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diff --git a/41156-h/41156-h.htm b/41156-h/41156-h.htm index 04737ae..72c9ab6 100644 --- a/41156-h/41156-h.htm +++ b/41156-h/41156-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XV Slice III - Japan (part) to Jeveros. @@ -144,46 +144,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 15, Slice 3, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, Slice 3 - "Japan" (part) to "Jeveros" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: October 23, 2012 [EBook #41156] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41156 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -239,32 +200,32 @@ Japan (part) to Jeveros</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">JASHAR, BOOK OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">JENKINS, SIR LEOLINE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">JASHPUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">JENKINS, ROBERT</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">JASMIN, JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82a">JENKS, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">JASMINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">JENNÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">JASMINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">JENNÉ</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">JASON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">JENNER, EDWARD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">JASON OF CYRENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">JENNER, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">JASPER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">JENNET</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">JASSY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">JENOLAN CAVES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">JĀTAKA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">JENSEN, WILHELM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">JATH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">JENYNS, SOAME</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">JÁTIVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">JEOPARDY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">JÃTIVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">JEOPARDY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">JĀTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">JEPHSON, ROBERT</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">JAUBERT, PIERRE AMÉDÉE ÉMILIEN PROBE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">JEPHTHAH</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">JERAHMEEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">JAUBERT, PIERRE AMÉDÉE ÉMILIEN PROBE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">JEPHTHAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">JERAHMEEL</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">JAUER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">JERBA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">JAUHARĪ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">JERBOA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">JAUNDICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">JERDAN, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">JAUNPUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">JEREMIAH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">JAUNTING-CAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">JEREMY, EPISTLE OF</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">JAUREGUI, JUAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">JERÉZ DE LA FRONTERA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">JAURÉGUIBERRY, JEAN BERNARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">JERÉZ DE LOS CABALLEROS</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">JÁUREGUI Y AGUILAR, JUAN MARTÍNEZ DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">JERICHO</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">JAURÈS, JEAN LÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">JERKIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">JAUREGUI, JUAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">JERÉZ DE LA FRONTERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">JAURÉGUIBERRY, JEAN BERNARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">JERÉZ DE LOS CABALLEROS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">JÃUREGUI Y AGUILAR, JUAN MARTÃNEZ DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">JERICHO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">JAURÈS, JEAN LÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">JERKIN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">JAVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">JEROBOAM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">JAVELIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">JEROME, ST</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">JAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">JAWĀLĪQĪ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">JEROME OF PRAGUE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">JAWHAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">JERROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">JAWORÓW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">JERRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">JAWORÓW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">JERRY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">JAY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">JERSEY, EARLS OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">JAY, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">JERSEY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">JAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">JERSEY CITY</a></td></tr> @@ -766,7 +727,7 @@ to obtaining honourable terms of peace, the Japanese troops meanwhile holding a line of forts along the southern coast of Korea. He died before that end had been accomplished. Had he lived a few days longer, he would have learned -of a crushing defeat inflicted on the Chinese forces (at Sö-chhön, +of a crushing defeat inflicted on the Chinese forces (at Sö-chhön, October 30, 1598), when the Satsuma men under Shimazu Yoshihiro took 38,700 Chinese heads and sent the noses and ears to Japan, where they now lie buried under a tumulus (<i>mimizuka</i>, @@ -777,7 +738,7 @@ intimated to the enemy that the evacuation of the peninsula might be obtained if a Korean prince repaired to Japan as envoy, and if some tiger-skins and <i>ginseng</i> were sent to Kiōto in token of amity. So ended one of the greatest over-sea campaigns -recorded in history. It had lasted 6½ years, had seen 200,000 +recorded in history. It had lasted 6½ years, had seen 200,000 Japanese troops at one time on Korean soil, and had cost something like a quarter of a million lives.</p> @@ -851,7 +812,7 @@ of acquiring Sakhalin, which commands the estuary of the Amur. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span> After the conclusion of the treaty of Aigun (1857) he visited Japan with a squadron, and required that the strait of La -Pérouse, which separates Sakhalin from Yezo, should be regarded +Pérouse, which separates Sakhalin from Yezo, should be regarded as the frontier between Russia and Japan. This would have given the whole of Sakhalin to Russia. Japan refused, and Muravief immediately resorted to the policy he had already @@ -861,7 +822,7 @@ frustrate this process of gradual absorption by proposing a division of the island along the 50th parallel of north latitude, and finally, in 1872, the Meiji government offered to purchase the Russian portion for 2,000,000 dollars (then equivalent to about -£400,000). St Petersburg, having by that time discovered the +£400,000). St Petersburg, having by that time discovered the comparative worthlessness of the island as a wealth-earning possession, showed some signs of acquiescence, and possibly an agreement might have been reached had not a leading Japanese @@ -1300,7 +1261,7 @@ and captured the latter. In all these operations the total Japanese casualties were 1005 killed and 4922 wounded—figures which sufficiently indicate the inefficiency of the Chinese fighting. The deaths from disease totalled 16,866, and the -total monetary expenditure was £20,000,000 sterling.</p> +total monetary expenditure was £20,000,000 sterling.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span></p> @@ -1502,7 +1463,7 @@ the same instinct had led them to begin the colonization of Sakhalin. The axis of this long narrow island is inclined at a very acute angle to the Usuri region, which its northern extremity almost touches, while its southern is separated from Yezo -by the strait of La Pérouse. But in Sakhalin the Russians +by the strait of La Pérouse. But in Sakhalin the Russians found Japanese subjects. In fact the island was a part of the Japanese empire. Resorting, however, to the Usuri fiction of joint occupation, they succeeded by 1875 in transferring the whole @@ -1536,7 +1497,7 @@ this railway had to be carried along its northern bank where many engineering and economic obstacles presented themselves. Besides, the river, from an early stage in its course, makes a huge semicircular sweep northward, and a railway following its -bank to Vladivostok must make the same détour. If, on the contrary, +bank to Vladivostok must make the same détour. If, on the contrary, the road could be carried over the diameter of the semicircle, it would be a straight and therefore shorter line, technically easier and economically better. The diameter, however, passed @@ -1576,7 +1537,7 @@ events these three great powers served on Japan a notice to quit, and Japan, exhausted by her struggle with China, had no choice but to obey.</p> -<p>The notice was accompanied by an <i>exposé</i> of reasons. Its +<p>The notice was accompanied by an <i>exposé</i> of reasons. Its signatories said that Japan’s tenure of the Manchurian littoral would menace the security of the Chinese capital, would render the independence of Korea illusory, and would constitute an @@ -1860,7 +1821,7 @@ railways for strategic purposes; and thirdly, they promised not to build on Sakhalin or its adjacent islands any fortifications or other similar military works, or to take any military measures which might impede the free navigation of the straits of La -Pérouse and the Gulf of Tartary. The above provisions concerned +Pérouse and the Gulf of Tartary. The above provisions concerned the two contracting parties only. But China’s interests also were considered. Thus it was agreed to “restore entirely and completely to her exclusive administration” all portions of @@ -1930,7 +1891,7 @@ extensive zones on either side of the railway, to administer these zones in the fullest sense, and to work all mines lying along the lines. Under the Portsmouth treaty these advantages were transferred to Japan by Russia, the railway, however, being -divided so that only the portion (521½ m.) to the south of +divided so that only the portion (521½ m.) to the south of Kwang-Cheng-tsze fell to Japan’s share, while the portion (1077 m.) to the north of that place remained in Russia’s hands. China’s consent to the above transfers and assignments @@ -2762,7 +2723,7 @@ assumption of power and parade of dignity. Iruka was slain in the presence of the empress Kōgyoku by Prince Naka with the assistance of the minister of the interior, Kamako, and it is not surprising to find the empress (Kōgyoku) abdicating -immediately afterwards in favour of Kamako’s protégé, Prince +immediately afterwards in favour of Kamako’s protégé, Prince Karu, who is known in history as Kōtoku. This Kamako, planner and leader of the conspiracy which overthrew the Soga, is remembered by posterity under the name of Kamatari and @@ -2969,7 +2930,7 @@ avenue or at right angles to it. Seven sovereigns reigned at Heijō (castle of peace), as Nara is historically called, and, during this period of 75 years, seven of the grandest temples ever seen in Japan were erected; a multitude of idols were cast, -among them a colossal bronze Daibutsu 53½ ft. high; large +among them a colossal bronze Daibutsu 53½ ft. high; large temple-bells were founded, and all the best artists and artisans of the era devoted their services to these works. This religious mania reached its acme in the reign of the emperor Shōmu (724-748), @@ -3182,7 +3143,7 @@ with perhaps one exception; the former, one of her three greatest statesmen, the founder of military feudalism. By these two men the Taira were so completely overthrown that they never raised their heads again, a sea-fight at Dan-no-ura (1155) -giving them the <i>coup de grâce</i>. Their supremacy had lasted +giving them the <i>coup de grâce</i>. Their supremacy had lasted 22 years.</p> <p><i>The Feudal Era.</i>—Yoritomo, acting largely under the advice @@ -3580,7 +3541,7 @@ the fortunate synchronism of their careers, so that the one was able to carry the other’s work to completion and permanence. The last eight years of Hideyoshi’s life—he died in 1598—were chiefly remarkable for his attempt to invade China through -Korea, and for his attitude towards Christianity (see § VIII.: +Korea, and for his attitude towards Christianity (see § VIII.: <span class="sc">Foreign Intercourse</span>).</p> <p><i>The Tokugawa Era</i>.—When Hideyoshi died he left a son, @@ -3757,7 +3718,7 @@ those principles by the shōgun’s government (<i>baku-fu</i>) in Yedo. A daimyō or feudal chief drew from the peasants on his estate the means of subsistence for himself and his retainers. For this purpose the produce of his estate was assessed by the shōgun’s -officials in <i>koku</i> (one <i>koku</i> = 180.39 litres, worth about £1), and +officials in <i>koku</i> (one <i>koku</i> = 180.39 litres, worth about £1), and about one-half of the assessed amount went to the feudatory, the other half to the tillers of the soil. The richest daimyō was Mayeda of Kaga, whose fief was assessed at a little over a million @@ -3910,7 +3871,7 @@ commoners under the enlightened system of Meiji. The 12th of October 1871 saw their enfranchisement, and at that date the census showed 287,111 eta and 695,689 hinin.</p> -<p>Naturally, as the unbroken peace of the Tokugawa régime +<p>Naturally, as the unbroken peace of the Tokugawa régime became habitual, the mood of the nation underwent a change. The samurai, no longer required to lead the frugal life of camp or barracks, began to live beyond their @@ -3967,7 +3928,7 @@ chiefs things fared similarly. These men who, in the days of Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu, had directed the policies of their fiefs and led their armies in the field, were gradually transformed, during the long peace of the Tokugawa era, into voluptuous -<i>fainéants</i> or, at best, thoughtless dilettanti, willing to +<i>fainéants</i> or, at best, thoughtless dilettanti, willing to abandon the direction of their affairs to seneschals and mayors, who, while on the whole their administration was able and loyal, found their account in contriving and perpetuating the @@ -4252,7 +4213,7 @@ the interests of their feudal chiefs, were influenced <span class="sidenote">Motives of the Reformers.</span> by motives of personal ambition, imagining that they themselves might find great opportunities under the new -régime. Some hope of that kind may fairly be assumed, and was +régime. Some hope of that kind may fairly be assumed, and was certainly realized, in the case of the leading samurai of the four southern clans which headed the movement. But it is plain that no such expectations can have been generally entertained. @@ -4340,7 +4301,7 @@ been granted in consideration of their holders devoting themselves to military service. Four hundred thousand men approximately were in receipt of such emoluments, and the total amount annually taken from the tax-payers for this purpose was about -£2,000,000. Plainly the nation would have to be relieved of +£2,000,000. Plainly the nation would have to be relieved of this burden sooner or later. The samurai were essentially an element of the feudal system, and that they should survive the latter’s fall would have been incongruous. On the other hand, @@ -4391,10 +4352,10 @@ that the treasury was prepared to commute the pensions of the samurai at the rate of six years’ purchase for hereditary pensions and four years for life pensions—one-half of the commutation to be paid in cash, and one-half in bonds bearing interest at the -rate of 8%. It will be seen that a perpetual pension of £10 -would be exchanged for a payment of £30 in cash, together -with securities giving an income of £2, 8s.; and that a £10 life -pensioner received £20 in cash and securities yielding £1, 12s. +rate of 8%. It will be seen that a perpetual pension of £10 +would be exchanged for a payment of £30 in cash, together +with securities giving an income of £2, 8s.; and that a £10 life +pensioner received £20 in cash and securities yielding £1, 12s. annually. It is scarcely credible that the samurai should have accepted such an arrangement. Something, perhaps, must be ascribed to their want of business knowledge, but the general @@ -5452,7 +5413,7 @@ the Japanese government has knowingly, deliberately, of <i>malice prepense</i> been guilty of breach of faith in violating the principle of “the open door” to which it has solemnly pledged itself. That it has often been accused by the Japanese subjects of weakness -<i>vis-à-vis</i> foreign powers to the detriment of their interests, is +<i>vis-à -vis</i> foreign powers to the detriment of their interests, is perhaps a good proof of its fairness.</p> <p>The Japanese have often been charged with looseness of commercial @@ -5614,12 +5575,12 @@ japan work. Japanning is done in clear transparent varnishes, in black and in body colours; but black japan is the most characteristic and common style of work. The varnish for black japan consists essentially of pure natural asphaltum with a proportion -of gum animé dissolved in linseed oil and thinned with +of gum animé dissolved in linseed oil and thinned with turpentine. In thin layers such a japan has a rich dark brown colour; it only shows a brilliant black in thicker coatings. For fine work, which has to be smoothed and polished, several coats of black are applied in succession, each being separately dried in -the stove at a heat which may rise to about 300° F. Body +the stove at a heat which may rise to about 300° F. Body colours consist of a basis of transparent varnish mixed with the special mineral paints of the desired colours or with bronze powders. The transparent varnish used by japanners is a copal @@ -5631,7 +5592,7 @@ ordinary painted and varnished work. It may be regarded as a process intermediate between ordinary painting and enamelling. It is very extensively applied in the finishing of ordinary iron-mongery goods and domestic iron-work, deed boxes, clock dials -and papier-mâché articles. The process is also applied to blocks +and papier-mâché articles. The process is also applied to blocks of slate for making imitation of black and other marbles for chimneypieces, &c., and in a modified form is employed for preparing enamelled, japan or patent leather.</p> @@ -5682,7 +5643,7 @@ mythology is probably a mere accident. A place Japheth is mentioned in Judith ii. 25, but it is quite unknown.</p> <p>In addition to commentaries and dictionary articles, see E. Meyer, -<i>Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme</i>, pp. 219 sqq.</p> +<i>Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme</i>, pp. 219 sqq.</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. H. Be.)