luke's Gospel which have no parallel in St Matthew +were also derived from this early source; but this is not easily capable +of distinct proof; and, therefore, in order to gain a secure conception +of the document we must confine ourselves at first to those parts of it +which were borrowed by both writers. We shall, however, look to St Luke +in the main as preserving for us the more nearly its original form. + +We proceed now to give an outline of the contents of this document. To +begin with, it contained a fuller account of the teaching of John the +Baptist. St Mark tells us only his message of hope; but here we read the +severer language with which he called men to repentance. We hear his +warning of "the coming wrath": his mighty Successor will baptize with +fire; the fruitless tree will be cast into the fire; the chaff will be +separated from the wheat and burned with unquenchable fire; the claim to +be children of Abraham will not avail, for God can raise up other +children to Abraham, if it be from the stones of the desert. Next, we +have a narrative of the Temptation, of which St Mark had but recorded +the bare fact. It was grounded on the Divine sonship, which we already +know was proclaimed at the Baptism. In a threefold vision Jesus is +invited to enter upon His inheritance at once; to satisfy His own needs, +to accept of earthly dominion, to presume on the Divine protection. The +passage stands almost alone as a revelation of inner conflict in a life +which outwardly was marked by unusual calm. + + + The Sermon on the Mount. + +Not far from the beginning of the document there stood a remarkable +discourse delivered among the hills above the lake. It opens with a +startling reversal of the common estimates of happiness and misery. In +the light of the coming kingdom it proclaims the blessedness of the +poor, the hungry, the sad and the maligned; and the woefulness of the +rich, the full, the merry and the popular. It goes on to reverse the +ordinary maxims of conduct. Enemies are to be loved, helped, blessed, +prayed for. No blow is to be returned; every demand, just or unjust, is +to be granted: in short, "as ye desire that men should do to you, do in +like manner to them." Then the motive and the model of this conduct are +adduced: "Love your enemies ... and ye shall be sons of the Highest; for +He is kind to the thankless and wicked. Be merciful, as your Father is +merciful; and judge not, and ye shall not be judged." We note in passing +that this is the first introduction of our Lord's teaching of the +fatherhood of God. God is your Father, He says in effect; you will be +His sons if like Him you will refuse to make distinctions, loving +without looking for a return, sure that in the end love will not be +wholly lost. Then follow grave warnings--generous towards others, you +must be strict with yourselves; only the good can truly do good; hearers +of these words must be doers also, if they would build on the rock and +not on the sand. So, with the parable of the two builders, the discourse +reached its formal close. + +It was followed by the entry of Jesus into Capernaum, where He was asked +to heal the servant of a Roman officer. This man's unusual faith, based +on his soldierly sense of discipline, surprised the Lord, who declared +that it had no equal in Israel itself. Somewhat later messengers arrived +from the imprisoned Baptist, who asked if Jesus were indeed "the coming +One" of whom he had spoken. Jesus pointed to His acts of healing the +sick, raising the dead and proclaiming good news for the poor; thereby +suggesting to those who could understand that He fulfilled the ancient +prophecy of the Messiah. He then declared the greatness of John in +exalted terms, adding, however, that the least in the kingdom of God was +John's superior. Then He complained of the unreasonableness of an age +which refused John as too austere and Himself as too lax and as being +"the friend of publicans and sinners." This narrative clearly +presupposes a series of miracles already performed, and also such a +conflict with the Pharisees as we have seen recorded by St Mark. +Presently we find an offer of discipleship met by the warning that "the +Son of Man" is a homeless wanderer; and then the stern refusal of a +request for leave to perform a father's funeral rites. + + + Other Sayings of Jesus. + +Close upon these incidents follows a special mission of disciples, +introduced by the saying: "The harvest is great, but the labourers are +few." The disciples as they journey are to take no provisions, but to +throw themselves on the bounty of their hearers; they are to heal the +sick and to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God. The city that +rejects them shall have a less lenient judgment than Sodom; Tyre and +Sidon shall be better off than cities like Chorazin and Bethsaida which +have seen His miracles; Capernaum, favoured above all, shall sink to the +deepest depth. If words could be sterner than these, they are those +which follow: "He that heareth you heareth Me; and he that rejecteth you +rejecteth Me; but He that rejecteth Me rejecteth Him that sent Me." This +reference to His own personal mission is strikingly expanded in words +which He uttered on the return of the disciples. After thanking the +Father for revealing to babes what He hides from the wise, He continued +in mysterious language: "All things are delivered to Me by My Father; +and none knoweth who the Son is but the Father; and who the Father is +but the Son, and he to whom the Son chooseth to reveal Him." Happy were +the disciples in seeing and hearing what prophets and kings had looked +for in vain. + +When His disciples, having watched Him at prayer, desired to be taught +how to pray, they were bidden to address God as "Father"; to ask first +for the hallowing of the Father's name, and the coming of His kingdom; +then for their daily food, for the pardon of their sins and for freedom +from temptation. It was the prayer of a family--that the sons might be +true to the Father, and the Father true to the sons; and they were +further encouraged by a parable of the family: "Ask and ye shall +receive.... Every one that asketh receiveth": for the heavenly Father +will do more, not less, than an earthly father would do for his +children. After He had cast out a dumb demon, some said that His power +was due to Beelzebub. He accordingly asked them by whom the Jews +themselves cast out demons; and He claimed that His power was a sign +that the kingdom of God was come. But He warned them that demons cast +out once might return in greater force. When they asked for a sign from +heaven, He would give them no more than the sign of Jonah, explaining +that the repentant Ninevites should condemn the present generation: so, +too, should the queen of Sheba; for that which they were now rejecting +was more than Jonah and more than Solomon. Yet further warnings were +given when a Pharisee invited Him to his table, and expressed surprise +that He did not wash His hands before the meal. The cleansing of +externals and the tithing of garden-produce, He declares, have usurped +the place of judgment and the love of God. Woe is pronounced upon the +Pharisees: they are successors to the murderers of the prophets. Then +citing from Genesis and 2 Chronicles, the first and last books in the +order of the Jewish Bible, He declared that all righteous blood from +that of Abel to that of Zachariah should be required of that generation. +After this the disciples are encouraged not to fear their murderous +opponents. The very sparrows are God's care--much more shall they be; +the hairs of their head are all counted. In the end the Son of Man will +openly own those who have owned Him before men. For earthly needs no +thought is to be taken: the birds and the flowers make no provision for +their life and beauty. God will give food and raiment to those who are +seeking His kingdom. Earthly goods should be given away in exchange for +the imperishable treasures. Suddenly will the Son of Man come: happy the +servant whom His Master finds at his appointed task. In brief parables +the kingdom of God is likened to a mustard-seed and