</div> @@ -5791,31 +5752,31 @@ Pop. (1897), 16,372.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JARNAC,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a town of western France in the department of Charente, on the right bank of the river Charente, and on the railway -23 m. W. of Angoulême, between that city and Cognac. +23 m. W. of Angoulême, between that city and Cognac. Pop. (1906), 4493. The town is well built; and an avenue, planted with poplar trees, leads to a handsome suspension bridge. The church contains an interesting ogival crypt. There are communal colleges for both sexes. Brandy, wine and wine-casks are made in the town. Jarnac was in 1569 the scene of a battle in which the Catholics defeated the Protestants. -A pyramid marks the spot where Louis, Prince de Condé, +A pyramid marks the spot where Louis, Prince de Condé, one of the Protestant generals, was slain. Jarnac gave its name to an old French family, of which the best known member is Gui Chabot, comte de Jarnac (d. <i>c.</i> 1575), whose lucky backstroke -in his famous duel with Châteigneraie gave rise to the +in his famous duel with Châteigneraie gave rise to the proverbial phrase <i>coup de jarnac</i>, signifying an unexpected blow.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JARO,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a town of the province of Iloílo, Panay, Philippine -Islands, on the Jaro river, 2 m. N.W. of the town of Iloílo, the +<p><span class="bold">JARO,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a town of the province of IloÃlo, Panay, Philippine +Islands, on the Jaro river, 2 m. N.W. of the town of IloÃlo, the capital. Pop. (1903), 10,681. It lies on a plain in the midst of a rich agricultural district, has several fine residences, a cathedral, a curious three-tiered tower, a semi-weekly paper and a monthly periodical. Jaro was founded by the Spanish in 1584. From 1903 until February 1908 it was part of the town or municipality -of Iloílo.</p> +of IloÃlo.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -5838,7 +5799,7 @@ ravine in the Sierra Almagrera, province of Almeria, Spain, from which locality the mineral receives its name. It has been also found, often in association with iron ores, at a few other localities. A variety occurring as concretionary or mulberry-like forms is -known as moronolite (from Gr. <span class="grk" title=" môron">μῶρον</span>, “mulberry,” and <span class="grk" title="líthos">λίθος</span>, +known as moronolite (from Gr. <span class="grk" title=" môron">μῶρον</span>, “mulberry,” and <span class="grk" title="lÃthos">λίθος</span>, “stone”); it is found at Monroe in Orange county, New York. The recently discovered species natrojarosite and plumbojarosite occur as yellowish-brown glistening powders consisting wholly @@ -5881,7 +5842,7 @@ registry rules.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JARROW,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a port and municipal borough in the Jarrow parliamentary division of Durham, England, on the right bank -of the Tyne, 6½ m. below Newcastle, and on a branch of the +of the Tyne, 6½ m. below Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 34,295. The parish church of St Paul was founded in 685, and retains portions of pre-Norman work. The central tower is Norman, and there @@ -5896,7 +5857,7 @@ many pilgrims. The town is wholly industrial, devoted to ship-building, chemical works, paper mills and the neighbouring collieries. It owes its development from a mere pit village very largely to the enterprise of Sir Charles Mark Palmer (<i>q.v.</i>). -Jarrow Slake, a river bay, 1 m. long by ½ m. broad, contains +Jarrow Slake, a river bay, 1 m. long by ½ m. broad, contains the Tyne docks of the North-Eastern railway company. A great quantity of coal is shipped. Jarrow was incorporated in 1875, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and @@ -5940,7 +5901,7 @@ collection of the kind is now extant, nor is anything known of it. Various speculations have been put forward as to the name: (1) that it means the book of the upright, <i>i.e.</i> Israel or distinguished Israelites, the root being the same as in Jeshurun; (2) that -Jashar (<span title="yashar">ישר</span>) is a transposition of shîr (<span title="shir">שיר</span>, song); (3) that it +Jashar (<span title="yashar">ישר</span>) is a transposition of shîr (<span title="shir">שיר</span>, song); (3) that it should be pointed Yashir (<span title="yashir">ישר</span>, sing; cf. Exod. xv. 1) and was so called after its first word. None of these is very convincing, though support may be found for them all in the versions. The @@ -5955,7 +5916,7 @@ the fulfilment of passages in the Pentateuch. Since it contained the lament of David (2 Sam. i. 18) it cannot have been completed till after his time. If Wellhausen’s restoration of 1 Kings viii. 12 be accepted (from Septuagint 1 Kings viii. 53, -<span class="grk" title="en bibliô tês ôdês">ἐν βιβλίῳ τῆς ᾠδῆς</span>) where the reference is to the building +<span class="grk" title="en bibliô tês ôdês">ἐν βιβλίῳ τῆς ᾠδῆς</span>) where the reference is to the building of the Temple, the book must have been growing in the time of Solomon. The attempt of Donaldson<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> to reconstruct it is largely subjective and uncritical.</p> @@ -5981,7 +5942,7 @@ by the printer, Jacob Hive, who put it forward as the book <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—M. Heilprin, <i>Historical Poetry of the Ancient Hebrews</i> (New York, 1879), i. 128-131; Mercati, “Una congettura sopra il libro del Giusto,” in <i>Studi e Testi</i> (5, Roma, 1901). On the -medieval work see Zunz, <i>Gottesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden</i> (Frankfurt +medieval work see Zunz, <i>Gottesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden</i> (Frankfurt a. M., 1892), 2nd ed., p. 162.</p> </div> @@ -6001,15 +5962,15 @@ above it reach their highest point in Ranijula (3527 ft.). The only river of importance is the Ib, in the bed of which diamonds are found, while from time immemorial its sands have been washed for gold. Jashpur iron, smelted by the Kols, is highly -prized. Jungles of <i>sál</i> forests abound, harbouring elephant, +prized. Jungles of <i>sál</i> forests abound, harbouring elephant, bison and other wild beasts. Jungle products include lac, silk cocoons and beeswax, which are exported. Area 1948 -sq. m.; pop. (1901), 132,114; estimated revenue £8000.</p> +sq. m.; pop. (1901), 132,114; estimated revenue £8000.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JASMIN, JACQUES<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1798-1864), Provençal poet, was born at -Agen on the 6th of March 1798, his family name being Boé. His +<p><span class="bold">JASMIN, JACQUES<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1798-1864), Provençal poet, was born at +Agen on the 6th of March 1798, his family name being Boé. His father, who was a tailor, had a certain facility for making doggerel verses, which he sang or recited at fairs and such-like popular gatherings; and Jacques, who used generally to accompany him, @@ -6022,12 +5983,12 @@ containing poems in French (a language he used with a certain sense of restraint), and in the familiar Agen <i>patois</i>—the popular speech of the working classes—in which he was to achieve all his literary triumphs. Jasmin was the most famous forerunner -in Provençal literature (<i>q.v.</i>) of Mistral and the <i>Félibrige</i>. His +in Provençal literature (<i>q.v.</i>) of Mistral and the <i>Félibrige</i>. His influence in rehabilitating, for literary purposes, his native dialect, was particularly exercised in the public recitals of his poems to which he devoted himself. His poetic gift, and his flexible voice -and action, fitted him admirably for this double rôle of troubadour -and jongleur. In 1835 he recited his “Blind Girl of Castel-Cuillé” +and action, fitted him admirably for this double rôle of troubadour +and jongleur. In 1835 he recited his “Blind Girl of Castel-Cuillé” at Bordeaux, in 1836 at Toulouse; and he met with an enthusiastic reception in both those important cities. Most of his public recitations were given for benevolent purposes, the @@ -6036,7 +5997,7 @@ of Vergt and other good works. Four successive volumes of <i>Papillotos</i> were published during his lifetime, and contained amongst others the following remarkable poems, quoted in order: “The Charivari,” “My Recollections” (supplemented after an -interval of many years), “The Blind Girl,” “Françounetto,” +interval of many years), “The Blind Girl,” “Françounetto,” “Martha the Simple,” and “The Twin Brothers.” With the exception of “The Charivari,” these are all touching pictures of humble life—in most cases real episodes—carefully elaborated @@ -6049,10 +6010,10 @@ describe, and give it its most lucid and natural expression. A verse from his spirited poem, “The Third of May,” written in honour of Henry IV., and published in the first volume of <i>Papillotos</i>, is engraved on the base of the statue erected to that king -at Nérac. In 1852 Jasmin’s works were crowned by the Académie -Française, and a pension was awarded him. The medal -struck on the occasion bore the inscription: <i>Au poëte moral et -populaire</i>. His title of “Maistre ès Jeux” is a distinction only +at Nérac. In 1852 Jasmin’s works were crowned by the Académie +Française, and a pension was awarded him. The medal +struck on the occasion bore the inscription: <i>Au poëte moral et +populaire</i>. His title of “Maistre ès Jeux” is a distinction only conferred by the academy of Toulouse on illustrious writers. Pius IX. sent him the insignia of a knight of St Gregory the Great, and he was made chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He @@ -6080,8 +6041,8 @@ axillary panicles, and have a tubular 5- or 8-cleft calyx, a cylindrical corolla-tube, with a spreading limb, two included stamens and a two-celled ovary.</p> -<p>The name is derived from the Persian <i>yásmín</i>. Linnaeus -obtained a fancied etymology from <span class="grk" title="ia">ἴα</span>, violets, and <span class="grk" title="osmê">ὀσμή</span>, smell, +<p>The name is derived from the Persian <i>yásmÃn</i>. Linnaeus +obtained a fancied etymology from <span class="grk" title="ia">ἴα</span>, violets, and <span class="grk" title="osmê">ὀσμή</span>, smell, but the odour of its flowers bears no resemblance to that of the violet. The common white jasmine, <i>Jasminum officinale</i>, one <span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span> @@ -6193,7 +6154,7 @@ appear. It thrives in almost any situation and grows rapidly.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JASON<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Iasôn">Ἰάσων</span>), in Greek legend, son of Aeson, king of Iolcus +<p><span class="bold">JASON<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Iasôn">Ἰάσων</span>), in Greek legend, son of Aeson, king of Iolcus in Thessaly. He was the leader of the Argonautic expedition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argonauts</a></span>). After he returned from it he lived at Corinth with his wife Medea (<i>q.v.</i>) for many years. At last he put away @@ -6223,7 +6184,7 @@ teeth, the fight with the Sparti, who are finally set fighting with one another by a stone hurled into their midst), associate both with Demeter the corn-goddess, and refer certain episodes to practices in use at country festivals, <i>e.g.</i> the stone throwing, -which, like the <span class="grk" title="ballêtys">βαλλητύς</span> at the Eleusinia and the <span class="grk" title="lithobolia">λιθοβολία</span> at +which, like the <span class="grk" title="ballêtys">βαλλητύς</span> at the Eleusinia and the <span class="grk" title="lithobolia">λιθοβολία</span> at <span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> Troezen (Pausanias ii. 30, 4 with Frazer’s note) was probably intended to secure a good harvest by driving away the evil @@ -6231,17 +6192,17 @@ spirits of unfruitfulness.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See articles by C. Seeliger in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i> and -by F. Durrbach in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; -H. D. Müller, <i>Mythologie der griechischen Stämme</i> (1861), +by F. Durrbach in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; +H. D. Müller, <i>Mythologie der griechischen Stämme</i> (1861), ii. 328, who explains the name Jason as “wanderer”; W. Mannhardt, <i>Mythologische Forschungen</i> (1884), pp. 75, 130; O. Crusius, -<i>Beiträge zur griechischen Mythologie una Religionsgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, +<i>Beiträge zur griechischen Mythologie una Religionsgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1886).</p> </div> <p><i>Later Versions of the Legend.</i>—<i>Les fais et prouesses du noble et vaillant chevalier Jason</i> was composed in the middle of the 15th -century by Raoul Lefèvre on the basis of Benoît’s <i>Roman de +century by Raoul Lefèvre on the basis of Benoît’s <i>Roman de Troie</i>, and presented to Philip of Burgundy, founder of the order of the Golden Fleece. The manners and sentiments of the 15th century are made to harmonize with the classical legends after @@ -6260,7 +6221,7 @@ Colonne, <i>Historia Medeae et Jasonis</i> (unpublished).</p> <p>The <i>Histoire de la Thoison d’Or</i> (Paris, 1516) by Guillaume Fillastre (1400-1473), written about 1440-1450, is an historical compilation -dealing with the exploits of the <i>très chrétiennes maisons</i> of France, +dealing with the exploits of the <i>très chrétiennes maisons</i> of France, Burgundy and Flanders.</p> </div> @@ -6334,7 +6295,7 @@ Basil the Wolf, and adorned with countless gilded carvings on its outer walls and twin towers. The St Spiridion Foundation (due to the liberality of Prince Gregory Ghika in 1727, and available for the sick of all countries and creeds) has an annual income -of over £80,000, and maintains hospitals and churches in several +of over £80,000, and maintains hospitals and churches in several towns of Moldavia, besides the baths at Slanic in Walachia. The main hospital in Jassy is a large building, and possesses a maternity institution, a midwifery school, a chemical institute, an @@ -6374,7 +6335,7 @@ under Ypsilanti in 1821 led to the storming of the city by the Turks in 1822. In 1844 there was a severe conflagration. For the loss caused to the city in 1861 by the removal of the seat of government to Bucharest the constituent assembly voted -£148,150, to be paid in ten annual instalments, but no payment +£148,150, to be paid in ten annual instalments, but no payment was ever made.</p> @@ -6468,15 +6429,15 @@ tantra, about a thousand years later, has been fairly well traced out. But for the intervening centuries scarcely anything has been done. There are illustrations, in the bas-reliefs of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, of Jātakas not contained in the Jātaka book. Another collection, -the <i>Cariyâ piṭaka</i>, of about the same date, has been edited, but not +the <i>Cariyâ piṭaka</i>, of about the same date, has been edited, but not translated. Other collections both in Pali and Sanskrit are known to be extant in MS; and a large number of Jātaka stories, not included in any formal collection, are mentioned, or told in full, in other works.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—V. Fausböll, <i>The Jataka</i>, Pali text (7 vols., London, +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—V. Fausböll, <i>The Jataka</i>, Pali text (7 vols., London, 1877-1897), (Eng. trans., edited by E. B. Cowell, 6 vols., Cambridge, -1895-1907); <i>Cariyâ piṭaka</i>, edited by R. Morris for the Pali Text +1895-1907); <i>Cariyâ piṭaka</i>, edited by R. Morris for the Pali Text Society (London, 1882); H. Kern, <i>Jātaka-mālā</i>, Sanskrit text (Cambridge, Mass., 1891), (Eng. trans. by J. S. Speyer, Oxford, 1895); Rhys Davids, <i>Buddhist Birth Stories</i> (with full bibliographical @@ -6500,18 +6461,18 @@ the small state of Daphlapur, which is an integral part of it, it forms the Bijapur Agency, under the collector of Bijapur district. Area, including Daphlapur, 980 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 68,665, showing a decline of 14% in the decade. Estimated revenue -£24,000; tribute £700. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are +£24,000; tribute £700. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are carried on; there are no important manufactures. The chief, whose title is deshmukh, is a Mahratta of the Daphle family. The town of <span class="sc">Jath</span> is 92 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. (1901), 5404.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JÁTIVA<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (formerly written <span class="sc">Xativa</span>), or <span class="sc">San Felipe de Játiva</span>, +<p><span class="bold">JÃTIVA<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (formerly written <span class="sc">Xativa</span>), or <span class="sc">San Felipe de Játiva</span>, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia, on the right -bank of the river Albaida, a tributary of the Júcar, and at the +bank of the river Albaida, a tributary of the Júcar, and at the junction of the Valencia-Murcia and Valencia-Albacete railways. -Pop. (1900), 12,600. Játiva is built on the margin of a fertile +Pop. (1900), 12,600. Játiva is built on the margin of a fertile and beautiful plain, and on the southern slopes of the Monte Bernisa, a hill with two peaks, each surmounted by a castle. With its numerous fountains, and spacious avenues shaded @@ -6524,22 +6485,22 @@ of inscribed Roman masonry, and several houses date from the Moorish occupation. There is a brisk local trade in grain, fruit, wine, oil and rice.</p> -<p>Játiva was the Roman Saetabis, afterwards Valeria Augusta, +<p>Játiva was the Roman Saetabis, afterwards Valeria Augusta, of Carthaginian or Iberian origin. Pliny (23-79) and Martial (<i>c.</i> 40-102) mention the excellence of its linen cloth. Under the Visigoths (<i>c.</i> 483-711) it became an episcopal see; but early in the 8th century it was captured by the Moors, under whom it attained great prosperity, and received its present name. It was reconquered by James I. of Aragon (1213-1276). During the 15th -and 16th centuries, Játiva was the home of many members of +and 16th centuries, Játiva was the home of many members of the princely house of Borgia or Borja, who migrated hither from the town of Borja in the province of Saragossa. Alphonso Borgia, afterwards Pope Calixtus III., and Rodrigo Borgia, -afterwards Pope Alexander VI., were natives of Játiva, born +afterwards Pope Alexander VI., were natives of Játiva, born respectively in 1378 and 1431. The painter Jusepe Ribera was also born here in 1588. Owing to its gallant defence against the troops of the Archduke Charles in the war of the Spanish succession, -Játiva received the additional name of San Felipe from +Játiva received the additional name of San Felipe from Philip V. (1700-1746).</p> @@ -6590,7 +6551,7 @@ tends to be perpetuated by their intellectual apathy.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JAUBERT, PIERRE AMÉDÉE ÉMILIEN PROBE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1779-1847), +<p><span class="bold">JAUBERT, PIERRE AMÉDÉE ÉMILIEN PROBE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1779-1847), French Orientalist, was born at Aix in Provence on the 3rd of June 1779. He was one of the most distinguished pupils of Silvestre de Sacy, whose funeral <i>Discours</i> he pronounced @@ -6603,38 +6564,38 @@ the shah; but on the way he was seized and imprisoned in a dry cistern for four months by the pasha of Bayazid. The pasha’s death freed Jaubert, who successfully accomplished his mission, and rejoined Napoleon at Warsaw in 1807. On the eve of -Napoleon’s downfall he was appointed chargé d’affaires at +Napoleon’s downfall he was appointed chargé d’affaires at Constantinople. The restoration ended his diplomatic career, but in 1818 he undertook a journey with government aid to Tibet, whence he succeeded in introducing into France 400 Kashmir goats. The rest of his life Jaubert spent in study, in writing and in teaching. He became professor of Persian in -the collège de France, and director of the école des langues -orientales, and in 1830 was elected member of the Académie +the collège de France, and director of the école des langues +orientales, and in 1830 was elected member of the Académie des Inscriptions. In 1841 he was made a peer of France and councillor of state. He died in Paris on the 28th of January, 1847.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Besides articles in the <i>Journal asiatique</i>, he published <i>Voyage en -Arménie et en Perse</i> (1821; the edition of 1860 has a notice of Jaubert, -by M. Sédillot) and <i>Éléments de la grammaire turque</i> (1823-1834). +Arménie et en Perse</i> (1821; the edition of 1860 has a notice of Jaubert, +by M. Sédillot) and <i>Éléments de la grammaire turque</i> (1823-1834). See notices in the <i>Journal asiatique</i>, Jan. 1847, and the <i>Journal des -débats</i>, Jan. 30, 1847.</p> +débats</i>, Jan. 30, 1847.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1757-1852), +<p><span class="bold">JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1757-1852), French politician, was born on the 14th of November 1757 at Tournon (Seine-et-Marne) of a Protestant family, protected by -the prince de Condé, whose regiment he entered. He adopted +the prince de Condé, whose regiment he entered. He adopted revolutionary ideas and became colonel of his regiment. In the Assembly, to which he was returned in 1791 by the department of Seine-et-Marne, he voted generally with the minority, and his views being obviously too moderate for his colleagues he resigned in 1792 and was soon after arrested on suspicion of -being a reactionary. Mme de Staël procured his release from +being a reactionary. Mme de Staël procured his release from P. L. Manuel just before the September massacres. He accompanied Talleyrand on his mission to England, returning to France after the execution of Louis XVI. He lived in retirement @@ -6648,14 +6609,14 @@ period minister of marine, but held no further office. He devoted himself to the support of the Protestant interest in France. A member of the upper house throughout the reign of Louis Philippe, he was driven into private life by the establishment -of the Second Republic, but lived to see the <i>Coup d’état</i> and +of the Second Republic, but lived to see the <i>Coup d’état</i> and to rally to the government of Louis Napoleon, dying in Paris on the 5th of February 1852.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JAUER,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of -Silesia, 13 m. by rail S. of Leignitz, on the Wüthende Neisse. +Silesia, 13 m. by rail S. of Leignitz, on the Wüthende Neisse. Pop. (1900), 13,024. St Martin’s (Roman Catholic) church dates from 1267-1290, and the Evangelical church from 1655. A new town-hall was erected in 1895-1898. Jauer manufactures @@ -6663,7 +6624,7 @@ leather, carpets, cigars, carriages and gloves, and is specially famous for its sausages. The town was first mentioned in 1242, and was formerly the capital of a principality embracing about 1200 sq. m., now occupied by the circles -of Jauer, Bunzlau, Löweberg, Hirschberg and Schönau. From +of Jauer, Bunzlau, Löweberg, Hirschberg and Schönau. From 1392 to 1741 it belonged to the kings of Bohemia, being taken from Maria Theresa by Frederick the Great. Jauer was formerly the prosperous seat of the Silesian linen trade, @@ -6672,7 +6633,7 @@ which it was burned down three times, permanently injured this.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Schönaich, <i>Die alte Fürstentumshauptstadt Jauer</i> (Jauer, 1903).</p> +<p>See Schönaich, <i>Die alte Fürstentumshauptstadt Jauer</i> (Jauer, 1903).</p> </div> @@ -6854,7 +6815,7 @@ of the 16th century, a mosque dating from 1376, and the <i>hammams</i> or baths of Ibrahim Shah. Among other buildings may be mentioned the Atala Masjid (1408) and the ruined Jinjiri Masjid, mosques built by Ibrahim, the first of which has a great cloistered -court and a magnificent façade; the Dariba mosque constructed +court and a magnificent façade; the Dariba mosque constructed by two of Ibrahim’s governors; the Lal Darwaza erected by the queen of Mahmud; the Jama Masjid (1438-1478) or great mosque of Husain, with court and cloisters, standing on a raised @@ -6863,7 +6824,7 @@ splendid bridge over the Gumti, erected by Munim Khan, Mogul governor in 1569-1573. During the Mutiny of 1857 Jaunpur formed a centre of disaffection. The city has now lost its importance, the only industries surviving being the manufacture -of perfumes and papier-mâché articles.</p> +of perfumes and papier-mâché articles.</p> <p>The <span class="sc">District of Jaunpur</span> has an area of 1551 sq. m. It forms part of the wide Gangetic plain, and its surface is accordingly @@ -6924,7 +6885,7 @@ the repulse of the insurgent leader at the hands of the people themselves.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See A. Führer, <i>The Shargi Architecture of Jaunpur</i> (1889).</p> +<p>See A. Führer, <i>The Shargi Architecture of Jaunpur</i> (1889).</p> </div> @@ -6945,7 +6906,7 @@ and he finds cognate bases in such words as “jump,” “high jinks.” The word “jaunty,” sprightly, especially used of anything done with an easy nonchalant air, is a corruption of “janty,” due to confusion with “jaunt.” “Janty,” often spelt -in the 17th and 18th centuries “janté” or “jantee,” represents +in the 17th and 18th centuries “janté” or “jantee,” represents the English pronunciation of Fr. <i>gentil</i>, well-bred, neat, spruce.</p> @@ -6968,7 +6929,7 @@ the spot.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JAURÉGUIBERRY, JEAN BERNARD<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1815-1887), French +<p><span class="bold">JAURÉGUIBERRY, JEAN BERNARD<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1815-1887), French admiral, was born at Bayonne on the 26th of August 1815. He entered the navy in 1831, was made a lieutenant in 1845, commander in 1856, and captain in 1860. After serving in the @@ -6976,7 +6937,7 @@ Crimea and in China, and being governor of Senegal, he was promoted to rear-admiral in 1869. He served on land during the second part of the Franco-German War of 1870-71, in the rank of auxiliary general of division. He was present at Coulmiers, -Villépion and Loigny-Poupry, in command of a division, +Villépion and Loigny-Poupry, in command of a division, and in Chanzy’s retreat upon Le Mans and the battle at that place in command of a corps. He was the most distinguished of the many naval officers who did good service in the military @@ -6988,47 +6949,47 @@ in the Mediterranean. In February 1879 he became minister of the navy in the Waddington cabinet, and on the 27th of May following was elected a senator for life. He was again minister of the navy in the Freycinet cabinet in 1880. A fine example of -the fighting French seaman of his time, Jauréguiberry died at +the fighting French seaman of his time, Jauréguiberry died at Paris on the 21st of October 1887.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JÁUREGUI Y AGUILAR, JUAN MARTÍNEZ DE<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1583-1641), +<p><span class="bold">JÃUREGUI Y AGUILAR, JUAN MARTÃNEZ DE<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1583-1641), Spanish poet, was baptized at Seville on the 24th of November 1583. In due course he studied at Rome, returning to Spain shortly before 1610 with a double reputation as a painter and a poet. A reference in the preface to the <i>Novelas exemplares</i> has been taken to mean that he painted the portrait of Cervantes, who, in the second part of <i>Don Quixote</i>, praises the translation -of Tasso’s <i>Aminta</i> published at Rome in 1607. Jáuregui’s +of Tasso’s <i>Aminta</i> published at Rome in 1607. Jáuregui’s <i>Rimas</i> (1618), a collection of graceful lyrics, is preceded by a controversial preface which attracted much attention on account of its outspoken declaration against <i>culteranismo</i>. Through the influence of Olivares, he was appointed groom of the chamber to Philip IV., and gave an elaborate exposition of his artistic -doctrines in the <i>Discurso poético contra el hablar culto y oscuro</i> +doctrines in the <i>Discurso poético contra el hablar culto y oscuro</i> (1624), a skilful attack on the new theories, which procured for its author the order of Calatrava. It is plain, however, that the -shock of controversy had shaken Jáuregui’s convictions, and -his poem <i>Orfeo</i> (1624) is visibly influenced by Góngora. Jáuregui +shock of controversy had shaken Jáuregui’s convictions, and +his poem <i>Orfeo</i> (1624) is visibly influenced by Góngora. Jáuregui died at Madrid on the 11th of January 1641, leaving behind him a translation of the <i>Pharsalia</i> which was not published till 1684. -This rendering reveals Jáuregui as a complete convert to the +This rendering reveals Jáuregui as a complete convert to the new school, and it has been argued that, exaggerating the -affinities between Lucan and Góngora—both of Cordovan +affinities between Lucan and Góngora—both of Cordovan descent—he deliberately translated the thought of the earlier poet into the vocabulary of the later master. This is possible; -but it is at least as likely that Jáuregui unconsciously yielded to +but it is at least as likely that Jáuregui unconsciously yielded to the current of popular taste, with no other intention than that of conciliating the public of his own day.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JAURÈS, JEAN LÉON<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1859-  ), French Socialist leader, +<p><span class="bold">JAURÈS, JEAN LÉON<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1859-  ), French Socialist leader, was born at Castres (Tarn) on the 3rd of September 1859. He -was educated at the lycée Louis-le-Grand and the école normale -supérieure, and took his degree as associate in philosophy in -1881. After teaching philosophy for two years at the lycée of +was educated at the lycée Louis-le-Grand and the école normale +supérieure, and took his degree as associate in philosophy in +1881. After teaching philosophy for two years at the lycée of Albi (Tarn), he lectured at the university of Toulouse. He was elected republican deputy for the department of Tarn in 1885. In 1889, after unsuccessfully contesting Castres, he returned to @@ -7037,14 +6998,14 @@ interest in municipal affairs, and helped to found the medical faculty of the university. He also prepared two theses for his doctorate in philosophy, <i>De primis socialismi germanici lineamentis apud Lutherum, Kant, Fichte et Hegel</i> (1891), and <i>De la -réalité du monde sensible</i>. In 1902 he gave energetic support to +réalité du monde sensible</i>. In 1902 he gave energetic support to the miners of Carmaux who went out on strike in consequence of the dismissal of a socialist workman, Calvignac; and in the next year he was re-elected to the chamber as deputy for Albi. Although he was defeated at the elections of 1898 and was for four years outside the chamber, his eloquent speeches made him a force in politics as an intellectual champion of socialism. He -edited the <i>Petite République</i>, and was one of the most energetic +edited the <i>Petite République</i>, and was one of the most energetic defenders of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. He approved of the inclusion of M. Millerand, the socialist, in the Waldeck-Rousseau ministry, though this led to a split with the more revolutionary @@ -7052,12 +7013,12 @@ section led by M. Guesde. In 1902 he was again returned as deputy for Albi, and during the Combes administration his influence secured the coherence of the radical-socialist coalition known as the <i>bloc</i>. In 1904 he founded the socialist paper, -<i>L’Humanité</i>. The French socialist groups held a congress at +<i>L’Humanité</i>. The French socialist groups held a congress at Rouen in March 1905, which resulted in a new consolidation; -the new party, headed by MM. Jaurès and Guesde, ceased to +the new party, headed by MM. Jaurès and Guesde, ceased to co-operate with the radicals and radical-socialists, and became known as the unified socialists, pledged to advance a collectivist -programme. At the general elections of 1906 M. Jaurès was +programme. At the general elections of 1906 M. Jaurès was again elected for the Tarn. His ability and vigour were now generally recognized; but the strength of the socialist party, and the practical activity of its leader, still had to reckon with the @@ -7068,17 +7029,17 @@ speech in the spring of 1906) to rally to a radical programme which had no socialist Utopia in view; and the appearance in him of a strong and practical radical leader had the result of considerably diminishing the effect of the socialist propaganda. -M. Jaurès, in addition to his daily journalistic activity, published +M. Jaurès, in addition to his daily journalistic activity, published <i>Les preuves; affaire Dreyfus</i> (1900); <i>Action socialiste</i> (1899); -<i>Études socialistes</i> (1902), and, with other collaborators, <i>Histoire +<i>Études socialistes</i> (1902), and, with other collaborators, <i>Histoire socialiste</i> (1901), &c.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JAVA,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> one of the larger islands of that portion of the Malay Archipelago which is distinguished as the Sunda Islands. It -lies between 105° 12′ 40″ (St Nicholas Point) and 114° 35′ 38″ E. -(Cape Seloko) and between 5° 52′ 34″ and 8° 46′ 46″ S. It has +lies between 105° 12′ 40″ (St Nicholas Point) and 114° 35′ 38″ E. +(Cape Seloko) and between 5° 52′ 34″ and 8° 46′ 46″ S. It has a total length of 622 m. from Pepper Bay in the west to Banyuwangi in the east, and an extreme breadth of 121 m. from Cape Bugel in Japara to the coast of Jokjakarta, narrowing towards @@ -7122,7 +7083,7 @@ Nusa Kembangan, Sempu and Nusa Barung.</p> Strait, which at the narrowest is only 14 m. broad, but widens elsewhere to about 50 m. On the E. the strait of Bali, which parts it from the island of that name, is at the northern end not -more than 1½ m. across. Through the former strong currents +more than 1½ m. across. Through the former strong currents run for the greater part of the day throughout the year, outwards from the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean. In the strait of Bali the currents are perhaps even stronger and are extremely @@ -7320,12 +7281,12 @@ atmospheric movements passing between Asia and Australia; and is affected by the neighbourhood of vast expanses of sea and land (Borneo and Sumatra). There are no such maxima of temperature as are recorded from the continents. The highest known at Batavia -was 96° F. in 1877 and the lowest 66° in the same year. The mean -annual temperature is 79°. The warmest months are May and -October, registering 79.5° and 79.46° respectively; the coldest -January and February with 77.63° and 77.7° respectively. The +was 96° F. in 1877 and the lowest 66° in the same year. The mean +annual temperature is 79°. The warmest months are May and +October, registering 79.5° and 79.46° respectively; the coldest +January and February with 77.63° and 77.7° respectively. The daily range is much greater; at one o’clock the thermometer has a -mean height of 84°; after two o’clock it declines to about 73° at six +mean height of 84°; after two o’clock it declines to about 73° at six o’clock; the greatest daily amplitude is in August and the least in January and February. Eastern Java and the inland plains of middle Java are said to be hotter, but scientific data are few. A @@ -7365,8 +7326,8 @@ than an inch and not more than one and a half inches. The popular description of the rain falling not in drops but streams was proved erroneous by J. Wiesner’s careful observations (see <i>Kais. Akad. d. Wiss. Math. Naturw. Cl.</i> Bd. xiv., Vienna, 1895), which have been -confirmed by A. Woeikof (“Regensintensität und Regendauer in -Batavia” in <i>Z. für Met.</i>, 1907). The greatest rainfall recorded in +confirmed by A. Woeikof (“Regensintensität und Regendauer in +Batavia” in <i>Z. für Met.</i>, 1907). The greatest rainfall recorded in an hour (4.5 in.) is enormously exceeded by records even in Europe. From observations taken for the meteorological authorities at a very considerable number of stations, J. H. Boeseken constructed a map @@ -7536,7 +7497,7 @@ species, <i>Selene scomia javanensis</i>. In many parts the island is plagued with ants, termites and mosquitoes. Crops of all kinds are subject to disastrous attacks of creeping and winged foes—many still unidentified (see especially Snellen van Hollenhoven, -<i>Essai d’une faune entomologique de l’Archipel Indo-néerlandais</i>). +<i>Essai d’une faune entomologique de l’Archipel Indo-néerlandais</i>). Of still lower forms of life the profusion is no less perplexing. Among the worms the <i>Perichaeta musica</i> reaches a length of about twenty inches and produces musical sounds. The shell of the <i>Tridacna @@ -7718,7 +7679,7 @@ sea, and thriving best in more or less calciferous soils. In June it sheds its leaves and begins to bud again in October. Full-grown trees reach a height of 100 to 150 ft. In 1895 teak (with a very limited quantity of other timber) was felled to the value of about -£101,800, and in 1904 the corresponding figure was about £119,935.</p> +£101,800, and in 1904 the corresponding figure was about £119,935.</p> <p>That an island which has for so long maintained a dense and growing population in its more cultivable regions should have such @@ -7748,7 +7709,7 @@ man. The open space left by the demolition of the fortifications on Nusa Kambangan was in twenty-eight years densely covered by thousands of shrubs and trees of about twenty varieties, many of the latter 80 ft. high. Resident Snijthoff succeeded about the close -of the 19th century in re-afforesting a large part of Mount Muriå by +of the 19th century in re-afforesting a large part of Mount MuriÃ¥ by the simple expedient of protecting the territory he had to deal with from all encroachments by natives.<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p> </div> @@ -7779,7 +7740,7 @@ the head black, long, lank and coarse. Neither breast nor limbs are provided with hair, and there is hardly even the suggestion of a beard. In stature the Sundanese is less than the Javanese proper, being little over 5 ft. in average height, whereas the -Javanese is nearly 5½ ft.; at the same time the Sundanese is more +Javanese is nearly 5½ ft.; at the same time the Sundanese is more stoutly built. The Madurese is as tall as the Javanese, and as stout as the Sundanese. The eye is usually set straight in the head in the Javanese and Madurese; among the Sundanese it is @@ -7801,7 +7762,7 @@ simple and industrious.