to leaven. When +Jesus is asked if the saved shall be few, He replies that the door is a +narrow one. Then, changing His illustration, He says that many shall +seek entrance in vain; for the master of the house will refuse to +recognize them. But while they are excluded, a multitude from all +quarters of the earth shall sit down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and +the prophets in the kingdom of God. + +His eyes are now fixed on Jerusalem, where, like the prophets, He must +die. "Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how often have I desired to gather thy +children together, as a bird her brood beneath her wings, but ye +refused." "Ye shall not see Me, until ye shall say, Blessed is He that +cometh in the name of the Lord." After this we have the healing of a +dropsical man on the Sabbath, with a reply to the murmuring Pharisees; +and then a parable of the failure of invited guests and the filling of +their places from the streets. A few fragmentary passages remain, of +which it will be sufficient to cite a word or two to call them to +remembrance. There is a warning that he who forsakes not father and +mother cannot be a disciple, nor he who does not bear his cross. +Savourless salt is fit for nothing. The lost sheep is brought home with +a special joy. "Ye cannot serve God and Mammon." Scandals must arise, +but woe to him through whom they arise. The Son of Man will come with +the suddenness of lightning; the days of Noah and the days of Lot will +find a parallel in their blind gaiety and their inevitable disaster. He +who seeks to gain his life will lose it. "One shall be taken, and the +other left." "Where the carcase is, the vultures will gather." Then, +lastly, we have a parable of the servant who failed to employ the money +entrusted to him; and a promise that the disciples shall sit on twelve +thrones to judge the twelve tribes of Israel. We cannot say by our +present method of determination, how this document closed; for in the +narratives of the Passion and the Resurrection St Matthew and St Luke +only coincide in passages which they have taken from St Mark. + + + Comparison with St Mark. + +Now that we have reconstructed in outline this early account of the Lord +Jesus, so far as it has been used by both the later evangelists, we may +attempt to compare the picture which it presents to us with that which +was offered by St Mark. But in doing so we must remember that we know it +only in fragments. There can be little doubt that much more of it is +embedded in St Luke's Gospel, and something more also in St Matthew's; +but in order to stand on firm ground we have considered thus far only +those portions which both of these writers elected to use in composing +their later narratives. To go beyond this is a work of delicate +discrimination. It can only be effected by a close examination of the +style and language of the document, which may enable us in some +instances to identify with comparative security certain passages which +are found in St Luke, but which St Matthew did not regard as suitable +for his purpose. Among these we may venture, quite tentatively, to +mention the sermon at Nazareth which opened with a passage from the Book +of Isaiah, the raising of the widow's son at Nain, and the parable of +the good Samaritan. These are found in St Luke, but not in St Matthew. +On the other hand, it is not improbable that the wonderful words which +begin, "Come unto Me all ye that labour," were drawn by St Matthew from +the same document, though they are not recorded by St Luke. But here we +have entered upon a region of less certainty, in which critical +scholarship has still much to do; and these passages are mentioned here +only as a reminder that the document must have contained more than what +St Matthew and St Luke each independently determined to borrow from it. +Looking, then, at the portions which we have indicated as having this +two-fold testimony, we see that in their fragmentary condition we cannot +trace the clear historical development which was so conspicuous a +feature of St Mark's Gospel; yet we need not conclude that in its +complete form it failed to present an orderly narrative. Next, we see +that wherever we are able to observe its method of relating an incident, +as in the case of the healing of the centurion's servant, we have the +same characteristics of brevity and simplicity which we admired in St +Mark. No comment is made by the narrator; he tells his tale in the +fewest words and passes on. Again, we note that it supplies just what we +feel we most need when we have reached the end of St Mark's story, a +fuller account of the teaching which Jesus gave to His disciples and to +the people at large. And we see that the substance of that teaching is +in complete harmony with the scattered hints that we found in St Mark. +If the fatherhood of God stands out clearly, we may remember a passage +of St Mark also which speaks of "the Heavenly Father" as forgiving those +who forgive. If prayer is encouraged, we may also remember that the same +passage of St Mark records the saying: "All things whatsoever ye pray +for and ask, believe that ye have received them and ye shall have them." +If in one mysterious passage Jesus speaks of "the Father" and "the +Son"--terms with which the Gospel of St John has made us familiar--St +Mark also in one passage uses the same impressive terms--"the Son" and +"the Father." There are, of course, many other parallels with St Mark, +and at some points the two documents seem to overlap and to relate the +same incidents in somewhat different forms. There is the same use of +parables from nature, the same incisiveness of speech and employment of +paradox, the same demand to sacrifice all to Him and for His cause, the +same importunate claim made by Him on the human soul. + + + The Element of Warning. + +But the contrast between the two writers is even more important for our +purpose. No one can read through the passages to which we have pointed +without feeling the solemn sternness of the great Teacher, a sternness +which can indeed be traced here and there in St Mark, but which does not +give its tone to the whole of his picture. Here we see Christ standing +forth in solitary grandeur, looking with the eyes of another world on a +society which is blindly hastening to its dissolution. It may be that if +this document had come down to us in its entirety, we should have +gathered from it an exaggerated idea of the severity of our Lord's +character. Certain it is that as we read over these fragments we are +somewhat startled by the predominance of the element of warning, and by +the assertion of rules of conduct which seem almost inconsistent with a +normal condition of settled social life. The warning to the nation +sounded by the Baptist, that God could raise up a new family for +Abraham, is heard again and again in our Lord's teaching. Gentile faith +puts Israel to shame. The sons of the kingdom will be left outside, +while strangers feast with Abraham. Capernaum shall go to perdition; +Jerusalem shall be a desolate ruin. The doom of the nation is +pronounced; its fate is imminent; there is no ray of hope for the +existing constitution of religion and society. As to individuals within +the nation, the despised publicans and sinners will find God's favour +before the self-satisfied representatives of the national religion. In +such a condition of affairs it is hardly surprising to find that the +great and stern Teacher congratulates the poor and has nothing but pity +for the rich; that He has no interest at all in comfort or property. If +a man asks you for anything, give it him; if he takes it without asking, +do not seek to recover it. Nothing material is worth a thought; anxiety +is folly; your Father, who feeds His birds and clothes His flowers, will +feed and clothe you. Rise to the height of your sonship to God; love +your enemies even as God loves His; and if they kill you, God will care +for you still; fear them not, fear only Him who loves you all. + +Here is a new philosophy of life, offering solid consolation amid the +ruin of a world. We have no idea who the disciple may have