</p> concentrated in towns, a fact readily explained by their sources of livelihood. The great bulk of the population is distributed over the country in villages usually called by Europeans dessas, -from the Low Javanese word <i>déså</i> (High Javanese <i>dusun</i>). Every +from the Low Javanese word <i>désÃ¥</i> (High Javanese <i>dusun</i>). Every dessa, however small (and those containing from 100 to 1000 families are exceptionally large), forms an independent community; and no sooner does it attain to any considerable size than @@ -7854,7 +7815,7 @@ literary language long after it had become archaic. It contains more Sanskrit than any other language of the archipelago. New Javanese breaks up into two great varieties, so different that sometimes they are regarded as two distinct languages. The nobility -use one form, Kråmå; the common people another, Ngoko, the +use one form, KrÃ¥mÃ¥; the common people another, Ngoko, the “thouing” language (cf. Fr. <i>tutoyant</i>, Ger. <i>dutzend</i>); but each class understands the language of the other class. The aristocrat speaks <span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span> @@ -7862,14 +7823,14 @@ to the commonalty in the language of the commoner; the commoner speaks to the aristocracy in the language of the aristocrat; and, according to clearly recognized etiquette, every Javanese plays the part of aristocrat or commoner towards those whom he addresses. -To speak Ngoko to a superior is to insult him; to speak Kråmå to an -equal or inferior is a mark of respect. In this way Dipå Negårå +To speak Ngoko to a superior is to insult him; to speak KrÃ¥mÃ¥ to an +equal or inferior is a mark of respect. In this way DipÃ¥ NegÃ¥rÃ¥ showed his contempt for the Dutch General de Kock. The ordinary Javanese thinks in Ngoko; the children use it to each other, and so on. Between the two forms there is a kind of compromise, the Madya, or middle form of speech, employed by those who stand to each other on equal or friendly footing or by those who feel little constraint -of etiquette. For every idea expressed in the language Kråmå has +of etiquette. For every idea expressed in the language KrÃ¥mÃ¥ has one vocable, the Ngoko another, the two words being sometimes completely different and sometimes differing only in the termination, the beginning or the middle. Thus every Javanese uses, as it were, @@ -7883,15 +7844,15 @@ also be assigned to <i>pamela</i> or <i>pantang</i>, word-taboo—certain wo being in certain circumstances regarded as of evil omen—a superstition still lingering, <i>e.g.</i> even among the Shetland fishermen (see G. A. F. Hazeu, <i>De taal pantangs</i>). It has sometimes been asserted -that Kråmå contains more Sanskrit words than Ngoko does; but -the total number in Kråmå does not exceed 20; and sometimes -there is a Sanskrit word in Ngoko which is not in Kråmå. There -is a village Kråmå which is not recognized by the educated classes: -Kråmå inggil, with a vocabulary of about 300 words, is used in +that KrÃ¥mÃ¥ contains more Sanskrit words than Ngoko does; but +the total number in KrÃ¥mÃ¥ does not exceed 20; and sometimes +there is a Sanskrit word in Ngoko which is not in KrÃ¥mÃ¥. There +is a village KrÃ¥mÃ¥ which is not recognized by the educated classes: +KrÃ¥mÃ¥ inggil, with a vocabulary of about 300 words, is used in addressing the deity or persons of exalted rank. The Basa Kedaton or court language is a dialect used by all living at court except royalties, who use Ngoko. Among themselves the women of the -court employ Kråmå or Madya, but they address the men in Basa +court employ KrÃ¥mÃ¥ or Madya, but they address the men in Basa Kedaton.<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p> <p><i>Literature.</i>—Though a considerable body of Kavi literature is still @@ -7899,22 +7860,22 @@ extant, nothing like a history of it is possible. The date and authorship of most of the works are totally unknown. The first place may be assigned to the <i>Brata Yuda</i> (Sansk., <i>Bharata Yudha</i>, the conflict of the Bharatas), an epic poem dealing with the struggle between the -Pandåwås and the Koråwas for the throne of Ngastina celebrated +PandÃ¥wÃ¥s and the KorÃ¥was for the throne of Ngastina celebrated in parwas 5-10 of the <i>Mahābhārata</i>. To the conception, however, of the modern Javanese it is a purely native poem; its kings and heroes find their place in the native history and serve as ancestors to their noble families. (Cohen Stuart published the modern Javanese -version with a Dutch translation and notes, <i>Bråtå-Joedå</i>, &c., +version with a Dutch translation and notes, <i>BrÃ¥tÃ¥-JoedÃ¥</i>, &c., Samarang, 1877. The Kavi text was lithographed at the Hague -by S. Lankhout.) Of greater antiquity probably is the <i>Ardjunå -Wiwåhå</i> (or marriage festival of Ardjuna), which Professor Kern +by S. Lankhout.) Of greater antiquity probably is the <i>ArdjunÃ¥ +WiwÃ¥hÃ¥</i> (or marriage festival of Ardjuna), which Professor Kern thinks may be assigned to the first half of the 11th century of the Christian era. The name indicates its <i>Mahābhārata</i> origin. (Friederich -published the Kavi text from a Bali MS., and <i>Wiwåhå Djarwa -en Bråtå Joedo Kawi</i>, lithographed facsimiles of two palm-leaf MSS., +published the Kavi text from a Bali MS., and <i>WiwÃ¥hÃ¥ Djarwa +en BrÃ¥tÃ¥ Joedo Kawi</i>, lithographed facsimiles of two palm-leaf MSS., Batavia, 1878. Djarwa is the name of the poetic diction of modern Javanese.) The oldest poem of which any trace is preserved is -probably the mythological <i>Kåndå</i> (<i>i.e.</i> tradition); the contents are +probably the mythological <i>KÃ¥ndÃ¥</i> (<i>i.e.</i> tradition); the contents are to some extent known from the modern Javanese version. In the literature of modern Javanese there exists a great variety of so-called <i>babads</i> or chronicles. It is sufficient to mention the “history” @@ -7926,7 +7887,7 @@ analysis of the contents), and the <i>Babad Tanah Djawi</i> (the Hague, era. Even more numerous are the <i>wayangs</i> or puppet-plays which usually take their subjects from the Hindu legends or from those relating to the kingdoms of Majapahit and Pajajaram (see <i>e.g.</i> H. C. -Humme, <i>Abiåså, een Javaansche toneelstuk</i>, the Hague, 1878). In +Humme, <i>AbiÃ¥sÃ¥, een Javaansche toneelstuk</i>, the Hague, 1878). In these plays grotesque figures of gilded leather are moved by the performer, who recites the appropriate speeches and, as occasion demands, plays the part of chorus.</p> @@ -8142,7 +8103,7 @@ Jokjakarta, the chief towns of the quasi-independent states or Vorstenlanden. Surakarta (pop. 109,459; Chinese 5159, Europeans 1913) contains the palace (Kraton, locally called the Bata bumi) of the susuhunan (which the Dutch translated as emperor), the -dalem of Prince Mangku Negårå, the residences of the Solo nobles, +dalem of Prince Mangku NegÃ¥rÃ¥, the residences of the Solo nobles, a small Dutch fort (Vastenburg), a great mosque, an old Dutch settlement, and a Protestant church. Here the susuhunan lives in Oriental pomp and state. To visitors there are few more interesting @@ -8151,7 +8112,7 @@ of August (the birthday of the queen of the Netherlands) or of the New Year and the Puasa festivals, with their wayungs, ballet-dancers, and so on. Jokjakarta (35 m. S.) has been a great city since Mangku Bumi settled there in 1755. The Kraton has a circuit -of 3½ m., and is a little town in itself with the palace proper, the +of 3½ m., and is a little town in itself with the palace proper, the residences of the ladies of the court and kampongs for the hereditary smiths, carpenters, sculptors, masons, payong-makers, musical instrument makers, &c., &c., of his highness. The independent Prince @@ -8224,7 +8185,7 @@ legends concerning the introduction of rice, and observe various ceremonies in connexion with its planting, paying more regard to them than to the proper cultivation of the cereal. The agricultural produce grown on the lands of the government and private proprietors, -comprising an area of about 3½ million acres, consists of +comprising an area of about 3½ million acres, consists of sugar, cinchona, coffee, tobacco, tea, indigo, &c. The Javanese possess buffaloes, ordinary cattle, horses, dogs and cats. The buffalo was probably introduced by the Hindus. As in agricultural @@ -8271,8 +8232,8 @@ the coffee blight (<i>Hemileia vastatrix</i>) almost ruined the industry the planters did not give in. An immune variety was introduced from Liberia, and scientific methods of treatment have been adopted in dealing with the plantations. In 1887, a record year, the value of -the coffee crop reached £3,083,333, and at its average it was about -£1,750,000 between 1886 and 1895. The value was only £1,166,666 +the coffee crop reached £3,083,333, and at its average it was about +£1,750,000 between 1886 and 1895. The value was only £1,166,666 in 1896. The greatest difficulties are the uncertainties both of the crop and of its marketable value. The former is well shown in the figures for 1903 to 1905; government 17,900, 3949 and 3511 @@ -8292,7 +8253,7 @@ was 98,094 tons; in 1869-1873, 170,831, and in 1875-1880, 204,678. By 1899-1900 the average had risen to 787,673 tons; and the crops for 1904 and 1905 were respectively 1,064,935 and 1,028,357 tons. Prices fluctuate, but the value of the harvest of 1905 was estimated -at about £15,000,000.</p> +at about £15,000,000.</p> <p>The cultivation of indigo shows a strange vitality. Under the culture system the natives found this the most oppressive of all the @@ -8362,7 +8323,7 @@ nutmegs, mace, pepper, hides, arrack and copra.</p> disposed of its lands in full property to individuals who, acquiring complete control of the inhabitants as well as of the soil, continued down to the 19th century to act as if they were independent -of all superior authority. In this way more than 1½ millions +of all superior authority. In this way more than 1½ millions of the people were subject not to the state but to “stock companies, absentee landlords and Chinese.” According to the <i>Regeerings Almanak</i> (1906) these “particular lands,” as they are called, were @@ -8411,7 +8372,7 @@ water, delivering it to the government at the rate of 10 fl. (nearly 17s.) per koyang (3700 ℔). The distribution of this salt (rough-grained, greyish and highly hygroscopic) is extremely unsatisfactory. The waste was so great that in 1901 the government paid a prize of -about £835 (10,000 fl.) to Karl Boltz von Bolzberg for an improved +about £835 (10,000 fl.) to Karl Boltz von Bolzberg for an improved method of packing. Between 1888 and 1892 the annual amount delivered was 71,405 tons; in the next five years it rose to 89,932; and between 1898 and 1902 sank again to 88,856. The evil effects @@ -8465,10 +8426,10 @@ Jawa Dwipa, or “land of millet,” may have been the original form and have given rise both to the Jaba diu of Ptolemy and to the Je-pho-thi of Fahien, the Chinese pilgrim of the 4th-5th century. The oldest form of the name in Arabic is apparently -Zábej. The first epigraphic occurrence of Jawa is in an inscription +Zábej. The first epigraphic occurrence of Jawa is in an inscription of 1343. In Marco Polo the name is the common appellation of all the Sunda islands. The Jawa of Ibn Batuta is Sumatra; -Java is his Mul Jáwa (<i>i.e.</i> possibly “original Java”). Jåwå +Java is his Mul Jáwa (<i>i.e.</i> possibly “original Java”). JÃ¥wÃ¥ is the modern Javanese name (in the court speech Jawi), sometimes with Nusa, “island,” or Tanah, “country,” prefixed.</p> @@ -8505,7 +8466,7 @@ of Surakarta and Jokjakarta, which still retain a shadow of independence. The kingdom of Bantam was finally subjugated in 1808. By the English occupation of the island (1811-1818) the European ascendancy was rather strengthened than weakened; -the great Java war (1825-1830), in which Dipå Negårå, +the great Java war (1825-1830), in which DipÃ¥ NegÃ¥rÃ¥, the last Javanese prince, a clever, bold and unscrupulous leader, struggled to maintain his claim to the whole island, resulted in the complete success of the Dutch. To subdue him and his @@ -8515,15 +8476,15 @@ officers and soldiers, besides millions of guilders. Nor did his great influence die with him when his adventurous career came to a close in 1855 at Macassar. Many Javanese, who dream of a restoration of their ancient empire, do not believe even yet that -Dipå Negårå is dead. They are readily persuaded by fanatical +DipÃ¥ NegÃ¥rÃ¥ is dead. They are readily persuaded by fanatical hadjis that their hero will suddenly appear to drive away the Dutch and claim his rightful heritage. Several times there have been political troubles in the native states of central Java, -in which Dipå Negårå’s name was used, notably in 1883, when +in which DipÃ¥ NegÃ¥rÃ¥’s name was used, notably in 1883, when many rebellious chieftains were exiled. Similar attempts at revolt had been made before, mainly in 1865 and 1870, but none so serious perhaps as that in 1849, in which a son and a brother -of Dipå Negårå were implicated, aiming to deliver and reinstate +of DipÃ¥ NegÃ¥rÃ¥ were implicated, aiming to deliver and reinstate him. All such attempts proved as futile there as others in different parts of Java, especially in Bantam, where the trouble of 1850 and 1888 had a religious origin, and in the end they @@ -8535,8 +8496,8 @@ in Holland. The main changes were of an economical character, but the political developments were also important. Since 1850 Dutch authority has steadily advanced, principally at the expense of the semi-independent sultanates in central Java, which -had been allowed to remain after the capture and exile of Dipå -Negårå. The power of the sultans of Jokjakarta and Surakarta +had been allowed to remain after the capture and exile of DipÃ¥ +NegÃ¥rÃ¥. The power of the sultans of Jokjakarta and Surakarta has diminished; in 1863 Dutch authority was strengthened in the neighbouring island of Madura, and Bantam has lost every vestige of independence. The strengthening of the Dutch power @@ -8545,7 +8506,7 @@ treatment of the natives, who have been educated to regard the <i>orang blanda</i>, or white man, as their protector against the native rulers. Thus, in 1866, passports for natives travelling in Java were abolished by the then governor-general, Dr Sloet van de -Beele, who also introduced many reforms, reducing the <i>corvée</i> in +Beele, who also introduced many reforms, reducing the <i>corvée</i> in the government plantations to a minimum, and doing away with the monopoly of fisheries. Six years later a primary education system for the natives, and a penal code, whose liberal provisions @@ -8658,7 +8619,7 @@ up before the building was finished, and that the lowest retaining wall was completely concealed by the embankment. The architects had evidently found that their temple was threatened with a destructive subsidence; and, while the sculptors were still busy with -the decoration of the lower façades, they had to abandon their work. +the decoration of the lower façades, they had to abandon their work. But the unfinished bas-reliefs were carefully protected by clay and blocks of stone and left in position; and since 1896 they are gradually but systematically being exhumed and photographed by the Dutch @@ -8808,11 +8769,11 @@ dans l’archipel indien</i> (Batavia, 1886); E. R. Scidmore, <i>Java, the Garden of the East</i> (New York, 1898); J. Chailley-Bert, <i>Java et ses habitants</i> (Paris, 1900); C. Day, <i>The Policy and Administration of the Dutch in Java</i> (London, 1904); E. S. de Klerck, <i>De Java-Oorlog van</i> -1825-1830 (Batavia, 1905); <i>Encyclopaedie v. N. Indië</i>, art. “Java;” -<i>Guide à travers l’Exposition de Paris</i> (The Hague, 1900), with articles +1825-1830 (Batavia, 1905); <i>Encyclopaedie v. N. Indië</i>, art. “Java;” +<i>Guide à travers l’Exposition de Paris</i> (The Hague, 1900), with articles by specialists on each department of the Dutch colonies, more particularly Java; <i>Koloniale Verslagen en Regeerings-almanak van -N. Indië</i>, being official publications of the Dutch and Dutch East-Indian +N. Indië</i>, being official publications of the Dutch and Dutch East-Indian Government (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Malay Archipelago</a></span>).</p> </div> <div class="author">(H. A. W.; O. J. R. H.)</div> @@ -8835,11 +8796,11 @@ utilizing <i>inter alia</i> Guppy’s observations.</p> <p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This Merapi must be carefully distinguished from Merapi the Fire Mountain of Sumatra.</p> -<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> R. D. M. Verbeek and R. Fennema, <i>Description géologique de Java +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> R. D. M. Verbeek and R. Fennema, <i>Description géologique de Java et Madoura</i> (2 vols. and atlas, Amsterdam, 1896; also published in Dutch)—a summary with map was published by Verbeek in <i>Peterm. Mitt.</i> xliv. (1898), 24-33, pl. 3. Also K. Martin, <i>Die Eintheilung der -versteinerungsführenden Sedimente von Java</i>, Samml. Geol. Reichsmus. +versteinerungsführenden Sedimente von Java</i>, Samml. Geol. Reichsmus. Leiden, ser. i., vol. vi. (1899-1902), 135-245.</p> <p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> On the 16th of November the sun rises at 5.32 and sets at 5.57; @@ -8848,7 +8809,7 @@ day is in December and the shortest in June, while on the other hand the sun is highest in February and October and lowest in June and December.</p> -<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> S. Figei. <i>Regenwaarnemingen in Nederlandsch Indië</i> (1902).</p> +<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> S. Figei. <i>Regenwaarnemingen in Nederlandsch Indië</i> (1902).</p> <p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See J. C. Konigsberger, “De vogels Java en hunne oeconomische betukenis,” <i>Med. int. s. Lands Plantentuin</i>.</p> @@ -8861,7 +8822,7 @@ director. A history of the gardens was published by Dr Treub, <i>Festboek van’s Lands Plantentuin</i> (1891).</p> <p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Bertha Hoola van Nooten published <i>Fleurs, fruits et feuillages de -la flore et de la pomone de l’île de Java</i> in 1863, but the book is difficult +la flore et de la pomone de l’île de Java</i> in 1863, but the book is difficult of access. Excellent views of characteristic aspects of the vegetation will be found in Karsten and Schenck, <i>Vegetationsbilder</i> (1903).</p> @@ -8894,7 +8855,7 @@ authorities. These are numerous but difficult of access.</p> <i>Beschrijving der oudheden nabij de Grens der residenties Soerakarta en Djogjakarta</i> (Batavia, 1891, with photographs and atlas); and J. Groneman, <i>Tjandi Parambanan op Midden Java</i>; see also <i>Guide -à travers l’exposition des Pays-Bas</i> (The Hague, 1900), No. 174, sqq.</p> +à travers l’exposition des Pays-Bas</i> (The Hague, 1900), No. 174, sqq.</p> </div> @@ -8941,7 +8902,7 @@ Words used in Arabic.”</p> from another manuscript by W. Spitta in the <i>Journal of the German Oriental Society</i>, xxxiii. 208 sqq. Another work, written as a supplement to the <i>Durrat ul-Ghawwās</i> of Harīrī (<i>q.v.</i>), has been published -as “Le Livre des locutions vicieuses,” by H. Derenbourg in <i>Morgenländische +as “Le Livre des locutions vicieuses,” by H. Derenbourg in <i>Morgenländische Forschungen</i> (Leipzig, 1875), pp. 107-166.</p> </div> <div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> @@ -8951,19 +8912,19 @@ Forschungen</i> (Leipzig, 1875), pp. 107-166.</p> <p><span class="bold">JAWHAR,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Konkan division of Bombay, situated among the lower ranges of the western Ghats. Area 310 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 47,538. The estimated revenue is -£11,000; there is no tribute. The chief, who is a Koli by caste, +£11,000; there is no tribute. The chief, who is a Koli by caste, traces back his descent to 1343. The leading exports are teak and rice. The principal village is that of Jawhar (pop. 3567).