been who thus +seized upon the sadder elements of the teaching of Jesus; but we may +well think of him as one of those who were living in Palestine in the +dark and threatening years of internecine strife, when the Roman eagles +were gathering round their prey, and the first thunder was muttering of +the storm which was to leave Jerusalem a heap of stones. At such a +moment the warnings of our Lord would claim a large place in a record of +His teaching, and the strange comfort which He had offered would be the +only hope which it would seem possible to entertain. + + + The Earlier Narratives. + +4. _Additions by the Gospel according to St Matthew._--We have now +examined in turn the two earliest pictures which have been preserved to +us of the life of Jesus Christ. The first portrays Him chiefly by a +record of His actions, and illustrates His strength, His sympathy, and +His freedom from conventional restraints. It shows the disturbing forces +of these characteristics, which aroused the envy and apprehension of the +leaders of religion. The first bright days of welcome and popularity are +soon clouded: the storm begins to lower. More and more the Master +devotes Himself to the little circle of His disciples, who are taught +that they, as well as He, can only triumph through defeat, succeed by +failure, and find their life in giving it away. At length, in fear of +religious innovations and pretending that He is a political usurper, the +Jews deliver Him up to die on a Roman cross. The last page of the story +is torn away, just at the point when it has been declared that He is +alive again and about to show Himself to His disciples. The second +picture has a somewhat different tone. It is mainly a record of +teaching, and the teaching is for the most part stern and paradoxical. +It might be described as revolutionary. It is good tidings to the poor: +it sets no store on property and material comfort: it pities the wealthy +and congratulates the needy. It reverses ordinary judgments and +conventional maxims of conduct. It proclaims the downfall of +institutions, and compares the present blind security to the days of +Noah and of Lot: a few only shall escape the coming overthrow. Yet even +in this sterner setting the figure portrayed is unmistakably the same. +There is the same strength, the same tender sympathy, the same freedom +from convention: there is the same promise to fulfil the highest hopes, +the same surrender of life, and the same imperious demand on the lives +of others. No thoughtful man who examines and compares these pictures +can doubt that they are genuine historical portraits of a figure wholly +different from any which had hitherto appeared on the world's stage. +They are beyond the power of human invention. They are drawn with a +simplicity which is their own guarantee. If we had these, and these +only, we should have an adequate explanation of the beginnings of +Christianity. There would still be a great gap to be filled before we +reached the earliest letters of St Paul; but yet we should know what the +Apostle meant when he wrote to "the Church of the Thessalonians in God +the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ," and reminded them how they had +"turned from idols to serve the living and true God, and to wait for His +Son from heaven, whom He raised from the dead, even Jesus who delivereth +us from the wrath to come." + +If these two narratives served the first needs of Christian believers, +it is easy to see that they would presently stimulate further activity +in the same direction. For, to begin with, they were obviously +incomplete: many incidents and teachings known to the earliest disciples +found no place in them; and they contained no account of the life of +Jesus Christ before His public ministry, no record of His pedigree, His +birth or His childhood. Secondly, their form left much to be desired; +for one of them at least was rude in style, sometimes needlessly +repetitive and sometimes brief to obscurity. Moreover the very fact that +there were two challenged a new and combined work which perhaps should +supersede both. + + + The Gospel of St Matthew. + +Accordingly, some years after the fall of Jerusalem--we cannot tell the +exact date or the author's name--the book which we call the Gospel +according to St Matthew was written to give the Palestinian Christians a +full account of Jesus Christ, which should present Him as the promised +Messiah, fulfilling the ancient Hebrew prophecies, proclaiming the +kingdom of heaven, and founding the Christian society. The writer takes +St Mark as his basis, but he incorporates into the story large portions +of the teaching which he has found in the other document. He groups his +materials with small regard to chronological order; and he fashions out +of the many scattered sayings of our Lord continuous discourses, +everywhere bringing like to like, with considerable literary art. A wide +knowledge of the Old Testament supplies him with a text to illustrate +one incident after another; and so deeply is he impressed with the +correspondence between the life of Christ and the words of ancient +prophecy, that he does not hesitate to introduce his quotations by the +formula "that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet." + +His Hebrew instinct leads him to begin with a table of genealogy, +artificially constructed in groups of fourteen generations--from Abraham +to David, from David to the Captivity, and from the Captivity to the +Christ. The royal descent of the Messiah is thus declared, and from the +outset His figure is set against the background of the Old Testament. He +then proceeds to show that, though His lineage is traced through +Joseph's ancestors, He was but the adopted son of Joseph, and he tells +the story of the Virgin-birth. The coming of the Child draws Eastern +sages to his cradle and fills the court of Herod with suspicious fears. +The cruel tyrant kills the babes of Bethlehem, but the Child has been +withdrawn by a secret flight into Egypt, whence he presently returns to +the family home at Nazareth in Galilee. All this is necessarily fresh +material, for the other records had dealt only with the period of public +ministry. We have no knowledge of the source from which it was drawn. +From the historical standpoint its value must be appraised by the +estimate which is formed of the writer's general trustworthiness as a +narrator, and by the extent to which the incidents receive confirmation +from other quarters. The central fact of the Virgin-birth, as we shall +presently see, has high attestation from another early writer. + + + Discourses and Parables. + +The next addition which St Matthew's Gospel makes to our knowledge is of +a different kind. It consists of various important sayings of our Lord, +which are combined with discourses found in the second document and are +worked up into the great utterance which we call the Sermon on the +Mount. Such grouping of materials is a feature of this Gospel, and was +possibly designed for purposes of public instruction; so that continuous +passages might be read aloud in the services of the Church, just as +passages from the Old Testament were read in the Jewish synagogues. This +motive would account not only for the arrangement of the material, but +also for certain changes in the language which seem intended to remove +difficulties, and to interpret what is ambiguous or obscure. An example +of such interpretation meets us at the outset. The startling saying, +"Blessed are ye poor," followed by the woe pronounced upon the rich, +might seem like a condemnation of the very principle of property; and +when the Christian Church had come to be organized as a society +containing rich and poor, the heart of the saying was felt to be more +truly and clearly expressed in the words, "Blessed are the poor in +spirit." This interpretative process may be traced again and again in +this Gospel, which frequently seems to reflect the definite tradition of +a settled Church. + +Apart from the important parables of the tares, the pearl and the net, +the writer adds little to his sources until we come to the remarkable +passage in ch. xvi., in