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JAWORÓW,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a town in Galicia, Austria, 30 m. W. of Lemberg. +<p><span class="bold">JAWORÓW,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a town in Galicia, Austria, 30 m. W. of Lemberg. Pop. (1900), 10,090. It has a pottery, a brewery, a distillery and some trade in agricultural produce. Not far from it is the watering-place of Szkto with sulphur springs. The town was a favourite residence of John Sobieski, who there received the congratulations of the pope and the Venetian republic on his -success against the Turks at Vienna (1683). At Jaworów Peter +success against the Turks at Vienna (1683). At Jaworów Peter the Great was betrothed to Catherine I.</p> @@ -9308,7 +9269,7 @@ S. Newth in <i>Pulpit Memorials</i> (1878).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JAY<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (Fr. <i>géai</i>), a well-known and very beautiful European +<p><span class="bold">JAY<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (Fr. <i>géai</i>), a well-known and very beautiful European bird, the <i>Corvus glandarius</i> of Linnaeus, the <i>Garrulus glandarius</i> of modern ornithologists. To this species are more or less closely allied numerous birds inhabiting the Palaearctic and @@ -9376,7 +9337,7 @@ are laid in March or April, and the young on quitting it accompany their parents for some weeks.</p> <p>Though the common jay of Europe inhabits nearly the whole -of this quarter of the globe south of 64° N. lat., its territory in +of this quarter of the globe south of 64° N. lat., its territory in the east of Russia is also occupied by <i>G. brandti</i>, a kindred form, which replaces it on the other side of the Ural, and ranges thence across Siberia to Japan; and again on the lower Danube and @@ -9491,8 +9452,8 @@ pl. 55) as a distinct species, <i>G. brachyrhynchus</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JEALOUSY<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (adapted from Fr. <i>jalousie</i>, formed from <i>jaloux</i>, -jealous, Low Lat. <i>zelosus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="zêlos">ζῆλος</span>, ardour, zeal, from the root -seen in <span class="grk" title="zéein">ζέειν</span>, to boil, ferment; cf. “yeast”), originally a condition +jealous, Low Lat. <i>zelosus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="zêlos">ζῆλος</span>, ardour, zeal, from the root +seen in <span class="grk" title="zéein">ζέειν</span>, to boil, ferment; cf. “yeast”), originally a condition of zealous emulation, and hence, in the usual modern sense, of resentment at being (or believing that one is or may be) supplanted or preferred in the love or affection of another, or in @@ -9515,10 +9476,10 @@ without.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JEAN D’ARRAS,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a 15th-century <i>trouvère</i>, about whose +<p><span class="bold">JEAN D’ARRAS,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a 15th-century <i>trouvère</i>, about whose personal history nothing is known, was the collaborator with Antoine du Val and Fouquart de Cambrai in the authorship of -a collection of stories entitled <i>Évangiles de quenouille</i>. They +a collection of stories entitled <i>Évangiles de quenouille</i>. They purport to record the narratives of a group of ladies at their spinning, who relate the current theories on a great variety of subjects. The work dates from the middle of the 15th century @@ -9532,11 +9493,11 @@ as <i>The Gospelles of Dystaves</i>. A modern edition (Collection Jannet) has a preface by Anatole France.</p> </div> -<p>Another <i>trouvère</i>, <span class="sc">Jean d’Arras</span> who flourished in the +<p>Another <i>trouvère</i>, <span class="sc">Jean d’Arras</span> who flourished in the second half of the 14th century, wrote, at the request of John, duke of Berry, a long prose romance entitled <i>Chronique de la princesse</i>. It relates with many digressions the antecedents -and life of the fairy Mélusine (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> +and life of the fairy Mélusine (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -9584,21 +9545,21 @@ mastered practically all the scientific and literary knowledge of his contemporaries in France, had found room in his poem for a great amount of useful information and for numerous citations from classical authors. The book was attacked by Guillaume de -Degulleville in his <i>Pèlerinage de la vie humaine</i> (<i>c.</i> 1330), long a +Degulleville in his <i>Pèlerinage de la vie humaine</i> (<i>c.</i> 1330), long a favourite work both in England and France; by John Gerson, -and by Christine de Pisan in her <i>Épître au dieu d’amour</i>; but it +and by Christine de Pisan in her <i>Épître au dieu d’amour</i>; but it also found energetic defenders.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Jean de Meun translated in 1284 the treatise, <i>De re militari</i>, of -Vegetius into French as <i>Le livre de Vegèce de l’art de chevalerie</i><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (ed. +Vegetius into French as <i>Le livre de Vegèce de l’art de chevalerie</i><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (ed. Ulysse Robert, <i>Soc. des anciens textes fr.</i>, 1897). He also produced a spirited version, the first in French, of the letters of Abelard and -Hèloïse. A 14th-century MS. of this translation in the Bibliothèque +Hèloïse. A 14th-century MS. of this translation in the Bibliothèque Nationale has annotations by Petrarch. His translation of the -<i>De consolatione philosophiae</i> of Boëtius is preceded by a letter to +<i>De consolatione philosophiae</i> of Boëtius is preceded by a letter to Philip IV. in which he enumerates his earlier works, two of which -are lost—<i>De spirituelle amitié</i> from the <i>De spirituali amicitia</i> of +are lost—<i>De spirituelle amitié</i> from the <i>De spirituali amicitia</i> of Aelred of Rievaulx (d. 1166), and the <i>Livre des merveilles d’Hirlande</i> from the <i>Topographia Hibernica</i>, or <i>De Mirabilibus Hiberniae</i> of Giraldus Cambrensis (Giraud de Barry). His last poems are @@ -9607,7 +9568,7 @@ quatrains in monorime, and contains advice to the different classes of the community.</p> <p>See also Paulin Paris in <i>Hist. lit. de la France</i>, xxviii. 391-439, -and E. Langlois in <i>Hist. de la langue et de la lit. française</i>, ed. L. +and E. Langlois in <i>Hist. de la langue et de la lit. française</i>, ed. L. Petit de Julleville, ii. 125-161 (1896); and editions of the <i>Roman de la rose</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> </div> @@ -9615,7 +9576,7 @@ de la rose</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Jean de Meun’s translation formed the basis of a rhymed version -(1290) by Jean Priorat of Besançon, <i>Li abreyance de l’ordre de chevalerie</i>.</p> +(1290) by Jean Priorat of Besançon, <i>Li abreyance de l’ordre de chevalerie</i>.</p> </div> @@ -9638,7 +9599,7 @@ he was an advocate at Dijon in 1569 and became councillor and then president of the <i>parlement</i> of Burgundy. He opposed in vain the massacre of St Bartholomew in his province. As councillor to the duke of Mayenne he sought to reconcile him -with Henry IV. After the victory of Fontaine-Française (1595), +with Henry IV. After the victory of Fontaine-Française (1595), Henry took Jeannin into his council and in 1602 named him intendant of finances. He took part in the principal events of the reign, negotiated the treaty of Lyons with the duke of Savoy @@ -9650,7 +9611,7 @@ king and the queen-mother.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Berger de Xivrey, <i>Lettres missives de Henri IV.</i> (in the <i>Collection -inédite pour l’histoire de France</i>), t. v. (1850); P(ierre) S(aumaise), +inédite pour l’histoire de France</i>), t. v. (1850); P(ierre) S(aumaise), <i>Eloge sur la vie de Pierre Janin</i> (Dijon, 1623); Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, t. x. (May 1854).</p> </div> @@ -9718,7 +9679,7 @@ notice by J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i>, iii. (1908).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JEBEIL<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (anc. <i>Gebal-Byblus</i>), a town of Syria pleasantly situated on a slight eminence near the sea, about 20 m. N. of -Beirut. It is surrounded by a wall 1½ m. in circumference, with +Beirut. It is surrounded by a wall 1½ m. in circumference, with square towers at the angles, and a castle at the south-east corner. Numerous broken granite columns in the gardens and vineyards that surround the town, with the number of ruined houses within @@ -9756,7 +9717,7 @@ dialect of Arabic.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JEDBURGH,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> a royal and police burgh and county-town of Roxburghshire, Scotland. Pop. of police burgh (1901), 3136. -It is situated on Jed Water, a tributary of the Teviot, 56¼ m. S.E. +It is situated on Jed Water, a tributary of the Teviot, 56¼ m. S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway, via Roxburgh and St Boswells (49 m. by road), and 10 m. from the border at Catcleuch Shin, a peak of the Cheviots, 1742 ft. high. Of the @@ -9788,7 +9749,7 @@ by modern additions and alterations.</p> to the end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries. The architecture is mixed, and the abbey is a beautiful example of the Norman and Transition styles. The total length is 235 ft., the nave -being 133½ ft. long and 59½ ft. wide. The west front contains a +being 133½ ft. long and 59½ ft. wide. The west front contains a great Norman porch and a fine wheel window. The nave, on each side, has nine pointed arches in the basement storey, nine round arches in the triforium, and thirty-six pointed arches in the clerestory, @@ -9913,7 +9874,7 @@ by him, while numerous public works in the shape of wells, reservoirs, bridges, causeways, and the like, not only in Bombay, but in other parts of India, were the creation of his bounty. The total of his known benefactions amounted at the time of his -death, which took place in 1859, to over £230,000. It was not, +death, which took place in 1859, to over £230,000. It was not, however, the amount of his charities so much as the period and circumstances in which they were performed that made his benevolent career worthy of the fame he won. In the first half @@ -9965,7 +9926,7 @@ and title of the official Parsee leader.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JEFFERIES, RICHARD<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1848-1887), English naturalist and author, was born on the 6th of November 1848, at the farmhouse -of Coate about 2½ m. from Swindon, on the road to Marlborough. +of Coate about 2½ m. from Swindon, on the road to Marlborough. He was sent to school, first at Sydenham and then at Swindon, till the age of fifteen or so, but his actual education was at the hands of his father, who gave him his love for Nature and taught @@ -10117,7 +10078,7 @@ With a liberal Scotsman, Dr William Small, then of the faculty of William and Mary and later a friend of Erasmus Darwin, and George Wythe (1726-1806), a very accomplished scholar and leader of the Virginia bar, Jefferson was an habitual member, -while still in college, of a <i>partie carrée</i> at the table of Francis +while still in college, of a <i>partie carrée</i> at the table of Francis Fauquier (<i>c.</i> 1720-1768), the accomplished lieutenant-governor of Virginia. Jefferson was an expert violinist, a good singer and dancer, proficient in outdoor sports, and an excellent horseman. @@ -10149,7 +10110,7 @@ politics; at any rate, soon after entering public life he abandoned practice (1774).</p> <p>The death of his father had left him an estate of 1900 acres, the -income from which (about £400) gave him the position of an +income from which (about £400) gave him the position of an independent country gentleman; and while engaged in the law he had added to his farms after the ambitious Virginia fashion, until, when he married in his thirtieth year, there were 5000 @@ -10396,7 +10357,7 @@ and power the nature and scope of neutral duty,” and gave a American parties.<a name="fa11h" id="fa11h" href="#ft11h"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Jefferson did not read excesses in Paris as warnings against democracy, but as warnings against the abuses <span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span> -of monarchy; nor did he regard Bonaparte’s <i>coup d’état</i> as +of monarchy; nor did he regard Bonaparte’s <i>coup d’état</i> as revealing the weakness of republics, but rather as revealing the danger of standing armies; he did not look on the war of the coalitions against France as one of mere powers, but as one @@ -10553,7 +10514,7 @@ expected, he sent in a written message by a private hand. He discontinued the practice of sending ministers abroad in public vessels. Between himself and the governors of states he recognized no difference in rank. He would not have his birthday -celebrated by state balls. The weekly levée was practically +celebrated by state balls. The weekly levée was practically abandoned. Even such titles as “Excellency,” “Honourable,” “Mr” were distasteful to him. It was formally agreed in cabinet meeting that “when brought together in society, all are perfectly @@ -10755,7 +10716,7 @@ on system. His mind, no less trenchant and subtle than Hamilton’s, was the most impressible, the most receptive, mind of his time in America. The range of his interests is remarkable. For many years he was president of the American philosophical society. Though it is -a biographical tradition that he lacked wit, Molière and <i>Don Quixote</i> +a biographical tradition that he lacked wit, Molière and <i>Don Quixote</i> seem to have been his favourites; and though the utilitarian wholly crowds romanticism out of his writings, he had enough of that quality in youth to prepare to learn Gaelic in order to translate @@ -10790,7 +10751,7 @@ vols. 1-4 (New York, 1889-1890); Herbert B. Adams, <i>Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia</i> (U. S. bureau of education, Washington, 1888); Sarah N. Randolph, <i>Domestic Life of Thomas Jefferson</i> (New York, 1871); and an illuminating appreciation by -W. P. Trent, in his <i>Southern Statesmen of the Old Régime</i> (New York, +W. P. Trent, in his <i>Southern Statesmen of the Old Régime</i> (New York, 1897); that by John Fiske, Essays, <i>Historical and Literary</i>, vol. i. (New York, 1902), has slighter merits.</p> </div> @@ -10798,7 +10759,7 @@ W. P. Trent, in his <i>Southern Statesmen of the Old Régime</i> (New York, <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It was embarrassed with a debt, however, of £3749, which, +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It was embarrassed with a debt, however, of £3749, which, owing to conditions caused by the War of Independence, he really paid three times to his British creditors (not counting destruction on his estates, of equal amount, ordered by Lord Cornwallis). This @@ -11026,7 +10987,7 @@ good water power for manufacturing purposes both at Jeffersonville and at Louisville. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $4,526,443, an increase of 20% since 1900. The Indiana reformatory (formerly the Southern Indiana penitentiary) -and a large supply dépôt of the United States army are at +and a large supply dépôt of the United States army are at Jeffersonville. General George Rogers Clark started (June 24, 1778) on his expedition against Kaskaskia and Vincennes from Corn Island (now completely washed away) opposite what is @@ -11468,7 +11429,7 @@ both the book of Kings and the prophecies of Jeremiah conclude <div class="condensed"> <p>See, further, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jeremiah</a></span> (especially chaps. xxiv., xxvii. seq.), and -<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, § 17.</p> +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, § 17.</p> </div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> @@ -11519,15 +11480,15 @@ Nothing certain is known of the marauding bands sent against Jehoiakim; for Syrians (<i>Aram</i>) one would expect Edomites (<i>Edom</i>), but see Jer. xxxv. 11; some recensions of the Septuagint even include the “Samaritans”! (For further references to this reign -see especially <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jeremiah</a></span>; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: <i>History</i>, § 17.)</p> +see especially <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jeremiah</a></span>; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: <i>History</i>, § 17.)</p> </div> <div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JEHOL<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (“hot stream”), or <span class="sc">Ch’ēng-tē-fu</span>, a city of China, -formerly the seat of the emperor’s summer palace, near 118° -E. and 41° N., about 140 m. N.E. of Peking, with which it is +formerly the seat of the emperor’s summer palace, near 118° +E. and 41° N., about 140 m. N.E. of Peking, with which it is connected by an excellent road. Pop. (estimate), 10,000. It is a flourishing town, and consists of one great street, about 2 m. long, with smaller streets radiating in all directions. The people @@ -11612,7 +11573,7 @@ is correct, Jehoram 1 and 2 must have come to their respective thrones at almost the same time.</p> <p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In vii. 6 the hostility of Hittites and Mizraim (<i>q.v.</i>) points to a -period <i>after</i> 842 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, § 10 seq.)</p> +period <i>after</i> 842 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, § 10 seq.)</p> <p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> These details are scarcely the invention of the chronicler; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chronicles</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Expositor</a></span>, Aug. 1906, p. 191.</p> @@ -11787,7 +11748,7 @@ exceptions, are agreed that the ancient pronunciation of the name was Yahweh (the first h sounded at the end of the syllable).</p> <p>Genebrardus seems to have been the first to suggest the pronunciation -<i>Iahué</i>,<a name="fa16k" id="fa16k" href="#ft16k"><span class="sp">16</span></a> but it was not until the 19th century that it +<i>Iahué</i>,<a name="fa16k" id="fa16k" href="#ft16k"><span class="sp">16</span></a> but it was not until the 19th century that it became generally accepted.</p> <p>Jahveh or Yahweh is apparently an example of a common @@ -11804,8 +11765,8 @@ the name Yahweh with the Hebrew verb <i>hāyāh</i>, “to become, t be.” The Palestinian interpreters found in this the promise that God would be with his people (cf. <i>v.