which Peter the Rock is declared to be the +foundation of the future Church, and is entrusted with the keys of the +kingdom of heaven. The function of "binding and loosing," here assigned +to him, is in identical terms assigned to the disciples generally in a +passage in ch. xviii. in which for the second time we meet with the word +"Church"--a word not found elsewhere in the Gospels. There is no +sufficient ground for denying that these sayings were uttered by our +Lord, but the fact that they were now first placed upon record +harmonizes with what has been said already as to the more settled +condition of the Christian society which this Gospel appears to reflect. + +The parables of the two debtors, the labourers in the vineyard, the two +sons, the ten virgins, the sheep and goats, are recorded only by this +evangelist. But by way of incident he has almost nothing to add till we +come to the closing scenes. The earthquake at the moment of our Lord's +death and the subsequent appearance of departed saints are strange +traditions unattested by other writers. The same is to be said of the +soldiers placed to guard the tomb, and of the story that they had been +bribed to say that the sacred body had been stolen while they slept. On +the other hand, the appearance of the risen Christ to the women may have +been taken from the lost pages of St Mark, being the sequel to the +narrative which is broken off abruptly in this Gospel: and it is not +improbable that St Mark's Gospel was the source of the great commission +to preach and baptize with which St Matthew closes, though the wording +of it has probably been modified in accordance with a settled tradition. + +The work which the writer of this Gospel thus performed received the +immediate sanction of a wide acceptance. It met a definite spiritual +need. It presented the Gospel in a suitable form for the edification of +the Church; and it confirmed its truth by constant appeals to the Old +Testament scriptures, thus manifesting its intimate relation with the +past as the outcome of a long preparation and as the fulfilment of a +Divine purpose. No Gospel is so frequently quoted by the early +post-apostolic writers: none has exercised a greater influence upon +Christianity, and consequently upon the history of the world. + +Yet from the purely historical point of view its evidential value is not +the same as that of St Mark. Its facts for the most part are simply +taken over from the earlier evangelist, and the historian must obviously +prefer the primary source. Its true importance lies in its attestation +of the genuineness of the earlier portraits to which it has so little to +add, in its recognition of the relation of Christ to the whole purpose +of God as revealed in the Old Testament, and in its interpretation of +the Gospel message in its bearing on the living Church of the primitive +days. + +5. _Additions by St Luke._--While the needs of Jewish believers were +amply met by St Matthew's Gospel, a like service was rendered to Gentile +converts by a very different writer. St Luke was a physician who had +accompanied St Paul on his missionary journeys. He undertook a history +of the beginnings of Christianity, two volumes of which have come down +to us, entitled the Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles. His Gospel, +like St Matthew's, is founded on St Mark, with the incorporation of +large portions of the second document of which we have spoken above. But +the way in which the two writers have used the same materials is +strikingly different. In St Matthew's Gospel the original sources are +frequently blended: the incidents of St Mark are rearranged and often +grouped afresh according to subject matter: harsh and ambiguous +sentences of both documents are toned down or interpreted. St Luke, on +the contrary, chooses between parallel stories of his two sources, +preferring neither to duplicate nor to combine: he incorporates St Mark +in continuous sections, following him alone for a time, then leaving him +entirely, and then returning to introduce a new block of his narrative. +He modifies St Mark's style very freely, but he makes less change in the +recorded words of our Lord, and he adheres more closely to the original +language of the second document. + +In his first two chapters he gives an account of the birth and childhood +of St John the Baptist and of our Lord Himself, gathered perhaps +directly from the traditions of the Holy Family, and written in close +imitation of the sacred stories of the Old Testament which were familiar +to him in their Greek translation. The whole series of incidents differ +from that which we find in St Matthew's Gospel, but there is no direct +variance between them. The two narratives are in agreement as to the +central fact of the Virgin-birth. St Luke gives a table of genealogy +which is irreconcilable with the artificial table of St Matthew's +Gospel, and which traces our Lord's ancestry up to Adam, "which was the +son of God." + +The opening scene of the Galilean ministry is the discourse at Nazareth, +in which our Lord claims to fulfil Isaiah's prophecy of the proclamation +of good tidings to the poor. The same prophecy is alluded to in His +reply to the Baptist's messengers which is incorporated subsequently +from the second document. The scene ends with the rejection of Christ by +His own townsfolk, as in the parallel story of St Mark which St Luke +does not give. It is probable that St Luke found this narrative in the +second document, and chose it after his manner in preference to the less +instructive story in St Mark. He similarly omits the Marcan account of +the call of the fishermen, substituting the story of the miraculous +draught. After that he follows St Mark alone, until he introduces after +the call of the twelve apostles the sermon which begins with the +beatitudes and woes. This is from the second document, which he +continues to use, and that without interruption (if we may venture to +assign to it the raising of the widow's son at Nain and the anointing by +the sinful woman in the Pharisee's house), until he returns to +incorporate another section from St Mark. + + + Characteristic Section of St. Luke's Gospel. + +This in turn is followed by the most characteristic section of his +Gospel (ix. 51-xviii. 14), a long series of incidents wholly independent +of St Mark, and introduced as belonging to the period of the final +journey from Galilee to Jerusalem. Much of this material is demonstrably +derived from the second document; and it is quite possible that the +whole of it may come from that source. There are special reasons for +thinking so in regard to certain passages, as for example the mission of +the seventy disciples and the parable of the good Samaritan, although +they are not contained in St Matthew's Gospel. + +For the closing scenes at Jerusalem St Luke makes considerable additions +to St Mark's narrative: he gives a different account of the Last Supper, +and he adds the trial before Herod and the incident of the penitent +robber. He appears to have had no information as to the appearance of +the risen Lord in Galilee, and he accordingly omits from his +reproduction of St Mark's narrative the twice-repeated promise of a +meeting with the disciples there. He supplies, however, an account of +the appearance to the two disciples at Emmaus and to the whole body of +the apostles in Jerusalem. + +St Luke's use of his two main sources has preserved the characteristics +of both of them. The sternness of certain passages, which has led some +critics to imagine that he was an Ebionite, is mainly, if not entirely, +due to his faithful reproduction of the language of the second document. +The key-note of his Gospel is universality: the mission of the Christ +embraces the poor, the weak, the despised, the heretic and the sinful: +it is good tidings to all mankind. He tells of the devotion of Mary and +Martha, and of the band of women who ministered to our Lord's needs and +followed Him to Jerusalem: he tells also of His kindness to more than +one sinful woman. Zacchaeus the publican and the grateful Samaritan +leper further illustrate this