</i> 12) in future oppressions as he was in the present distress, or the assertion of his eternity, or -eternal constancy; the Alexandrian translation <span class="grk" title="Egô eimi ho ôn -... Ho ôn apestalken me pros hymas">Ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ ὤν ... +eternal constancy; the Alexandrian translation <span class="grk" title="Egô eimi ho ôn +... Ho ôn apestalken me pros hymas">Ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ ὤν ... Ὁ ὢν ἀπέσταλκέν με πρὸς ὑμᾶς</span>, understands it in the more metaphysical sense of God’s absolute being. Both interpretations, “He (who) is (always the same),” and “He (who) is @@ -11846,7 +11807,7 @@ be questioned whether, if the author of Exod. iii. 14 seq., intended to give an etymological interpretation of the name Yahweh,<a name="fa19k" id="fa19k" href="#ft19k"><span class="sp">19</span></a> his etymology is any better than many other paronomastic explanations of proper names in the Old Testament, or than, say, the -connexion of the name <span class="grk" title="Apollôn">Ἀπόλλων</span> with <span class="grk" title="apolouôn">ἀπολούων</span>, <span class="grk" title="apolyôn">ἀπολύων</span> in +connexion of the name <span class="grk" title="Apollôn">Ἀπόλλων</span> with <span class="grk" title="apolouôn">ἀπολούων</span>, <span class="grk" title="apolyôn">ἀπολύων</span> in Plato’s <i>Cratylus</i>, or the popular derivation from <span class="grk" title="apollymi">ἀπόλλυμι</span>.</p> <p>A root <i>hāwāh</i> is represented in Hebrew by the nouns <i>hōwāh</i> @@ -11938,7 +11899,7 @@ Yahweh, or Yahu, Yaho,<a name="fa23k" id="fa23k" href="#ft23k"><span class="sp"> throughout the whole, or a great part, of the area occupied by the Western Semites. In its earlier form this opinion rested chiefly on certain misinterpreted testimonies in Greek authors -about a god <span class="grk" title="Iaô">Ἰάω</span>, and was conclusively refuted by Baudissin; recent +about a god <span class="grk" title="Iaô">Ἰάω</span>, and was conclusively refuted by Baudissin; recent adherents of the theory build more largely on the occurrence in various parts of this territory of proper names of persons and places which they explain as compounds of Yahu or Yah.<a name="fa24k" id="fa24k" href="#ft24k"><span class="sp">24</span></a> @@ -12039,8 +12000,8 @@ with war); by others, of the heavenly hosts, the stars conceived as living beings, later, perhaps, the angels as the court of Yahweh and the instruments of his will in nature and history (Ps. lxxxix.); or of the forces of the world in general which do his bidding, -cf. the common Greek renderings, <span class="grk" title="Kyrios tôn dynameôn">Κύριος τῶν δυνάμεων</span> and -<span class="grk" title="K. pantokratôr">Κ. παντοκράτωρ</span>, (Universal Ruler). It is likely that the name +cf. the common Greek renderings, <span class="grk" title="Kyrios tôn dynameôn">Κύριος τῶν δυνάμεων</span> and +<span class="grk" title="K. pantokratôr">Κ. παντοκράτωρ</span>, (Universal Ruler). It is likely that the name was differently understood in different periods and circles; but in the prophets the hosts are clearly superhuman powers. In many passages the name seems to be only a more solemn substitute @@ -12052,13 +12013,13 @@ very common in magical texts.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—Reland, <i>Decas exercitationum philologicarum de vera pronuntiatione nominis Jehova</i>, 1707; Reinke, “Philologisch-historische -Abhandlung über den Gottesnamen Jehova,” in <i>Beiträge -zur Erklärung des Alten Testaments</i>, III. (1855); Baudissin, “Der -Ursprung des Gottesnamens <span class="grk" title="Iaô">Ἰάω</span>,” in <i>Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte</i>, +Abhandlung über den Gottesnamen Jehova,” in <i>Beiträge +zur Erklärung des Alten Testaments</i>, III. (1855); Baudissin, “Der +Ursprung des Gottesnamens <span class="grk" title="Iaô">Ἰάω</span>,” in <i>Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte</i>, I. (1876), 179-254; Driver, “Recent Theories on the Origin and Nature of the Tetragrammaton,” in <i>Studia Biblica</i>, I. (1885), 1-20; Deissmann, “Griechische Transkriptionen des -Tetragrammaton,” in <i>Bibelstudien</i> (1895), 1-20; Blau, <i>Das altjüdische +Tetragrammaton,” in <i>Bibelstudien</i> (1895), 1-20; Blau, <i>Das altjüdische Zauberwesen</i>, 1898. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>.</p> </div> <div class="author">(G. F. Mo.)</div> @@ -12068,13 +12029,13 @@ Zauberwesen</i>, 1898. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Reli <p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This form, <i>Yahweh</i>, as the correct one, is generally used in the separate articles throughout this work.</p> -<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Josephus, Ant. ii. 12, 4; Philo, <i>Vita Mosis</i>, iii. 11 (ii. §114, -ed. Cohn and Wendland); ib. iii. 27 (ii. §206). The Palestinian +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Josephus, Ant. ii. 12, 4; Philo, <i>Vita Mosis</i>, iii. 11 (ii. §114, +ed. Cohn and Wendland); ib. iii. 27 (ii. §206). The Palestinian authorities more correctly interpreted Lev. xxiv. 15 seq., not of the mere utterance of the name, but of the use of the name of God in blaspheming God.</p> -<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Siphrê</i>, Num. §§ 39, 43; <i>M. Sotah</i>, iii. 7; <i>Sotah</i>, 38<i>a</i>. The tradition +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Siphrê</i>, Num. §§ 39, 43; <i>M. Sotah</i>, iii. 7; <i>Sotah</i>, 38<i>a</i>. The tradition that the utterance of the name in the daily benedictions ceased with the death of Simeon the Just, two centuries or more before the Christian era, perhaps arose from a misunderstanding of <i>Menaḥoth</i>, @@ -12097,7 +12058,7 @@ older and more authoritative texts.</p> <p><a name="ft11k" id="ft11k" href="#fa11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Quaest.</i> 15 in Exod.; <i>Fab. haeret. compend.</i> v. 3, <i>sub fin</i>.</p> -<p><a name="ft12k" id="ft12k" href="#fa12k"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <span class="grk" title="Aïa">Αϊα</span> occurs also in the great magical papyrus of Paris, 1. 3020 +<p><a name="ft12k" id="ft12k" href="#fa12k"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <span class="grk" title="Aïa">Αϊα</span> occurs also in the great magical papyrus of Paris, 1. 3020 (Wessely, <i>Denkschrift. Wien. Akad.</i>, Phil. Hist. Kl., XXXVI. p. 120), and in the Leiden Papyrus, xvii. 31.</p> @@ -12129,7 +12090,7 @@ Yahweh before the time of Moses.</p> <p><a name="ft23k" id="ft23k" href="#fa23k"><span class="fn">23</span></a> The form <i>Yahu</i>, or <i>Yaho</i>, occurs not only in composition, but by itself; see <i>Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assuan</i>, B 4, 6, 11; E 14; -J 6. This is doubtless the original of <span class="grk" title="Iaô">Ἰάω</span>, frequently found in +J 6. This is doubtless the original of <span class="grk" title="Iaô">Ἰάω</span>, frequently found in Greek authors and in magical texts as the name of the God of the Jews.</p> @@ -12237,7 +12198,7 @@ with a memoir, by the Hon. Algernon Bourke.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JELLACHICH, JOSEF,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1801-1859), Croatian statesman, -was born on the 16th of October 1801 at Pétervárad. He +was born on the 16th of October 1801 at Pétervárad. He entered the Austrian army (1819), fought against the Bosnians in 1845, was made ban of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia in 1848 on the petition of the Croatians, and was simultaneously @@ -12246,7 +12207,7 @@ Jellachich’s policy was directed to preserving the Slav kingdoms for the Habsburg monarchy by identifying himself with the nationalist opposition to Magyar ascendancy, while at the same time discouraging the extreme “Illyrism” advocated by Lodovik -Gáj (1809-1872). Though his separatist measures at first +Gáj (1809-1872). Though his separatist measures at first brought him into disfavour at the imperial court, their true objective was soon recognized, and, with the triumph of the more violent elements of the Hungarian revolution, he was hailed as @@ -12257,11 +12218,11 @@ was overthrown (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria-Hungary</a></sp the war of independence in September 1848 by crossing the Drave at the head of 40,000 Croats. After the bloody battle of Buda he concluded a three days’ truce with the Hungarians to enable -him to assist Prince Windischgrätz to reduce Vienna, and subsequently -fought against the Magyars at Schwechát. During the -winter campaign of 1848-49 he commanded, under Windischgrätz, +him to assist Prince Windischgrätz to reduce Vienna, and subsequently +fought against the Magyars at Schwechát. During the +winter campaign of 1848-49 he commanded, under Windischgrätz, the Austrian right wing, capturing Magyar-Ovar and -Raab, and defeating the Magyars at Mór. After the recapture +Raab, and defeating the Magyars at Mór. After the recapture of Buda he was made commander-in-chief of the southern army. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span> At first he gained some successes against Bem (<i>q.v.</i>), but on the @@ -12297,9 +12258,9 @@ of Jellinek into German was undertaken by A. Wuensche, under the general title <i>Aus Israels Lehrhalle</i>. (2) <i>Psychological.</i> Before the study of ethnic psychology had become a science, Jellinek devoted attention to the subject. There is much keen -analysis and original investigation in his two essays <i>Der jüdische -Stamm</i> (1869) and <i>Der jüdische Stamm in nicht-jüdischen -Sprüch-wörtern</i> (1881-1882). It is to Jellinek that we owe +analysis and original investigation in his two essays <i>Der jüdische +Stamm</i> (1869) and <i>Der jüdische Stamm in nicht-jüdischen +Sprüch-wörtern</i> (1881-1882). It is to Jellinek that we owe the oft-repeated comparison of the Jewish temperament to that of women in its quickness of perception, versatility and sensibility. (3) <i>Homiletic.</i> Jellinek was probably the greatest @@ -12327,7 +12288,7 @@ and was also president of the corn exchange.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, vii. 92-94. For a character sketch of Adolf Jellinek see S. Singer, <i>Lectures and Addresses</i> (1908), pp. 88-93; -Kohut, <i>Berühmte israelitische Männer und Frauen</i>.</p> +Kohut, <i>Berühmte israelitische Männer und Frauen</i>.</p> </div> <div class="author">(I. A.)</div> @@ -12376,7 +12337,7 @@ lines:—</p> <p class="noind">There must also be mentioned the university church, the new university buildings, which occupy the site of the ducal palace (Schloss) where Goethe wrote his <i>Hermann und Dorothea</i>, the -Schwarzer Bär Hotel, where Luther spent the night after his +Schwarzer Bär Hotel, where Luther spent the night after his flight from the Wartburg, and four towers and a gateway which now alone mark the position of the ancient walls. The town has of late years become a favourite residential resort and has greatly @@ -12428,11 +12389,11 @@ Prussian army under the prince of Hohenlohe (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artl Campaigns</a></span>).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Schreiber and Färber, <i>Jena von seinem Ursprung bis zur neuesten +<p>See Schreiber and Färber, <i>Jena von seinem Ursprung bis zur neuesten Zeit</i> (2nd ed., 1858); Ortloff, <i>Jena und Umgegend</i> (3rd ed., 1875); -Leonhardt, <i>Jena als Universität und Stadt</i> (Jena, 1902); Ritter, -<i>Führer durch Jena und Umgebung</i> (Jena, 1901); Biedermann, <i>Die -Universität Jena</i> (Jena, 1858); and the <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Jena</i> +Leonhardt, <i>Jena als Universität und Stadt</i> (Jena, 1902); Ritter, +<i>Führer durch Jena und Umgebung</i> (Jena, 1901); Biedermann, <i>Die +Universität Jena</i> (Jena, 1858); and the <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Jena</i> edited by J. E. A. Martin and O. Devrient (1888-1903).</p> </div> @@ -12442,7 +12403,7 @@ edited by J. E. A. Martin and O. Devrient (1888-1903).</p> <p><span class="bold">JENATSCH, GEORG<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1596-1639), Swiss political leader, one of the most striking figures in the troubled history of the Grisons in the 17th century, was born at Samaden (capital of the Upper -Engadine). He studied at Zürich and Basel, and in 1617 became +Engadine). He studied at Zürich and Basel, and in 1617 became the Protestant pastor of Scharans (near Thusis). But almost at once he plunged into active politics, taking the side of the Venetian and Protestant party of the Salis family, as against @@ -12458,7 +12419,7 @@ Spanish. Jenatsch took part in the murder (1621) of Pompey Planta, the head of the rival party, but later with his friends was compelled to fly the country, giving up his position as a pastor, and henceforth acting solely as a soldier. He helped in the revolt -against the Austrians in the Prättigau (1622), and in the invasion +against the Austrians in the Prättigau (1622), and in the invasion of the Valtellina by a French army (1624), but the peace made (1626) between France and Spain left the Valtellina in the hands of the pope, and so destroyed Jenatsch’s hopes. Having @@ -12519,7 +12480,7 @@ warfare until 1206, when he felt strong enough to proclaim himself the ruler of an empire. He therefore summoned the notables of his kingdom to an assembly on the banks of the Onon, and at their unanimous request adopted the name and title of -Jenghiz Khan (Chinese, Chêng-sze, or “perfect warrior”). At +Jenghiz Khan (Chinese, Chêng-sze, or “perfect warrior”). At this time there remained to him but one open enemy on the Mongolian steppes, Polo the Naiman khan. Against this chief he now led his troops, and in one battle so completely shattered @@ -12572,7 +12533,7 @@ emperor, another princess of the imperial house, 500 youths and maidens, and 3000 horses. No sooner, however, had Jenghiz passed beyond the Great Wall than the Kin emperor, fearing to remain any longer so near the Mongol frontier, moved his court -to K’ai-fêng Fu in Honan. This transfer of capital appearing +to K’ai-fêng Fu in Honan. This transfer of capital appearing to Jenghiz to indicate a hostile attitude, he once more marched his troops into the doomed empire.</p> @@ -12714,7 +12675,7 @@ Saksin, along the river Aktuba, on their way to Mongolia.</p> <p>In China the same success had attended the Mongol arms as in western Asia. The whole of the country north of the Yellow river, with the exception of one or two cities, was added to the -Mongol rule, and, on the death of the Kin emperor Süan Tsung +Mongol rule, and, on the death of the Kin emperor Süan Tsung in 1223, the Kin empire virtually ceased to be, and Jenghiz’s frontiers thus became conterminous with those of the Sung emperors who held sway over the whole of central and @@ -12839,7 +12800,7 @@ personal property of intestates. He was never married.</p> <p>See William Wynne, <i>Life of Sir Leoline Jenkins</i> (2 vols., London, 1724), which contains a number of his diplomatic despatches, letters, speeches and other papers. See also Sir William Temple, <i>Works</i>, -vol. ii. (4 vols., 1770); Anthony à Wood, <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i> +vol. ii. (4 vols., 1770); Anthony à Wood, <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i> (Fasti) edited by P. Bliss (4 vols., London, 1813-1820), and <i>History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford</i>, edited by J. Gutch (Oxford, 1792-1796).</p> @@ -12914,7 +12875,7 @@ highways, &c.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span></p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His principal published works are <i>Henry C. Carey als Nationalökonom</i> +<p>His principal published works are <i>Henry C. Carey als Nationalökonom</i> (Halle a. S., 1885); <i>The Trust Problem</i> (1900; revised 1903); <i>Great Fortunes</i> (1906); <i>Citizenship and the Schools</i> (1906); and <i>Principles of Politics</i> (1909).</p> @@ -12922,9 +12883,9 @@ of Politics</i> (1909).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JENNÉ,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a city of West Africa, formerly the capital of the +<p><span class="bold">JENNÉ,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a city of West Africa, formerly the capital of the Songhoi empire, now included in the French colony of Upper -Senegal and Niger. Jenné is situated on a marigot or natural +Senegal and Niger. Jenné is situated on a marigot or natural canal connecting the Niger and its affluent the Bani or Mahel Balevel, and is within a few miles of the latter stream. It lies 250 m. S.W. of Timbuktu in a straight line. The city is surrounded @@ -12937,29 +12898,29 @@ fort and the commercial harbour. The old mosque, partially destroyed in 1830, covered a large area in the south-west portion of the city. It was built on the site of the ancient palace of the Songhoi kings. The architecture of many of the buildings -bears a resemblance to Egyptian, the façades of the houses being +bears a resemblance to Egyptian, the façades of the houses being adorned with great buttresses of pylonic form. There is little trace of the influence of Moorish or Arabian art. The buildings are mostly constructed of clay made into flat long bricks. Massive clay walls surround the city. The inhabitants are great traders and the principal merchants have representatives at Timbuktu and all the chief places on the Niger. The boats -built at Jenné are famous throughout the western Sudan.</p> +built at Jenné are famous throughout the western Sudan.</p> -<p>Jenné is believed to have been founded by the Songhoi in the +<p>Jenné is believed to have been founded by the Songhoi in the 8th century, and though it has passed under the dominion of -many races it has never been destroyed. Jenné seems to have +many races it has never been destroyed. Jenné seems to have been at the height of its power from the 12th to the 16th century, when its merchandise was found at every port along the west coast of Africa. From this circumstance it is conjectured that -Jenné (Guinea) gave its name to the whole coast (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guinea</a></span>). +Jenné (Guinea) gave its name to the whole coast (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guinea</a></span>). Subsequently, under the control of Moorish, Tuareg and Fula invaders, the importance of the city greatly declined. With the advent of the French, commerce again began to flourish.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See F. Dubois, <i>Tombouctou la mystérieuse</i> (Paris, 1897), in which -several chapters are devoted to Jenné; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Songhoi</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timbuktu</a></span>; +<p>See F. Dubois, <i>Tombouctou la mystérieuse</i> (Paris, 1897), in which +several chapters are devoted to Jenné; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Songhoi</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timbuktu</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>.</p> </div> @@ -13125,7 +13086,7 @@ merely as a preliminary to the presenting of a petition to parliament for a grant. The petition was presented in 1802, and was referred to a committee, of which the investigations resulted in a report in favour of the grant, and ultimately in a -vote of £10,000.</p> +vote of £10,000.</p> <p>Towards the end of 1802 steps were taken to form a society for the proper spread of vaccination in London, and the Royal @@ -13143,7 +13104,7 @@ caused the society to die out in 1808.</p> when his grant was proposed, to attempt practice in London, but after a year’s trial he returned to Berkeley. His grant was not paid until 1804, and then, after the deduction of about -£1000 for fees, it did little more than pay the expenses attendant +£1000 for fees, it did little more than pay the expenses attendant upon his discovery. For he was so thoroughly known everywhere as the discoverer of vaccination that, as he himself said, he was “the vaccine clerk of the whole world.” At the same time @@ -13152,7 +13113,7 @@ to him on certain days, so that he sometimes had as many as three hundred persons waiting at his door. Meanwhile honours began to shower upon him from abroad: he was elected a member of almost all the chief scientific societies on the continent of -Europe, the first being that of Göttingen, where he was proposed +Europe, the first being that of Göttingen, where he was proposed by J. F. Blumenbach. But perhaps the most flattering proof of his influence was derived from France. On one occasion, when he was endeavouring to obtain the release of some of the @@ -13177,15 +13138,15 @@ he proposed an address to the Crown, praying that the college of physicians should be directed to report upon the success of vaccination. Their report being strongly in its favour, the then chancellor of the exchequer (Spencer Perceval) proposed that -a sum of £10,000 without any deductions should be paid to +a sum of £10,000 without any deductions should be paid to Jenner. The anti-vaccinationists found but one advocate in -the House of Commons; and finally the sum was raised to £20,000. +the House of Commons; and finally the sum was raised to £20,000. Jenner, however, at the same time had the mortification of learning that government did not intend to take any steps towards checking small-pox inoculation, which so persistently kept up that disease. About the same time a subscription for his benefit was begun in India, where his discovery had been -gratefully received, but the full amount of this (£7383) only +gratefully received, but the full amount of this (£7383) only reached him in 1812.</p> <p>The Royal Jennerian Society having failed, the national vaccine @@ -13286,7 +13247,7 @@ health.</p> <p><span class="bold">JENNET,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a small Spanish horse; the word is sometimes applied in English to a mule, the offspring of a she-ass and a stallion. Jennet comes, through Fr. <i>genet</i>, from Span, <i>jinete</i>, a light -horseman who rides <i>à la gineta</i>, explained as “with his legs +horseman who rides <i>à la gineta</i>, explained as “with his legs tucked up.” The name is taken to be a corruption of the Arabic Zenāta, a Berber tribe famed for its cavalry. English and French transferred the word from the rider to his horse, a @@ -13310,12 +13271,12 @@ accessible to visitors and lighted by electricity.</p> at Heiligenhafen in Holstein on the 15th of February 1837, the son of a local Danish magistrate, who came of old patrician Frisian stock. After attending the classical schools at Kiel and -Lübeck, Jensen studied medicine at the universities of Kiel, -Würzburg and Breslau. He, however, abandoned the medical +Lübeck, Jensen studied medicine at the universities of Kiel, +Würzburg and Breslau. He, however, abandoned the medical profession for that of letters, and after engaging for some years in individual private study proceeded to Munich, where he associated with men of letters. After a residence in Stuttgart -(1865-1869), where for a short time he conducted the <i>Schwäbische +(1865-1869), where for a short time he conducted the <i>Schwäbische Volks-Zeitung</i>, he became editor in Flensburg of the <i>Norddeutsche Zeitung</i>. In 1872 he again returned to Kiel, lived from 1876 to 1888 in Freiburg im Breisgau, and since 1888 has @@ -13328,12 +13289,12 @@ pen; but only comparatively few of them have caught the public taste; such are the novels, <i>Karin von Schweden</i> (Berlin, 1878); <i>Die braune Erica</i> (Berlin, 1868); and the tale, <i>Die Pfeifer von Dusenbach, Eine Geschichte aus dem Elsass</i> (1884). Among others may be -mentioned: <i>Barthenia</i> (Berlin, 1877); <i>Götz und Gisela</i> (Berlin, 1886); +mentioned: <i>Barthenia</i> (Berlin, 1877); <i>Götz und Gisela</i> (Berlin, 1886); <i>Heimkunft</i> (Dresden, 1894); <i>Aus See und Sand</i> (Dresden, 1897); <i>Luv und Lee</i> (Berlin, 1897); and the narratives, <i>Aus den Tagen der Hansa</i> (Leipzig, 1885); <i>Aus stiller Zeit</i> (Berlin, 1881-1885); and <i>Heimath</i> (1901). Jensen also published some tragedies, among -which <i>Dido</i> (Berlin, 1870) and <i>Der Kampf für’s Reich</i> (Freiburg im +which <i>Dido</i> (Berlin, 1870) and <i>Der Kampf für’s Reich</i> (Freiburg im Br., 1884) may be mentioned.</p> </div> @@ -13412,7 +13373,7 @@ took him back to Dublin. He published, in the <i>Mercury</i> newspaper a series of articles in defence of the lord-lieutenant’s administration which were afterwards collected and issued in book form under the title of <i>The Bachelor, or Speculations of -Jeoffry Wagstaffe</i>. A pension of £300, afterwards doubled, +Jeoffry Wagstaffe</i>. A pension of £300, afterwards doubled, was granted him, and he held his appointment under twelve succeeding viceroys. From 1775 he was engaged in the writing of plays. Among others, his tragedy <i>Braganza</i> was successfully @@ -13556,7 +13517,7 @@ the Arab invasion in the 7th century Jerba shared the fortunes of Tunisia.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See H. Barth, <i>Wanderungen durch die Küstenl. des Mittelmeeres</i> +<p>See H. Barth, <i>Wanderungen durch die Küstenl. des Mittelmeeres</i> (Berlin, 1849); and H. von Maltzan, <i>Reise in Tunis und Tripolis</i> (Leipzig, 1870).</p> </div> @@ -13658,7 +13619,7 @@ account of his friends, among whom Canning was a special intimate, is to be found in his <i>Men I have Known</i> (1866). When Jerdan retired in 1850 from the editorship of the <i>Literary Gazette</i> his pecuniary affairs were far from satisfactory. A -testimonial of over £900 was subscribed by his friends; and in +testimonial of over £900 was subscribed by his friends; and in 1853 a government pension of 100 guineas was conferred on him by Lord Aberdeen. He published his <i>Autobiography</i> in 1852-1853, and died on the 11th of July 1869.</p> @@ -13843,7 +13804,7 @@ Jeremiah rose, fresh prophecies were added to the book (notably those of the new covenant and of the restoration of the people after seventy years) to justify it. Professor N. Schmidt has gone further into the character of this sympathetic prophet, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> -“Jeremiah,” § 5.</p> +“Jeremiah,” § 5.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>Jeremiah’s Prophecies.</i>—It has been said above that our best @@ -13939,7 +13900,7 @@ either. Here is the great difficulty of the future. We may add to the credit of the Septuagint that the position given to the prophecies on “the nations” (chs. xlvi.-li. in our Bible) in the Septuagint is probably more original than that in the Massoretic text. On this -point see especially Schmidt, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> “Jeremiah (Book)” §§ 6 +point see especially Schmidt, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> “Jeremiah (Book)” §§ 6 and 21; Davidson, Hastings’s <i>Dict. Bible</i>, ii. 573b-575; Driver, <i>Introduction</i> (8th ed.), pp. 269, 270.</p> @@ -13962,14 +13923,14 @@ original references to the Scythians were retouched under the impression of Chaldean invasions. Hence Cheyne’s theory of a north Arabian invasion from the land of Zaphon = Zibeon (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 14), <i>i.e.</i> Ishmael. Cf. N. Schmidt, <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, Zibeon, “Scythians,” -§ 8; Cheyne, <i>Critica Biblica</i>, part i. (Isaiah and Jeremiah).</p> +§ 8; Cheyne, <i>Critica Biblica</i>, part i. (Isaiah and Jeremiah).</p> <p><a name="ft2o" id="ft2o" href="#fa2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Cf. Ewald, <i>The Prophets</i>, Eng. trans., iii. 63, 64.</p> -<p><a name="ft3o" id="ft3o" href="#fa3o"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Cheyne, <i>Ency. Brit.</i> (9th ed.,), “Jeremiah,” suggests after Grätz +<p><a name="ft3o" id="ft3o" href="#fa3o"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Cheyne, <i>Ency. Brit.</i> (9th ed.,), “Jeremiah,” suggests after Grätz that the roll simply contained ch. xxv., omitting the most obvious interpolations. Against this view see N. Schmidt, <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, -“Jeremiah (Book),” § 8, who, however, accepts the negative part +“Jeremiah (Book),” § 8, who, however, accepts the negative part of Cheyne’s arguments.</p> <p><a name="ft4o" id="ft4o" href="#fa4o"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Driver, <i>Introd. to the Lit. of the O.T.</i> (6), p. 249.</p> @@ -14014,7 +13975,7 @@ scholars to be referred to in 2 Macc. ii. 2, which says that Jeremiah charged the exiles “not to forget the statutes of the Lord, neither to be led astray in their minds when they saw images of gold and silver and the adornment thereof.” But the reference is disputed -by Fritzsche, Gifford, Shürer and others. The epistle was included +by Fritzsche, Gifford, Shürer and others. The epistle was included in the Greek canon. There was no question of its canonicity till the time of Jerome, who termed it a pseudepigraph.</p> @@ -14025,10 +13986,10 @@ Apoc.</i> ii. 286-303; Marshall, in Hastings’ <i>Dict. Bible</i>, ii. 578- <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JERÉZ DE LA FRONTERA<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Xeres</span>), a town of +<p><span class="bold">JERÉZ DE LA FRONTERA<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Xeres</span>), a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cadiz, near the right bank of the river Guadalete, and on the Seville-Cadiz railway, about -7 m. from the Atlantic coast. Pop. (1900), 63,473. Jeréz is +7 m. from the Atlantic coast. Pop. (1900), 63,473. Jeréz is built in the midst of an undulating plain of great fertility. Its whitewashed houses, clean, broad streets, and squares planted with trees extend far beyond the limits formerly enclosed by the @@ -14038,31 +13999,31 @@ collegiate church with its lofty bell-tower, the 16th-century town-hall, superseded, for official purposes, by a modern edifice, the bull-ring, and many hospitals, charitable institutions and schools, including academies of law, medicine and commerce. -But the most characteristic features of Jeréz are the +But the most characteristic features of Jeréz are the huge <i>bodegas</i>, or wine-lodges, for the manufacture and storage of sherry, and the vineyards, covering more than 150,000 acres, which surround it on all sides. The town is an important market for grain, fruit and livestock, but its staple trade is in wine. Sherry is also produced in other districts, but takes its name, formerly written in English as <i>sherris</i> or <i>xeres</i>, from -Jeréz. The demand for sherry diminished very greatly during +Jeréz. The demand for sherry diminished very greatly during the last quarter of the 19th century, especially in England, which had been the chief consumer. In 1872 the sherry shipped -from Cadiz to Great Britain alone was valued at £2,500,000; +from Cadiz to Great Britain alone was valued at £2,500,000; in 1902 the total export hardly amounted to one-fifth of this sum. The wine trade, however, still brings a considerable profit, and few towns of southern Spain display greater commercial -activity than Jeréz. In the earlier part of the 18th century +activity than Jeréz. In the earlier part of the 18th century the neighbourhood suffered severely from yellow fever; but it was rendered comparatively healthy when in 1869 an aqueduct was opened to supply pure water. Strikes and revolutionary disturbances have frequently retarded business in more recent years.</p> -<p>Jeréz has been variously identified with the Roman Municipium +<p>Jeréz has been variously identified with the Roman Municipium Seriense; with Asido, perhaps the original of the Moorish Sherish; and with Hasta Regia, a name which may survive in -the designation of La Mesa de Asta, a neighbouring hill. Jeréz was +the designation of La Mesa de Asta, a neighbouring hill. Jeréz was taken from the Moors by Ferdinand III. of Castile (1217-1252); but it was twice recaptured before Alphonso X. finally occupied it in 1264. Towards the close of the 14th century it received @@ -14071,20 +14032,20 @@ several towns on the Moorish border.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JERÉZ DE LOS CABALLEROS,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a town of south-western +<p><span class="bold">JERÉZ DE LOS CABALLEROS,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a town of south-western Spain, in the province of Badajoz, picturesquely situated on two heights overlooking the river Ardila, a tributary of the Guadiana, 12 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier. Pop. (1900), 10,271. The old town is surrounded by a Moorish wall with six gates; the newer portion is well and regularly built, and planted with numerous orange and other fruit trees. Owing to the lack -of railway communication Jeréz is of little commercial importance; +of railway communication Jeréz is of little commercial importance; its staple trade is in agricultural produce, especially in ham and bacon from the large herds of swine which are reared in the surrounding oak forests. The town is said to have been founded by Alphonso IX. of Leon in 1229; in 1232 it was extended by his son St Ferdinand, who gave it to the knights -templar. Hence the name <i>Jeréz de los Caballeros</i>, “Jeréz of +templar. Hence the name <i>Jeréz de los Caballeros</i>, “Jeréz of the knights.”</p> @@ -14342,7 +14303,7 @@ Shechem, the old religious centre (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abim entertained that a more lenient policy would be introduced. But Rehoboam refused to depart from Solomon’s despotic rule, and was tactless enough to send Adoniram, the overseer of the -<i>corvée</i>. He was stoned to death, and Rehoboam realizing +<i>corvée</i>. He was stoned to death, and Rehoboam realizing the temper of the people fled to Jerusalem and prepared for war. Jeroboam became the recognized leader of the northern tribes.<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Conflicts occurred (1 Kings xiv. 30), but no details are @@ -14398,7 +14359,7 @@ of Jabesh-Gilead—who a month later fell to Menahem (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> <div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See, further, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span> §§ 7, 9 and §§ 12, 13.</p> +<p>See, further, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span> §§ 7, 9 and §§ 12, 13.</p> </div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> @@ -14515,17 +14476,17 @@ edited by Herding in 1879. A selection is given in translation by W. H. Fremantle, “Select Library of Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers,” 2nd series, vol. vi. (New York, 1893). Biographies are prefixed to most of the above editions. See also lives by F. Z. Collombet (Paris -and Lyons, 1844); O. Zöckler (Gotha, 1865); E. L. Cutts (London, +and Lyons, 1844); O. Zöckler (Gotha, 1865); E. L. Cutts (London, 1878); C. Martin (London, 1888); P. Largent (Paris, 1898); F. W. Farrar, <i>Lives of the Fathers</i>, ii. 150-297 (Edinburgh, 1889). -Additional literature is cited in Hauck-Herzog’s <i>Realencyk. für +Additional literature is cited in Hauck-Herzog’s <i>Realencyk. für prot. Theol.</i> viii. 42.</p> </div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Compare the critical edition of these two works in Lagarde’s -<i>Onomastica sacra</i> (Götting. 1870).</p> +<i>Onomastica sacra</i> (Götting. 1870).</p> <p><a name="ft2r" id="ft2r" href="#fa2r"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Lagarde’s edition appended to his <i>Genesis Graece</i> (Leipzig, 1868).</p> @@ -14570,11 +14531,11 @@ attention by his advanced and outspoken opinions. He gave great offence also by exhibiting a portrait of Wycliffe in his room. Jerome was soon on terms of friendship with Hus, and took part in all the controversies of the university. When in 1408 a -French embassy arrived at Kutná Hora, the residence of King +French embassy arrived at Kutná Hora, the residence of King Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and proposed that the papal schism should be terminated by the refusal of the temporal authorities further to recognize either of the rival popes, Wenceslaus summoned -to Kutná Hora the members of the university. The +to Kutná Hora the members of the university. The Bohemian <i>magistri</i> spoke strongly in favour of the French proposals, while the Germans maintained their allegiance to the Roman pope, Gregory XII. The reorganization of the university @@ -14599,7 +14560,7 @@ Cologne, Prague and Ofen was censured. Jerome vowed that he would not leave Vienna till he had cleared himself from the accusation of heresy. Shortly afterwards he secretly left Vienna, declaring that this promise had been forced on him. He went -first to Vöttau in Moravia, and then to Prague. In 1412 the +first to Vöttau in Moravia, and then to Prague. In 1412 the representatives of Pope Gregory XII. publicly offered indulgences for sale at Prague, wishing to raise money for the pope’s campaign against King Ladislaus of Naples, an adherent of the @@ -14629,7 +14590,7 @@ Constance, where he was examined by judges appointed by the council. His courage failed him in prison and, to regain his freedom, he renounced the doctrines of Wycliffe and Hus. He declared that Hus had been justly executed and stated in a letter -addressed on the 12th of August 1415 to Lacek, lord of Kravâř—the +addressed on the 12th of August 1415 to Lacek, lord of Kravâř—the only literary document of Jerome that has been preserved—that “the dead man (Hus) had written many false and harmful things.” Full confidence was not placed in Jerome’s recantation. @@ -14682,7 +14643,7 @@ world again as a printer’s apprentice, and in 1819 became a compositor in the printing-office of the <i>Sunday Monitor</i>. Several short papers and copies of verses by him had already appeared in the sixpenny magazines, and one evening he dropped into the -editor’s box a criticism of the opera <i>Der Freischütz</i>. Next +editor’s box a criticism of the opera <i>Der Freischütz</i>. Next morning he received his own copy to set up, together with a flattering note from the editor, requesting further contributions from the anonymous author. Thenceforward Jerrold was engaged @@ -14703,7 +14664,7 @@ theatre. The success of the piece was enormous. With its free gallant sea-flavour, it took the town by storm, and “all London went over the water to see it.” Elliston made a fortune by the piece; T. P. Cooke, who played William, made his reputation; -Jerrold received about £60 and was engaged as dramatic +Jerrold received about £60 and was engaged as dramatic author at five pounds a week. But his fame as a dramatist was achieved. In 1830 it was proposed that he should adapt something from the French for Drury Lane. “No,” was his @@ -14715,7 +14676,7 @@ Adelphi had already done so); and in 1836 Jerrold became co-manager of the Strand theatre with W. J. Hammond, his brother-in-law. The venture was not successful, and the partnership was dissolved. While it lasted Jerrold wrote his only tragedy, -<i>The Painter of Ghent</i>, and himself appeared in the title-rôle, without +<i>The Painter of Ghent</i>, and himself appeared in the title-rôle, without any very marked success. He continued to write sparkling comedies till 1854, the date of his last piece, <i>The Heart of Gold</i>.</p> @@ -14811,7 +14772,7 @@ the popular farce <i>Cool as a Cucumber</i> (Lyceum 1851) being the best known. His French experiences resulted in a number of books, most important of which is his <i>Life of Napoleon III</i>. (1874). He was occupied in writing the biography of Gustave -Doré, who had illustrated several of his books, when he died on +Doré, who had illustrated several of his books, when he died on the 10th of March 1884.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -14877,11 +14838,11 @@ to 1893.