characteristic. Writing as he does for +Gentile believers he omits many details which from their strongly Jewish +cast might be unintelligible or uninteresting. He also modifies the +harshness of St Mark's style, and frequently recasts his language in +reference to diseases. From an historical point of view his Gospel is of +high value. The proved accuracy of detail elsewhere, as in his narration +of events which he witnessed in company with St Paul, enhances our +general estimation of his work. A trustworthy observer and a literary +artist, the one non-Jewish evangelist has given us--to use M. Renan's +words--"the most beautiful book in the world." + +6. _Additions by St John._--We come lastly to consider what addition to +our knowledge of Christ's life and work is made by the Fourth Gospel. St +Mark's narrative of our Lord's ministry and passion is so simple and +straightforward that it satisfies our historical sense. We trace a +natural development in it: we seem to see why with such power and such +sympathy He necessarily came into conflict with the religious leaders of +the people, who were jealous of the influence which He gained and were +scandalized by His refusal to be hindered in His mission of mercy by +rules and conventions to which they attached the highest importance. The +issue is fought out in Galilee, and when our Lord finally journeys to +Jerusalem He knows that He goes there to die. The story is so plain and +convincing in itself that it gives at first sight an impression of +completeness. This impression is confirmed by the Gospels of St Matthew +and St Luke, which though they add much fresh material do not disturb +the general scheme presented by St Mark. But on reflection we are led to +question the sufficiency of the account thus offered to us. Is it +probable, we ask, that our Lord should have neglected the sacred custom +in accordance with which the pious Jew visited Jerusalem several times +each year for the observance of the divinely appointed feasts? It is +true that St Mark does not break his narrative of the Galilean ministry +to record such visits: but this does not prove that such visits were not +made. Again, is it probable that He should have so far neglected +Jerusalem as to give it no opportunity of seeing Him and hearing His +message until the last week of His life? If the writers of the other two +Gospels had no means at their disposal for enlarging the narrow +framework of St Mark's narrative by recording definite visits to +Jerusalem, at least they preserve to us words from the second document +which seem to imply such visits: for how else are we to explain the +pathetic complaint, "Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how often would I have +gathered thee, as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings; but ye +would not"? + +St John's Gospel meets our questionings by a wholly new series of +incidents and by an account of a ministry which is concerned mainly not +with Galileans but with Judaeans, and which centres in Jerusalem. It is +carried on to a large extent concurrently with the Galilean ministry: it +is not continuous, but is taken up from feast to feast as our Lord +visits the sacred city at the times of its greatest religious activity. +It differs in character from the Galilean ministry: for among the +simple, unsophisticated folk of Galilee Jesus presents Himself as a +healer and helper and teacher, keeping in the background as far as +possible His claim to be the Messiah; whereas in Jerusalem His authority +is challenged at His first appearance, the element of controversy is +never absent, His relation to God is from the outset the vital issue, +and consequently His Divine claim is of necessity made explicit. Time +after time His life is threatened before the feast is ended, and when +the last passover has come we can well understand, what was not made +sufficiently clear in the brief Marcan narrative, why Jerusalem proved +so fatally hostile to His Messianic claim. + + + The Purpose of St John's Gospel. + +The Fourth Gospel thus offers us a most important supplement to the +limited sketch of our Lord's life which we find in the Synoptic Gospels. +Yet this was not the purpose which led to its composition. That purpose +is plainly stated by the author himself: "These things have been written +that ye may believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that +believing ye may have life in His name." His avowed aim is, not to write +history, but to produce conviction. He desires to interpret the coming +of Jesus Christ into the world, to declare whence and why He came, and +to explain how His coming, as light in the midst of darkness, brought a +crisis into the lives of all with whom He came in contact. The issue of +this crisis in His rejection by the Jews at Jerusalem is the main theme +of the book. + +St John's prologue prepares us to find that he is not writing for +persons who require a succinct narrative of facts, but for those who +having such already in familiar use are asking deep questions as to our +Lord's mission. It goes back far behind human birth or lines of +ancestry. It begins, like the sacred story of creation, "In the +beginning." The Book of Genesis had told how all things were called into +existence by a Divine utterance: "God said, Let there be ... and there +was." The creative Word had been long personified by Jewish thought, +especially in connexion with the prophets to whom "the Word of the Lord" +came. "In the beginning," then, St John tells us, the Word was--was with +God--yea, was God. He was the medium of creation, the source of its +light and its life--especially of that higher life which finds its +manifestation in men. So He was in the world, and the world was made by +Him, and yet the world knew Him not. At length He came, came to the home +which had been prepared for Him, but His own people rejected Him. But +such as did receive Him found a new birth, beyond their birth of flesh +and blood: they became children of God, were born of God. In order thus +to manifest Himself He had undergone a human birth: "the Word was made +flesh, and dwelt among us, and we beheld His glory"--the glory, as the +evangelist has learned to see, of the Father's only-begotten Son, who +has come into the world to reveal to men that God whom "no man hath ever +seen." In these opening words we are invited to study the life of Christ +from a new point of view, to observe His self-manifestation and its +issue. The evangelist looks back across a period of half a century, and +writes of Christ not merely as he saw Him in those far-off days, but as +he has come by long experience to think and speak of Him. The past is +now filled with a glory which could not be so fully perceived at the +time, but which, as St John tells, it was the function of the Holy +Spirit to reveal to Christ's disciples. + +The first name which occurs in this Gospel is that of John the Baptist. +He is even introduced into the prologue which sketches in general terms +the manifestation of the Divine Word: "There was a man sent from God, +whose name was John: he came for witness, to witness to the Light, that +through him all might believe." This witness of John holds a position of +high importance in this Gospel. His mission is described as running on +for a while concurrently with that of our Lord, whereas in the other +Gospels we have no record of our Lord's work until John is cast into +prison. It is among the disciples of the Baptist on the banks of the +Jordan that Jesus finds His first disciples. The Baptist has pointed Him +out to them in striking language, which recalls at once the symbolic +ritual of the law and the spiritual lessons of the prophets: "Behold, +the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world." + +Soon afterwards at Cana of Galilee Jesus gives His first "sign," as the +evangelist calls it, in the change of water into wine to supply the +deficiency at a marriage feast. This scene has all the happy brightness +of the early Galilean ministry which St Mark records. It stands in sharp +contrast with the subsequent appearance of Jesus in Jerusalem at the +Passover, when His first act is to drive the traders from the Temple +courts. In this He seems to be carrying the Baptist's stern mission of +purification from the desert into the heart of the sacred city, and so +fulfilling, perhaps consciously, the solemn prophecy of Malachi which +opens with the words: "Behold, I will send My Messenger, and He shall +prepare the way before Me; and the Lord whom ye seek shall suddenly come +to His Temple" (Mai. iii. 1-5). This significant action provokes a +challenge of His authority, which is answered by a mysterious saying, +not understood at the time, but interpreted afterwards as referring to +the Resurrection. After this our Lord was visited secretly by a Pharisee +named Nicodemus, whose advances were severely met by the words, "Except +a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God." When Nicodemus +objected that this was to demand a physical impossibility, he was +answered that the new birth was "of water and spirit"--words which +doubtless contained a reference to the mission of the Baptist and to his +prophecy of One who should baptize with the Holy Spirit. Towards the end +of this conversation the evangelist passes imperceptibly from reporting +the words of the Lord into an interpretation or amplification of them, +and in language which recalls the prologue he unfolds the meaning of +Christ's mission and indicates the crisis of self-judgment which +necessarily accompanies the manifestation of the Light to each +individual. When he resumes his narrative the Lord has left Jerusalem, +and is found baptizing disciples, in even greater numbers than the +Baptist himself. Though Jesus did not personally perform the rite, it is +plain once again that in this early period He closely linked His own +mission with that of John the Baptist. When men hinted at a rivalry +between them, John plainly declared "He must increase, and I must +decrease": and the reply of Jesus was to leave Judaea for Galilee. + +Away from the atmosphere of contention we find Him manifesting the same +broad sympathy and freedom from convention which we have noted in the +other Gospels, especially in that of St Luke. He converses with a woman, +with a woman moreover who is a Samaritan, and who is of unchaste life. +He offers her the "living water" which shall supply all her needs: she +readily accepts Him as the expected Messiah, and He receives a welcome +from the Samaritans. He passes on to Galilee, where also He is welcomed, +and where He performs His second "sign," healing the son of one of +Herod's courtiers. + + + The Ministry at Jerusalem. + +But St John's interest does not lie in Galilee, and he soon brings our +Lord back to Jerusalem on the occasion of a feast. The Baptist's work is +now ended; and, though Jesus still appeals to the testimony of John, the +new conflict with the Jewish authorities shows that He is moving now on +His own independent and characteristic lines. In cleansing the Temple He +had given offence by what might seem an excess of rigour: now, by +healing a sick man and bidding him carry his bed on the Sabbath, He +offended by His laxity. He answered His accusers by the brief but +pregnant sentence: "My Father worketh even until now, and I work." They +at once understood that He thus claimed a unique relation to God, and +their antagonism became the more intense: "the Jews therefore sought the +more to kill Him, because He had not only broken the Sabbath, but had +also said that God was His own Father, making Himself equal to God." His +first reply is then expanded to cover the whole region of life. The Son +beholds the Father at work, and works concurrently, doing nothing of +Himself. He does the Father's will. The very principle of life is +entrusted to Him. He quickens, and He judges. As Son of Man He judges +man. + +The next incident is the feeding of the five thousand, which belongs to +the Galilean ministry and is recorded by the three other evangelists. St +John's purpose in introducing it is not historical but didactic. It is +made the occasion of instruction as to the heavenly food, the flesh and +blood of Him who came down from heaven. This teaching leads to a +conflict with certain Judaeans who seem to have come from Jerusalem, and +it proves a severe test even to the faith of disciples. + +The feast of tabernacles brings fresh disputes in Jerusalem, and an +attempt is made to arrest Jesus. A climax of indignation is reached when +a blind man is healed at the pool of Siloam on the sabbath day. At the +feast of the dedication a fresh effort at arrest was made, and Jesus +then withdrew beyond the Jordan. Here He learned of the sickness of +Lazarus, and presently He returned and came to Bethany to raise him from +the dead. The excitement produced by this miracle led to yet another +attack, destined this time to be successful, on the life of Jesus. The +Passover was at hand, and the last supper of our Lord with His disciples +on the evening before the Passover lamb was killed is made the occasion +of the most inspiring consolations. Our Lord interprets His relation to +the disciples by the figure of a tree and its branches--He is the whole +of which they are the parts; He promises the mission of the Holy Spirit +to continue His work in the world; and He solemnly commends to His +Father the disciples whom He is about to leave. + +The account of the trial and the crucifixion differs considerably from +the accounts given in the other Gospels. St John's narratives are in +large part personal memories, and in more than one incident he himself +figures as the unnamed disciple "whom Jesus loved." In the Resurrection +scenes he also gives incidents in which he has played a part; and the +appearances of the risen Lord are not confined either to Jerusalem or to +Galilee, but occur in both localities. + +If we ask what is the special contribution to history, apart from +theology, which St John's Gospel makes, the answer would seem to be +this--that beside the Galilean ministry reported by St Mark there was a +ministry to "Jews" (Judaeans) in Jerusalem, not continuous, but +occasional, taken up from time to time as the great feasts came round; +that its teaching was widely different from that which was given to +Galileans, and that the situation created was wholly unlike that which +arose out of the Galilean ministry. The Galilean ministry opens with +enthusiasm, ripening into a popularity which even endangers a +satisfactory result. Where opposition manifests itself, it is not native +opposition, but comes from religious teachers who are parts of a system +which centres in Jerusalem, and who are sometimes expressly noted as +having come from Jerusalem. The Jerusalem ministry on the contrary is +never welcomed with enthusiasm. It has to do with those who challenge it +from the first. There is no atmosphere of simplicity and teachableness +which rejoices in the manifestation of power and sympathy and liberty. +It is a witness delivered to a hostile audience, whether they will hear +or no. Ultimate issues are quickly raised: keen critics see at once the +claims which underlie deeds and words, and the claims in consequence +become explicit: the relation of the teacher to God Himself is the vital +interest. The conflict which thus arose explains what St Mark's succinct +narrative had left unexplained--the fatal hostility of Jerusalem. It may +have been a part of St John's purpose to give this explanation, and to +make other supplements or corrections where earlier narratives appeared +to him incomplete or misleading. But he says nothing to indicate this, +while on the other hand he distinctly proclaims that his purpose is to +produce and confirm conviction of the divine claims of Jesus Christ. + + For bibliography see BIBLE; CHRISTIANITY; CHURCH HISTORY; and the + articles on the separate Gospels. (J. A. R.) + + + + +JET (Fr. _jais_, Ger. _Gagat_), a substance which seems to be a peculiar +kind of lignite or anthracite; often cut and polished for ornaments. The +word "jet" probably comes, through O. Fr. _jaiet_, from the classical +_gagates_, a word which was derived, according to Pliny, from Gagas, in +Lycia, where jet, or a similar substance, was originally found. Jet was +used in