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JERSEY,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> the largest of the Channel Islands, belonging to Great Britain. Its chief town, St Helier, on the south coast of -the island, is in 49° 12′ N., 2° 7′ W., 105 m. S. by E. of Portland +the island, is in 49° 12′ N., 2° 7′ W., 105 m. S. by E. of Portland Bill on the English coast, and 24 m. from the French coast to the east. Jersey is the southernmost of the more important islands of the group. It is of oblong form with a length of 10 m. from -east to west and an extreme breadth of 6¼ m. The area is 28,717 +east to west and an extreme breadth of 6¼ m. The area is 28,717 acres, or 45 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 52,576.</p> <p>The island reaches its greatest elevation (nearly 500 ft.) in the @@ -14889,7 +14850,7 @@ north, the land rising sharply from the north coast, and displaying bold and picturesque cliffs towards the sea. The east, south and west coasts consist of a succession of large open bays, shallow and rocky, with marshy or sandy shores separated by rocky headlands. -The principal bays are Grève au Lançons, Grève de +The principal bays are Grève au Lançons, Grève de Lecq, St John’s and Bouley Bays on the north coast; St Catherine’s and Grouville Bays on the east; St Clement’s, St Aubin’s and St Brelade’s Bays on the south; and St Ouen’s Bay, the wide @@ -14941,7 +14902,7 @@ Communications with England are maintained principally from Southampton and Weymouth, and there are regular steamship services from Granville and St Malo on the French coast. The Jersey railway runs west from St Helier round St -Aubin’s Bay to St Aubin, and continues to Corbière at the south-western +Aubin’s Bay to St Aubin, and continues to Corbière at the south-western extremity of the island; and the Jersey eastern railway follows the southern and eastern coasts to Gorey. The island is intersected with a network of good roads.</p> @@ -14964,7 +14925,7 @@ probably the oldest in the island, dates from the 12th century; among the later churches St Helier’s, of the 14th century, may be mentioned. There are also some very early chapels, considered to date from the 10th century or earlier; among these -may be noted the Chapelle-ès-Pêcheurs at St Brelade’s, and the +may be noted the Chapelle-ès-Pêcheurs at St Brelade’s, and the picturesque chapel in the grounds of the manor of Rozel. The castle of Mont Orgueil, of which there are considerable remains, is believed to be founded upon the site of a Roman stronghold, @@ -15077,7 +15038,7 @@ the south, was annexed in 1873.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JERUSALEM<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (Heb. <span title="Yerushalaïm">ירושלים</span> <i>Yerushalaïm</i>, pronounced as +<p><span class="bold">JERUSALEM<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (Heb. <span title="Yerushalaïm">ירושלים</span> <i>Yerushalaïm</i>, pronounced as a dual), the chief city of Palestine. Letters found at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt, written by an early ruler of Jerusalem, show that the name existed under the form <i>Urusalim</i>, <i>i.e.</i> @@ -15090,7 +15051,7 @@ holiness, such as Beit el Maḳdis and El Muḳaddis or briefly El Ḳuds, <i>i.e.</i> the Sanctuary.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p><i>Natural Topography.</i>—Jerusalem is situated in 31° 47′ N. and 35° +<p><i>Natural Topography.</i>—Jerusalem is situated in 31° 47′ N. and 35° 15′ E., in the hill country of southern Palestine, close to the watershed, at an average altitude of 2500 ft. above the Mediterranean, and 3800 ft. above the level of the Dead Sea. The city stands on a rocky @@ -15227,7 +15188,7 @@ reduced Judah to the position of a tributary state. In the reign of Zedekiah, the last of the line of kings, Jerusalem was captured by Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, who pillaged the city, destroyed the Temple, and ruined the fortifications (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, -§ 17). A number of the principal inhabitants were carried +§ 17). A number of the principal inhabitants were carried captive to Babylon, and Jerusalem was reduced to the position of an insignificant town. Nebuchadrezzar placed in the city a garrison which appears to have been quartered on the western @@ -15530,7 +15491,7 @@ in bad repair. Little effort has been made to meet the increased sanitary requirements of the larger population and wider inhabited area. There is no municipal water-supply, and the main drain of the city discharges into the lower pool of Siloam, which has become -an open cesspit. In several places the débris within the walls is +an open cesspit. In several places the débris within the walls is saturated with sewage, and the water of the Fountain of the Virgin, and of many of the old cisterns, is unfit for drinking. Amongst the more important buildings for ecclesiastical and philanthropic @@ -15542,7 +15503,7 @@ the London mission to the Jews; the Abyssinian church; the church and schools of the Church missionary society; the Anglican church, college and bishop’s house; the Dominican monastery, seminary and church of St Stephen; the Rothschild hospital and girls’ school; -and the industrial school and workshops of the Alliance Israélite. +and the industrial school and workshops of the Alliance Israélite. On the mount of Olives are the Russian church, tower and hospice, near the chapel of the Ascension; the French Paternoster church; the Carmelite nunnery; and the Russian church of St Mary Magdalene, @@ -15552,13 +15513,13 @@ side are the institution of the sisters of St Vincent; the Ratisbon school; the Montefiore hospice; the British ophthalmic hospital of the knights of St John; the convent and church of the Clarisses; and the Moravian leper hospital. Within the city walls are the -Latin Patriarchal church and residence; the school of the Frères -de la Doctrine Chrétienne; the schools and printing house of the +Latin Patriarchal church and residence; the school of the Frères +de la Doctrine Chrétienne; the schools and printing house of the Franciscans; the Coptic monastery; the German church of the Redeemer, and hospice; the United Armenian church of the Spasm; the convent and school of the Sœurs de Zion; the Austrian hospice; the Turkish school and museum; the monastery and seminary of -the Frères de la Mission Algérienne, with the restored church of St +the Frères de la Mission Algérienne, with the restored church of St Anne, the church, schools and hospital of the London mission to the Jews; the Armenian seminary and Patriarchal buildings; the Rothschild hospital; and Jewish hospices and synagogues. @@ -15572,9 +15533,9 @@ depression of the Ghor, are enervating and oppressive. A dry season, which lasts from May to October, is followed by a rainy season, divided into the early winter and latter rains. Snow falls two years out of three, but soon melts. The mean annual temperature -is 62.8° F., the maximum 112°, and the minimum 25°. The -mean monthly temperature is lowest (47.2°) in February, and highest -(76.3°) in August. The mean annual rainfall (1861 to 1899) is +is 62.8° F., the maximum 112°, and the minimum 25°. The +mean monthly temperature is lowest (47.2°) in February, and highest +(76.3°) in August. The mean annual rainfall (1861 to 1899) is 26.06 in. The most unhealthy period is from 1st May to 31st October, when there are, from time to time, outbreaks of typhoid, small-pox, diphtheria and other epidemics. The unhealthiness of @@ -15597,17 +15558,17 @@ Fergusson, <i>Temples of the Jews</i> (1878); Hayter Lewis, <i>Holy Places of Jerusalem</i>(1888); <i>Churches of Constantine at Jerusalem</i> (1891); Guthe, “Ausgrabungen in Jer.,” in <i>Zeitschrift d. D. Pal. Vereins</i> (vol. v.); Tobler, <i>Topographie von Jerusalem</i> (Berlin, 1854); Dritte Wanderung -(1859); Sepp, <i>Jerusalem und das heilige Land</i> (1873); Röhricht, <i>Regesta +(1859); Sepp, <i>Jerusalem und das heilige Land</i> (1873); Röhricht, <i>Regesta Regni Hierosolymitani; Bibliotheca Geographica Palaestinae</i> (1890); De -Vogüé, <i>Le Temple de Jérusalem</i> (1864); Sir C. W. Wilson, <i>Golgotha +Vogüé, <i>Le Temple de Jérusalem</i> (1864); Sir C. W. Wilson, <i>Golgotha and the Holy Sepulchre</i> (1906); publications of the Pal. Pilgrims’ -Text Society and of the <i>Société de l’Orient latin</i>; papers in <i>Quarterly +Text Society and of the <i>Société de l’Orient latin</i>; papers in <i>Quarterly Statements</i> of the P. E. Fund, the <i>Zeitschrift d. D. Pal. Vereins</i>, -Clermont-Ganneau’s <i>Recueil d’archéologie orientale and Études d’arch. +Clermont-Ganneau’s <i>Recueil d’archéologie orientale and Études d’arch. orientale</i>, and the <i>Revue Biblique</i>; Baedeker’s <i>Handbook to Palestine and Syria</i> (1906); Mommert, <i>Die hl. Grabeskirche zu Jerusalem</i> (1898); <i>Golgotha und das hl. Grab zu Jerusalem</i> (1900); Couret, <i>La Prise de -Jérusm. par les Perses, 614</i>. (Orléans, 1896—Plans, Ordnance +Jérusm. par les Perses, 614</i>. (Orléans, 1896—Plans, Ordnance Survey, revised ed.; Ordnance Survey revised by Dr Schick in <i>Z.D.P.V.</i> xviii., 1895).</p> </div> @@ -15667,8 +15628,8 @@ translated from the Greek, with notes</i>, by J. N. W. B. Robertson Glaubenszeugnisse der griechisch-orientalischen Kirche</i> (Leipzig, 1904; Kimmel’s text with introductions). <span class="sc">Literature.</span>—<i>The Doctrine of the Russian Church ...</i> translated by R. W. Blackmore (Aberdeen, -1845), p. xxv. sqq.; Schaff, i. § 17; Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> -(2nd ed.) vi. 1359 seq.; Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.), +1845), p. xxv. sqq.; Schaff, i. § 17; Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> +(2nd ed.) vi. 1359 seq.; Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.), viii. 703-705; Michalcescu, 123 sqq. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Councils</a></span>.)</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> @@ -15819,7 +15780,7 @@ bench was not modified in his subsequent practice before it. His great powers were fully recognized; his business in addition to that on behalf of the Crown became very large, and his income for three years before he was raised to the bench amounted to nearly -£25,000 per annum. In 1873 Jessel succeeded Lord Romilly as +£25,000 per annum. In 1873 Jessel succeeded Lord Romilly as master of the rolls. From 1873 to 1881 Jessel sat as a judge of first instance in the rolls court, being also a member of the court of appeal. In November 1874 the first Judicature Act came @@ -16025,7 +15986,7 @@ governed and live by constitutions and rules, mostly drawn up by their founder, St Ignatius of Loyola, and approved by the popes. Their proper title is “Clerks Regulars of the Society of Jesus,” the word <i>Societas</i> being taken as synonymous with the -original Spanish term, <i>Compañia</i>; perhaps the military term +original Spanish term, <i>Compañia</i>; perhaps the military term <i>Cohors</i> might more fully have expressed the original idea of a band of spiritual soldiers living under martial law and discipline. The ordinary term “Jesuit” was given to the Society by its @@ -16612,15 +16573,15 @@ the pen-name of Louis de Montalte, from January 1656 to March 1657. Their wit, irony, eloquence and finished style have kept them alive as one of the great French classics—a destiny more fortunate than that of the kindred works by Antoine Arnauld, -<i>Théologie morale des Jésuites</i>, consisting of extracts from writings -of members of the Society, and <i>Morale pratique des Jésuites</i>, +<i>Théologie morale des Jésuites</i>, consisting of extracts from writings +of members of the Society, and <i>Morale pratique des Jésuites</i>, made up of narratives professing to set forth the manner in which they carried out their own maxims. But, like most controversial writers, the authors were not scrupulous in their quotations, and by giving passages divorced from their contexts often entirely misrepresented their opponents. The immediate reply on the part of the Jesuits, <i>The Discourses of Cleander and -Eudoxus</i> by Père Daniel, could not compete with Pascal’s work +Eudoxus</i> by Père Daniel, could not compete with Pascal’s work in brilliancy, wit or style; moreover, it was unfortunate enough to be put upon the Index of prohibited books in 1701. The reply on behalf of the Society to Pascal’s charges of lax @@ -17043,7 +17004,7 @@ However, after many difficulties, they succeeded in getting a footing through the help of Guillaume du Prat, bishop of Clermont (d. 1560), who founded a college for them in 1545 in the town of Billom, besides making over to them his house at Paris, -the hôtel de Clermont, which became the nucleus of the afterwards +the hôtel de Clermont, which became the nucleus of the afterwards famous college of Louis-le-Grand, while a formal legalization was granted to them by the states-general at Poissy in 1561. In Rome, Paul III.’s favour did not lessen. He bestowed on @@ -17283,7 +17244,7 @@ of ecclesiastical and almost of civil affairs in that kingdom.</p> held in check by Richelieu and little more favoured by Mazarin, yet from the moment that Louis XIV. took the reins, their star was in the ascendant, and Jesuit confessors, the most celebrated of -whom were François de La Chaise (<i>q.v.</i>) and Michel Le Tellier (1643-1719), +whom were François de La Chaise (<i>q.v.</i>) and Michel Le Tellier (1643-1719), guided the policy of the king, not hesitating to take his side in his quarrel with the Holy See, which nearly resulted in a schism, nor to sign the Gallican articles. Their hostility to the Huguenots @@ -17575,7 +17536,7 @@ the Ferry laws of 1880, though they quietly returned since the execution of those measures. They were again expelled by the Law of Associations of 1901. In Spain they came back with Ferdinand VII., but were expelled at the constitutional rising in -1820, returning in 1823, when the duke of Angoulême’s army +1820, returning in 1823, when the duke of Angoulême’s army replaced Ferdinand on his throne; they were driven out once more by Espartero in 1835, and have had no legal position since, though their presence is openly tolerated. In Portugal, ranging @@ -17618,7 +17579,7 @@ its place as the chief educational body there. It advanced steadily under Gregory XVI., and, though it was at first shunned by Pius IX., it secured his entire confidence after his return from Gaeta in 1849, and obtained from him a special breve erecting -the staff of its literary journal, the <i>Civiltà Cattolica</i>, into a +the staff of its literary journal, the <i>Civiltà Cattolica</i>, into a perpetual college under the general of the Jesuits, for the purpose of teaching and propagating the faith in its pages. How, with this pope’s support throughout his long reign, the gradual filling @@ -17690,16 +17651,16 @@ They are as follows: <i>Institutum Societatis Jesu</i> (7 vols., Avignon, <i>Imago primi saeculi Societatis Jesu</i> (Antwerp, 1640); Nieremberg, <i>Vida de San Ignacio de Loyola</i> (9 vols., fol., Madrid, 1645-1736); Genelli, <i>Life of St Ignatius of Loyola</i> (London, 1872); Backer, -<i>Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus</i> (7 vols., Paris, -1853-1861); Crétineau Joly, <i>Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus</i> (6 vols., -Paris, 1844); Guettée, <i>Histoire des Jésuites</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1858-1859); -Wolff, <i>Allgemeine Geschichte der Jesuiten</i> (4 vols., Zürich, 1789-1792); +<i>Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus</i> (7 vols., Paris, +1853-1861); Crétineau Joly, <i>Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus</i> (6 vols., +Paris, 1844); Guettée, <i>Histoire des Jésuites</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1858-1859); +Wolff, <i>Allgemeine Geschichte der Jesuiten</i> (4 vols., Zürich, 1789-1792); Gioberti, <i>Il Gesuita moderno</i> (Lausanne, 1846); F. Parkman, <i>Pioneers of France in the New World</i> and <i>The Jesuits in North America</i> -(Boston, 1868); <i>Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, écrites des missions -étrangères, avec les Annales de la propagation de la foi</i> (40 vols., -Lyons, 1819-1854); Saint-Priest, <i>Histoire de la chute des Jésuites au -XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> Siècle</i> (Paris, 1844); Ranke, <i>Römische Päpste</i> (3 vols., Berlin, +(Boston, 1868); <i>Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, écrites des missions +étrangères, avec les Annales de la propagation de la foi</i> (40 vols., +Lyons, 1819-1854); Saint-Priest, <i>Histoire de la chute des Jésuites au +XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> Siècle</i> (Paris, 1844); Ranke, <i>Römische Päpste</i> (3 vols., Berlin, 1838); E. Taunton, <i>History of the Jesuits in England</i> (London, 1901); Thomas Hughes, S.J., <i>History of the Society of Jesus in North America</i> (London and New York, 1907); R. G. Thwaites, <i>Jesuit Relations @@ -19454,7 +19415,7 @@ Yorkshire.</p> lustrous than true Whitby jet. In Spain the chief locality is Villaviciosa, in the province of Asturias. France furnishes jet, especially in the department of the Aude. Much jet, too, occurs in -the Lias of Württemberg, and works have been established for its +the Lias of Württemberg, and works have been established for its utilization. In the United States jet is known at many localities but is not systematically worked. Pennsylvanian anthracite, however, has been occasionally employed as a substitute. In like @@ -19496,7 +19457,7 @@ names of Hobab and of Jonadab the father of the Rechabites <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JETTY.<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> The term jetty, derived from Fr. <i>jetée</i>, and therefore +<p><span class="bold">JETTY.<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> The term jetty, derived from Fr. <i>jetée</i>, and therefore signifying something “thrown out,” is applied to a variety of structures employed in river, dock and maritime works, which are generally carried out in pairs from river banks, or in continuation @@ -19562,7 +19523,7 @@ top by fascine-work or pitching; but the deepening of the jetty channel by dredging, and the need which arose for its enlargement, led to the reconstruction of the jetties at these ports. The new jetties at Dunkirk were founded in the sandy beach, by the aid of -compressed air, at a depth of 22¾ ft. below low water of spring +compressed air, at a depth of 22¾ ft. below low water of spring tides; and their solid masonry portion, on a concrete foundation, was raised 5<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> ft. above low water of neap tides (fig. 2).</p> @@ -19720,7 +19681,7 @@ again into the possession of Oldenburg.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JEVEROS<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Jeberos</span>, <span class="sc">Jibaros</span>, <span class="sc">Jivaros</span> or <span class="sc">Givaros</span>), a tribe of -South American Indians on the upper Marañon, Peru, where +South American Indians on the upper Marañon, Peru, where they wander in the forests. The tribe has many branches and there are frequent tribal wars, but they have always united against a common enemy. Juan de Velasco declares them to be @@ -19734,382 +19695,6 @@ Trans.</i> 1862, W. Bollaert).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 15, Slice 3, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 41156-h.htm or 41156-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/1/5/41156/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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