Britain in prehistoric times; many round barrows of the Bronze +age have yielded jet beads, buttons, rings, armlets and other ornaments. +The abundance of jet in Britain is alluded to by Caius Julius Solinus +(fl. 3rd century) and jet ornaments are found with Roman relics in +Britain. Probably the supply was obtained from the coast of Yorkshire, +especially near Whitby, where nodules of jet were formerly picked up on +the shore. Caedmon refers to this jet, and at a later date it was used +for rosary beads by the monks of Whitby Abbey. + + The Whitby jet occurs in irregular masses, often of lenticular shape, + embedded in hard shales known as jet-rock. The jet-rock series belongs + to that division of the Upper Lias which is termed the zone of + _Ammonites serpentinus_. Microscopic examination of jet occasionally + reveals the structure of coniferous wood, which A. C. Seward has shown + to be araucarian. Probably masses of wood were brought down by a + river, and drifted out to sea, where becoming water-logged they sank, + and became gradually buried in a deposit of fine mud, which eventually + hardened into shale. Under pressure, perhaps assisted by heat, and + with exclusion of air, the wood suffered a peculiar kind of + decomposition, probably modified by the presence of salt water, as + suggested by Percy E. Spielmann. Scales of fish and other fossils of + the jet-rock are frequently impregnated with bituminous products, + which may replace the original tissues. Drops of liquid bitumen occur + in the cavities of some fossils, whilst inflammable gas is not + uncommon in the jet-workings, and petroleum may be detected by its + smell. Iron pyrites is often associated with the jet. + + Formerly sufficient jet was found in loose pieces on the shore, set + free by the disintegration of the cliffs, or washed up from a + submarine source. When this supply became insufficient, the rock was + attacked by the jet-workers; ultimately the workings took the form of + true mines, levels being driven into the shales not only at their + outcrop in the cliffs but in some of the inland dales of the Yorkshire + moorlands, such as Eskdale. The best jet has a uniform black colour, + and is hard, compact and homogeneous in texture, breaking with a + conchoidal fracture. It must be tough enough to be readily carved or + turned on the lathe, and sufficiently compact in texture to receive a + high polish. The final polish was formerly given by means of rouge, + which produces a beautiful velvety surface, but rotten-stone and + lampblack are often employed instead. The softer kinds, not capable of + being freely worked, are known as bastard jet. A soft jet is obtained + from the estuarine series of the Lower Oolites of Yorkshire. + + Much jet is imported from Spain, but it is generally less hard and + lustrous than true Whitby jet. In Spain the chief locality is + Villaviciosa, in the province of Asturias. France furnishes jet, + especially in the department of the Aude. Much jet, too, occurs in the + Lias of Württemberg, and works have been established for its + utilization. In the United States jet is known at many localities but + is not systematically worked. Pennsylvanian anthracite, however, has + been occasionally employed as a substitute. In like manner Scotch + cannel coal has been sometimes used at Whitby. Imitations of jet, or + substitutes for it, are furnished by vulcanite, glass, black obsidian + and black onyx, or stained chalcedony. Jet is sometimes improperly + termed black amber, because like amber, though in less degree, it + becomes electric by friction. + + See P. E. Spielmann, "On the Origin of Jet," _Chemical News_ (Dec. 14, + 1906); C. Fox-Strangways, "The Jurassic Rocks of Britain, Vol. I. + Yorkshire," _Mem. Geol. Surv._ (1892); J. A. Bower, "Whitby Jet and + its Manufacture," _Journ. Soc. Arts_ (1874, vol. xxii. p. 80). + + + + +JETHRO (or JETHER, Exod. iv. 18), the priest of Midian, in the Bible, +whose daughter Zipporah became the wife of Moses. He is known as Hobab +the son of Reuel the Kenite (Num. x. 29; Judg. iv. 11 ), and once as +Reuel (Exod. ii. 18); and if Zipporah is the wife of Moses referred to +in Num. xii. 1, the family could be regarded as Cushite (see Cush). +Jethro was the priest of Yahweh, and resided at the sacred mountain +where the deity commissioned Moses to deliver the Israelites from Egypt. +Subsequently Jethro came to Moses (probably at Kadesh), a great +sacrificial feast was held, and the priest instructed Moses in +legislative procedure; Exod. xviii. 27 (see EXODUS) and Num. x. 30 imply +that the scene was not Sinai. Jethro was invited to accompany the people +into the promised land, and later, we find his clan settling in the +south of Judah (Judg. i. 16); see KENITES. The traditions agree in +representing the kin of Moses as related to the mixed tribes of the +south of Palestine (see EDOM) and in ascribing to the family an +important share in the early development of the worship of Yahweh. +Cheyne suggests that the names of Hobab and of Jonadab the father of the +Rechabites (q.v.) were originally identical (_Ency. Bib._ ii. col. +2101). + + + + +JETTY. The term jetty, derived from Fr. _jetée_, and therefore +signifying something "thrown out," is applied to a variety of structures +employed in river, dock and maritime works, which are generally carried +out in pairs from river banks, or in continuation of river channels at +their outlets into deep water; or out into docks, and outside their +entrances; or for forming basins along the sea-coast for ports in +tideless seas. The forms and construction of these jetties are as varied +as their uses; for though they invariably extend out into water, and +serve either for directing a current or for accommodating vessels, they +are sometimes formed of high open timber-work, sometimes of low solid +projections, and occasionally only differ from breakwaters in their +object. + + _Jetties for regulating Rivers._--Formerly jetties of timber-work were + very commonly extended out, opposite one another, from each bank of a + river, at intervals, to contract a wide channel, and by concentration + of the current to produce a deepening of the central channel; or + sometimes mounds of rubble stone, stretching down the foreshore from + each bank, served the same purpose. As, however, this system + occasioned a greater scour between the ends of the jetties than in the + intervening channels, and consequently produced an irregular depth, it + has to a great extent been superseded by longitudinal training works, + or by dipping cross dikes pointing somewhat upstream (see RIVER + ENGINEERING). + + [Illustration: FIG 1.--Timber Jetty across Dock Slope.] + + _Jetties at Docks._--Where docks are given sloping sides, openwork + timber jetties are generally carried across the slope, at the ends of + which vessels can lie in deep water (fig. 1); or more solid structures + are erected over the slope for supporting coal-tips. Pilework jetties + are also constructed in the water outside the entrances to docks on + each side, so as to form an enlarging trumpet-shaped channel between + the entrance, lock or tidal basin and the approach channel, in order + to guide vessels in entering or leaving the docks. Solid jetties, + moreover, lined with quay walls, are sometimes carried out into a wide + dock, at right angles to the line of quays at the side, to enlarge the + accommodation; and they also serve, when extended on a large scale + from the coast of a tideless sea under shelter of an outlying + breakwater, to form the basins in which vessels lie when discharging + and taking in cargoes in such a port as Marseilles (see DOCK). + + _Jetties at Entrances to Jetty Harbours._--The approach channel to + some ports situated on sandy coasts is guided and protected across the + beach by parallel jetties, made solid up to a little above low water + of neap tides, on which open timber-work is erected, provided with a + planked platform at the top raised above the highest tides. The + channel between the jetties was originally maintained by tidal scour + from low-lying areas close to the coast, and subsequently by the + current from sluicing basins; but it is now often considerably + deepened by sand-pump dredging. It is protected to some extent by the + solid portion of the jetties from the inroad of sand from the adjacent + beach, and from the levelling action of the waves; whilst the upper + open portion serves to indicate the channel, and to guide the vessels + if necessary (see HARBOUR). The bottom part of the older jetties, in + such long-established jetty ports as Calais, Dunkirk and Ostend, was + composed of clay or rubble stone, covered on the top by fascine-work + or pitching; but the deepening of the jetty channel by dredging, and + the need which arose for its enlargement, led to the reconstruction of + the jetties at these ports. The new jetties at Dunkirk were founded in + the sandy beach, by the aid of compressed air, at a depth of 22¾ ft. + below low water of spring tides; and their solid masonry portion, on a + concrete foundation, was raised 5(3/5) ft. above low water of neap + tides (fig. 2). + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Dunkirk East Jetty.] + + _Jetties at Lagoon Outlets._--A small tidal rise spreading tidal water + over a large expanse of lagoon or inland back-water causes the influx + and efflux of the tide to maintain a deep channel through a narrow + outlet; but the issuing current on emerging from the outlet, being no + longer confined by a bank on each side, becomes dispersed, and owing + to the reduction of its scouring force, is no longer able at a + moderate distance from the shore effectually to resist the action of + the waves and littoral currents tending to form a continuous beach in + front of the outlet. Hence a bar is produced which diminishes the + available depth in the approach channel. By carrying out a solid jetty + over the bar, however, on each side of the outlet, the tidal currents + are concentrated in the channel across the bar, and lower it by scour. + Thus the available depth of the approach channels to Venice through + the Malamocco and Lido outlets from the Venetian lagoon have been + deepened several feet over their bars by jetties of rubble stone + surmounted by a small superstructure (fig. 3), carried out across the + foreshore into deep water on both sides of the channel. Other examples + are provided by the long jetties extended into the sea in front of the + entrance to Charleston harbour, formerly constructed of fascines, + weighted with stone and logs, but subsequently of rubble stone, and by + the two converging rubble jetties carried out from each shore of + Dublin bay for deepening the approach to Dublin harbour. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lido Outlet Jetty, Venice.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Mississippi South Pass Outlet Jetty.] + + _Jetties at the Outlet of Tideless Rivers._--Jetties have been + constructed on each side of the outlet of some of the rivers flowing + into the Baltic, with the objects of prolonging the scour of the river + and protecting the channel from being shoaled by the littoral drift + along the shore. The most interesting application of parallel jetties + is in lowering the bar in front of one of the mouths of a deltaic + river flowing into a tideless sea, by extending the scour of the river + out to the bar by a virtual prolongation of its banks. Jetties + prolonging the Sulina branch of the Danube into the Black Sea, and the + south pass of the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico (fig. 4), formed + of rubble stone and concrete blocks, and fascine mattresses weighted + with stone and surmounted with large concrete blocks respectively, + have enabled the discharge of these rivers to scour away the bars + obstructing the access to them; and they have also carried the + sediment-bearing waters sufficiently far out to come under the + influence of littoral currents, which, by conveying away some of the + sediment, postpone the eventual formation of a fresh bar farther out + (see RIVER ENGINEERING). + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--River Maas Outlet, North Jetty.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--River Nervion Outlet, Western Jetty.] + + _Jetties at the Mouth of Tidal Rivers._--Where a river is narrow near + its mouth, and its discharge is generally feeble, the sea is liable on + an exposed coast, when the tidal range is small, to block up its + outlet during severe storms. The river is thus forced to seek another + exit at a weak spot of the beach, which along a low coast may be at + some distance off; and this new outlet in its turn may be blocked up, + so that the river from time to time shifts the position of its mouth. + This inconvenient cycle of changes may be stopped by fixing the outlet + of the river at a suitable site, by carrying a jetty on each side of + this outlet across the beach, thereby concentrating its discharge in a + definite channel and protecting the mouth from being blocked up by + littoral drift. This system was long ago applied to the shifting + outlet of the river Yare to the south of Yarmouth, and has also been + successfully employed for fixing the wandering mouth of the Adur near + Shoreham, and of the Adour flowing into the Bay of Biscay below + Bayonne. When a new channel was cut across the Hook of Holland to + provide a straighter and deeper outlet channel for the river Maas, + forming the approach channel to Rotterdam, low, broad, parallel + jetties, composed of fascine mattresses weighted with stone (fig. 5), + were carried across the foreshore into the sea on either side of the + new mouth of the river, to protect the jetty channel from littoral + drift, and cause the discharge of the river to maintain it out to deep + water (see RIVER ENGINEERING). The channel, also, beyond the outlet of + the river Nervion into the Bay of Biscay has been regulated by + jetties; and by extending the south-west jetty out for nearly half a + mile with a curve concave towards the channel the outlet has not only + been protected to some extent from the easterly drift, but the bar in + front has been lowered by the scour produced by the discharge of the + river following the concave bend of the south-west jetty. As the outer + portion of this jetty was exposed to westerly storms from the Bay of + Biscay before the outer harbour was constructed, it has been given the + form and strength of a breakwater situated in shallow water (fig. 6). + (L. F. V.-H.) + + + + +JEVER, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, 13 m. by rail +N.W. of Wilhelmshaven, and connected with the North Sea by a navigable +canal. Pop. (1901), 5486. The chief industries are weaving, spinning, +dyeing, brewing and milling; there is also a trade in horses and cattle. +The fathers (_Die Getreuen_) of the town used to send an annual birthday +present of 101 plovers' eggs to Bismarck, with a dedication in verse. + +The castle of Jever was built by Prince Edo Wiemken (d. 1410), the ruler +of Jeverland, a populous district which in 1575 came under the rule of +the dukes of Oldenburg. In 1603 it passed to the house of Anhalt and was +later the property of the empress Catherine II. of Russia, a member of +this family. In 1814 it came again into the possession of Oldenburg. + + See D. Hohnholz, _Aus Jevers Vorgangenheit_ (Jever, 1886); Hagena, + _Jeverland bis zum Jahr_ 1500 (Oldenburg, 1902); and F. W. Riemann, + _Geschichte des Jeverlandes_ (Jever, 1896). + + + + +JEVEROS (JEBEROS, JIBAROS, JIVAROS or GIVAROS), a tribe of South +American Indians on the upper Marañon, Peru, where they wander in the +forests. The tribe has many branches and there are frequent tribal wars, +but they have always united against a common enemy. Juan de Velasco +declares them to be faithful, noble and amiable. They are brave and +warlike, and though upon the conquest of Peru they temporarily +submitted, a general insurrection in 1599 won them back their liberty. +Curious dried human heads, supposed to have been objects of worship, +have been found among the Jeveros (see _Ethnol. Soc. Trans._ 1862, W. +Bollaert). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 15, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41156 *** |